Ses SES Co vac Ce deal Cae OA me CalOTE RNS CREE RS ~ Taam ane Byuoe con cod eee ee ee eee ea i ae emcee a me ee om oe a eee Cae Oe PRR ETN ce aenanervace amen Cavan eme nam seen, TARR pe Rimes, Sorat tonto ~ - apn ae - - a AI > ye a a epstaracshe srslenieien oth aes ong ener io Desa aes Ge a gths osha Russ Oi Funk Bt ir Gahs Phen ee pace $e : = Sener : : cars er earth rate ened atcha aja hare. Twtetecrers ee eee HE i? uae eee Lb ~. CT ea ae he oe en 4 aaa) Cer Neale a oe a es ute eee ate peice . ‘ aS “ * rage ies THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY GAA, SS MTA VA a — = 5 fa. 1. > Ric MODERN ELECTRIC RAILWAY PRACTICE? VV ENN COIN (V4 YA OTTER ERIREAEG it] a eee ca ag — OD Complete Gistem of Baits cal | Gboue ZO72 i LE oe CO MPR t IN FOUR. VOLUMES PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED ieee os 2 , te [mm oe -|- | . AI 1 Al FF vay Ba ie ii Hares 20} |. , iP 1—_* J__J_aiy, SS TSS ° SSE SE EE eee, SE EASED EEL LLL LEE POE SLE TIE ERE NI ETE NE LEG LEELA PTE DLE LIEN LAG APE REDIN GE 2 Et SEAR SES OE mo “¥ oz A mae an + MODERN ELECTRIC RAILWAY PRACTICE VOLUME II AIR BRAKE SYSTEMS ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES THEIR OPERATION ano EQUIPMENT BY CALVIN F. SWINGLE and a Corps of Practical Electrical Experts ILLUSTRATED PUBLISHERS WoevV WHEAT COMPANY CHICAGO COPYRIGHT 1909 BY THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS CHICAGO AUTHORITIES CONSULTED SYLVANUS P. THOMPSON, Author of Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Mag- netism. C. WALTON SWOOPEH, Author of Lessons in Practical Electricity. HENRY 8S. CARHART, LL.D., and HORATIO N. CHUTE, M.S., Authors of Physics for High School Students. ROBERT ANDREWS MILLIKAN, Ph.D., and HENRY GORDON GALE, Ph.D., Authors of A First Course in Physies. FRANKLIN LEONARD POPE, Author of Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph. FRANCIS B. CROCKER, E.M., Ph.D., Author of Electric Lighting. 364399 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED CLARK CARYL HASKINS, - Author of Electricity Made Simple. HENRY C. HORSTMAN and VICTOR H. TOUSLEY, Authors of Modern Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions. L. P. DICKINSON, Author of Easy Electrical Experiments. FREDERICK BEDELL and A. C. CREHORE, Authors of Alternating Currents. LOUIS BELL, Author of The Art of Illumination. H. C. CUSHING, Author of Standard Wiring for Electric Light and Power. CARL HERING, Author of Ready Reference Tables, AUTHORITIES CONSULTED RoW. -HUTCHINSON, JR.., Author of Long Distance Electric Power. Hari ees he eA and H. M. HOBART, Authors of Electric Railway Engineering. EK. PARRY, Author of Electrical Equipment of Tramways. F. A. C. PERRINE, A. M. D. Sc., Author of Conductors for Electrical Distribution. WM. JOHN MAC QUORN RANKINE, Late Professor of Engineering, Glasgow University. Author of Manual of Applied Mechanics. DRek IH THURSTON: Author of Manual of the Steam Engine. KENELM EDGCUMB, Author of Electrical Engineers’ Hand Book. HENRY M. HOBART, Author of Electric Motors, Their Mi and Construction. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED PROF. WM. KENT, Author of Mechanical Engineers’ Reference Book. DR PEABODY Author of Manual of Steam Boilers. PROEY WALLER SS UaLON: Author of Practical Engineers’ Hand Book. PROF. JAMEISON, Author of Appled Mechanics—Mechanies of Engi- neering. HENRY ADAMS, Professor of Engineering, London College. Author of Handbook for Mechanical Engineers. WILFRID J. LINEHAM, Mo cinst aM eM. Insts Wik Author of Text Book of Mechanical Engineering. DR. A. STODOLA and DR. LOUIS C. LOEWENSTEIN, Authors of Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines, Heat Engines, GEO. H. BABCOCK, Ex-President American Society of Mechanical Engineers. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED W. GEIPEL, M. Inst., E. E., M. HAMILTON KILGOUR, A. M. I. C. E., M. I. E. E., Authors of Pocket Book of Electrical Formule. T. O’CONNOR SLOANE, A. M., E. M., Ph. D., Author of Arithmetic of Electricity, Standard Electrical Dictionary, Electricians’ Handy Book. WM. M. BARR, Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Author of Boilers and Furnaces—Chimneys of Brick and Metal. Gye KING X «Hoke Member American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Author of Electric Light Wiring. HevA, HOSTHE, Author of Electrical Engineers’ Pocket Book. S. A. FLETCHER, Chief Westinghouse Companies’ Publishing Department. F. H. GALE and MARTIN P. RICE, General Electric Companies’ Publication Bureau. < Fa Ney Mises: .Y atl ee a | > i we Cas a roy nt a raul te PREFACE. The days of the hand brake, and mechanical friction brake for street and suburban electric cars have come and gone, and such appliances are now regarded by lead- ing and experienced railway officials as being wholly in- adequate to meet the demands of modern electric passen- ger transportation.: The author has been at considerable pains therefore to collect, condense, and compile all of the latest available information bearing upon this most important subject of handling an electric car, or train of ears, safely, and at the same time economically. Begin- ning with a full and clearly illustrated description of the ' Westinghouse A. M. M. Brake equipment especially adapted to electric traction work, each of the other types of straight air, and automatic service is taken up and its construction and operation clearly explained, and plainly illustrated. This includes the National Straight Air Brake Equipment, not only for straight air, but as adapted for automatic service also; The General Electric Company’s Air Brake in all of its details; The Christen- sen Air Brake, both straight, and automatic, is fully de- seribed and illustrated, also the Westinghouse S. M. E. equipment. ‘Considerable space is also given to electric brakes and friction brakes. The Electric Locomotive in all of its details is clearly desezibed, and its construction made plain by engravings Il. ii iv PREFACE showing every detail, also the enclosed Arc Head Light for locomotives and motor cars. A set of questions and answers, or catechism, follows immediately after each subject has been discussed, thus enabling the student to firmly grasp and retain in his mind the pith of the matter studied. Il. THE AIR BRAKE IN ELECTRIC RAILROADING. It is not exaggeration to say that no other invention in steam or electric railway engineering has contributed so largely to the safe operation of high speed ears as has the power or air brake in its present improved form. The hand brake and mechanical friction brake have come and gone, being now regarded by all well-informed and experienced railway officials as wholly inadequate to the demands of modern electric railway operation. Motormen and conductors of electric cars should possess something more.than a mere knowledge of how to apply and release brakes. They should understand the mechanical principles represented in the brake, and should know how to detect, remedy, and report any, and all kinds of defects which may arise. The cars operated in interurban service are not only very heavy, but the speed at which they travel is in many eases faster than ordinary steam railroad cars. Many steam railroads feel that they are doing very well if their freight schedules average twenty-five miles an hour, whereas nearly all interurban electric railways make an average schedule of at least thirty miles an hour. Such being the case, it is highly important that motormen and conductors master as fully as possible all detailed knowl- edge of the operation and maintenance of the brake apparatus. An earnest effort has been made by the author to place before the student in the following pages a plain, yet comprehensive description of the several systems of air brakes as applied to electric cars and locomotives. 1 2 ELECTRIC RAILROADING This will include in detail the very latest and most modern apparatus. The principles of its construction and action are set forth in plain language, and correct methods of operating the different systems are explained in such a manner as to be easily understood. THE WESTINGHOUSE AMM BRAKE EQUIPMENT. This equipment is designed for use on electrically operated vehicles, running normally in trains up to five cars in length, but subject to single car operation at times. It is therefore more especially adapted for both eity and high-speed interurban train service, and pos- sesses certain marked advantages, some of which may be enumerated as follows: Ist. It is a strictly automatic brake system; that is, any reduction in brake pipe pressure, which may result from a rupture of the piping, burst hose, or parting of the train, will cause the brakes to apply with full power. This is the essential feature which distinguishes the auto- matic from the straight air types of brake apparatus, and to which all other operative advantages are subordi- nate in the safe and economical handling of the trains of today. 2d. It possesses the quick-recharge feature, by which a rapid recharging of the auxiliary reservoirs is secured, thus insuring the possibility of obtaining full braking power immediately after a release has been made, and permitting as many applications and releases in quick succession as may be desired, without depleting the system. 3d. It possesses the quick-service feature, which se- { BAAR N of. THE e uni vy OF unde on Hi fi i HF THe i; 4 + iy : i : Up i rs iron sian H eee an : ‘ i sai hs 5 Hy i ji : lyase Ha See is Bea ieee cy Rue ea ca acu career enone a eimai anny a 2 eis SANs Mek rik U0 Fe Vga eet hey Pied AES MP pa Sede Heth oe real aslo TF i ay fi i; : : ; i : & 4 s i i j is i 2 : er & HWE yee lay’ if STRAINER ae Pe A Be peHISTLE VALVE - eae Ee a aga a ea eR ar er ee ett Wise Le ees e MOU OUF COCK PUMP GOVE Brut ; : BRAKE VALVE - H Etaint ; S37 VE TNC s GUY EY Dae : : BAAKE VALVE BHAKE CYLINDER vUbGut Cock CERXHSOUSRT BPE = Gut TT Ctr Kk GAEETY VALVE DUMMY Sou eS iN Ls a ou SRS : : : z == - = : gory ara rrecrrs gacorun aca rane od Sa ent ee : ed un i : : : a Pipe : N < isin OUSLE Su FOr COCK : : : é HALN COCK 5 # : i * if : BY DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION AMM EQUIPMENT MOTOR CAR Fig. 1. AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE yf 13. Various cut out cocks, air strainers, check valves, hose, couplings, dummy couplings, ete., the location and uses of which will be readily understood from the dia- erams Figures 1 and 2. 14. Two ar alarm whistles, one at each end of the ear, with whistle valves and cut out cocks. Figure 2 shows in a graphic manner the equipment of a trailer ear, and is self-explanatory. In operative fea-_ tures a trailer car corresponds exactly to any motor car equipped with this device, with the exception of the lead- ing, or operating feature. It differs from a motor car in that it has no brake valves, alarm whistle, or motor compressor, governor, or main reservoir. It draws its supply of air from the motor ears in the train, through the brake, and control pipes. THE TYPE M TRIPLE VALVE. In city service requiring its frequent stops, and maxi- mum of flexibility demanded of a brake equipment, as compared with the interurban or long-distance runs between cities, there are two extremes of service required of the air brake equipment. For instance, the city service requires a moderate brake cylinder pressure, for mod- erate brake pipe reductions, and the ability to graduate the release, as well as the application of the brake, while for a high speed service between towns, a high emergency pressure is essential when the shortest possible stop is demanded. | M TRIPLE VALVE. In order to meet these requirements, the Westinghouse Traction Brake Company has developed the Type M CYLINCTR PRESSURE ELECTRIC RAILROADING Y | / ! J CYLINDER PRESSURE JYUNSS3IUd HIONITAD 0334S Time Diagram of Stops. OUMMY COUPLING TO" pertains pera ii FST TINGS © Leer triransesiy mae re ieee deep tn sepa teraH SLi eS ny ieyh Lars pl pura aE Se. 1 : 1 bh i j ? ‘ CONDUS : = spersiccicy : : i a :e aA inh ind petal} FONTEHL SIE COW ERE BIGE : SS SUPE GUT-GUT COCK [= ANGLE FITTING a ee a TBE surg st Bie jee ai rasta : > 7 SR eh: E : DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION AMM EQUIPMENT TRAILER CAK : : Nipieee AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE . 9 triple valve, especially adapted to the particular kind of service described. This triple valve forms a part of the AMM equipment, which is designed throughout to meet the service conditions outlined above. Figure 3 shows a full view of this valve, and Figure 4 gives end and side sectional illustrations showing the working parts, the names of which are as follows: Fig. 3. The Type “M” Triple Valve. 2. Valve Body; 3, Slide Valve; 4, Piston; 5, Piston Ring; 6, Slide-Valve Spring; 7, Graduating Valve; 8, Graduating-Valve Spring; 9, Check Valve; 10, Rubber Seat or Check Valve; 11, Check-Valve Spring; 12, Cap Nut or Check Valve; 13, By-Pass Piston; 14, By-Pass Piston Ring; 15, Cap Nut for By-Pass Piston; 16, By- Pass Valve; 17, Rubber Seat for By-Pass Valve; 18, Cap Nut for By-Pass Valve; 19, By-Pass Valve Spring; 20, Cylinder Cap; 21, Graduating Nut; 22, Graduating ELECTRIC RAILROADING 10 ‘SMOTA TVUOTIVBS—OATVA FICIAL WA, d4L OL zt WIGNMAD J¥vMuB O1 ¥ BIOAU3S3Y a¥UTxnY O21 id OSS LL 7, Y i CE SSS SS \ UNS fj id) a ob AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE ila Spring; 23, Graduating Sleeve; 24, Bolt and Nut; 25, Cylinder Cap Gasket. Fig. 5 illustrates the actual arrangement of ports and cavities in the graduating valve, slide valve and slide- valve seat of the M-2-A Triple Valve. From Fig. 5 it ean be easily seen that it is impossible to show all the ports and connecting passageways in the slide valve, eraduating valve and seat by any single section taken through the valve. Figs. 6, 7, 8,9, 10 and 11 have there- fore been made to show in a purely diagrammatic way the relations of the various ports to each other, for the different positions of the triple-valve piston. The actual proportions and the mechanical construction of the parts have been entirely disregarded in order to make the con- nections and operation more easily understood. The pipe connections to the triple valve are plainly marked at the side of the cuts, Figs. 6 to 11 inclusive. The letters designating the ports and passageways, appearing on Figs. 4 and 5 and Figs. 6 to 11 inclusive, correspond throughout. By comparing these diagram- matic views and the explanations given with Figs. 4 and 5, the various connections and the relations of the dif- ferent ports will be clear. Referring to the plan of the slide-valve seat, Fig. 5, the ports are as follows: 7 leads to the brake cylinder, t to the top of the by-pass piston, p to the exhaust, x to the control pipe, and y to the check valve 9 in the pas- sageway leading from the brake-pipe connection. The registration of the ports in the slide valve, graduating valve and slide-valve seat is most easily followed and understood by reference to and comparison with the diagrammatic drawings, Figs. 6 to 11 inclusive, and the explanations given for each, 12 Fig. 5. ELECTRIC RAILROADING ' PISTON END. FACE VIEW GRADUATING VALVE PISTON ENO. PLAN VIEW SLIDE VALVE SLIDE VALVE SEAT Type ‘“M” Triple Valve.—Graduating Valve, Slide Valve, and Slide-Valve Seat, PISTON END AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 13 OPERATION OF THE TYPE ‘‘M’’ TRIPLE VALVE. Charging. Referring to Figs. 5 and 6, air from the brake pipe enters the triple valve through the passages a, e, g and h to the face of the triple-valve piston (which is then foreed to Release Position as shown) thence through the feed groove 7 to the chamber above the slide valve and to the auxiliary reservoir. Brake pipe air in passage a also forces the check valve 9 from its seat and flows thence through the ports y, 7 and wu into the aux- iliary reservoir. Fig. 6. Release and Charging Position. At the same time air from the control pipe, entering the triple valve through passage x, flows through port k into the chamber above the slide valve and to the auxil- iary reservoir. The latter is thus recharged from two different sources through three different channels, and full auxiliary reservoir pressure can be restored after an application in a very short time. The rate at which 14 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ‘this takes place is such that the rise of auxiliary reser-° voir pressure is proportional to the fall of pressure in the brake cylinder, so that by the time the brake is fully released, the reservoir is practically fully recharged. The check valve 9 prevents the air in the auxiliary reservoir from flowing back into passage a, and the brake pipe when, for any reason, the pressure in the latter becomes lower than that in the reservoir. When in this position, air from the brake cylinder entering the triple valve through passage r, flows through ports n, w, m and » to the exhaust, thus releasing the brakes. Service Application. The parts of the triple valve being in Release and Charging Position as shown in Fig. 6, a service reduction in brake-pipe pressure reduces the pressure in chamber h and on the face of the triple valve piston below that remaining in the auxiliary reservoir on the opposite side of the piston. The higher auxiliary- reservoir pressure therefore forces the piston in the di- rection of the lower brake-pipe pressure, carrying with it the attached graduating valve. The first movement of the piston cuts off the feed groove 7 and the graduating valve, then closes the ports , 7 and k, thus closing com- munication between the brake pipe and the auxiliary reservoir, the control pipe and the auxiliary reservoir, and the exhaust from the brake cylinder to the atmos- phere. The same movement uncovers port z and con- nects ports q and o, in the main slide valve, through cavity v in the graduating valve. The spider on the end of the piston stem then engages the end of the slide valve, which is carried along with the piston and gradu- ating valve as the reduction continues. This brings the parts into Quick-Service Position shown in Fig. 7. Sery- AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 15 ice port 2 in the slide valve registers with the brake-cyl- inder port r in the seat, permitting the air in the auxil- iary reservoir to flow to the brake cylinder and apply the brakes. At the same time the quick-service ports 0 and g and cavity v connect passage y, above the check valve 9, with passage r leading to the brake cylinder, thus allowing air from the brake pipe to lift the check valve and flow through the above named ports to the Fig. 7. Quick-Service Position, brake cylinder. This constitutes the Quick-Service ac- tion of the triple valve, in that it causes a slight but definite reduction in brake-pipe pressure locally at each triple valve, which quickly and uniformly transmits from ear to ear throughout the train the effect of a reduction in brake-pipe pressure made at the brake valve. This is not great in amount; first, because the ports and pas- sageways are small; and, second, because in the move- ment of the slide valve 3 toward Full-Service Position the quick-service port q is restricted as it approaches this position, and completely closed just before the serv- 16 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ice port z is fully open. The amount by which the serv- ice port is opened in any given case depends on the rate of reduction in brake-pipe pressure as compared with that of the auxiliary reservoir. If the former is at first rapid as compared with the latter (which would be the ease with short trains) the higher auxiliary-reservoir pressure moves the piston at once to Full-Service Posi- tion, Fig. 8, thus automatically cutting out the quick- service feature where it is not needed. When in Full- Fig. 8. Full-Service Position. Service Position, Fig. 8, the service port z is fully open and the quick-service port qg is closed. This stops the flow of air from the brake pipe to the cylinder and the quick- service action ceases. As shown in the cut, the gradu- ating spring is compressed slightly when the piston is in Full-Service Position. Lap. After a sufficient brake-pipe reduction has been made to produce the desired application of the brakes, the brake-valve handle is lapped, and further escape of air from the brake pipe is prevented. This position is AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE aby) ealled service lap, and is shown in figure 9, all of the ports being blanked by the graduating valve, and further flow of air to the brake cylinder is stopped. During lap position the main slide valve remains in service position, a movement of the piston and graduating valve serving to lap the valve, while a very slight reduction in brake pipe pressure will again bring the piston and graduating valve into service position. While the piston 4 (see Fig. 9) is in service lap position, the pressure on both sides Fig. 9. Service-Lap Position. of it must be equal. If now the brake pipe pressure is increased in order to release the brakes, the higher pressure on that side of the piston will cause it to move the graduating and slide valves to the extreme left, to release and recharging position (see Fig. 6), and the brake cylinder air is exhausted through ports r and n, cavity w and port m to exhaust passage p and atmos- phere, while at the same time the auxiliary reservoir is being recharged through charging ports « and y and feed groove 7, as described under the head of charging. 18 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Graduated Release. If, however, after the brakes have been applied, the reduction previously made in the brake pipe is only partially restored, and only sufficient air is permitted to flow into the brake pipe to move piston 4, with the slide and graduating valves, to Release Position, Fig. 6, and the brake-valve handle is then returned to Lap Position, the flow of air from the control pipe through ports « and k to the auxiliary reservoir continues after the rise in brake-pipe pressure has ceased. This will raise the pressure on the auxiliary-reservoir side of Fig. 10. Graduated-Release-Lap Position. the triple-valve piston slightly above that on the brake- pipe side, and cause the piston and its attached gradu- ating valve to move to the right to Graduated-Release- Lap Position shown in Fig. 10. Emergency. - When the brake-pipe pressure is reduced suddenly, or its reduction continues to be more rapid than that in the auxiliary reservoir, the triple-valve pis- ton moves to the extreme right, compressing the gradu- AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 19 ating spring and bringing the parts into Emergency Position as shown in Fig. 11. In this position air from the auxiliary reservoir enters the brake-cylinder passage ry through the port J in the main slide valve instead of port z as in service application. At the same time port s in the main slide valve registers with port ¢ in the seat, thus permitting air from the auxiliary reservoir to flow to the face of the ‘‘By-Pass’’ piston 18, the other side of which is connected to the brake cylinder through port r. As there is no pressure in the brake cylinder at this Fig. 11. Emergency Position. instant, the by-pass piston with its attached by-pass valve 16 is forced to the left, as shown in Fig. 11, thus opening a passageway between the control-pipe connection x and the brake-cylinder connection r through the by-pass valve. Air continues to flow from the control pipe to the brake cylinder through this channel until the auxiliary reservoir and brake-cylinder pressures become nearly equal. Then the by-pass piston and valve are returned to their normal positions by the valve spring 19, and the flow of air through the by-pass valve is stopped. TRAILER CAR. The equipment of a trailer car consists of an auxiliary reservoir, brake cylinder, triple valve, double cut out, combined check valve and strainer, conductor’s valve, brake and control pipes and the accompanying fittings, as shown in Fig. 1. In operative features, therefore, a trailer car corresponds to any motor car, except the lead- ing or operating one. It differs from a motor car in having no brake valves, alarm whistle, or motor com- pressor, governor, or main reservoir, its supply of air being drawn from the motor cars in the train. ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. In deciding upon the best location for the compressor, radiating pipe, reservoirs, brake cylinder, etc., due regard must be had for the distribution of electrical apparatus under the car, the most efficient arrangement of founda- tion brake gear possible, maximum cooling effect, and accessibility of all apparatus for inspection. As proper maintenance is of the utmost importance in obtaining all the advantages possible with this equipment and in prolonging its life, this latter point should receive special attention. Place the air compressor, Fig. 12, near the side of the ear. The gear case should face outward, if the inspec- tions are made over a pit, to afford easy access to the commutator, brush holders, and oil cups. If the inspec- tions are to be made from the side of the car the gear 20 AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 21 ease should face inward. The suction strainer is con- nected by piping with the air inlet. It should be so located as to insure a supply of clean, dry, cool air, which adds materially to the life and efficiency of the compressor. Usually this strainer is installed, either in one of the cabs, or on the roof. When the air compressor is operating, the air is drawn into the cylinders through the suction strainer, and past the inlet valves, com- pressed, and forced out past the discharge valves and through radiating pipe to the main reservoirs. As shown Fig. 12. Motor-Driven Compressor. Type D. Form EG. in Fig. 1, two main reservoirs are used, for the purpose of storing an abundant supply of compressed air to per- mit of promptly releasing the brakes and recharging the system. The division of the storage volume into two reservoirs also gives a more efficient arrangement for cooling the air and depositing the moisture, oil, or other foreign matter carried into the reservoirs, before passing on to the brake system. To assist in this the piping should be so installed as to drain into the reservoirs. The drain cocks should permit of easily draining the reser- voirs. As an accumulation of water or other foreign matter is not only injurious to the reservoirs, but is Pee ELECTRIC RAILROADING liable to seriously reduce their capacity, they should be drained at regular intervals. The amount of radiating pipe necessary must be de- cided upon according to the needs of each locality. Where it is always warm, it may be omitted. For obvious reasons, the reservoirs and radiating pipe should be placed as low and as near the outside of the car as possible and well removed from sources of heat, such as resistance grids, motors, ete. As indicated on the diagram, the main reservoirs are directly connected to the governor, feed valve, duplex air gauges, and alarm whistles. Fig. 13. Electric-Pump Governor. Type J. A cut-out cock and an air strainer are placed in the governor pipe—the former to cut off the supply of air to the governor when it is necessary, and the latter to protect the governor from dirt or foreign matter which may enter the pipe. AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE SMMMMAA, Z eeeeeeeee ir .S ASSa 1, hs "My, Fig. 14. Air Compressor on Motor Cars. 23 The air strainer should be placed as near the governor as possible. Figures 14 and 15 show, respectively, side and sectional views of the air compressor. The electric pump governor, Figs. 13 and 18, is usually set for a 15-lb. range, the actual pressures being de- 24 ELECTRIC RAILROADING termined by the operating conditions of each particular road. The standard and recommended cutting-in pres- sure is 85 lbs. (15 lbs. above the setting of the feed valve) and the cutting-out pressure 100 lbs. In the circuit between the trolley and governor are placed two snap switches, Fig. 16, and a fuse box with fuse, Fig. 17. The snap switch affords a means of cut- ting off the current to the air compressor when so de- sired; while the fuse serves to protect the motor from a dangerous continued overload by blowing, and thus opening the circuit, when the amount of current flowing to the compressor exceeds the capacity of the fuse. INSTALLATION OF WIRING. The wiring should be installed in a thorough manner, every precaution being taken to avoid the possibility of grounds developing after the car has been in service for a time. Whenever practicable, the wiring should be run inside the ear, securely cleated in place, and must always be so located that it may not be damaged when the body is being jacked up. At exposed places underneath the ear, and particularly at those points where the wire comes in contact with iron, it must be covered with rub- ber tubing. The size of rubber insulated wire which is recommended for the Nos. 1, 2 and 3 compressors when operating on standard railway voltage is No. 14 B. & S. gage. Although smaller sizes might do the work with- out excessive drop in voltage or danger of overheating, still they lack mechanical strength and a smaller wire than No. 14 is undesirable on this account. Under these conditions the No. 4 compressor should be wired with No. 12 B. & S. gage. AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE TE Rae mies Ost ea ESSSSFSSH} VRRAD AN iS "4 Sis OOHAAAG —S UZ AS N ish op Ze: LA A PT Esa ; Tt ; s ¥ i) eae tt Ly : \ NN te 4 ZI SSS CLL SRS UZ ML tBItELE LILLIE: “Ze Invites) Ts IN ihe on Motor Cars. 26 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The sequence in which the various parts should be connected is shown in Fig. 1, but the point at which the compressor circuit shall be tapped to the main trolley line is one to be determined in each individual ease. Connecting inside the main motor ehoke is not advisable, for, although the apparatus of the compressor circuit will be protected by the hghtning arrester on the car motor circuit, there are many drawbacks to this method. By tapping on the trolley line outside the main switches we overcome all disadvantages, and if the con- nection is made between the first main switch and the Fig. 16. Snap Switch. Miewed te.) Eusen box point where the light circuit is tapped off, and the lamp circuits are turned on during storms, a very efficient lightning arrester is provided. The better plan, of course, is to provide a separate arrester for the com- pressor circuit, which involves only a slight additional expense. From the trolley connections, run the wire first to one compressor switch, and then to the other, connecting them in series, and making sure that when they are open their dials show the word “‘off,’’ and when AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE Pf SS NN \ SN MSS GAAAAARNRRLUERERE, Ul Lg SSS fe He BAS Ne SSN Asef Wa ZA FAIS ee Ss i SWwiTtCH = memos i IS ~ 8 ory mS SGM, ft SS SSS ; Y iS Ne iisiecal ni, el vy ea = Te aa WH. Lise ee =. a kid Z FAWN AE WES WOK F SX WNSY SSNS Z INN SRN NUS ora AY ’ be WW woe WA TO HIGH es To cura ? ves ike’ SNS Th NAA A QUAPHRAGM, aA U} NY ~ ¥ 7 Z 2 4 Waa J GES WY uw Uh OT SO FR 4] Al 6 SS — SSN) Pees a ~ RMMMMOQ03 kee Fig. 18. Air Compressor Governor on Motor Cars. closed, ‘‘on.’’ From thence run the wire through the fuse box to the governor, where the connection may be made to whichever terminal is most convenient. From the remaining terminal run a wire to the motor, where the connection must be made to the field lead which 28 ELECTRIC RAILROADING comes out of the frame near the door. The armature lead must be connected to the main motor ground wire. By this means a grounded field coil, or lead can cause no damage to the armature. The positive wire leading to the motor, and the ground return from the same should, under no circumstances, pass through the same hole, or be cleated together, but should be kept three or more inches apart. The compressor switches, one at each end, should be located within easy reach of the motorman, without necessitating his moving from his customary position. The fuse box should be connected between the last compressor switch and the governor. It ought not to be so placed that a screwdriver or other im- plement is needed to get at it, but should be easily ac- cessible, in a dry place, with its box well removed from any possible ground connections. The safety valve, Fig. 19, is connected by a tee to the main reservoir pipe, in as protected a location as possible, and is set for 110 Ibs., or 10 lbs. above the cutting-out point of the gov- ernor. In the main reservoir pipe beyond the safety valve, and governor connection, is placed a cut-out cock for the purpose of shutting off the source of air supply on that car when desirable. The feed valve, Fig. 20, is usually set to maintain a standard pressure of 70 lbs. for braking purposes, but this may be varied as operat- ing conditions require, the governor adjustment being then changed accordingly. It should be located as near as possible to the point where the branch is taken from the control pipe to the triple valve. The feed valve is bolted to a pipe bracket (which should be firmly attached to a solid support), thus avoiding the necessity of break- ing any pipe joints when removing the valve for clean- ing. An arrow cast on the top of this bracket indicates AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 29 the direction in which the air should flow through the valve. Both the feed valve and pump governor should be installed inside the car where the best protection from dirt and weather will be afforded, and where they can be easily reached for adjustment or replacement. \ \ RO OSSSASSSSSSES Lihinyy Lie ia WHS 7 CASSIS Fig. 19. Safety Valve. Fig. 20. Feed Valve. The control pipe, extending the entire length of the train, is supplied from the feed valves on each motor ear. Each individual feed valve, therefore, supplies its proper proportion of the air required to recharge the control pipe when the pressure has been reduced by a release of the brakes. In this way each air compressor is made to do an equal share of the work necessary to ELECTRIC RAILROADING 30 supply the air required for operation, without the need of additional apparatus of any kind to secure this essen- Also, if any compressor fails, the work of supplying the air is divided among the remaining com- tial feature. 64 67 Y LLI UY, fi aN GEL, wrcenee HY)™ \ ° reared © S) | OT y Le 2 a Pb Ne WUD 4 fh A IS Is mee nit iit () © Slide Valve—Feed Valve Open. Pig ake Flexible hose and couplings at each end of the car serve to connect this pipe throughout the train. pressors. From this pipe a branch leads to each triple valve, and one to the brake valves on each ear. The supply to the triple valve is used to obtain a graduated release AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 3] of the brakes and assist in the recharging of the auxiliary reservoirs, and the supply to the brake valve enables the motorman to release the brakes and assist in recharging the system. Figs. 21 and 22 are sectional views of the oF a a WL aiiiaama Z My TT ADU : Ui iy, ed) x Fig. 22. Slide Valve—Feed Valve Closed. feed valve, showing it in the open and closed positions, respectively. The duplex air gauge, Fig. 24, should be installed in the direct line of vision of the motorman while running 34 ELECTRIC RAILROADING over the road, and where it is not obscured in any way by intervening objects, or too strong light back of, or near it. The connection for the brake pipe gauge hand is taken off from the brake pipe just below the brake valve cut-out cock. The alarm whistle valve should be within easy reach of the motorman, while operating the controller handle. The alarm whistle, whistle valve, and whistle cut-out eock are connected through the gauge and whistle pipe Fig. 23. Suspension Cradle of Air Compressor. directly to the main reservoir pipe. The connection should be made between the two reservoirs in order to avoid any possibility of interfering with the operation of the other devices when blowing the whistle. The connection for the main reservoir gauge hand is taken out from this pipe just below the cut-out cock. A choke in the gauge pipe protects the gauge from injury due to © the sudden drop in pressure in the pipe when the whistle is blown. The brake valve, Fig. 25, located in the operator’s compartment at each end of a motor car, is of the rotary type, with removable handles. The operating parts are AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 33 contained in a body, mounted on a bracket to which all the pipe connections are made, so that the valve may be removed for examination and repairs without break- ing any pipe joints. Four pipe connections are made to the bracket as follows: the control pipe (supply pipe), brake pipe, brake cylinder exhaust pipe, and brake valve exhaust pipe. Raised letters are cast on the bottom of the pipe bracket, Fig. 26, as follows, to insure that proper con- nections are made: §S, for control pipe; BP, for the brake pipe; BC-EX, brake cylinder exhaust pipe; and EX, brake valve exhaust pipe. Fig. 24. Duplex Air Gauge. The different positions of the brake valve handle in order from the left (see Fig. 27) are: Ist. Release and Running Position (at the extreme left), in which the air from the control pipe, which always has access to the top of the rotary valve through a port in the body casting, is permitted to flow directly to the brake pipe, and the brake cylinder exhaust is con- nected to the atmosphere. 34 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 2nd. Holding Position, in which air from the control pipe still flows into the brake pipe, but the brake eylin- der exhaust is prevented from flowing to the atmosphere. 3rd. Lap Position, in which all ports in the valve are blanked, except the brake cylinder exhaust port. This is the only position in which the brake valve han- Fig. 25. Brake Valve. Type M15. dle can be removed. On all motor cars back of the head ear, the brake valves are in lap position. Consequently the brake cylinder exhaust port must be open in this position, in order to permit the release of the brakes on such ears. 4th. Intermediate Service Position, in which a econ- nection is made from the brake pipe to the atmosphere through a relatively small opening, thus allowing the AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE abs. air in the brake pipe to escape to the atmosphere at a comparatively slow rate. Sth. Service Position, in which a connection is made from the brake pipe to the atmosphere through a larger opening than in the intermediate service position, thus allowing the air in the brake pipe to escape at a more rapid rate. 6th. Emergency Position, in which a much larger opening is made from the brake cylinder to the atmos- phere. | 2 PIPE _ \ BRAKE Pi IPE ) hid L Ou £ pipe eta oy P eXHAUST + ope vA ~\, 2 ‘ ' SUPPLY le Fig. 26. Brake Valve Pipe Bracket. _From the brake valve the brake pipe extends through- out the train, similar to the control pipe, having flexible hose and couplings to form the connection between the cars. Branch pipes lead from the brake pipe to the brake valve, conductor’s valve, and the triple valve con- nection on the brake cylinder head. When the brakes are released, the pressure in this pipe is the same as that in the control pipe—they being then connected through the operating brake valve. The conductor’s valve, one type of which is shown in Fig. 28, may be located at any convenient point in the ear, preferably with a cord attached to its handle and 36 ELECTRIC RAILROADING opened, the air in the brake pipe flows directly through it to the atmosphere, setting the brakes in emergency. It should therefore be used only in case of actual dan- ger, and should then be opened as wide as possible and held open until the train stops. Fig. 27. Brake Valve. Plan View. The connection from the brake pipe to its branch pipe, leading to the triple valve, is made through a brake pipe air strainer, Fig. 29, to prevent the entrance of foreign matter into the triple valve. For further protection, a branch pipe air strainer, Fig. 30, is inserted in the branch pipe close to the triple valve connection on the brake cylinder head or bracket. The alarm whistle valve should be within easy reach of the motorman while operating the controller handle. AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 37 Near the triple valve is a double cut-out cock, Fig. 31, through which the branch pipes from the brake and con- trol pipes pass. This is similar to an ordinary cut-out cock, except that it has two separate passages through both body and key, the upper one for the 34-inch control branch pipe, and the lower one for the 1-inch brake pipe branch pipe. By this arrangement both passages are necessarily opened or closed together. This is of prime importance as under no circumstances should one of Fig. 28. Conductor’s Valve. these pipes be open and the other not. Whenever it is necessary to cut out the brake on a ear, this cock should be closed by turning the handle until it is parallel with the pipes leading through it, thus cutting off all air supply to the triple valve and auxiliary reservoir. In the control pipe branch pipe to the triple valve is placed a combined air strainer and check valve, Fig. 32, 38 ELECTRIC RAILROADING which allows the air from the control pipe to flow into the triple valve to assist in charging the auxiliary reser- voir, but not in the opposite direction. This check valve wriretap ff Fig, 29. Brake Pipe Air Strainer, 7 a an A “ NOAA 4IPE THRE ae. sPIPE TAP Fig, 30. Branch Pipe Air Strainer. | On “es Y=! a. . ~) a, ar aff AT ge oy WAY. Sa 2 Mi = Cll mo ‘ ty a a as — Fig. 31. Double Cut Out Cock. therefore prevents the escape of the air stored in the auxiliary reservoir, and consequent loss of braking power, in case of loss of control pipe pressure due to AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE 39 burst hose, parting of train, or other cause. An arrow is east on the body of this valve to indicate the manner in which it should be installed. 5° 8 PIPE TAP. LLL Fig. 32. Combined Air Strainer and Check Valve. The triple valve, Fig. 3, may be attached directly to the cylinder head, to a bracket underneath the car, or to a stand inside the ear. 7 (View ee ere 8 Ss oe 3 PIKE 18 17 Yo CLL LLL Sy SIN ge Co Ry pss I - WN EE ees WMO4 SSS INS pegs SE \SLLLLLALLD SY ae Li 4 Oo Ss NS KY = oy N [eeul SS My se Hig, 33. Brake Cylinder. The auxiliary reservoir should be located as near the triple valve as possible, and where its drain cock can be easily reached from the side of the car. Its volume is 40 ELECTRIC RAILROADING such that when charged to 70 lbs. it will equalize with the brake cylinder at 50 Ibs. pressure. The brake cylinder (Fig. 33) should be located as near the triple valve as possible, and in such a manner as to be convenient for inspection. The piston 3 has a hollow rod in which is a solid push rod, 14, attached to the levers of the foundation brake gear. This allows the brakes to be applied by hand (when necessary) without moving the piston, but a pneumatic application forces out both hollow piston rod and push rod. The movement of the brake gear must therefore be free from binding, or undue friction, and adequate means provided for both hand and air brake systems, to insure that the push rod shall return fully home when a release is made. The release spring, 9, forces the piston to release position when the air pressure is exhausted from the opposite side of the piston. The packing leather, 7, is pressed against the cylinder wall by the packing expander, 8, and prevents the escape of air past the piston. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE. In cleaning the eyl- inder and piston, special attention should be given to removing lint, freeing the leakage groove of any deposit, and thorough cleansing of the expander ring, packing leather, and piston. In oiling or greasing the cylinder, special attention should be given to the thorough lubri- eation of the top of the eylinder and the inside of the packing leather where the expander ring rests. A S KE = Suction STRAINER i Mh BRAKE CYUNDER. vd a CYLINDER ae i i a om © RESERVOIR PIPE sO, H || | cut-our ms CUT-OUT s a | eee a ner om aM AE =f Thi, ———— SS a \ a ee TRAIN PIPE C\cocK IN Mf NG , SES BORLA : A Moror Car | oH «EE TRAILER Se or MUFFLER CUPLING MUFFLER Fig. 35. Diagram of National Straight Air Equipment for Motor Car and Trailer. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 81 second, those parts requiring care and inspection should be located in positions most easily accessible. Following is a list of the several necessary devices that go to complete this system: Ist—An Air Compressor driven by an independent electric motor, and supplying the compressed air. 2nd—An Automatic Governor which stops and starts the air compressor, thereby maintaining the pressure and regulating the supply of compressed air. 3rd—A Main Reservoir in which the compressed air is stored. 4th—A Brake Cylinder with piston rod connected to the brake levers in such a manner that when compressed air is admitted into the brake cylinder by means of the motorman’s operating valve, the piston is forced out- ward by the compressed air and the brake shoes applied against the wheels. 5Sth—A Motorman’s Brake Valve placed at each con- trolling point of the car, by means of which the com- pressed air is admitted from the main reservoir to the brake cylinder, and from the brake cylinder to atmos- phere. 6th—A specially constructed Piping System connect- ing the main reservoir with the motorman’s brake valve, and the pipe. leading from this valve and extending throughout the entire length of the train; the latter is termed the Train Pipe, and is fitted with flexible hose and couplings between the individual cars, with a stop cock at each end of every car and an auxiliary pipe leading to the brake cylinder arranged under each ear. 7th—A. System of Wiring, including switches and fuse boxes, which connects the main trolley circuit to the compressor and governor. 82 ELECTRIC RAILROADING: 8th—The Hose Couplings with which each end of every car is equipped, and by means of which the train pipes on the cars are connected to form a continuous train pipe line. | 9th—An Air Gauge of the single hand type to indi- cate the pressure in the main reservoir only. An air peas Fig. 36. A-1 Compressor. gauge provided with two hands is sometimes employed, one of which indicates the pressure in the main reser- voir, and the other the pressure in the train pipe, the former hand being colored red, and the latter black. 10th—A Safety Valve to prevent any possibility of over-charging the main reservoir, and the piping sys- tem; THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 83 11th—Also frequently required is a chime whistle op- erated by air pressure, used as a warning signal instead of a bell or gong. Fig. 37. National: BB-2 Type Compressor. INSTALLING THE MOTOR COMPRESSOR. The most desirable location for the motor compressor is under the car body. On account of the thoroughly dust-proof and water-proof construction of the A-1, A-4, BB-2, CC-3 and DD-4 type compressor, the equipment does not include an enclosing box for the motor com- pressor. It is claimed by the National Brake & Elec- 84 ELECTRIC RAILROADING trie Company that the elimination of the enclosing box is an advantage, as-it allows a free circulation of air around the compressor, thus tending to keep it cool and increasing its efficiency. There is furnished with each Suzpension Cradle. in A-4 Compressor Mounted compressor a light, rigid suspension cradle constructed of wrought iron bars. This eradle, shown in Fig. 38, combines strength with compactness and easy accessibil- ity to all parts of the compressor requiring attention. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 85 The base of the compressor is bolted directly to the tie bars, which are insulated from the hangers by fibre and hard wood insulation. The above named parts com- prise the cradle proper suspended from the crossbars, which in turn are bolted directly to the car body. The compressor being very strongly supported by the wooden blocks and crossbars, its vibrations are completely ab- sorbed, and hence no strains are caused on the ear body. The compressor may be quickly removed from the sus- pension eradle by raising it about one-half inch and sliding out four bolts. Fig. 39. Motor Complete. The selection of the most desirable position for the motor compressor under the ear is largely governed by the amount of apparatus already there. The chosen place should be such as will ensure freedom from heated air from the resistance grids or car motors, and such that all oil holes in the compressor pump base will be readily accessible from the street. The air supply can be piped from any convenient point in the vestibule or roof of the car. The suction pipe has at its extremity, 86 ELECTRIC RAILROADING a suction strainer filled with pulled, curled hair with a fine mesh screen over the opening. The method of in- stalling is as follows: The compressor should always be installed with its shaft crosswise of the car and with the gear inside, or as near the center of the car as possible. The base of the compressor should be securely fastened to the suspension cradle, taking care to tighten cap screws and nuts solidly. Then attach the crossbars firmly to the car framing at uniform and proper distances apart. If the under framing is not suitably: arranged to conveniently receive the crossbars, secure one of the crossbars to a piece of the car framing, and insert a suitable timber for the other. Eight 5<-inch bolts should be employed for each crossbar. Lag screws are not per- nussible for this: purpose. It is permissible to bend up THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 87 the ends of the crossbar and bolt them to the side of the sill. When the compressor must be removed from the eage it will be found that the construction of the cage is such that the compressor will readily come out through two sides of the cage without removing any part of it. The vent openings in the side of the pump base are for Fig. 41. A-2 Type Compressor from Gear End. the purpose of carrying away any vapors that may be venerated within it. These openings should never be closed, or made smaller. The connections to the main reservoir should all be made at the opposite end from that at which the discharge from the pump enters, in order to insure passage of air through the reservoir, and 88 ELECTRIC RAILROADING the deposit of water that may be precipitated in the cooling of the compressed air; likewise any oil or dirt that may have been carried along with it. Looking at the motor compressor from the gear end (see Fig. 41), the pump shaft should rotate clock-wise and the motor shaft in the opposite direction. The di- rection of rotation of the armature may be changed by reversing the brush holder connection. Fig. 42. Compressor Dismantled to Remove the Armature. A ecard showing the arrangement and connections of the straight air brake equipment is attached to each compressor sent out and should be carefully studied. In connecting up the wiring of the compressor the positive wire of the cireuit should be connected to the lead ex- tending through the motor frame nearest the commuta- tor door. Connect the other lead to the negative side THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 89 of the circuit. The set screws on the brass terminals must be tightly set, and the terminals completely wrapped with insulating tape. Fig. 43. Phantom View of Compressor Base. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE, While the instructions for installing the compressor as herein given may serve as a good guide, they should not be considered. as ironclad rules. On account of the arrangement of the existing equipment differing so widely on different cars, and other conditions varying so much, the judgment of the master mechanic must neces- 90 ELECTRIC RAILROADING sarily be exercised in a large degree in determining the ~ method of installation. In other words, what might be good practice for one road might be altogether unsuited to a different road. The air compressor and its driving motor require but nominal attention. The following are the most import- ant points in their maintenance: 1st—The oil is intro- duced into the pump chamber through oil holes or plugs which are arranged as shown in Fig. 49. Fig. 44. Piston, Rings and Connecting Rod. A good quality of engine oil should be used, such as will suffer no change from the high temperatures some- times reached in the crank chamber after long operation of the pump. The oil used should also have a low freez- ing point. The bad results obtained from the use of crude, unpurified oils in causing abrasion of the eylin- ders, and losing body under high temperatures will greatly over-balance the low first cost obtained by this pchey. Inspection should be made at least every other day, and the oil supply regularly replenished once a THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 91 week; oftener if necessary. About every two and a half months at the least, the drain plug 6 (Fig. 49) should be opened and the oil drained off for filtering. 2d—The armature bearings should be regularly inspected and oiled when needed. The armature bearing on the com- mutator end is oiled through filling plug 46 and does not require any further attention except that the oil Fig. 45. Lower Half of Motor. should be replenished when inspection shows this to be necessary. The bearing at the gear end should be oiled through filling plug provided for that purpose. This bearing requires no further replenishing after the pump has once been started, as the oil is constantly replenished by the motion of the gear. 92 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The armature is removed by taking out the cap screws 55 which fasten the field frame to the motor. base; then disconnect the brush holder leads and the field coil leads, and after removing the brush holder, unscrew the cap screws, which secure the top half of the motor bearing housing, take out cotter pins 53, after which pinion 74 may be pulled off. It is necessary that the armature should be free to move in the opposite direction, as the gear teeth prevent the pinion from moving outwardly. Fig. 46. Brush Gear Complete. The armature may now be lifted from its position, much care being taken to prevent it from striking against pole pieces, and injuring the cross sections at the end of the core. In replacing the armature, slide it carefully into the fields until the threaded end projects from the bearing with the key-way up. The pinion should then be slid into position and a small lever used to force it into alignment with the shaft. Replace the head with the commutator bearing, care being taken to keep grit and dirt out of the bearing and from the oil rings; and see that the oil rings are in their proper position on the shaft. The electrical connections THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 93 should be made exactly as before, and the brushes also replaced as original to preserve the same brush pressure on the commutator. Brush Gear Disassembled, Fig. 47. While the pinion is still uncovered, turn the arma- ture by hand to determine whether the gears run freely ; ‘hen screw the bearing shell back into place and run the eompressor with the motor long enough to pump full 94 ELECTRIC RAILROADING pressure in the reservoir. The arrangement of the sus- pension cradle is such that the disassembling, and re- assembling may be easily done while the compressor is in position under the car, and either operation can be done by one man who has had a short experience in this work, and is provided with a standard wrench for this purpose. 3. If the field coils must be removed the compressor should be taken from the ear and since this operation is easily accomplished with the National type of suspen- sion, when a suitable kind of jacking apparatus is pro- vided in the pit, it-is very advisable that roads using air brake equipments, keep several extra compressors on hand, so that a damaged one may be easily replaced and the repairs made in the shop during day hours which ean be done to a better advantage than at night. 4. The commutator should be kept clean, but not necessarily highly polished; a rich glossy bronze is most desirable. The brushes should always have a good con- tact, and also be free in their holders. The brush ten- sion ean be increased, or decreased, by means of the car- bon adjustment. When it becomes necessary to turn down the commutator, due to wear by the brushes or other causes, particular care should be taken to bevel off the corners slightly on the end of the bars. If the bars are left with a sharp edge, the mica is more likely to crumble away and cause a short circuit from bar to bar; the mica will then become carbonized, and the commuta- tor in time ruined. In removing the commutator, the oil guard which is shrunk on the shaft should first be taken off either by heating with a blow torch or by turning off on a lathe; the commutator can then be pulled off easily with screws in the usual way. A new oil guard must be shrunk on and finished like the old one. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 95 5. If for any reason the brush gear must be dis- assembled. especial care should be taken to have the brush lead as originally adjusted. This adjustment is readily effected by screw 120. Ordinarily there will be no oceasion for changing the brush adjustment, as the ‘ Fig. 48. Type A-4 National Compressor. entire motor can be taken apart without doing so, since the brush holder yoke is attached to bearing cap 42 only. 6. When removing the pinion from the armature ‘shaft, always use a pinion puller. Never use a sledge hammer for this purpose. 96 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 7. When removing the gear from the crank shaft, use a wooden mallet on the rough part of the gear; in such cases great care should be taken not to injure the teeth, as they will only have to be repaired again before the compressor can be put in service. Since the tendency of the pinion is to wear the gear teeth at the two points corresponding to the dead centers of the crank shaft, there are two key-ways 90° apart for turning the gear one-quarter. 8. If the suction and discharge valves wear irregu- larly, they as well as their chambers should be thorough- ly cleaned in gasoline at least once every six months. The valves should be removed and their cavities thoroughly cleaned with vaseline. Never put any oil on the valves. The suction strainer should be cleaned once every week when oiling to avoid the accumulation of dirt therein with consequent reduction of compressor effi- ciency. 9. In assembling the motor compressor, much care should be taken to have the gear and pinion mesh prop- erly, since a defect in the meshing of the gear will re- sult in a pounding or grinding noise when the com- pressor is operating. The best results are obtained by having a play of about one-sixty-fourth of an inch be- tween the teeth. If a pounding develops in the compressor, remove the pump base cover, and adjust the crank bearings of the connecting rods by taking out some of the washers pro- vided for this purpose. The connecting rod caps are adjusted by means of these shims which, when removed one by one, draw the connecting rod caps into better bearing surface on the crank shaft. Be sure to tighten the lock nuts and replace the cotter pins. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 97 To remove the piston packing rings or the wrist pin, the connecting rod must be detached from the crank shaft. After removing the cylinder head, the piston can be taken out. 50 Sl 5355 a8 @ 707173 \ 72 ln 42 is ian ee So 74 446163 (Slee =| =e 43 = — a8 43 Z a5 is ' 45 /\B7 66 4B- 7 39 S 28 79 46 Fig. 49. Front Sectional Diagram of Compressor. Some care must be taken in replacing the packing rings, as their diameters and faces are nicely ground. In replacing the piston rings they are first assembled in the groove on the piston with their springs; a flexible wire is then wound once around the piston ring. By pulling both ends of the wire the ring will be drawn to the diam- 98 ELECTRIC RAILROADING eter of the bore of the cylinder, which then makes it easier to push the piston back to its original position. In removing the wrist pin, take out the set screw, and by gently tapping the small end of the wrist pin with a block and mallet the pin is easily removed. 10. Insulation couplings should be kept tight and in perfect order; regular inspection of these parts is there- fore necessary. se 6S 75 34h. 32 a a1 MH 30--\—_\ NAN 33° EN va y) Z ——— YUM pre Sy Li Vo ig a 3 LL Lith Fig. 50. Sectional Diagram of Compressor. If the compressor is constantly blowing its fuse and the motor is working properly, it may be assumed that the fault is in the pump. Inspection will likely show that the discharge valves are sticking or that the piston is Operating with considerable friction in its cylinder, due to insufficient lubrication, or that a hot bearing THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 99 exists. Under no circumstances should a heavier fuse be substituted for the size advised on a given compressor, as a burned out motor may result. The sizes of fuses which are recommended for the dif- ferent types of compressors, when operated on 550 volt currents, are as follows: COMPRESSOR AMPERES OF FUSES NUMBER AT 550 VOLTS. PD Getta SET Pane eee eB Ny AIORIN han Ling 6 JAILS Gy Dh Ayhel baie ie tth « a oc7 a REL 6 Fae BES ait anak) St ae ne 6 ee sais eee en e curar ttn Dee aN 10 FES eee eh cae TE rE Beret NB mi ga fd 10 OE OEP RIN 2 UR ihn ie Magi oy J cata a a ey IDB re OCT Di cae Ol SR eal eet dee 2.0 Fig. 51. Sectional Diagram of Compressor Armature, DIRECT CURRENT, SERIES WOUND MOTOR COMPRESSOR— TYPE A-4. Fig. 48 shows a view of this type of compressor, and Figs. 49 to 53 inclusive present sectional elevations show- ing the various parts in their relation to each other. The numbers used in the following description apply to the different sections. The air passes into the cylinders 100 ELECTRIC RAILROADING through the suction valve chambers 31 (see Fig. 50). The air intake pipe is fitted with strainer screens, filled with pulled, curled hair. The design of the mesh of these screens, and the arrangement of the absorbent is such that all dust, and foreign matter is stopped before it reaches the cylinder. After passing the suction valves, the air flows through ports into the cylinders. On the return stroke of the pistons the air is forced through the discharge ports, past the discharge valves, and from thence to the discharge pipe. The suction and discharge valves are made of hard, cold drawn tubular steel, and are easily accessible, and removable. By unscrewing the valve caps 32 on top of the cylinder head, all valves are accessible. The valves being seated by gravity, springs are unnecessary. The complete trunk pistons 18 (see Fig. 52) are fitted with carefully ground piston packing rings 19. When dismantling the pump, each ring should be used with the piston on which it was originally fitted. The piston wrist pins 21, on which the tail end of the connecting rods work, are of hard- ened, carefully ground steel, and are held in place by the set-screw 22. Working on them is the bronze bush- ing 76 (Fig. 50) in the connecting rod 23. The lin- ing of the crank under the connecting rod is a special quality of babbitt metal, and is hinged at its lower end, and fastened by an eyebolt 26, at the upper end. The thin steel shims 27 are removable, so that as the bearinz wears the strap may be tightened on the others, and locked with a jam nut. It is very essential that the shaft should rotate with the compression part of the stroke on the upper half of the revolution or in a clock-wise direc- tion, when viewed from the gear end. The crank shaft 12 (Fig. 52) is of special grade steel, liberally propor- THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 101 tioned with large size outside caps 2 and 3, of lumen. Bushings 4 and 5 run through the center. The lubri- cation of all these parts is effected by a bath of oil with which the crank case is filled through the screw plug 6 (Fig. 49), which is fitted with a handle. The gear 17 (Fig. 52) on the overhanging end of the crank shaft is made of a special high carbon steel, and is constructed of two halves, which are solidly riveted together, thus constituting the very efficient herringbone type of gear. It is driven onto the shaft over a square key, and rigidly fastened by a large nut. THE MOTOR. The motor is a four-pole enclosed series wound type, provided with a cast steel housing 50 (see Fig. 49), made in one piece, and fitted with hinged doors over the com- mutator end, which give easy and quick access to the brushes and commutator. The hinged door 54 (Fig. 50) covers the opening tightly, and thoroughly excludes dust or rain. The armature bearings rest on supports 41 at each end of the frame, and are provided with oil wells, so arranged that flooding the interior of the motor with oil is impossible. The armature bearings 61 and 62 are amply dimensioned east iron shells, ined with high grade lumen metal, and fastened with dowel pins 44. Two oil rings are used on each bearing, which gives positive as- surance that the bearing will be lubricated as long as there is any oil in the well. An overflow pipe 47, at the pinion end of the bearing, extends to the bottom of the crank case, and absolutely prevents any of the gear oil which might escape from the pinion bearing from flooding the motor. The four field poles are a part of 102 ELECTRIC RAILROADING the frame 50, two being arranged in a horizontal plane in order to reduce the height of the compressor. The field coils are clamped in position by clamp bolts 52 pro- vided with a nut.. The armature is built up of soft steel Ss) SN y idan. Lddddddnn Kee Sn cr eee Ly CSILISILELLUTETEEELELILOLEELELOLLLESELESSESEEOLEDILEEODEELEEEELD Dee N Ug IS WA SSSIoy CLL Liddddddldeda TS = Wi ‘La | = S t/ = pl rv, Se f a?) : MARAT Ss G~ Ao ty kz al aaeee. ; a 7 — i Ee SSS SSS SK di K\ Fig. 52. Sectional Diagram of Compressor Base. laminations 87 (see Fig. 51) with carefully punched slots in which are laid uniformly proportioned, machine wound coils. The commutator bars 100 are deep, and long and are amply insulated from each other by hich grade mica segments 99. Much care is bestowed upon THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 103 the support of the leads from the coils to the ecommu- tator bars. This support consists of an insulating ring resting on the commutator sleeve 93. The end portions of the coils are also banded with piano wire 91, over in- sulation tape to safeguard them from damage due to centrifugal foree. The two brush holders 72 (Fig. 53) are supported on the adjustable cast iron yoke 105. They are of cast brass, and are held in place by the hexagonal) nuts 109 and 110, and threaded to the body of the holder. The brush holders are well insulated from the yoke by a shield 113, cap screw 120, and washers 114 and 115. The carbon brushes 73 fit in machined guides, and are maintained in contact with the commutator by coiled steel tension springs 111, which keep a uniform tension throughout the life of the brush. As all of these com- pressors are primarily intended for operating electric railway brakes, they must be operated intermittently, and even then a limit is imposed upon the length of time they can be safely run, due to temperature rise in the motor. The maximum continuous run which is ad- visable to operate them is given in the following table: PRESSURE OPERATION REST 130 lbs. 10 minutes 20 minutes 100 Ibs. 15 minutes 15 minutes 65 \bs. 15 minutes 15 minutes 20 lbs. 25 minutes 5 minutes This table will serve as a good guide for the operation of ordinary railway compressors in average service, and shows the maximum continuous run which is recom- mended for compressors operating at various pressures, and the interval of rest required. 104 ELECTRIC RAILROADING For use on single truck cars the National Brake & Electric Company has developed and manufactured a very compact and conveniently installed type of com- pressor termed the A-2 type (shown in Fig. 41), which has a capacity of 11 cubic feet of free air per minute, and which is constructed of the same high grade mate- rials and with the same care in workmanship as those of larger output. Fig. 53. Brush Holder and Parts. The essential differences in design of the A-2 com- pressor and the A-4, and the various other types of larger capacity, are a modified form of air pump base, and such an arrangement of the gear case, as to greatly reduce the height of the compressor. The motor is of the open, instead of the enclosed type, which feature contributes toward making it of lower height than the compressors of larger capacity. These alterations in de- sign over Standard types were made for the purpose of producing a compressor which could readily, and conveniently, be placed under a car seat with the gov- THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE o> Sy es, ro i 1 aS - uw ez ni i) i Ml gs pore No " i a ) ari Bannan \\ AY, IR NW WA \ wv! | bl | ot) " d Np BI) ie 105 Single Truck Car Equipment with A-2 Compressor. Fig. 54. 106 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ernor. The arrangement and sequence of the parts of an equipment in which the A-2 compressor is used, is clearly shown in Fig. 54. The motor compressor 1 is lo- cated under the car seat near the door, and almost di- rectly over the reservoir 2. In this position the com- pressor is fully protected from dust, dirt and the weather and the motor therefore requires no enclosing ease, which would be a detriment as it would prevent the free radiation of the heat which is generated by the motor, as well as interfere with the quick and easy in- spection of the commutator, brushes and other parts. The governor 3, which is of the standard oil-pneumatic type, is located in close proximity to the compressor, and immediately over the reservoir, its position being quite advantageous as the temperature of the air near the compressor is always closely uniform. The motorman’s valve 4 and the gauge 5, which are the standard National Types as described in following pages, are arranged directly in the cab and take up very little space. The brake cylinder 6 is also of the stan- dard type and placed in the usual position. The piping connections to the several parts of the equipment are shown in dotted outline, and are self-explanatory. PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR. The exacting conditions to which electric railway ap- paratus is subjected in these modern times necessitates the use of equipment that will render efficient service, but said equipment must be reliable and free from break- downs. The reliable and efficient operation of motor driven air brake machinery depends in a large meas- ure upon the reliability of the governing unit, which THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE LOT automatically maintains, or should maintain, a constant supply of compressed air at the required pressure. Some of the requirements of a trustworthy governor are, first, that it may be relied upon; second. that it be prompt. Governor Complete. Fig. 55. and entirely automatic in its action; third, that its de- sign and construction be such that it will operate for long periods without requiring attention or repairs. Fig. 5. shows a view of the oil pneumatic governor with 108 ELECTRIC RAILROADING which the National Brake & Electric Company’s motor compressor is equipped. Fig. 56 shows the governor with Cover Removed. 06. Governor Fis, with the cover removed, and Figs. 57 and 58 are sec- tional views showing in detail the working parts of the device. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 109 im 9 CONSTRUCTION OF TYPE Ni OIL-PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR. Referring to Figs. 57 and 58, 1 is the complete base of containing case into which are cast the keyways for 42 3 a = 3 S 14 3 24 pal LITE al 6b} ian ae Pr: ee a Fig. 57. Section of Governor. Type N. fastening the forward end of the extension spring 21 and the contact arm stops. The containing case is fitted with a paper gasket 42, and the cover 5 and is screwed to Fig. 58. Governor with Cover Removed. Sectional Diagram of Type “N” Governor. lugs by means of screws 23. The piston 12 is equipped with double cups or gaskets 24, made of a special com- position material which is not affected by oil. The cylin- 110 ELECTRIC RAILROADING der head 4 is screwed in position by screws 22. The piston 12 works in the air chamber guided by 3 on the opposite end of the piston rod which is securely screwed to base 1. The piston 12 with the packing rings 13 is held in position by a screw 16. The packing rings 13 are of a special design which allow no escape of air around the sides of the piston but at the same time per- mit the piston to move freely in the cylinder. 14 and 15 are piston followers. The piston rod carries the op- erating spring 21 and a spring adjusting yoke or collar 19 at its forward end to which the controlling spring. is secured. The adjusting yoke is provided with a washer 20, the tension of the spring being adjusted by turning the hexagonal nut 19. The cylinder end of the spring is held in the containing box by the two keyways referred to above. These keys are shaped in such a way that the spring is held very rigidly; this makes a neat, substan- tial and strong method of supporting the spring. The cylinder is tapped directly to the reservoir so that the piston is always subjected to reservoir pressure, and no waste of air can occur. The spring used is of large diameter and made of special heavy wire carefully tempered, and will withstand any strains likely to occur without becoming weakened. The piston rod is threaded at its lower end to receive the adjusting nuts 17 for varying the range between minimum and maximum pressures. Double nuts are used so that by holding one, and screwing the other the pressure between the two securely locks them together. These adjusting nuts are made round instead of square and are adjusted by means of a spanner wrench which militates against the tempta- tion of a motorman with a monkey wrench, to tamper with the adjustment which the master mechanic has made. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 111 A trip hammer of the ‘‘kodak shutter’’ type and made of brass, is pivoted on a post 37 between the adjusting Governor Disassembled. Seiad Type Fig. 59. nuts, its function being to trip the switch arm to open and close the electric circuit. The trip hammer mechan- 112 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ism which actuates the switch arm is accelerated by the action of the spring 29 supported on a pin 25 and fas- tened at one end by means of the pin guide 30 secured at the trip hammer end by means of a movable metallic block, or eccentric device working between parallel jaws east as an integral part of the trip hammer. The other end is secured to the wall of the containing case by means of toggle pin 26 which fits in lugs cast into the governor case. A smaller, shorter spring 28 of one- eighth the power of the trip hammer accelerating spring, and separated by distance piece 27 from the former, pre- vents vibration of the switch arm when the circuit is open. The method of supporting this spring is identical with that of the accelerating spring. The switch arm 18 is made of a special insulating ma- terial which experience has proven to be the most effective, and durable insulating material for air brake service, especially high tension brake work. Being always under oil, no deterioration of the insulating material can occur. The motion of the switch arm in either direc- tion is lhmited by two stops cast into the end of the governor case. The moving switch blade contacts 39 are of heavy square shaped phosphor bronze, and are adjusted by means of screws 43 and adjusting plate 41 so that the area of ‘‘wiping contact’’ may be increased or decreased as may be required. The stationary electric contacts 10 are heavy, square shaped plugs, and are insulated from the governor containing case by means of the heavy in- sulating bushings 32. Short-cireuiting between station- ary contacts and ease is therefore impossible. The ar- rangement of the supporting screws for the stationary contact is such that they can be easily turned over to THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 113 present a new contact for the switch blade if the ocea- sion should ever arise, which will be rare. The two ter- minals for the electrical connections are placed on the side of the governor case, and are thoroughly insulated from each other and the containing case by means of a thick fibre block 31, which eliminates all danger of short circuiting. The two terminals can be either trolley or motor connection, respectively, without in any way affect- ing the operation of the governor, hence there is no possi- bility of making a wrong connection. The terminals are protected from interference, and danger of contact by means of the rectangular metal cover 2 screwed to the governor case. The leads from the motor cireuit are run through insulated holes, made either in the top or the bot- tom of this cover. INSTALLATION. A good location for the governor is under a car seat, inside the car, and as directly over the reservoir as pos- sible. Connect the governor as directly to the reservoir as possible, so that pulsations in the air pressure, on ac- eount of the operation of the compressor, or a drop of pressure in the pipe leading from the reservoir, may be avoided as much as possible. The connecting pipe should be as short as possible; should have a downward slope towards the reservoir, and be free from pockets where moisture might collect and freeze. See that the terminals are in good condition, and that the electrical circuit is continuous before putting the cover in position. The governor ease should be filled to within one-fourth of an inch of the top. Use any good mineral oil having 114 ELECTRIC RAILROADING a high flash test, and a low freezing point. Do not use kerosene or animal oil. Serew the cover down tight be- fore putting the governor in service. OPERATION. The Type N Governor is equally well adapted for operation by direct, or alternating current, and its per- formance is not affected in any wise by variations of voltage. The operation of the governor is also entirely independent of gravity or outside forces. When the compressor is operating and the air pressure increases, the force of the piston at once begins to expand the operating spring. As the pressure is increased towards a maximum, the upper adjusting nut forces the project- ing end of the trip hammer over its center causing it, with the assistance of the accelerating spring, to deliver a quick blow to the switch arm which immediately knocks it out of contact and opens the circuit. The are which follows is instantly suppressed by the oil. The pressure at which the governor cuts in is regu- lated by the extension spring, which is adjusted for the desired pressure by screwing the hexagonal spring nuts on the spindle. Screwing the nuts forward on the spin- dle increases the tension of the spring and requires a higher air pressure for actuating the governor. By mov- ing the nuts towards the piston, the tension of the spring is decreased, and a lower pressure on the piston will cut in the switch arm. As the pressure approaches a maximum the two nuts on the piston side of the toggle regulate the range of its movement. The two corresponding nuts on the opposite side of the toggle also limit its movement as the pressure THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 115 approaches a minimum. ‘These two sets of double nuts are merely two points for varying the time limit, in which maximum, and minimum pressure will be attained. The desired adjustment is effected by moving the nuts until the gauge indicates the required limits. - 2 sp i A. Pry te ra pS re -—-— le ue * 4 aaa 12 5 ene a "sg Motorman’s VALVE ExHaust FLATHEAD SCREW USED ON TRAILER ONLY HOLE OPEN RESERVOIR PIPE N GA IIIS SN WHEN USED ON MOTOR CAR ~~ _# i Sy TRaAINPiPe jin, iilliililliltttl Tx i iy FF SSSNNNNNANNAAN | LiL NAN RR RNR I NY EMERGENCY PIPE RUNNING POSITION MoTorRman’s VALVE MoToRMAN'S VALVE EXHAUST We MANE RESERVOIR RESeRvoiR Pipe eS SS SS RESe evan LEE Se RESERVOIR: — ‘a G ANANANAAANANARARARRANY SHINN WMI ft, Yfffr. NS j, SSN OD RSV 3 aa SS AUXILIARY == = | ceeeallete a ts [ae | ee TEES RESERVOIR ae ee ee eee Se ee eS SS os ——————————————— p> 2 RSS ETEINY ee see enn ot ge ap eee es E é —— = = == == —_— a ae LILLIES BRAKE CYLINDER EMERGENCY PIPE EmMERGENCY Piee SERVICE POSITION Note :—To release after an emergency appli- EMERGENCY POSITION. ExPLaANaTioNn of TINTS (_____] AtmosPHERE () Main Resegvoin & TRAIN Pipe E mercency & Auxiliary MESERVO! cation throw handle to emergency position to equalize main reservoir and emergency pipe. Then throw handle to release position. Fic. 83. Diagram of National Emergency Valve Showing Valve in Running, Service and Emergency Positions. —> To ATmMosPHERE THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 105 the motorman’s valve. The motorman’s valve is pro- vided with notches which indicate the position of the handle for the various operations of the valve. While it is a comparatively simple matter for a novice, by pay- Me il ‘i c Ee Fig. 84. Sectional View of Conductor’s Valve. ing attention to the notches, to operate the brakes after a fashion, quick, accurate and agreeable stops are only made after some practice. The personal equation enters so largely into the problem of operating brakes prop- 156 ELECTRIC RAILROADING erly and efficiently, that it is impossible for any consid- erable number of motormen to obtain equal results at the start. The practice which a careless or indifferent mo- torman may get into of ‘‘fanning’’ the brake handle is a pernicious habit and wastes air excessively, besides causing unnecessary wear and tear on the trucks and all other parts of the equipment. The operating valve handle must always be inserted at ‘‘lap’’ position, which is readily apparent from the enlargement of the slot in the top plate for that purpose, and withdrawn at the same position, when changing from one end of the car to the other; moving the operating handle to ‘‘lap’’ position causes the ports of the valve to be so connected that air can neither be admitted to or discharged from the brake cylinder. By turning the handle to the extreme left the valve is placed in ‘‘full release’’?; moving the handle to the right as far as the small notch opens the small port, and a further movement to the right opens the large port. A large quantity of compressed air will issue from a very small opening in a short interval of time, hence to apply the brakes lightly throw the handle to the small notch and immediately move it back to “‘lap’’ position. The air previously admitted to the brake cylinder is re- tained, thus keeping the brakes applied. Partial release of the brakes is effected by moving the handle to ‘‘release position’’ and quickly returning it to ‘‘lap,’’ which per- mits a portion of the air to be exhausted, reducing the pressure in the cylinder. To secure the quickest possible stop, the maximum pressure which will not cause skidding of the wheels should be applied throughout the stop, and the greater the speed the greater the pressure that may be applied THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE Lor without causing skidding. The coefficient of friction of brake shoes upon wheels varies from .27 at five miles per hour to about .10 at 60 miles per hour, hence to produce the same retarding effect at 60 miles per hour, about three times the pressure should be applied to the shoes at the higher speed, as could be safely applied at the lower speed. It follows generally that to stop a ear quickly, full operating pressure should be applied instantly, and graa- ually released as the car decelerates. A smooth and easy stop will also be produced by this method, as the sudden checking of speed which jostles passengers is prevented. To effect a ‘‘service stop,’’ therefore, admit from 20 to 30 pounds of air pressure at once when commencing to stop, by partially opening the large port, and release it slowly step by step as the speed falls, retaining about ten or twelve pounds in the cylinder, until the car comes to a full stop. After a short experience a motorman will learn to gauge the distance necessary in which to effect a stop from a given speed, and thus make a smooth and agreeable stop with but one application of the brakes. An intermittent series of applications and releases while making a stop produces an annoying motion of the ear, wastes air excessively and is in every sense bad practice. In making an ‘‘emergency stop’’ apply full pressure, usually 60 pounds, at once, regardless of whether the controller is turned off, then apply sand and slightly release the pressure as the car decelerates. When the signal to start the car forward is received the handle should be moved to ‘‘release’’ position before power is applied to the car motors. A very common error with beginners is to apply the brakes too strong on commencing to descend a grade. On account of the mo- 158 ELECTRIC RAILROADING mentum of the car, and a certain mechanical inertia inherent in braking systems, the car will not instantly take the desired speed; apply the brakes lightly at first, keep the handle on ‘‘lap’’ notch, and wait a little for the speed to be checked. If then the car fails to slow up, admit a trifle more air and if the grade is long, continue the operation (if necessary) until off the grade. In putting a car in the barn or leaving same, the hand brake should always be set up to prevent persons from meddling with cut-out cocks. In taking a car from the barn first see that all the cocks are accurately set, and that there is sufficient air in the reservoir. Place the handle of the operating valve in position and move it around to ‘‘emergency,’’ then back to ‘‘release’’ to be sure that it works freely. To feel sure that wrong con- nections have not been made, test the brakes for opera- tion both in “‘service’’ and ‘‘emergenecy’’ positions; if these tests are satisfactory, and the proper pressure is supplied to the brakes, they may be depended upon to work properly. MAKING UP TRAILERS. In making up trains much care must be exercised in connecting hose couplings, so that there will be no escape of air. Open all cut-out cocks, excepting those on the rear of the last car and on the front of the motor ear. These must be closed. Before uncoupling the ears, close the cocks, and dis- connect the hose before taking out the drawbar pin. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 159 PISTON TRAVEL. In air brake practice there are several terms used in connection with the travel of the piston: 1. The Stand- ing Travel is the distance the piston is forced outward in setting the brakes upon a car at rest. 2. Running Travel is the length or distance.the piston is forced out when the brakes are set upon a moving car. The running travel always exceeds the standing travel on account of the flexibility in brasses, the downward pull of the shoes upon the wheels, the play between boxes and pedestals, and to all the various factors which act to increase the lost motion in the brake rigging under the action of the car motion. Running travel is generally about 114 inches greater than standing travel. 3. False Travel is an abnormal length of piston travel caused temporarily by faults in track construction, or other un- usual stresses which may occur when the ear is in motion. The effect of a short piston travel is to cause a greater brake cylinder pressure, with a given reduction in train pipe pressure; for instance, a 15-pound reduction in train pipe pressure gives a brake cylinder pressure about 40% higher with a 5-inech than with a 10-inch piston travel. To adjust piston travel so that there will be a very uniform setting of the brakes on each ear, it is necessary to employ an automatic slack adjuster. When this de- vice is not employed, the best practice is to make the standing piston travel six inches. Uniformity of piston travel upon the several cars in a train is of highest importance. Excessive length of piston travel causes a reduction in the brake cylinder pressure, with a proportionate lowering of efficiency. 160 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Moreover, a greater consumption of air is brought about, which necessitates more frequent action of the com- pressor, and hence increased wear and strains. Exceed- ingly short length of piston travel will result in a drag- ging action of the brake shoes upon the wheels when the brakes are released; also there is danger of excessive - brake cylinder pressure, which causes skidding of the wheels when the brakes are set. A correct piston travel is obtained when there is just enough brake shoe clearance on release of the brakes. This length of travel is ordinarily six inches, as pre- viously stated. THE ENERGY CONSUMED IN BRAKING. The amount of energy stored in a moving train which must be dissipated by the brakes, is sometimes. quite large. The kinetic energy of a moving body is repre- sented by the equation E=14 M.V.2.. Where E =the energy expressed in foot pounds, that is the number of pounds raised one foot in one minute. M =the mass of the train (its weight in pounds) or wg where g== the acceleration due to gravity, which is 32.2 feet per second. V = velocity in feet per second. Miles per hour * 1.47 =the feet per second. To absorb this energy and bring a moving train to a stop, it is necessary to exert a force f over a distance d, which is expressed as e== p X d where p = pounds pres- sure applied to the brakes, d= distance in feet passed over before the speed becomes nil. If we substitute for m in the preceding equation its equivalent a both equations become equal to each other. g THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 161 Ww v2 2 ¢ f. Example :—A 40-ton car must be stopped from a maximum speed of 30 miles per hour on a perfectly straight track. In what distance will it come to a stop if the train resistance due to friction, wind pressure, etc., is 20 pounds per ton and the braking force applied is 280 pounds per ton? 40 2000 (801.47)? 2X 32.2300 40 Therefore, D = D= —268 feet. NATIONAL A. C. D. C. AIR BRAKE APPARATUS. The advent of the single phase electric railway system, and the adoption by numerous electrified sections of ex- isting steam railroads of single phase alternating current as motive power has necessitated radical changes from former standards in the car and other equipment, in- cluding the air brake apparatus, more specifically the motor compressor and the governor for same. The present tendency toward operating the interurban lines on single phase circuits, and running the cars into the heart of the city over the direct current city lines necessitates the building of apparatus of such design and construction as permits of its operation on both the di- rect, and alternating current circuits. The fundamental characteristics to be taken into consideration in design- ing single phase air brake apparatus are high efficiency, serviceability, and absolute reliability and freedom from breakdown at all times. To meet the exacting conditions of service required by modern high speed single phase electric railway operation the National Brake & Electric 162 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ~ 7] watssew i asivray 6} | econ tame | ot i | is =U} ae SNYWYeOLOW i 1 % HOLIMS ©) "18D IOWOW AOJ JUOWdINDY oyeI_G Jy SITES “4s “SIA MT RPO Ly) rad T BAwA A AEiNO Fs aay SNYWYOLOW Be — a ‘did yi wior~y3scIy adla NIVYL Biv AN DIV MLS YyOSs3J4¥sawo? ——————— (0) HOLLINS . THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 163 Company has developed and perfected a class of ap- paratus that compares most favorably in all respects with its well known direct current air brake equipment. THE COMPRESSOR. The A. C. D. C. type of motor compressor manufac- tured by this company is the result of years of serious study, careful experimental work, and a thorough and intimate knowledge of the conditions and requirements of the electric railway braking art in its present day state of perfection. The compressor, in general appearance, resembles closely the company’s standard direct current machine, and is also of the entirely closed type, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 74. The motor and compressor are two distinct and separate units, and either one may be replaced without in any way interfering with the opera- tion of the other. The compressor proper, or air pump, is of exactly the same design and construction as that already described, and the instructions for inspection and maintenance already given (relating to the compressor and not to the motor) also apply to it. The capacity of this type of compressor is 25 eubie feet of free air per minute. The motor is of the four-pole commutator type, with two consequent poles, and is designed for operation on voltages ranging from 500 to 600 volts direct current circuit, and on voltages ranging from 280 to 340 volts alternating current 25 cycle single phase circuit. The motor has two distinct field windings, one for alternating eurrent and one for direct current. Laminated sheet steel pole pieces are used. The pole faces are provided 164 ELECTRIC RAILROADING with a compensating winding, which consists of four separate coils, which are short-circuited upon themselves. The motor frame consists of three parts, the motor base, the magnet frame and the motor cover. The motor cover is bolted to both the magnet frame and motor base. The Fig. 86. A.C. D. C. Compressor. Type BB-2. magnet frame is bolted to the motor base, and held in position by four cap screws, and is adjusted centrally with the armature, with reference to its vertical posi- tion, by means of shims, and laterally by means of ad- justing screws. The armature may be removed by taking off the motor cover, and removing the bearing cap, and cap screws which hold the magnet frame to the motor base, then lft the magnet frame and armature away from the base. The armature can then be taken out of the magnet frame THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 165 with ease. Fig. 87 shows the compressor partly dis- mantled and the armature removed from the magnet frame. The field coils are removed by first removing the armature, and then taking out the four cap screws that hold the pole piece on to the magnet frame. The pole piece can then be pushed in towards the center line of the shaft far enough to permit the field being removed. This can be done without disconnecting the compensat- Big, 87.4 A. C).D:..C. Compressor Partly Dismantled. ing winding, as the latter is flexible and can be bent as the coil is pushed inward or back into place. So long as the adjusting shims and set screws are not disturbed the magnet frame can be put back into its original posi- tion without any further adjustment. The commutator is of high commercial quality hard- drawn lake copper, well proportioned and well insulated, 166 ELECTRIC RAILROADING with a liberal wearing depth and is designed for severe service. The brush gear is of the same distinctive construction as that used on the National direct current compressors, and differs from same mainly in the manner of fastening, and the number of brushes. The brush gear proper is securely fastened to a cast iron yoke made in two halves, which is secured in a groove running entirely around a projection of the armature bearing at the commutator end of the motor. Two sets of brush holders of two brushes each are used. The holders are fitted with an improved spring tension device, which is constant over a wide range of variation, and is also capable of an easy and correct adjustment. The very liberal insulation of this brush gear gives it a maximum protection against insulation troubles, as may be seen by the fact that the external leakage sur- face of this insulation is 114 inches. The inspection of the armature, commutator and brushes is rendered an easy and quick process by means of the inspection doors at the sides of the motor casing. METHOD OF STARTING COMPRESSOR. The compressor is started by throwing it directly on the full voltage, either alternating or direct current. A relay is provided for automatically making the connec- tions for running the motor either on alternating or di- reet current circuits, and is shown in Figs. 88 and 89. When the direct current circuit is closed the necessary connections for direct current operation are made by the solenoids of the relay attracting plungers to which are secured the contact pieces. When operating on the alter- THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 167 nating current circuit these solenoids are not in circuit, and the contact carrier drops by its own weight and makes the necessary connections for operating on alter- nating current. The relay is entirely enclosed and is, therefore, protected from the elements. A diagram of connections is supplied with each compressor and relay, and the leads are all tagged so that no wrong connec- tions need be made. Fig. 88. Relay Complete. METHOD OF SUSPENSION. The compressor is suspended in a cradle under the car body in the same manner as shown in Fig. 38. This method of suspension allows the entire pump to be ex- posed to the cooling effect of the air at all times, and 168 ELECTRIC RAILROADING none of the parts of the suspension cradle obstruct the access to all parts of the compressor. The relay is mounted under the ear body with the compressor. Fig. 89. Relay Without Cover. The standard type ‘‘N’’ Oil Pneumatic Governor is furnished in connection with National A. C. D. C. Air Brake Equipments, and will operate equally as well on either direct or alternating current circuits. THE CHRISTENSEN AIR BRAKE. The Christensen air brake, while essentially a straight air brake system, may, like the National air brake, be made to operate automatically by the addition of the type J emergency valve. The Christensen air brake is manu- factured by Allis-Chalmers Company, of Milwaukee, Wis., and resembles in nearly every respect the National air brake. The Christensen motor compressors are classi- fied under the following heading: Type AAI, AA4, B2, C3, and D4. Figures 90 and 91 show end and side views of type AA4 compressor, and the following table gives dimensions, capacities, and other data relating to the different types of compressors : 169 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 170 SI9T | LOST | 84h3 Goal 2 SS te at oT 0G G’6 0g ost | FX%8| Fd SOST OTOL) €o1 *1hS. | GS | 1) oT GT L Gg OLT PX5¢1,| $-0 os6 | 008 | #102! 22 | 478s | % | % OT p 0Z GL 8x9] o-d GIy, | 009 | 3416+! S ae = (7: wv 4 a ail nS Py A new 5: yh oll Ae _ Ay ~ rhea ah j nee QO Ds Y w —s 91 = BIG 2 DIAGRAM OF PIPING CONNECTIONS CHRISTENSEN STRAIGE AIR BRAKE. - ? THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE Lis oil in the casing. The reservoir communicates with the gear case, carrying oil up to the pinion on the armature shaft. | “HY? Governor, Christensen Air Brake. Type Fig. 93. In the cylinder heads the suction and discharge valves, of material and construction particularly adapted to the service required, work independently of each other. No ELECTRIC RAILROADING 174 ‘ayRIg Iry uwsesusIsIIyO epIs) JOUIAAO*) em od4y, ” THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 175 springs are used in connection with these valves, which are seated by gravity and can be changed about, at need, providing the seats have worn equally. The cylinder head, valves, pinion or gear may be removed, at any time, without disturbing the other parts. MAIN RESERVOIR. The air, as fast as compressed, passes into a suitable reservoir (of seamless, cold-drawn steel), where its volume is kept within proper limits by means of an auto- matic governor regulating the supply. AUTOMATIC GOVERNOR. The governor (Figs. 93, 94 and 95), which starts and stops the compressor, consists of an ordinary pressure gauge mechanism with a special hand. Its operation is very simple, as follows: When the hand comes in con- tact with a small stud at the position of minimum pres- sure, it allows the current to flow through a magnet coil. A plunger to which the contact pieces for the motor cir- cult are attached is operated by the magnet coil, thus closing the circuit and starting the motor. When the pressure reaches the desired maximum, the hand strikes another small stud, thereby causing the current to pass through a second magnet. As soon as this magnet is electrified the plunger is impelled in the opposite direc- tion and opens the motor circuit. ELECTRIC RAILROADING 176 ‘eNeAg ITV UISU9}SIIYD ‘(MOIA OPIS) JOUIBAODD EG OdAL ‘GE ‘BIA THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 177 THE ENGINEER’S BRAKE VALVE. The engineer’s valve, by means of which compressed air is admitted from the main reservoir to the brake cylinder, and thence discharged into the atmosphere, ai, =2=7g of = 17 9 ay) Ci Fig. 96. Rotary Valve Type, Engineer’s Brake Valve, Christensen Air Brake. has been very carefully designed, so as to enable the motorman to manipulate it in a manner to secure the best possible results with the least consumption of air, also to make his stops without shock or jar. 178 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ‘This valve is furnished in either the rotary plug type, or as a slide valve. Figure 96 is a sectional view of the rotary valve, and the numbers in the following description correspond to those in the drawing: STRAIGHT AIR ENGINEER’S VALVE. Rotary Type, 14-inch, 34-inch, 1-inch. PARTS. 1. Base for rotary type. 2. Seat for rotary type. 3. Valve top for rotary type. 4. Valve for rotary type. 5. Valve stem for rotary type. TonUmonsnau 8. Ferrule. 9. Pipe gasket. 10. Seat gasket for rotary type. 11. Latch. 12. Latch spring. 13. Stem spring. 14. Tee bolt and nut. 15. Handle complete. 16. . Guard. 17. Serew for oil hole. 18. Screw for guard, per dozen. 19. Rotary valve, complete, less handle. Figure 97 is a sectional elevation of the slide valve type of engineer’s brake valve, the parts being num- bered and described as follows: THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 179 Dr sassssasEeneeasen I NAYS [a N \ GV \ B- = Fig. 97. Slide Valve Type, Engineer’s Brake Valve, Christensen Air Brake. SLIDE TYPE. 14-inch, 34-inch, 1-inch. PARTS. 7. Union nut. 8. Ferrule. 9. Pipe gasket. 180 ELECTRIC RAILROADING TS eDaten: 12. Latch spring. 13. Stem spring. 14.. Tee bolt and nut. 15. Handle complete. 16. Guard. 17. Screw for oil hole. 18. Serew for guard. 19. Base for slide type. 20. Seat for slide type.. 21. Valve top for slide type. 22. Valve for slide type. 23. Valve stem for slide type. 24. Seat gasket for slide type. 20. Auxiliary slide for slide type. 26. Slide valve, complete, less handle. _ AIR GAUGE. An air gauge is mounted near the engineer’s valve in such a position as to be easily observed by the motorman. BRAKE CYLINDERS. When the brakes neéd to be operated, air from the main reservoir is admitted, through the engineer’s valve, to the brake cylinder, which applies pressure to the shoes and thence to the wheels by means of suitable leverage mechanism. The brake cylinder is provided with a loose piston rod so arranged that when the hand brakes, and not the air brakes, are used the loose piston rod only is moved. we THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 181 The pipe in which it slides is. fixed to the piston of the brake cylinder, which is held in release position by a spring. Fig. 98. Pneumatic Governor. PIPING. The necessary piping consists of two sections, viz. : the reservoir pipe, connecting the main reservoir with the engineer’s valve, and the train pipe leading from that valve, which runs the entire length of the car or 182 ELECTRIC RAILROADING train, hose couplings being used between cars. A stop eock at each end prevents the escape of air, when the opening is exposed. Fig. 99. Pneumatic Governor—Case. TYPE ‘‘OB’’ PNEUMATIC GOVERNOR. It is, of course, a recognized fact that the reliable operation of an air brake equipment depends largely upon the governor, which, by automatically controlling the compressor, maintains the supply of air at any pres- sure required. The type ‘‘OB’’ pneumatic governor furnished with the Christensen motor compressor, a view of which is given in figure 98 is shown in section in figure 100. The main body, 1, contains a compression spring, 4, and piston, 3, upon which the air pressure acts. The THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 183 cap, 2, is machined to receive and secure the diaphragm, 5; it is bolted to the main body and tapped for pipe to connect to the main reservoir. The cap is so ar- — SO TO TROLLEY 4, ‘“ y G OLE ASO Wa, i N N AN N ‘ NY hy N WW A Wi YY SY WN ae Fig. 100. Details of Type “OB” Governor. (In reverse position from that shown by Fig. 98.) ranged that pipe connections may be brought from any side to the governor, which is in direct communication with the main reservoir, 184. ELECTRIC RAILROADING The diaphragm, 5, is made of pure rubber, specially prepared, insuring long life and flexibility, and avoid- ing the leaks that so commonly oceur where piston pack- _ ing rings, or leather gaskets are used. The piston and rod, 3, are made of steel. The compression spring, 4, which is inelosed within the main body, and well protected against tampering, acts upon the piston. The pressure is varied by adjustment of screws, 7, acting upon the spring washer, 6, whereby the spring may be compressed or relieved to suit requirements. The pis- ton rod end is so shaped as to engage with a trip hammer, 8, and moves this over the center position past the pivot point, 9. When the pressure in the cap chamber above the diaphragm increases, the piston, 3, is forced downward, compressing the spring, 4. The hammer, 8, being forced by the piston rod past the dead center, and aided by a spring, 13, in housing, 11, delivers a sharp blow to the yoke, 9, carrying the contact blades, 16, through which the circuit is opened and closed, which are made of bronze metal and well insulated, against short circuit or ground. The copper tips, 14, are quickly separated and the are completely extinguished ‘by the powerful magnetic field. These contact tips are of liberal area, presenting large radi- ating surface. A separating shield prevents any pos- sibility of the are jumping across when the circuit is broken. As the air pressure is reduced, the compressed spring, 4, at once commences to return to its former position; the piston rod, 3, again comes in contact with the trip hammer, 8, and reverses the movement of the latter; the yoke, 9, being carried over the center line of pivot point by the hammer, retuvns with a snap, aided by THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 185 springs 13 and 15, and eloses the circuit. This quick return is important, as it prevents arcing and gives a wiping effect to the contact tips. The yoke is firmly held in either position by the tension spring, 15, and, in addition, is securely locked by the trip hammer, 8. The quick brake mechanism is mounted upon a sub- stantial brass frame, 12, and securely fastened to the main body, 1. The blowout coil, 16, and chute, 20, are mounted upon an insulating block, 19, which in turn, is attached to the frame, 12. The small tension springs are protected by _ brass tubing, and are interchangeable, without affecting the accelerating action of the mechanism. The electric terminals, 22, are brought out through - the governor body and are well insulated by means of insulating bushings. They may be connected to either side of the line. All pins and moving parts are made of hard brass, thus preventing corrosion. No lubrication to moving parts is necessary. ‘The mechanism is protected against dust and water by a neat, light and strong cover, easily removable, which permits free access to_ the moving parts. gets The variation of maximum and minimum pressure is accomplished by the adjustment of set screws, 7. The governor may be set between the pressure of sixty-five and ninety-five pounds, with an operating margin of ten pounds. For example, the governor can be ad- justed to cut out at eighty-five pounds pressure, and it will automatically cut in and start the compressor when the pressure drops to seventy-five pounds. Care should be exercised in connecting the governor to the air reservoir. The piping must be earried 186 ELECTRIC RAILROADING directly from reservoir, and insulation coupling inserted in the line. The governor will operate successfully in any posi- tion, and can be mounted below the cars or under a car seat. It occupies a space of 12 inches in height, 7 inches in length and 514 inches in width. Figure 101 shows the various parts of this governor. Fig. 101. Parts of Pneumatic Governor. 1—Adjusting Screw. 11—Bolts. 2—Carrier Shaft. 12—Rubber Diaphragm. 3—Pins. 183—Diaphragm Cap. 4—Cap Screw. 14—Diaphragm Spring. 5—Spring Housing. 15—Carrier Frame. 6—Springs. 16—Plunger. 7—Nuts. 17—Magnetic Blowout. S—Knock-off. 18—Body. 9—Contact Carrier. 19—Cover, 10—Spring Washer, THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 187 TYPE ‘‘J’’ EMERGENCY VALVE. * The principal advantage of the straight air brake system lies in its simplicity and in the fact that the brakes may be applied and released gradually; but it has one serious defect, for, when two or more cars are Fig. 102. Emergency Valve and Supporting Bracket. run in a single train having this equipment, if the train should break apart, the brakes would not be applied automatically. Moreover, in the ordinary straight air system the control of the train is in the hands of the 188 ELECTRIC RAILROADING motorman alone, whereas with the automatic system the brakes can be applied by the conductor in ease of emer- gency from any one of the cars in the train. | : The Christensen Air Brake system has, like the ' National Air Brake, an emergency valve attachment, by the use of which, in connection with the straight air system, practically all of the advantages of the auto- matic system may be realized. The working parts of the emergency valve (type J) are few in number, consisting merely of a slide valve operated by a piston and a release spring moving in the air chamber. The train pipe is required as a part of the equipment only in cases where the motor car pulls trailers on which there is no controlling apparatus. Where two or more motor cars, or the motor and the trailer car are provided with a controlling device, no additional hose connections are required, as in such cases it is only necessary to connect all reservoirs by means of an auxiliary hose in addition to the one provided for the straight air brake train pipe. The manner of applying the straight air brake, when equipped with the emergency valve, remains unchanged, since there is an unobstructed opening between the straight air train pipe and the brake cylinders when the emergency valve is in released position. A passage between the main reservoir and the emer- gency line is provided to maintain, throughout the train, pressure in the latter equal to that in the main reservoir, while pressure is being raised in the main reservoir by the compressor. An additional orifice between the main reservoir and the emergency line, connecting the latter to the slide valve chamber, while being in direct communication with the auxiliary THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 189 reservoir, also keeps the auxiliary reservoir charged to the same pressure as the emergency line and main reservoir. CONSTRUCTION OF THE EMERGENCY VALVE. The Type J emergency valve, illustrated in detail in figures 103 and 104, consists of a cast iron body, 1, having a brass bushing with ports, 5, communicating FROM RESERVOIR On MOTOR CAR TO AUXILIARY RESERVOIR ON TRAILER CAR y Jes Sg. \ ae (2 oe aeee a ee a Sl CLLLLLLLLLLA LLL AMAL ee JR a a Se | 77_~ XK a ae LLL } a eZ TO BRAKE CYLINDER =e Ee RESERVOIR al Fig. 103. Valve in Running Position. with their respective pipe connections. The body is machined to receive the piston 3, and the slide valve, 4. A regulating spring, 6, is located inside of the piston chamber, resting against a compressing pin, 7, which in turn is secured by the cap, 8. 190 ELECTRIC. RAILROADING A suitable cap, 2, provided with a leather gasket, encloses the working parts. This cap is secured to the body by three bolts. All working parts are rendered easily accessible by removing the cap from the body. wy “> mI Wl a KKK = = Ve LLL LEE Slant LNCS Wh \ KKK met WN (vb (ee “ [10839 Ibs._8954 the, ‘of Car, Oss Aveerr. TU IJ} Foes Weignt op each Axle6250 lbs, Type 41 ft. 4 Motor Car Light Weight 37000 lbs. Total Average B, P. Service 131% Total Average B. P. in Ex ergency 190% Braking Power in Service Braking Power in Emergency No] Azle 17903 Iba, 398 ¥ 26001 Ibs, 280 No. 2and3 Axle 10839 + 117% : 157 No. 4Axle 8954 <« 95% 15 6 Cylinder Adds 45% Braking Power Fig. 126. Braking Data for 41-ft. Four-motor Car. 1661 lbs. O 849 Ibe 9550 lbe.\ ° 7 ——— 7889 Ibs. 4 8 x 12 Cyl. of Car i Aver. 70 lbs 2 3500 Ibs. Type 40 ft. 2 Motor Car Motors ov No. 2 and 8 Axel Light Weight 29500 lbs. Total Average B.P.107% F wt, Braking Power. No.1 Axle 5999 lbs. 7889 lbs, 181-% No. 2 and3 Azle be “ 99 «6 No.4 Axle Fig. 127. Braking Data for 40-ft. Two-motor Car. portions given in Figs. 125, 126 and 127 show that the increase of pressure is on the forward part of the car and is accompanied by a proportionate increase of transferred 236 ELECTRIC RAILROADING weight due to the high center of gravity, although at first glance the total braking power may appear too high. From the greater rail pressure of the front pair of wheels of the truck may be inferred a transfer of a part of the normal pressure from one pair of wheels to the other. As the transfer in weight from the rear to the front wheels of the truck will call for greater brake-shoe pressure on the front pair, the pressure on the rear pair must be reduced when applying the brake power in pro- portion to the difference in pressure caused by the shift- ing of the weight, otherwise the rear wheels are liable to become locked and skid. Figs. 125, 126 and 127 show the leverage and braking power of three different types of cars, which was deter- mined after a number of tests. One of these cars was a two-motor, and the other two were four-motor equip- ments of different weights, and the tests have reduced to a scientific truth the theory that the transfer of weight of a one-way car will increase the braking power, without additional operation expense. This increase in power varies with the height of center of gravity, truck centers and truck-wheel base. The two-motor equipment with one motor on each truck (Fig. 127) shows that the total average braking power is 107 per cent, and the brake efficiency on the drivers is not reduced by reason of the idlers. The 41- foot four-motor car, Fig. 126, shows that in every maxi- mum service application of the brake, a total average of 131 per cent is obtained, and a pressure of 193 per cent on No. 1 axle. When the 6-inch cylinder acts, a total of 190 per cent average is obtained, and the No. 1 axle rises to 280 per cent. Fig. 125 shows the 43-foot four-motor ear to have a total average braking power of 128 per THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 237 cent and has the highest proportion on the No. 1 axle, which is 207 per cent in maximum service application, as it does not possess the 6-inch emergency cylinder feature. The truck wheel bases are: Fig. 127, 4 feet 10 inches. Fig. 126, 4 feet. Fig. 125, 4 feet 9 inches. The highest permissible operating proportion on the No. 1 axle has not been reached in any of these eases, but the streneth of the truck frame permits carrying the pressure no higher at the top of dead lever. This high braking power cannot be on a two-way or double-end ear, as the limit of maximum power obtained up to the skidding point on the rear pair of wheels is about 95 per cent, which is the general practice for pas- senger cars for a 20 m.p.h. speed. DEAD LEVER. Many professionals otherwise well qualified in the maintenance and adjustment of existing brakes fail to grasp the function of the dead lever. As a rule shopmen think no more of lengthening or shortening this lever than they would of changing a brake rod. Nevertheless changing a dead lever changes the shoe pressure. Fig. 128 shows one-half of an inside hung brake rigging, the arrowheads show the directions in which a pull on rod AP will move the other lettered parts of rigging. As- suming a pull of 1,250 pounds on AP, shoe No. 1 will apply a force of (1,250 24/6), or 5,000 pounds. The bottom rod C D will be subjected to a thrust of (18x 1,250/6), or 3,750 pounds, which is the force applied to the lower end of the dead lever D X. Neglecting friction, 238 ELECTRIC RAILROADING the foree with which shoe No. 2 will be applied is then (3,750 24/18), or 5,000 pounds. Here the levers are proportioned alike, and the shoes subjected to equal pres- sure. Now suppose 6 inches to be cut from the top of the dead lever, all other dimensions remaining the same; the 3,750-pound force applied to its lower end will pro- duce for No. 2 shoe a pressure of (3,750X18/12), or 5,625 pounds, which is 12.5 per cent more than on No. 1 shoe. This is an excessive allowance for even an ex- cessive friction. Were the dead lever lengthened instead of shortened, a difference in the opposite direction would be secured. Tampering with the length of the dead lever is generally done either for convenience in anchor- ing its upper end, or because the upper end interferes with something else on the equipment. uo BR C Hise. 3D said Sram. ELECTRIC BRAKES. The basie principle of the electric brake lies in its em- ployment of the stored energy in a moving car to gen- erate the current by means of which the car is stopped, THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 239 thus performing this function irrespective of the power station. The motors are connected to act as dynamos by the use of the B type controllers, which are used for electric brakes. When a ear is to be brought to a stand- still with an electric brake, the current passing through a resistance actuates a magnetic friction disc mounted on each axle, and also retards the action of the motors. To stop the car the controller is moved to the ‘‘off’’ posi- tion, which disconnects the car from the cireuit. The handle is then moved to the special brake notches, which reverses the armature connections and connects the mo- tors so as to effect a closed circuit through a resistance and the brake disc magnets. The motors now generate the current, as the circuit being closed in this manner, they act as dynamos. This current causes the magnetic clutch on the axle to act and also retards the action of the motors, both of which oe- currences combined brings the car to a standstill. The Westinghouse Electric Brake is in the form of a track shoe which exerts both a downward pull—being held to the rail by its magnetism—and a horizontal drag. The shoe is magnetized by a winding energized by a cur- - rent which the car motors produce. The vertical pull downward, acting through rods and levers designed for the purpose, sets the ordinary brake shoes against the wheels. This style of brake requires special braking notches in order to connect the motors so that they will generate the current, and conduct it to the track-shoe magnets and also a resistance to take up the excess of energy required to operate the brake. Fig. 129 shows the construction of this brake. The electro-magnet which divides the brake shoe into two parts is made fast to the two push rods by pins and ELECTRIC RAILROADING 240 OW ‘oyRIg o1jouseyT jo uortONaAYsuOD a 526) rm Fi nT Hee i Ly Ory Tes Mid —e | AN ie \\_@ I] ae a til © ‘6ST “SI THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 241 is suspended by adjustable springs. The push rods are made fast to the lower ends of the brake levers by pins, and the brake levers are connected at their upper ex- tremities by an adjustable rod, and are secured by a pivot to the brake-shoe holders and hanger links at an intermediate point. The hanger links are suspended from the truck frame. When the track shoe moves to- wards the right, the lower end of the brake lever on that side is also pushed in that direction, which causes the brake shoe to press against the wheel. The same motion causes the upper end of the same brake lever to move to the left, pushing the adjustable rod and the upper end of the brake lever at the left, in the same direction, which forces the brake shoe against the wheel. To facilitate this movement the push rods are made to work telescop- ically, as there are stops provided on either side which prevent the lower ends of the brake levers from follow- ing the direction in which the brake shoe moves on the track. The principle applied in the construction of the mechanism is very simple—just the evolution or develop- ment of the motion described by a needle pivoted verti- eally to a plane. When the lower end moves in one di- rection, the upper end moves in the opposite. In this brake the motorman controls the attractive force of the rails upon the magnets up to a limit of 150 lbs. per square inch of brake shoe surface against rail surface. As the rail becomes the armature of the magnet, the strength of the latter is determined by the sectional area of the former. For very heavy cars a magnet of greater and sufficient strength is obtained by dividing the track shoe’ into three, instead of two parts, and winding it to form two electro magnets with a common pole, or a three pole magnet. This type of brake has two sets of resistances, 249 ELECTRIC RAILROADING one on the exterior, and one on the interior of the car; the interior ones being employed to heat the car, which is effected by means of the braking, and starting currents and the amount of heat used in the ear is regulated by combining the two sets of diverters in such manner as to supply the car with the heat it requires and permitting the surplus to escape. The construction of this brake may provide for a varia- tion in adjustment to increase the friction of the brake- shoe on the track rail. By changing the angular inelina- tion of the push rods, and adjusting the levers to corre- spond, a portion of the weight of the car can be thrown upon the track shoes, and inversely the pressure of the brake shoes upon the wheels reduced. This adjustment, by which the adhesion of the track shoe to the rail is in- ereased by weight of the car, is advantageous in wet weather, when the wheels have a tendency to slide, thus, to a certain extent, defeating the purpose of the brake shoe, as the force operating the wheel brake is reduced with the reduction of track magnet current, which de- elines with the speed when the car is being stopped. When the track magnet current is cut off, caused by the sliding, or cessation of wheel rotation, the pressure of the brake shoe upon the wheel relaxes, and the wheels resume their rotary motion. The Price-Darling electric brake (Figs. 180 and 131) is operated by the trolley current which is cut off from the ear motors by mechanism in the brake controller, de- signed for that purpose, and applied to the brake cyl- inders, the motors being converted into generators. The equipment for this brake consists principally of two brake controllers located on the platforms, an electro- magnetic brake cylinder, and an automatic controller and transfer switch under the car. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 243 we > To truck / || 2 at So Release Cylinder Automatic Controller tenner eer ete eee eee a we i See re 2 244 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The brake cylinder is a solenoid with a movable core, which when energized in turn by the trolley current and the current generated by the motors actuates the system of brake levers causing the appleation of the brake shoes to wheels. In the operation of this brake the sliding of the wheels is provided against by the gradual application of the brakes as the speed of car is reduced, effected by the automatic controller which regulates the supply of current to the brake cylinder from the car motors. When sufficient current is generated by the motors, the trolley current is automatically cut off from the brake cylinder by the transfer switch. The use of this brake enables the motorman to hold the car on a grade without the aid of the hand brake, as the system is provided with a locking device on the brake cylinder which holds the brakes in position without any power after they have been applied, and they are so held until released by the motorman. EVOLUTION OF THE BRAKE SHOE. A. significant feature in the problem of successful train operation is the evolution of the brake shoe as a factor in deceleration, and one which has received a large share of the attention of experts in heavy elec- trie railway service in recent years. The result of ex- tensive study of. brake shoes, to determine the cost, life, reliability, retarding effect and influence on the wear of the wheel tread, which has been given to the subject by some of the most prominent heavy electric railway systems, is considered of such educational value that it is briefly treated in this work, with a passing suggestion to those engaged in the operation of electric railways THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 245 that the subject is one calling for constant attention, and observation with a view to bring this important factor of car operation to its highest development of mechani- eal utility. Previous to 1902 the shoes on some elevated systems were of the Corning type with square ends, as shown in Fig. 182. Subsequently the shoes were made with east lugs, and of softer metal to provide against the ten- Fig. 132. Square End Corning Shoe, Before 1902. deney to chip and erack, which is common occurrence with the use of hard metal. Later the cast lugs on the shoe were replaced by a stub of wrought steel, as shown in Figs. 133 and 134, to provide against brake failure through breakage of lugs. By the addition of extended ends heavily chilled, and changing the shoe to the U type, it has increased the durability as well as frictional qualities, the chill re- maining as in Figs. 133 and 134. Same change was also _made in trailer shoes (Fig. 135) as regards the extended 246 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Fig. 1338: Fig. 135. Trailer, 1903 Type. THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 247 Fig. 136. Section of 1903 Shoe Showing Amount of Chill in the Ends. Fig. 137. Worn Motor Shoe Shown New in Fig. 133. Fig. 138. Trailer Shoe, Scrap Weight 10% Ibs., 60 Per Cent Wear. Fig. 139. Trailer Shoe, Weight 27 lbs. Net, 60 Per Cent Wear. 248 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 5 =3 ——il ALLL 7A i Fig. 140. Steel Back Brake Shoe for Motor Trucks. ends, but the lugs of the trailer shoe, although very heavy, were not reinforced. Fig. 136 shows a section of the motor shoe, and indicates the amount of chill in the end of the shoe. Fig. 137 indicates, and gives a THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 249 good view of a scrap shoe of the standard type. The original weight of Fig. 133 is 35 Ibs., and showed a weight when serapped to average 17.9 lbs. (Fig. 137.) and leaves about 49 per cent for wear. Fig. 138 illus- trates a trailer shoe when worn out. A new shoe of this type, Fig. 139, weighs 27 Ibs., and the scrap is about 10 Ibs., which allows about 60 per cent for wear. There are Fig, 141. Steel Back Brake Shoe for Trailer. practically no failures with the above shoes, due either on account of the breakage of the shoes, or bad effects on the wheel tread. Many of these shoes are worn down to about 4” in thickness, and sometimes clear to the steel back. As the motor and trailer shoes are a close fit to the wheels at the start, the. scrap weight is very low, and much less than could be accomplished with an unreinforeed shoe, while the advantage of being rein- foreed against failure makes this shoe a satisfactory one 250 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Fig. 142. Steel Back “U”’ Type Motor and Trailer Shoe in Use Previous to March, 1908. for elevated equipment, as pieces of the shoe will not fall to the street. Designs of some brake shoes in present use on heavy service roads will serve to show the advance in the type DO ss Fig. 148. Steel Back Type of Motor and Trailer Shoe with Cen- ter Chill and Toes Cut Off and in Present Use. cf brake shoes used in heavy traffic on some roads from the old Diamond ‘‘S’’ type used in early days to the present type of shoe introduced in 1908. OPERATION OF BRAKES. Whilst it is highly important that all motormen should possess an intelligent understanding of the machinery which they operate, it is not advisable that they should attempt such repairs as come strictly within the province of trained and experienced mechanics who are beyond the experimental stage; nor is it the policy of any well managed railroad corporation to permit unskilled em- ployes to attempt the repairs of valuable machinery ; still, there are emergencies continually confronting the motorman in which a knowledge of the construction, and working principles of the machinery in his charge will enable him to temporarily meet the difficulties which confront him at remote points when more skilful services are not attainable, and place him in position to run his car in for necessary repairs. Whatever may be the brake system operated by the motorman, there are certain prominent features of op- eration which he should always keep prominently in view: The brakes should invariably be tested before leaving the car barn, and the motorman should be cer- tain that the brakes are fully released before touching the controller. On a grade, to prevent receding of the ear, the controller should be moved to start the car the moment the brakes are released. By the exercise of care in the handling of his brakes, the motorman can save much expense to the company, and relieve the public of unnecessary annoyance. Experience has demonstrated that the sliding of the wheels on the rails not only re- 202 THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 253 duces the braking resistance and retarding force, but wears away the wheels, causing flat surfaces or ‘‘flat wheels,’’ which entail the expense of removing, and turn- ing down the wheels in the shops. Not to mention the intolerable noise, and consequent nuisance to the public which proceeds from a flat wheel before it can be taken into the shops for repairs, the incessant pounding must necessarily cause a certain amount of damage to track, especially at joints which are exposed most to lamination. There has recently been developed a formula, express- ing the kinetic energy of the blow delivered on the rail by a wheel with a flat spot. According to this formula the energy of the impact varies directly as follows: The weight of the wheel and its load; the square of velocity ; the square length of the flat spot, and inversely the square of the diameter of the wheel. This formula dis- regards some minor considerations in the mechanics of the problems which probably do not affect materially the values obtained, but assumes a perfectly flat spot with sharp corners. With a 33 in. wheel, where the flat spot is 21% in. long and carrying a load of 6,000 lbs. the kinetic energy of the blow delivered to the rail at a speed of 30 m. p h. is more than 1,000 ft. lbs. The assump- tion of speed and weight corresponds roughly to the ex- tremes of heavy city service. The effect on both the rolling stock and track of the blows repeated many times per minute is very severe. While the damage to the rail is not likely to extend much below the surface, experience has shown that even surface indentations may cause rail breakings if the mills have not properly finished out the rails. To the crystallization of the metal produced by the constant hammering of flat wheels, the breakage of axle bearing lugs on motor castings are no doubt due, 254 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Much of the impact is absorbed by the elasticity of the rails and ties in open-ballasted tracks, where the structure is yielding to some extent, but the full force of the blow is absorbed locally by the metal in the railhead in rigid tracks of paved streets. The stopping of a car with the minimum of jar, jolt, wear and strain on machinery is, after all, a matter of gsood judgment in when, and where to apply, release, and again apply the brakes. A moderate application of the brakes at an estimated reasonable distance, when ap- proaching the stopping point, which will tend gradually to slacken the speed, and a gradual increase of the brake shoe pressure when the stopping point has almost been reached, will effect an easy stop without undue strain or shock. On the other hand, it is not advisable to apply the brakes too far away when approaching the stopping, and make first, a reduction and then an increase in the speed, or sudden slacking and spurting forward. This is not only unscientific, and objectionable to the passengers, but it causes loss of time and unnecessary strain. An intelligent manipulation of the brake is the prime factor in the duration of the life of the brakeshoes and ear wheels, and also insures an economical expenditure of stored energy. THE FAILURE OF THE HAND BRAKE. When the hand brake fails to work by reason of the parting of the brake chain or rod, or a breaking of the bolt by which the brake rod is secured to the brake lever, the situation may be considered a serious one whilst running on the line with a ear load of passengers. This character of emergency calls for prompt action, and it THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE 259 is well to proceed in such manner as not to cause alarm to the passengers. On a city run where traffic is heavy and the street crowded, the motorman should, immedi- ately upon discovering the trouble, reverse the car and make a light application of the power, and signal the conductor to apply the rear brake. When the car has stopped it should remain at a standstill until the fol- lowing car arrives on the ground, when arrangements should be made with the crew of that car to push the disabled car to the barns. It is possible, however, to run the car to the barns when disabled in the manner cited; but it is not advisable to do so when practicable to avoid it. With the conductor operating the rear brake, and the motorman in position to promptly use the reverser the car may be operated by a mutual under- standing of signals arranged between the motorman -and conductor; but the distance in which stops are to be made should be materially lengthened, and the power should be applied slowly when necessary to use the reverser. The motorman should not in a ease of this kind go beyond the third position on a controller car, and the first quarter would be the limit on a car equipped with the T. H. rheostat, as it is not necessary to apply more than just enough power to reverse the wheels in the opposite direction; any more than just sufficient power would in all probability blow the fuse, and in that case the only resource left would be to throw the controller handle clear around to the last parallel position. When brake chains seem to have lengthened, so as to wind around the brake spindle abnormally, thereby pre- venting the car from being stopped within the required distance, or failing altogether to stop it, the trouble will 256 ELECTRIC RAILROADING be found in all probability with the turn buckles, which may have been slacked off on the connecting rod of the brake. If the turn buckle has turned away from the check nuts, they should be turned back, and the car can then proceed on its run. | >. ee ee oe : i¢¢ } aa * ph cai ig 4) a » obras ee a ae agli Aal-o y op Ghd ody dear a, eertlinte Meg ae yin 6 ‘ J ne e ; 4 ® ( Cog a a oy ae yoy 2 abu Saas * he ra tale, ee, . x a ie, eek Al wow aoe i: % soba CA AI ; a } ; =e ae ‘ = ‘ + : 4 e j ? Ny bd et Pes, | = id Ania E oe J a a ae eee ae oe re re Car « as eet r 4 ~f ‘ee 43 Go ae CF yr a 7 Ly @ : - é ; , Anite wae . ~ Pe dae dubs al + 1/5 f x ae re wie : ; F i 43, ads : ; Mie se : ; men ; ‘ ei Ve 2 aes '. ie i ; his f ‘ r h a if a 7 " 5 ‘ A ye i , r 4 eae > LA Prd vane j , if A i fats , \ ) a , Nt? aM i a ee ae = ope 4 : oat ee, a eee ye 4 ae & A, es td ey, = A rey aden Am gap . oy ’ te ie ‘ THE STRAIGHT AIR BRAKE pat ommended reservoir capacity is divided into two units— first, by reason of greater convenience in installing, and second, to secure freedom from moisture in the brake system. Fig. 151. Compressor, SME. It will be apparent that this apparatus combines safety and reliability, which are the important and es- sential features of an automatic brake, with advantages heretofore peculiar to the straight-air system, chief of which is the ability to graduate the brake at will either in application, or release. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. RATING AND CAPACITY. The rating of a steam locomotive is based on its max- imum tractive effort, and its capacity depends upon the maximum speed at which this tractive effort may be developed. The maximum rate of doing work, for which it is possible to design a steam locomotive is therefore . governed by practical limitations as to the steaming capacity of the boiler and the dimensions of the fire-box. On the other hand the electric locomotive does not gen- erate its own power, but acts merely as a transmitting medium, through which electric power delivered by the central power station to the locomotive is converted into mechanical power at the driving axles. Each driving axle of an electric locomotive being equipped with a motor, the size and horse power of which is limited only by the speed at which it operates, by the gauge of the track, and by the diameter of the driving wheels, it be- comes only necessary to provide a sufficient number of driving axles in order to design an electric locomotive capable of delivering the maximum tractive effort that the draw bars of a train will sustain, at any speed per- mitted by considerations of safety in operation, and a reasonable cost of track maintenance. Herein lies the chief advantage of the electric locomo- tive, the increase in speed of the heavy freight trains making it possible to double and in many eases triple the tonnage capacity, and consequently the earning power per mile of track. For example, the most powerful 212 THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE I OD New York Central Electric Locomotive. 274 ELECTRIC RAILROADING steam locomotive in existence, the six-axle, twelve-wheel Mallet Articulated Compound, built for the Baltimore & Ohio Railway by the American Locomotive Company, will develop its maximum tractive effort of 71,500 pounds working compound, at a speed of less than 10 m. p. h., whereas an eight-axle electric locomotive having the same weight on drivers and composed of two four-axle sec- tions coupled together (wheel classification 0880) could be made to develop an equal tractive effort at a speed of 30 miles per hour. It will be seen that such an electric locomotive could handle three times the daily tonnage of the Mallet Compound referred to above, increasing the traffic capacity of the road in the same proportion. In converting electrical into mechanical power, part of the electrical power is lost in the windings, and in the magnetic circuit of the motors, taking the form of heat and causing a rise in temperature proportional to the power loss and to the radiating capacity of the motor. The losses, and consequently the temperature rise increase with the power developed by a given motor, and the maximum load cannot therefore be safely carried beyond the point where permanent injury to the wind- ings will result from excessive temperature. Long ex- perience with the various insulating materials known to the art has shown that the best of these cannot be re- peatedly subjected to a temperature rise greatly exceed- ing 75 degrees C. above the air without deterioration. There has therefore been adopted for railway motors a standard rating, defined as the horse power delivered at the axle continuously for a period of one hour, with a rise in temperature not exceeding 75 degrees C. ‘The rating of the electric locomotive, like the steam locomotive, is based on the maximum tractive effort the THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE DAEs) locomotive will exert for short periods of time, fixed by mechanical considerations, such as weight on drivers, and by electrical conditions, such as overload capacity of the motors. The capacity of the electric locomotive on the other hand, is determined by the heating of the motors in continuous operation, this heating being de- pendent upon the operating conditions, such as length of run, grade, curves, weight of train, schedule speed, number and duration of stops and lay overs. Fig. 158. New York Central Locomotive with Train. In order to provide a margin to cover changes in as- sumed operating conditions, and possibility of occasional inerease in duty, the estimated temperature rise in serv- ice operation should not as a general rule be greater than 60 to 65 degrees C., although occasions may in- frequently arise where a higher value may be safely _ taken. 276 ELECTRIC RAILROADING FORCED VENTILATION. In the smaller sizes of motors, where the radiating surface is large in proportion to the weight, it is possible to carry off excessive heat by natural ventilation. This method applies also to many of the larger sizes of loco- motives in cases where the grades are light, and where the average power developed during the run is not greatly in excess of one-third of the rated capacity. If, however, the service is especially severe, calling for the movement of heavy trains at high speeds, or up long grades, it is necessary to use a system of forced ventila- tion. This is accomplished by taking the air from the side of the locomotive through a screen by means of a small high-speed blower, which delivers the air into a header from which connections are made to the frames of the motors. MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION. The possibility of equipping each axle with its own power, thus avoiding connecting rods and long rigid wheel base, makes it feasible to adopt a very simple and flexible construction in the design of the trucks and run- ning gear of the electric locomotive. The tendency in electric locomotive design has been in the direction of the swivel truck type, each unit having two such trucks, and each truck as a general rule being equipped with two electric motors. In the smaller sizes of locomotives or where the speeds are low, a two-axle truck is usually adopted, each axle being equipped with motors, but in the larger sizes of locomotives, or where speeds of 60 to 75 miles per hour are to be attained, the construction THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 201 often recommended consists of a four-axle truck, the two inside axles being the driving axles and equipped with motors, and the two outside axles being used for guiding. Hach truck is swiveled on center plates of ample size to transmit the tractive effort. The trucks are symmetrical, with the weight largely concentrated near the center, and as the outer ends of the truck are relatively light, the truck as a whole has small turning inertia, and is easily controlled by the guiding wheels Fig, 154. Longitudinal Section of Bipolar Gearless Direct Current Motor. without producing strains liable to affect the track align- ment. The draw heads are attached to the locomotive frame, leaving the trucks free to follow curves, or any inequalities in the track. In heavy freight service, it is sometimes proposed to use an articulated construction, consisting of two three- axle, or two four-axle trucks, connected together by a hinged or articulated coupling, thus reducing the rigid wheel base. In this type the cab may consist either of 278 ELECTRIC RAILROADING a single rigid structure mounted so as to permit lateral movement of the truck, or it may be constructed in two sections, each mounted rigidly on its truck, the two sec- tions being connected flexibly together. While as a general rule these types may be made to eover all conditions of heavy freight or passenger work, occasion may arise where other designs may for various reasons, such as possible reduction in cost or concentra- tion of large power in one unit, be found desirable. The Vip ON ei AS NM \ | BGs atts wi S y Whey, LA my bat Fig. 155. Transverse Section of Bipolar Gearless Direct Current Motor. latter requirement, however, is of small importance from the fact that the system of control adopted for electric locomotives will permit two or more machines to be coupled together and operated by the engine driver as a single unit from any section. Following is a short description of the type of electric locomotives in service on the New York Central & Hud- son River Railway :* *To Mr. J.C. Irwin and Mr. S. A Bickford, both of New York Central, are due thanks for completeness of the following information. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 279 At each end of the locomotive is a swiveling truck with one axle; these axles carry 36 inch wheels. From the last driver axle to truck axle is 7 feet, and from truck axle to end of locomotive is 5 feet more. This with the 13 foot driving wheel base gives a total length of 37 feet, or 30 feet shorter than a steam locomotive. Li " Wn, Sy Ty Sy ui D>» oe AL ITITIT uper\S> n> Fig. 156. Locomotive Motor. Each driving axle is 814 inches in diameter and has keyed to it a sleeve upon which is carried the armature core sleeve and the commutator hub, each separately keyed. The drivers are forced on the axles as usual, forming a rigid and solid unit. Fig. 156 shows one of these units standing inside its field coils with one driver removed to afford a better view. The top bar is not a mechanical part of the frame, but is one of the two pieces of soft steel, running the length of the motors to improve the conductivity of the magnetic eircuit. Since the commutator ends of the motors are the light- er, these bars lie on that side of the frame, preserving a mechanical balance. 280 ELECTRIC RAILROADING This bar shown in Fig. 157 runs the length of the four motors. In Fig. 156 the broad piece below the bar is the loco- motive frame, which together with the transoms acts as the main magnetic circuit. The transoms are bolted to the frame as shown. The five transoms in the middle of the frame carry bosses which serve as magnet cores and the field coils are placed on them. ————— > i Ca SS ). Fae A Fig. 157. The First New York Central Locomotive. The pole face, not shown in Fig, 156, but in Fig. 157, is of soft iron sheets held between two heavier end pieces, dove-tailed to the magnet core and keyed. ‘These pre- vent the field coils from slipping off. The ordinary motor has a cylindrical pole face, but these are almost flat, so that the armature can stay still on the track, and the frame with the poles swings up and down without striking the armature. This shape also makes it possible to drop an armature down into a pit without disturbing the pole faces, or field coils. The brush holders being on the transoms, move up and down with the frame, being kept in contact with the commutator by springs. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 281 The collector shoes are also fastened to the frame, being kept on the third rail by springs. The field coils are 80 turns of copper ribbon 3 inches wide, insulated by card board. They are wound on a brass spool which is slipped into a shell, and the protec- tion completed by riveting the joints, and pouring the shell full of a bituminous compound. The journal bearings each have a pedestal resting on them which carries on its upper end a half elliptic spring. The bearings slide in Jaws of the frame. The weight of each pair of drivers, the axle, the com- plete armature, journal bearing, pedestal and spring, rest solidly on the track. The two trucks do the same. Everything else rests on the frame, and the frame is hung from the springs. The two trucks and the drivers furnish six axles to sup- port the weight of the frame and its load. Equalizing levers distribute the load properly, and eross equalizers give a three-point support. The superstructure consists of the cab in the center, and two end compartments. In the center of the cab stands the steam heating ap- paratus. A kerosene automobile burner heats a coil tube boiler, producing superheated steam. This, when passed through a reducing valve furnishes to the train abso- lutely dry low pressure steam. In this way the size of plant capable of heating a train is reduced to a minimum. The fuel, and water pumps are motor driven. At one end of this heater is the motor driven air com- pressor. There are two motors on its shaft connected in series. This gives 300 volts per motor and enables them to run at the low speed of 175 R. P. M. The compressor supplies 130 lbs. of air for braking, whistling, bell ring- 282 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ing, and sanding. It is regulated by a starting and stop- ping switch which is opened and closed by an electro magnet. This magnet is operated by a switch, opened and closed by the action of the air on a diaphragm. 125 lbs. pressure starts, and 135 lbs. stops the motors. At both corners diagonally opposite, are duplicate sets of controlling apparatus. They consist of the controller bar, and reverse lever under the left hand. In front are the automatic and straight air brakes, the hand sander, the ammeter and air gauge, and the control circuit switch. At the right hand is the air blast sander, bell and whistle valves. Fig, 158. Motor Armature. The end compartments contain a central aisle, and on either side in asbestos lined sheet steel cabinets are con- tained the other apparatus of the control. Each of these four cabinets (two at each end) contains the resistances and the contactors for one motor. Evenly distributed among the four are the two reversers, the main power switch, the circuit breaker, the throttle relay, THE ELECTRIG LOCOMOTIVE 283 air pressure governor, air sanders, and the contactors for motor combinations. The lighting and head light switches are in the aisles for ready access. A view of a.complete armature mounted on driving axle is given in Fig. 158. The locomotive is fitted with the Sprague-General Electric Type M Control, with a controlled acceleration. There is a friction clutch attached to the main shaft of the controller, operated by a magnet. This magnet is in the circuit of wire 18, which also contains a magnetically operated switch. The operating coil of the switch is a part of the main power circuit leading to motor No. 2. When the motor is taking less than 900 amperes from the line the magnet is too weak to close the switch, and so the locking coil is not energized, and the controller handle is free to be moved. Should the motor current rise above 900 amperes the magnet closes the switch, the lock coil throws the clutch and the engineer can not advance the handle until the current falls to its normal value. Fig. 159 shows the wiring of the four motors, their resistances and contactors as arranged in the New York Central locomotive No. 6000, the first one built. The terminals marked T are connected to the third rail or ‘‘trolley,’’ those marked R to the rails or return eireuit, often called ‘‘ground.’’ The armatures are represented by circles and the fields by squares. The resistances are shown by the crooked lines, being a rough imitation of the shape of the cast iron grids used as resistances. On No. 1 motor at the top has been indicated how the ELECTRIC RAILROADING 284 ‘QATJOUINNO'T OG CL SIE 2 HW 4 [e1JU9D YIOK MON [01]U0D IOJOW JO wessviq ‘6ST “SI THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 285 leads go to a reverser, but this has been omitted from the rest of the diagram for the sake of clearness. Each number represents a contactor, and when the contactor is closed the gap in the circuit as shown in the diagram is closed, and the current is permitted to pass. The wiring which actuates these contactors is called the control system and will be the subject of another illustration. This diagram (Fig. 159) only shows the main or power circuits. Each wire in the control is numbered and this number is used to refer to it. The controller which actuates these 47 contactors has 24 positions or notches numbered consecutively. Nos. 10, 17 and 24 are running positions, placing the motors at N 10 all in series; at N 17 in series-multiple; 1. e., two in series and two in parallel or multiple; at 24 all in mul- tiple. This gives quarter, half, and full speeds. At all the other notches there is more or less resistance in the circuits, and the controller must not be left perma- nently at any notch but these three. The motors are numbered from the top of Fig. 159 down, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 after a symbol denote the motor to which the part be- longs. F 1 denotes the field of motor No. 1. R 12 denotes the second resistance (counting from left to right) of the first motor. R 36 denotes last resistance of third motor. Each motor has a set of six resistance grids, whose total for each motor is 0.4 ohm, and whose parts have resistances as given in Table A. In Table B is given the resistance left in each motor circuit when the previous grids are cut out. 286 ELECTRIC RAILROADING TABLE A: Resistance 1—0.120 ohm. Resistance 2—0.085 ohm. Resistance 3==0.055 ohm. Resistance 4—0.050 ohm. Resistance 5—=0.046 ohm. Resistance 6—0.044 ohm. ‘TABLES. Resistance 1 to end=0.40 ohm. Resistance 2 to end=0.28 ohm. Resistance 38 to end=0.195 ohm. Resistance 4 to end=0.14 ohm. Resistance 5 to end=—0.09 ohm. Resistance 6 to end—0.044 ohm. There are four other resistances, one per motor, located as follows: B 1 between contactor 4 and R. B 2 between F 2 and 12. B 3 between A 3 and 30. B 4 between 45 and R. These resistances are 0.48 ohm each. B 2 and B 3 are used as bridge resistances to prevent short circuits when changing from slow to middle speed. B 1 and B 4 are used as resistances during electrical braking. Fig. 160 shows the electrical connections of a locomo- tive reverser. The right and left sides are exact duplicates, so only one side will be described, THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 287 As shown the S portion of the reverser is shut, and the O part is open. The magnets and link bars operating the two pairs of toggles S and O are left out, in order to make the diagram more simple. T represents a tap from the main power cable, and may be considered as ‘‘trolley.’’ The current comes from T, goes through B to the armature a (cirele), thence to C and passes through the field f (square). The same thing happens on the other side of S. Fig. 160. Diagram of Locomotive Reverser. If, however, the magnet connected to O is energized, the toggles O will straighten and close the contacts L and N on both sides. The magnet S being interlocked with O is now de-energized, and the S toggles loosen and contacts C and B open. Then the current goes from T to L and through the armature in opposite direction than before, thence to N and through the field in the same direction as before. The motor now reverses. 288 ELECTRIC RAILROADING OPERATION OF CONTROL. The controller levers are not removable, and for the purpose of this explanation they are assumed to be both in place in the off position. There is but one reversing, and one air wrench with each locomotive, and in order to remove the reversing. wrench, it is necessary that the controller levers be in the off position. Likewise it is necessary that the air brake wrench be at lap position before it can be removed. The first work of the en- gineer is to move the reversing wrench to forward position. This puts wire 8 to trolley and ground (T and Rk), and the control current passes through the reverser magnets, and pulls both to the forward position. Wires 41 and 42 now close contactors 1-5-21 and 28-44-36. These are always closed while the locomotive is running. Notch 1 now energizes W 1, closing C 2-24-46, com- pleting a series circuit of the four motors and 1.6 ohms resistance. For the next nine notches these contactors remain closed, and in addition other contactors close and open as follows: Notch 2 energizes W 6, closing C 20, cutting out all of the resistance belonging to M 2, thus reducing the total extra resistance to 1.2 ohms. Notch 3 energizes W 7, which picks up C 20 (which W 6 no longer holds) and also C 42, which cuts out 0.4 ohms more, reducing resistance to 0.8 ohms. Notch 4 energizes W 10, which holds up C 20 and 42 and also closes C 34, cutting out 0.4 ohms more. Notches 5-6-7-8-9: While W 10 continues to be ener- gized holding C 20-34-42, wires 11-12-13-14-15 are suc- THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 289 cessively energized, closing C 6-7-8-9-10 one after the other. Thus gradually reducing the resistance from 0.4 to 0.044 ohms, as shown by Table B. Each contactor stays down until the following one closes. Notch 10: Wire 16 is energized and W 10 de-ener- gized, but C 20-34-42 are held up by W 16 and it picks up C 11 in addition, thus putting the motors in full series between Trolley 1 and Return 4, without resistance. N 10 is a running position at a slow speed. In moving from N 10 to N 11 many changes occur. W 41 and 42 are of course still working. W 5 cuts in and transfers C 2 and 46 from W 1 to itself, it also closes C 12 and 35. The two bridging resistances B 2 and B 3 being together equal to 0.96 ohms prevent a short eircuit from T 3 to R 2. The cireuit containing B 2 is ealled a bridge because it bridges over what would otherwise be an opening in the circuit as the changes occur. W 1 now drops out of circuit, allowing C 24 to open, thus placing two motors in series between T and R. W 2 is now energized and closes C 25 and 23, cutting out B 2 and B 8, considerably reducing the resistance of each motor combination. W 10 now closes C 20 and 42, but not C 34 as it did before. W 10 ean only shut C 34 if C 24 is already closed. This is due to a system of interlocks. C 24 is now open, for it dropped when changed from W 1 to W 5. The motors are now in series—multiple with half of the resistance in series. Notches 12 to 17 (both inclusive) energize in succes- sion W 11-12-13-14-15-16, closing C 6 and 29, then C 7 and 30, etc., thus stepping out the remaining resistance 290 ELECTRIC RAILROADING until at N 17 there is a free running position with no resistance in. Between N 17 and 18 a change is made from W 2 to W 3 which performs same duties as W 2 and in addi- tion closes the bridges C 14 and 43. These two con- tactors produce no electrical changes, for the resistances were already cut out entirely by W 16 through the con- tactors under its control. W 16 can now be and is dropped without any elec- trical change. W 4 is now energized closing C 3-22-27-47. There are no short circuits caused, because between trol- ley and return on one side of the bridges are the motors, and on the other side are the double resistances, each 0.8 ohms. W 2 is again taken up, which takes care of C 24-25, holding them up, and W 2 is dropped, letting go of C 14 and 43. The motors are now in multiple, with resistance in series. Notches 19 to 24 keep W 2 and 4 energized and suc- cessively energize W 11-12-13-14-15-16, closing contactors four at a time, 1. e., C 6-15-29-387, then C 7-16-30-38, ete., until finally W 2-4-41-42 and 16 keep the contactors closed for free full multiple running. The spaces between N 10 and 11 and N 17 and 18 are wider than the others to give room for enough motion to make the desired wire changes. These spaces must be passed over by a continuous motion of the con- troller arm. Wires 11 to 16 always close contactors four at a time, but the first and second times they are used, part of the contactors closed produced no electrical changes, and for simplicity mention of the fact was omitted. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 291 Contactors 4-26-13-45 are used when braking elec- trically in this way. A switch called a commutating switch is thrown and the controller pulled to first notch. The commutating switch brings in wires 17-4 and 5. W 17 closes contactors 4-13-26-45. W 4 and W 5 due to interlocks do not close as many contactors as they would if energized through main con- troller, so W 4 only closes 3-27 and W 5 only closes 12. Notch 1 of controller energizes W 41 and W 42. W 42 as usual closes 28-36-44 while W 41 on account of in- terlocks only closes 5 and 21. The four motors are now in parallel across the track rails, all connection with third rail being cut off. They now act as generators and act. as brakes. | This ean only be done when one locomotive is on a train, owing to the fact that the other locomotive being so near (40 feet) acts as a short circuit. The one wire not mentioned, W 18, is the one called controller lock. It energizes the magnet of the friction clutch through a relay whenever current input exceeds 900 amperes per motor. Table C gives the number of the control wire, ie con- tactors operated by it, and the notches of the controller making use of the wire. In this table and elsewhere 1 to 10 means both inclusive and 1-2-10 means separate numbers. GENERAL. The remarks pertaining to the Sprague-General Elec- tric type ‘‘M’’ eontrol will also apply to the electric locomotive control, except that the train cable in the 292 ELECTRIC RAILROADING locomotive control has twenty wires, seventeen of which are connected to the master controller and to the motor control apparatus. Of the remaining three wires two are used for the sander device, and one is an extra. This control, in the same way as on the Suburban Motor Cars, comprises two distinct sets of circuits, namely, the main or motor control circuits, and the master control motor circuits, the former being governed by the latter. Each locomotive has four motors, the control being ar- ranged for operating the motors first, all in series, then in series parallel, and then in parallel relation. The two ends of locomotive are designed the ‘‘A’’ end and the ‘‘B’’ end, the main switch being located on the ‘‘B”’ end. The Motor Control on each locomotive consists of the following apparatus: Contactors. Reversers. Rheostats. Main switch. Main motor cut-out switches. Individual motor fuses. In addition to these pieces of apparatus there are four sets of third-rail contact shoes (two shoes in each set) and two overhead contact shoes, with the necessary main cables connecting them to the control apparatus on the locomotive. There is also a main cable extending through the locomotive, terminating with couplers at the ends, so that the third-rail shoes, and the overhead shoes of any two or more locomotives may be connected together. This cable is termed the Bus Line. The circuits from the contact shoes (both third-rail and overhead) are pro- tected by fuses, a set of two fuses in multiple being located near each shoe to protect the circuit of that shoe. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 293 From the third-rail shoes, or from the overhead shoes the main circuit is carried through the respective fuses of each to the main switch, and through the motor fuses to the contactors and thence to motors. tered. sitscrmrarstrmen anciesararerensintempeii Fig. 161. Contactor for Heavy Current. The Contactor (Fig. 161) is an electro-magnet switch, with two contact arms, and sets of contacts in multiple operated by one plunger. There are 43 of these con- tactors which are located in the end compartments of the cab, one group on each side of each end compart- ment. The contactors are suspended by insulating bolts 294 ELECTRIC RAILROADING from channel iron supports. The contactors are num- bered progressively around the cab, No. 1 being the near- est the No. 1 reverser. Each contactor has a plate with its number, which is attached in front above the are chute. Reverser for Locomotive. Fig. 162. Reverser (Fig. 162). There are two reversers; one in each end compartment. The No. 1 reverser, which is on the main switch end of the locomotive, has the arma- THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE Grid Resistance. Fig. 163. 296 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ture and field leads of the two motors on that end con- nected to the studs of its contact brushes. The connec- tions of armatures and field leads for producing forward, and backward movement of locomotive are established by means of copper bars pressed against spring contact brushes, through a toggle mechanism. The Motor Control Rheostats (Fig. 163) are similar to those already described. These rheostats are located in four groups on the floor in end compartment of cab, under the contactors. | The Main Switch (Fig. 164) is a knife-blade, quick- break switch, with a lower mechanism for operating. The switch itself is enclosed in a box, lined with fire-proof insulation, the handle for operating being located out- side the box, where it is readily accessible. This switch . is located in ‘‘B’’ end compartment of cab. It should not be opened while current is on motors, except in an emergency. It should, however, be opened before the individual motor fuses, or contactors and reversers are examined. Main Motor Cut-Out Switches (Fig. 165) are for the purpose of cutting out the individual motors in case of any ground, or defect in a motor which renders it in- operative. There are four of these cut-out switches, one for each motor, and they are located on the sides of the cab, the switches for No. 1 and No. 2 motors being just over the No. 1 reverser and for No. 3 and No. 4 motors over the No. 2 reverser. The number of the motor to which it is connected is marked on each switch. Each switch also has a small auxiliary control cut-out switch which opens, and closes with the larger switch for operating the circuit of the series contactor coils. These switches are normally kept closed, except in case THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE Fig. 164. Main Switch, 297 298 ELECTRIC RAILROADING of individual motor trouble. It should be seen that they are well closed, so that the small auxiliary switches make good contact. When one of these switches is Fig. 165. Main Motor Cut-out Switches. opened on account of motor trouble, the locomotive will not move until controller handle. reaches the eleventh notch. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 299 Motor Fuse Box (Fig. 166). There are four of these fuse boxes, each motor having its individual fuse. These boxes are located one over each third-rail shoe, just above Fig. 166. Motor Fuse Box. Fig. 167. Third Rail Shoe Fuse Box. the shoe fuse boxes. A copper ribbon fuse of 800 am- pere rating is used in these boxes. Hach box has marked on it the number of the motor whose circuit it protects. Third-Rail Shoe Fuse Boxes (Fig. 167) are similar 300 ELECTRIC RAILROADING to the motor fuse boxes, but somewhat larger. There are two of these arranged in multiple for each pair of third- rail shoes and are mounted on brackets just above their shoes. Copper ribbon fuse of 1,600 ampere rating is used in each of these boxes. Overhead Shoe Fuse Boxes are practically the same as those for third-rail shoe, but are mounted on the roof, two in multiple near each other. A copper ribbon fuse of 1,600 ampere rating is used here also. Third-Rail Contact Shoes. These shoes are of the ‘‘Shlpper’’ spring actuated, under-running type. The shoe bracket is mounted on a wooden insulating beam. There are two shoes in multiple on each bracket. Overhead Contact Device (Fig. 168) is a_ pneu- matically operated shoe. There is a valve near each master controller in the cab, by means of which the shoe may be raised or lowered. When air is applied, the shoe is lifted so as to make contact with the overhead rail. When air is released the shoe drops; also if the shoe runs off the rail it is stripped automatically, and drops. Moving the handle forward operates a pilot valve, by means of which a slide valve is thrown to admit air from the reservoir, to the cylinder of contact shoe device. Pulling the handle back operates another pilot valve, and the slide valve is thrown over to connect air chamber of contact device to exhaust. The handle will spring back to the middle position from either direction. There are two of these overhead contact shoes, which are controlled in common by either valve in the cab. They are mounted on wooden insulating blocks. It is very important that these shoes should not be raised when they will come in contact with overhead obstructions. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 301 70 FCSC7 VOI A § S © 18 : $ oO WI 2S$1——— A i ee ee GEO ISG. —\— — 5 leet SS Sa 4512S $/—— — 8 peas cene/ <= Se ¢ § e NEN AN 3 PN AN 5 a 9S S S a BS x o we VY ob > oe & 8 © NY eens eas he 6 AS Raa fe eS See) 8 § Ne N LS) fngieers Yolve j =H ry = S J The Bus Line Coupler Socket (Fig. 169) has three spht plug contacts, which are connected together for obtaining sufficient carrying capacity. The Bus Line Coupler or Jumper is shown in Fig. 170. 302 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Fig. 169. Bus Line Coupler Socket. MASTER CONTROL. The Master Control Apparatus comprises the follow- ing for each locomotive: Two master controllers. One main master controller switch. Two overhead master controller switches. One negative control switch. Train cable. Four train cable coupler sockets. One train cable coupler or jumper. One train cable connection box. One train cable cut-out switch, combining also a sec- ond train cable connection box. One current limit relay. Control fuses. The Master Controller (Fig. 171) contains two mov- able cylinders, which are geared together, and stationary THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 303 Bus Line Coupler or Jumper. Fig. 170. 304 ELECTRIC RAILROADING contacts for each, mounted on insulation supports. The function of the controller in general is to supply current at the will of the engineer, to the train cable for oper- ating the reversers and contactors. The primary or slow- Master Controller. Wig L7 1: speed cylinder operates the contactors which produce motor combinations. The secondary or high-speed eylin- der operates those contactors which cut out the main motor resistance. The secondary cylinder is geared to THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 305 the primary at the ratio of about three to one. Geared to the cylinders is a governor device, by means of which the movement of the controller handle, and the cylinders is checked when current through the motors exceeds a certain amount. The controller has a separate reverse cylinder, and there is a separate handle for this. The reverse handle can be thrown, only when the controller handle is in the ‘‘off’’ position. The ‘‘off’’ position of the controller handle is indicated, and is the extreme forward position of the handle. There are twenty-four operating notches and an ‘‘off’’ point on the controller dial ring. A latch on the handle engages the notches on the dial ring, and has to be released in moving from — notch to notch. The first ten operating notches are for series, the next seven for series parallel, and the next seven for parallel operation of motors. The tenth notch is full series, the seventeenth full series parallel, and the twenty-fourth full parallel position of motors, and at all other points, motors will have resistance in circuit. Main Master Controller Switch (Fig. 172) is located on side of passage way in ‘‘B’’ end compartment of cab, and is used for admitting current to master controllers, and should be closed to operate from either master con- troller. The main purpose of this switch is to cut off the line from the master controller fuse, which is located in this switch, in case the fuse has to be inspected or renewed. The fuse for this switch is 25 ampere capacity. The Overhead Master Controller Switches (Fig. 173) are located one over each master controller and are used for admitting or cutting off current from the controller over which it is located. The Negative Control Switch (Fig. 173) is located on the side of the passage way of the ‘‘A’’ end. Opening 306 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Sander Switch on Locomotive. ; also Main Pump Switch Master Controller Switch 172: . Fi THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 307 this switch cuts off eround from the reverser and con- tactor coils. It must be kept closed for operation. Or- dinarily it need not be touched. The Train Cable is composed of twenty conductors, which are attached to numbered plugs in the coupler Fig. 173. Master Controller Switch Without Fuse. Also Negative Control Switch on Locomotive. sockets, and there are branclies from seventeen of these wires extending to the master controller. These seven- teen wires are used as follows: No. 1—For operating series contactors. Nos. 2 and 5.—For operating series-parallel contactors. No. 3.—For operating bridge contactors. 308 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Nos. 2 and 4.—For operating parallel contactors. Nos. 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15 and 16.—F or operating resistance contactors. Train Cable Coupler Socket. Fig. 174. No. 18.—For operating controller governor. No. 0.—For operating reverser one direction. No. 8.—For operating reverser other direction. 309 THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE B0[q Jetdnop s[qeo ulrer1y, g L T 310 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Nos. 19 and 20 are used for operating the sander device. No. 17 is an extra wire. The Train Cable Coupler Socket (Fig. 174) has twenty contact studs. The Train Cable Coupler Plug (Fig. 175) has twenty contacts to agree with coupler socket. Train Cable Connection Boxes are used for making connections from master controller and coupler sockets to the train cable. One of these connection boxes (Fig. 176) is combined with the twenty-point cut-out switch. This is mounted on the back of the master controller on the ‘‘A’’ end of the cab. This is the No. 2 connection box. The plain connection box (Fig. 177) is mounted on the back of the controller at ‘*B’’ end of the cab. No. 0 wire from No. 1 box connects to No. 8 wire in No. 2 box, and No. 8 from No. 1 box connects with No. 0 in No. 2 box. All other wires connect number to number. One of the wires in the outside layer is covered with green braid. This is No. 1 wire, the other wires of this layer being numbered in the counterclock-wise direction from this. The red covered wire in the inner layer is No. 14, the others being numbered counterclock-wise direction. The Current Limit Relay (Fig. 178) is located just above the No. 1 reverser and is provided for the purpose of checking a too rapid movement of the controller handle in getting the train up to speed. The relay coil is connected in series with No. 2 motor circuit. If the eurrent through the motor exceeds a certain amount, the relay plunger picks up, and closes a set of contacts which supplies current to the controller governor. The controller handle is thus held from being moved on, and THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE OL Box. 10n . Cable Connect Ace ia Fig. 176. 3 0 ELECTRIC RAILROADING cannot be moved another notch until the current through the motor falls to a certain amount. . The Control Cut-Out Switch (Fig. 176) has already been referred to under the subject of Connection Boxes. The connection studs of this box also serve the purpose Hist ty ia Slain’ Connection) Box: of the No. 2 connection box. This cut-out switch serves the purpose of disconnecting the control circuits of con- tactors, and reversers on a locomotive from the train line. The cut-out switch has twenty sets of contacts which are connected, or disconnected accordingly as the handle is full around to the left or to the right. THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 313 Fig. 178. Current Limit Relay for Locomotive. 314 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Control Fuses (Fig. 176) are mounted on the same insulation back as the cut-out switch, and are contained in the same box. The fuses numbered from the top pro- tect the following circuits: No. 1—Series contactor coils. Nos. 2 and 5—Series parallel contactor coils. Nos. 2 and 4—Parallel contactor coils. No. 3—Bridge contactor coils. Nos. 8 and 9—The reverser operating coils. Fig. 179. Sectional View Air Pump Governor. Nos. 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16—The resistance contactor coils, respectively, one fuse protecting the con- tactor coils for each resistance step of controller. No. 17 is not required, but is extra. No. 18—Controller governor circuit. Nos. 19 and 20—Sander circuits, THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 315 AIR-COMPRESSOR CONTROL. The air-compressor control comprises the following pieces of apparatus: A pump motor switch. A pump governor. A pump motor circuit contactor. Pump Motor Switch (Fig. 172) is located on the side of passage ‘‘A’’ end compartment. This switch is for the purpose of opening the pump motor circuit when locomotive is not in service. This switch contains a 40- ampere fuse, which protects the pump motor circuit. Pump Governor (Fig. 179) is located in ‘‘A’’ com- partment on side opposite No. 2 reverser. The governor is of the diaphragm type of construction, the movement of the diaphragm, as air pressure falls or rises, operating a lever mechanism which serves to give a quick make, and break to a small switch of the contactor type. This switch does not close the pump motor circuit itself, but closes the eireuit through the Pump Motor Circwit Con- tactor, which has higher current capacity on its contacts than the governor. This contactor is located to the left of the governor. When the air pressure in the reservoir falls to 130 pounds, the governor closes its contacts, thereby energizing the contactor coil, which in turn closes its contacts; the pump motor circuit being thus completed, the pump starts. When the air pressure reaches 140 pounds the governor opens the circuit of the contactor coil, which in turn opens and breaks the pump motor circuit and the pump stops. But the governor and the contactor have strong mag- netic blow-outs at their contacts, sufficient to handle any current which they may take in this service. 4 316 ELECTRIC RAILROADING TRACK SANDER CONTROL. The track sander control comprises the following pieces of apparatus: One main sander switch. Two sander operating switches. Two electro-pneumatic valves. ° Fig. 180. Sander Operating Switch. Main Sander Switch (Fig. 172) located in the ‘‘A’’ end compartment of cab, is for the purpose of admitting or cutting off current from the sander operating switches. This switch contains a 10-ampere fuse. The switch should be opened when inspecting fuse. This switch has a plate marked ‘‘Sander.’’ Sander Operating Switches (Fig. 180) are located one on each side of cab near each master controller. These THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ay. are double-throw switches and are marked ‘‘Sand For- ward,’’ ‘‘Sand Reverse.’’ Moving handle to the ‘‘For- ward’’ position energizes the valve which will apply sand to rail for forward direction. ‘‘Reverse’’ position of handle will apply sand for the reverse direction. Fig. 181. Electro-Pneumatic Sanding Valve. Electro-Pneumatic Valves (Fig. 181) are located one in each end compartment. One valve operates a sander for one direction of movement, the other valve operates a sander for the other direction, only one valve being 318 ELECTRIC RAILROADING operated at a time. The valve is operated by a magnet which is energized by current applied in the sander oper- - ating switch. | TRAIN OPERATION—GENERAL. Before attempting to start the locomotive the motor- man should first close the pump switch, then close the main switch and see that the main control switch and all the cut-out switches are closed. After the reservoir and train line are charged the overhead control switch over the controller, from which the locomotive is to be operated should be closed, and the reverser handle thrown in the direction of desired movement of locomotive. The motorman may then proceed on the signal. After releasing the latch on controller handle, pull con- troller handle to the first notch, then to the second notch, and so on, until the desired speed is attained. For coupling, with the locomotive, hight, the first or second notches will ordinarily be sufficient. If it is desired to get up to speed as soon as possible the handle may be moved around notch by notch, allowing the latch to take each notch until the last notch is reached. If the motorman feels at any point, the further move- ment of the controller checked, he should not exert un- due pressure on the handle—no more than is ordinarily required to move the handle from one notch to the next. Whenever the current through the motors is higher than a certain amount, the automatic governor acts, and stops the further movement of the handle. When the current falls to a certain amount the governor releases the con- troller cylinders, and another notch may be taken, and so on. Every notch on the controller should invariably be taken by the latch in moving controller on, whether in 319 THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE uUMOd SOOUS Tey PAUL, uMOC SAOD[[OLL ‘Ww “S07 “> ‘da UL 9ATJOWIODOTT USATET MON ‘S8T “SLA 320 ELECTRIC RAILROADING aceelerating or in throwing controller on with motors already up to speed. In throwing off, the notches need not be observed. The ‘‘off’’ notch of the controller may be called the zero notch. The first closed position of the controller is the first notch, and so on, the tenth notch being the full series position, the seventeenth notch the full series par- allel position, and the twenty-fourth notch the full par- allel position. The tenth, seventeenth and twenty-fourth notches may then be called running points. The inter- mediate points are resistance points, and should ordi- narily be used only for accelerating or switching. The tenth notch gives one-quarter speed, the seventeenth notch one-half speed, and the twenty-fourth notch full speed. The transition from the tenth to the eleventh notches and from the seventeenth to the eighteenth should be made promptly, withovt pause between. When the controller is on any notch the current passes from the master controller switch, through the master’ controller of the train cable of one or two locomotives, and thence to the reverser operating coils and the con- tactor coils, which correspond to the given notch, as shown in the following table. This table gives the num- bers of the contactors which are closed on each step of the master controller. The numbers that are underscored indicate the contactors which are closed on that step in addition to previous ones. Controller Steps. Contactors. Closed. 1 1-2-4-19+22-25-33-41-42 2 1-2-4-18-19-22-25-33-41-42 3 1-2-4-18-19-22-25-33-39-41-42 4 1-2-4-18-19-22-25-31-33-39-41-42 THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE aye Series. ...... 5 1-2-4-5-13-18-19-22-25-26-31-33-34- 39-41-49 G2 4-5 G13 14918-19.29:95-26.27 - 31-83-34-35-39-41-42 7 1-2-4.6-7-14-15-18-19-22-25-27-28- 31-33-35-36-39-41-42 8 1-2-4-7-8.15-16-18-19-22-25.28. 29-31-33-36-37-39-41-42 9 1-2-4-8.9-16-17-18-19-22-25- 29-30-31-33-37-38-39-41-42 10 1-2-4-9-10-17-18-19-22-25-30-31-33- 38-39-41-42 First Bridge. _1-2-4-11-19-25-32-33-41-42 Ut 241161 8-19-21-23-25-32.33.99- 41-42 Series Parallel. .12 — 1-2-4-5-11-13-18-19-21-23-25-26-32- 33-34-39-41-42 Series Parallel..13 — 1-2-4-5-6-11-13-14-18-19-21-23-25- 26-27-32-33-34-35-39-41-42 14 1-2-4-6-7-11-14-15-18-19-21-23-25- rae 28. 1 patie 35-5 36-39-41-42 15 1.-2-4-7-8-11- 15- 16-1: T1972 1-23225- 28-29-32-33- 36- 37-39-41-42 16 1-2-4-8.9-11- 16- 17-1 VG210 2) 12232252 29-30-32-33- 37-38- -39-41-42 17 1-2-4-9-10-11-12-17-18-19-21-23-25- 30-31-32-33-38-39-40-41-42 322 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Second Bridge 1-2-4-12-19-21-23-25-33-40-41-42 18 1-3-4-19-20-21-23-24-25-33-41-43 Parallel....19 1-3-4-5-13-19-20-21-23-24-25-26.33- 34-41-43 20 1-3-4-5.6-13-14-19-20-21-23-24-95. 26-27-33-34-35-41-43 21 1-8-4-6-7-14-15-19-20-21-23-24. 95. 27-28-33-35-36-41-43 22. 1-8-4-7-8-15-16-19-20-21-23-24-25- 28.29-33-36-37-41-43 23 1.3-4-8-9-16-17-19-20-21-23-24.95. 29-30-33-37-38-41-43 Parallel....24 1-3-4-9-10-17-18-19-20-21-23-24-25- 30- 31-3 33-38- 3-39. 41-43 If the reversers are not already thrown to the position corresponding with the position of the reverser handle, when the controller is thrown to the first notch, current will first pass through the proper operating coil to eround. After the reversers have reached the correct position interlocking contacts on each reverser cut off eurrent to ground, and establish a circuit through three eontactor coils. Moving the reverse handle does not operate the reversers, but simply arranges the contacts, so that when the controller is turned to the first position, reversers will be thrown in the proper direction. The operating coil for one direction on one reverser is in multiple with the corresponding coil on the other re- verser, these two coils being controlled by one wire from the master controller, and protected by one fuse. 323 ’ THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ‘dg se0usg ey PULL d ar Ad][OL], 2) Vi aUu0Z, e) V UI OAT}OUIODO"TT UDARHT Mo N 324 ELECTRIC RAILROADING On the first notch the main or motor current flows from the third-rail shoes, or from the overhead shoes through the shoe fuses to the main switch, then through the No. 1 motor fuse, through the reverser and No. 1 motor, through a set of rheostats to reverser and No. 2 motor, then through the other reverser and No. 3 motor through a set of rheostats, then through another set of rheostats to reverser and No. 4 motor and then to ground. The four motors are here all in series, with all the resistance in circuit; and the locomotive, if light, may start, or if coupled to a train may simply take up draw-bar slack: Each of the next three steps cuts out one complete set of motor resistance, and on succeeding steps, until full series is reached, the remaining set is eut out in six more steps. After full series, between the tenth and eleventh notches, bridge connections are estab- lished, and then on the eleventh notch motors are thrown in series parallel relation. Resistance is cut out in six steps to full series parallel, the seventeenth notch. Bridge connections are then established and motors are then thrown all in parallel, the resistance being cut out again in six steps. When motors are in parallel each is pro- tected by its own fuse. When it is necessary to reverse the direction of train movement, leaving controller handle in the off position, throw the reverser handle in the opposite direction, and then move controller handle on in the same way. The reverser handle is to be thrown in the direction corre- sponding to direction of movement required. The motors should not be reversed while the locomotive is moving, except in case of emergency, and then the wheels would probably slip. If it is necessary to reverse while moving, do not throw the controller handle beyond the first notch, 325 THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ‘URI UIAVEE MON ‘PS SIA z s G git RRR 326 ; ELECTRIC RAILROADING if all the motors are cut in, or beyond the eleventh oo if one motor is cut out. When operating on an overhead rail section, the over- head contact shoe will be tripped, and will drop, on leav- ing this section. The motorman should, however, as an extra precaution, throw the valve handle back. EHither for raising or lowering the overhead shoe it is necessary to hold the handle in position only long enough for the shoe to start movement. To sand the rails the Sander Operating Switch should be moved over in the direction of movement of the locomotive. To stop the sand the handle of this switch must be brought back to the middle position. The control cut-out switch, if open, disconnects the operating parts of contactors and reversers on the loco- motives from the train cable, but does not affect the op- eration of the other locomotive if two are connected to- gether, although it is cut out on the locomotive whose master controller is being operated. ‘The control con- nections for the reverser are so arranged that unless it is at the proper position, current is cut off from con- tactors, so that motors on that locomotive will receive no eurrent. In case of electrical trouble within the master controller, train cable, couplers, or connections boxes, the single fuse in the master control switch will protect them. In ease of local trouble on contactors or reversers the fuses in the cut-out switch will protect the circuit. The electric locomotives in service on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Ry. were furnished by the Westinghouse Company. The overhead construction for the transmission of current on this line is supported from steel bridges which are located every 300 feet and which normally span from four to six tracks, although on THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 327 certain portions of the road longer bridges are employed. Every two miles the bridge is made of a specially heavy construction—forming an anchor-bridge to make the overhead structure even more secure. The trolley wires are hung from steel messenger cables which, in turn, are supported by heavy insulators mounted upon the steel bridges. Each trolley wire is suspended from a pair of steel messenger cables by triangular supports, forming a double catenary suspension of great strength and stiff- ness. The triangular supports are placed about ten feet apart. The messenger cables have a total sag of about six feet, while the trolley wire itself is held in a practi- eally horizontal position. The trolley system is divided into sections approxi- mately two miles in length, each section being separated from its neighbors by heavy line insulators. Adjoining sections are connected through automatic oil-type circuit breakers. If a short circuit or other trouble occurs in any section, therefore, it can be cut out without dis- turbing the operation of other portions of the line. Two feeder wires are carried the whole length of the alter- nating-current line and are so connected to the various sections of the trolley system by automatic switches that any section of four or more trolleys can be eut out of service, and those beyond kept in operation. The trolley wires are held normally at a height of 22 feet above the track. The overhead system is designed with a safe margin to meet the stresses imposed by the most severe conditions—such as high winds or heavy coatings of ice. Following is a brief description of these locomotives, which are adapted to use either direct, or alternating current : 328 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The frames, trucks, and cabs, of the locomotives were built by the Baldwin Locomotive Company, according to designs developed with the co-operation of the New Haven Railroad, and the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Companies. The Frame. As the entire space between the wheels is occupied by the motors, it was impossible to transmit the draw-bar pull through the center line of the locomo- Fig. 185. One Truck of New Haven Locomotive. tive; consequently the entire strain is carried by the strong plate girders which make up the locomotive frame. A Westinghouse friction draft gear is mounted directly underneath the box girder at each end and is applied to two steel bumpers laid horizontally between vertical gusset plates on the ends of the side channels. The Trucks. The running gear consists of two trucks, each mounted on four 62-inch driving wheels. The trucks have side frames of forged steel to which are bolted, and THE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 329 riveted, pressed steel bolsters which carry the center plates. The weight on the journal boxes is carried by small semi-elliptic springs with auxiliary coiled springs under the ends of the equalizer bars, to assist in restoring equilibrium. A very strong construction is se- cured, without excessive weight by the use of bolsters 30 inches wide at the center plate, and extended to nearly double that width at the ends which are bolted to the side frames. Center pins 18 inches in diameter transmit the tractive effort to the frame. They are well lubricated to permit free motion on curves. The truck pedestals are provided with wedge, and gib adjustments to take up wear, and the bearing brasses are easily removable by hand. The distance between truck centers is 14 feet, 6 inches. Cab. The cab is formed of sheet steel mounted on a framework of Z bars which supports the walls and roof. Windows are provided at each end, giving an outlook on both sides and in front of the locomotive; and the driver is so close to the front that he can see the track a very few feet ahead. This advantage is not possessed by any type of steam locomotive now in service. The master- controllers, auto-transformers, instruments, grid resist- ances, air operating valves, compressors, and other auxil- lary apparatus are mounted inside the cab upon an angle- iron framework which is built into the cab, and securely anchored to floor and roof. | 15 M2 RR2 | RR3 III 345 D.C. Full Multiple 20 | 1 4/5 M1 | G1 R3| R4 12 | 13 s | 15 M2 RR3 | RR4 IV 397 NotTe:—O—Switches 2, 3 11 and 14 used when moving in reverse direction. V 450 SEQUENCE OF SWITCHES WHEN OPERATING ON ALTERNATING CURRENT. VI 495 . POSITION. Sw. Gr. No. 1 Sw. Gr. No. 2 Sw. Gr. No. 4 Sw. Gr. No.5 VII 548 VIII 584 Pel TO: 20174 +b G2: 12 69 | "7 OP Is ISO 16a) 17 Sele 41q@2}6\7 12 18 16 uy, cx 636 4}q@2|/6\7/1 17 A. C. Switching. $ | 1 Rape | Bout | Le aia Vag a ye Oe 4}q@2|6]7)1]1\1 12 | 13 16 | 17 | I/ | 11” |111’ A.C. No.1 6] 1 4|G2|6|7]1|m|1m| IV 12 | 13 16 | 17 | I | 11” \ILl’|1v/ A. CO. No.2 fp pel 4|@216|7 I | 11| Iv} Vv 12 | 13 16 | 17 II’ |111/|IVv’| v/ A. GC. No.3 S044 4|G216|7 1 | IV | Vv | VI 12 | 13 16 | 17 IV |tv/| v7 | vi’ A. O. No.4 9 |1 4|@2|6|7 IV |v | VI] VII 12 | 13 16 | 17 Iv/| V/ | VI’ | vir’ A.G.No.5 10] 1 4|q@2/6|7 v | vi| vit] vit 12 | 13 16 | 17 V/ | VI | Vir’ |vitr’ A.©.No.6 11] 1 4|G@2|6|7 VI| Vil | VIII | 1x 12 | 13 16 | 17] | vV’ | vil’ lyin’! 1x’ ©. No. | OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVES 385 2. Replace fuse. 3. Close the switches. On D. C.: 1. Open train line heater switch. 2. Insert paddles between all shoes and third rail. 3. Replace fuse. 4. Remove paddles and close heater switch. SANDERS. Question 110. How should an air leakage through the sanding valves be remedied ? | Answer. ‘The sander should be cut off by closing shut- off cock provided for that purpose. If this is not done the pressure in main reservoir may be lost. Question 111. What are the most important things to remember in these rules? Answer. Never allow current to flow in a motor which is standing still. Never use water on a fire. Never use a crow bar or a coupler pin around the loco- motive. Never go on top of locomotive while a trolley is in con- tact with any wire. INDIANA UNION TRACTION COMPANY’S ELEC- TRIC LOCOMOTIVE. Fig. 202 shows a type of electric locomotive recently put in service on the lines of the Indiana Union Trac- tion Company, Anderson, Indiana. The locomotive is the steeple cab, sloping end type and has the following general dimensions: Total weight onsdrivers: he ee 100,000 Ibs. Extreme length (over steps).......... apne Extreme length over couplers......... Don Om Extreme length over bumpers......... OL Extreme wWidtheis osha t. cee eee pon KA Extreme height (rail to clearance line) .13’ 5” Height of trolley board above rail...... gee f44 Width of bumpenern teeta nee 1 eOe Height to center of couplers........... 35014” Truck,.centers: sna de ae eee Oe Trucks. The trucks under this locomotive are of the Baldwin Master Car Builders equalizing bar design. The frame is of wrought iron, filled together with steel channel transoms at the center and steel angle bars at the ends. The transom channels and angle bars are fitted together at the junction to the frames with steel gusset plates. The pedestals are made of wrought iron carefully machined to fit the truck frames, and _ also machined between pedestal jaws to fit the journal boxes. The whole structure of these trucks is fitted 386 387 ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES boners rae 388 ELECTRIC RAILROADING together by machine turned bolts driven into holes reamed out to receive them. The truck bolsters are made of wrought iron, the weight on the bolster being supported by double elliptic, twelve leave springs. These elliptic springs rest on a steel spring plank, hung by swinging links from the track transoms. The entire truck frame supporting the locomotive rests on four eoil springs, transmitting the weight of the locomotive to four steel equalizing bars which rest on the journal boxes. The journal boxes are of the Master Car Build- ers interior design, and have cast on them extensions to which a beam may be bolted to carry a collector, should it be desirable to use the third rail means of transmitting current. The brake rigging is of the inside hung type with one live lever, and one dead lever on each side of the trucks. The motor suspension employed on these trucks is of the | ‘‘Gibbs’’ type. This consists of a rectangular frame of wrought «steel, to which both motors are attached by swing bolts on each side of the motors, and spring sup- ported bolts at one end of the motor. This type of motor suspension has the following advantages: a—No part of the motor weight is carried on the truck frame. b—The motor suspension springs need to be only of sufficient strength to carry the weight of the motors, hence the motors ride more easily, are subject to less jar, and have less hammer blow effect on the track than with any other form of motor suspension. e—With this form of motor suspension the entire truck frame may be removed from the axles without disturbing the motors. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 389 The principal dimensions of the trucks are as follows: CUO Geren er. KY esteem ingen sas es 4’ 81,” Height of center plate above rail..... en Ss ae (WiheelBbasca er mete ee. eey ete roe ate sues Orr nee Weight of truck complete without TWOCOL Sarees et cee een a 10,000 Ibs. Designed to carry..... Beenie se korean es: 25,000 Ibs. TRUCK CONSTRUCTION. pide: frames ‘wrought: iron... 2.52... PED Be Ah Pedostiuemyrouchbeirones eine foe 2x47 Center eicanisoricemae Wale mene! a. 10” channel Trucksbolsters wrought iron. 3.2.25: 9” wide Bolstentiriussscteelsplate.ti.. 6. 0... Rl xT1h” Generar Lave erecta ene Ah ye ois Cast steel Equalizingebars: wrourcht iront. a.) 2. 2. Ge Sprinewplank——steel i ea 2 a exe SPRINGS. Doublerellipticrc! 2 Weaves® 4 fees sco 2S Siielemecoileeciamoter yes sete aul ee st TAL” WHEELS AND AXLES. Wheels east steel spoke center steel tires. . .33” Tires held by ‘‘Gibson’’ retaining TISSUE sem st at Ne De x3 Te" ALES DRCOTILC Ion Wumer er seanMvaieye craic's cite eka ath 616” (TeaTmanueaw Necleseat) nea hl. teow 116” VOUITIAIS Eee Rt Ceri sira em irs ho as ot ae 41/4,x8” POULMAIBDOKCS ue eter wets oy, M. C. B. cast iron ELEcTRIC EQUIPMENT. Trucks designed for two Westinghouse No. 85 railway motors rating 75 H. P. each. Motor SUSPENSION. ‘*Gibbs’’ eradle suspension. Motors. The motors on this locomotive are Westing- 390 ELECTRIC RAILROADING house No. 85. The frame is made of cast steel, divided horizontally in two parts, securely bolted together, and forming a field which is wholly ironclad, and approxi- mately cylindrical in shape. The design is such that when mounted on the truck, the holding bolts may be withdrawn and the upper field lifted off. To this end the suspension lugs, and projection for the support of the gear case are cast with the lower field. A large opening with a spring-locked cover is provided in the upper casting, which permits access to the com- mutator and brushes. Hand-holes are provided in econ- venient locations about the motor frame. The four pole pieces are built up of soft steel punch- ings, riveted together between end plates of wrought iron, and are held to the motor frame by bolts. The poles project radially inward at angles of 45° with the horizontal. Two bolts, secured by lock washers, hold each pole piece in place. They do not penetrate the pole face, but terminate in heavy rivets inside the pole made for this purpose. A smooth and unbroken pole face is thus presented to the armature. The poles are made with projecting tips, which prop- erly distribute the magnetic field, and also serve to retain the field coils, which are held firmly in place by spring washers. The coils are wound with asbestos-covered wire. They are heavily taped, and are treated with spe- cially-prepared insulating compounds which render them practically moisture proof. The armature core is formed of circular punchings of soft steel, built up upon a cast iron spider. Ventilating spaces are provided in the core at right angles to and parallel with the shaft. There is, therefore, a thorough circulation of air through the core, and through, and about the coils, insuring an even dis- os ; : 3 Py Soe: aoe s ae 3 | ay ———— . = « = z Fann ee neeT Oe Hy ; = bet = ; z aes = ag ae eee é i e3 Si $ eo = ; . ; oes at rite ae re ; ee tS ; . eS 3 Be. a : -& = on ¥ \ i] ROLL , o % COD ee BAT Ah e€ osarne Cy der Rheostaro. Fig. 203. Wiring Diagram of Union Traction Co.’s Electric Locomotive No. 679. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 391 tribution of the heat developed, and its rapid radiation. The spider is pressed on and keyed to the shaft. The commutator also is mounted on the same spider, and the shaft can thus be taken out and renewed should this be necessary, Without disturbing any other part. The armature is wound with machine-formed coils, imbedded in rectangular open slots, and held in place by band wires sunk in grooves. It is therefore wholly iron-clad, and the winding protected against mechanical injury. Canvas caps protect the winding at both ends, completely covering the parts of the windings outside of the armature core. The end plate at the pinion end is provided with a bell-shaped flange, upon which the windings rest. This flange also holds the ends of the coils rigidly in place. The armature may, therefore, be run safely at high speeds. The ends of the coils, and the back of the commutator are thoroughly protected from carbon and copper dust. The complete armature is 1534 inches in diameter. Wiper rings of approved design pressed upon the shaft outside the armature revolve in spaces in the motor frame inside the bearing boxes, and prevent oil working its way along the shaft to the commutator or winding. Oil thrown off by these rings is drained off through suitable openings. The commutator consists of 117 hard-drawn copper segments with short necks, separated by prepared mica sheets, built up upon a cast iron bushing, and clamped between two V-shaped surfaces, from which they are insulated by similarly-shaped rings of moulded mica. The completed commutator measures 12 inches in diam- eter by 434 inches in width, and has a wearing depth of approximately one inch. It is pressed on, and keyed to the armature spider. 392 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Brush holders of the sliding shunt type are mounted on east brass arms which are secured to the motor frame by vuleabeston headed bolts. These arms admit of radial adjustment to compensate for wear of the commutator. The tension springs may be thrown back and fastened out of the way, facilitating the inspection of the brushes. Each arm carries two carbon brushes 14’’x2” in seec- tion. The tension springs for each brush are independ- ently adjusted. Flexible leads of rubber insulated cable are brought out through bushings of semi-hard rubber, set in the motor frame. Curve sheet shows the characteristic curves of this motor under conditions of variable load, as found in locomotive practice. CoNTROLLER. The controller is of the L-4 type of series parallel controller, and the accompanying diagram (Fig. 203) shows the wiring arrangement of motors and resistance steps from zero to full multiple operation. STEEL UNDERFRAME. The underframing of this loco- motive consists of two center sills, two side sills, two end sills, two bolster sills and its diagonal bracing. The center sills consist of two 12’x12” plate girders composed of 14x12” plate with four angles 6x31% riv- eted together. The side sills are 12”, 3114 Ibs., ‘‘I’’ beams. The end sills are of the same plate girder section as the center sills fitted into the sills, and riveted together by 54x10x1114” angles and 34” rivets. The bolsters are also made of 12” plate girders fitted in between the side and center sills, and have reinforced top and bottom cover plates 1’’x8” riveted to all sills. The diagonal braces are 14’’x6” riveted to all sills top and bottom. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 393 The center plates are fitted over the bottom cover plates, and are bolted on with four 1” bolts. The draw bars are of the M. C. B. standard type, and they are connected to the center sills at each end of the steel framing, by channel steel spring pocket plates, riveted by 34” rivets to the two 12” plate girders which constitute the center sills. LocomorTivE Bopy Fram'na. The body framing is of oak. The cab which is located in the center is 7’ 8” square, and is provided with windows in the ends, sides, and doors, affording the operator a good view of the track while operating the locomotive in either direction. The body flooring, which extends to within 12” of each end is 2” of tongued and grooved pine. The outside sheeting, which extends clear down to the bottom of the side sills, is tongued, matched and grooved poplar. The inside sheeting of the sloping portion is 1” tongued and grooved pine. The outside of the sloping portion is covered by sheet iron of the No. 27 gauge. In the floor of the cab there is provided a trap door, giving access to a convenient tool box arranged between the steel sills of the underframing. The roof of the cab is sheeted over with poplar and painted canvas to make it weather proof. The locomotive body is securely bolted through the steel underframing, and the sloping ends are arranged to receive the ballast necessary to give the locomotive the proper weight on the drivers. Brakes. The locomotive is fitted with the latest type of Westinghouse automatic quick action brakes, so that it may handle steam, or electric cars fitted with auto- matic brakes. It is also fitted out with the Christensen 394 ELECTRIC RAILROADING straight air brake, so that it may handle electric freight or passenger cars equipped with straight air. By an ingenious arrangement the two engineer’s valves, con- veniently located, are made to interlock each other so that when it is desired to use the automatic air brake the engineer’s valve on the straight air line is locked and cannot be operated, or when it is desired to use the straight air brake the engineer’s valve on the automatic line is locked, and cannot be moved. This arrangement was made necessary to avoid any confusion, and possible accident due to operating the wrong valves. Air for the locomotive and its train is provided by an- electric driven air compressor of 25 feet capacity, located in the locomotive cab. This is provided with a pneu- matic electric governor which cuts off the current from the compressor motor when the pressure in the air tanks reaches 110 lbs. and automatically cuts it in when the pressure is reduced in the main reservoir to 95 Ibs. The necessary air gauges, switches, ete., are located in the cab, indicating main auxiliary and train line air pres- sures. The main and auxiliary air reservoirs are located underneath the steel framing. The locomotive is equipped with a double pneumatic sanding device on front, and rear trucks, so that sand may be delivered to front or rear trucks separately, or simultaneously in either direction. The sanding valves are located in the cab convenient to the operator. BELL. There is also provided a 14” locomotive bell, of ornamental design, located on one of the sloping ends of the body. This bell is swung by an air cylinder. When it becomes necessary to ring the bell, the operator turns a small valve in the cab, and the bell continues to ring till the air is shut off. This arrangement allows the ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 395 operator free use of both hands for his controller, and air brakes. LicHt. An electric are searchlight is furnished on both ends of the locomotive, so that the operator may have a clear view of the track at night going in either direction. TROLLEY RETRIEVERS. ‘Trolley retrievers are also fur- nished at both ends, to take care of the trolley pole rope in normal condition, when the trolley wheel is on the wire. Should the wheel leave the wire, the retriever promptly pulls the pole down, preventing any destruc- tion of the overhead wires, and transmission lines. TROLLEY Base. The trolley base is of the most, ap- proved ball bearing type, permitting a ready response of the trolley wheel to any changes of alignment, or varying height of the transmission wire. Marker Licuts. Electric marker lights are provided under the roof of the cab at both ends, permitting the display of two green, two white or two red lights. These lenses are 514” diameter and are arranged in accord- ance with the rules of the Central Electric Railway Association, governing the use of classification and tail lights. This locomotive is one of the notable examples of a high speed, high grade engine, which may be used in freight or passenger service and has been designed and constructed so that it may be used in the company’s own business or it may serve to interchange and handle the cars of foreign lines, either steam or electric, as all its equipment will interchange with the Master Car Builders’ Standards of steam roads. ENCLOSED ARC HEADLIGHT EQUIPMENT FOR STREET RAILWAY SERVICH. FORM B. The equipment consists of two parts: the headlight, including cable, plug and two sockets; and the rheostat. TO PREPARE HEADLIGHTS FOR INSTALLING. When the headlights are received and unpacked, open the glass door and remove all shipping ties from the mechanism. ‘Carefully brush out all dust, ete., that may have accumulated. Examine the mechanism for loosened parts. INSTALLING THE SYSTEM. Connections should be made according to the diagram (Fig. 204), with the rheostat installed in a vertical posi- tion where there is a free draft of air. Be sure that the car dasher is grounded to the negative side of the line. That the headlight may be interchangeable for either end of the ear, each platform should be furnished with one of the sockets, to which the headlight can be attached as shown. Where it is desired to use incandescent lamps in place of the resistance, and thus utilize for car lighting the power otherwise lost, lamps should be connected in mul- tiple series so as to supply 4 amperes, and 80 volts to the headlight under average operating conditions. 396 ELECTRIC HEADLIGHTS 397 ADJUSTING THE HEADLIGHT. All equipments are carefully adjusted and tested be- fore shipment. If the installation is made as above directed, 20 readjustment should be necessary. With the resistance in series with the headlight, and a 520 volt line there should be approximately 4 amperes 80 volts at the are. The current is dependent upon the amount of resistance in circuit, and the are voltage dec- pends upon the are length or, in other words, upon the position of the stop which limits the upward movement of the carbon clutch. Headlight _ BeUahI? =| lug Butch Fig. 204. Connections of Enclosed Are Headlight Equipment for Street Railway Service, Form B. The lower carbon should be raised shghtly from time to time to keep the are in focus. CONNECTING. Hang the headlight on the dasher and insert the pluy in the socket. When properly connected in circuit the upper carbon is positive. 398 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ENCLOSING GLOBE. The headlight should never be used without the enclos- ing globe which excludes the air from the are. The enclosing globe should be properly fitted at the bottom so as to make an air-tight joint. The upper edge of the globe must rest squarely against the cap. The num- ber of hours the lamp will burn with one trimming depends largely upon keeping the globe tight and exclud- ing the air. REFLECTOR. The reflector in front of the lamp mechanism is held in place by two screws. The inside surface should be kept clean and bright. CARBONS. Only the best grade of solid carbons of the following dimensions should be used: Upper, 6” long x 3%” diameter. Lower, 4” long x 34” diameter. Maximum allowable dia. of 3” carbons .400”. Minimum allowable dia. 34” carbons .390”. The total burning time of the above carbons should be about 24 hours. TRIMMING THE HEADLIGHT. As carbons vary somewhat in diameter, only those within the limits specified should be used. The carbons should pass freely through the enclosing globe cap, for ELECTRIC HEADLIGHTS 399 any friction at this point will prevent the proper opera- tion of the lamp. Be sure the carbons are smooth and straight. To carbon the headlight, disconnect it from the circuit, and remove the lower carbon by opening the supporting spring at the bottom. The inner globe should be re- moved, eleaned and replaced, returning the holder to its proper position by bringing the top of the carbon to the focus of the reflector. Remove the cap on the top of the headlight and drop the upper earbon into the earbon tube. Replace the cap. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. f Ordinarily a lightning discharge, which is an equali- zation of potential between the earth, and either clouds or saturated atmosphere above the earth, will take place through the path of least resistance, but, as pointed out by Rowland, there is a certain factor somewhat resem- bling inertia which causes the lightning, once started, to follow sometimes an irregular path, similarly, for in- stance, as when a piece of paper is suddenly torn. Transmission lines and buildings of ordinary height sur- rounded by trees are not peculiarly subject to damage from lightning, because they cover a comparatively small portion of the earth, and are surrounded by objects of ereater height, which offer a better path for the light- ning discharge to the earth. They do, however, receive some discharge, and the damage which might be done can be very great. It is, therefore, necessary to provide ample protection. Generally speaking, the severe manifestations of light- ning are confined to a relatively small area, which rarely exceeds in extent an area of about one square mile. It may be concluded from this that protective apparatus situated at certain points along the line will afford no protection to remote points. Generally speaking, the broad requirements for light- ning protection consist in supplying paths to ground for any charge which might accumulate on lines, or ma- chinery from any cause whatever. The ideal arrester 400 LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 401 will cause excessive potential differences to be relieved instantaneously, and stop the flow of current, as soon as the potential has fallen to safe limits for the line. No one type of hghtning arrester fulfills all requirements, and accordingly it is found expedient to use different types and combinations, in different situations and under different conditions. For the protection of electric circuits, grounded guard wires are best, and when the cost over the whole system would prove prohibitive, they should be confined to such localities as are peculiarly liable to suffer destructive discharges. Three ground wires are required for the best practicable protection. One of these should he placed on top, and in the middle of the line, and should be a heavy galvanized steel cable, and the other two, which should be heavy telegraph wires, are placed out- side, and above the top side conductors. The ground wires should be earthed at every pole for the first 10 or 12 poles from the building, and at every second pole on the rest of the line. Graded resistance or aluminum type lightning arresters should be installed on every feeder issuing from the station, and on primary and secondary of every transformer, and a surge protector in the sta- tion, but choke coils having a large number of turns should not be used in the station, as they represent a possible source of danger. Lightning may consist of a single discharge of great violence and very small duration, or it may consist of a creat number of distinct discharges following each other rapidly and each lasting only a very short time. Thus the same path may serve for a great number of short discharges closely following each other. The total time of passage and number of discharges have been deter- 402 ELECTRIC RAILROADING mined by Alex. Larsen from photographic records made with a revolving camera. In an extreme case, 48 flashes were recorded in a total interval of .624 second. This establishes the unsuitability of arresters depending upon moving parts for their operation. Such arresters might possibly leave the line unprotected during a minute in- terval of time, which might be of momentous magnitude in comparison with the very brief period of duration of a single lightning flash. Where from internal causes, such as flashing over a bushing or insulator, the arcing ground sends a series of oscillations through the circuit, it 1s necessary to pro- vide an arrester which will continue to discharge the abnormal voltage for a sufficient period to permit the operator to locate and isolate the trouble. Half an hour is generally found to suffice for the period of an arrester, as this will give time to discover the point of trouble, where this is remote from the station. Horn arresters placed along the line at various places will do much to protect insulators from puncturing or arcing across. These horn arresters should be adjusted to are at something below the wet arc-over voltage of the insulators, and should be connected to earth direct. Only one phase per pole should be protected by a horn arrester, so that in the event of two horns arcing simul- taneously, the earth resistance can be utilized to limit the discharge. Ground wires should not be grounded at poles carrying horn arresters. Lightning rods above wooden poles are an advantage. Graded resistance multigap, or aluminum arresters should be used on outgoing and incoming lines. Choke coils should be in the circuit just back of arresters, which, in turn, are placed quite near the passages and LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 403 are provided with disconnecting switches. Single-phase locomotives have a specially designed graded resistance multigap type of arrester, which meets the requirements of space limitation. For voltages exceeding 35,000 the aluminum, or elec- trolytic type of arrester should be recommended exclu- sively, and even for moderate, and low voltages they are so far superior to other types that their ultimate selec- ee / Ve 1 wleleleleleleleleleleleleieielelelelcleleleleleleleleeleleleee) 1 ST os old BE) a Na Pa ed 4 wes Fig. 205. ‘Lightning Arrester. tion reverts to a question only of initial cost. Alumi- num arresters are designed especially to take care of recurrent, or continuous discharges, which are, as a rule, of comparatively low frequency, and therefore travel over the entire system, so that even if the system is supplied with multigap arresters, it is advisable to in- stall one or more aluminum arresters having low adjust- ment. This arrangement will prevent the other types of arresters from discharging continuously until they are injured, 404 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The general theory of the multigap arrester is as fol- lows: When voltage is applied across a series of multigap cylinders, the voltage distribution is not uniform. The voltage distributes according to the capacity of the eyl- inders, both between themselves and also to ground, and the capacity of the cylinders to ground, results in the concentration of voltage across the gaps nearest the line. Fig. 205 shows the theoretical voltage gradient along an arrester. The voltage across the end gaps reaches a certain value. They are across, passing the strain back to the other gaps, which in turn are over until the spark has passed entirely across. The arrester in this manner ares over at voltage much lower than would be required if the voltage distributed evenly. When the arrester has arced over, and current is flowing the voltage then does distribute evenly between the gaps, and is for this reason too low to maintain an alternating current arc. The are, therefore, lasts only to the end of a half eyele, and then goes out. The maximum voltage per gap at which the are will extinguish at the end of the half eycle depends to a great extent upon the metal of the eylinders. Thus some metals are more efficient than others in extinguishing the are. When the voltage of an alternating current passes through zero, of course no eurrent flows. Before the current flows in the reverse direction the voltage must again break through the die- lectric. The voltage required to do this depends upon how much the dielectric has been weakened by the passage of the are. The cooler the arc, the less the dielectric is weakened, and the higher will be the voltage required to reverse the are. As the temperature of the are depends upon the boiling point of the cathode metal, in very much the same way as the temperature of steam LIGHTNING ARRESTERS : 405 depends upon the boiling point of the water, metals with low boiling points are used for the lghtning arrester cylinders, in order to keep down the are tem- perature. : The use of resistance in a lightning arrester needs very careful consideration. Lightning does not readily pass through resistance, especially when in series with multigaps, and therefore series resistance should not be used. At the same time it is very desirable in some way to limit the current. This problem has at last been solved by use of a low shunt resistance, shunting a part of the gaps and so proportioned to divert the current from the gaps, after the discharge has passed the ground. Shunt resistance has been used before, but never for this purpose, and was never made low enough to divert the are in this way. It is obvious, of course, that a discharge taking place through a high resistance will not relieve the line except in a case of the static. What happens, however, is some- thing lke this: When a surge of dangerous voltage rises, and before it reaches a danger point, the series gaps are over. The series gaps then being practically short-circuited by the are the voltage concentrates across the lowest division of the shunted gaps, and these at once also break down. The current is then limited by the medium resistance, and the voltage is concentrated across the second division of the arrester. If these gaps break down, the discharge is hmited only by the low resistance, which should take care of most cases. If necessary, however, the voltage can ‘‘break back’’ in this way, and cut out all resistance. The number of gaps to rectify depends largely on the current that flows. In this arrester the number of gaps discharging increases 406 ELECTRIC RAILROADING as the limiting resistance decreases. The arrester will, therefore, operate and extinguish the are at the end of the half-cycle no matter which path the current takes. LINE FUSE Fig. 206. Station Arrester, INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING 600 VOLT D. Cc. ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. The principal elements of this arrester are two cells, each consisting of two concentric aluminum plates immersed in an electrolyte contained in a glass jar. The outside plate of each cell should be the positive, and the inner one the negative, as indicated by the marking of the four studs on the porcelain cover, two studs supporting each plate. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 407 In addition, station arresters are fitted with a balane- ing resistance in shunt with each cell and a series fuse; ear arresters, with a series fuse as connecting lnk be- tween the two cells. Diagrams of connections are shown in Figs. 206 and 207. To Fill the Arrester. Unscrew the metal rings at the top of the jars and lft off the porcelain covers, with Ling Fig. 207. Car Arrester. the aluminum plates attached, without removing the connection between the two units. Pour enough electro- lyte into the jars to bring the level to about one inch from cover. Add 1% pint of oil to each jar. In transferring the electrolyte, or oil from the carboy, or other container used for shipping, employ nothing but clean aluminum, or glass vessels and funnels. Take every precaution to prevent any dust or other material from getting into the electrolyte. 408 ELECTRIC RAILROADING IMPORTANT. Although the cells are shipped with film in prime condition, we have found it advisable before connecting permanently to the circuit to connect the arrester in series with five 120 volt incandescent lamps across the 600 volt circuit. The lamps will burn brightly for an instant and then rapidly diminish to darkness, thus indi- cating that the film is all right. If the lamps are dark at first, the circuit should be opened and closed, and a small snappy spark at the contact point will show that the circuit is complete and the film in proper condition. The lamps should then be removed and the cells con- nected directly to the circuit. Connections. These should be as short as possible be- tween line and ground, and only to those points on which the terminals are placed when shipped. Use only the style of terminal furnished, as they afford no chance for a short circuit by swinging against the opposite ter- minal. In the case of pole arresters the test with series lamps, as described above, should be made before making the last connection, otherwise there may be a consider- able flash due to an instantaneous current rush. The ground connection of these line arresters should be made directly to the rail, or ground bus, and driven pipe ground. Operation. If the arrester has stood assembled in its electrolyte for a month or more, when reconnected there will be a momentary rush of current which may amount to several hundred amperes. To avoid this current rush use lamps in series as explained above. It is preferable, however, when an arrester is to be LIGHTNING ARRESTERS +409 left out of service for some time, to pour out the electro- Iyte and oil, wash the plates and jars with clean water and put the plates back in the jar. When replacing in service, make the usual test with lamps. After operating for some time, arresters without bal- ancing resistance, may divide the voltage unequally be- tween cells, which is indicated by sparkling of the plates in one cell. Hence, car arresters which have no balane- ing resistances should be inspected frequently, say once a month, and when sparkling is noted, the arrester should be removed from the circuit, and connected to a test circuit with a bank of five lamps in shunt with each jar; that is ten lamps from line to line with the middle point connected between cells. After operating this way for several hours remove the lamps. If sparkling has ceased, the arrester is ready to be returned to the car. After the arrester has been in operation for a short time, the electrolyte may become dark in appearance, but this condition is normal. Inspection should cover answers to the following questions: 1. Are there any loose connections ? 2. Is the level of the electrolyte at the proper height ? 3. Are the positive plates worn off at the surface of the electrolyte? 4. Are the connecting leads as short as possible? 5. Does either cell sparkle? Remember that the tests with serves lamps should always be used with the arrester, as explained under ‘““‘Important,’’ before it is connected for the first time to the circuit, or after vt has been out of service for a month or more. 410 ELECTRIC RAILROADING MULTIGAP LIGHTNING ARRESTERS FOR ALTERNATING CURRENTS. These arresters, designed upon an elaboration of Prof. Elihu Thomson’s fundamental patents, consists of a series of spark gaps shunted by graded resistances, but without series resistance. The advantages possessed by them are: 1. Uniform voltage discharge over a wide range of frequency due to graded resistance. 2. Shunting the dynamic current through resistance. 3. The ‘‘breaking back’’ action on low frequency surges. 4. Fuse in ground leg of non-grounded neutral systems. 5. Adjustable gap in each leg shunted by a fuse. 6. Metallic resistance rods of improved composition. 7. Durable knurled cylinders of special alloy. 8. General Electric standard multiplex connection. When properly installed they will perform the follow- ing functions: First. Prevent excessive rise of potential of a transi- tory nature between lines, as well as between lines and cround. Second. Restrain the flow of electric current across the gaps, and extinguish the are when normal potential is restored. Third. Discharge high potentials covering a wide range of frequency. The essential elements of the arrester are, a number of cylinders spaced with a small air gap between them ' and, placed between line and ground, and between line LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 411 and line. In operation the multigap arrester discharges at a much lower voltage than would:a single gap having a length equal to the sum of the small gaps. In explaining the action of mul!tigaps, there are three things to consider: 1. The transmission of the static stress along the line of cylinders. O “) O MeQt/177 Ovasistarice Psitonce O O O O ° Fig. 208. Zoe et NN of Resistances, 2. The sparking of the gaps. 3. The action and duration of the dynamic current which follows the spark, and the extinguishment of the are. A spark may be defined as conduction of electricity by the air, and an are as conduction of electricity by vapor of the electrode, 412 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Distribution of Static Stress Along Cylinders. The cylinders of the multigap arrester act like plates of con- densers in series. This condenser function is the essen- tial feature of its operation. When a static stress is applied to a series of cylinders between line and ground (Fig. 208), the stress is instantly carried from end to end. If the top eylinder is positive it will attract a negative charge on the face of the adjacent cylinder, e- — — y— — I) HY) POOH HMOHMIOMHMDIDIHY'DIDIDID'D'OHNIDHDIGIO! Fig. 209. Diagram Showing Condenser Action of Cylinders and Potential Gradient for Static Stress. and repel an equal positive charge to the opposite face, and so on down the entire row. The second cylinder has a definite capacity relative to the third cylinder and also to the ground; consequently the charge induced on the third cylinder will be less than on the second eylin- der, due to the fact that only part of the positive charge on the second eylinder induces negative electricity on the third, while the rest of the charge induces negative electricity to the ground. Hach successive cylinder, LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 413 counting from the top of the arrester, will have a slightly smaller charge of electricity than the preceding one. This condition has been expressed as a ‘‘steeper potential gradient near the line.”’ Sparking of the Gaps. The quantity of electricity induced on the second cylinder is greater than on any lower cylinder, and its gap has a greater potential strain across it as shown by Fig. 209. When the potential across the first gap is sufficient to spark, the second cyl- inder is charged to line potential and the second gap receives the static strain and breaks down. The suc- cessive action is similar to overturning a row of nine- pins by pushing the first pin against the second. This phenomenon explains why a given length of air gap con- centrated in one gap requires more potential to spark across it, than the same total length made up of a row of multigaps. As the spark crosses each successive gap, the potential gradient along the remainder readjusts itself. How the Dynamic Arc 1s Extinguished. When the sparks extend across all the gaps the dynamic current will follow if, at that instant, the dynamic potential is sufficient. On account of the relatively greater current of the dynamic flow, the distribution of potential along the gaps becomes equal, and has the value necessary to maintain the dynamic current arc on a gap. The dyna- mie current continues to flow until the potential of the generator passes through zero to the next half cyele, when the arc-extinguishing quality of the metal ecylin- ders comes into action. The alloy contains a metal of low boiling point which prevents the reversal of the dynamic current. It is a rectifying effect, and before 414 ELECTRIC RATLROADING the potential again reverses, the are vapor in the gaps has cooled to a non-conducting state. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC MULTIGAP LIGHT- NING ARRESTERS. Rectification. The greater the value of the dynamic current, the greater the number of gaps required to extinguish the ares. Shunting by Resistance. Any are is unstable and can be extinguished by placing a properly proportioned resistance in parallel with it. Effect of Frequency. The higher the frequency of the lightning oscillation, the more readily will the multigap respond to the potential. Briefly stated, the problem is to properly limit the dynamic current, so that the are may be extinguished; to arrange a shunt circuit so that the series resistance will be automatically cut out if safety demands it on account of a heavy lightning stroke and, while retaining these properties, to make the arrester sensitive to a wide range of frequencies. It should be noted that series resistance limits the rate of discharge of the lightning, as well as of the dynamic current. GRADED SHUNT RESISTANCE. The desired result is obtained in the General Electric Multigap Lightning Arresters by the use of graded shunt resistance. Without regarding the ‘‘cumulative’’ or ‘‘breaking back’’ effect of the graded resistance, de- scribed later, this type of arrester may be considered as LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 415 four arresters in one. First, for small discharges there are a few gaps in series with a high shunt resistance. This part of the arrester will safely discharge accumu- lated static, and also all disruptive discharges of small ampere capacity. In Fig. 210 this path is shown through H (resistance) and GS (gaps). Second, there are a | SOTA Gap Fig. 210. Connections for 33,000-volt Y System with Grounded Neutral. number of gaps in series with a medium shunt resistance which will discharge disruptive strokes of medium am- pere capacity; in Fig. 210 this path is shown through M (resistance) and GH plus GS (gaps). Third, there is a greater number of gaps in series with a low shunt resistance which will discharge heavy disruptive strokes. In the figure this path is shown through ZL (resistance) and GM plus GH plus GS (gaps). Fourth and last, the total number of gaps has no series resistance, thus enabling the arrester to freely discharge the heaviest 416 ELECTRIC RAILROADING induced strokes. In Fig. 210 this path is shown through zero resistance and GL plus GM plus GH plus GS (gaps). In each of the above circuits the number of gaps, and the resistance are so proportioned as to extinguish the dynamie are at the end of the half cycle in which the lightning discharge takes place. THE ‘‘CUMULATIVE’’? OR ‘‘BREAKING BACK’’ EFFECT. The graded shunt resistances give a valuable effect not brought out in the previous description, where the arrester is considered as four separate arresters. This is the ‘‘cumulative’’ or “‘breaking back’’ action. When a lghtning strain between line and ground takes place, the potential is carried down the high re- sistance, H, to the series gaps, GS, and the series gaps spark over. Although it may require several thousand volts to spark across an air gap, it requires relatively only a few volts to maintain the are which follows the spark. In consequence, when the gaps GS spark over, the lower end of the high resistance is reduced practi- eally to ground potential. If the high resistance can earry the discharge current without giving an ohmic drop sufficient to break down the shunted gaps GH, nothing further occurs—the are goes out. If, on the contrary, the lightning stroke is too heavy for this, the potential strain is thrown across the shunted gaps, GH, equal in number to the previous set. In other words, the same voltage breaks down both of the groups of gaps, GS and GH, in succession. The lightning dis- charge current is now limited only by the medium re- LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 417 sistanee, M, and the potential is concentrated across the gaps, Gi. If the medium resistance cannot discharge the lightning, the gaps GM spark, and the discharge is limited only by the low resistance. The low resistance should take care of most cases, but with extraordinarily heavy strokes and high frequencies, the discharge can ‘“break back’’ far enough to cut out all resistance. In the last step the resistance is relatively low in propor- tion to the number of shunt gaps, GZ, and is designed to eut out the dynamic current instantly from the gap, GL. The illustration (Fig. 214) of the 2,200 volt arrester shows that the low resistance actually performs this function. This ‘‘breaking back’’ effect is valuable in discharging lightning of low frequency, in a manner better than has been obtained before. After the spark passes, the dynamic ares are extin- guished in the reversed order. The low resistance, L, is proportioned so as to draw the dynamic ares in- stantly from the gaps, GD. The dynamic current con- tinues in the next group of gaps, GM, until the end of the half cycle of the generator wave. At this instant the medium resistance, M, aids the rectifying quality of the gaps, GM, by shunting out the low frequeney dyna- mic current of the generator. On account of this shunt- ing effect the current dies out sooner in the gaps, GM, than it otherwise would. In the same manner, but to a less degree, the high resistance, H, draws the dynamie current from the gaps, GH. This current now being limited by the high resistance, the are is easily extin- guished at the end of the first one-half cycle of the generator wave. 418 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ‘Vv’? UNIT FOR MULTIGAP ARRESTERS. The High-voltage Multigap Arrester is made up of ‘“V’’ units, each unit consisting of gaps between knurled cylinders, and connected together at their ends by short metal strips. The base is of porcelain, which thoroughly insulates each cylinder, and insures the proper function- ing of the multigaps. CYLINDERS. The cylinders are made of an improved alloy that contains metal of low boiling point which gives the recti- fying effect, and metals of high boiling point which can- not vaporize in the presence of the one of low boiling point. The cylinders are heavily knurled. As the are plays on the point of a knurl it gradually burns back and when the metal of low boiling temperature is used up, the gap is increased at that particular point. The knurling therefore, insures longer life to the cylinder, by forcing successive ares to shift to a new point. When worn along the entire face, the cylinder should be slightly turned. RESISTANCE RODS. The low resistance section of the graded shunt is com- posed of rods of a new metallic alloy. These rods have large current-carrying capacity, and practically zero temperature coefficient up to red heat. The medium and high resistance rods are of the same standard composition previously used. The contacts are metal caps shrunk on the ends; the resistances are per- LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 419 manent in value and the inductance is reduced to a minimum. ‘The rods are designed with a large factor of safety, and have sufficient heat absorbing capacity to take the dynamie energy following transitory lightning discharges. They are glazed to prevent absorption of moisture, and surface arcing. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARRESTER FOR GROUNDED Y AND NON-GROUNDED NEUTRAL SYSTEMS. The connection for a three-phase arrester, 33,000 volts between lines, are shown in the illustrations (Figs. 210 and 211). One illustration (Fig. 210) shows the design for a thoroughly grounded Y system and the other for a non-grounded neutral system. The latter (Fig. 211) includes delta, ungrounded Y, and Y systems grounded through a high resistance. The difference in design les in the use of a fourth arrester leg between .the multiplex connection and ground, on ungrounded systems. The reason for intro- ducing the fourth leg is evident. The arrester is de- signed to have two legs between line and line. If one line became accidentally grounded, the full line poten- tial would be thrown across one leg, if the fourth or ground leg were not present. On a Y system with a grounded neutral, the accidentally grounded phase causes a short circuit of the phase, and the arrester is relieved of the strain by the tripping of the circuit breaker. Briefly stated, the fourth or ground leg of the arrester is used when, for any reason, the system could be operated, even for a short time, with one phase erounded. 420 ELECTRIC RAILROADING MULTIPLEX CONNECTION. The multiplex connection consists of a common con- nection between the phase legs of the arrester above the earth connection, and provides an arrester’ better MEOULIT PESISLOSICE. ¥ Fig. 211. Connections for 33,000-volt Delta or Ungrounded Y Systems. adapted to relieve high potential surges between lines than would otherwise be possible. Its use also econo- mizes greatly in space and material for delta and par- tially grounded or non-grounded Y systems. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 4921 FUSE AUXILIARIES. The practice of introdueing an auxiliary adjustable gap between each lne wire and its corresponding leg of the arrester has been discarded in the new design with marked inerease in the sensitiveness of the arrester. As the gap is necessary, under certain abnormal conditions, it is left on the arrester, but short circuited by a fuse so that it comes into service only when the fuse blows on account of an are between phase and ground, or some Bice 212. aVen Unit of Multigan Lightning “Arresters. similar extremely severe continued strain. The sensi- tiveness is also greatly increased by the addition of a similar shunting fuse around the adjustable gap in the eround leg of the arrester. The ground leg is necessary only when there is an accidental ground of a phase and, ordinarily the increased sensitiveness is maintained continually. ZB ELECTRIC RAILROADING LOCATION—SPACING AND SETTING OF ADJUSTABLE GAP. Ample wall space should be provided and _ plenty of room in front should be left for the operator. The arresters should be placed as near as possible to where the lines enter the building. The following minimum separation distances have proved entirely satisfactory. TABLE GIVING PROPER SPACE BETWEEN LIGHTNING ARREST- ERS AND SETTING OF ADJUSTABLE GAP. ADE eta ee Distance in Inches istance ae Between Live Parts Between eels of ae of Adjacent Phases Centers aD (See Note) 7,600 Su 28” ve" 12,250 8” 28/” Ve 13,500 8”” 33” $e 17,000 LO 30” Veg 22.000 1, 37” yy 27,000 ae 48” iN 32,000 ANE Sele a 37,000 26” 56” 3/4 Note—If barriers are used the width of barbers should be added to distances given. It is advisable to locate arresters in a dry place, and before assembling them the wooden supports, insulators, ete., should be thoroughly dried of all moisture which may have collected during transportation. The adjustable spark gap on these arresters is shunted by a fuse. This fuse blows under certain conditions and euts in the added protection of the gap. The set- tings of this gap for the various arresters should be as already explained. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS | 493 VOLTAGE RANGE OF ARRESTERS. Lightning arresters of the form described have been designed for voltages from 5,700 to 37,000. For lower voltages, down to 300 volts, alternating current, the arresters are of slightly different design, having only Fig. 213. Installation of a 12,000-volt, Three-Phase, Multigap Lightning Arrester in the Garfield Park Sub-Station of the West Chicago Park Commission. two resistance rods. For 300 volts and less no resistance is necessary, as the voltage is so low that the are cannot hold, These arresters, therefore, consist simply of sparix gaps. 424 ELECTRIC RAILROADING LOW VOLTAGE ARRESTERS—FORMS Fl AND F2. 300 To 5,700 vouts. The 2,200-volt (Figs. 214 and 217) arrester consists of one unit having fourteen cylinders, nine of which are shunted by a low resistance and eleven by a high resist- ance. As in the case of the high voltage arresters, the grading of resistance provides selective paths for dis- Line. Ground, Fig. 214. Form F1, 2,200-volt Multigap Arrester for Stations. charges. Its action and advantages are therefore similar to those of the high-voltage arrester. Accumulated static charges pass off across the high resistance, and two gaps. High frequency discharges pass across all the gaps; dis- charges of moderate frequency across the low resistance, and four gaps. The low resistance is so proportioned to the number of shunted gaps that the high frequency dis- LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 425 charge across these gaps is not followed by the dynamic current; the dynamic shunting at once to the low resistanee. The discharge takes place over all the gaps, but the ares between the gaps shunted by the low resist- ances are very small compared with the bright ares be- tween the last four gaps. The static discharge passes through all the gaps, while the half wave of dynamic eurrent following the static is shunted part of the way by the resistance. S—88 Arperes PI QXITIILITII Current tn Shunt Res/stomce a VWLat/e O/scharge Cyerrent 1177 SHUNEESA Gagos 2-3200 Vo/ts VIQXIIVLIN Fig. 215. Oscillograph Curves Showing Lightning Arrester Action. An oscillogram of this phenomenon is shown in Fig. 915. The only current in the shunted gaps is the cur- rent of static discharge. It should be noted, however, that the current shown is not a measure of the true cur- rent, as the oscillograph cannot respond to currents of such high frequency. 426 ELECTRIC RAILROADING This arrester is designed to operate across 2,200 volts. It is used, however, from each line to ground, giving, thus connected, sufficient protection and being always able to handle a discharge when one line is grounded. It is built to be used single-pole, but by placing two or three in the same box, becomes double-pole or triple-pole. ine, Ground, Fig. 216. Form F2, 3,000-volt Multigap Arrester for Stations. The 1,000-volt arrester is the same in design, but has only one gap between the high resistance rod and line. The. 3,000-volt arrester (see Fig. 216) is based on the same general principle as the 2,200-volt arrester, differ- ing from it mainly in having two additional gaps to take care of the higher voltage. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 427 The 2,200-volt arrester (Fig. 217) is used in various combinations to form arresters of higher voltage. LOW-VOLTAGE LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 300 VOLTS OR LESS. For low-voltage, alternating-current circuits up to 300 volts the lightning arrester shown in Fig. 218 is used. This type meets the requirements for the protection of Fig. 217. 2,200-volt, Form F1, Lightning Arrester, Discharging and Shunting the Dynamic Current. low voltage circuits such as transformer secondaries, motors, series are lamps, etc. These arresters are made in single, double and triple-pole units. PROTECTION OF MIXED OVERHEAD, AND CABLE SYSTEMS. It is frequently necessary, and desirable for circuits to dip underground when passing through cities, under rivers, etc., and in these cases some form of metal cov- ered cable is generally used. Resonance invariably pro- 428 ELECTRIC RAILROADING duces high potentials at the junction of overhead, and underground lines, and these potentials are often of suf- ficient value to break down the insulation of the cables, and also the insulation of apparatus installed on the system. Whenever lines contain both inductance, and capacity in appreciable quantities, high voltages, which endanger the insulation of the whole system, and which it is im- possible to detect on ordinary switchboard instruments may exist. Abnormal voltages are therefore often found in circuits containing a combination of underground, and overhead circuits and in underground transmission lines. Fig. 218. Single-Pole Arrester. CONSTANT CURRENT ARRESTERS. For constant current lighting cireuits, horn arresters with resistances are recommended. It is advisable to place these arresters in the station on each outgoing line, When cables are used, the arrester should be placed on the pole where the cable joins the overhead wires. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 220) shows the appear- ance of a horn lightning arrester, LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 429 DISCONNECTING SWITCHES. Lightning arresters with disconnecting switches are desirable in order that they may be disconnected from the line for proper inspection, adjustment, cleaning, ete., without opening the line ecireuit. Fig. 219. Double-Pole and Triple-Pole 300-volt Arresters. The disconnecting switches, except the 2,500-volt switches, are of the post insulator type. The 2,500-volt switches are single-blade, front connected, and are mounted directly on marble bases. The post insulator switches are arranged for mounting on flat surfaces. 430 ELECTRIC RAILROADING CHOKE COILS. The proper selection of choke coils is an important feature of hLghtning protection. Choke coils should be used with lightning arresters except, when the arresters are used to protect cable systems. Fig. 220. Horn Arrester for Constant Current Circuits. Three types of choke coils are shown in Figures 222 and 223. The 4,600-volt coil is made of insulated wire, wound on wooden core supported by iron feet. The 6,000-volt coil is made of insulated wire and is mounted on marble base. For voltages above 6,000 the ‘‘hour olass’’ type with air insulated turns is used. With this type the coil is mounted on a wooden, slate or marble base. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 431 The ‘‘hour glass’’ type has the following advantages on high voltages. 1. Should there be any arcing between adjacent turns, the coils will reinsulate themselves after the discharge. 2. They are mechanically strong, and sagging is pre- vented by tapering the coils toward the center turns. 3. The insulating supports can best be designed for the strains that they have to withstand. In providing lightning arresters the following points should be considered : Fig. 221. Post Type Insulator Disconnecting Switch. 1. What is the normal line to line voltage? 2. How many sets of transmission lines are there? 3. Is the system single-phase, two-phase, or three- phase; or three-phase, four wire? 4. Is the system delta connected; Y connected, neu- tral non-grounded; or Y connected, neutral grounded? 5. If single-phase, is the neutral grounded? 6. Are switches to be furnished with the arrester? 7. If so, are they to be double-blade or single-blade ? 8. If double-blade switches are required, state the cur- rent-carrying capacity of the line switch. 9. Are choke coils to be furnished? If so, state their ampere capacities and the number desired. 432 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 10. The number of switch hooks to be furnished. 11. If the line is partly overhead, and partly under- eround, submit a rough sketch that shows where the underground portion is located with reference to the stations and the remainder of the line. DIRECT CURRENT LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. The Type M Form D-2 arrester (Fig. 224) has been the standard for direct current circuits for several years, and is furnished for lighting and power circuits cf from 60 to 375 volts, and for railway and power circuits of from 250 to 1,800 volts. Fig. 222. Hour Glass Type—Choke Coil 15,000-35,000 Volts. The present form of arrester is somewhat longer and narrower than the earlier types, and the spark gap, and non-inductive resistance are in a straight line, thus form- ing a direct path for the discharge, and reducing to a minimum the possibility of short circuit in the box in ease of excessively heavy lightning discharges. One of LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 433 the valuable features of the MD-2 arrester is the fact that all parts can be readily inspected on removing the eover of the poreelain enclosing box (Fig. 225) and a glance will show if the arrester is in proper condition for the next storm. The gap is surrounded by a strong electro-magnet, which immediately blows out the dy- namic are through the chute after the lightning dis- charge has passed. The gaps on arresters up to 850 volts are adjusted to .025 inch, and on higher voltages to .094 inch. These ar- rangements have been found to afford excellent protec- tion to the insulation of the equipments, due to the low breakdown points. 6,000 Volts. 4,600 Volts. Fig. 223. Low Voltage Choke Coils. The spark gap terminals are threaded, and attached to the lid of the box, thus affording a ready method of ad- justment, positive grip on the terminals, and easy access for examination. GROUND CONNECTIONS. In all lightning arrester installations it is of utmost importance to make perfect ground connections, as a large majority of lightning arrester troubles can be traced to the lack of this precaution. It has been cus- 434 ELECTRIC RAILROADING tomary to ground a lightning arrester by means of a large metal plate buried in a bed of charcoal, at a depth of six or eight feet in the earth. A more satisfactory method of making a ground is to drive a number of 1 in. iron pipes six or eight feet into the earth at several points about the station, connecting all these pipes together by means of copper wire or preferably copper strip. A quantity of salt should be placed around each pipe at the surface of the ground and Fig. 224. Direct Current Arrester, Type M, Form D-2. the ground thoroughly moistened with water. It is ad- visable to connect. the pipes to the iron frame work of the station, and also to any water mains, metal flumes, or trolley rails that are available. For the station of ordinary size the following recom- mendation is made. Place three earth-pipes equally spaced near each outside wall, making twelve altogether, and place three extra pipes spaced about 6 feet apart at a point nearest the arrester. When plates are placed in streams of running water, LIGHTNING ARRESTERS ) 435 it is much better for them to be buried in the mud along the bank, than to he in the stream. Streams with rocky bottoms are to be avoided except as a last resort. Whenever plates are placed at any distance from the arrester it is advisable to drive a pipe in the earth directly beneath the arrester, thus making the ground Fig. 225. Direct Current Lightning Arrester—Interior. connections as short as possible. Earth plates at a dis- tance cannot be depended upon. Long ground wires in a station eannot be depended upon, unless a lead is ear- ried to the multiple pipe-earths described above. In view of the fact that it 1s advisable to occasionally examine the ground connections to see that they are in proper condition, it is desirable to lay out the exact plans 436 ELECTRIC RAILROADING of the location of the ground plates, ground wires, or pipes, with a brief description of them, so that at any time the data may be referred to. From time to time the resistance of the ground con- nections should be measured to determine their condi- tion. This is very easily done when pipe grounds are installed, as the resistance of one pipe can be accurately determined, when three or more pipes are used. The resistance of a single pipe ground in good condition has an average value of about 15 ohms. A simple and satis- factory method of keeping account of the condition of the earth connections is to divide the pipe-earths into two groups, and connect each group to the 110-volt hght- ing circuit, with an ammeter in series. If there is a flow of about 20 amperes the conditions are satisfactory, pro- vided the pipe-earths are properly distributed around the station. 437 LIGHTNING ARRESTERS ejod 9[di41y ee,9F ajod a1 SUIS 0869F efod 9] SUIS [869F XK pepunois oseyd-¢g | 001S-L0SF aod aT SUIS 9FGG/, ajod a[suls 1FEC) A popunois oseyd-e | 0oct-L0G¢E ejod a[dray GT L9F aod a[diay 9TL9F aod aTqnop §TL9F ejod a[qnop FLLOF A popunois oseyd-e | (0Ge-1003 ajod e[suls JI FCF gjod a[suls ZT L9F aod e[suls TT L9p ood o[sUls OTL9F A pepunois osvyd-e | 000Z-108 ejod stqnop 9z18¢ ajod e[suIs CTE ejod af dit} ZFSe/, ejod a[di44 ggrey, ejod 9[di14 ge,9F ajod 9] suls Y869F XK pepunois osvyd-g | Toe 01 dQ A pepunoisun 10 V7 osevyd-g | 00LG-ISTF gjod a] suls [SEoF A pepunoisun 10 V7 osvyd-¢ | OCLF-L008 ejod o[3UIs OF6S/, aod o[suIs 2F6C), X pepunoisun 10 V7 asvyd-g | 0008-1083 ejod e[di43 CT L9F aod e[di44 9TL9F god afqnop ST L9F efod 9[qnop F1IZ9F A pepunoigun 10 VW osvud-e | 008s-LOZI aod 9 suls 1LFCF aod a[suls ZI L9F aod o[suls TT L9F aod o]suls OTL9P aod 9[di1} 118s ejod a[qnop 9ZI8¢ ejod aI Sus ETFS A pepunoisun 10 V7 osevyd-e | QOZI-Loe A pepunoisun 10 V7 osvyd-e | [0g 03 dq aod adiy ZT 8s ‘MOr}B4Ig ‘our'T “OUIT 09 OUrT TIOGA BIO S58) Ul9ISAG JO IFBITOA ‘MELSHUMAV “ON “LVO ‘SLTIOA 00Z¢ OL daA—SLINOUIO ADVLIOA MOT XOX AONVLSISAN LNOHS GACVAY LNAYUNO ONILVNUALIV—SUALSTAAV ONINLHDIT ELECTRIC RAILROADING | *"SOIIM OPISINO SSO1NV 93BI[OAy ejod a[Suls O869F aod 9] Suls 9F GC) ejod 9] suls 17 FCF aod 9[SuUls O8E9F ajod 9[SuIs 9FGC), ajod afqnop ST L9F ajod a[suls J/FCF aod 9] suls TL L9F ejod 8Tqnop OT092 ejod 9[SUIs OY869F aod af suls 9FEC) ejod 9[qnop ST 19F god a[ Sus 11F¢F aod af suls TTL9F “LONRIS ajod osuts gjod a[ suis ejod ej surs ejod a[suls ajod asus ajod ayqnop gjod a[suls ajod a, suls gjod afqnop gjod o[suls ajod afqnop gjod a[suls ejod a[suls gjod a1qnop aod a, suis ajod a[suls ejod afqnop 9Z18¢ ajod a, suis “OUrT 438 “SUULSHAAV “ON “LVO ‘papunoisun oseyd o[ SUIS SB 4BVOI—OIIM INDI ‘OsByd JOJIVNH O1IM Voy} ‘asvyd JoyIEN?e) OIIM 9a1u} f‘asveyd r1ajIeN’y [vaqyneu pepunois pepunoisun papunorsun poepunoisun poepunoisun popunoisun pepunoisun pepunois oul, suo ‘aseyd o[surg pepunois sult auo ‘aseyd a[sulg pepunois sury suo ‘esvyd sfsutg [etjneu papunois oseyd apsurg [84yneu papunois osvyd a[sulg [eyneu pepunois osvyd s[sutg [eiyneu pepunois osvyd a[surg asvyd e[ surg osvyd a[sutg esvyd a[sulg eseyd a[sulg esvyd s[sulg esvyd o[sulg esvyd o[sulg "ULIISAG JO SSRIO OOSFy-“ LOSS, 00SE-L096 0096-1006 0006-006T 00LS-TOSP OOSF-LOSE 00E8-1002 0006-108 Log 03 dq OOLS-TSTP OST F-LO0S 0008-L0&G 008Z-LOZL 00ZI-L08 Tog 01 dq ‘onry OF oULry Ulajsf{G JO 9dBql[OA ‘CHANILNOO—SLIOA 002¢ OL dA—SUALSTAUAV DNINLHDYIT 439 LIGHTNING ARRESTERS ‘duIv] O18 [VNPIAIPUI JOT OSTY 4. ‘SOIVPUODS IOMIOJSUBIT, JOT ‘adAq VoUTYSISOI JUNYS popes13 JO JON» ea ee ee ee Sc ee ee ee A re ee C6 : - XOq U9pOOM UI 19}Se1IV OUTT “TY wIoOg ‘gq’ OGO9L TL : : < - - Joysoly uoeig ‘Tq WIOg “gg OTO9L 0Z “ : - XOq U9POOM UI Joysolay ouryT ‘4 UOT “g's LE6GL OT ma : = - - dJaysoly uo ‘Zy WOT “q's 9F6CL 96 4 - XOq UOPOOM UI Josolry 9UTT ‘Ty UIOT “g'ysg S8PSL 0! 2 E ‘ - Joysolry UoTyeIG ‘Ty MIO “g’y, GPGEL £S - - - XOQ USpOOM UL JoysoLIV oury ‘Tq wo, “q's I869P CT é E 5 - - dojsolty uote ‘Ty wWI0og “q's O869F 8S = = - - Joysoalry uotyeIg ‘Ty UOT ‘“g'yL SSL9P oP = : - XOQ UspOOM UI JoJsoIIW OUTT ‘Tq WIOg ‘gy 9TLOF eG a x - - - Jojsoly uonBie ‘Tq uMIOg “g'y, GTL9P 8 . - - XOq USPOOM UI J94SoITYW OUTT ‘TY UOT “g'qd VILOF CT = - 2 ; - Joysolry U0TWRIG “TY WOT “q'd STLOP CL - - - XOQ USPOOM UI Josey OUI] ‘Tq WIOg “q's GLLOV Gy : - - - - Josey uoynvi9 ‘Ty UOT “gg ITL9P CT : - - XOQ U9poOM UL Jo\soelIy OUIT ‘Ty WIOg “g's OLL9OP Cr), : - - - dJoysolry UOT}eIG ‘[y wWIOg ‘g's LLVSY 1 : = - xOq UOIL UL JoysalIy ouIT ‘q WIOg ‘dT, xLol8$ G'g - - - xOq UOII UL JoysalIy OUI] ‘q WIOg ‘“q'qd xIG18& 9 - - - xXxOq UOUL UL JoJsoITy ouTT ‘q WOT ‘g's 1, 81S nee Lee TO 4dosoc eae eet ‘ON "980 ‘dHONILNOO—SLIOA QOLG OL dA—SHALSTNYV YDNINLHDIT ELECTRIC RAILROADING 440 9V6GL ON “280 = LHGGL “ON °389 O8697 “ON “38D = T8697 “ON “780 iver OND) -GLL0Y ON 46) NOILV.LS ANI'T :SMOT[OJ Sv odAy UOTYRYS o[od-9o[3 -UIS SUIPUOdSaIIOD BSN VOIAIOS UOT}VIS IO,F ‘QOIALOS OUI] LOJ o1v UviseIp oyisoddo ur uMOYS si04soITy *S}INOIIO JUSTIN SUI}VUIOI[Y eITM-oo1y,y, osevyd “OMT, IOf SioJselIy SUIULYSTT ZA pue Ta stato WO eddy, Jo suoroouu0) 19697 ON 209 | 441 ARRESTERS LIGHTNING epee L21B£.ON JOD ke : SL SZ/ON 00k aang nconacreemts -- — —_ 25 -—-_— —| 936 “31 ETVE “ON “F8O I9jSaIIY SUIU}YSIT 998}[0A-MO'T GAGEONFOD €1t£0N OD SOSH 00k ASS SHAE a eee | Mes acy pXas orig lee f hated © ELECTRIC RAILROADING 442 bIL9b “ON “LVD UALSAYAV ANIT “dd lr wrbers scams " = dae Ae ae mS M2L9§ 200M £/¥2/ ON — 5 el —— —— —+| €1L9% “ON LVO YALSATAAV NOILVIS ‘da 7IL9t ANV OIL9F ‘SON “LVD SUaISTUYV ANIT ‘a’S —Fe- Fz} 2 | Poe MBLIS DOOM Z/N 21 ON fy — — nt LL¢S% “ON “LVD 1IL9% “ON “LVD @ALSAUAV NOILVLS “d's UALSAUUAV NOILVIS ‘d's S19}SoLIY SUIUYYSIT JUOIND SuUIywUIE}[y 99e4/0 A-MO'T Jo suotsuowig 443 ARRESTERS LIGHTNING “LOS “Sh L¢6S4 ‘ON ‘LVD 9IL9F “ON “LVD YALSTAUV ANIT ‘d's aaLSAaUV ANIT ‘d'L 3 £, | | “4 coll» P oie eee . : Folk Ma.12¢ 'p00y 2/x2/'0 me dae. | in See lcnis lyn ew 9%6SL ‘ON “LVO STL9% “ON “LVO UALSAUAUV NOILVILS “dS YALSAUUV NOILVIS “dL ELECTRIC RAILROADING 444 887SZ “ON “LVO YaALsSAUAV ANIT €S49b “ON “LVO 8. He peed el ay hee Hi ] a, le —£o2 wae, Zb7SL “ON “LVO UALSAUAV NOILVIS . Ab \ (5 are ie b— ——12—— S19{SollyY SUIU}YSIT Jue SUIYVUIOITY 88v}]0 A MOT JO SUOTSUSTUI(T 445 ARRESTERS LIGHTNING "822 ‘31a T869% “ON “LVO 02094 ‘ON “LVO UALSTAAV ANIT “d's aS NIT UOA eee EPPO Weg Re zz 1 MBLIS POOA : FM ETON r | | | | Ff Ie ly | | | | ey See | 1.eh—-—-—f£ee-———-| |--—------2¢-——---—--4 “b- —6—-4 0869% “ON “LVO 01094: "ON “LVO WALSAUYNV NOILVIS “d's aSQ NOILVLS wor ee : ial po fe/——4 UJ SOZOIISUL ELECTRIC RAILROADING 446 OGEST 00028-1008 900LF OSFL 000L8-L00GES SOOLP CcIIL 00068-T00L6 POOLF GPCL 00068-L00LZG SOOLP OL8 000Z6-1L0066 GOOLF O86 000L6-L00GG LOOLP GTZ 0006G-TOOLT OOOLF G08 00066-TOOLT 6669P GLG OOOLT-TOSET 8669F 0S9 OOOLT-TOSST L669P 00S OOSEL-TScol 9669P OGG OOSEI-TSG6L G669PF OGF OSGGI-TO9L F669P GOP OSGGI-LO9L S669P CGs 0094 -00LS G669P &SS 0094 -O0LS 1669P “QT Ul IUSIOM pol[e4ysuy “q'T UI IGSIOM pol[e4ysuy surddiqs eq PINoYs Ssie4yselIy YOM ‘ON ‘9890 surddiqg oq PINoYUsS 819}SaITy GOI M “ON 989 ‘xolddy UO OSBI[OA “XB PUB “UIT “xoiddy UO 9sBIOA ‘XB PUB "UIP SLINOUIO ,,A,, CHONNOUD YO ASVHd-HAAHL SLINOMIO .,A,, GHONQOUONNA YO ,,VLITAC,, XOX ASVHd-TAYHL SOYOIMG SUIIUMODSICT 9PNTOUT JON OG “SON “3VO SUIMOTIOT OY, SdUBISISOY JUNYG popvVslyy Y}IAL Slo}SolIy SUIUZYSIT JUIN SUAVUIII[ VY 447 LIGHTNING: ARRESTERS "630 “SIa LECOP ON FOD $2/01 000F7/ = mi: ng |=. ‘a [4 I C] £6692 ON 702 LINO A $7/IPN OO00/ 7 W ie parent e 900e0 Z °°$?P 080008 ny s-—-—-——4 rir gregxc t 3 4 QaLOANNOD ST LINN HOVE JO UACNITAD HORM AMOHS SNVASVIC NO SUALLaT SECIS 'W/IOD SI/CA 006 2/ = | | j 1669 ON FQD $Z/0A 0099 A Ch) e/ pay fron ‘S}IMOITD ¢,.A,, popunosisuy) L0 Byfoq ssevyd-sory, 10J i tx CO esistance Multigap Lightning Arresters ‘“W) Circuits—Continued for Three-phase Delta or Ungrounded Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt R ELECTRIC RAILROADING Fern =a: ar Ey ee i ill 25000 Volts Cot No. 4700: 0000 Volts I99 a COL.NO.AC V UNIT LETTERS ON DIAGRAMS SHOW WHICH CYLINDER OF EACH UNIT IS CONNECTED LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 449 =a Poses BPO er eet oat pa es paree es) Gis C0 : TH 1 Sea tat = qu Se cence ae a FIIOOO Volts Qot. No 47005 | Be Cun AE ) a, hi eats ce Sn cal Bisweaa0: 450 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt Resis- tance Multigap Lightning Arresters for Three-phase Grounded ““Y”’ Circuits A. 3B Cre) S000$c00%,55 @000 00@00° 9000 77 4 . V UNIT Letters on Diagrams Show which Cylinder of Each Unit is Connected Rare iy 258. Approre | si x 6600 Volts Cot No 46992 easanarore| [17 | h_ahtol I | ca ea | cell i /0000 VO/ts Cot. No. 46994 Fig. 231. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 451 Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt Resis- tance Multigap Lightning Arresters for Three-phase Grounded “Y”’ Circuits—Continued 24 Approre = | | | | = -- — — UL l er pes “3 —— ] Se 7 a ae LJ a fo] ~ / 5000 Volts Cok wa 26998 Coad. Vo. 46996 Peagapprox + f Sad 20000 Volts Cot V0 47000 Fig. 231. Dimensions of Alternating Current Graded Shunt Resistance Multigap Lightning Arresters for Three-phase Grounded ‘“Y’’ Circuits—Continued ELECTRIC RAILROADING Etna tT G@e ) | = RASS ft Ss . [ | ee Late) [| (yy +4 a ) ¢ Ye 2 r g S| % | | poh Nig } h—- — — — —R---- 4 f= EElII} m et 1 of allt i mi | L JO0000 volts Cot.No 47004 25000 Volts Cot. Wo.87002 tome —\27£4ation LIGHTNING ARRESTERS my oe@0 8 8 poet ° O° pet Us oy = Oe es oO Re ey > 9 3 <© = 88 355000 Cod hole Ss NO 47006 Letters on Diagrams Show which Cylinder of each Unit is Connected 453 De nZols ELECTRIC RAILROADING 454 L ve ZAL | L|AGT| 006 | 0009 | G8898 “Al CAG sae® HC Cie Me peias ban ae OO9F | OFE9L 4G | AL | AG | AOL] 8 0009 LOVES |) “FL | 241) 8% 0097 6§E9L a) d V ‘duy | SHOA‘X®W | ‘ON ‘380 d Vv ‘duy | swoA ‘xe | ‘ON ‘380 S1oJSalIyY SULUJYSIT JUOLIND SUI}VVULO}[Y UPI o8y) AOF S[IOQ syoyD 455 LIGHTNING ARRESTERS nin bo eal el oY pall une! MOR) Aeeol Ae ah aio Nnnn | Fy NOONOOAYL TO DH OD OD OD £8] 8/0Z| 98 £8) 808] 98 598) 8 13|48e PErtLT| 98 PEEL] 98 Soel*Fst eee PS| 8ST] 9¢ PS|8¢S1} 98 &ge| 891 #8e @) a V 006 0008 P1928 IA O00GS| 9781S O0O00GE| POOM 0006 P1418 000G6| 9381S 00096} POOM OOOST /PT428 TA OOOST) 91S OO0ST} POOM SHA OO0GE OF ODDI—E44T, Sse MOF ‘s[I0Q eXoYO Jo suocrsuewIg "SES ‘SI 8S69F LE69P 9S69P GE69P VE69P SE69P 6S69P IS69P OS69F ‘ON O70) 456 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Disconnecting Switches for Use with Alternating Current Lightning Arresters Cat. No. Voltage A B C D E F G H 76433 15000 | 18 | 16 9 6| 933! vs | 4%/11% 76666 25000 | 24°) 21°) 12 9) 4274) 4416 (4 76668 30000 | 80 | 27 | 18 | 10 | 15 i¢ | 6%|19% 76670 45000 |, 34 | 31.) 14 | 11 19% te [7 | Q1ye 76672 70000 | 44 | 41 | 16 | 18 | 238% | 4% | 8 | 295% 76674 | 90000 | 51 | 88 | 16 | 18 | 29] 414 | 8 | 374, 76675 | 110000 | 60 | 57 | 18] 15 |36%4| 44 |9 | 44,5 Hooks and Handles for Use with Disconnecting Switches Cat. No. Max. Volts Length in Feet 65849 15000 4 65850 45000 8 65851 70000 12 65852 410000 Tihs LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 457 Disconnecting Switches for Use with Alternating Current Lightning Arresters—Continued eat | | ae ee i } L-G Disconnecting Switch for 15000 to 4500 Oo Volts y| | /$ | ” pe et eee, — 4é— +1 Coto. 76400 Disconnecting Switch for 2500 Volts Fig. 233—Continued 498 ELECTRIC RAILROADING FOR USE ON SECONDARIES OF CONSTANT CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR ARC LIGHTING SYSTEMS. Cat. No. Rating of Transformers. No. Required. 47558 25 light 47559 35 light 47560 50 light single-circuit 47561 75 light single-circuit 47562 100 light single-circuit 47577 100 light multi-circuit Dee eee FOR USE ON SECONDARIES OF MERCURY ARC RECTIFIER SYSTEMS. tT Cat. No. Lights Capacity Volts 58959 12 1100 58960 25 2300 58961 50 : 4600 58962 15 6900 58961 100* - 4600 ea ee ee ee a eee *Multi-circuit—two arresters required. t+tArresters Cat. Nos. 58959 to 58962 inclusive are also suitable for use on other D. ©. Series Arc Systems. Barriers for use with Horn Type Station Arrester, Cat. No. 47564. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ADJUSTING THE GAP OF HORN ARRESTERS. : sa ee ee a ens eee Voltage of Circuit; Gap in Inches G |Voltage of Circuit} Gap in Inches G@ 1100 VA 4600 oA 1500 he 6900 A 2300 A 9200 uv 3200 ae LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 459 HORN LIGHTNING ARRESTERS FOR CONSTANT CURRENT INCANDESCENT CIRCUITS. Cat. No. Arrester Kw. Capacity of Trans. Secondary Amperes 47558 47563 47563 47563 47563 47563 OX Ne 47560 47558 47558 47563 47563 47563 On SUSU St St St Sy Seong Baek res 47562 47560 47560 47559 47558 47558 47561 47561. 47560 47559 47559 47562 47562 31.0 47561 31.0 47560 31.0 47560 31.0 HAMA AT INI NIT go 09 99 99 29 Ou Oo NNNNN BRR ee bt Rt Re pd pd SS O1 Ot Ot Or G1 sna Naar Oo Sd Oo Od Od Od CO CO CO CH CO CO = Naor OA Aan a AMON TAY THAHM AN ao SIDTP WO NARDTPW ARM MURWH ELECTRIC RAILROADING 460 "FSS “SLA TR ACG OG a) Lae Le Ly YAS oLey $6 1.96 e9GLp | 6S68¢ Ri Fa are ER eae 2 on rds(ake, 8 4 | °7ec. | O11 |-- [9SlFr_ | L968¢ “8 7 6G 7 SO OTL ee 09GL Tr “8 BG | 7, Soe eub 6SGLb | 09684 “8 | A8 PG [0S | S&GLF fo) d Vv 22> | sanensomy eaice Be SHHON] NI SNOISNANI - 5& 4 “ON “LVD “SURLSHMUV ONINLHOIT NYOH AO SLHVIAM ANV SNOISNAWIG = LIGHTNING ARRESTERS ‘SOIIOS UL Po[[VISUI 9q 0} S1d}So1IV OM], “poIMbsrl oMIL GG oF GG at GZ GT GG a "Q'T UL IUSTOM sulddiyg ‘xoiddy OOST 93 009 OO8T °F 009 OOST 9} 009 OG8 94 OGG OG8 94 0GZ 048 9} OGG GLE 9} GGT GLE 9} GGT GLE 94 GST 006 9 09 006 9} 09 006 93 09 aSVIOA JOULISISAL VITXY Ogn SUT] IO} XOq USPOOM UT oSNn UOI}V4S ION Se ee SO OUUISISO Led x * oesn Bea IO} XOq UIPOOM UT ea ¢ 9sn UOT}4S OF tee OUT CIsOd Cr xa * - 98N OUT] IOF XOq Uapoom UT se eo a 9S UOI}V4S IOW : " i : VOUBYSISOL BAP XG osn OUI] oF XOq Uepoom U] ois aSN UOT}VIS OF uonddoseq o-q uUuog yw eddy, SHINO JUOLIND JOO” IOF SioysolIy SuUTUYYSTT G6664 {9F19F {GV LOP 69866 G69EE SGIES S9I8EE 6696S IG9&E LOSES OZ9SE 619EE “ON °980 "Ges “SLA OpIg SAIJISO”D UO sulzyenby ourqovyy OPI VANBVSIN UO SUIZI[VNHY ourpoVvyy SHOA OSS 07 dn 4¥MoIID UIn{oy SOA 0G8 03 dn 4ymModID pepunoly ‘OD ‘d 10} suoo0uu0p UInjey pepunoly ‘9 *q OJ suUOTZO9UUO/D eee y ep oes w0p224 A20224 se2samu0> hiopy Pts pron perch ortassy Su 7yF7 Won socessoee et Leyes! OPO DD) Sey? OEE iaed 70D S2vE07>» by SIIOA 068 07} dn ymModipD pepunoisug ‘Oo ‘qd 10} suoMmoouNd0g P22) vobeag 072730 unos, ssoImwsy SOILS, SupwagS'7 etioes 2 org= | ergs « a Jo4salIy SUIUjYSIT Z-q Wiog JW IdAy, Jo suolsusmig S ne ye tale wantin ey S cue t t = ! He 1 fs er [ \ sow et +4 1 (Ss Jha 1 Se eet 1 Pa Or fo | : oO le 7 Z9 t o i ! 3 i j x 4 i as es + = L 77 ! anh fe4ye! \ j ' ! 1 ' t me - ide) = SJMOIIO JUOLIND JOT] AOJ S1osoIIy SUIULYSIT JO SUOTJOoUUOD pu sUOISUOTUIG INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING ALTERNAT- ING CURRENT ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS. The design of the aluminum arrester is based on the characteristics of a cell consisting of two aluminum plates on which has been formed a film of hydroxide of alu- minum, immersed in a suitable electrolyte. This film is formed on the aluminum plates by a series of chemical and electro-chemical treatments at the factory. Valve Action. Up to a certain critical voltage this hydroxide film has the property of insulating, or rather opposing the flow of current and is, therefore, closely analogous to a eounter-electro-motive foree. Up to this eritical voltage only a small leakage and charging current ean flow, but during any rise above this voltage the cur- rent flow through the cell is limited only by the actual resistance of the electrolyte, which is very low. The action is comparable to that of the well-known safety valve of a steam boiler by which the steam is confined until the pressure rises to a given value, at which point the valve opens and releases the excess pressure. This action of the aluminum cell is also closely analogous to that of a storage battery on direct current. Up to about two volts per cell, impressed, the storage battery, when charged, opposes an equal counter-electro-motive force, shutting off the flow of current; but for voltage above this value the current is limited only by the internal 463 464 ELECTRIC RAILROADING resistance of the cell. This characteristic makes the aluminum cell ideal as a means of discharging abnormal potentials, or surges in electric circuits. It practically Lightning One Set of Showing Roof Entrances to Station and for 35,000 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester Tower. Arresters Disconnected. Horn Gap Installation Schenectady Power Co., Wall Entrances to 236. Arresters, Fig. prevents the flow of current at operating voltages, but instantly short circuits such abnormal portions of a po- tential wave, or surge, as would be dangerous to the in- sulation of the system. 465 ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS A volt-ampere-characteristic-curve of the aluminum eell on alternating current is shown in Fig. 237. The It data for this curve was taken with an oscillograph. T1299 UNUIUIN[Y JO dAIND oNsts10jOVIeYO etodury-110A ‘2e7 “SI COSTLY S vid C7 zy ine O BERR ER SEERSRaRBeee Eee DSnSan elias A BURR ROSE eSeey) H 7159/8 a BLS RIRGGR CASA S PEPER eee . PELE Gere Peet Ti Ch SETS Ea TE PSY SBE ES OS nD’ 4m me el SSS Pa ee DB MO de ee belies el te olol is tl a ede oe fet pela belt lee dete betebs bed site fetter or | DGS oe eee Bos fae OSS Aaa en eee a ee eo OOP should be noted that the critical voltage, alternating This cut gives the discharge rate only up to 5 amperes, in order to better illustrate the normal and critical voltage points. current, is slightly above 340 volts. Above 466 ELECTRIC RAILROADING this value the discharge rate depends almost entirely upon the internal resistance of the electrolyte. This resistance is such that at double the normal operating voltage, or 600 volts per cell, the current discharge is six hundred, to one thousand amperes for a brief time. This rate of discharge represents a quantity of electricity several times greater than the quantity liberated by an ordinary induced lightning stroke. Condenser Action. Besides the valve action described above there is another characteristic of the cell of great importance. The thin insulating film of aluminum hydroxide between the conducting aluminum, and the conducting electrolyte acts as a dielectric and the cell, therefore, is an elecstatic condenser. A condenser of this type makes an ideal path for high frequency light- ning discharges. With these arresters, for instance, 10,000 eyeles, which is not an unusual frequency for hghtning disturbances, would discharge almost 100 amperes without any rise in voltage. Due to this capacity, these aluminum arresters cannot be connected permanently across alternating voltage. The charging current at normal frequency (about .d amp.) would in time heat the electrolyte. In every case, therefore, spark gaps set to are over at slight in- crease of voltage, insulate the arrester from the line. Film Dissolution. Another characteristic of the aluminum cell is the dissolution of a part of the film when the plates stand in the electrolyte, and the cell is disconnected from the circuit. The film is presumably composed of two parts; one part is hard and insoluble, and apparently acts as a skeleton to hold the more soluble part. When a cell, which has stood for some time disconnected, is reconnected to the circuit, there is ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 467 a momentary rush of current, which replaces the part of the film which has dissolved. All electrolytes dissolve the film, the extent of the dissolution depending upon Fig. 238. Cross Section of Aluminum Lightning Arrester. the length of time the film is in the electrolyte, the electrolyte used, and its temperature. It is necessary to charge the cells from time to time to prevent the initial rush of dynamic current causing trouble. By keeping 468 ELECTRIC RAILROADING the films formed at all times, the initial rush of current is prevented, and the ultimate temperature rise in case of continued discharge of the arrester 1s minimized. Th- ability of the arrester to take care of discharges lasting for any considerable length of time, therefore, depends upon the condition of the arrester film. When the cells, in commercial use, are allowed to stand for not more than a day or two, the film dissolution, and initial cur- Fig. 239. Parts of One Leg of 15,000 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester. rent rush is negligible. Suitable means are provided with the arresters for connecting them directly across the line. This is a very simple operation, and thus the film is kept in good condition. In very warm climates it is sometimes advisable to take special precaution to keep the cells normally cool. Design. The aluminum lightning arresters for alter- nating current circuits from 1,000 to 110,000 volts con- ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 469 sist essentially of inverted aluminum cones, placed one above the other in stacks, and insulated with a vertical spacing of about .3 inch. An electrolyte partially fills the space between adjacent cones, so forming aluminum eells connected in series. The stack of cones with the electrolyte between them is then immersed in a tank of oil. The electrolyte being heavier than the oil remains between the aluminum cones. The oil improves the insu- Mig. 240. Tank, Cones and Stand of 4,600 Volt Three-Phase Aluminum Lightning Arrester for Non-Grounded Neutral Systems. lation between cones, prevents evaporation of the solu- tion and, due to its heat absorbing capacity, enables the arresters to discharge continuously for long periods, a very valuable feature of these arresters. The tanks are of steel with welded seams. The general arrangement of the cells is shown in Figs. 238-239-240. ELECTRIC RAILROADING Fig. 241. 60,000 Volt Horn Gap—Charging Position. Fig. 242. 60,000 Volt Horn Gap—Disconnecting Position. ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 471 Location of Arrester. The location and arrangement of an aluminum lightning arrester installation depends greatly upon the station layout. In general, the arrester Lefig wheape sow a Lhe helab sau el lagaany wipe & pase ¥ pata Wig oe aes or joey ine til CGE Lever for qotrolig 47? bu, Cys ~20S1C/O1?7 a9 ob /, Tl? tor lochin «660 fig Gages Opert Fig. 248. Method of Locking Horn Gaps. should be installed as near as possible to the apparatus or station to be protected. The ideal arrangement would be to have the tanks and horn gaps installed as a com- 472 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Fig. 244. 6,600 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester for Three-Phase Non-Grounded Neutral Systems. plete unit just inside the station. For lower voltage equipments this is feasible, as the arcing at the gaps is not severe even in abnormal cases. Above 27,000 volts, this practice is usually questionable, and it is recom- ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 473 mended that the horn gaps be installed outside the build- ing, with leads tapping the line near its entrance to the station. The tanks, cones and transfer device should be installed inside of the station in a suitable compart- Fig, 245. 12,500 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester for Three-Phase Non-Grounded Neutral Systems. ment. This requires the use of either wall or roof en- trance bushings for the connecting wires. The object of placing the horn gaps outside of the station is to isolate any are from the station apparatus. 474 ELECTRIC RAILROADING _ The horn gaps for high voltage (see Figs. 241-242-243) are supported on a 2 in. pipe framework which is so designed that they can be mounted on either wooden or steel towers, or if desirable on the roof of the station, Fig. 246. Aluminum Lightning Arrester for 35,000 Volt Three- Phase Non-Grounded Neutral Circuits With Horn : Gaps Mounted Indoors. or on suitable brackets on the outside wall of the station. They should be so located that the pipe and lever, by which they are operated, can be brought down in a place ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 475 convenient for the operator, and if possible where he can observe the arcing at the horns during discharge. It is also advisable to have the transfer device, and horn gaps operated from the same place so as to reduce the work of charging to a minimum. The horn gaps for lower voltages (Figs. 244-245) are sent complete for mounting inside the station. Wig. 247. Aluminum Lightning Arrester Installation for 110,000 Volt Three-Phase Non-Grounded Neutral System, Showing Horn Gaps on Roof, Roof Entrances and Tanks Inside of Station, Wherever horn gaps are mounted inside the building sufficient clearance should be allowed over them. The exact distance to be allowed depends upon the voltage, and the nature of the material or apparatus under which the horns are installed. If there are cables, wires, buses, or any material which would be damaged by fire, considerable distance should be allowed. On the other hand, if there are only concrete and iron beams of the floor or roof, a much smaller clearance can be allowed, 476 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Normally there is no appreciable are at the gaps, but in abnormal cases where the film has been allowed to get out of order, the are might be of considerable size. Where there are no buses or inflammable apparatus, the following are the minimum clearances from the tops of horns to be allowed: Up ston? 2oUsvolis Ser tence eee eee a uit 7.251 itor 16/100 volts. ae ee es 3 ft. 16,101¢to 87500 volise eee 4 ft. 37,901 to 60,000 volts.. 9.) guess 6 ft. Above 60,000 volts, the horn gaps should never be placed indoors. In accordance with the above, standard equipments of 27,000, and below are designed as complete units to be installed inside the station, while for those above 27,000 volts the horn gaps should preferably be installed outside the station, and the tanks inside. Exception to this rule can be made where there is sufficient space in the station over the gaps. Figs. 236-246, 247, 248 and 249 illustrate a few methods of installing arresters. The objection to installing the tanks outside of the station results from the freezing of the electrolyte in cold climates. The electrolyte used in these arresters is not injured in any way by freezing, but when frozen the internal resistance of the arrester is increased about twenty times, and hence its discharge rate is decreased a corresponding amount. In other words, at double po- tential the discharge rate would be reduced from about 600 amperes to 25 amperes. The film characteristic up to the critical voltage remains practically unchanged when frozen. Under certain conditions the arrester tanks can be installed out of doors, and special bushings are designed for this service. ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 477 Atlas wmtocis WZ Y ULL LLLLLELELYTLLS SINS pat belt bb pl tis hdd tl fet lt bit, title 7 ttf ta a SIE SLA SG NSS SK Fig. 248. Aluminum Lightning Arrester Installation for 60,000 Volt Three Phase Non-Grounded Neutral System, Show- ing Horn Gaps on Roof, Wall Entrances and Tanks Inside of Station. Mig. 249. AJuminum Lightning Arrester Installation for 60,000 Volt Three-Phase Grounded Neutral System, Showing Horn Gaps on Wooden Poles, Wall Entrances and Tanks Inside of Station, 478 ELECTRIC RAILROADING OUTDOOR INSTALLATION. Only arresters of the outdoor type, with special water- tight bushings and metal covers, should be installed out of doors. Care must be taken to see that the bushings are correctly assembled to be water-tight. In hot coun- tries the heat of the sun should be guarded against by means of a sun roof over the arresters. The arresters may be either mounted on a platform between poles, or on a platform near the ground and surrounded by a fenee. The position of the arresters should preferably be such that their operation can be observed by the station, or substation attendant. While installing arrest- ers out of doors, great care must be taken not to let the wooden, and fibre parts of the cone stack become wet in ease of rain, and to keep dust from the cones and electro- lyte. GAP SETTING. The setting of the horn gaps of aluminum arresters is affected by several operating conditions as follows: First; it 1s influenced by the wave-form. It is always the peak value, and not the effective value of potential that starts the discharge. Consequently if the genera- tor wave has a sharp peak, the gap will spark over fora low effective value of potential, and, vice versa, if a wave shape is flat, it will require a high effective voltage to start a spark across the gap. Second; the spark potential is less for stations located in high altitudes and the horn gaps therefore require higher settings. Third; the spark potential is affected by the local con- ditions of the circuit; for example, the nearness of the horns to other metallic objects, the tendencies to resonate with some higher frequency, ete. ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 479 In consideration of the above variables, it is 1mpos- sible to give a definite gap setting for different circuits of the same voltage. The best that can be done is to give a list of the gap settings which we have found give out good protection on any circuit, and give a second list of settings which should be considered as mini- mum values for circuits operating under favorable con- ditions of the three factors described above. The following are the settings of the horn gaps for the various voltages. Installations having no attend- ants should have gap setting somewhat greater than sta- tions having attendants. Voltage Gap Setting— Usual Limits Short Circuit Gap 2500 USO ee 0 3300 Ome LO me OG 0 4600 30% to 45” 0 6600 (oO aL eOUS 0 10000 40” to .60” 10 12500 40/2 TOL 10 15000 be Uuae COs Bs bole aLO 17500 OO aloo. 10 20000 COO Ca LOsm 044 10 25000 Ty eqn, AR 10 30000 SY irae Ses 10 30000 ADAG LS aierre AAG O ae 10 40000 40S to mel 0 10 45000 VS aes, “lee 10 50000 Usa LO wes U0 10 60000 3.00” to 4.50” 10 70000 Ay etOue Os LO 10 80000 6.00” to 9.00” 10 90000 user CO. palOOw 10 100000 Os eton le VOM 10 110000 10.00” to 15.00” 10 ee 480 ELECTRIC RAILROADING In making a new installation of the aluminum arrest- ers the operator should first set the gaps at the higher values given in the table, until the cells are thoroughly formed as described. Since the gaps may be closed for several minutes with only a slight wear on the aluminum plates, the operator while making the daily tests should note the gap length at which the ares across the gaps break when resetting horns to their normal position. The normal setting of the gaps should be about double this value, or otherwise the horns will be unable to extin- cuish the charging current of the arrester, if once started. Furthermore, the arresters should be carefully watched for several weeks after the new setting is made to be sure that some slight, harmless, continuous surge on the line will not cause the arrester to discharge continuously. CONNECTIONS AND WIRING. To obtain the best protection, the path from line to arrester, and arrester to. ground, must be the shortest and most direct possible. For wiring high voltage arresters the use of copper tubing is advisable. There are several reasons for this. In all hghtning arrester installations it is necessary to provide a path to the lightning arrester, and ground with as little impedance as possible. In order to achieve this purpose, rather large wires with long bends and turns would have to be used. It is quite well known that high frequency lightning disturbances are confined to the out- side surfaces of the conductors, penetrating but little toward the center, hence by using either flat strip, or tubing, we are able to secure the advantage of a large conductor, namely, a large surface, but at much less cost. ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 481 Copper tubing has the advantage over either strip or solid conductors in, that it is easily supported, requires fewer insulators, and is therefore the cheapest to install. It also presents a very neat appearance. This copper tubing is so designed that when the wiring is complete, all joints are flush, all sharp bends are elim- inated, and there are no points where corona, or brush discharge will take place. As installations vary so much in their layout, it is impossible to provide copper tubing for wiring the ar- resters completely. Hence, there are listed convenient parts which may be selected as soon as the lightning ar- rester layout has been determined. The parts listed consist of straight sections, bends of various angles, tees, terminals, and connectors for join- ing the various parts together. All of these parts, except the straight tubing, are tinned at the joints, and it is necessary only to join the sections and apply to the out- side a heat sufficient to sweat the sections together. INSTALLATION OF DISCHARGE ALARM. When a discharge alarm is to be ‘installed, the auxiliary cell must be connected in series with the ground connec- tion. This should be done without increasing the length of the ground connection more than absolutely necessary. The ground wire, or pipe framework, between the ar- rester and alarm cell must be insulated for about 1000 volts. This can be usually done with either wood blocks, or fibre bushings. The magnet bell, or relay, with resistance rods in se- ries should be connected so as to shunt the eell to ground; the resistance rods next to the cell. The bell, or 482 ELECTRIC RAILROADING relay, may be located at any place convenient, but the resistance rods should be near the arrester (see Fig. 250). To place the alarm cell in service, fill the jar half full with the electrolyte furnished for the purpose, then pour in one-eighth pint of oil. After the plates have been replaced and before connecting in the circuit, it is best to place the cell across 250 volts, with lamps in series, as explained under ‘‘ Testing and Preliminary Charging.”’ If the bell does not ring well, some or all of the resist- ance may be short circuited. Cot.NO'75 986 mth be// rectly coqrected to CCE OO) Cotho.75487 mith relay for QDESTIEING QD? PUKMIBYS, BIPIDA Cireuwt— Spsvuloted 4or'/000 velts Seark Gap Fram beoring of ___~ (aah ase! transfer Jerlcoe Fig. 250. Connections of Discharge Alarm for Use With Aluminum Lightning Arresters. ASSEMBLING AND FILLING CONES, The stacks of cones are shipped, assembled and packed in iron tanks. Just before they are installed they should be carefully unpacked, and thoroughly blown out with dry air to remove any dust which may have collected ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 483 during packing and shipment. If it should be necessary to disassemble the cones, care should be taken not to touch the film surface with the hands. The cones may be held by the rim, however, as this part of the cone is never in contact with the electrolyte. The cones should be filled with electrolyte as described below, but this should not be done until everything is in readiness to put the arresters into service on the line. Not more than two days should be allowed to elapse between the time of filling in the electrolyte, and putting the arrester into service, otherwise the electrolyte, standing in the cells without voltage, will dissolve the film some- what and make it necessary to do considerable ‘‘ forming up’’ when the arrester is finally put into service. Great care should be exercised to keep the electro- lyte and cones clean and free from dust. Impurities in small quantities cause an extra current to flow when charging, and hasten the wearing out of the cones. A considerable amount of impurity will cause such a cur- rent as to prevent the arrester from operating properly. Impure electrolyte usually shows itself gradually, and produces a large are at the horns each day when the cells are charged. Use only glass, earthenware, rubber or aluminum vessels in handling the electrolyte. Use such precau- tions as wiping the mouth of the carboy when it is opened, washing out the rubber tubes of the cone filler with water, and covering the cones if it is necessary to leave them standing outside of the tanks. Keep the tanks covered. The cells are only partially filled with electrolyte, 4 oz. r 14 pint should be placed in each cell. This can easily be done with the aluminum cone filler shown in Fig. 251. 484 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The ecarboy should be raised about two feet higher than the stack of cones, so that the electrolyte will siphon in rapidly. A piece of glass tubing inserted in Carboy 7or Llectrolyte LPPITUNG vesse/ for Arresler Wer l/7ow Cat No.75484. Electrolyte should be siphoned from carboy into tube ‘‘A” un- til its surface has risen to the top of tube “B.” Any overflow may be caught from bottom of tube “‘B” in a glass vessel and- poured back into carboy. Electrolyte should be released from tube ‘‘A’”’ into cones by pinch-cock, “C.2 It is extremely important that the same quantity of electrolyte be put into each cone. Hence. care should) be taken ators: “a” Have pinch-cock “C’” closed while “DD” is open and vice- versa. “b’’? Have electrolyte in “A” as high as top of tube “B” and no higher before opening ‘‘C.” “ce” Move tube “H’ systematically, i. e, just before allowing electrolyte to run into cone or just after. This is to avoid skip- ping a cone or giving one a double quantity of liquid. igates Misvile KCuapeey TMM. ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 485 the end of the rubber tube leading into the earboy will prevent this tube from floating on the electrolyte. The pinch cock on the tube from the filler to the cones must be near the filler, otherwise the amount of electrolyte measured will not be correct. It is important that each cell contain the same amount of electrolyte, so as to have equal distribution of voltage over the arrester. Great care should be taken that no cell is omitted, or any filled twice. Some good system of routine should be followed to guard against this danger. Care should be taken in filling not to wet any of the wooden, or fibre parts used in supporting the cones. The filling tube should be always inserted half way between the supporting rods and pushed well in. TESTING AND PRELIMINARY CHARGING. After the entire stack of cones has been filled, and be- fore placing it in the tank it is desirable to test out each cell to see if it has been properly filled and ‘to give it a preliminary ‘‘charge.’’ This should be done by eon- necting 250 volts A.C. to each cell successively with a bank of lamps in series. Sufficient number cf lamps should be used to limit the current to 2 amperes when the aluminum cell is not in cireuit. When put across the cell, the lamps may first burn bright, and if so should be allowed to dim down. Jn doing this care should be taken not to allow the electrolyte to get warm. If the lamps do not burn brightly at first it is an indication either that the cell has not been filled with electrolyte, or that the film is already formed, which ean easily be determined by noting the spark when making contact. If 250 volts is not available 500 volts may be used, 486 ELECTRIC RAILROADING testing two cells in series. If only 125 volts is available an indication of whether the cells are filled or not may be had, but charging is not fully accomplished and spe- cial precautions must be taken when first connecting the arrester to the line as later explained. With 125 volts use only one testing lamp. If alternating current is not available, direct current may be used, but in this case reverse the polarity while testing each cell. This testing and charging usually takes about 10 seconds per cell. FILLING THE TANKS WITH OIL. When the stacks of cones have been filled and tested, they should be lowered into the tanks and centered, being sure of good contact between the base and tank. The tanks are then filled with oil to within three inches of the top. Care must be taken to prevent the oil from washing out the electrolyte from between the cones. The electrolyte is only slightly heavier than the oil and a stream of oil hitting the side of the stack will wash the electrolyte out. Oil may be either pumped, or siphoned in through a pipe running to the bottom of the - tank, or may be poured gently into the top cone. Oil from standard iron barrels contains iron scale, which must be removed. It is therefore necessary to filter the oil by passing it through thin muslin or doubled cheese cloth. PLACING THE ARRESTERS IN SERVICE. The arresters when shipped from the factory have the film completely formed on each separate aluminum cone. They have, however, never been operated assembled, and ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 487 it is advisable to use certain precautions when first plac- ing them in service. If the preliminary charging is correctly done, using approximately 250 volts per cell, as described, and if not more than two days have elapsed since this charging, the arresters can be put in service by operating the de- vice provided to short circuit the horn gaps, charging the cells as described under ‘‘Daily Charging.’’ If only 125 volts were used for testing, or if the cells have been standing for a longer time than two days, or if, having once been in service, a period of two weeks has elapsed without charging arresters, it is not advisable to throw full potential on them at once. With the potential about 14 normal, start the ares across the horn gaps, opening the gaps again immediately. This operation should be repeated about a dozen times as described under ‘‘ Daily Charging.’’ Then raise the voltage to 34 normal value, and again start a momentary discharge across the gaps about a dozen times. Finally raise the potential to full normal value, and again start the momentary ares sev- eral times. If the cells are in poor condition, the first are at the gaps for each step in the potential may be white, flaring, and rise half way, or even to the top of the horns before it is extinguished, thus showing consid- erable current in the initial reformation. Each succes- sive are should show less flaring, and rise less on the horns. Finally the discharging current produces, in daylight, a bluish snappy are, a spark, which does not rise much on the horns. If the internal connections in the tank are poor or, if a cell has not been filled, there will be a rumbling sound in the tank if the potential is sufficient to start an are in the oil. In such a case it is necessary to withdraw the 488 ELECTRIC RAILROADING faulty stack of cones, and correct the trouble before pro- ceeding with the tests. The usual cause of such trouble will be a cell not filled with electrolyte or, wet around the fibre separators between cones. If the impressed po- tential is not sufficient to start an are in the oil there wil be no dynamic are at the horn gaps; there will be only a feeble spark when the gaps are diminished to the sparking length. DAILY CHARGING, CARE, INSPECTION AND REPAIRS. The dissolution of the films on the aluminum cones when they are left in the electrolyte is brought out in the discussion of the characteristics of the arrester. The charging operations in the ease of the arresters for grounded cireuits consists merely in simultaneously closing the three horn gaps so that the full potential across the cells will cause a small charging current to flow and form the films to their normal condition. With non-grounded neutral circuits, the charging operation is as follows: First, the horn gaps of the ar- resters are momentarily closed, and then opened again to normal position, thus charging the cells of the three line stacks. Second, with the horn gaps still in normal position, the connections of the ground stack of cones, and one of the line stacks are interchanged, thus making one of the charged stacks the ground leg of the arrester. This is accomplished in the low voltage arresters (1000 to 7250 volts) by reversing the position of the single-pole double-throw switches (these switches must always be in opposite directions). On the higher voltage arresters the position of the transfer switching device (Fig. 252) is reversed, Third, the first operation is repeated, so ALUMINUM LIGHTNING ARRESTERS 489 charging the first stack of cones which was originally the ground leg. The complete charging operation takes Fig. 252. Transfer Device and Two Tanks of 35,000 Volt Aluminum Lightning Arrester, but a moment and should be performed daily. The operation is valuable, not only to keep the films in good condition, but also to give the operator some idea of the 490 ELECTRIC RAILROADING condition of the arrester by observing the size of the are which forms during charging. It is recommended that this daily charging of the arrester be made part of the station routine, and that records be made of the time of charging, and the size and color of the are which rises on the horns. Too large, or too small an are indi- eates that there may be an abnormal internal condition which should be investigated before trouble occurs. This will not only increase the operator’s interest in the arrester, but when once he becomes familiar with the proper operations, the test gives an indication of the internal condition of the cells. ; The tanks have sufficient heat storage capacity to allow the arrester to discharge continuously for half an hour in case of a recurrent discharge. Jf such an abnor- mal condition should ever occur when the disturbance lasts over half an hour the arrester, and also the affected circuit should be disconnected. After an arrester has been subjected to a discharge long enough to heat it up, great care should be exercised subsequently when it is again put under the daily test. The hot electrolyte has a much greater dissolving effect on the film, than cool electrolyte. If the electrolyte be- comes very warm it is better to take the same precaution in the next test, as is taken when first connecting the arrester to the circuit. Should it ever be necessary to take the cells apart for repairs, the oil and electrolyte can be used over again, but it is desirable to change the electrolyte if it has been in service for a long time. It is recommended that before each hghtninge season the stack of cones be raised in the tank, and a few of the top cones inspected to deter- mine their condition, : COMPRESSED AIR IN RAILWAY WORK. The advantages of compressed air for railway power plants and in ear houses, and repair shops are only beginning to be understood, and are not yet fully appreciated. The larger companies have become familiar with it through their experience in operating air brakes, and those that have modern shop equipment have found it convenient and reliable for hoisting purposes, and in the operation of wood and iron working machinery. In some plants, too, it is used to clean motors and dynamos, the backs of switchboards, and cushions for car seats, but the extent and variety of the service it is capable of per- forming has not occurred to the average run of super- intendents and master mechanics. The educational process in this field seems to be very slow, and while there is generally a vague idea that compressed air may be employed to advantage for cleaning machinery, yet those troubles experienced in the operation of electrical apparatus are not always recognized as being due to an accumulation of dirt and dust, which might thus be re- moved. In fact, if it were generally understood that troubles and annoyances so often experienced in the operation of the power plant and rolling stock were at- tributable to their real cause, and that compressed air could be so readily obtained, there is no doubt that the intelligent manager would install a suitable plant for this purpose. Much of the delay in the adoption of compressed air for cleaning machinery has probably been caused by the 491 492 ELECTRIC RAILROADING cumbersome, and complicated compressing appliances that were employed for a long time; but this objection no longer exists, as simple, durable and compact air compressors suitable for this purpose are now obtain- able. The electrically driven compressor is by far .the simplest, and most desirable for railway shops, and it is always available, by simply closing a knife switch. The operator does not need to know anything whatever about the compressor, and as skilled attendance is not required, pneumatic apphances may be entrusted to ordinary la- borers about the ear shops and power houses, and the same class of help can be utilized for using many pneu- matic tools. There are many little things about a shop that can be done when compressed air is available, and which effect small economies in themselves, but aggre- gate a considerable sum in the course of a year. The flexibility of the system is, of course, greatly in its favor, and the employment of portable motor-driven compressors in large shops has made it possible to utilize pneumatic appliances in all parts of the works where current is obtainable. The subject is a fruitful one for superintendents who desire economy of operation, and at the same time endeavor to maintain a high degree of efficiency in equipment. EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE.t “No department of electric railroading has received less attention than the transmission line, and particularly the trolley wire. In the construction and maintenance of an electric railroad no expense is spared to obtain power-station equipment of the highest efficiency while the trolley wire, which is just as essential for operation, is generally purchased with no restrictions on the quality of material. The entire development of electric traction has taken place within the past twenty-five years, and this short period of time has witnessed an almost fabulous advance in the improvement of power stations and rolling stock. Higher voltages, greatly increased electrical output, heavier and more efficient cars capable of increased speeds have been noticeable on all lines. The increasing demands of traffie and the necessity of economical oper- ation have foreed the development of machinery of high efficiency. In spite of the great advance along all other lines, the trolley wire of today is not essentially differ- ent from that at first installed. At the present time there are over 25,000 miles of elec- tric lines in the United States. Calculating the value of the trolley wire in use at the current price and assuming the average weight per mile as 2,000 pounds, this shows a total investment of $8,000,000. This wire is the artery of the entire system, and any injury to it cripples the operation of the road, and decreases thereby the efficiency of the expensive generating equipment, and yet an ex- ~~ +Abstract of a paper read before the Division of Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers of the American Chemical Society, December 31, 1908, The author, Carl F. Woods, is connected with the Arthur D. Little Labora- tory, Boston, Mass. A493 494. ELECTRIC RAILROADING amination of the records of roads operating many hun- dred miles of track shows that a broken trolley wire is almost a daily occurrence. Numerous attempts have been made to specify the necessary characteristics of trolley wire, some of which have failed because of an incomplete understanding of the demands upon the material, and many more on ac- count of ignorance of the processes of manufacture, and the defects inherent to these processes. The determina- tion of the qualities necessary in an efficient material must always be preceded by a thorough understanding of the conditions which it must meet, and by a careful study of the material itself, and the limitations imposed by manufacturing processes. The trolley wire in general use in the United States is made from hard drawn copper, the sizes and shape varying considerably, but circular wire having a diam- eter of 0.364 inches, which correspond to No. 00 on the Brown & Sharpe gauge, is perhaps the most common form of construction. Ordinary soft copper does not have sufficient strength for this service, so that reliance has had to be placed upon either steel, bronze, or hard- drawn copper. While steel wire has the requisite strength, it is subject to severe corrosion from the weather, and has vastly greater electrical resistance. The silicon, phosphorus, and other bronzes of a similar nature possess great strength, but all have the serious defect of much lessened conductivity. Soft copper wire has a strength of about 34,000 pounds per square inch, while hard-drawn wire can be made having a strength of as high as 67,000 pounds per square inch. Hard-drawn wire, although possessing some serious defects, has there- fore been accepted as being much better than the other materials available for the purpose. EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 495 In standard construction, trolley wire is suspended in spans of 100 feet on straight lines, and in shorter spans on curves, the distance depending upon the radius of the curve, local conditions, ete. These spans are sup- ported by ears which vary in construction, but for the most part depend upon a fixed mechanical grip of the wire. In the earlier construction, ears were soldered to the wire, a process which annealed the hard-drawn copper with the consequent reduction in tensile strength, but this practice is now rapidly becoming obsolete. The wire, therefore, is subjected to the pull of its own weight, to the extraordinary stresses of ice and snow, and to severe pounding from the trolley wheel. In addi- tion the wheel passing along the wire gives to it a wave motion, which proceeds along the wire until an ear, or other fixed support is reached, where the wave is sud- denly checked, with a consequent sharp upward bend, followed by a series of bending stresses diminishing in force as the wave motion dies out. On a busy line, where cars are operated on a small headway the wire is sub- jected to practically a continuous effect of this nature, and in addition to this must be capable of carrying a large amount of power in order to diminish the outlay in feed wire. To give efficient service under the conditions above noted, trolley wire must possess the following qualities: Conductivity, tensile strength, flexibility, homogeneity, and toughness. Each of these qualities is essential, and no one of them can be increased beyond a certain point without a pro- portionate reduction of one or more of the others. For example, certain wires have been made from alloys of eopper and tin which have high tensile strength, great 496 ELECTRIC RAILROADING toughness and homogeneity, but are lacking in flexibility and have a conductivity only half that of pure copper. On the other hand, by proper drawing, wire can be made very homogeneous, flexible and tough, but lacking in tensile strength, the conductivity being unimpaired. , To recapitulate, high conductivity is necessary for eco- nomical operation; tensile strength to withstand the ab- normal stresses; flexibility to enable stringing and to allow the wire to adjust itself under strains and blows; homogeneity that the stresses may be uniformly distrib- uted along the wire, and toughness to withstand kink- ing, wrenching, and slow distortion without giving way. Attention naturally turns next to the methods of de- termining to what extent wire possesses these essential properties. The determination of conductivity is very readily and accurately made with a Wheatstone bridge, or one of the several appliances based upon the same principle which are especially adapted for trolley wire. Tensile strength may be determined in a testing machine of suitable capacity, but owing to the nature of copper the elastic limit cannot be determined by a drop of the beam, as the metal apparently yields quite steadily, up to the breaking point. Numerous conflicting figures are in print regarding the yield point of copper, but as a stress and strain diagram shows a nearly perfect curve, the actual elastic lmit can only be accurately deter- mined by applying increasing loads for a definite length of time, and measuring the permanent set in each case. Such a procedure is obviously too complicated for com- mercial testing, so that the elasticity of the wire has to be judged by other means. Under ordinary cireum- stances, power to resist the effects of twisting is not necessary for conducting wire, but the torsional strength EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 497 measures indirectly, but accurately, two of the most im- portant mechanical properties that a wire can possess, namely, homogeneity, and toughness. In a tensile- strength test, the maximum tensile load is largely a fac- tor of the cross-sectional area, and the amount of work which has been put into the hardening of the surfase. This test will detect inferior drawing, or inherent weak- ness of the copper, but it gives no idea of the power of the wire to resist distortion, nor of defects, such as oxide seams which run lengthwise of the wire, and do not have a cross-sectional area of sufficient size to affect the breaking strength. Under a torsional strain, how- ever, such defects are quickly noted. If the wire con- tains an oxide seam as above spoken of, the twisting will open it up, and at once lessen the strength of the wire. If the wire is of unequal hardness, the twists will tend to bunch up in the softest portion and very noticeably show this spot. Inferior copper not only shows a very low number of turns, but splinters and slivers of metal ap- pear on the surface which in very bad wires fall off to such an extent that a paper held beneath the sample during torsion will show a considerable collection of copper fragments. Non-homogeneous copper, due either to impure metal, or uneven drawing, will show a ereat difference in the number of turns which different specimens will stand without breaking, while high-grade metal which has been carefully drawn twists evenly and uniformly, with no slivering, and shows little difference in the number of turns on different specimens. It is, therefore, desirable to make at least three torsion tests, whereas one tensile test is sufficient to obtain an accurate measure of the strength. In the appended table No. 1 are given a series of tests which clearly illustrate the four general divisions into 498 ELECTRIC RAILROADING which the trolley wire of commerce may be divided by reason of difference in physical qualities. Specimens A, B, C, having tensile strengths of 5,500 pounds or higher, and torsion tests averaging about thirteen, represent wire lacking toughness which has been given a high tensile strength by drawing. Specimens D, E, F, having ten- sile strengths around 5,300 pounds, and torsion tests of about fifteen, are wires lacking both toughness and sur- face hardness. Specimens G, H, I, having tensile strengths of about 5,100, but torsion tests of approxi- mately twenty-three, are typical of wires in which the torsion has been obtained at the expense of tensile strength, while specimens X, Y, Z, with tensile strengths over 5,400 pounds, together with torsion tests of twenty- six, and even higher, represent the best trolley wire which can be made at a reasonable price. TABLE NO. 1. Sample Diameter Torsion Turns Tensile Load Conductivity No. Inches. in 10/7. Lbs. Wh Aes 0.865 14 5,650 98.4 12 DB Vent 0.364 ie 5,000 98.6 Peron wh it 18 5,500 98.2 Dees! 0.365 18 5,260 98.6 EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 499 Sample Diameter Torsion Turns Tensile Load cena Lbs. ‘Os No. Inches. in 10/7. te 0.365 14 5,270 98.7 A tO 0.364 14 5,370 98.7 Pe 0.364 21 5,070 98.9 ane 0.364 29 5,110 98.4 Socal, 0.365 24 5,210 98.4 Moet 0.364 27 5,400 98.3 son 0.364 es 5,490 98.4 Hi RaE eds: 0.364 25 5,090 98.2 500 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Of these four classes there is again a distinction in, that the first two represent copper of an inferior grade, which cannot be made the equal of the wires of the !ast two classes by any treatment in the rod mill. On the other hand, wires of the last two classes are both made from excellent copper, although specimens X, Y, Z are wires greatly superior in all respects to the preceding three. It is interesting to note that all of these wires have practically the same conductivity, which shows clearly the fallacy of attempting to value trolley wire by conductivity and tensile strength alone, as is so fre- quently done. It is therefore necessary not only to obtain high-grade copper, but also to secure the proper balance between tensile strength and torsion, as these two properties are correlated, and an increase in one, beyond a certain point, results in a proportionate decrease of the other. The preceding remarks have shown the conditions under which wire must work, and the qualities which are necessary to successfully meet these conditions. Atten- tion must now be turned to the process of manufacture to determine how these qualities may be obtained, and what defects of such processes injure the finished wire. For this purpose a brief review of the industry is neces- sary. In the refining furnace the copper, which is already at least ninety-six per cent pure from the blister furnace, is oxidized by air until a large part of the impurities have been removed, and copper oxide is formed in con- siderable excess. ‘Cuprous oxide is readily soluble in molten copper, and acts as a powerful oxidizing agent by giving up its oxygen to any metallic bases present, so that an excess of oxide insures the presence of all metal- EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 501 lic impurities in the oxide form. The excess cuprous oxide is then removed by burying a piece of green wood in the molten mass and covering the surface with char- coal. This process must be stopped within very narrow hmits, as over-reduction will throw the impurities back into the metallic state. The influence of cuprous oxide has been studied by Mr. Patch of the Detroit Copper Company, Dr. Ed- ward D. Peters, Jr., who is without doubt one of the best authorities on the metal in this country, and by the well-known German authority, W. Hampe, among many others. Many of the impurities in copper have been found to be much more injurious when present in the metallic state, than when in the form of oxides, and one effect of the cuprous oxide, as above mentioned, is to convert these impurities into the comparatively inert and harmless form, and so improve the quality of the metal. In large quantities, however, it is known to harden copper, while at the same time causing it to be- come short or brittle, and according to Hampe the pres- ence of one per cent produces a diminution in tough- ness. It is therefore possible to treat low-grade metal so that it will have high conductivity, although the large amount of cuprous oxide present greatly reduces the toughness. In purchasing copper for drawing trolley wire the manufacturer insists upon conductivity, but as a rule cares little for the other physical qualities, as he can obtain sufficient tensile strength by drawing. Lake copper possesses both high conductivity and excellent mechanical qualities, but this kind of copper costs from one-eighth to three-quarter cent per pound more than electrolytic. Why the latter should be inferior to Lake 502 ELECTRIC RAILROADING is difficult to explain, but experience shows that the gen- eral run of commercial electrolytic copper is by no means uniform in physical qualities, and as a general thing is distinctly inferior to Lake for wire-drawing purposes. The cheaper price of electrolytic, results in its use by many manufacturers, although they frequent- ly understand that the wire will be inferior. The refined copper comes to the rod mill in bars weigh- ing about 200 pounds each, approximately ten of which are used in the manufacture of a mile of wire. These bars frequently have ridges along the sides, due to faults in casting, and the surface is often covered with a layer of oxide. These bars are heated in a furnace until suf- ficiently soft for rolling and are passed through a series of rolls diminishing in size, until a rod of the proper diameter is obtained. The rod is then cooled and drawn through dies, the rods being connected by brazing. The dies give the wire a dense, hard exterior coating which increases its tenacity. As the strength obtainable is al- most a direct factor of the work expended upon the wire, the smaller the size, the greater the tensile strength per square inch, so that the strength of the trolley wire is readily varied by changing the size of the rod, and the number of dies. One of the most serious defects occurring to wire at this point is from ridged bars, as described above. Or- dinarily the bar will not be sufficiently heated to dissolve the copper oxide on the surface, so that as the softened bar enters the first passes of the rolls, the ridges are lapped over, enclosing the oxide scale. The subsequent passes, and the drawing through the dies obscure this flow almost entirely, but it remains a serious menace to the toughness and the resistance to wear of the copper, EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 503 as has been previously shown in remarks on the torsion test. A second cause of trouble arises at the same point by overheating the copper in the furnace, in which case copper oxide is formed on the surface, and quickly dis- solves through the entire bar, thereby increasing the oxide content, and tending toward the production of brittleness. Both of these dangers can be avoided by careiul selection of the bars, and by proper regulation of the temperature of the softening furnace. As the production of the hard surface from drawing is at best a rather delicate operation, careless handling, uneven welding of the rods, and unequal temperature of the wire while passing through the dies will all produce noticeable defects in the quality of the finished wire, so that care throughout the mill is absolutely necessary for the best results. It appears, therefore, that the most efficient wire must possess not only high conductivity, but the maximum torsion, and tensile strength possible in commercial cop- per, and that to obtain this it 1s necessary, first, to use high-grade copper and to prevent an excess of cuprous oxide entering it at any stage of the manufacture, and, secondly, to select as perfect bars as possible, and to ob- serve extreme care in every treatment through which they pass. The question at once arises, can such wire be purchased at a commercial price? The writer must ad- mit that this high-grade wire cannot be obtained at the ordinary market price, but requires the payment of a premium of one-half cent per pound. To produce wire of this grade consistently, the wire manufacturer must use the higher-priced Lake copper, and observe unusual care in its treatment, so that he is justified in demanding 504 ELECTRIC RAILROADING a higher price. Experience in the use of this wire has. shown conclusively that it is well worth the additional cost. The appended table No. 2 gives the results obtained upon thirteen consecutive miles of trolley wire made from selected bars of Lake copper. The tests were made upon each mile of the wire, and the results show the ereat uniformity obtainable with proper care. It should be said in this connection that this wire was not made as an experiment, but was drawn by a certain wire com- pany as a part of a regular business contract. TABLE NO. 2. Torsion Tensile Con- Sample Diameter Turns in Load ductivity No. Inches. 10/7, Lbs. Ae 12k 0.868 221% 5,470 99 243/ 2214 ANG tere 23% 23 5,490 98.7 Ogi 0.363 1934 5,400 97.8 Ae eae 0.363 20% 5,470 98.8 DO spegere 0.363 221% 5,450 97.8 Gee 0.363 24 5,500 98.6 EFFICIENCY OF TROLLEY WIRE 505 Torsion Tensile Con- Sample Diameter Turns in Load ductivity No. Inches. 10’. Lbs. %. grr cae, 0.363 22% 5,420 97.8 8 0.365 28 5,010 98.5 Oat r 0.368 24 . 5,540 98 LOR anes 0.363 21 5,470 98.8 Le 0.363 22 5,490 98.8 Ieee. 0.363 26% 5,500 98.5 LO es 0.363 23 5,450 98.7 The point must be kept clearly in mind, however, that even the best of wire is of little value if improperly used, and the consumer must realize that the same de- gree of care which he insists upon from the manufac- turer is essential in the handling and stringing of the finished wire. 506 — ELECTRIC RAILROADING The study of copper wire and the demands made upon it show the great need of a more thorough knowledge of this material. Owing to the minute quantity of im- purities which exert a marked effect upon the qualities of copper, a chemical analysis is too difficult for tech- nical purposes. The iron and steel industry is largely controlled today by microchemistry, and, in the same way, there is a future for this same practice in the cop- per industry. Of first importance is the careful working out of the copper-cuprous oxide system, with the deter- mination of the number of phases occurring, and the physical properties incident to different alloys. Doubt- less much of this information is already in the hands of ~ the copper refiners, but it remains for chemical engineers, and chemists interested in industrial materials to verify and complete the work for the consumer. This should afford a good field for experiment stations, and research students generally. A NEW TYPE OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. Fig. 253 shows a novel type of electric locomotive which has been designed jointly by the General Electric, and American Locomotive companies for trying out a scheme of transmitting power from the motors to the drivers through side-rods, instead of by the ordinary methods. The locomotive is designed for a tractive effort of 30,- 000 pounds at a speed of eighteen miles per hour, with a maximum speed of fifty miles per hour, and will oper- ate equally well in either direction. It has been tried out with temporary motors of a somewhat smaller ea- pacity, and the tests have demonstrated conclusively that the design is entirely satisfactory in every way. It is proposed to extend the cab over the entire length of the machine, when the proper motors are installed on the locomotive. The present cab and guards are only for the temporary protection of the apparatus now installed. One of the principal advantages found in this type of construction is that a motor of large diameter, and small air gap can be used in conjunction with small diameter driving wheels, and at the same time the motor ean be spring-supported. The same motor equipment ean also be used on locomotives with different diameters of driving wheels, thus permitting the interchange of equipment on freight, and passenger locomotives. This type of locomotive is as well adapted for operation with direct-current motors, as with those of the alternating current type. i 507 008 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Experimental Side-Rod Electric Locomotive. 253. Fig. 009 ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ‘QATJOULODOTT OLIJOOT JO UOTWVASTM pue uv[gd ‘FG7 ‘SLA CUDNEY ATTN TIES SET WOLLSMULENDD Os SN GONYHD O14 LOIFENO omens oe 09 0 ZAPSG —a ww Sonal NEEL, 7 Bi IN\ +2378 Nw sen EPS qf y At > ae SACS ae Oxy AL =e 4 ap ees cf | “ y 2 Pic. Bae wa \ Ay) ELECTRIC RAILROADING The electrical control is arranged in such a manner that the motors start as repulsion motors with short- circuited armatures, and are changed over to series-re- pulsion motors for the higher speeds. This arrangement eliminates running with a short-circuited armature on high voltage, and at the same time gives a high torque at starting. Fig. 255. Flexible Coupling, Partly Assembled. The armatures are similar to those of an ordinary direct-current machine with equalizer rings. They have multiple drum windings, with the bars soldered directly into the commutator segments. The field or stationary windings are of the distributed type, and are made in two sections, the exciting and the inducing windings. The former has the same function as the field winding in an ordinary series motor, while the inducing winding introduces the working torque when the motor is connected as a repulsion motor. All parts of the running gear, such as wheels, driving boxes, axles, springs, spring rigging, trucks, etc., follow standard steam locomotive practice, ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 511 Counterweights are used on the driving wheels to bal- ance the side-rods, and it should be noticed that there are no reciprocating parts and therefore a perfect bal- ance can be obtained. An interesting mechanical feature is the flexible coupling inserted between the armature shaft of the motor, and the motor crank. This consists of a series of leaf springs arranged radially around the motor shaft and of such a strength as to carry the entire torque of the motor with an amount of deflection which will re- duce the effect of the pulsating torque of a single-phase alternating current motor to a minimum. The accom- panying plan and elevation (Fig. 254) shows the gen- eral arrangement, THE PASSING LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. The life-like passenger locomotive, quivering with re- pressed energy at the station, and the massive mogul straining up long grades toward the backbone of a mountain range with the labored breathing of some colossal monster, thrill the imaginative spectator no less today than did the primitive engine when steam trans- portation was experimental, and before the history of the locomotive’s marvelous feats of speed and strength had been written. The substitution of the electric locomotive for the noisy, smoke-breathing monster of the rails will mark the elimination of a feature of transportation no less pic- turesque in its way than the giant clipper ship with her mystifying multitude of lines and her mountain of can- vas and the substitution of the fast passenger steamer for the windjammer on the ocean, and the replacing of the sweep-propelled barge on inland waters for the mule- drawn canal boat. THE ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE. The economics which have resulted from the operation of long and heavy freight trains by one locomotive are not possible where heavy grades are encountered, but from the desire to apply the principle to as large an ex- tent as is practicable, additional locomotives are then used for the single train. When steam is worked nearly full stroke in the cylinder, as is usual in ascending 512 MISCELLANEOUS 513 grades, the limitations of the boiler are soon reached, and it is necessary to reduce speed, and steam freight locomotives ascending 2 per cent grades seldom exceed six to eight miles per hour. Even when three very large consolidation engines are used on heavy grades under present conditions, the most economical trainload is hauled at these very low speeds, and a large number of locomotives is required for the service. Grade operation is expensive, therefore, not only on account of the large amount of fuel burned, but also because a large equip- ment is necessary, and the cost of maintenance of so many heavy locomotives is a serious item. The electric locomotive, either direct current or alternating current, can exert a constant horsepower and tractive force over a much larger range than the steam locomotive, and its operation is only limited in speed by the heating of the armature and field coils. As now constructed, it is safe to say that a given tractive force in an electric locomotive can be applied at a speed three times that of an equal force in the steam locomotive, and electric locomotives having the same weight on drivers can ascend grades with heavy trains at speeds of 20 to 24 miles per hour. The electric loco- motive weighs much less per horsepower, as the whole weight is on the drivers, and the constant haul of dead weight on the trucks of both engine and tender of steam locomotives is saved. The fuel cost of this item alone in operating heavy grades must result in a large credit to the economy of the electric motor. It is reasonable to expect that the cost of repairs of electric locomotives will be much less per mile, or ton mile, and the expense for maintenance will be further reduced by the fact that fewer units are required for a given traffic. If the in- 514 ELECTRIC RaILROADING terest, depreciation, maintenance, and cost of operation of three large steam freight locomotives is compared with that for one electric locomotive which will perform equivalent work on heavy grades, it will make such a fa- vorable showing as to at least compel further investiga- tion, and no doubt this will soon be followed by a com- . plete demonstration in practice. It is for the above reasons that the operation of freight trains by electricity on the steam lines will be first ap- plied on the heavy grades, and several railroads have al- ready ordered estimates for electric operation for such points on the line as are difficult of operation. An in- stance of this is the proposed electrification of Proctor Hill, on the Duluth Missabe & Northern, and the grades on the Cascade Mountains, both on the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. The probabilities are that the Pennsylvania Railroad will change its alignment over the Allegheny Mountains, thus avoiding the horseshoe curve and using electric locomotives. Such an alignment might have heavier grades than the present one, and yet, be operated by electricity more economically. WHY STEAM ROADS ADOPTED ELECTRICITY. If it is believed by some that sentiment, or a desire to be very modern, has made the steam roads anxious to adopt electricity as part of their motive power, they are very much mistaken. The reason why the advisory and executive forces of steam roads have moved to utilize electricity as an adjunct to their present systems is simply, because the loss of traffic they would otherwise sustain made it an imperative business measure. The local traffic of all large steam roads within a short dis- MISCELLANEOUS 515 tance of New York City will be handled in the next two years by electric means. To become duly impressed with this view of the case it is only necessary to visit the neighborhood of the New York Central above 42d street, or 33d street and 9th avenue, where the gigantic station of the Pennsylvania Railroad will be constructed. Mil- hons of dollars have been spent already in making excavations 75 feet deep over an area equal to 15 or 20 city blocks. The cost of this real estate with the houses standing was enormous, but they have all been torn down to make way for the new electrically equipped station, electrically lit tunnels, and electrically operated ears. A sum, variously estimated to reach from $40,- 000,000 to $60,000,000, is to be spent by the above roads respectively, in order to retain, and further develop their business as carriers of the public, and transporters of freight. An enumeration of a few instances outside of New York where electricity has been formally recognized as the most economical form of energy for use over long distances will prove interesting. The longest run of this kind is from Indianapolis, Ind., to Lima, O., by way of Dayton, an interstate line nearly 200 miles in length. The average speed is about 30 miles an hour and the fare 114 cents a mile. The next long run by electricity is made by the Lake Shore Electric, from Cleveland to Toledo, a distance of 120 miles. The run is made at an average of 25 miles an hour. As regards other lines of the interurban class, follow 22 belonging to the middle West, and about five in New York State, whose lengths vary from 30 to 80 miles. The lines at present in oper- ation in New York State are as follows: The Hudson Valley, 60 miles long; the Rochester & Eastern Rapid, 516 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 44 miles long; the International (Buffalo to Oleott), 37 miles; the Albany & Hudson, 37 miles long, and the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville, 33 miles long. It makes very little difference whether these roads are dis- paragingly entitled only trolley roads or not; they are and have been winning their way steadily to the front. This fact may be accepted as an axiom in the new world of railroad work, which has developed in the past ten years, that wherever an electric road parallels a steam road the steam road loses money. It is just as good as a passenger and freight carrier; it can run just as quick- ly, and it can stop at a variety of points convenient to those patronizing the road without losing much on its time schedule. This fact, hammered home by the expe- rience and receipts of electric roads, has been duly di- gested by the better class of thinkers of the steam traction systems. They have felt compelled to save them- selves from the loss of a vast amount of transient, and local business in the near neighborhood of large cities by adopting the weapons of their competitors. The New York Central reaches out 35 miles beyond New York City, the Pennsylvania will reach out over 50 miles from New York City—with its new electric passenger and freight service. The last lesson in railroading was not taught by the older pupil, but by the newer. Steam roads, it seems, to save themselves are rapidly becoming electric roads. CENTRALIZED CONTROL OF POWER PLANT AUXILIARIES, In recent power plant contruction, a valuable im- provement is the concentration of controlling apparatus for auxiliaries on special panels of the main switch- MISCELLANEOUS 517 board. Thus far the principle of centralized control— which is remote control when viewed from the other end of the line—has been applied mainly to oil-switch cir- cuits; but, with the increasing use of small motors for pump driving, valve operation, fan running, machine service, coal and ash handling, air compressor work and the like, it is becoming more and more important that the man in charge of the main switchboard shall be able at any moment to start or stop a given piece of machinery. It has taken power plant designers a long time to break away from the idea that the only place for a motor switch, is within three or four feet of the motor itself. The cost of controlling from a distance is slight in comparison with the increased flexibility of operation and, in cases where electromagnetic switches are not needed, it is simply a matter of a little extra wiring. In these later plants, switchboard panels have been provided for the control of a considerable variety of auxiliaries. The lighting circuits of oil storage com- partments, coal pocket subdivisions, pump rooms, pipe tunnels, power house machine shops, boiler and engine rooms, the motor circuits for the crane, if that is elec- trically driven; circuits for pumps, fans and other aux- iliaries as suggested above are all suitably controlled by primary switches on the auxiliary panels. Such an ar- rangement in no way prevents the location of parallel switches close by the equipment, and it is a wise move, considering the broadening requirements of power house operation, to duplicate controls in certain instances. It ought to be possible in any plant where the high- pressure steam piping is controlled at certain points by motor-driven valves, to operate these valves from the switchboard as well as from the boiler room floor. The 518 ELECTRIC RAILROADING location of engine stop buttons on the switchboard, as well as at other points, is an example of the increase in flexibility which is approved by modern designers. Installation of motor switches for starting and stop- ping coal conveyors, and crushers is certain to save labor in the long run, for these motors are almost always lo- cated in rather inaccessible spots, in comparison with the balance of the machinery. Even if they cannot be started from the main switchboard, on account of the inconvenience of rheostatic control on panels already erowded, a good deal of extra wear and tear may be saved by installing main knifeswitches of the quick- break type in these circuits, and distributing from the main switchboard. In the same way the switching of special hghting circuits at the main board tends to save needless waste of current in out-of-the-way places, par- ticularly if pilot lamps are used in connection with the switches. These improvements add very little to the already extraordinary cost of large modern switchboards, but they increase the operating flexibility of the plant, and open the way toward the stoppage of many small leaks. In some eases, special panels are now devoted entirely to the support of instruments reading voltage at remote points, current and power in different feeders taken in groups. Steam gages, indicators and other instruments are being paneled also, close by the main board, for there is really no logical reason why the measurements of power .plant energy in the varied stages of its produc- tion should not be co-ordinated. Intelligent operation demands a knowledge of all the existing conditions, and if present indications hold, the day is not far distant when the operating executive of MISCELLANEOUS 519 every new plant of importance will have all the phys- ical data, steam, electrical, thermometric, flue gas in- dications, ete., concentrated in the few feet of space formerly devoted exclusively to electrical measurements. In many cases, the complication of distantly operated electromagnetic switches will not be needed, but the main control must, eventually, lodge at or near the switchboard. Scattered switches and instruments may supplement the grouped units, but the latter will be none the less essential. The working out of all the de- tails will naturally vary with local conditions. INCREASING THE PROFITS OF INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. Profits may be increased upon an interurban railway in but two ways—by increasing the traffic or by reduc- ing the cost of operation. Both of these methods are constantly being attempted by progressive roads, but there is little doubt that increase of traffic offers greater opportunities for success than do lessened expenses, un- der present conditions. Very few electric interurban lines are operated at more than 20, or 25 per cent of their full capacity, figuring on the maximum number of single ears which can be safely forced over the route in a given time. A double tracked line with cars operat- ing at a maximum speed of 50 miles per hour, ought to be able to pass individual train units on each track at five-minute intervals in perfect safety with suitable op- erating rules, but the traffic seldom warrants anything less than a 15-minute interval on through interurban routes. The extended use of the multiple-unit system of control in interurban equipments is a potential advan- 520 ELECTRIC RAILROADING tage that has as yet not been widely utilized in doubling or trebling train capacity. The great majority of inter- urban trains are composed of single ears, and the full resources of a road equipped with train control will not be drawn upon until the single car gives way to the mul- tiple-unit train running upon the shortest headway pos- sible with the single ear itself. The cost of operation of an interurban line is so much lower per mile of track than the cost of running a great city system, that an increase of traffic on the former is relatively more profitable, and there is every incentive to develop new business on a line which possesses the percentage of reserve carrying capacity which char- acterizes most interurban systems. The gross earnings per mile of track on a city road may be four or five times those of the interurban, but in such event. the operating cost is likely to be six or eight times as great on the urban lines. Maintenance of way, taxes, and wages per mile of track or per car mile are vastly greater on the city system, notwithstanding the larger car mileage and extent of the urban road. Any increase in profitable car mileage on an interurban road is therefore bound to be a powerful factor in augmenting the profits. Interurban fixed charges remain about the same for an enormous increase of traffic, and the extra cost of carrying an additional carload of passengers is small in proportion. These are some of the reasons why it is getting to be more profitable to make special efforts to increase inter- urban earnings than to reduce interurban expenses of operation. Of course, one would not for a moment coun- sel neglect of expenses, but it is a question if these are not down pretty close to bed rock on many systems. A possible source of waste on an interurban line is dead MISCELLANEOUS pal mileage. In case extra cars are to be run over part of the system, from a car house to some objective point where a large return traffic is anticipated, it is usually a better plan to allow these extras to carry passengers on the outward as well as the inward trip, than to shut them up, and refuse fares in the direction of their desti- nation. The steam railroads are giving a great deal of thought to dead mileage, and while the conditions on electric railways are in nogsense as burdensome in this respect, it is well to remember that every idle movement of a car consumes power, and costs heavily in wages in proportion to the distance covered. At the power house end of the line, equipment is under- going radical improvements, and the steam turbine, and gas engine have both opened up a field of promise in respect to power economy on small roads. Perhaps the most notable advantage of the turbine for a small road with a poor load factor is its light load economy, while the gas engine plant offers low fuel consumption, even in small sized installations. There is also room for im- provement in transmission and distribution losses, in- cluding the perennial rail bond question. On small roads, the distribution of car labor is frequently faulty, and in efforts to approach an operating ratio of 50 per cent, the arrangement of conductors’ and motormen’s time is well worth studying. Repair shop methods on small roads—and any interurban line is essentially a small road in comparison with a large city system— are often full of expensive makeshifts. It is also some- times forgotten that high-schedule speed means fewer cars in service for a given interval. Established interurban railways cannot create traftic where none exists, and there is a reasonable limit to 522 ELECTRIC RAILROADING advertising. But this is a growing country, filled with almost unparalleled national resources, and opportuni- ties. The interurban line of today is no longer a dis- jointed link between two adjacent city systems—it is an actual railroad, without regard to the motive power used, and is certain to become more and more influential in the community served, as time goes on. There is much to learn from steam railroad experience, and the tendency of the steam and the electric line to supplement each other is so marked, that the new business-getting meth- ods of the older systems are in many cases applicable to the newer. ; THE PRESERVATION OF WOODEN TIES AND POLES. The firm of Himmelsbach Freres, of Fribourg, Baden, has been conducting a large number of tests on methods of preserving wood, particularly for use as railway ties. This company has furnished 20,000 wooden ties impreg- nated with coal tar for the railway through the Simplon tunnel, and has obtained fairly good results with this process of preservation. The method employed consists in passing the ties into hermetically sealed ovens, where they are heated, and the air exhausted until the pressure falls to twenty-four inches of mercury or less. Ten minutes afterwards the coal tar, previously heated, is introduced, the exhaustion within the oven being maintained during this time. The oven is then main- tained at a temperature of about 105 degrees centigrade by means of a steam coil placed in or beneath it. Heat- ing continues for four hours, after which the air pres- sure is increased until it reaches two atmospheres, MISCELLANEOUS 523 Practically the same process is followed in treating pins, and other wooden articles. This method, while not difficult, is not as simple as another now being tried, and known as kyanization. It depends upon the anti- septic properties of bichloride of mereury. It has been shown that a solution containing one part of bichlo- ride of mercury to 10,000,000 of water, arrests the de- velopment of micro-organisms, and one part in 3,000,- 000 suppresses them. The process consists in preparing a two or three per cent solution of the bichloride of mer- cury in water in large vats of concrete. The wood to be treated is plunged into these vats, and allowed to rest there for some time. Chemical tests of wood thus treated show but a slight penetration of the solution. It seems to be limited to the exterior surface, but as the preserving action of this treatment lasts for a consider- able time, it is possible that the penetration is really con- siderably deeper, and although too dilute to be indi- eated by chemical tests, yet it is sufficient to prevent decay. This process was used some years ago, and a table is given showing the results obtained on various railways. On some of these roads poles treated in this way were erected in 1877, of which from thirty to thirty-eight per cent were in use in 1903. Poles erected in 1883 to 1886, had from eighty-two to ninety-seven per cent still in service. Of poles erected in 1891 and 1892, all are still in good condition. The postal and tele- graphic department of Bavaria has had poles treated with bichloride of mercury in service for thirty years, and has found from statistics that the average life of such poles is seventeen and one-half years. 524 ELECTRIC RAILROADING TREATMENT FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCK. Writing in the Engineer and Mining Journal, Rich- ard Lee says: There is a difference of opinion as to whether alter- nating-current, or continuous-current shocks, under cer- tain conditions, are the more dangerous. It is well to remember, however, that a high-potential alternating circuit should not be regarded as safe to handle, even when the current has been shifted off, until it has been connected to earth and so practically discharged. A live wire may often be handled without inconven- lence when standing on an India-rubber mat, or on a dry-wood floor, but it is a safe rule to avoid contact with any part of an electrical apparatus, without thoroughly understanding what one is doing. The symp- toms of an electrical shock are as follows: (1) Stop- page or weakening of the action of the nerves; (2) con- traction and stiffening of the muscles; (3) stoppage or weakening of the action of the heart. The contrac- tion of the muscles is what prevents the victim from letting go after grasping a live wire. A person who has received a severe shock may be- come unconscious, and seemingly cease to breathe. None of these symptoms necessarily indicates death, and un- der no circumstances should remedial measures be aban- doned until a physician has pronounced life extinct. It is most likely that many victims have been given up for dead after an electric shock, when the continuous application of further remedies might have restored them. A number of cases are on record where subjects who have received severe shocks have been unconscious for more than 30 minutes without the slightest discern- MISCELLANEOUS H20 ible heart action, and still have recovered because of the artificial respiration applied. In treating a victim, it is advisable to elevate the body and legs so as to send the blood to the brain, which action may prove a remedy for syncope, a condition often resulting from such a shock. If the heart has stopped beating, it is sometimes possible to start that organ again by applying a series of smart taps over the chest. The treatment should also be accompanied by drawing the arms in and out, so as to aid, or rather force artificial respiration. A number of authorities also advocate hypodermic injections of ether and alcohol beneath the skin, so as to distend the arteries, and help the heart action. In trying to disengage a man who is in contact with live metals, it 1s well to remember that dry clothing is a good insulator, and the best plan is to seize the victim’s arm on the clothing and try to pull him away. Under no circumstances should the res- ecuer touch the bare skin, or take hold under the armpits where the clothing is apt to be damp. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESUSCITATION FROM APPARENT DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL ELECTRIC SHOCKS. Augustin H. Goelet, M. D., in The Electrical World: The urgent necessity for prompt and persistent efforts at resuscitation of victims of accidental shocks by elec- tricity 1s very well emphasized by the successful results in the few instances recorded. In order that the task may not be undertaken in a half-hearted manner, it must be appreciated that accidental shocks seldom result in absolute death, unless the victim is left unaided. 526 ELECTRIC RAILROADING for too long a time, or efforts at resuscitation are sus- pended too early. In the majority of instances the shock is only suffi- cient to suspend animation temporarily, owing to the momentary and imperfect contact of the conductors, and also on account of the indifferent parts of the body submitted to the influence of the current. It must be appreciated also that the body under the conditions of accidental shocks seldom receives the full force of the current in the circuit, but only a shunt current, which may represent a very insignificant part of it. When an accident of this nature occurs, the following rules should be promptly adopted and executed, with due eare and deliberation: 1. Remove the body at once from the circuit. by breaking contact with the conductors. This may be ac- complished by using a dry stick of wood (which is a non-conductor), to roll the body over to one side, or to brush aside a wire, if that is conveying the current. When a stick is not at hand, any piece of dry clothing may be utilized to protect the hand in seizing the body of the victim, unless rubber gloves are convenient. If the body is in contact with the earth, the coattails of the victim may be seized with impunity to draw it away from the conductor. When this has been accomplished, observe Rule 2. 2. Turn the body upon the back, loosen the collar and clothing about the neck, roll up a coat and place it under the shoulders, so as to throw the head back, and then make efforts to establish artificial respiration (in other words, make him breathe), just as would be done in case of drowning. To accomplish this, kneel at the subject’s head, facing him and seizing both arms, draw MISCELLANEOUS 521 them forcibly to their full length over the head, so as to bring them almost together above it, and hold them there for two or three seconds only. (This is to ex- pand the chest and favor the entrance of air into the lungs.) Then earry the arms down to the sides and front of the chest, firmly compressing the chest walls, and expel the air from the lungs. Repeat this maneu- ver at least sixteen times per minute. These efforts should be continued unremittingly for at least an hour, or until natural respiration is established. 3. ) 37-1039 Te eal Hes 500,000 595 390 -020138 | 1553 S 61-0905 resale SOL09 600,000 682 440 .01666 | 1863 ee 61-0991 Swale 96579 700.000 765 488 .01488 | 2174 os 61-1071 7 eel] BOBO SS 800,000 846 540 .01258 | 2474 a = 61-1145 ( ° 1 | Oo Tes) ov for) ‘ . vo S| SB 6 a ~ S S S&S S&S (ee) or) or) D An) Vo) ie) | Oo rm eS > S ’ e 1d oo See i eed tor tig ey «Gee 4H =| oO ee Sarees SS & 2 rors <1 .GOR Co) 5 te 5 Cr r= an! 3 a = oS. S } 10 Se er SS ay o> ms ERD” ld hme vr S | se ¢ = x~ S S QR 5 mr Seoue VY JO son[eA | BY ees re 1 See ss poe f ns rab) ve! S| ao: s Ho a Ate ' n cre ae A. D Ee PES DH A 537 GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE a a SOE FOr mf me “WE aT a as 76 ay: “TE ac “ie Ae OF66" GOT | POT | 90'L | 90'T iE Ee aE AE a “qe elt ac: at T “ie iE 988L" LOT | 60°T | OL'T | 60°T = Ee as ‘T | COT iE ep ‘UE ue AE al: “je ET 0G729° SLU VE EL Pet crt “TE ‘TL | COT | SOT AE “ve STaeTOst “i =e ae “ye Sc6F IG@LIIGL | 06 LT | OTE ‘LT | COL | FOL | GO'T i =: ‘L | cOT aL: A “al “i PE6s" TST | OST | 46° LT | T3'L | FOL | 90°L | 8O'L | SO'T ‘T =E |} 1On 0b ae “il ok ‘T OZLS" GEOR Lie Ss tal oulelOLsE | teal |G ede yekieeb ‘L | SOT | 90°T | SO'T ‘T ‘T GOEL SLIG LGT| SST | 9PT | SSL] ZIT | SLL | 202 | PLT | SOL | Z0°L | SOT | LOT =i 6 ‘L| cOT | OT o96L° LA OL) OOM Sh! 9G GGL SG Le SEL 0lete|| GE La GLek | LL. ‘L | GOT | FOL | SOT 9SCT° LOT | 881 | SLT | 99°L,| 9ST | PEL | 9ST | FST] ZEIT] SLL | AVL | PLT | SOL | SoTL | Z0T | LOT PECL Go'S | S'S | 96'T | TL'L | GFT | OFT | OFT | TST | 9V°L | 9ST | FOL | GET | GOL | OFT | IV'T | OL'T GLL60° LQG | OFS | 8LS | 98'L | 99'T | O9'L | GEL] FET | AVL | SSL] SSL | SSL | OL L | OTL | OE TL | PLT 8SLL0° ¥6'S | LLG | SUS | 80'S | GBT | LLL | 99'T | 6F LT} 1ST] SFL | IPL | OP L | FOL | FOL | OT | SET FCTLO 6P'S | FES | 98'S | GE'S | 60'S | 66' TL | FST | Z9T | LOL | L9°L | SSL | 29 | FST | SSL | 62 T | Sa T 6L8F0° 08 Gs 06 G6 08 G8 06 6 08 G8 06 G6 08 G8 06 6 a v a rm S58 (ear “10JOV A IOMOG “IOJVT IIMOT ‘"10JOBT IOMO”d “10J0BY LIMO QS 5 ‘4yuUaO 19g ‘qUaQ I3g ‘4U00 19g "4uaQ 19g ons ESO i) ns *S9TOAD GcL “SOTDAD 09 “So[OAD OF “SOTOAD GZ a ‘2 09°C JABdB SOO! ST SAITAMA IOJ “J JO Son[VA “SINVISNOO DONIYIM VIE 9°68 66 °6F 60°69 6F 6L &@ 00L OF 9CT 88 6ST 86°006 SP S96 00°6TS L6°GOP GL'80¢ &L'09 ‘spunod ‘40a,J 000T 19d OITA O18 JO IGSIOM ZS ‘OT 060°ST 60¢°9T 918‘0% 0&'9Z COLES CPL'TF $89'CE $1899 $69°E8 09¢°GOT 6L0°§8T G08‘L9T 009°TIZ ‘SIL TBMOIIO ‘OIIM BOLV rN COM 1OO ~O OS oo oO S ‘aSnBy ‘§ 9a ‘21M JO ON 538 ELECTRIC RAILROADING FUSING EFFECTS OF CURRENTS. Table giving the diameters of wires of various materials which will be fused by a current of given strength. W. H. PREECE, F. R. S. 2 a~(*)3 a DIAMETERS IN INCHES n ®o ——— i o a a i = ® b a - = = x g . a - 3 a) x > N S com 2 Q ie) ar) aM ee) LBs ae) em tO = is aes Bw BS AN on 4 3 Goo BS o oF = lope) Ven) qs oO rt on -- Be =| E | z | E | S| d | - | = | S | =| qs a3 has os as os AS As SoS S) S) < Ay o) A, 4A Ss = A GENERAL WIRING FORMULAE 539 The following tables show the minimum break dis- tance, and the separation of the nearest metal parts of opposite polarity for plain open-link fuses and switches, when mounted on slate or marble bases, for different ees and for different currents: Separation of nearest metal parts of Minimum 125 VOL''S OR LESS. opposite polarity. break distance. 10 amperes or less........ PARVIG Rn we cee 3¢ inch 11-100 amperes........... 1 Sa) eave a AP aee era as Tee ee 101-800 amperes........... tO Slee) Bera ag Tiare 125 TO 250 VOLTS. 10 amperes or less........ USA! i ate Lys 11-100 amperes........... YT nena, eae Lia 101-300 amperes........... DEMME Oe iene gals a Leis 125 VOLTS OR LESS. FOR SWITCH AND PANEL BOARDS: 10 amperes or less........ LE oa Aig Rha a ye « 11-25 amperes............ LT tay ete ear Ae 34S 26-50 amperes............ LSE Seamtt oe tee eee ate ce Ler: FOR INDIVIDUAL SWITCHES: 10 amperes or less........ Ee See Petia: | cae Borah te Ge 11-25 amperes............ Leeper one a gehen, Bis ok 36-100 amperes........... ZG ne ee rae crater, eG Be 101-300 amperes........... Pe SS ee aR sae Vee 301-1000 amperes.......... Bal (RE eis eel a 23% SS 125 TO 250 VOLTS. FOR ALL SWITCHES: 10 amperes or less........ AN SE Nalanda af A i dieSOvaIN PETES Uh ers ss... U0 TES Age Shiai aa pe bag ut 36-100 amperes........... PAE te) RAS ie Ms Aarne Aa ee its 101-300 amperes........... Py Be Oa ars ohn hohe Peay eM 301-1000 amperes.......... ah 1) SRS Unie Rag tree pt i 23% SS 250 TO 600 VOLTS. FOR ALL SWITCHES: 10 amperes or less........ DIS MESO e ef Sys aca cine Shee Uso ANY PCLes sccm tar. oe! olay Oe aa RI PET ae 3% ‘* 36-100 amperes........... Aue sclts «oats cere rns Aas Auxiliary breaks or equivalents are recommended for switches designed for over 800 volts, and less than 100 amperes, and are required on switches designed for use in breaking currents over 100 amperes, at a pressure of more than 300 yolts, ELECTRIC RAILROADING 540 ‘POT| «= “GGT 66 Pol 8°68 ‘60T CPL "$6 €99 | 6°68 ‘8G | Goh 4 6P “69 vir | stg jc fen 2 8G TS 406 | 6°96 LQOT | L0G SPV cr | SS ct 886°8 | 98 OL AIO | LL kh c99F | 68'S L646 | 6S c6V ET | 98'T 9rL- 66" O00T 008 “LOG “GOT “8&1 Pol ‘OTL 496 8°68 ‘69 6 Gg vy o'Vs 69°LG oL 06 18ST 96°OL Lhek 99'7 8h G vo T 009 SSS RS Se ee Se ee “8PG ‘OTS "C9G “TSIT | “LE9T “S6T “BPG “OP ‘P06 ‘9CET “COT "LOG ‘OLE ‘EGL ‘OTT “OFT ‘98T ‘688 “8L9 66 ‘OST cot “108 “G09 ‘P88 OLE SPT "693 “LOG “SLL v 66 ‘Vol “96Gb ‘CSP “699 8°68 “SOT “88T ‘OLE “Gog 6°99 8°68 ‘OST “TOS “OPV 4 69 Ko) ‘GEL ‘96 ‘TSS 9 1P 8 Tg T'¥6 ‘881 ‘OLG Clss | WHIP oh ‘OST ‘16S 9876 | 8O'TS ¢'9S ‘STL MAT LOL | 640% 9h g'gh OEE ShCr | po ST G86 | G'9¢ 6°68 68 6 co TT Eo ee CY ay) 69°¢ 66°9 LGl | V's GLE 86% 618 849. |99 S1 8°61 SPT 98°T 88'S 49 ¥6'6 00¢ OOP 0GG OIL cL ‘SLIOA SHLVOIGN] MOY dO, FHT, “HMaHLLNO °p “YOLOW YAd SHYAdINV ‘98FG “6861 “LGOT “T6PL “O6ET “O9TT ‘766 ‘868 ‘699 “LOP VV “TSS ‘SFG “GOT Vol GLEPEL LGV66 88868 669FL TTS99 6608S SSL6P VP IP COTES 99I8FS CoLOG SLGOT SSPGL 8868 L169 PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ACTION OF BRAKES. When the brake is apphed the energy stored in the moving ear by the motors is consumed, being overcome by the friction of the brake shoes against the wheels. The efficient application of the brake, with a view to stop the car within the least possible distance, with the least strain and wear upon equipment, and shock to pas- sengers, 1s primarily a matter of good judgment, coupled with experience. Therefore, the study of the brake and braking apparatus in its completeness will largely add to the value of the motorman, to his company, for the saving of power alone which can be effected by an in- telligent operation of the brakes is an item of no small consequence in the economy of operating clectric cars. Together with their various modifications there are five principal styles of brakes in general use. 1. The earliest style of brake is the hand brake; the brake shoes being pressed against the wheels with power ‘supplied by the physical force of the motorman, and either by means of a long lever or by staff upon which a chain is wound by turning. 2. The momentum or dise brake is operated through the medium of a friction disc, or clutch mounted on the axle, and the brake shoe is drawn up by the power which the momentum of the car provides. 3. The air brake, which is operated by compressed air power, pressing the shoe against the wheel by means of a piston which works in and out of the cylinder con- taining the compressed air. 041 542 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 4. The electric brake is operated by the motors them- selves, which are connected to act as dynamos and fur- nish the electricity which exerts the force that stops, as well as starts, and runs the ear. 5. Track brakes absorb the energy expressed in the momentum of the ear, by friction against the rail instead of the car wheel. The shoes adjusted to a part of the braking apparatus are carried at the sides of the truck, and press down upon the top of track rail with force enough to check the movement of the ear. In modern electric railway operation nearly all cars are equipped with power brakes of some kind, in addi- tion to hand brakes. These cars are equipped with mechanism consisting of different combinations of rods, beams, and levers, and by the manipulation of the brake levers or handles the power is transmitted through the system, causing a pressure of the brake shoe against the wheels with varying degrees of force at the discretion of the operator. The general principle applying in the arrangement of the many styles of brake rigging with which trucks are provided is the same; the differences consisting of detail, rather than of essential variations. In an ordinary truck equipped with hand brakes, the brake shoes are located close behind the car wheels. When the brakes are not set there is a space of about 1 in. between the brake shoes and the wheels. The shoes are adjusted to the brake beams, and to the latter, one end of the brake rod is attached, and the other end is made fast to the cross beam, which engages with the equalizer bar. The hook rods, into which the brake chain is hooked, are secured at the ends of the equalizer PRINCIPLES GOVERNING BRAKES 543 bar. When the brake is released the brake shoes are re moved from the wheels by means of a strong spring. When the brake handle is turned around one or more turns the brake chain is wound up, and the hook rod is pulled forward which moves the equalizer bar, and thereby the cross beams. When the cross beams move toward each other the rods are moved, which brings the brake beams and shoes towards each other, fixing the brake shoes firmly against the wheels. As all of the brake shoes act at the same time, in course of time the wear on some of the shoes will be greater than on others, thus causing slack. To provide against the effect of slack an adjustment is made to take up the slack, and this is done where the rods connect with the brake beam near the shoes. The ends of the rods are threaded, and in pockets provided in the brake beam nuts are secured. Into these sleeve nuts the rods are screwed. ‘lo make the adjustment the head of the nut is turned, which shortens the rod, and brings a worn shoe nearer to the wheel. By this method each shoe can be adjusted sepa- rately as may be required, and the pressure of every shoe maintained at normal pressure. The brake mechanism on double-truck cars is modified in order that means may be provided to obtain an ap- proximately equal pressure on every wheel, which in- sures maximum braking effect and prevents sliding, which would occur if one set of wheels were locked more firmly than the others. In order to apply the brakes on both trucks by one motion of the single brake handle, or by one air brake cylinder, there is introduced a fixed lever in the center of the car between the trucks, and to this are connected the brake rods from each truck. By means of a chain and rod, the central lever is connected 544 ELECTRIC RAILROADING to the brake staff, and the brakes of both trucks can be operated simultaneously by moving the rod and central lever. The dimensions of the levers are given below: Fixep Lever, length 48 ins. Distance between the pins for the arch bar rod 9 ins. Truck LEvEr, length 13 ins. BRAKE HANDLE, length 15 ins. Exerting a pull of 65 lbs. at the brake handle with these dimensions will produce a total braking pressure of 29,000 Ibs. - On these brakes there are chains in duplicate, working with a double sprocket wheel instead of one chain wound around the brake staff. If one chain breaks the other may be brought into action and the operator can, when applying the brakes, feel the slightest contact of the brake shoes with the wheels. NEW AIR BRAKE EQUIPMENTS FOR STEAM RAILROADS—LATEST DEVICES OF THE NEW YORK AIR BRAKE CO. AND THE WESTING- HOUSE CoO. On account of the constantly increasing demand from our students for information concerning the new equip- ments, and the latest appliances connected with the air brake, as apphed to steam railroads, it has been thought best to introduce at this point a section giving full and complete descriptions, and illustrations of the very latest improved devices, as applied by both the Westinghouse and New York Air Brake companies. Among the many new equipments described will be included the B? H. S. and B? H. P. equipment, the Duplex pressure controller, and double pressure system; the acceleration valve and high speed controller of the New York system. The new E. T. equipment of the Westinghouse system is clearly deseribed and illustrated, including the new dis- tributing valve, the type H brake valve, the independent brake valve, type K freight valve, and type L triple valve. The construction and operation of each and all of these latest improved devices is placed before the student in a plain, practical manner, and a close study of the principles governing their action cannot fail to be of creat benefit to the man engaged in railroad practice, - whether steam or electric. e 545 yt ee ee bay w . i : - ed eninge. — sve — pips rad +e ' Saray Fore " 7 ‘) Sind ben tied, Locate a kona 7, fra, Saoee : a! ae -HeOet | a ee eee aa earcrerebasr yuie santo all sent . \ ~ Sepsiahin erioheommid Siumacumeihtnonth Ade asethemetente ek te oa mR Am NU aes he ie ete Gay Shera hones 1 ae : 4 ' és LN fae iwi Pe See Ri coat pis DMO? rms ; pers, OM BNANG © ‘ i pet 5 “1 AaHieeTA , , : . tee ‘ a q : y of “ i t 3 Ps cae de oo 1 anhe a i. ‘ or 1 py hrn pies | Np m ; 2 pony 5 re -% ra : 7 * “yl ‘ < ;, , i ¥ > Oo} Cla a4 i 4 & On |», wnt Gon ey, sa ; ’ ' eee) tek wows Tue THDh 7) ee fe ; $ stow idl eo 'G : ey r (.eutsisqqA lotinoD. euaeerd dgiH) s08vi9e tigio — Pass Cae | QF THE » ; ae ™ | iy aby a UNIVERSITY A Eas ) “ae aes te 4 | ; aN i ik fete, Oe By | scam oe oh as ae pone, if von iat , ey | Rena tte Mh { +n oe 4 g ty waar! 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STRAINER ~ OD) — = a | \¥ Shih : ; : FSepoth nmbs Toymucwerame [bthoee boast! ee © auxiiady Res | FOP a «3 CUTOUT CocK H : ee ALE QUALIZING PIPE } | lam S| faa noe 2 ME, | MFAIN TRIPLE vaLve Acut out cocn Fan ae, ire } ae ca eucK - = SS tis HE HY EO A S pPIre = eu z2*HOse a WITH PCONNECTIOND our cocx || ‘our Wf = PAN i eur SF gee cock I rire t nie a ot | DUMMY COUPLING | mee ee me & we oe we Pe we Swe oe ewes — > Za ite cur ‘out CocnK, AG Exo) ~ Noo 2cu7 our cook SEC NOTE? ~ NeRAKE Pipe tb PIPE ACTEKERATOM VALVE" = OrwOLO RESERVOIR sean Res deer” \ t Statham PAL Bz. Locomotive Brake Equipment. (Single Pressure System.) ns=Ss wate li ea esa i commen | : owen BERR ye MAIN RESCRVOR eec-.. * B2-S. Divided Geese rw ere eee srt eee wrseese OS seee cms a B2-HP. Locomotive Brake Equipment. wee ee eee Locomotive Brake Equipment. l @2 CRAKE Veuve —- > | =f ——_ pest - 3 “ Shere eee SUPPLEMENTARY ® ae RESERVOIR ‘su | \seouauzino are is ¥ é Pais pe Gur SuTCocK L BEE NOTES ———— QD Sh Sy ' = £3 ‘ DOUBLE CHECK vaLve “| Este c SS re ae ee eS ee o=— QUICK RELEASE vacve repay, sleur Sur coca : Reservoir are not used; t 8 ee en we oe ee we ee = oe ee ee ee ee oe ee eee Equipment for Switch Engines. Cc) = t enact cus df equaszino Lael NO8 PLAIN TRIPLE valve 97, SPECIAL 2cur7 our cocu ~~ no 8 icur our coc SEC NOTE! ORIVER BRAKE AUAILIARY RES With this Apparatus the Accelerator Valve and > Supplementary Reservoir of Schedule B is Substituted for the Divided Reservoir. eCCELERATOR VALVE OWIDED RESERVOIR STEAM VALVE CURLER AIR CYLINDER aim ont, aoe 1 ' i} ar 0) ! Ca rm rowed || | (62) (AS; | k | Se? WT union 3 way coon | | Y 1 acd | fas | ' on eraxt vaive. i (- vit creas 4 le j oe j——— i} Z Ba yey sow eg ll | * meal } | | DUPLEX PaessuRE CONTROLLER £ = *o | T dere | ny At ee Yevtour coc } |] | =| \ | ba | mor 2 | } rout our coon I} Jeec-| | For use in Freight Service. re beater a. = h oTRucK emake Hhoyg ‘ BURILIANS cs aS NO + Acurour cock 1feQUaLITING OR noe * See NOTE 2 ORIVER BRAKE AURIIARY RES. (High Pressure Control Apparatus.) Be ae TRIPLE Vaive . - , | lm = >. | sf (A. ~=e, ere ||] dee = tel? | ie wir jconne ehons Summy COUPLING a ACCEALRATOR VALVE B2-HS. Locomotive Brake Equipment. For us¢ in Passenger Service. a Ris 4 fouTourcock | | H i steworee | | 6 eps inten s 1 eg ae poe | Sar aes eee a ns rt ee han a } ES 0 f BRAKE Pipe co <_ eRorr OPE = our STRAINER rf \ jak aaa! f nou | TRUCK mame ae OT DrviDt Oo RESERVON | auxiLiaRy nce. s rl ar es a JE PA aret (High Speed Brake.) ‘B2 H. S. EQUIPMENT—NEW YORK AIR BRAKE. The locomotive brake equipment described and illus- trated herewith is known as the B2-HS equipment and is arranged in three different schedules to cover the re- quirements of railroad service in general. Schedule B2 covers the single pressure system, Ba2- HP the double pressure system, and B2-HS the double pressure system with high speed attachment such as shown herewith. The equipment differs materially from any schedule heretofore furnished. As with the Combined Automatic and Straight Air Brake, the independent brake valve has been dispensed with, and by the addition of the Du- plex Pressure Controller and Accelerator Valve, more has been accomplished than was heretofore possible, and with less apparatus. With this equipment the train brakes can be released, and the locomotive brakes held on. The locomotive brakes can then be released when desired, or can be ap- plied and released independently of the train brakes, or together with same at the option of the engineer. - The locomotive brakes can be operated at all times by automatic or independent application, and without re- gard to position of the locomotive in a train, whether used as a helper, coupled to another or assigned to any other part of train. They can be applied and released at will, and can be graduated off after an application of the train brakes; therefore, in all kinds of service the train brakes can be handled without shock to the train. 547 548 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The accelerator valve will be found a valuable addi- tion to these equipments when operating long trains, for, with the use of same, shorter stops will be effected, and a more uniform application of the train brakes obtained. All excess pressure is confined to the main reservoir, and in no position of the brake valve handle can the brake pipe pressure increase above its maximum. This will prevent over-charging of auxiliary reservoirs on the head end of trains, and also reduce the strain on air brake hose. B2 EQUIPMENT. This equipment is designed for passenger or freight service where but one brake pipe pressure is used. Both pump governor and pressure controller have single regulating heads. The pressure head for the pres- sure controller should be adjusted to 70 lbs. for brake pipe pressure, and the pump governor head adjusted to go lbs. for main reservoir pressure. B2-S EQUIPMENT. This equipment is for use with switch engines as be- fore stated. A single pump governor is provided, also a single pressure controller for brake pipe pressure regu- lation, In the pipe connecting the regulating and sup- ply portions of the pressure controller is located cut-out cock No. 2. When this cock is open the controller should give a maximum brake pipe pressure of 70 lbs. and the pump governor adjusted to 110 lbs. for main reservoir pressure. This will give the necessary air pressure for freight service. By closing the cut-out cock the pressure B2. EQUIPMENT 049 controller will become inoperative, allowing the main reservoir pressure of 110 lbs. to pass to the brake valve, and brake pipe for high speed service. B2-HP EQUIPMENT, This equipment is for use in freight service only. Both regulating portions of the pump governor and pressure controller are duplex, so that pressures of 70 and go lhks. can be carried in the brake pipe and 90 and Ito lbs. in the main reservoir for the ordinary brake pipe pressure and the high pressure control. For the operation of these duplex regulating portions, three way cocks are provided, being connected as shown in the piping diagram. To operate these cocks turn the handle in line with the pipe leading to the regulating head to be used, high or low pressure as desired. This will cut in the head to regulate the supply portion, and cut off the one not in use. B2-HS EQUIPMENT. High speed locomotive brake equipment. The system of regulation of pressure for the high speed equipment is the same as with the B2-HP except that the regulat- ing heads of the pressure controller should be adjusted to 70 and 110 lbs. for brake pipe pressure, and the pump governor heads adjusted to 90 and 120 or 130 lbs. as desired for main reservoir pressure. 550 ELECTRIC RAILROADING MANIPULATION. On the folded sheet (Plate 36) will be found piping diagrams of the several B-2 equipments, and it should be referred to in connection with the following instruc- tions : GENERAL, To apply the locomotive and train brakes (automatic), move the handle of the brake valve to the graduating notch necessary to make the required brake pipe reduc- tion. To release both locomotive and train brakes, move the handle to Running and Straight Air release position. To release the train brakes and hold the locomotive brakes set (Straight Air), move the handle to Full Auto- matic release and Straight Air application position. To release the locomotive brakes, move the handle to Running and Straight Air release position. To apply the locomotive brakes (Straight Air), move the handle to Full Automatic release and Straight Air application position. To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle quickly to Emergency position, and leave it there until the train stops, or the danger has passed. In case the automatic brakes are applied by the burst- ing of a hose, the train parts, or a conductor’s valve is opened,. place the handle in Lap position to retain the main reservoir pressure. To graduate off or entirely release the locomotive brakes after an application of the train brakes, use the lever safety valve to make the required reduction. BZ EQUIPMENT ool The handle of the brake valve will be found to work freely and easily at all times, as the pressure on the main. slide valve does not exceed the maximum brake pipe pres- sure, The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure in the locomotive brake cylinders, and should be observed in all brake manipulations. Where there are two or more locomotives in a train cut-out cock No. 1, shown in plate 36, should be turned to close the brake pipe, and the brake valve handle carried in Running and Straight Air release position on all loco- motives, except the one from which the brakes are oper- ated. In case it becomes necessary to cut out the Straight Air brake, close cut-out cock No. 3 which is located in the straight air pipe between the Brake Valve and the Reducing Valve. To cut out the Automatic Brake, close cut-out cock No. 6 located in the pipe connecting the Triple Valve with the Double Check Valve. By locating the cut-out cock between the Triple and Double Check Valves, the auxiliary reservoirs will re- main charged, while the brake is cut out, and can be alternated with the train brakes in descending long grades to prevent overheating of the locomotive tires, Cut-out cocks Nos. 3 and 6 are special, they are of the three-way pattern, and when turned off drain the pipes leading to the double check valve to keep the latter seated in the direction of the closed cock. The main reservoir cock No. 4 is to cut off the sup- ply of air when removing any of the apparatus except the governor. The straight air controller is to limit the pressure in 552 ELECTRIC RAILROADING the driver, truck and tender brake cylinders for the straight air brake, and should be adjusted to 40 pounds pressure. Cut-out cocks Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are recommended when truck brake is used, their purpose being fully understood. Nos. 9 and 10 can be added, if desired, so that the driver brake cylinders and reservoir can be cut out, and engine truck brake operated by truck brake reservoir. THE Baz BRAKE VALVE. This brake valve, although modeled somewhat upon the principles of the B and BI valves, is necessarily dif- ° ferent in detail so as to embody the features of the pres- sure controller and those of the united straight air., Fig. 266 is a photographic view of the valve. Fig. 267 is a Fig. 266. B-2 Brake Valve. longitudinal side section showing travel of main slide valve EV 194 and how the graduating valve EV 110 is controlled by the piston EV 193. This view also shows the different positions of the brake valve handle. Fig. 268 is a top view of the valve with the cover, slide valve D038 554 ELECTRIC RAILROADING and handle removed, showing seat and connections for the straight air and divided reservoir pipes. Fig. 269 is a cross section through the valve (rear view). Fig. 270 is a cross section through the main slide valve. Fig. 271 shows the face of the main slide valve. ; 2 yusA Ut Evios [F™ — YY: ). Y= YP Laces, A VK Gy WZ VL | q amen eat: pam At ‘ni c= seal ree af KAY pe vis9 YASS S: ‘ik vise eee Scorer rire ISN PCS pew a ACA SOS, TO SUPPLEMENTARY NY ie RESERVOIR STE ED i JE VIO3 = att be LH 4 a5 y) * EVIO5A~__ 72 ee S NS ” | ASSESS WK Ee EVIS: 7 men Pe . A SS vig92 N : : grz- fit petted all The main reservoir pipe is connected from the pressure controller to chamber B (Fig. 267) in the top of the valve. The brake pipe is connected to chamber A. Dis- charge of brake pipe air to the atmosphere for service applications occurs through ports F and G in the main slide valve and exhaust passage C in the valve body and for emergency applications through ports J and K in THE BZ BRAKE VALVE 005 ‘eu To ACCELERATOR = VALVE RESERVOIR TOSUPPLEMENTARY RESERVOIR TO BRAKE CYLINOERS Fig. 268. “Yh THULIN Lis > YL Nps StISL¢ LL Witessesett. ttt x Yiidiidiidiiididnns ‘ VL) W Uy- iY VY Z i] Y A ZB CAN _N oo LEE oe eee N N N N vila \ N A A] ON N . A = S N N S N AN eS \ N NA VN SN N NY ny iN Y SN | 3 | Wh PIPE PIPE TO TRAIN PIPE TO MAIN RESERVOIR Fig. 269, Fig. 270, 556 ELECTRIC RAILROADING the slide valve (Fig. 271) and exhaust passage C. The main slide valve also controls the flow of air from the main reservoir to the brake pipe. In Full automatic re- lease position air is free to pass from the main reservoir to the brake pipe through ports M and also around the slide valve, as in this position the slide valve is moved forward, uncovering a portion of the passage. (See Fig. 272.) When the handle is in Running position only ports M are open but are of a size to promptly release all'train brakessi(5ee bie eazs) FACE OF SLIDE VALVE Small slide valve EV 110 is a cut-off or graduating valve, operated by piston EV.193; and levers EV 112: In service applications it automatically laps port F, and stops the discharge of brake pipe air when the brake pipe reduction, corresponding to the service graduating notch in which the handle is placed, has been made. Piston EV 193, which is exposed on one side to brake pipe pressure (Chamber A) and on the other to Chamber D, and supplementary reservoir pressure, through the agency of lever EV 112 causes valve EV 110 to move automatically whatever distance is necessary to close port ie Passage H (Figs. 267 and 269) runs lengthwise to the valve, one end leading to the supplementary reservoir THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 557 as indicated in Fig. 267, while the other end leads to the Bpaces),. back of: thespiston EV 193. (In Fulliauto- matic release, and in Running and Straight Air release positions, air from chamber B, Fig. 268, passes through port W to passage H and supplementary reservoir, until there is equal pressure on both sides of the piston EV 193 and the supplementary reservoir pressure is equal to the brake pipe pressure. Fig. 272. Release Position. Port O (Fig. 267), is used to return the piston EV 193 to its normal position when releasing the brakes, and is open to the exhaust passage C when the handle of the brake valve is in Full Automatic Release, Running, and Lap positions, and closes just before the handle is brought to the first graduating notch. During the time the brake valve handle is in any of these positions, port O is open through passage C to the atmosphere, as stated, and if it were not for the vent valve EV 180 the function of piston EV 193 would be destroyed, as a con- tinual blow from chamber D would result while the pis- ton EV 1093 is in operation the vent valve EV 180 is away from its seat, thus opening port O to the slide valve 558 ELECTRIC RAILROADING seat, to be opened when the handle is again returned to release position. Connection is made with the straight air pipe through passage L (See Figs. 268 and 272) to which ports E and V connect from the main slide valve seat. Port E is the admission port and is open to receive pressure from chamber B when the handle of the brake valve is in Full automatic release and Straight Air application position. Port V is the exhaust port and is used to ex- haust the pressure from the driver brake cylinders in releasing the straight air brake, the release being accom- plished through ports R and J in the main slide valve, and passage C in the valve body. (See Fig. 273.) Fig. 273. Running Position. Port V is also used to pass pressure from chamber B to the straight air brake when, the handle is in the Fifth graduating notch and Emergency position. This is done so that if there is cylinder leakage or excessive piston travel, the Straight Air brake will hold the pressure in these cylinders to the adjustment of the Reducing Valve. In all graduating positions of the Brake Valve, brake pipe pressure is admitted to the divided reservoir (Large compartment Fig. 279) to operate the Accelerator Valve. THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 559 When the Brake Valve handle is moved to any of the graduating notches, brake pipe pressure will flow through port S, passage X, and cavity AC in the main slide valve (Fig. 271) and through port T, and passage Y in the Valve body (Fig. 268) to the divided reservoir until the port S is cut off by the Graduating Valve EV 110, when the latter closes the service port F. To guard against possibility of the Accelerator Valve being open while the Brake Valve handle is in a Release position, which might occur if the handle was returned before a service application had been completed, port J in the main slide valve (Fig. 271) has been enlarged so as to open port T to the exhaust passage C, and the atmosphere when the handle is in a release position. These ports are large enough to rapidly discharge the air accumulated in the divided reservoir, and thereby permit the accele- rator valve to immediately close. By referring to the diagrammatic views of the main slide valve and seat shown in Figs. 272 to 277 inclusive, it will be seen what ports are open and closed in the different positions of the slide valve. FULL AUTOMATIC RELEASE AND STRAIGHT AIR APPLI- CATION POSITION (FIG. 272). The purpose of this position is to promptly release the automatic brakes and to apply the straight air brakes on the Locomotive. In this position, air is flowing directly from chamber B (main reservoir) into chamber A (brake pipe) past the end of the slide valve and through ports M. Port O is open to port J and exhaust passage C to return the piston EV 193, and port W is open to charge the supplementary reservoir. Port T, also by means of 560 ELECTRIC RAILROADING port J, is open to the exhaust passage C to discharge the pressure from the large compartment of the divided reservoir. Port E is also open for pressure to pass to the driver brake cylinders through the straight air pipe until shut off by the reducing valve. RUNNING POSITION. RUNNING AND STRAIGHT AIR RELEASE POSITION. (Fig. 273.) This is the proper position of the handle when wishing to release both Straight Air and Automatic brakes simultaneously, or to release the Straight Air Brake. Connection from Chamber B into Chamber A is made through the ports M. Port E is lapped. Ports O, T and W remain the same as in Release Position. Ports R and V register with each other, thus connecting the straight air brake with the exhaust passage C as shown, to discharge the pressure from the driver brake cylinders. Lap Position. (Fig. 274.) This position should be used in case a hose bursts, the train parts or a con- ductor’s valve is opened, to save the main reservoir pres- THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 561 cure. In this position all ports are blanked, excepting port O. As in Release and Running Positions, this port is open to the exhaust passage C. In this particular posi- tion cavity P in the slide valve seat is made use of to connect the port with passage C. Fig. 275. First Graduating Position. GRADUATING Positions. (Figs 275 and 276.) These positions give a gradual reduction of brake pipe pres- sure for service applications. In Fig. 275 ports M are Fig. 276. Last Graduating Position. blanked and communication from the main reservoir to the brake pipe is cut off. The straight air ports E and V are also blanked, as well as ports O and W, which are cut off just before the handle reaches the First Graduat- 562 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ° ing Notch. Ports F and G are open to the exhaust pass- age C, and port S is open through passage X to port T to receive pressure from the brake pipe and pass it to the divided reservoir to operate the Accelerator Valve. Ports F and S will remain open to receive brake pipe pressure until cut off by the graduating valve EV 110 when the service reduction has been made. In the remainder of the Graduating Positions, the rela- tion of ports remains the same with the exception of the restricted passage N (Fig 276) in the end of the slide valve which in the Fifth Graduating notch is over the straight air port V, and should there be excessive piston travel or cylinder leakage the Straight Air equipment will hold the pressure in these cylinders to the adjustment of the reducing valve. The restriction of port N is to prevent the pressure from passing to the driver brake cylinders in advance of pressure from the auxiliary reser- voir of the automatic brake. Fig. 277. Emergency Position. EMERGENCY POSITION (FIG. 277). This position is to be used when it is desired to apply the brakes to their quickest and fullest capacity. In this position, the active ports are J and K, which are open to exhaust brake pipe pressure from chamber A to the THE B2 BRAKE VALVE 563 atmosphere. Port V as in the fifth graduating notch is open to maintain the pressure in the driver brake cylin- ders against leakage, etc. Port E is closed, also ports F, MeO eS = eandaVy To dismantle the Valve, the valve cover EV 195 should first be removed, and then the back cap EV 191. The main slide valve EV 194 should be taken off, and the Graduating valve EV t1o lifted out—also the Graduat- ing valve spring EV 111. Next remove the fulcrum pin EV 113, after which remove the piston EV 1093. Do not attempt to remove the follower cap nut EV 181 from the piston EV 193 while the piston is in the valve body, as to do this would probably result either in springing the groove in the piston stem, or in breaking off the dowel pin in the valve body. Figs, 267 to 270 show the different parts of the valve, their names being as follows: EV 60, Small union nut; EV 62, Small union ell; EV 69, Handle spring; EV 75, Handles pin. i Vie77 ee tiandie: seticcrew sa Ve Os; «Lever shatt pin with cotter; EV o0,°%° plug; EV “103, End plug; EV 105-A, Follower; EV 107, Packing Leather ; EV 108, Expander; EV 110, Graduating Valve; EV 111, Graduating valve spring; EV 112, Graduating valve lever; EV 113, Fulcrum pin; EV 116-A, Link; EV 117-A Linkwpinne Valisoude valve levers 12.V. reos Lever shaft; EV 121, Lever shaft packing; EV 123, Handle; EV 128, Small union stud; EV 129, Cover screw; EV 130, Quadrant screw; EV 158, Small union swivel; EV 159, Cover gasket; EV 172, Latch; EV 173, Latch screw ; BY -175. Link pinscotter; EV 180, Vent valve; EV 181, Follower cap nut; EV 182, Vent valve spring; EV 183, Piston cotter; EV 190, Body; EV 191, Back cap; EV 192, Cap gasket; EV 193, Piston; EV 194, Main slide’ valve; 564 ELECTRIC RAILROADING EV 195, Valve cover; EV 196, Lever shaft plug; EV 198, Quadrant ; EV 199, Back cap stud and nut; QT 3, Piston ring; QT 29, 1” Union nut; QT 30, 1” Union swivel; QT 31, 1” Union gasket. —y ie rn | e OLY icorren pipe TO BRAKE VALVE Fig. 278. SUPPLEMENTARY RESERVOIR USED WITH SWITCH ENGINE EQUIPMENT, SCHEDULE B2-S (FIG. 278). NAMES OF PARTS. EV 60, Small union nut; EV 155, Supplementary reser- voir; EV 156, Reservoir plug; EV 158, Union swivel ( 3%” copper pipe). Piece No. 16RV aster tent ees fern we epe tween enbeeraeseeren, baer. oo. 600 CU.IN. CAPACITY ee perenec peer = 8 v200 Fig. 279. Divided Reservoir. EV 60—Small union nut. E V 197—Divided reservoir. EV 62—Small union ell. E V 200—Botton plug. E V 156—Reservoir plug. R V 134—%%-inch stud and nut. E V 158—Union swivel. R V 148—Accelerator valve gasket. THE DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER ‘AND DOUBLE PRESSURES Yo LEM This valve, in reality, is a part of the Brake Valve, taking place of the excess pressure or feed valve, and is connected in the main reservoir pipe near the Brake Valve, to control the brake pipe pressure. The Con- Fig. 280. Duplex Regulating Portion of Pressure Controller. troller is in principle the same as that of a Duplex Pump Governor with the exception of the regulating tops, which connect to the brake pipe. In no position of the Brake Valve handle is there danger of the brake 565 566 ' ELECTRIC RAILROADING pipe becoming over-charged, or equal to that in the main reservoir. This equipment is designed so that two pressures may be carried in the brake pipe, and also in the main reservoir. It will be seen by reference to the piping diagram that there is a union three-way cock, from which pipes lead to the regulating tops, and supply which in this case is brake pipe pressure. The same arrange- Fig. 281. Supply Portion of Pressure Controller. ment also applies to the pump governor. A sectional view of this cock is shown in Figs 284 and 285. When one regulating top is cut in the other one is cut out and vice versa. This is done to relieve the strain on the regu- lating tops when not working. When the cocks are in the position shown in the piping diagram the low pres- sure regulating tops of the Controller and Duplex Pump DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER 567 Governor are cut in, giving a pressure of seventy pounds to the brake pipe, and ninety pounds to the main reser- voir. When the cocks are reversed, one hundred and ten pounds will then be carried in the brake pipe, and one hundred and thirty pounds in the main reservoir. Fig. 280 is a photographic view of the Duplex Pres- sure controller, and Fig. 281 is a view of the supply por- tion. Figs. 282 and 283 are sectional views of both the ’ | €V6 | . : 42° fe p= 2 Copper Pipe az Fig. 282. duplex and single regulating portions. Fig. 286 shows the supply portion in section. Referring to Fig. 286, con- nection is made with the main reservoir at M. R. and by means of the cored passage, air is free to pass to the under side of the valve P G95. Connection BV leads to the brake valve, main reservoir connection, and connection D to the regulating portion (single or duplex) also con- necting at D in Figs. 282 and 283. In operation with either a single or duplex regulat- 568 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ing portion, as soon as the pressure in the brake pipe is great enough to overcome the resistance of the spring PG 10 which is holding the diaphragm PG 13 seated over port B, the pressure will pass through passage E to connection D, and by piping to the space E in the sup- ply portion of the controller above the piston PG 4, forc- ing the piston, and valve PG 95 down until seated, cut- ting off communication between main reservoir and brake pipe. Fig. 283. As soon as the pressure falls in the brake pipe below the adjustment of spring PG io, the latter will force diaphragm PG 13 to its seat, closing off port B, where- upon pressure in passage E, and piping connecting supply and regulating portions, and space E above pis- ton PG 4 will immediately escape to the atmosphere through the small port C in the regulating head of the controller, after which main reservoir pressure will lift valve PG 95 off its seat, and again open communication to the brake pipe. DUPLEX PRESSURE CONTROLLER 569 Port X in the supply portion of the controller con- nects the under side of piston PG 4 with atmosphere, so that it will be free to operate and to discharge any leakage by the ring PG 24 or valve PG 95. The regulating portions are provided with brackets so that they can be attached to the cab in some con- venient place where they will be handy for adjustment. The adjustment of these regulating heads is accomplished by means of nut PG 35 which regulates the tension of spring PG Io. Fig. 284. Fig. 285. Each regulating head has a vent port C, and to avoid any unnecessary waste of air, one of these heads should be plugged with screw PG 33. The cut-out cock shown in Fig. 285 is used with the B2S equipment, between the regulating and supply portions. When this cock is closed the supply portion of the controller is cut off. The hand wheel PG 45 can be used in descending grades if desired, to increase the brake pipe pressure to that of the main reservoir. By screwing the wheel up, it will lift the valve PG 95 off its seat and thus al- low the two pressures to become equal. The Controller will then be inoperative, and main reservoir pressure will be free to pass to the brake pipe until the Controller is again restored to its operative condition. 570 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The names of parts of the regulating portion are: PG 3A Spring Casing; PG 1o Regulating Spring; PG 12A “anid Be Diaphragm button; (PGs 13s Dinpitacm erties Air valve seat; PG 32 Diaphragm body; PG 33 Vent plug; PG 34 Cap; PG 35 Regulating nut; PG 36 Air union swivel (38” copper pipe); PG 37 Air union nut; PG 98 Duplex bracket; EV 60 Small union nut; EV 128 Small union stud; EV 158 small union swivel (3%” copper pipe). The parts of the three-way cock are: SC 57, Washers) SC S58 eNubes@eizo Body = Gen coer ie. EV 60 Small union nut; EV 158 Union Swivel (3%” cop- per pipe). 3 y Ss } win”* Moshe jj Y Fig. 286. The parts of the supply portion are: PG 4 Piston; PG, 6A Valve guide; PG 24 Piston ring; PG 45 Hand wheel; PG 46 Lifting Stem; PG 48 Body; PG 49 Cap; PG 94 Guide; PG 95 Valve; PG 99 114” union nut; PG 100 144” union swivel; EV 60 Small union nut; EV 128 Small union stud; EV 158 Union swivel (3@” copper pipe) ; SA 6 Leather seat; SA 39 Valve stem nut; AV 28 ‘Hand wheel nut, ACCELERATOR VALVE. This valve is designed to assist the Brake Valve in discharging brake pipe pressure when making service stops on long trains to bring about a more uniform ap- plication of the brakes, and to apply them more promptly than heretofore. Fig. 287. Accelerator Valve. The Valve is perfectly automatic in its operation, be- ing governed entirely by the volume of air in the brake pipe, operating only when the train is of such a length ol 572 ELECTRIC RAILROADING as to warrant the use of same. The operation is similar to that of the graduating mechanism in the Brake Valve, opening about four seconds after the Brake Valve han- dle has been moved to a graduating notch, and closing in about the same length of time after the graduating valve has closed. Fig. 287 is an outside view of the Valve showing con- nection to brake pipe and exhaust which is through the street ell. A sectional view is shown in Fig. 288. The Valve is bolted to the end of the divided reservoir (Fig. 7 __? qd Y Lahn hthbahhnhad SSL LLY LID WY ass BE saoes | r GEXY We, z SOs MMM INGA \ | ie Loz SS Fig. 288 279), and receives pressure from same through passage O which connects to the space C above the piston RV 65. The brake pipe connection leads to the slide valve chamber O. Chamber B is open to the atmosphere through port T, and in the operation of the Valve, will carry off the discharge of pressure through port S, and any leakage by the piston RV 65 or valve stem RV 67. ACCELERATOR VALVE 573 The slide valve RV 74, when at rest, laps the port b and exhaust, and is held in this position by the spring OT 231 through the medium of valve stem RV 67, which seats in the manner shown. Port b is triangular, the larger portion being at the bottom, and in oper- ation brake pipe pressure is gradually cut off as the slide valve closes. Port a in the slide valve is oblong being just long enough to uncover the triangular port b, when the slide valve is wide open. To give the slide valve a slow closure port R is provided in the valve body, and port S through the piston RV 65 as shown. When the valve is in operation and brake pipe pressure is being discharged to the atmosphere through ports a and b, ports R and S are open to discharge the pressure above the piston and divided reservoir. As soon as the pres- sure in the divided reservoir has reduced sufficiently for the spring QT 231 to operate, it will move the valve slowly upward until the port R is cut off, which will then reduce the discharge from the reservoir about one-half, giving the slide valve the slow closure desired. The valve operates when there are eight or more cars in a train, and requires from fifteen to seventeen pounds pressure in the divided reservoir to operate it. Any pressure passing into this reservoir, as with a shorter train than eight cars, will be discharged to the atmos- phere through ports S and T, the slide valve remaining closed. The proper names of parts of the accelerator valve are as follows: PG 24, Piston ring; RV 62, Body; RV 63, Upper cap; RV 64, Lower cap; RV 65, Piston; Rivao7, Valve stem “RV 70; Leather seats, RV 74; slide valve; OT 231, Spring; EV 656, Slide valve spring; HS 24, %” Street ell. STRAIGHT AIR REDUCING VALVE. The purpose of this valve is to limit the pressure in the driver, and truck brake cylinders, to 40 pounds when using the straight air brake. Fig. 289. Straight Air Reducing Valve. Fig. 289 is a photographic view of the reducing valve and Fig. 290 a section showing the valves, passages, etc. Connection from the brake valve is made to the union fitting A and by means of the passage C pressure is free to pass to the feed valve SA 26. Connection B leads to 574 AIR REDUCING VALVE 575 double check valve and brake cylinders. During the time the tension of the spring against the diaphragm is stronger than the force exerted against it by the brake cylinder pressure, valve SA 26 will be held open, where- upon pressure from the main reservoir will be free to pass to the brake cylinders. As soon as the pressure Uy KSLA > YX SA 30 S SN SA 34 \N 4 mAN SA 20 Uj AZ SA 20 yj my Ba BY SA 22 NS VULNS SA.33 Ve EEN. TD ks Eas oN WW KK A : ST J Pipe a Pipe Ww eee HSS ANE S ONY P| e NS SA A.24 be os EvV253 EV265 EV.264 : Ynys S$ A.25 23° 313° Fig. 290. against the diaphragm is strong enough to overcome the resistance of the spring, the diaphragm will be moved upward, allowing the feed valve SA 26 to be closed by the spring SA 28, shutting off communication from the supply to the brake cylinders. The names of the parts of this valve are as follows: SA 19, Regulating stem; SA 20, Regulating spring; SA 576 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 21, Diaphragm stem; SA 22, Nut; SA 23, Diaphragm Washer; SA 24 Body: 25) Veedevalvescapanutcass 26, Feed Valve; SA 28, Feed valve spring; SA 20, Spring box; SA 30, Check nut; SA 31, Diaphragm ring; SA 32, Diaphragm; SA 33, Diaphragm Shield; SA 34, Regulating nut; EV 253, 34” Union nut; EV 254, 34” Union swivel; EV 255, 34” Union gasket. Ty ees Eee) Nigh G) ele Rage WV Ll Elanora Lhe SE Ves VV This valve is operative when the locomotive equipment is set for high speed service. Fig. 291. High Speed Controller. Fig. 291 is an outside view showing the general ar- rangement. Fig. 292 is a section showing the operative parts. The Safety Valve is for use at all times to graduate off brake cylinder pressure after an application of the O77 578 ELECTRIC RAILROADING train brakes when same is desired and to regulate the pressure in the brake cylinders during high speed oper- ations. It is set at 53 pounds, and should so be adjusted in service. SS SSTy \ ith , Le SSG 5 GQYILLLIL PASS LR Lhe WH, AQ MS99 Yl WV Sn hhh hss SSCS a AA, anna peal KH LK Le (am ai imc: ie Te : : > BS Ne SIS \\ _ ———_—=> G4 Hse =A HSIO6 To Brake Cylinders HS!IO9 w%" Pide HS 107 Fig. 292. The High Speed Valve to which the Safety Valve is fastened connects with the brake cylinder pipe at BC and with brake pipe at BP. The valve HS 108 with piston HS 107 operates when the brake pipe pressure is less than the pressure in brake cylinders. During all ordinary service applications the valve HS 108 will remain in position shown. In an emergency application when brake pipe pressure is HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 57 9 greatly reduced, the brake cylinder pressure will move the piston HS 107, and valve its full traverse to the seat C. This movement will restrict passage G leading to the safety valve, and atmosphere by the circular groove in the valve HS 108 being moved forward, closing a por- tion of the passage. This will give a gradual blow down from the brake cylinders through passage G until shut off by the Safety Valve. The valve will remain in this position until the brakes are released. My Qy | y Yj fiiiiistitiny Sy > Ports F and D allow the brake cylinder pressure around the piston HS 107, and back of the valve HS 108, so that the piston is free to operate at a slight difference of pressure. Fig. 293 is a sectional view of the lever safety valve, furnished with schedules B2, B2-S and B2-HP. Fig. 294 shows the quick release valve which is used 580 ELECTRIC RAILROADING with the B2-S equipment, for switch engine service, to quickly release the pressure from the driver brake cylinders. The lever safety valves shown in Figs. 292 and 293 are for use at all times to graduate off brake cylinder pres- sure, after an application of train brakes, when the same is desired. These valves are set at fifty-three pounds, and should be so adjusted in service. SFSEE Nn Hy SY SS Fig. 294. The two lever safety valves, although similar in ap- pearance, are different in operation. In Fig. 292 the valve RV 133 is of a pop-safety valve design, and when forced open will remain so until the pressure beneath it has fallen to a trifle less than the force exerted against it by the spring RV 105 A. The safety valve shown in Fig. 293 is an ordinary blow-down pop valve, and while it will operate and reduce brake cylinder pressure to the desired amount, is not as free an operating valve as HIGH SPEED CONTROLLER 581 the one shown in Fig. 292. It is obvious to state that these lever safety valves are also for use to keep the brake cylinder pressure within a certain prescribed limit, as, if they were not used, an application of the straight air brake, followed by one of the automatic, would greatly increase the brake cylinder pressure over the pre- scribed limit. The quick release valve shown in Fig. 294, as before stated, is for use with schedule B2-S switch engine equip- ment. This valve is to hasten the release after an ap- plication of the automatic or straight air brakes. Re- ferring to Fig. 294, connection A leads to the double check valve as shown in the piping diagram of this equipment. Connection B leads to the driver brake cyl- inders and connection X to the exhaust. QUESTIONS. 904. What is the latest addition to the New York Du- plex Air Brake System? 905. How many of these, and what are they? 906. Name the different systems covered by these three equipments? go7. In what leading features do the B2 equipments differ from older New York systems previously de- scribed ? 908. What other advantage is gained by its use? gogo. What advantage is gained by the use of the ac- celerator valve? gio. What other advantage is there in connection with its use? git. For what conditions of service is the plain B2 de- signed. g12. For what class of service is the B2S equipment * adapted? 913. For what class of service is the B2HP equipment designed only? g14. How many pressures may be carried in the brake pipe, or in the main reservoir, with the B2H.P.? g15. How are these pressures regulated? g16. How are the regulating portions operated? g17. For what kind of service is the B2H.S. equip- ment adapted? g18. How are the pressures regulated with this latter equipment ? g19. How are the automatic brakes applied to loco- motive and train? 582 QUESTIONS 583 920. How are they released? g21. How are the train brakes released, and the lo- comotive brakes held? 922. How are both released? 923. How are the locomotive brakes released? 924. How are the locomotive brakes (straight air) applied? 925. How are the brakes applied in an emergency? 926. In case a hose bursts, the train parts, or a con- ductor’s valve opens thereby applying the brakes, what should be done? g27. After an application of the train brakes, how may the locomotive brakes be graduated off, or entirely released if desired? 928. How may the pressure in the locomotive brake cylinders be observed at all times? 929. When two, or more locomotives are in a train, what should be done with the air brake equipment on those locomotives from which the brakes are not ope- rated? 930. In case it becomes necessary to cut out the straight air brake, what must be done? 931. How may the automatic brake be cut out? 932. How may the cut out cock be located so that the auxiliary reservoirs will remain charged while the brake is cut out? 933. What advantage would this be in descending long grades? 934. What are the functions of cut out cocks Nos. 3 and 6? 935. What is the function of main reservoir cut out cock No. 4? 936. What is the straight air controller designed for? 584 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 937. When should cut out cocks Nos. 5-6 and 7 be used ? ' | 938. Mention some of the principal points of differ- ence between the B2 brake valve, and the B, and Br valves? 939. What is the purpose of full automatic release, and straight air application position? 940. What functions are performed by the valve, in running, and straight air release position? 941. When should Lap position be used? 942. What are the functions of the graduating posi- tions ? 943. When is emergency position to be used? 944. What are some of the advantages gained by us- ing the duplex pressure controller, and double pressure system? | 945. What is the Accelerator valve designed to ac- complish ? 946. Is it automatic in operation? 947. What is the purpose of the straight air reducing valve? 948. When is the high speed controller, with lever safety valve operative? =. ene LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS PRESSURES REDUCING VALVE PIPE ATMOSPHERIC SIGNAL PIPE FEED VALVE PIPE EXHAUST STEAM BRAKE VALVE EQUALIZING RESERVOIR BRAKE PIPE MAIN RESERVOIR BRAKE CYLINDER LIVE STEAM No. 1, DUPLEX GAUGE. No. 2 RED HAND MAIN RESERVOIR RED HAND CYLINDER = BLACK HAND EQUALIZING RESERVOIR\ BLACK HAND BRAKE PIPE EXCESS PRESSURE OPERATING PIPE COMPRESSOR —a==, INDEPENDENT L_}© BRAKE VALVE —> Vi it : Hy —> FROM BOILER Data’ EXHAUST AUTOMATIC BRAKE REDUCING VALVE PIPE i PUMP GOVERNOR STRAINER AND CHECK RELEASE | \. MAIN RESERVOIR GOVERNOR PIPE DISCHARGE PIPE le STRAINER ~ (B® DOUBLE HEADING COCK . ; BLED ALES RIPE MAIN RESERVOIR CUT QUT COCK ~— BY-PASS FOR CHARGING DEAD ENGINE DRIVER BRAKE CYLINDER VALVE | CUT OUT |} = iat JF [Ot CUT OUT COCK STRAINER AND CHECK i RESERVOIR CONNECTING PIPE CRs ZA DISTRIBUTING VALVE RELEASE PIPE APPLICATION CYLINDER PIPE Hil] DRIVER ie) iF CHOKE FITTING CUT OUT COCKY \ ANGLE FITTING 3. ool he ee = a CHOKE FITTING ~ x | BRAKE CYLINDER PIPE A ||| TenoeR BRAKE CYLINDER HOSE AND COUPLINGS ~ eo DUMMY COUPLING ~h = 5 CUT OUT COCK. Q _- ANGLE FITTING — f=——— —=tf 7 3 _§4 t t1_—_J A ian tl as | _ = x / BRAKE PIPE ZA “STRAINER 9 engine aia HOSE CONNECTION —> Sssassieeesag TRUCK | BRAKE CYLINDER. --~ HOSE AND COUPLING WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE SERIES INSTRUCTION DIAGRAM OF PIPING CONNECTIONS, No. 6 E T LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE EQUIPMENT ET LOCOMOTIVE BRAKE EQUIPMENT. The new locomotive equipment illustrated and de- scribed in this article is designated by the symbol ET. It differs materially from the present combined auto- matic and straight air brake in that it consists of con- siderably less apparatus. In operation it possesses all the advantages of the latter type of brake equipment and several other important ones which are necessary in mod- ern locomotive brake service to produce satisfactory re- sults. The design of the principal valves comprising the ET equipment is such that it may be applied to any loco- motive regardless of the service in which it is employed without change or modification in any of its parts; and the locomotive so equipped may be used in any kind of service, such as high speed passenger, double-pressure control, all ordinary passenger and freight, and in all kinds of switching service, without change or special ad- justment of the brake apparatus. All principal valves are so designed that they may be removed for repairs and replacement without disturbing the pipe joints. In operation its important advantages are: The loco- motive brakes may be controlled with or independently of the train brakes and this without regard to the position of the locomotive in the train, whether coupled to another, as in double heading, or used as a helper and assigned to any position in the train. They may be applied with any desired pressure be- tween the minimum and the maximum attainable, and 2 585 586 “ELECTRIC RAILROADING this pressure will be automatically maintained in the loco- motive brake cylinders regardless of leakage and varia- tion in piston travel, undesirable though these defects are, until released by the brake valve. They can be perfectly graduated on or off either in the automatic or in the independent application; hence, in all kinds of service the train may be handled without shock or danger of parting, and in passenger service especially smooth, accurate stops can be made with greater ease than was heretofore possible. MANIPULATION. The instructions for manipulating the ET equipment are practically the same as those given for the com- bined automatic and straight air brake; therefore, no radical departure from present methods of brake manipu- lation is required to get the desired results. The necessary instructions are briefly as follows: When not in use, carry the handles of both brake valves in running position. To apply the locomotive and train brakes, move the handle of the automatic brake valve to the service posi- tion, making the required brake-pipe reduction, then back to lap position, which is the one for holding brakes ap- plied. To release the train brakes, move the handle to the _ release position and hold it there until all train brakes are released; then, move it to holding position, graduat- ing off the locomotive brakes by short, successive move- ments between running and holding positions, aiming to have the locomotive brakes entirely released as the train stops. ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 587 To apply the brakes in an emergency, move the handle of the automatic brake valve quickly to emergency posi- tion and leave it there until the train stops, or the danger is passed. To make a smooth and accurate two-application pas- senger stop, make the first application sufficiently heavy to bring the speed of the train down to about 15 miles per hour at a convenient distance from the stopping point, then release train brakes by moving the handle to release position, then the locomotive brakes by moving it to running position for two or three seconds before re-ap- plying. A little experience with the ET equipment will enable ‘the engineer to make smooth and accurate stops with much greater ease than was heretofore possible. When using the independent brake only, the handle of the automatic brake valve should be carried in running position. The independent application may be released by moving the independent-brake-valve handle to running position. Release position is for use when the automatic brake valve handle is not in running position. While handling long trains of cars, in road or switch- ing service, the independent brake should be operated with care and judgment, to prevent damage to the cars and lading, caused by running the slack in or out too hard. In cases of emergency arising while the indepen- dent brake is applied, apply the automatic brake instantly. The safety valve will restrict the brake cylinder pressure to the proper maximum. The brakes on the locomotive and on the train should be alternated in heavy grade service, to prevent overheating of driving-wheel tires and to assist the pressure retaining valves in holding the train while the auxiliary reservoirs are being recharged. After all brakes are applied automatically, to gradu- 588 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ate off or entirely release the locomotive brakes only, use release position of the independent brake valve. The cylinder gauge will show at all times the pressure in the locomotive brake cylinders, and this gauge should be observed in all brake manipulation. Release Position of the Independent Brake Valve will release the locomotive brakes under any and all conditions. The train brakes should invariably be released before detaching the locomotive, holding with hand brakes where necessary. This is especially important on a grade as there is otherwise no assurance that the car, cars, or train so detached will not start when the air brakes leak off, as they may in a short time where there is considera- ble leakage. The automatic brakes should never be used to hold a standing locomotive, or a train even where the locomotive is not detached, for longer than ten minutes, and not for such time if the grade is very steep or the condition of the brakes is not good. The safest method is to hold with hand brakes only, and keep the auxiliary reservoirs fully charged so as to guard against a start from brakes leaking off, and to be ready to obtain any part of full braking power immediately on starting. The independent brake is a very important safety feature in this connection, as it will hold a locomotive with a leaky throttle, or quite a heavy train on a fairly steep grade if, as the automatic brakes are released, the slack is prevented from running in or out, depending on the tendency of the grade, and giving the locomotive a start. Illustrating the best method by a descending train, apply the independent brake heavily as the stop is being completed, thus bunching the train solidly; then, when stopped, place and leave the handle of the independent ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 589 brake valve in application position, release the automatic brakes and keep them charged. Should the train start through inability of the independent brakes to hold it, the automatic brakes will have been sufficiently recharged to make an immediate stop, and in which case enough hand brakes should be applied to render the necessary aid to the independent brakes. Many runaways and some serious wrecks have resulted through failure to comply with the foregoing instruc- tions. When leaving the engine while doing work about it, or when it is standing at a coal chute or water plug, always leave the independent brake valve handle in application position. In case the automatic brakes are applied by a bursted hose, a break-in-two or the use of a conductor’s valve, place the handle of automatic brake valve in lap position. Where there are two or more locomotives in a train, the double cut-out cock in the brake pipe under the auto- matic brake valve should be turned to close the brake pipe, and the automatic-brake-valve handle should be placed on lap on each except the one from which the brakes are being handled. Before leaving the roundhouse, the engineer should try the brakes with both brake valves, and see that no serious leaks exist. The pipes between the distributing valve and the brake valves should be absolutely tight. PARGo.OH THE LOUIPMENA: 1. THe Air Pump to compress the air. 2. Tue Main Reservoirs, in which to store the air and collect water and dirt. 590 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 3. A DupLtex Pump Governor to control the pump when the pressures are attained for which it is regu- lated. 4. A DistriBuTING VALVE, and small double-cham- ber reservoir to which it is attached, placed on the loco- motive to perform the functions of triple valves, auxiliary reservoirs, double check valve, high-speed reducing valves, etc. 5s. Two BrAKkeE VALvEs, the AuToMaATICc to operate locomotive and train brakes, and the INDEPENDENT to operate locomotive brakes only. 6. A FEED VALVE to regulate the brake-pipe pressure. 7. A REDUCING VALVE to reduce the pressure for the independent brake valve, and for the air signal system when used. 8. Two Arr GAUGES; one, a DUPLEX to indicate brake- pipe and main-reservoir pressures; the other, a SINGLE PoINTER to indicate locomotive brake-cylinder pressure. go. Driver, TENDER, and TRUCK-BRAKE CYLINDERS, Cut-Out Cocks, AtR STRAINERS, Hose CoupLines, Fir- TINGS, etc., incidental to the piping, for purposes readily understood. The piping hereafter referred to is named as follows: RESERVOIR Pipe: Connects the main reservoir to the Automatic Brake Valve, Distributing Valve, Feed Valve, and Reducing Valve. FEED-VALVE PIPE: Connects the Feed Valve to the Automatic Brake Valve. REDUCING-VALVE Pipe: Connects the Reducing Valve to the Independent Brake Valve, and to the Signal Sys- tem, when used. BRAKE Pree: Connects the Automatic Brake Valve ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 591 with the Distributing Valve and all Triple Valves on the GArssinathc: thai BrAKE-CyLINDER Pipe: Connects the Distributing Valve with the Driver, Tender and Truck-Brake Cylin- ders. APPLICATION-CHAMBER Pipe: Connects the Applica- — tion Chamber of the Distributing Valve to the Automatic Brake Valve through the Independent Brake Valve. DousBLE-HEADING Pipe: Connects the Application Chamber exhaust port of the Distributing Valve to the Automatic Brake Valve through the Double Cut-Out Cock. ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS. A piping diagram of the ET equipment is shown in Fig. 295. Air compressed by the pump passes as usual to the main reservoirs and the reservoir pipe. The main-reser- voir cut-out cock is to cut off the supply of air when removing any of the apparatus except the governor. The end toward the main reservoir is tapped for a connection to the maximum pressure head of the Pump Governor. When closed it discharges the air from the pipe between it and the automatic brake valve. Beyond the main-reservoir cut-out cock, the reser- voir pipe has four branches, one of which runs to the automatic brake valve, one to the feed valve, one to the reducing valve, and one to the distributing valve. Asa result, the automatic brake valve receives air from the main reservoir in two ways, one direct and the other through the Feed Valve. The Feed-Valve Pipe from the feed valve to the auto- ELECTRIC RAILROADING 592 LNEWdINOW LA AHL JO WVUNDVIdG DNIdId ‘662 ‘DLT Va SONITEANDD ONY 250 MIOD JIONV. ay S iit Se INiddlt TIONY WP, SPATIaNOD ane 750M | s Rt onicris 2709. WI02 490 497. INid htt SHOND INNANOD AWAD ThA AIONITAD IVOAT WIOAYIS Ta NW Tet tet DEVI Iit IATA ONT LEID 7 Idi DNL DIINNOD HOA ISI MIIMD ONY SINIVILS INIINT WHIT DVDS wos SSH AT) WHAKIS Ja NIV MIOD 470 41ND WOASISIE NIV Ftd PONYIOD FUNSS Pied SSIINT WOANISIY 4 MIOD ONITYIN ITENOT SM/ZNWNOT | Death || IS VIII we) Qe’ Fdid IATA SWINE SS BONYTAND awd wIN0E WOus o_o — dd I WLI WOLNG JATWA INVUT A) ANJONISIONI~ "EE dnd $ a | an = Wed ree wee wore G Wa TE IETS? BO VE OPENID Crew Or4 9 WOE TEL ER GE OSE Zen Nzonvd w7NG7sn ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 593 matic brake valve has a branch to the top of the excess- pressure head of the duplex pump governor. The third branch of the reservoir pipe connects with the reducing valve. Air at the pressure for which this valve is set (45 pounds) is thus supplied to the indepen- dent brake valve through the reducing-valve pipe. When the signal system is installed, it is connected to the re- ducing valve pipe, in which, case the reducing valve takes the place of the signal reducing valve usually employed to supply the train air-signal system. In the branch pipe supplying the signal are placed a combined strainer and check-valve, and a special choke fitting. The former pre- vents any dirt from reaching the check valve and choke plug. The check valve prevents air from flowing back from the signal pipe when the independent brake is ap- plied. The choke plug prevents the reducing valve from raising the signal-pipe pressure so quickly as to destroy the operation of the signal. The distributing valve has five pipe connections, made through the double-chamber reservoir, three on the left and@=twovonsthertiont, Of the three on the jeit; the upper is the supply from the main reservoir; the inter- mediate is the double-heading pipe, leading through the double cut-out cock, when turned to cut out the brake valve from the brake pipe, to the automatic brake valve; and the lower is the application-chamber pipe, leading through the independent-brake valve, when the handle is in running position, to the automatic brake valve. Of the two on the right, the lower is the brake-pipe-branch connection, and the upper is the brake-cylinder pipe branching to all brake cylinders on the engine and tender. In this pipe are placed cocks for cutting out the brake cylinders when necessary, and in the engine truck and 594 ELECTRIC RAILROADING tender brake cylinder cut-out cocks are placed special choke fittings to prevent serious loss of main-reservoir air, and the release of the other locomotive brakes during a stop, in case of burst brake cylinder hose connection. The cylinder gauge is connected with the brake cylinder pipe. The automatic-brake-valve pipe connections, other than already mentioned, are the brake-pipe branch through the double cut-out cock, the main-reservoir, the equalizing reservoir, the duplex gauge, and the lower connection to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. FIG. 296. DISTRIBUTING VALVE AND DOUBLE-CHAMBER RESERVOIR CONNECTIONS: SUP—Main-Reservoir Pipe; ABV—Double-Heading Pipe; SBV—Application-Chamber Pipe THE (Dis [he Ut UN Gey levies This valve is the important feature of the ET equip- ment. Fig. 296 is a photographic view of the left side of the valve and its double-chamber reservoir. The three pipe connections, as previously referred to, are plainly ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 595 shown. Fig. 297 is a similar view of the right side, show- ing the pipe connections there and the two chambers of FIG, 297. DISTRIBUTING VALVE AND DOUBLE-CHAMBER RESERVOIR PIPE CONNECTIONS: Upper—Brake-Cylinder Pipe; Lower—Brake Pipe the reservoir; also the safety valve 34, which is an essen- tial part of the distributing valve. To simplify the tracing of the ports and connections, the various positions of this 596 ELECTRIC RAILROADING FIG. 298. THE DISTRIBUTING VALVE, DIAGRAMMATIC CONNECTIONS: MR—Main-Reservoir Pipe; DH—Double-Heading Pipe; AC—Ap- plication-Chamber Pipe; BC—Brake Cylinder Pipe; BP--Brake Pipe ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 597 valve are illustrated in ten diagrammatic drawings; that . is, the valve is distorted to show the parts differently than actually constructed, with the object of explaining the operation clearly instead of showing exactly how they are designed. The chambers of the reservoir are for con- venience indicated at the bottom as a portion of the valve itself. In Fig. 308, equalizing piston 26, graduating valve 28, and equalizing’ slide valve 31, are shown as actually constructed. But as there are ports in the valves which cannot thus be clearly indicated, the diagrammatic illustrations show each slide valve in two parts, one below and the other above the piston stem, with similar division of parts in the bush, Fig. 298 shows the operative parts in the same posi- tion as in Fig. 299 and is used merely for the sake of greater clearness. Referring to these figures it will be seen that main-reservoir pressure is always present in the chamber surrounding application valve 5 by its con- nection through passage a, a, to the main-reservoir pipe. Chambers 6 to the right of application piston Io are al- ways in free communication with the brake cylinder through passage c and brake-cylinder pipe. Chamber g at the left of application piston 10 is a portion of the application chamber, being always connected with it by passage h, and is also connected to the brake valves through the application-chamber pipe. INDEPENDENT APPLICATION. When the handle of the Independent Brake Valve is moved to the application position, air from the main reservoir, limited by the re- ducing valve to a maximum of 45 pounds, is allowed to flow to the application chamber, forcing application pis- ton 10 to the right as shown in Fig. 300. We will assume that 45 pounds is so admitted and maintained. This 598 ELECTRIC RAILROADING “3dld SNIGVAH-318N00 SNANANANANRS: WELT NRG ay led Le : : arn ae ee ISS = TU VU ULVy WA \ ll i. Wd oe if = He 7 q X= N= ay op a “dadid INV O | eee Age: / WA ae i c - 5 PRESSURE 2 CHAMBER. fe) at > z wo m ee ] a, 2 FIG. 299. RELEASE, AUTOMATIC OR INDEPENDENT ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 599 ie aS eee ae FS aN ae =i, J\ eg 2S 22 KA EXY mal “as “uses G “i G. js eens aI aon (leet = WO ae wD i] , z oO m ° v 5% ; rr iy m ie mS aS = 3 PRESSURE a < CHAMBER. oO at) >> m2 ow m pee) v Uv m FIG. 300. INDEPENDENT APPLICATION 600 ELECTRIC RAILROADING movement of application piston 10 causes exhaust valve 16 to close exhaust ports e and d, and the graduating stem 19 to compress its spring; also open application valve 5 by its connection with the piston stem by pin 18. Main reservoir air then flows through port b and passage c to the -brake cylinders until their pressure and that in chamber b equals the application-chamber pressure, in this case 45 pounds. The graduating spring then forces the application piston ro to the left until application valve 5 closes port b, but without moving exhaust valve 16. This position shown in Fig. 301 1s known as INDEPEND- ENT LAp. From the above description it will be seen that ap- plication piston 10 has application chamber pressure on one side and brake-cylinder pressure on the other. When either pressure varies, the piston will move toward the lower. Consequently if that in chamber b is reduced, by brake-cylinder leakage, the pressure maintained in the ap- plication chamber will force piston 10 to the right, open- ing application valve 5 and again admitting main reservoir air to the brake cylinders until the pressures on both sides of piston Io are again equal, when the graduating spring will force the piston back to lap position. In this way the brake-cylinder pressure is always maintained to that in the application chamber. This is called the pres- sure maintaining feature. INDEPENDENT RELEASE. When the handle of the in- dependent brake is moved to release position, a direct opening is made through the rotary valve from the ap- plication chamber to, the atmosphere. This permits the pressure in the application chamber to escape; therefore, as this pressure is being exhausted, brake-cylinder pres- sure in chamber b moves application piston 10 to the left, ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 601 Ve Tee i—N Ww a Wh l- — \\2 2% me mite > O2 PRESSURE aie CHAMBER. ' QO ase U> mz ee] m Pe) FIG. 302. AUTOMATIC SERVICE 604 ELECTRIC RAILROADING h in the seat. As the slide valve chamber is always in communication with the pressure chamber, air can now flow from it to the application chamber. This pressure forces application piston 10 to the right, as shown in Fig. 302, causing application valve 5 to uncover port b and allow main reservoir air to flow to the brake cylin- ders through port c, as in an independent application. During the movement just described, cavity ¢ in the graduating valve connects ports r and s in the equalizing slide valve, and by the same movement ports r and s are brought into register with ports h and / in the seat, thus establishing a communication from the application cham- ber to the safety-valve, which being set at 53 pounds, limits the brake-cylinder pressure to this amount during a full service application. The amount of pressure resulting in the application chamber for a certain brake-pipe reduction, depends on the comparative volumes of the application and pressure chambers. These volumes are such that with 70 pounds in the pressure chamber and nothing in the application chamber, if they are allowed to remain connected by the ports in the slide valve, they will equalize at about 50 pounds. ServicE Lap. The conditions just described continue until the pressure in the pressure chamber is reduced enough below that in the brake pipe to cause the dif- ference in pressure on the two sides of piston 26 to force it and graduating valve 28 to the left until the shoulder on the piston stem strikes the right-hand end of slide valve 31, the position indicated in Fig. 303, and known as ServicE Lap. In this position, graduating valve 28 has closed port ¢ so that no more air can flow from the pressure chamber to the application chamber ; ‘3dld SNIGVAH-318N0G ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 605 CSN amin ee SN Lam aie jee NG ae oN IL ama Gay Spe = yy) Wil" a i qe Ube Der eee wy eee ee eee PLT LDS | ‘adid aNvVUS OL eZ | hy, > U r QO > = 5 PRESSURE Z CHAMBER. QO ME > = Lee] m wv uU Uv m FIG, 303. SERVICE LAP 606 ELECTRIC RAILROADING and it also has closed port s, cutting off communication to the safety valve. The flow of air past application valve 5 to the brake cylinders continues until their pres- sure equals that in the application chamber when the graduating spring forces piston 10 to the position shown in Fig. 303, closing port b. The brake-cylinder pressure is then practically the same as that in the application chamber. It will be seen that whatever pressure exists in the application chamber will be maintained in the brake cyl- inder by the “pressure maintaining” feature already de- scribed. When the automatic brake valve is placed in release position, and the brake-pipe pressure in chamber fp is increased above that in the pressure chamber, equalizing piston 26 moves to the left, carrying with it equalizing slide valve 31 and graduating valve 28 to the release position as shown in Fig. 299. The feed groove now being open permits the pressure in the pressure chamber to equalize with that in the brake pipe as before de- scribed. This action does not release the locomotive brakes because it does not discharge application chamber pressure. The double-heading pipe is closed at the double cut-out cock, and the application chamber pipe is closed by the rotary valve of the automatic brake valve. There- fore, to release the locomotive brakes, the automatic brake valve must be moved to running position, or the independent brake valve must be held in release position, in which positions the rotary valve of either will connect the application chamber pipe with the atmosphere. As the application chamber pressure escapes, the cylinder pressure will force application piston 10 to the left until ‘3dld DNIGVSH-318N0a ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 607 v> ea TA TN» RS aS br [Seat V>» CBee We a SS Lilly WLLL LLL g L Wd LLL WES SN \N S \ SS a 7 Bie eS Ne NI + Zee wer | Lip 21) DU a ZA, iB: ae al a cee Bre Wea oy “ime x EE ZA U c 4 > 5 PRESSURE Z CHAMBER. Q as > = m Ps) v m°) m FIG. 304. EMERGENCY 608 ELECTRIC RAILROADING exhaust valve 16 uncovers exhaust ports d and e, allow- ing brake-cylinder pressure to escape. EMERGENCY. When a sudden and heavy brake-pipe reduction is made, as in an emergency application, the pressure in the pressure chamber forces application piston 26 to the right until it strikes against the leather gasket beneath head 23 as shown in Fig. 304. This movement causes slide valve 31 to uncover port / in the bush, mak- ing a large opening from the pressure chamber to the application chamber, so that they quickly become equal- ized. In the emergency position of the automatic brake valve, the volume of the equalizing reservoir is con- nected to that of the application chamber. This reservoir volume, together with that of the pressure chamber at 70 pounds pressure, equalizes into the application chamber at about 60 pounds. The dotted port m in the slide valve registers with port 7 in the seat connecting with supply passage a, allowing air from the main reservoir to enter the slide valve and application chambers. A cavity in the slide valve registers with port ) in the seat. Port r in the slide valve registers with port / leading to the safety valve. The cavity and port r in the slide valve are connected by a small port, the size of which permits the air in the application chambers to escape a little faster than ports m and m can supply it, preventing the pressure from rising above the amount desired. In High-Speed Brake Service, the feed valve is regu- lated for 110 pounds brake-pipe pressure instead of 70, and main-reservoir pressure is 130 or 140 pounds. Un- der these conditions an emergency application raises the application chamber pressure to about 85 pounds, but the area of the small passage to port r is so proportioned that the flow of application-chamber pressure to the safety ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 609 NY KXSS AN ine Uke a Vie an \2 oa KX N We : ii “Th s Ni a; ia oe ‘ant = oe a ie ig, Fea My 1 | L.bsticss el Ops “Adid 3XVUE i ° L, Cc eae Mo re QO 5% =5 PRESSURE DZ CHAMBER. OQ 2x Uy> nhs w m wD a is 8] m FIG. 305. EMERGENCY LAP 610 ELECTRIC RAILROADING valve is just enough greater than the supply through m, to decrease that pressure in practically the same time and manner as is done by the high-speed reducing valve, until it is approximately 60 pounds. The application por- tion operates similarly to, but more quickly than, in the service application. EMERGENCY Lap. The above conditions continue un- til the brake cylinder pressure equals the apflication- chamber pressure, when parts of the valve assume the position known as the Emergency Lap and shown in Fig. 305. The release after an emergency is the same as that following service applications. Fig. 306 shows the position the distributing valve parts will assume, if the application-chamber pressure is discharged by the independent brake valve during an automatic application. This results in the upper movable portion going to the release position, and relieving brake- cylinder pressure, without changing the conditions in either the pressure-chamber or chamber p; consequently, the equalizing portion does not move, until released by the automatic brake valve, DousLte Heaprinc. It will be noted that in all of the above descriptions of the distributing valve, no refer- ence has been made to the double-heading pipe connec- tion. This is only used when the engine does not control the train brakes, and it then becomes an exhaust opening for the distributing valve when the automatic brake valve is on lap, and cut off from the brake pipe by the double cut-out cock. This will be better understood from the description of the pipe connections as already explained. The operation of the distributing valve is similar to that described during automatic brake applications with the ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 611 WSS MMs Nissi —— ~ FN a =a) Nuss me De ower ee) YL niger Mommy NS KK SWIISSSIIESSST ESS ss 22 Bi MAA | ae RE 57 Ee si YY eek ty Ly Z ‘adid 34vY"s PRESSURE CHAMBER. "3dld SNIGVSH-318N0d YSAEWVHO-NOILVOlddV FIG. 306. RELEASE POSITION When Locomotive Brake is released by Independent Brake Valve fter an anplication by Brake Pipe Reduction 612 ELECTRIC RAILROADING PLAN OF GRAQUATING VALVE. FIG. 307. GRADUATING VALVE, EQUALIZING SLIDE VALVE, AND SLIDE VALVE SEAT ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 613 exception of the release, which is brought about by the equalizing piston 26 moving to the release position and causing exhaust cavity in the equalizing slide valve 31 FO RPELICATION CHAURER By FIG. 308. DISTRIBUTING VALV CONNECTIONS: MR—Main Reservoir Pipe; DH—Double-Heading Pipe; AC—Ap- plication-Chamber Pipe; BC—Brake-Cylinder Pipe; BP—Brake Pipe to connect ports 7 and h in the slide valve seat, thereby permitting the pressure in the application chamber to escape to the atmosphere through the double heading 614 ELECTRIC RAILROADING pipe, the double cut-out cock, and the automatic brake valve. In double heading, therefore, the release of the distributing valve is similar to that of a triple valve. To remove piston 10 and slide valve 16, it is abso- lutely necessary to first remove cover 3, slide valve 5 and valve pin 18. Referring to Figs 298 and 308, the proper names of parts of this apparatus are as follows: 2, Body; 3, Application-Valve Cover; 4, Cover Screw; 5, Applica- tion Valve; 6, Application-Valve Spring; 7, Application- Cylinder Cover; 8, Cylinder-Cover Bolt and Nut; 9, Cylinder-Cover Gasket; 10, Application Piston; 11, Pis- ton Follawer; 12, Packing-Leather Expander; 13, Pack- ing Leather; 14, Application-Piston Nut; 15, Applica- tion-Piston Packing Ring; 16, Exhaust Valve; 17, Ex- haust-Valve Spring; 18, Application-Valve Pin; 109, Graduating Stem; 20, Graduating Spring; 21, Graduat- ing-Stem Nut; 22, Upper Cap Nut; 23, Equalizing Cyl- inder Cap; 24, Cylinder Cap Bolt and Nut; 25, Cylinder- Cap Gasket; 26, Equalizing Piston; 27, Equalizing-Pis- ton Packing Ring; 28, Graduating Valve; 29, Graduat- ing-Valve Spring; 31, Equalizing Slide Valve; 32, Equal- izing-Slide-Valve Spring; 33, Lower Cap Nut; 34, Safety Valve; 35, Double-Chamber Reservoir; 36, Reservoir Stud and Nut; 37, Reservoir Drain Plug; 38, Distribut- ing-Valve Drain Plug; 39, Application-Valve-Cover Gasket; 40, Application Piston Cotter; 41, Distributing- Valve Gasket. Tig. 309 is a sectional view of the safety valve which is a necessary part of the distributing valve. It is of an improved type, which insures reliability of operation. It is unlike the ordinary safety valve, as its construction is such as to cause it to close quickly with a “pop” action, ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 615 insuring its seating firmly. It is very sensitive in opera- tion, and responds to very slight differences of pressure. The names of the parts are: 4, Valve; 5, Stem Valve; 6, Adjusting Spring; 7, Ad- justing Nut. \ S YY Ssancans hl Kid SSS My; ‘oy WIS USS FIG. 309. SAFETY VALVE Valve 4 is held to its seat by the compression of the spring 6 between the stem and adjusting nut 7. When the pressure below valve 4 is in excess of the force ex- erted by the spring, it raises, being guided in its move- ment by the brass bush in the body 2. Ports are drilled in this bush; one outward through the body to the at- mosphere, and the other upward to the spring chamber. Pe DOdy, saraGapeNut; 616 ELECTRIC RAILROADING Although only one of each of these is shown in the cut, there are eight of the first and two of the second. As the valve moves upward, its lift is determined by the stem 5 striking the cup nut 3. It closes the vertical ports connecting the valve and spring chambers and opens the lower ports to the atmosphere. As the air pressure be- Jow valve 4 decreases, and the tension of the spring forces the stem and valve downward, the valve gradually closes the lower ports to the atmosphere, and opens those between the valve and spring chambers. The discharge air pressure then has access to the spring chamber. This chamber is always connected to the atmosphere by two small holes through the body 2; the air from the valve chamber enters more rapidly than it can escape through these holes, causing pressure to accumulate above the valve, and close it with the “pop” action before men- tioned, The adjustment of this safety valve is accomplished by removing cap nut 3, and screwing up or down on ad- justing nut 7. After the proper adjustment is made, cap nut 3 must be replaced and securely tightened, and the valve operated a few times. Particular attention must be given to the holes in the valve body to see that they are open, and that they are of the proper size, especially the two upper holes. This safety valve should be adjusted for 53 pounds. THE TYPE AU TOV ie Shit Pay tie This Brake Valve, although modeled to a consider- able extent upon the principles of previous valves, is necessarily different in detail, since it not only performs all the functions of such types, but also those absolutely ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 617 necessary to obtain all the desirable operating features of the Distributing Valve. Fig. 310 is taken from a photograph of this brake valve, while Fig. 311 shows two views, the upper one being a plan view with section through the rotary-valve chamber, the rotary valve being removed; the lower one a vertical section. In these views the pipe connections are indicated, FIG. 310. TYPE H BRAKE VALVE Fig. 312 is a top view, showing the six positions of the brake-valve handle, which are, beginning at the ex- treme left, Release, Running, Holding, Lap, Service and Emergency. 618 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ROTARY-VALVE SEAT, FIG. 311. TYPE H BRAKE VALVE CONNECTIONS: FV—Feed-Valve Pipe; MR—Main-Reservoir Pipe; GO—To Gov- ernor; DH—Double Heading Pipe; EX—Exhaust; AC—Appli- cation-Chamber Pipe; BP—Brake Pipe; GA—Duplex Air Gauge; ER—Equalizing Reservoir ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 619 Fig. 313 shows two views of this valve similar to those of Fig. 311, with the addition of a plan or top view of the rotary valve. Referring to the latter, a, j and s are ports extending directly through it, the latter connecting with a groove im the face; 7 and & are cavities in the valve BuTomstic Besre yrAtve. face; o is the exhaust cavity; + is a port in the face of the vaive connecting with o; / is a port in the face which passes over cavity k and connects with exhaust cavity o; m is a groove in the face. Referring to the ports in the rotary-valve seat, d leads to the feed-valve pipe; 6 and c lead to the brake pipe; g¢ leads to chamber D; Ex is the exhaust opening; ¢ is the preliminary exhaust port lead- 620 ELECTRIC RAILROADING EXCESS PRESSURE HEAD OF 5E-4 PUMP ACVEFNOR, | = \freeaiceisem FPELEASE BRAKE PIPE PRESSURED ye SSS Ses aN oN mS: | | lL RSSSso eres ss 71 eS I i Q Ls AB = 4 — —S S iGo [ears Se Sea] EQUALIZING RESERVOIR, FIG. 313. AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 621 ing to chamber D; r is the warning port leading to the exhaust; fp is the port leading to the pump governor; / leads to the application-chamber pipe; 2 leads to the double-heading pipe. In describing the operation of the brake valve, it will be more readily understood if the positions are taken up in the order in which they are most generally used, rather than their regular order as mentioned above. RUNNING Position. This is the proper position of the handle to release the engine and tender brakes; also when the brakes are not being used, and the system is charged and ready for an application. In this position, cavity f in the rotary valve connects ports b and d in the valve seat, affording a large direct passage from the feed valve to the brake pipe, so that the latter will charge up as rapidly as the feed valve can supply the air, but cannot attain a pressure above that for which the feed valve is adjusted. Cavity k in the rotary valve connects ports c and g in the valve seat, so that chamber D, and the equal- izing reservoir charge uniformly with the brake pipe, keeping the pressures on the two sides of the equalizing piston equal. Port s in the rotary valve registers with port p in the valve seat, permitting main-reservoir pres- sure, which is present at all times above the rotary valve, to pass to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. Port h in the rotary valve registers with port / in the seat connecting the application chamber pipe to the exhaust cavity EX. SERVICE Position. This position gives a gradual re- duction of brake-pipe pressure to cause a service appli- cation. Port h in the rotary valve registers with port s in the valve seat, allowing air from chamber D and the 622 ELECTRIC RAILROADING equalizing reservoir to escape to the atmosphere through cavities o in the rotary valve and Ex in the valve seat. Port e is restricted so as to make the pressure in the equalizing reservoir, and chamber D fall gradually. As all other ports are closed, the fall of pressure in chamber D allows the brake-pipe pressure under the equalizing piston to raise it, and unseat the discharge valve, allow- ing brake-pipe air to flow to the atmosphere. When the pressure in chamber D is reduced the desired amount, the handle is moved to the lap position, thus stopping any further reduction in that chamber. Air will continue to discharge from the brake-pipe until its pressure has fallen to an amount a trifle less than that retained in chamber D, permitting the pressure in this chamber to force the piston downward and stop the discharge of brake-pipe air. It will be seen, therefore, that the amount of reduction in the equalizing reservoir determines that in the brake pipe, regardless of the length of the train. Lap Position. This position is used while holding the brakes applied after a service application until it is desired either to make a further brake-pipe reduction, or to release them; also to prevent loss of main-reservoir pressure of the release of the brake in the event of a burst hose, a break-in-two, or the opening of the con- ductor’s valve. Lap position is also used on all engines in a train that are not controlling the train brakes, as, with the handle in this position, port h in the rotary valve connects with port # in the seat. Therefore, when the double cut-out cock is turned to the position which cuts out the brake pipe, it makes a direct opening from port 1 in the distributing valve through the double-heading pipe to the atmosphere, and is the passage through which the air escapes from the application chamber when the automatic brakes are being released, ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 623 RELEASE Position. The purpose of this position is to provide a large and direct passage from the main reser- voir to the brake pipe, to permit a rapid flow of air into the latter, to insure a quick release and recharging of the train brakes, but without releasing the engine and tender brakes. Air at main-reservoir pressure flows through port a in the rotary valve to port b in the valve seat and to the brake pipe. At the same time, port 7 in the rotary valve registers with the equalizing port g in the valve seat, per- mitting main-reservoir pressure to enter chamber D above the equalizing piston. In this position, port s in the rotary valve registers with warning port r in the seat and allows a small quan- tity of air to escape into the exhaust cavity Ex, which makes sufficient noise to attract the engineer’s attention to the position in which the valve handle is standing. If the handle is allowed to remain in this position, the brake system would be charged to main-reservoir pressure. To avoid this, the handle must be moved to Running or Holding Positions. The small groove in the face of the rotary valve which connects with port s, extends to port p in the valve seat, allowing main-reservoir pressure to flow to the excess-pressure head of the pump governor. Hotpine Position. This position is so named be- cause the locomotive brakes are held applied, as they are in release position, while the train brakes feed up to the feed-valve pressure. All ports register as in running position, except port J, which is closed. Therefore, the only difference between Running and Holding Positions is, that in the former the application chamber is open to the atmosphere, while in the latter it is not. 624 ELECTRIC RAILROADING EMERGENCY Position. This position is used when the most prompt and heavy application of the brakes is desired. Port x in the rotary valve registers with port c in the valve seat, making a large and direct communi- cation between the brake pipe and atmosphere through cavity o in the rotary valve and Ex in the valve seat. This direct passage causes a sudden and heavy discharge of brake-pipe pressure, causing the triple valves and dis- tributing valve to go to the-emergency position and apply the brake in the shortest possible time. In this position the groove m in the rotary valve con- nects ports g and / in the valve seat, thereby allowing equalizing reservoir air to flow into the application cham- ber. | : The oil plug 29 is placed in the top case 4, at a point to fix the level of the oil surrounding the rotary valve. Leather washer 8 prevents air in the rotary valve cham- ber from leaking past the rotary valve key to the at- mosphere. Spring 30 keeps the rotary valve key firmly pressed against washer 8 when no main-reservoir pres- sure is present, The handle 9 contains a latch 11, which fits into notches in the top case, so located as to indi- cate the different positions of the brake valve handle. The spring 10 back of the latch forces the latter against the body with sufficient pressure to distinctly sae when the handle arrives at each position. To remove the brake valve take off nuts 27, thus allowing it to come away without disturbing the pipe bracket, or breaking any pipe joints. To take the valve proper apart, remove cap screws 28. The brake valve should be located so that the engi- neer can operate it from his usual position, while looking forward or back out of the side-cab window, and in such ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 625 a manner that the handle will not meet with any obstruc- tion throughout its entire movement. The oil around the rotary valve furnishes thorough lu- brication. Valve oil should be used for this purpose. Fig. 313 shows all the principal parts, the proper names of each being as follows: 2, Bottom Case; 3, Rotary-Valve Seat;::4; Top Case; 5, Pipe *Bracket; 6, Rotary Valve; 7, Rotary-Valve Key; 8, Key Washer; 9, Handle; 10, Handle-Latch Spring; 11, Handle Latch; 12, Handle-Latch Screw; 13, Handle Nut; 14, Handle Lock Nut; 15, Equalizing Piston; 16, Equalizing-Piston Pack- ing Ring; 17, Valve-Seat Upper Gasket; 18, Valve-Seat Lower Gasket; 19, Pipe-Bracket Gasket ; 20, Small Union Nut; 21, Brake-Valve Tee; 22, Small Union Swivel; 23, Large Union Nut; 24, Large Union Swivel; 25, Bracket Stud; 26, Bracket-Stud Nut; 27, Bolt and Nut; 28, Cap Screw ; 29, Oil Plug; 30, Rotary-Valve Spring. THE INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE. Fig. 314 illustrates this valve, which is of the rotary type. Fig. 315 shows a vertical section through the cen- ter of the valve, and a horizontal section through the valve body, with the rotary valve removed, showing the rotary valve seat. Fig. 316 shows this valve simi- larly to Fig. 315, with the addition of a top view of the rotary valve. In these views, the pipe connections and positions of the handle are indicated. Port 0b in the seat leads to the supply connection from the main reservoir through the Reducing Valve. Port c leads to that portion of the application-chamber pipe which connects to the -automatic-brake valve. Port d leads to that portion of the application-chamber pipe which connects the dis- 626 ELECTRIC RAILROADING tributing valve. Port h, in the center, is the exhaust port leading directly to the atmosphere. Exhaust cavity g in the rotary valve is always in communication with ex- haust port h. Groove e in the face of the valve communi- cates at one end with a port through the valve. This groove is always in communication with supply port 5), and through the opening just mentioned air is admitted FIG, 314. THE INDEPENDENT BRAKE VALVE to the chamber above the rotary valve, thus keeping it to its seat. Port f in the rotary valve consists of two circular openings in the face joined by a cylindrical pas- sage over the top of cavity g. RunninG Position. This is the position that the independent brake valve should be carried in at all times ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 627 FIG. 315. INTERIOR VIEW OF THE INDEPENDENT: BRAKE VALVE CONNECTIONS: BV—Application-Chamber Pipe to Automatic Brake Valve; EX—Exhaust; AC—Application-Chamber Pipe to Dis- tributing Valve; MR—Reducing-Valve Pipe 628 ELECTRIC RAILROADING when the independent brake is not in use. Port f in the rotary valve connects ports c and d in the valve seat, thus establishing communication between the application cham- ber of the distributing valve and port / of the automatic brake valve. Therefore, it will be seen that if the auto- matic brake valve is in running position, and the inde- pendent brakes applied, they can be released by return- ing the independent valve to running position. SERVICE PosiTIon. To apply the independent brakes, move the brake valve to the application position; groove e connects ports b and d, allowing air to flow to the ap- plication chamber of the distributing valve. Since the supply pressure to this valve is fixed by the regulation of the reducing valve to 45 pounds, this is the maximum cylinder pressure that can be obtained. Lap Position. This position is used to hold the in- dependent brakes applied after the desired cylinder pres- sure is obtained, at which time all communication between operating ports is closed. RELEASE Position. This position is used to release the pressure from the application chamber when the auto- matic brake valve is not in running position. In this position, the offset in cavity g registers with port d, allowing pressure in the application chamber to flow through ports d, g and h to the atmosphere. In order to prevent leaving the handle in the release position, and thereby make it impossible to operate the locomotive brakes by the automatic brake valve, spring Q automatically returns handle 15 from the release to the running position. The purpose of the oil plug 20 is the same as that described in the automatic brake valve. The location of this valve should be governed by the 629 ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT Plan of Rotary DISTRIBUTING VALE WWUUUUU UU! ut za AVA Ube : A oo S> INTERIOR VIEWS OF THE INDEPENDENT AUTOMATIC BRAKE VALVE BRAKE VALVE FIG, 316, 630 ELECTRIC RAILROADING same considerations as those mentioned concerning the automatic brake valve. The names of its parts are as fol- lows, referring to Fig. 316. 2, Rotary-Valve Seat; 3, Valve Body; 4, Pipe Bracket ; 5, Rotary Valve; 6, Rotary-Valve Key; 7, Rotary-Valve Spring; 8, Key Washer; 9, Return-Spring; 10, Return- Spring Casing; 11, Casing Screw; 12, Return-Spring Clutch; 13, Cover; #4,°Cover: Screw? 15, Elandle;716; Handle Nut; 17, Latch Spring; 18, Latch; 19, Latch Screw; 20, Oil Plug; 21, Upper Gasket ; 22, Lower Gas- ket; 23, Bracket Stud; 24, Bracket-Stud Nut; 25, Bolt and Nut; 26, Cap and Screw. THB BDA AV: This valve, Fig. 317, is a slide-valve feed valve of an improved type, and with this equipment is connected to a pipe bracket located in the piping between the main reservoir and the automatic brake valve, receiving its supply of air from the main-reservoir pipe, and delivering it into the feed-valve pipe. It is for the purpose of con- trolling brake-pipe pressure when the automatic brake valve handle is in running or holding positions. Figs. 318 and 319 are diagrammatic views of the valve and pipe bracket having the ports and operating parts in one plane to facilitate description. It consists of two sets of parts, the supply and regulating. The supply parts, which control the flow of air through the valve, consist of the supply valve Io, and its spring 11; the supply-valve piston 8 and its spring 6. The regulating parts consist of the regulating valve 13, regulating-valve spring 14, diaphragm 15, diaphragm spindle 17, regulat- ing handle 23. Main-reservoir air enters through port ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 631 a, a to the supply-valve chamber B, forcing supply-valve piston 8 to the left, compressing piston spring 6 and caus- ing supply valve 10 to open port c, permitting the air to pass through ports c and d to the feed-valve pipe at de- livery, and through port e to diaphragm chamber L. FIG. 317. FEED VALVE At the same time air flows through port f in supply- valve piston 8 to chamber G, and through port h to regulating-valve chamber H. As _ regulating- valve 13 is raised from its seat, it will flow through port k to chamber L. When the feed-valve-pipe pressure, which is always present in chamber L against the dia- 632 ELECTRIC RAILROADING phragm, exceeds the pressure of regulating spring 18, the diaphragm will yield and permit the regulating valve 13 to be forced to its seat, closing port k and cutting off 0» SUPPLY 4 ~ DELIVERY _——— SJ ea Be Je SS > WS 7 Vp g ANN FW 2 HWA! See {| 4 Py Zr 2 DY OP) CO Z $. V7) | PQQLEQCCAY im, Wy TIOGA EN | \ re aa RRR KK INS an ome 8 La} % any | is KL FIG. 318. DIAGRAM OF FEED VALVE, CLOSED any further flow of air from chamber G. As the air which continues to flow through port f will quickly equal- ize the pressure on both sides of piston 8, spring 6 will ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 633 force the piston to the right, moving supply valve ro and closing port c, thereby cutting off communication between the supply and the feed-valve pipe. WK 4 eal J a i “8 Saf DELIVERY ———$> = A _ YY /=_/ _g SF : == Z y RAAAAAS AAS bag CS | AY AY ||| y PAPAA > Dy FIG. 319. DIAGRAM OF FEED VALVE, OPEN When the pressure in the feed-valve pipe falls below that for which the valve is adjusted, regulating spring 18 will force the diaphragm forward, unseat regulating valve 634 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 13, and permit the accumulated air pressure in chamber G to escape through port h, chamber H, and port k to chamber L. This allows main-reservoir pressure in chamber B to force the supply valve piston 8 to left, and open port c, which again permits air to pass to the feed- valve pipe until its pressure has been restored to the proper amount. Since this feed valve has a duplex ad- justing arrangement, it eliminates the necessity of the two feed valves in high, and low pressure service, as the turn- ing of handle 23 until its pin strikes stops 20, or 21 changes the regulation from one predetermined brake- pipe pressure to another. | To adjust this valve, slacken screw 22, which allows stops 20 and 21 to turn around spring box 19. Adjusting handle 23 should be turned until the valve closes at the lower brake pipe pressure desired, when stop 21 should be brought in contact with the handle pin, at which point it should be securely fastened by tightening screw 22. Adjusting handle 23 should then be turned until the higher adjustment is obtained, when stop 20 is brought in contact with the handle pin and securely fastened. The names of the parts shown in the diagram, Figs. 318 and 319, are as follows: 2, Valve Body; 3, Pipe Bracket; 5, Cap Nut; 6, Piston Spring; 7, Piston-Spring Tip; 8, Supply-Valve Piston; 9, Piston Packing Ring; 10, Supply Valve; 11, Supply-Valve Spring; 12, Regu- lating-Valve Cap; 13, Regulating Valve; 14, Regulating- Valve Spring; 15, Diaphragm; 16, Diaphragm Ring; 17, Diaphragm Spindle; 18, Regulating Spring; 19, Spring Box; 20, Upper stop ;i21, lower stop 1.22, stop. scren. 23, Adjusting Handle, ET BRAKE EQUIP MENT 635 REDUCING VALVE. Fig. 320 is a photograph of the exterior of this valve connected to its pipe bracket, the construction and opera- FIG. 320. REDUCING VALVE tion of which is the same as the feed valve just described, with the exception of the adjusting feature, this valve being designed for single adjustment only. Do ee WNP GOVERNOR: Fig. 321 shows a sectional view of this governor in its normal position. By reference to the piping diagram in Fig. 295 it will be noted that the connection B leads to the boiler; P to the air pump; MR to the main reservoir ; 636 ELECTRIC RAILROADING ABV to the automatic brake valve; FVP to the feed- valve pipe; W is the waste-pipe connection. Steam en- ters at B and passes by steam valve 26 to the connection P and to the pump. Air from the main reservoir flows we: es « 8: @ bats * #: é FIG. 321. PUMP GOVERNOR through the automatic brake valve to the connection marked ABV into chamber d below diaphragm 52. Air from the teed-valve pipe enters at the connection FVP and passes to the chamber above the diaphragm, adding ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 637 to the pressure of regulating spring 51 in holding it down. As this spring is adjusted to a compression of about 20 pounds, the diaphragm will be held down until the main reservoir-pressure in chamber d exceeds the feed-valve pipe pressure by this amount. At such time, diaphragm 52 will raise, unseating its pin valve, and allow air to flow through port b to the chamber above the gov- ernor piston, forcing it downward, compressing its spring and seating steam valve 26. When main-reservoir pres- sure in chamber d is reduced, the combined spring and air pressures above the diaphragm force it down, seating its pin valve. The pressure in port b, and the chamber above the governor piston, which is always able to escape a little from the vent port c, will then escape to the atmos- phere and allow the piston spring, and steam pressure below valve 26, to raise it, and the governor piston to the position shown. The connection from the main reservoir to chamber d is open only when the automatic brake-valve handle is in release, running or holding positions; in the other positions it is closed, at which times this governor head is cut out of action. The connection marked MR in the maximum pressure head is always in communica- tion with the main reservoir, so that when the excess pressure head is cut out by the brake valve, this head controls the pump. When main-reservoir pressure in chamber a exceeds the compression of adjusting spring 41, diaphragm 42 will raise its pin valve and allow air to flow through port b to the chamber above the governor piston, controlling the pump as above described. As each governor head has a vent port c, from which air escapes whenever pressure is present in port b, to avoid an unnecessary waste of air, one of these should be plugged. 638 ELECTRIC RAILROADING To adjust this governor, remove the cap nut and turn adjusting nut 50 until the compression of spring 51 is equal to the excess of pressure desired. QUESTIONS 949. In what respect does the new ET. Locomotive brake equipment differ materially from the standard auto- matic and straight air brake? 950. Can the ET. equipment be applied to any loco- motive; no matter what kind of service? 951. Mention one of the principal advantages in con- nection with the design of the valves. 952. What are the three important advantages con- nected with its operation? 953. What can be said regarding the manipulation of the ET. brake, and the automatic and straight air brake? 954. In what position should the handle be, when not in use? 955. When it is desired to apply the locomotive and train brakes, how must the automatic brake valve handle be moved? 956. Describe the method of releasing the train brakes. 957. Describe the method of making an emergency application. 958. In order to make a smooth and accurate, two application passenger stop, what should be done? 959. Describe the proper method of making and re- leasing an independent application. 960. How should the independent brake be operated, when handling long trains on the road, or in switching service? | QUESTIONS 639 961. How may the engine brakes only be released, and still leave the train brakes applied? g62. What should be done with the train brakes be- fore detaching the engine? 963. Should the automatic brakes be used to hold a train or engine standing on a grade, for any length of time? 964. What is the safest way to hold a train standing on a grade? 965. Describe the proper method of stopping a de- scending train, and then holding it with the independent brake. 966. In what position should the independent brake valve handle be left when the engine is standing at a coal chute or water plug? 967. In what position should the handle of the auto- matic brake valve be placed in case of an accidental ap- plication—such as a bursted hose, or break in two of train? 968. In case there are two or more engines in a train, what should be done with the air equipment of each one, except the one from which the brakes are being handled? 969. What should be done with the brake equipment on the engine, before leaving the roundhouse? 970. Name the various parts of the equipment, and the purpose of each. g71. Name the different parts of the piping apper- taining to the ET equipment. 972. What are the functions of the main reservoir cut- out cock? 973. In what two ways does the automatic brake valve receive air from the main reservoir? 640 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 974. How many connections has the distributing valve? | 975. What are the functions of the first three of these connections ? 976. For what purpose are the other two? 977. What is the important feature of the ET brake equipment ? 978. Describe briefly what takes place within the dis- tributing valve during an independent application. 979. What causes independent lap? 980. Between what two pressures does the application piston of the distributing valve vibrate? 981. How is the pressure maintained in the brake cylinders during an application? 982. How is independent release accomplished? 983. How may independent lap be again resumed? 984. What parts are brought into action during auto- matic operation? . 985. Describe in general terms what occurs within the distributing valve during a service application of the automatic brake. 986. Upon what does the amount of pressure in the application chamber of the distributing valve depend? 987. What causes the position known as service lap? 988. Does the pressure maintaining feature also apply to automatic application ? 989. Are the engine brakes released when the auto- matic brake valve is placed in release position? g9go. What, then, must be done in order to release the engine brakes? g9t. What takes place within the distributing valve during an emergency application ? QUESTIONS 641 992. What pressures are carried for high speed brake service ? 993. Under these conditions, what pressure is attained in the application chamber ? 994. What conditions are necessary to cause the parts of the valve to assume the position known as emergency lap? 995. What is the purpose of the double-heading pipe connection ? 996. Describe the action of the safety valve. 997. How is this valve adjusted, and for what pres- sure? 998. In what respect does type H automatic brake valve differ from previous types? 999. When should the handle be kept in running posi- tion? 1000. What does service position give? 1001. For what purpose is lap position used? 1002. What is the purpose of release position? 1003. What results follow, when the valve is placed in holding position? 1004. Explain the difference between running and holding position. | 1005. When is emergency position used? 1006. Of what type is the independent brake valve? 1007. In what position should this valve be carried when not in use? 1008. Describe the service position of this valve. 1oog. When is lap position used for the independent brake valve? 1010. When is release position used? to11. What type of valve, and for what purpose is the feed valve? , 642 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 1012. Describe the construction and operation of the reducing valve. 1013. Describe the construction and operation of the pump governor. 1014. What is the “Dead Engine Feature’? IoI5. Of what parts does it consist? 1016. How is the air for operating the brakes on a dead engine supplied? 1017. Describe briefly the route that the air takes under such conditions. 1018, What is the function of the strainer? > Mie DEA DsENGIN bie RE ATOR Ee The “Dead Engine” feature shown in Fig. 295 is for the operation of the locomotive brakes when the pump on a locomotive in a train is inoperative through being broken down, or by reason of no steam. Fig. 322 shows the combined strainer, check valve, and choke fitting. As these parts are not required at other times, a cut-out cock is provided. This cock should be kept closed except under the conditions just mentioned. The air for operating the brakes on such a locomotive must then be supplied through the brake pipe from the loco- motive operating the train brakes. FIG. 322. COMBINED AIR STRAINER AND CHECK VALVE With the cut-out cock open, air from the brake pipe enters at BP, Fig. 322, passes through the curled hair strainer, lifts check valve 4, held to its seat by a strong spring, passes through the choke bushing, and out at MR to the main-reservoir, thus providing pressure for operating the brakes on this locomotive. The double- 643 644 ELECTRIC RAILROADING heading cock should be closed, and the handle of each brake valve should be in running position. Where ab- sence of water in the boiler, or other reason, justifies keeping the maximum braking power of such a loco- motive lower than the standard, this can be accomplished by reducing the adjustment of the safety valve on the distributing valve. It can also be reduced at will by the independent brake valve. The strainer protects the check valve and choke from dirt. Spring 2 over the check valve insures this valve seating and, while assuring an ample pressure to operate the locomotive brakes, keeps the main-reservoir pressure somewhat lower than the brake-pipe pressure, thereby reducing any leakage from the former. The choke pre- vents a sudden drop in brake-pipe pressure and the ap- plication of the train brakes, as would otherwise occur with an uncharged main reservoir cut in to a charged brake pipe. In this, it operates similarly to the feed groove in a triple valve. THE TYPE “K” FREIGHT TRIPLE VALVE. Modern conditions have created new braking prob- lems. The old and well-known (Type H) quick-action freight triple valve was designed to meet the require- ments of the time when 50-car trains, 30-ton capacity cars, and moderate speeds were maximum conditions. But the increased train lengths, speeds, and car capacities of the present day, have demanded certain modifications to meet these, and anticipated, requirements. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company has developed and perfected a new Quick-Action Freight Triple Valve, designated as Type “K,” which facilitates train move- ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 645 ments, increases the factor of safety in handling trains, and reduces damage to lading and equipment, in so far as they are affected by air-brake operation. The K triple valve embodies every feature of the old type, and in addition three new ones called the Quick- Service, Retarded Release and Uniform Recharge. It not only works in perfect harmony with the old valves, but greatly improves the action of the latter when they are mixed in the same train. They have many parts in common, are interchangeable, and the old can be con- verted into the new without the loss of many parts. The Quick-Service Feature, which produces a quick serial operation of the brakes in service applications, has been obtained by utilizing the well known principle of quick-action in emergency applications, by which each triple valve augments the brake-pipe reduction by dis- charging brake-pipe air into its brake cylinder. The es- sential difference is that in emergency, the maximum braking power is always obtained with both the old and new valves, while with the new valve, the power of its quick-service application is always under complete con- trol, and is governed by the reduction made at the brake valve. The result is that the quick-service feature insures the prompt and reliable response of every brake; eliminates the undesirable use of emergency applications where a flag, an unforeseen danger ahead, or the need of making an accurate stop, frequently necessitates such an application with the old standard freight-brake equip- ment; reduces the possible loss of air due to flowing back through the feed grooves from the auxiliary reser- voir to the brake pipe, or by the leakage grooves in the cylinders; and gives a more uniform application of the brakes throughout the train. 646 ELECTRIC RAILROADING The Retarded-Release Feature, which insures prac- tically a simultaneous release of all brakes, has been ef- fected by automaticaily restricting the exhaust of air from the brake cylinders at the head end of the train, and allowing all others to release freely. To obtain this re- sult requires merely the usual correct method of operat- ing the brake valve, the retarded release being due to the quick and considerable rise in brake-pipe pressure which the release position of the brake valve can cause for about 25 or 30 cars from the locomotive. The Uniform Recharge of the auxiliary reservoirs throughout the train is obtained by the fact that when the triple valve is in retarded-release position, the charg- ing ports between brake pipe and auxiliary reservoir are automatically restricted. As long as the release of brake- cylinder exhaust is retarded, the recharge is restricted, and since the one feature depends upon the other, the re- stricted recharge operates only on the first twenty-five or thirty cars back of the engine, the remaining brakes recharging normally, thus insuring practically a simul- taneous recharge of all brakes in the train. This fea- ture not only avoids the overcharge of the auxiliary reservoirs on the front cars and the subsequent undesired reapplication of their brakes, but by drawing less air from the brake pipe permits the increase in brake-pipe pressure to travel more rapidly to the rear for releasing and recharging those brakes. The new valve is at present manufactured in two sizes, the “K-1” for use with 8-inch freight-car brake cylinders, corresponding with the H-1 (F-36), and the “K-2” with to-inch freight-car brake cylinders, corresponding with the H-2 (H-49). The K-1 will bolt to the same reser- voir as the F-36, and the K-2 as the H-49. Each valve ET BRAKE EQUIPMENT 647 is marked with its designation on the side of the valve body, and the K-2 may be distinguished from the K-1 by the fact that it has three, as compared with two, bolt holes in the reservoir flange. Also, in order to distin- guish the type K valves from the old standard type, their exterior being similar when they are attached to the RIG. 323. "THE “TYPE “K” FREIGHT TRIPLE VALVE auxiliary reservoir, a lug is cast on the top of the valve body, as shown in Fig. 323. This enables anyone to locate them at once. Fig. 324 is a vertical cross section of this valve, and the names of the various parts are as follows: 648 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 2, Valve Body; 3, Slide Valve; 4, Piston; 5, Piston- Packing Ring; 6, Slide-Valve Spring; 7, Graduating Valve; 8, Emergency Piston; 9, Emergency-Valve Seat; 10, Emergency Valve; 11, Emergency-Valve Rubber Seat; 12, Check-Valve Sitios 13, Check-Valve Case; 14, Check-Valve-Case Gasket; 15, Check Valve; 16, Air Strainer; 17, Union Nut; 18, Union Swivel; 19, Cylinder Cap; 20, Graduating-Stem Nut; 21, Graduating Stem; Uw TO AUXILIARY 30, TRA GAG fea y Ye N WhYjyNG Um Bs ZY SS iY Sa CHUL) S RAG S S Lp & Z, \S\\)i! ii, & Wy K&c©xr QZ; x: FIG. 355. GRADUATED-RELEASE-LAP POSITION EMERGENCY. When the brake-pipe pressure is reduced suddenly, or its reduction continues to be more rapid than that in auxiliary-reservoir pressure, the piston is forced to the extreme left and compresses the graduating spring. The parts are then in Emergency Position, as shown in Fig. 684 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 356. In this position air from the auxiliary reservoir en- ters the brake cylinder passage r through the port s in the main slide valve, instead of port z as in service appli- cation. Port ¢ in the seat is also uncovered by the end of the main slide valve, thus admitting air from the auxil- iary reservoir, through port ¢ to the top of the emergency piston. | MUU SS S Z SSSR AN 8 N=NNS AKA GS OS : S SY’ yr EMS } Ax \ 27) LS SS “ty “LLM QYV6u Q S Ss SS Ss SS Sy Ss Ss Ss mm” FIG. 356. EMERGENCY POSITION The air pressure thus admitted to the top of this piston, pushes it down and forces the rubber seated emergency valve from its seat. This allows the brake pipe air in pas- sage a to lift the emergency check valve, and flow through chambers y and + to the brake cylinder C, in the ordinary way. At the same time port d, in the main slide valve, registers with port c in the seat. This allows air from behind the by-pass piston to flow through ports c, d and n to r, and the brake cylinder. .As there is no pressure TYPE L TRIPLE VALVE © G54 in the brake cylinder at this instant, the by-pass piston, with its attached by-pass valve is forced to the left by the auxiliary reservoir pressure acting against its opposite face. The air contained in the supplementary reservoir then flows past this valve into the passage way leading to the auxiliary reservoir. It thereby adds to the latter, the volume of the supplementary reservoir. This gives in effect an auxiliary reservoir pressure vol- ume approximately three times the size of the one that supplies air to the brake cylinder in a service application. Air from the supplementary reservoir continues to flow to the auxiliary reservoir until the pressures in the latter, and in the brake cylinder have risen nearly to that re- maining in the supplementary reservoir. Communication between the two reservoirs is then closed by the by-pass _valve returning to its seat. This action of the triple valve in the emergency appli- cations permits the pressure in the brake cylinder to rise to within a few pounds of maximum brake-pipe pressure, a much higher pressure being secured in emergency applications than is possible with the standard quick- action triple valve. Further more it will be noted by reference to Fig. 356 that cavity q has traveled past the brake cylinder port 7, so that the latter is no longer connected to the safety valve b. Hence, there is no escape of air from the brake cylinder after an emergency application of the! brakes. Not only,, therefore, is ithe’ emergency pressure considerably higher than that formerly secured by the use of the old standard High-Speed Brake, but it is held without diminution until the brakes are released. 686 ELECTRIC RAILROADING INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE, The triple valve is usually bolted to the pressure head of the brake cylinder, to which all the pipe con- nections are permanently made. In removing the valve, no pipes need to be disconnected, the loosening of the three bolts which hold it in place being all that is re- quired. Hence, the name “Pipeless,’ as applied to this valve. Care should be taken in locating the valve to have it free from obstructions which would render in- spection or removal difficult. It should be placed as far as possible above the general level of the piping so that no pockets are formed in the latter. If this point does not receive proper attention, trouble may be ex- perienced in cold weather from the freezing of water in the pipes or valve itself. Under ordinary service conditions, the triple valve should be thoroughly cleaned and lubricated once in three months. The proper interval is best determined for each particular case by a careful inspection and trial. Where conditions are severe and the triple valve exposed to extremes of weather, dirt and so on, more frequent inspections will no doubt be found necessary. Where the valve is protected, and not sub- jected to hard usage the interval may be lengthened. The use of heavy grease or other lubricants which will “gum” and cause the valve to work stiff, or clog the ports, should be avoided. Too light a lubricant or one that does not possess sufficient “body,” is not satisfactory, as it will not thoroughly lubricate the parts or last as long as necessary. Special lubricants made for this pur- pose will give the best results. Before installing the triple valve all of the piping should be thoroughly hammered and blown out, in order TYPE L.TRIPLE VALVE 687 to loosen and remove all scale and foreign matter. This is especially important in new installations. After the piping is completed all of the joints should be thoroughly tested with soap suds, under pressure, and made air tight. Particular attention should be given to the safety valve and its strainers, in order that no dirt or scale can reach the safety valve seat and prevent it from properly closing. The by-pass piston should also receive atten- tion to insure that it is working freely in its bushing. Never remove the movable parts of the triple valve while it is on the car. If the valve is not working properly, or needs cleaning and oiling, take it down and replace it by a valve in good condition. All cleaning and oiling should be done at a bench, by a competent man; where the liability of damage to the internal parts of the valve is least. Any attempt to take the triple valve apart while still on the car is almost sure to result in a large percentage of valves being injured by care- less handling, or dirt getting inside the pipes, or valve. If repairs are necessary the valves should be sent to the shops, where the facilities for doing the work are best. The complete LN equipment includes a type L valve triple valve, with safety valve, a supplementary reservoir and a cut-out cock. At times, however, cars equipped with this schedule must be operated in trains with cars having the old standard equipment (P triple valves), as for instance during the transmission period when a change is being made from the old standard to the LN schedule. During this time the cut-out cock between the triple valve and supplementary reservoir should be closed. The new valves will then work in perfect harmony with the old. In fact, if old and new equipments are to be - 688 ELECTRIC RAILROADING in service together for any considerable length of time, the cut-out cock and supplementary reservoir may be omitted entirely, as well as the safety valve, furnished with the triple valve. If the equipment is used with 70 Ibs. brake-pipe pressure, no other change is necessary, and only the addition of the ordinary High-Speed Reducing Valve is required for High-Speed Service (110 lbs. brake- pipe pressure). In such cases where the conditions of . service demand, there would, of course, be the same necessity for a Pressure-Retaining Valve, as with the Type, BP. Triplezy alve: QUESTIONS 1069. What are the requirements of a brake appa- ratus? 1070. Wherein does the type L valve differ from the older equipments ? 1071. What important feature does the type L valve possess? 1072. In what way is the high emergency pressure feature secured? 1073. What is the function of the supplementary reservoir ? 1074. Describe in brief, the process of charging and release? 1075. How is service application accomplished? 1076. How is quick service brought about? 1077. Upon what does the amount of opening given the service port depend? 1078. If the reduction is so rapid that the quick service feature is no advantage, how does the graduat- ing spring act? QUESTIONS 689 1079. What is the result when the brake-pipe reduc- tion is moderate or slow? 1080. Is there any liability of an emergency applica- tion occurring when only a service application is desired? 1081. How is this regulated by the L valve? 1082. How is the position of lap accomplished ? 1083. What is the function of the graduating valve in lap position? | 1084. Upon what does the position of the main slide valve depend in lap position? 1085. How is the position of graduated release reg- ulated by the L valve? 1086. What are the advantages of graduated release? 1087. In what way is emergency position brought about ? 1088. How is the volume of air available for use in the brake cylinder increased in case of emergency? 1089. Is it possible to secure a higher pressure in emergency application with this valve than it is with the standard quick action valve? togo. Is there any escape of air from the brake cylin- der after an emergency application with the L valve? 1ogt. Why is the L valve called a “Pipeless” valve? Describe briefly the proper location of the valve when installed. 1092. How often should it be cleaned and inspected? 1093. What should be the nature of the lubricant used on it? 1094. What should be done with the piping before installing the valve? 1095. Mention the parts that should receive particular attention. 690 ELECTRIC RAILROADING 1096. If repairs are necessary, what should be done with the valve? 1097. What does the complete LN equipment in- clude? 1098. Can it be operated in conjunction with the old standard equipment? , 1099. What changes are necessary in order to accom- plish this? - 1100. In case High-Speed Service (110 lbs. brake- pipe pressure) is required, what additions are necessary: INDEX. A Air brake, advantages of in electric railroading..... 1 PAIL CLS Delon MAOCOL stot ele sie valh > wrtvetatel eres eat ee a ae 040 Average speed of interurban electric cars.......... 1 Bi Brakes—arrangement of brake rigging......... 542-543 WOTIMeMStOUSs Ole aris ene \se seen ee ee tert tat 044 Mechanism of, on double truck cars............ 543 Principles governing action of............ 541-545 Various methods of operating............. 541-542 ie rakinoeUntae lor MOLOL CALS secre se sles ce ce 239-237 C Catechism on operation of electric locomotives. .355-385 ARO REGITGH IL pDICOKErS 4. 1h tee rel elie, 373-374 AO MELTOMCV Ue ye d raed ceca ote ton ata 374-375 PRT PCRGRGEAI UTS tern ty hae eo Mates ee Pa ng e | 359 SIO WEES UM x ie tee Sheet cs azote create a eee Whur, 382-383 TS TAOS MM eee, Ae clay ctatefecat eth ghey oben Mate 379-380 (UH aToe BLOM AT LO 2.) (Cram. otter ers a lgnee: 363-364 Chaneesrronn Oto VAC. ae aan ien 364-365 PAU @EMOVCL SWILCHOS: 15 «id ccetetie ce ree etter 378-379 GOTICEOL GIS GR triers ole i's ois «tale esate eA Thy sagt as 379 Critter OULINOLOLS T< ca) fo. lctke ve eee ens 380-381 DG Dlee Ne sein Oty tac ee . eeeearren tae ce se, 367 691 692 INDEX Catechism on operation of electric locomotives—Cont. Failure: of ainisupply se. eae ee 381-382 Fuses 255 Wiis ee ites tee Pte ne eee ae 383-385 Operation on Ay. Or third rally... 366-367 Operation on D. C. overhead rail.......... 365-366 Preparation VLOPerun i. eo s,c0 ap eee ee 308-359 Raisin? AL? Oe GRgley-s cle nce ea earn te ee eee 368 Raising’? Di Co Wolley.2.- ols... eee eee 369 Sai Ors rca oer meee. ccars oar: yA vires ls hie, 385 Standing ansAe; Or zone vn oo se eee 306-357 Standinovin J) .O2 Zones. 7. ee ee ee 357 Starting tains t2 02 wits oe wy Cet 372-373 Swaitchine Positions seas. ees es es 360-363 Temperature sof «motorses/ fren oes ey keer eee 382 Testitig scontrols cc -e cage oy bo che eee 369-371 Third srail) shoes 3 setae. ie eee ee 377-378 Transformers 14". oe wo otete eee Utes 2 eae eae 373 Train stailures, fire: seo ee rae Desserts 311-372 Unit swith olin,. o. 6+ eon: 241-242 PAeChricetretent lOCOMOLIVEs come ae DZD 4: Economy of, compared with steam......... 013-514 MASObriGn OCOMOLIVOMees:.c2--ael) > anise: Moca 272-342 PAGheCOlmDressore COULTOL. 2 ade ya eee er et 315 Air compressor motor switch.............. 306-315 Air pump governor, sectional view......... 314-315 Bipolar, cearless -D.-Cemotor.: ie. wae 277-278 PB viselNercOUp ler ears? ewe > SILL SLi ieee ar San weeteer ver mar Soli selene nee re ree Dt eens rene een ee Cot caer Sanat wuateeivorsartan = peraber thoes nere Pie