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Many efforts were put forth to improve the system of education according to a law drawn up for the purpose. In 1804 an examining board was established to confer certificates of qualification on teachers.2? An attempt was made in 1806 to prepare teachers when the government founded a school in Madrid which was to be conducted according to Pestalozzian principles. This was put in charge of Swiss masters and successfully conducted for two years, special attention being given to the preparation of teachers. Un- fortunately, it was suppressed on January 13, 1808, as a result of Napoleon’s invasion.*° The Eighteenth Century in Porto Rico. Porto Rico did not cease to be an object of attack by the enemies of Spain and during the eight- eenth century it was attacked nine times by the English and once by the Dutch. The most nearly successful attempt to wrest Porto Rico from Spain was in 1797, when a British squadron of sixty vessels and a detachment of 6,500 men attacked San Juan. They effected a landing and for two weeks held the city under fire, but at last they were forced to withdraw. Besides these wars, one cyclone in 1785, an earthquake in 1787 and many epidemics due to poor sanitary conditions added to the misery and to the difficulty of the problems *Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 221. 7Ibid., pp. 242, 247. Cossio, op. cit., p. 21. *8Tbid., Vol. II, pp. 5-7. *°Tbid., Vol. II, pp. 5-7. Cossio, op. cit., p. 23. °Tbid., Vol. II, pp.79. Cossio, op. cit.,p.25. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 15 to be solved. In spite of all this, attempts were made to improve conditions in the Island, especially after the ascent of Charles IIT. Report of Field Marshal Alejandro O’Reilly. The reforms of Charles III were to be extended to the possessions in America. Con- sequently, in 1765, the King sent Field Marshal Alejandro O’Reilly to Porto Rico to investigate the conditions of the Island and to make a report. O’Reilly found twenty villages besides San Juan and San German, with a population of 44,883 inhabitants, of which 5,000 wereslaves. Hereorganized the military forces and urged the strength- ening of the fortifications. Convict labor was imported and large amounts of money were spent chiefly for military purposes. After this report was made a new military and colonial administration was inaugurated, several villages were given municipal councils, currency was reformed, a custom house was established in San Juan, postal service was instituted, economic conditions were improved, and, through the encouragement of immigration, the population increased. Educational Conditions. Education continued to be a function of the Church, but the philanthropic interest evidenced in the mother country was manifested in the Island during the latter part of the century. O’Reilly in his report pictures the backward cultural estate of the people thus: In order to understand how the people have lived and are living, it is well to know that there are only two schools for boys in the whole Island, that outside of Porto Rico (the present city of San Juan) and the village of San German, very few know how toread. They keep account of time by the terms of the Governors, hurricanes, visits of the Bishop to the towns, arrivals of or bombardments of the Island by foreign ships. They measure the length of a journey according to the time it takes them to walk the distance. The wealthiest men in the country go barefooted.*! Objections to O’Reilly’s Report. Don José Julian Acosta was in- clined to believe that this criticism of cultural conditions of the Island in 1765 was too severe. Dr. C. Coll y Toste also makes the same objection. He furthermore quotes extensively from a document of 1770 wherein were found some instructions regarding the establish- ment of schools. ‘These were orders given by the Governor to the military officers of the different districts. Don Miguel de Muesas, the Governor, ordered his subordinates that in each district a person of good repute should be engaged in teaching the children. Parents were to send at least half of their children to school until they knew how to read and write. A collection was to be taken among the Tapia y Rivera, op. cit., p. 156. 56th Congress, S. D. 363, p. 109. 16 Education in Porto Rico parents to pay the salary of the teacher. The curriculum was to consist of catechism, reading, writing and ciphering. The district officers were compelled to canvass their territory and see that parents obeyed the law.*? This is the influence of the educational movement that was active in Spain and in fact in all of Europe, but there is no evi- dence that the orders were ever carried out. The fact that such instructions were given to the district officers does not prove that the schools existed and that education was compulsory, any more than the school law of 1857 in Spain proves that she has had since then a thoroughly organized compulsory system of education, providing an opportunity for every child to receive an elementary education. Spanish school laws are masterpieces on paper, but there has not been one Spanish school law which was ever fully executed. University Movement. About the year 1770 there was a movement to establish a university in San Juan. Colonel Don Miguel de Muesas, then Governor General, proposed to His Majesty, Charles III, the establishment of such a university in the buildings occupied by the Dominican monastery. Although it may seem strange to found a university when there were no public schools, yet the universities have preceded the public schools in all the countries of the world. The first schools of the new world were the universities of Santo Domingo, founded in 1538, and of San Marcos, in Lima, founded in 1550. As there was no university in Porto Rico, the youth had to go to foreign countries to pursue their university studies. Generally they went to Venezuela, Santo Domingo and Spain.** The university did not materialize and the students continued to go abroad for their higher education. Alexander Humboldt, the German scientist, mentions the fact that in his travels in South America he met at the University of Caracas two Porto Ricans who distinguished them- selves in the science of botany. He made this trip between the years 1799 and 1804, travelling through the West Indies, Venezuela, Colombia and Peru.** Meanwhile the Dominican monastery was the highest center of learning in the Island and when the university movement failed, this school extended its curriculum as best it could. In 1790, at the beginning of the disturbances in Santo Domingo and Haiti, an attempt was made to have the University of Santo Domingo @Coll y Toste, op. cit., pp. 15-16. “Tomas de Cérdoba, Pedro: Memoria sobre todos los Ramos de Administractén de la Isla de Puerto Rico, p. 320. “Ifigo Abad: Historia Gegrdfica, Civil y Natural de la Isla de Puerto Rico, nueva edicién anotada por José Julian Acosta, p. 410. Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 17 transferred to San Juan, but without success. Other attempts to establish secondary schools at this time failed. Later, in 1816, a chair of anatomy was established in the hospital at San Juan, and in 1819 the Franciscan friars founded a chair of theology in their con- vent.* Education for Girls at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century. On November 25, 1799, at a meeting of the city council in San Juan, one of the matters considered was the necessity of establishing an “equal number of schools for girls,’ one in each of the four squares of the city.*® It isnatural to suppose that there existed four schools for boys. One of the members of the council, Don Antonio de Cér- doba, was asked to look for four teachers who were morally and in- tellectually qualified to fill the positions of teachers in these schools. On December 2, of the same year, at another meeting of the council, Sefior de Cérdoba reported that he had interviewed Paula Molinero, Juana Polanco, Josefa Echevarria and Maria Dolores Aranjo, ladies who in his opinion were qualified to take care of the education of the girls in the four squares of the city. Two weeks later, on December 16, the council had another meeting at which the Governor General, Don Ramon de Castro, was present. The matter of the girls’ schools was again brought up. The secretary was authorized to draw up plans for the schools, to make contracts with the teachers, and to send the same to the Governor General for approval. The schools were evidently started and at least three teachers employed, for on March 1, 1804, the teachers applied to the council for their back salaries which had not been paid. On that date Juana Antonia Aranjo, Josefa Echevarria, and Juana Polanco, teachers of primary instruction, as they were officially called, sent a communication to the city council calling the attention of that body to the fact that said body had been satisfied with their efforts to teach the catechism and sewing, but that they had been denied their salaries of fifty pesos a year, which sum had been named as remuneration for their work. They asked the city council to order its secretary to pay the arrears in salary. This was not done, for on December 6 of the same year, the teachers again brought the matter to the attention of the council. This time it was either neglected or an unsatisfactory reply was sent to the teachers, for six days after, on December 12, they asked to be allowed to examine the minutes of the council meeting, at which %56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. % Angelis: Miscelianas Puerto Riquefias, p. 137. 18 Education in Porto Rico they were appointed, that they might see for themselves just what action that body had taken and under what terms they had originally been employed.*” The activity of the Church and the private school teachers continued, but nothing had been achieved thus far for popular support of education. The influence of the contemporary Spanish movement did not have any practical effects on the Island. Napoleonic Invasion and Spanish Resistance. In July, 1808, under the protection of French troops, Joseph Bonaparte took possession of the Spanish government. Although the Spanish people hated the late King, Charles IV, and his Prime Minister Godoy, they were fond of his son Ferdinand, and preferred him for king rather than Napoleon’s brother, a foreigner and intruder. It was very easy for Napoleon to put his brother on the Spanish throne but very hard to keep him there. Priests and nobles made common cause with com- moners and peasants in a terrific endeavor to drive out the foreigners. A bitter struggle ensued between the French government and the Spaniards who organized in “juntas” or revolutionary committees to rule in the name of Ferdinand. Aided by Great Britain, the Spaniards carried on the peninsular war until Napoleon’s troops finally withdrew in 1814. The Cortes of Cadiz and Educational Reform. During the French occupation, Spain was ruled by a Central Committee which met in Cadiz, and swore allegiance to Ferdinand as the rightful heir to the Spanish throne. In 1812 the Central Committee drew up a Con- stitution for the nation. This document was influenced by the American constitution, by the documents drawn up during the French Revolution and by the contemporary events in Europe. It was based upon very liberal principles and was more radical than either the American or the French constitution. Article XII of the constitution regarding public instruction provided for the establish- ment of elementary schools in all cities and villages. The curriculum to be taught was reading, writing, arithmetic and catechism. The plan was made uniform for all the nation. It also provided that higher education should be maintained according to the needs of the population, but the emphasis was placed on elementary education.*® Education was recognized as a state function. | Porto Rico during the Napoleonic Invasion. No sooner had the Angelis, op. cit., pp. 18-20. 38Luzuriaga, op. cit., Constitution of March 8, 1812. Vol. II, pp. 82-85. Monroe: Encyclopedia of Education. See Spain. Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 19 news of the Napoleonic invasion reached America than the Spanish colonies began to organize plans to govern themselves. They did not intend at first to break away from the mother country, for they all held allegiance to the Prince of Asturias, but they were unwilling to submit themselves to the French régime. They established re- gional governments and sent representatives to the Central Committee in Spain. Porto Rico also declared its allegiance to the Prince, but in case he were not restored the Island reserved the right to govern itself as it pleased. In 1809 Porto Rico was allowed one representa- tive in the Cortes, and Ramén Powers was selected for the position. The Island began to prosper economically and in 1811 the administra- tion of public funds was reorganized. In 1813 Porto Rico’s first insular government, the Provincial Deputation, met. The same year the “Sociedad Econémica de los Amigos del Pais,”’ the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country, was founded in San Juan by the sub-treasurer®® Don Alejandro Ramirez. Many similar societies were founded in the Spanish colonies at this time. One of the prin- cipal aims was to foster public education. The Insular Government Intervenes in Elementary Education. ‘The first sign of governmental intervention in education in Porto Rico occurs at this time when the colonies were left to govern themselves. On July 22, 1809, Governor Salvador Meléndez ordered the munici- pality of San Juan to appoint an inspector of the elementary schools.” The following year he ordered that there should be distributed to the schools writing copy books, primers, a book of moral readings, cate- chisms and paper, and further, that there should be held in all of the schools annual examinations.*! This intervention seems to imply that there were, by 1810, schools supported by public funds or private schools aided by public funds. The fact that annual ex- aminations were officially ordered by the Governor General shows that the schools had something of a public character. The Restoration in Spain. While Ferdinand was in exile he was trying constantly to regain his throne. All sorts of intrigues were being carried on against the liberal government and the Con- stitution of 1812. At last in 1814 he was restored to the Spanish throne, his restoration being only one event in the general political reaction in Europe and corresponding to the month with the restora- 39Intendente. 49Ferrer Hernandez, Gabriel: La Instruccién Publica én Puerto Rico, p. 21. 41Jhid. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, pp. 117-18. 20 Education in Porto Rico tion of another Bourbon to the French throne. The restoration government was a continuation of the traditions of Charles IV, only more despotic. Ferdinand apparently had learned nothing in his years of exile and came backa greater despot than ever. On May 11 he de- creed the dissolution of the Cortes, thus annulling the Constitution of 1812 with all the reforms of the native government. He persecuted the liberals, many of whom had to leave the country, established the Inquisition, and placed the country in a worse state of political re- action than that existing in the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth. The Restoration and Education. As it was to be expected, the King’s activities in education were extremely reactionary. The Jesuits were readmitted, convents were opened and multiplied, the universi- ties and theatres were closed, the publication of all newspapers, other than the official gazette, was prohibited, and material progress in general was checked. Elementary education was placed in the hands of the Church and while a multitude of royal decrees and orders concerning education were issued, they amounted to nothing, for the country was bankrupt and political chaos reigned.” Political Situation in Porto Rico. In Porto Rico the political situation followed that of Spain. On receiving news of the restoration Governor General Meléndez celebrated the occasion with music, fireworks, and a Te Deum in honor of the absolute King. The Pro- vincial Deputation was dissolved and the old order was re-established. In spite of this general reaction, due to immigration from the other Spanish colonies and the opening of commercial relations with foreign countries, the Island enjoyed some economic prosperity. Educational Conditions in Porto Rico at the Time of the Restoration. The Economic Society, one of the chief aims of which was the pro- motion of education, was not able to accomplish anything before 1820 and held only two meetings before that date.** Royal decrees and orders regarding education in Porto Rico were issued at this time, but they had even less chance of being put into operation than those applicable to Spain. In 1815 there was a royal order which bore directly on education in the Indies. In June of that year an order was issued referring to another of November 5, 1782.44 The later one urges that the earlier one be put into operation, that efforts be “Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 115-70. 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. Brau, op. cit., pp. 224-25. “Zamorra y Coronado, José Maria: Biblioteca de Legislacién p. 174. Spanish Background and Church Control of Education 21 put forth to establish the schools provided by law, that proper action be taken to make education compulsory and that legal means be pro- vided to compel parents to send their children to school. The schools were to be supported by the communities and care was to be taken in the selection of teachers that they were well qualified. The clergy were advised to do all in their power to aid education and to take special care that the children learned well the Spanish language. In towns where there were no schools the people were to invite the priest to take charge of the education of the youth. This later order merely showed that the first had never been obeyed and there is no evidence that the later one was ever put into operation. There is another order which throws some light on the state of education in 1815. On May 4 the viceroys, presidents and governors in the colonies were ordered to visit the establishments of education and the hospitals in order to make suitable reforms. The Governor General communicated the order to the cathedral chapter at San Juan and to the city council. These were to name a representative to accompany him in his visit of inspection. He said that they would proceed to make the visit, “beginning with the class studying in the convent of Santo Domingo, sending first an official letter to the prior as well as to the other prelates and persons belonging to the schools and hospitals, and that the same kind of a visit should be made in the village of San German, where there were schools and hospitals.’’* If San German was the only other town besides San Juan that re- quired inspection, it is logical to suppose that in the rest of the Island instruction was limited to the teaching of the catechism, reading, writing, and ciphering given either by the priest or by private individu- als who taught those who could afford to pay. Public interest in public education did not begin in the Island until 1820. Testimony of José Julian Acosta on the Beginnings of Education in Porto Rico. A general review of the educational efforts in Porto Rico up to 1820 was given by Don José Julian Acosta in his address at the inauguration of the Civil Institute of Secondary Education in 1882. In that address he said: “Since the first dawning of Porto Rican life, and in diverse and repeated epochs, let it be said in honor of our ancestors that there have lived in this Island men of noble and generous spirit who promoted the improvement of public in- struction. As a proof to this statement there are in the sixteenth century the venerable names of Anton Lucas and Francisco Ruiz, 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. 22 Education in Porto Rico founders of the study of Latin. In the seventeenth century the name of Friar Jorge Chambers, who founded the chairs of grammar and philosophy in the monastery of the Dominican friars; and in the eighteenth century the names of Doctors Acosta and Ruiz, who tried to establish chairs of jurisprudence, and of Xiorro, Pizarro, Davila, Cordova and Quifiones, who in the name of the ayuntamiento of this capital petitioned the monarch to remove to this city the Pontifical University of Santo Domingo.’ We may or may not agree with Dr. Acosta in his evaluation of education during the first three centuries of the Island as a Spanish colony, but from this quotation we get a glimpse of the spirit of those who in the first years of the life of the Island had a vision for the future and who in their poor and limited way made their contribution to educational progress. Summary. By way of summary, it can be said that educational activity in Porto Rico before 1820 was an imitation of Spain and that the fortunes of the mother country affected the fortunes of the Island. As in the mother country, whatever legislation there was concerning education was seldom carried out. There was very little interest in public education in spite of the statements made by Dr. Acosta and others. With few exceptions education was confined to the wealthy classes who could pay a private teacher, or send their children to the church schools where also they had to pay. Education was a function of the church as it was in Spain and those who taught in private schools generally followed the curriculum of the church and taught catechism, reading, writing and ciphering. Secondary and theologi- cal education was furnished by the monasteries. ‘The movement for the establishment of the university was never successful and those wishing a higher or professional education, with the exception of the priesthood, had to pursue their studies abroad. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 109. CHAPTER III EDUCATION UNDER THE CONTROL OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES [1820-1865] A. SpanisH HistorRicaAL AND EpucaTIONAL BACKGROUND Education in Porto Rico as an insular movement begins in reality in 1820 under the influence of the Liberal régime in Spain. But the Island as a colony shared the political disturbances of the mother country and likewise the changing educational policies. Neverthe- less, the conception of education as a public function of the State grew slowly until 1865 when it was thus recognized. Much of the educational effort was manifested in what might be called secondary and professional education, the demand for this coming from the wealthier classes, while popular education was more neglected. For the sake of clearness, elementary and secondary and _ professional education will be treated in different chapters. The efforts put forth to establish elementary public schools may be subdivided into five periods, according as schools were administered, or according to royal decrees concerning education. First, education under the divided administration of the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country, and the Provincial Deputation to 1850; second, education under the supervision of “La Academia Real de Bellas Letras’? (Royal Academy of Belles Lettres), covering a space of fifteen years, to 1865; third, education under the “De- creto Organico del 10 de Junio de 1865” (Organic Decree of June 10, 1865), nine years to 1874; fourth, education as affected by the Re- forms of General Sanz, six years, to 1880; and, fifth, education under “El Decreto Orgdnico de 1880’ (Organic Decree of 1880), eighteen years, to 1898. The Reign of Ferdinand VII: The Liberals and the Conservatives. During the six years of French dominion, the people had united in opposition to the invaders. The influence of the French Revolution, the government under the Constitution of 1812 and six years of ex- (23) Q4 Education in Porto Rico perience in self-government had formed a nucleus of men the activities of whom no amount of reactionary policies could check. This group of irreconcilables formed the beginning of the so-called Liberals. On the other hand, the nobility, the clergy, other privileged classes and the lower peasantry whom these controlled, sided with the King and formed an opposing group, extremely reactionary, called the Conservatives. The political history of Spain during most of the nineteenth century is a constant struggle between the Conservatives on one side and the Liberals on the other. The Liberals Rise to Power in 1820. The reactionary régime in- stituted in 1814, apparently successful at first, united the Liberals in a secret propaganda against the Throne, and at the same time they spread the teachings of the French Revolution among all their mem- bers. One of their chief objectives was to overthrow the King, or at least to force upon him the Constitution of 1812. In order to accomplish this end they spread dissatisfaction in the army which the King was assembling for the subjugation of the Spanish Ameri- can colonies. In 1819 a mutiny of the army was the signal for a general insurrection which in the first two months of 1820 broke out in different parts of the nation. The Revolution was successful and in March 1820, the King gave his royal oath to support the Consti- tution of 1812. The insurgents took him at his word and laid down their arms. The Introduction of the Monitorial System in Spain. Even before the success of the Liberals in 1820 the monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster had already become popular in Europe and was being in- troduced in America. In 1819 it was officially introduced in Spain. By royal order of March 30, there was established in Madrid a central school to be conducted according to Lancasterian methods. This institution was to serve as a model school to others to be established in different parts of the nation, which were to be administered by the officers of the central school in Madrid. A board composed of mem- bers of the nobility was placed in charge of the administration of all the Lancasterian schools.! Later in the year, October 6, another royal order was issued authorizing all towns, corporations or individu- als who so desired to open Lancasterian schools provided they were all under the inspection and supervision of the board already appointed for the purpose. This board besides supervising instruction was to 1Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 148-50. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) O5 examine all teachers.2. The introduction of this system into Spain was not due to the desire of the King to educate his subjects, but to the popularity of the monitorial system at this time among the Liberals themselves. Educational Programme of the Liberal Régime of 1820. The interest in popular education awakened by the monitorial system made a fitting background for the educational reforms introduced by the Liberals in 1821. The Cortes attempted to reorganize the system of education from the elementary school to the University. All educa- tional institutions supported wholly or in part or authorized by the government were declared to be free and uniform. It was ordered that schools should be established in all villages of one hundred inhabitants or over and that in towns and cities of five hundred inhabitants or over there should be a school for every five hundred. Schools for girls were also to be established. A central Educational Board of seven members was to have full administration of all public education. The Liberal government also provided for special schools for soldiers to be conducted according to the methods of Bell and Lancaster.* Restoration and Absolutism. The reforms of the Liberals were not to last long, for there were many forces both at home and abroad working against the success of the Liberalrégime. At home the King was constantly at work trying to recover his absolute power. He was supported by the clergy and the nobles who resisted the execu- tion of reform legislation. Abroad, reactionary powers of Europe saw in the Spanish revolt of 1820 and in the reforms of the Liberals, the beginning of a revolution, and were terrified by the thought of what the success of such a movement might mean to the whole Continent. Consequently reactionary Europe began to look for an opportunity to intervene in the internal affairs of Spain. This was realized in 1823, when the governments of France, Austria, Russia and Prussia demanded the abolition of the Constitution of 1812 and the liberation of the King from the restraint that had been imposed upon him on the ground that the anarchical condition of the country justified such a demand. On the refusal of the Spanish Liberals a French army crossed the Pyrenees and enforced the demand of the powers. Absolutism was restored in 1824 and the reaction which 2Ibid., Real Orden de 6 de Octubre de 1819, pp. 165-67. 3I7bid., Reglamento General de Instruccién Publica de 29, Junio 1821, pp. 172-81. 4Tbid., Decreto del 28 de Junio, 1821, pp. 172. 26 Education in Porto Rico followed was more extreme than had been that of ten years before. Until his death in 1833, Ferdinand ruled Spain as an irresponsible despot. Education in Spain Under the Reaction. Under such conditions progress in education, and in fact progress of any kind, was not to be expected. Soon after the rise of the Conservatives in 1824, a royal order of the 25th of March renewed the decree of November 13, 1815, asking the Bishops of the churches to establish primary schools in the convents of their respective dioceses.> This was done to check the influence of the liberal government, as its teachings were considered very pernicious. On June 23 of the same year the General Com- mittee of Charities in Madrid was authorized to examine and certify the primary school teachers. The King and the Church were allied to check the teachings of the liberals and the best way to do that was to give the church ample powers in education. A step forward was made the next year. The first school law, fully organizing elementary education, was passed February 16, 1825.7 By the following list of contents we can get an idea of the fullness of the law: The Law of 1825. Schools and Their Definition. Equipment and Text Books. Admission of Children. Days and Hours of Classes. Methods of Teaching. Examination of Public and Private Pupils. Rewards and Punishments. Teachers’ Examinations and Certificates. Assistant Teachers and Pupil Teachers. 9. Boarding Schools. 10. Normal Schools. 11. Government and Administration of the Schools. 12. Superior Board of Education. 13. District Boards of Education. 14. Municipal Boards of Education. 15. Educational Finances. 16. Teachers’ Pensions, Promotions and Exemptions. 17. Police and Religious Practice to be Observed in the Schools. 18. Schools for Girls. 19. Rules for the Execution of the Law.’ This law was noted for its completeness. It attempted to organize elementary education, which was not made compulsory nor free. re AED aoa ed a ae oe ‘Luzuriaga, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 185. SIbid., p. 187. 7 Ibid., pp. 188-230. 8Tbid. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1856) 27 Schools were divided into three classes: first, those of Madrid and capitals of Provinces; second, those established in the districts of Madrid and districts of provincial capitals; and third, those of towns under five hundred inhabitants. ‘Teachers were required to take examinations and have certificates before they could teach. Provision was made for teachers’ pensions. On the other hand, the law was reactionary. All teachers were compelled to make a pro- fession of faith before they were granted their certificates. It is needless to say that this was an excellent document, but its provisions were never put into operation in Spain much less in Porto Rico. Independence of the Spanish Colonies in America. 'The restoration of Ferdinand in 1814, followed by his reactionary policies, widened the breach between Spain and her colonies. At first the colonies did not intend to separate from the mother country, but after the restoration they saw that there was no hope of securing any liberties under the monarchy, hence they declared themselves in open revolt and set out to win their independence. Instead of adopting a con- ciliatory attitude toward the colonies, redressing their grievances and bringing them once more within the bond of the Empire, Ferdi- nand cruelly endeavored to subjugate them by force of arms. Asa result all the Spanish colonies on the American continent took up arms against the mother country. One by one they won their in- dependence and in 1826 the Spanish flag came down forever on the mainland of the American Continent. Political Conditions in Porto Rico. The political changes in 1820 and 1823 were made in Porto Rico without any major disturbances. Now and then the Porto Ricans manifested signs of opposition to the insular authorities and expressed sympathy for the colonies in their struggle for independence, but the prompt measures of the Gov- ernor, the presence of troops and the small area of the Island pre- vented a successful uprising. Porto Rico benefited by the dis- turbance in the other colonies in that many Spaniards having to emigrate from the Continent found a refuge in the Island, where they established themselves and thus contributed to her material welfare. B. DivipEp ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE ECONOMIC SOCIETY OF THE FRIENDS OF THE COUNTRY AND THE PROVINCIAL Deputation [1820-1851] Attempt to Introduce the Monitorial System into Porto Rico. The 28 Education in Porto Rico establishment of Lancasterian schools in Spain and the educational policies of the Liberals had an immediate effect in Porto Rico. With the re-establishment of the Constitution of 1812, the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country came into its own and began its activities in education. Its first attempt was to establish a school for the preparation of teachers in San Juan. In the record of the session held by the Economic Society on the 17th of August, 1820, is related the following: It was agreed to open a voluntary annual subscription among the ayuntamientos, fathers of families and persons who interest themselves in public instruction, for the purpose of establishing in the capital a normal school of mutual instruction, bringing a professor from Europe or Havana to prepare teachers, who shall after- wards practice their profession in the different towns of the Island.® On August 29, 1820, Brigadier General Don Juan Vasco y Pascual, the Governor General, sent a communication to the San Juan city council, informing that body that the Provincial Deputation had passed a provision to open a subscription for the purpose of collect- ing funds to establish a school of mutual instruction after the method of Lancaster. He headed the list with thirty-two pesos. The council welcomed the suggestion of the Governor and ap- pointed Don Francisco Tadeo de Rivera and Don Ramén Salgado to collect the money and report the result to the Governor.!° Being more or less deceived by the reports received from Madrid concerning the Lancasterian school there, the people took up the project with much enthusiasm. The subscription list soon rose to 1223.25 pesos. The Economic Society was commissioned to contract for a teacher. The Society wrote to Madrid and sent a draft for 500 pesos with the request that a teacher specially trained to teach according to the Lancasterian method be secured. On the receipt of the draft in Madrid, it was protested on account of the failure of the house on which it was drawn. This money was lost. The money remaining in the treasury of the Economic Society was turned over to the city council and used for municipal expenses. !! Thus ended the first efforts to establish a school to prepare teachers for the schools of the Island. 956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. 10D)on Juan Macho Moreno: Compilacién Legislativa de Primera Ensefianza de la Isla de Puerto Rico, pp- 15-16. In this work are compiled all the documents relating to elementary education in Porto Rico from 1826 to 1895. As we shall refer to this work often, we shall do so, by giving the name of the author, followed by the name of the document, and the page. Moreno: Escuela Lancasteriana, pp. 15-16. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 29 Plan of Tadeo de Rivera. In the meantime the city council studied ways and means of establishing elementary schools. At this time two elementary schools existed in the capital.“ Don Francisco Tadeo de Rivera, a school officer of the city of San Juan (Regidor Diputado de Escuelas), was asked to work out a plan for the estab- lishment of the schools. One month after, September 20, he sub- mitted his ““Methodical Instruction upon What Primary School Teachers Ought to Observe in the Teaching of Children.” (Instruc- cion Metéddica sobre lo que deben observar los maestros de primeras letras para la educaciOén y ensefianza de los nifios.)%= This document is of the greatest importance, not only because it is the first of its class found in the history of Porto Rico, but also because the author introduced some of the principles of the Lancasterian school, together with the most important precepts of the plan of studies which the Liberals were trying to establish in Spain. It began by stating that education should be free; the school hours six, divided into two sessions, from 8.30 a.m. to 12 m. and from 2.30 to 5 p.m.; the school year to consist of twelve months, except Sundays, legal holidays, three days at Christmas and Easter Week. The age for entering school should be six years and the course of study should last four years. The curriculum should include the elementary study of religion, morals, reading, writing, grammar, orthography, arithmetic, politics, manners and the study of the con- stitution. It ordered that there should be a general, public examina- tion each year; definitely prohibited corporal punishment; and recommended the employment of assistants in the direction of the school, who should be selected by the teachers from among the best scholars. If they were taken from the outside they should be ex- amined and approved by the city council. One member of the city council was sent to act as inspector, visit the schools once or twice a month, and observe the progress of the children. Suggestions to parents were included in the plan.“ The Fate of the Plan. Unfortunately this was another plan, ex- cellent on paper, but which was never realized. It was submitted to the city council September 10, 1820. The city council referred it 256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. Moreno: p. 16. 4Moreno: Instruccién Metddica sobre lo que deben observar los maestros de primeras letras para la educacién y ensefianza de los nifios, por Don Francisco Tadeo de Rivera. Regidor Diputado de las Escuelas del Excmo. Ayuntamiento de la Capital de Puerto Rico. pp. 16-30. 30 Education in Porto Rico to the Governor, September 25, 1820, who in turn submitted it to the Provincial Deputation on the 29th of the month.'* The Depu- tation approved the plan and recommended its execution until some- thing better was provided by the Spanish Cortes. The project was printed and distributed to all teachers in the Island. Officers were appointed and examining committees selected, but the whole move- ment failed and the plan was never put into operation.” Early Activities of the Economic Society in Elementary Education. The Economic Society, although more interested in secondary edu- cation, did not entirely neglect elementary education. In 1820, soon after the failure of the plan already considered, the Society tried to establish a school for girls in San Juan, and engaged a teacher by the name of Vicenta Ehrichson.!8 No record was found of the school until four months afterwards when the directress of the school peti- tioned the Society to pay four months of house rent. She had been ill and not able to open the school. The society voted to pay one- third of the rent.!® On October 3, 1821, the Society tried to engage a man by the name of Ritten Noven, a teacher of writing, to teach his method to the elementary school teachers that these might teach it in the Island.2° Nothing is known of the fate of these two move- ments. In the investigations of the United States government at the time of the American occupation, the investigator has the following to say in reference to these attempts on the part of the Society: The want of resources often prevented it (The Economic Society) from putting good ideas into practice. The instruction of girls was something that engaged its attention from the first. As far back as the year 1820 the Society tried to make arrangements with a Spanish woman who was directing a school for girls in St. Thomas to establish herself in the capital. The Society further tried to engage another teacher, who, like the first, knew French and English, and was living in Santa Cruz; but in the end it was compelled to abandon the idea, owing to lack of funds to sustain the school.”! Until 1828 the Economie Society was subsidized by the govern- ment with one thousand pesos annually and after that with one thousand six hundred pesos. This was not a sufficient fund to carry 15Moreno: Oficio,—Sala Consistorial de Puerto Rico, p. 30. 6 Jiid., p. 30. 1Tbid., Acuerdos de la Excma. Diputacién Provincial, pp. 31-32. 18Libro 1. Minutes of the Economic Society. Coll y Toste, Historia de la Instruc- ci6n Piblica en Porto Rico, p. 20. 197Tbid., p. 20. *0Tbid., p. 21. 156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 117. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 31 out any educational programme, nevertheless it was spent in second- ary education mostly.” In 1845 the Society paid the expenses of six girls in a private school in San Juan, and when this was closed they were transferred to another private school.” Educational Conditions in 1824. The next record wherein indirect information about education in the Island may be found is of the year 1824. In a study of the occupations in the Island, both civil and military, no school teachers appear in the list, while the doctors, merchants and artisans of all kinds are mentioned.** This does not prove that there were no teachers, but shows the lack of interest in education by not including the teachers in the list of professions. Educational Attempts in 1828. The attempts made in 1828 to es- tablish schools in the Island throw some light on the educational con- ditions at that time: About the middle of the year 1828 there arrived in Porto Rico the royal order of February 24, in which the Supreme Government asked what means should be pro- posed for establishing colleges in the Island. It then contained 302,692 inhabitants, and there were in the capital, according to one of the records of the Economic Society, only ‘two or three schools, and they did not give any satisfactory results.’ This reason, added to the lack of resources for sustaining a college, was the cause of abandoning the project.*® The uncertainty of the information as to the number of schools “two or more” should be noted. Conditions in Elementary Education in 1830. The year 1830 fur- nishes some official information regarding the state of education in the entire Island. At that time the following school statistics were sent to the Crown. There were 29 schools in the Island, distributed as follows: San Juan, 5; Bayamén, 5; Arecibo, 2; Aguada, 6; San German, 3; Ponce, 2; Humacao, 3; Caguas, 3; total, 29.2° The salaries of the teachers were partly paid by the city councils.” 256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 117. 3 Tord. *4de Cérdoba, Pedro Tomas: Memoria sobre todos los Ramos de Administracién de la Isla de Puerto Rico [por el Coronel de Infanteria, Don Pedro Tomas de Cordoba, Secretario Honorario de 8. M. y proprietario del gobierno y capitania general de la misma Isla]. This report was published in Madrid, (Imprenta de Yenes,) in 1838. On pages 284 and 285 we find a list of the professions in Porto Rico in 1824 as follows: 34 doctors and surgeons; 45 pharmacists; 733 merchants; 3170 artisans. Another list gives the military officials. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 113. *%de Cérdoba, op. cit., pp. 15-26. The summary of the report gives the following statistics: 1 ciudad, 4 villas, 53 pueblos, 5 ayuntamientos, 6 tenientes de justicias mayores, 57 tenientes de guerra, 57 sargentos mayores, 29 escuelas de primeras letras, 53 médicos, 44 practicantes de medicina, 18 agrimensores, 7 intérpretes, 19 escribanos. *7de Cérdoba, op. cit., p. 55. Los ayuntamientos difrutan de algunos propios y 32 Education in Porto Rico The Work of the Count of Carpegna. About the year 1830 there came to Porto Rico Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry Don Ramén Carpegna, Count of Carpegna, who from the beginning took great interest in education. Imitating the monitorial system in Madrid, he wished to establish a school of mutual instruction, the principal object of which was to demonstrate the advantages which might be obtained in instruction by following that system. On April 10, 1833, his school was opened and two years afterwards, in view of the good results obtained, the Economic Society agreed to give the Count an “honorable and solemn testimonial of its appreciation for the great service which he had done to the Island, in putting its youth in a path hitherto unknown to practice.’”? About the same time the schools of Aibonito and Patillas were ordered closed by the Governor General because no children attended them. In 1830 the general condition of education was backward and the few schools in operation were badly equipped.?® The Spanish law of 1825 had had no effect on the educational conditions in Porto Rico, as it had very little on Spain herself. The Reign of Isabella II. In 1829 King Ferdinand married Maria Cristina of Naples and a daughter, Isabella, was born to the sover- eigns the following year. The King was in poor health, and feeling the end near, legalized his daughter’s right to the throne, abolish- ing by the pragmatic sanction of March 29, 1830 the Salic Law of the Bourbon family, which excluded the daughters of the King from the throne. This brought upon him the rage of his brother, Don Carlos, and gave rise to the Carlist party. The King died and Maria Cristina, the mother of Queen Isabella, became regent. Don Carlos attracted to his standard the clericals, reactionaries, and the country folk from among the mountains of the north. The regent won the arbitrios para atender a la policia de comodidad de ornato y salubridad, y los pueblos reparten anualmente Jo que necesitan para sus obras y demas gastos fijos de la pob- lacién. Estos son el salario del parroco, el del sacristan, maestro de primeras letras, gaceta, mantenimiento de presos, luces de carceles y otros de corta entidad; los demas son eventuales. *8Coll y Toste, op. cit., p. 44. *%de Cordoba, op. cit., pp. 64-65. La Instruccién Primaria se halla muy atrasada en la Isla, tiene pocas escuelas de primeras letras y estas estan mal dotadas; requiere un impulso sélido y constante. El] estudio de las leyes civiles y econdédmicas hace tambien notable falta, lo mismo que el de medicina y cirujia tan indespensable en obsequio de la humanidad doliente. La Sociedad Econdédmica que mantiene una clase de matem- aticas puras y otra de dibujo debe ser la que dé impulso a la Instruccién Primaria; el prelado y la audiencia a la parte de estudios mayores, y el gobierno y laintendencia, al de cirujia en el hospital militar. S. M. tiene concedido el establecimiento de cAtedra de medicina en la isla, y que dos jévenes se instrullan a espensas del Erario en el Colegio de Médicos Cirujanos de Cadiz. Porqué no se aprovechara este beneficio!” Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1825) 33 support of the Liberals by the grant of a parliamentary constitution in 1837. For seven years after the death of the King there was a bitter struggle for the throne, until finally, in 1840, Don Carlos fled and Isabella was recognized as the rightful heir. This, however, did not end the activities of the Carlists. The young Queen was crowned in 1843 and began her stormy reign. She lost favor with the Liberals by revising the Constitution in a conservative direction and by her constant attempts to rule despotically, while at the same time she failed to win the loyal sup- port of the Conservatives. Her reign was marked by constant politi- cal unrest, no one knowing what political changes a day might bring forth. In the meantime the republican doctrines spread among the intellectuals, the middle class and the best element of the country in general. The Educational Law of 1834. The Liberals persuaded Maria Cristina to begin to reform education and as a result the law of 1834 was passed. As this decree applied directly to Porto Rico, its pro- visions should be considered somewhat in detail. Three classes of school commissions were created for the administration of the schools: provincial, district®?® and town commissions. The provincial com- mission was composed of the Governor General, one parish priest appointed by the Governor where there were more than one, and three heads of families. The district*! commissions were composed of the president of the city council of the district capital, the parish priest and three heads of families. ‘The town commissions were composed of the mayor, another member of the city council, the parish priest and three heads of families chosen by the city council. All three commissions were expected to supervise and encourage primary schools and furnish the data required by superior authori- ties. Each had, in addition, its own particular duties. The pro- vincial commission had general charge of elementary education. Its duties were to encourage the establishment of primary schools in accordance with the plan of February 16, 1825, and other royal orders concerning that plan, to furnish the Central Committee on Education in Madrid all information asked for, to execute promptly the orders of the government, and to superintend the work of the commissions of lower rank. The duties of the district commissions were to put into operation all orders from higher authority, to secure all information desired by 30Comisiones de Partido. 31Comisiones de Partido. 34 Education in Porto Rico higher authorities, to make a study of conditions and needs of the schools in the district and to establish schools in towns where there were none. The duties of the town commissions were mainly to supervise the schools in the towns and study means of supporting schools wherever the municipalities were failing to do so. Teachers’ examinations were to be held before a special commission of teachers of both sexes, appointed by the provincial commission.” Political and Social Conditions in Porto Rico During the Reign of Isabella II. As in the mother country, the political situation in Porto Rico was stormy. In 1835 a secret attempt was made to es- tablish the Constitution of 1812. This was a sign of what was going on in Madrid at the same time. Governor de la Torre exiled the persons implicated, and the affair came to an end on the Island. However, the change was made in Spain but the corresponding political change was not made in Porto Rico until many years after. Although no special laws were made for the benefit of Porto Rico until nearly a half century after, yet school legislation began in 1838, with the application of the Spanish Law of 1834 to the Island. Be- sides the political unrest caused by the same condition in Spain and which gave rise to much political persecution, in 1855, the Island suffered from an epidemic of cholera and smalipox, which caused the death of 30,000 persons. All these events contributed to the slow progress in education. Nevertheless, interest in popular education was manifested and some progress was made. The Spanish School Law of 1834 Applied to Porto Rico. The royal decree of August 31, 1834, reorganizing the administration of ele- mentary education in Spain, was applied to Porto Rico October 21, 1834. The population of the Island at that time was 358,836 and there were fifty-three towns. On that date the Spanish Minister of Interior, Don José Maria Moreno de Altamira sent a communica- tion to the Governor General of the Island, Miguel de la Torre, in- forming him that it was the desire of Her Majesty the Queen that the decree of August 31, 1834, with reference to the commissions on primary instruction for the Kingdom should include all parts of her possessions.*4 The Law in Practice not Successful. The application of this decree to Porto Rico meant that from 1834 on, the Island should have had 32Moreno: Ministerio del Interior, Comisiones de Instruccién Primaria, pp. 33-37+ *3 Moreno: Decreto Organico Vigente, Predmbulo, p. 312; 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 118- ’4{Moreno; Comisiones de Instruccién Primara, p. 33. Education Under Educational Socteties (1820-1865) 35 its public schools thoroughly organized in accordance with the plan of February 16, 1825, for instruction of Spain, together with the changes made by the decree of 1834. As the new law did very little for Spain, it also did little for Porto Rico, with the exception of stimu- lating the already existing schools. The interest in education in the Island was beginning to be manifested, but that interest was ex- pressed more in secondary education than in primary education. The commissions provided by the law of 1834 were appointed and ordered to work, but that was about all that was accomplished. A document of May 10, 1838 throws some light on the effectiveness of the legislation.** The law of 1834 called for a report on school finances, a school census, and a general report on the state of ele- mentary education. The provincial commission requested the dis- trict and town commissions to return the statistical data to the government in San Juan. Circulars Revealing the Effectiveness of the Law. On December 20, 1838, the provincial commission addressed a circular letter to the subordinate commissions deploring the lack of accuracy and negli- gence or ignorance of the local committees. With reference to the work of the commissions, the circular says: The attention of the provincial commission has been specially called to the lack of accuracy and errors present in the data from certain towns. Some have not re- ported one-eighth part of their population according to the last census. Some have reported, without distinction, men, women, boys and girls who know how to read and write. Some have not distinguished properly between those who know how to read and those who know how to write, so that they report the latter as many times the number of the former, and although the provincial commission has corrected the errors to the best of its ability, it has not been able to report to the superior authorities that the information which it sends them is even approximately reliable and accurate.*® The same circular summarizes the law of 1825 and 1838 and sub- mits a plan to be carried out in the schools. In it the government urges the need of the improvement of primary education and of co- - operation and agreement between the authorities and teachers. It urges the town authorities to organize schools according to a good system, make arrangements with the teachers as to the plan of in- struction, the length of the school session, and the books to be used in the schools. All poor children who wish to attend school should be admitted free of charge if provided with a permit from the city council, which meant that the town would pay the fee. Tuition 256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 119. 36 Tbid. 36 Education in Porto Rico should be charged to all pupils able to pay. The establishment of rural schools is urged on account of the large rural population.*” Plan of Studies for the Island of Cuba and of Porto Rico. After 1837 Porto Rico and Cuba were supposed to be governed by special laws. The first school law of the two islands was published in Havana, April 24, 1842.38 This called for the organization of elementary, secondary and higher education in the two islands. It was not put into operation in Porto Rico immediately, but the decree of 1865 which will be studied in the next chapter, was based on this law. There are two more documents in this period worth mentioning. One prohibited the use of corporal punishment, which was being used extensively,®® and the other requested the municipalities to provide school supplies for poor children who could not afford to buy them.‘° The Training of Teachers. In spite of the Laws of 1825, 1834 and other orders regarding the matter in 1838, the government had not yet intervened in the matter of teacher training. A new plan for the examination and certification of teachers was adopted April 17, 1849. The plan says nothing regarding teacher training, providing only for the examination of teachers. Spain herself had done very little for teacher training before 1838, when her laws were applicable to Porto Rico. During this period and before, with the exception of those who came from Spain, the teachers prepared themselves as well as possible under private tutors, in private schools and in the secondary schools and monasteries, the only places where they could study on the Island. The Bishop of Porto Rico granted certificates to teachers of primary education from as early as 1797 to 1849, when the regu- lations on teacher examinations were published by the provincial commission. ‘There is no record of any certificates issued between 1812 and 1817, and between 1820 and 1823. It will be recalled that these were periods of intense political un- rest in the Peninsula, and of course in all her possessions. As far _ 37Moreno: Organizacién de Escuelas. Gobierno Superior Politico. Comision Provincial de Instruccién Primaria. Circular No. 2, December 20, 1838, pp. 39-42. 38Zamorra y Coronado, op. cit., Vol. VI, pp. 116 ff. General Plan of Public Instruc- tion for the Islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, Havana, April 24, 1842. There is a difference of opinion as to the date of this document—See Moreno, Juan Macho: Gobierno y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico. Negociado Poli- tico, Seccion 2 p. 62. 39Moreno: Castigos Corporales. Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Aibonito 28 de Mayo de 1845, pp. 42-43. 40Moreno: Material de Ensefianza. Capitania General y Gobierno Superior Politico de la Isla de Puerto Rico, 30 de Abril de 1846, p. 43. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) a6 as it is known, the Bishop of Porto Rico in fifty-one years granted altogether one hundred and ninety-one certificates. Of these one hundred and seventy were to men teachers in elementary education, ten to women teachers in elementary education, and eleven to second- ary school teachers. Nine of the certificates to women teachers were issued between 1840 to 1849, showing the increased interest in the education of girls at that time.*! Teachers’ Examinations. The plan of 1849 provided for an ex- amining board, composed of the provincial commission and two other persons of its own choosing. It met twice a year to examine candi- dates, namely, in January and in June. All candidates had to apply to the Governor General directly, and accompany the applications by the birth certificate, showing that the candidate was twenty years old; and by a certificate of good moral character and sound political principles from the town council and parish priest. Examinations were generally oral in the following subjects: Religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, school management, and methods. The candidate appeared before the examining board, drew by chance a certain number of questions from a box, and was requested to answer them orally. Great emphasis was placed on grammar and parsing. Each candidate had to pay a fee of one peso for each member of the examining board, and another of four pesos for the general fund of primary education. Candidates were listed according to their ex- cellence in the examination. The first members in the list were given preference in filling vacancies in the schools.” It is a known fact that under this system there was a great deal of favoritism in the grading and appointments. Classification of Schools According to Municipalities. The interest in education by the middle of the century was manifested by the order of March 29, 1850, issued by Governor Don Juan de la Pezuela, classifying the elementary schools according to the municipalities _ and furnishing rules and regulations for the choice of teachers. Schools were classified into three classes. First class were those of San Juan, Mayagiiez, Ponce, San German, Guayama, Aguadilla, Arecibo, Humacao, Caguas and Cabo Rojo. Second class were those of Afiasco, Bayamén, Fajardo, Juana Diaz, Manati, Naguabo, Patillas and Yabucoa. The third class were all the rest in the Island. The ~ 4Coll y Toste, op. cit., 66-78. 42Moreno: Reglamento para Todos los Ex4menes de los Profesores de Instruccién Primaria, formado por la Comisién Superior Provincial del Ramo y Aprobado por el Exmo. Sr. Captian General, Jefe Superior Politico de esta Isla, pp. 44-47. 38 Education in Porto Rico ordinance provided for schools in sixty-six municipalities.“ No mention is made of salaries of teachers, but it is well known each pupil paid a fee and the municipality paid for the poor. Private Elementary Education. 'The activity of the private schools continued. It is probable that the 1830 Report of Pedro Tomas de Cérdova refers only to those schools founded and partly supported by the municipalities, and that it does not include the private schools and the work of the private tutor. ‘The private school-master and the private tutor teaching for a livelihood, existed all this time, both in Porto Rico and in Spain. The private school prepared the children of the wealthy for the secondary schools. The private tutor visited the homes, either to prepare for the secondary schools or simply to teach the elementary school subjects. The daughters of the wealthy generally had a private tutor. In the third decade of the nineteenth century, educational estab- lishments began to increase. There were several private schools, two of which enjoyed a very good reputation.“* Several private schools existed in San Juan at the beginning of the year 1850, four for boys and two for girls, besides four public schools supported by the city council. There were also private schools, although on a smaller scale, in San German, Guayama, Ponce, Aguadilla, Humacao, Mayagtez, Arecibo, Manati and Caguas.® The private schools and — the private tutors contributed much to general culture, especially among the well-to-do. But there were also private school masters, who, like Rafael Cordero, devoted their energies to the education of the poorer and less fortunate classes, while many women conducted infant schools, teaching their pupils the catechism and prayers of the Church, reading, and some hand work. Parochial Elementary Education. According to the practices of the Roman Catholic Church, her elementary schools have existed in all countries, and especially in those professing that faith. In Porto Rico the Church has always been active in education. Her schools were generally poorly equipped and badly taught with a curriculum confined to the catechism and prayers, reading, writing, and cipher- ing, but they were as good as any schools existing during most of the nineteenth century. The chief contribution of the Church all through 48Moreno: Reglamento de los ejercicios para obtener las Escuelas Puiblicas de Instruccién primaria, pp. 47-49. “56th Cong. S.D. 363, p. 113. Tbid., p. 117. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 39 the Spanish colonial days was in secondary education, which will be considered in another chapter. Among the most active teachers in the parochial schools were the members of the religious order popularly known as “‘Escolapios,” an order of school teachers. Their schools began with the elementary school subjects and went on with secondary education. The Sisters have always had schools for girls, where they attracted not only the daughters of the wealthy, but also offered some opportunity for the girls from poor families. Summary. It is clear that the political situation in Spain and its corresponding educational policies had immediate effect on Porto Rico, but rather indirectly, and due to the activities of Porto Ricans themselves, and not to the application of the Spanish educationa laws to Porto Rico. Those laws, applicable to Porto Rico, were not put into operation sucessfully. The government delegated much of its authority in matters of education to the Economic Society, but although this society has been much praised for its interest in popular education, its activities were among the privileged few, giving more attention to secondary education than to elementary education. To a great extent elementary education for the first half of the nine- teenth century was left to the private school-master, the private tutor and the Church. Generally the pupils receiving an elementary education were those whose parents could pay the fees. Neverthe- less, after 1838, when the responsibility for education was thrown upon the Island, there was an increased interest in public instruction, especially during the governorship of Count de Mirasol and of Don Juan de la Pezuela. The first half of the century closed with an attempt to establish schools in every municipality, giving some attention to teachers’ qualifications and examinations and placing the responsibility for education on the Island. The public function of the Economic Society as well as of the Provincial School Commission of 1838 was discontinued and the administration of education was placed. on an- other body. The sad state of elementary education at the middle of the century was not due to lack of good laws, but to failure in execu- ting them and tolack of interest and initiative on the part of the mu- nicipalities and local commissions. 40 Education in Porto Rico C. EpucATION UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE Roya ACADEMY oF Bexies Letrres (1851-1865) It should be remembered at the outset that the activities of the private schools, the parochial schools and the private tutors continued during this new period the same as before, but the attention will be centered now mainly on official activities regarding public education. La Real Academia de Buenas Letras. For the next fifteen years the administration of education is delegated to the Royal Academy of Belles Lettres. This new body was created on February 20, 1851, to administer education in the Island, succeeding the Economic Society and the Provincial Commission. The district and local commissions continued as before. The reasons for the establishment of this new body and its aim are clearly stated in Governor Pezuela’s letter to the Madrid Government, February 10, 1851, from which the following is quoted: Convinced that the encouragement of public instruction and of belles-lettres in the island is, first, a duty of the government; second, a matter of public utility, for which, by reason of its wealth and progress the island is now prepared, I proposed immediately after my arrival to give these matters all the support compatible with existing laws. Weighty business has commanded my attention since then and obliged me not only to postpone this project, but to submit all matters concerning the primary schools to the provincial junta already established, though with the reservation that its resolutions should always be submitted to me for my approval. This junta, however, composed of four individuals of worthy character, and de- voted to the public interest, is not in a position to fulfill its duties. Its members are public employees in other departments and have not the time to devote to all matters involved in the instruction of youth and to the examination of text books. I therefore considered it proper to create another body which would have more leisure to devote to the public service. Therefore, sir, I have thought that an academy of belles-lettres, which should have for its object the extension of a know]l- edge of elegant and pure Castilian, in the whole Island, which should encourage local talent with prizes and rewards, and which should serve the government as an educational body, or as an executive in directing and furthering the interests of public instruction, would confer more benefit upon the country than the junta already mentioned. I have therefore devised a constitution for such an academy, which is submitted herewith.‘® As it would have taken a long time to receive an answer from Spain, Governor Pezuela organized the academy and put it to work, Feb- ruary 20, 1851, before having received the approval of the Crown, which was not received until March 17, 1853.47 The Crown insisted 46Moreno: Academia Real de Buenas Letras, pp. 53-54. *"Moreno: Gobierno y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico. Negociado Politico, Seccion 2a, pp. 62-63. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) Al that education should conform to the plan adopted for Cuba and Porto Rico. Duties and Membership of the Academy. ‘The duties of the Academy were to issue certificates to teachers after examination, to inspect all schools, to make such provisions as seemed advisable for public in- struction, to appoint and dismiss teachers, to report to the govern- ment upon public schools, to supervise the public institutions of the Island, and to encourage by all means the possible development of general culture and the fine arts.‘ Neither copy of the statutes nor any membership list is available. In addition to the central body in San Juan there were corresponding members all over the Island, whose qualifications and duties are known. They had to be residents of the town for which they were appointed. When in San Juan they could be present at the sessions of the Academy. By virtue of their membership in the Academy they were members of the ele- mentary school commissions of their respective towns. Their duties were to superintend the general needs of the schools and to super- vise the teachers, both in their private life and in their work. They were to report the result of all their observations to the Royal Academy.*® In brief, the total administration of instruction during these fifteen years was in the hands of the Royal Academy, the chief duty of which was to issue orders; the corresponding members acted as agents to see that the orders were obeyed. Besides the supervising power of the corresponding members, the local commissions retained their old powers as defined in 1838. They generally neglected their duties, which was the cause of official re- minders from the governors.°*° School Organization. The organization of the schools during this period was that inaugurated March 22, 1850, when the schools were di- vided into three classes, according to the importance of the towns.*! The plan for Cuba and Porto Rico, promulgated in 1842, should have been followed, but was not, both because the Island was not prepared for it, and because the distance from Cuba made it impracticable to administer the schools from Havana.™ 48Moreno: Academia Real de Buenas Letras, pp. 53-54. 49Moreno: Reglamento para los Corresponsales de la Academia de Buenas Letras de Puerto Rico, pp. 57-58. 50Moreno: Visitas a las Escuelas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 24, 1858, p. 64. Partes de Visitas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Julio 7, 1857, p. 76. 5\Moreno: Provision de Escueles, Reglamento, pp. 47-49. 8Moreno: Academia Real de Buenas Letras, p. 71. 42 Education in Porto Rico Interest in Rural Education. School attendance during this period was very poor. The rural districts had no facilities for education, and their children had to be sent to the town schools, which were generally too far distant. To remedy this condition recommendation was made to the towns to establish rural schools. This was not made mandatory, the government simply asking the mayors of the towns to stimulate the wealthiest rural residents to establish schools for their children, and for those of the poorer classes.*3 Very little was ac- complished by such advice. Teachers’ Certificates. 'The legislation regarding the personnel of the schools shows interest in the work of the teacher. The rules formulated in 1849 for the appointment of teachers continued to be the fundamental rules and regulations which governed the teachers during the fifteen years under consideration. Due to the lack of women teachers, a special order was issued August 20, 1856, whereby any woman who wished to teach reading, catechism and needlework was given a certificate, provided a man teacher was employed for grammar, arithmetic and writing, which were subjects the women teachers did not know.™* Only a slight proficiency in reading was required. On the whole this move was beneficial. The girls who attended such schools were of the poorer classes and by learning to sew they could make a living, which meant more to them than gram- mar, arithmetic and writing. Teachers’ Salaries and Promotions. Up to this time nothing had been done to regulate teachers’ salaries. The teacher received as much as he could collect from his pupils, plus whatever he could get from the town councils for the poor pupils. Teachers could not devote all of their time to school duties because their incomes were so ir- regular, uncertain, and not sufficient to provide a comfortable living. At this time a forward step was taken in the provision fixing salaries of teachers according to the class of the school. In first class schools salaries were to be 550 pesos per annum; in second class schools, 400 pesos, and in third class schools, 300 pesos. Two schools in San Juan were already paying 780 pesos to each teacher, and these salaries were allowed to continue unchanged. All poor children were to be admitted free of charge, provided it was so recom- mended by the local town authorities. Moreno: Escuelas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, pp. 67-71. “Moreno: Autorizacién para ejecer el Magisterio, pp. 71-72. ’ Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 43 Teachers were registered according to their years of service, and promotion was by seniority in the service. Teachers who wished to do so could take special examinations for positions in higher schools. The interest of the teachers in their work, and their quality of service, were taken into account for promotion into the government service, thus opening the way for the best teachers to step from teaching into higher government positions, which brought more lucrative returns and greater social prestige. Teachers were also permitted to ex- change positions without altering their rating in the salary scale.* This privilege was later very much abused. Rules for the Attendance of Poor Children at School. The poor children were to be admitted without charge but these so crowded the schools, and so many whose parents could afford to pay attempted to enter free under this provision, that the children of the more prosperous were driven out. The school buildings were not spacious enough to accommodate all who wished to attend. A special order was therefore passed regulating the attendance of poor children. In the schools of San Juan each teacher was compelled to admit thirty poor children. Twenty poor children were allotted to each first class school, fifteen to a second class and eleven to a third class school. The municipality had to pay extra for each pupil above this number— twelve reales a month, or about sixty cents per pupil, in first class schools; eight reales in the second class, and four reales in the third class, provided the pupil attended at least fifteen days in the month. A pupil absent from school a month was dropped and another given his place. Pupils had to prove that they were poor and could not be admitted without a certificate from the town authorities.” Due to the fact that mere babies were sent to school and that some pupils were kept there too long, a definite school age was fixed. The child had to be seven years old to enter and could remain in school until eleven years of age, thus making the school course four years.*® Curriculum, Methods of Teaching and Text Books. The curriculum during this period comprised reading, grammar, arithmetic, writing, 5 Moreno: Sueldos, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Marzo 7, 1851, pp. 54-57. Moreno: Permutas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Enero 12, 1865, p. 78. 57Moreno: Nifios Pobres, Capitania General y Gobierno Superior Politico de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 29, 1853, pp. 65-67. 88Moreno: Edad Escolar, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Junio 2, 1863, p. 77. 44 Education in Porto Rico religion and morals.*® Text books written in catechism form were generally used. The child learned the answer to the questions, and the recitation consisted in repeating the answer when the question was asked by the teacher or his assistant. In large schools the older pupils were employed as instructors, followmg the Lancasterian method of mutual instruction. The teachers selected their own text books, often those which they themselves had used when children. Some made their own text books. Feeling thatit was dangerous to the faith to allow this free- dom in the choice of texts, the Church appealed to the Government to impose a uniform text in catechism. This was accomplished under Bishop Fray Pablo Benigno, October 7, 1859.°° It was also thought dangerous to allow the teachers freedom in the choice of readers so that toward the end of the period a uniform text in reading was adop- ted and made “‘texto Forzoso,’’—a text imposed by force in all educa- tional institutions of the [sland, both public and private. This text was called “‘Crisol Histérico Espafiol y Restauracién de Glorias Nacionales,’ which may be translated Spanish Historical Crucible and the Restoration of National Glories.*t Great emphasis was also placed on church attendance. Teachers were urged to attend church with their pupils and see that they performed the rites of the church. Very few of the teachers lived up to this requirement.” A great deal of emphasis was also placed upon examinations and prizes, and medals were given to stimulate school attendance and diligence.® Summary. Thus far elementary education in the Island was very deficient. It is impossible to have a school system working suc- cessfully without well prepared teachers, and no attention had been given to the preparation of teachers. Nothing was done for school buildings and the teachers generally conducted their classes in the largest room of their homes. There was no coordination in the school system, each teacher doing what he or she pleased. The monitorial system of instruction prevailed in the Island and all 59Moreno: Reglamento de Exd4menes, Diciembre 3, 1852, pp. 59-60. 60Moreno: Texto para la Doctrina Cristiana, Secretaria de la Academia Real de Buenas Letras, Octubre 17, 1859, pp. 76-77. 6{Moreno: Lectura, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 24, 1864, p. 78. Moreno: Prdcticas Religiosas. Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Julio 7, 1857, pp. 75-76. 8Moreno: Premios en las Escuelas, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Diciembre 3, 1852, pp. 56-62. Epocas de Examenes, Gobierno Superior y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Octubre 16, 1853, pp. 63-64. Education Under Educational Societies (1820-1865) 45 schools were ungraded. They were divided into sections and one of the most advanced pupils was placed in charge of each section. The plan of the Academy of Belles Lettres with respect to primary education was very incomplete, introducing no far reaching reforms in method or organization. The district and local commissions con- tinued the same as before. The directors of the Academy, for the most part public officials, could not devote much time to public in- struction. The Academy from the beginning assumed a different character from that intended by General Pezuela, and devoted most of its attention to the encouragement of belles-lettres and the fine arts. The public schools were neglected by the Academy as well as by the districts and local commissions. Nevertheless, progress was made. The interest in popular educa- tion increased. Some provision was made for poor children and these attended to such an extent that their numbers had to be limited. Standards of teaching received some attention. Although nothing was done for rural education, the needs of the rural population began to be studied. There was enough interest to make an inquiry of educational conditions throughout the Island. The census of 1860, under occupations, reports 459 teachers.“ This number must have then included all persons who taught, whether in public schools, private schools or secondary schools, and all who professed to be teachers. The school census of 1864 gives the following school statistics for elementary education: 74 public schools for boys and 48 for girls, 16 private schools for boys and 9 for girls. 2,396 boys attended the schools, of whom 1,315 were poor and 1,081 were paying pupils. 1,092 girls attended, of whom 695 were registered as poor and 307 as paying students. There were 88 male teachers and 54 female teachers. The budget for education that year was 35,542 pesos, not including the fees of the paying pupils. (Consult Appendix I) 64War Department, Office Director Census of Porto Rico: Report on the Census of Porto Rico, 1899, p. 34. 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 128. Ifigo Abad: Historia de Puerto Rico. Supplement- ary notes by José Julian Acosta, p. 305. CHAPTER IV POLITICAL UNREST AND ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH A SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION (1865-1880) A. Historica BACKGROUND The Spanish Revolution of 1868 and the Republic. The stormy reign of Isabella II came to an end with the Revolution of 1868, which sent the Queen as an exile to France. The following year a new Constitution was adopted. It guaranteed among other pro- visions, individual liberties and religious toleration, and provided for a monarchical parliamentary régime. After experiencing some diffi- culty in securing a King, Prince Amadeo of Savoy, the second son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, acccepted the Spanish Crown in 1870. After vainly attempting to pacify the country he abdicated on February 11, 1873. On his abdication a republican form of government was instituted under the presidency of Emilio Castelar. Political Unrest in the Antilles. Political conditions in the Antilles were no less stormy than in the mother country. During the Civil War in the United States Spain attempted to regain some of her lost possessions in America, taking advantage of the fact that the United States was not in a position to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. On March 18, 1861, she took possession of Santo Domingo, which she had lost in 1821. The people resisted the Spaniards and a war followed which lasted four years. In 1865 Santo Domingo was again given her independence. Although the Porto Ricans sided with the mother country during these four years, yet many people in the Island, especially political leaders, did not hesitate to express sympa- thy for and offer aid to the people of Santo Domingo. The Civil War in the United States and the liberation of the slaves in 1863 also gave impetus to the abolutionist movement in Porto Rico. Segundo Ruiz Belvis and Dr. Betances urged the granting of freedom to the slaves of Porto Rico. This request was further pressed by the delegation to Madrid in 1865, which had been called (46) Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 4a?v there to furnish information regarding the need of legislative reform. On the return of the delegates from Spain a mutiny in the army was the cause for the exile of the leading men in the Island who opposed the policies of Spain. Dissatisfaction against the national government was brought to a climax by the Insurrection of Lares, September 17, 1868. The revolution and rise of the Liberals in Spain brought to Porto Rico the corresponding changes in government. The Island was made a province of Spain and given a provincial deputation and representation in the Cortes. The abolutionists secured the libera- tion of the slaves in March 22, 1873. In the meantime Cuba had declared herself in open revolt against Spain, giving rise to the in- surrection of 1868. For ten years she fought bitterly for her free- dom, during which time she had the moral support of the Porto Ricans. Other Misfortunes. In addition to the political unrest the Island was called upon to experience other misfortunes. In 1867 the “San Narciso” cyclone swept over the Island causing much loss of property and suffering among the people. In the fall of the same year the Island shook almost constantly for a period of three months. Neuman Gandia had the following to say about conditions during the earth- quakes: ““There was a general panic among the people due to the horrible and continuous earthquakes that ruined many buildings and buried under the ruins an infinite number of dwellers. No- body lived at home, the people encamped in the public plazas and in the streets.”! The conflict between the abolutionists and slave owners, plus the political and social disturbances, brought about an economic crisis. Many wealthy people left the Island. It is esti- mated that about 56,000 persons emigrated, taking with them two million pesos to be invested in France, England and Germany. General Messina’s Attempt to Reform Elementary Education. In the midst of this political, social and economic chaos the Governor General tried to establish a system of public instruction. So far it cannot be said that Porto Rico had a system of public instruction. The nearest that the Island had come to having a system was in 1842 when the Plan for Public Instruction in Cuba and Porto Rico was formulated, but, as already noted, that project was never realized. In 1862 Spain sent to the Island as Governor, Lieutenant Don Felix de Messina. He is generally remembered for his blood and iron poli- cies, his suppression of all liberal political ideas, and his persecution of 1Gandia, Neuman: Benefactores y Hombres Notables de Puerto Rico, Vol. I, p. 244. 48 Education in Porto Rico the liberal leaders of the day. However, he is also remembered for his initiative in improving public education. He was the first to formulate a system of public instruction for Porto Rico. He tried to intervene in education with the same firm- ness with which he intervened in politics. But he was a soldier and not an educator. He had more or less an ideal system in mind which he wrote on paper, not taking into account the society where he ex- pected to apply it. Its lack of adaptability to the educational con- ditions of the Island as well as to the economic and political conditions prevented its being put fully into operation. However, the law which he tried to enforce did have an influence on education and should be studied briefly. B. Dercreto ORGANICO DE 10 DE JUNIO DE 1865 The Aim of the Decree. ‘This school law was called Decreto Or- gdnico de 10 de Junio de 1865, The Organic Decree of June 10, 1865. The aim of the decree may be expressed in Governor Messina’s own words: Not only that the intellectual progress of these loyal and docile inhabitants may correspond to the material progress of the island which is developing rapidly, but also that they may be prepared to carry out the plan of studies for the island of Cuba, when it will please Her Majesty to apply it to this Island. Knowing the political unrest of the day, the struggle of Isabel II to hold her crown, the opposition in the Island to the policies of the mother country, and the persecutions that accompanied this opposi- tion, 1t seems that this move on the part of the government was for nationalistic purposes, to manufacture a certain culture submissive to the policies of the mother country, to make loyal subjects of Spain. Whatever the motives of General Messina were, whether those of a benefactor or a politician, nevertheless he saw as a pos- sibility of public education that it could be used as a tool to carry out the aims of the government. Primary Education. Primary education was divided into elementary and superior. The first included the following curriculum: Cate- chism, elements of sacred history, reading, elements of grammar, writing, with emphasis on orthography, elements of arithmetic with weights and measures and money values, elements of agriculture, *Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico. Gobierno y Capitania General de la Isla de Puerto Rico.—Secretaria de Gobierno, pp. 81-82. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 49 industry and commerce, with special adaptation to the needs of the community. In communities where this entire curriculum could not be taught, the schools were to be known as incomplete schools. Superior in- struction,..besides including the curriculum of the elementary school, included the first principles of geometry, mechanical drawing and surveying, geography and history, especially of Spain, and a general outline of physical science and natural history. In girls’ schools, agriculture, industry, and commerce, geometry, mechanical drawing and surveying, and physical and natural sciences were replaced by designing, embroidery and domestic science. Elementary education wascompulsory for all Spaniards; superior, optional. The elementary school age was from six to nine years and free to all those who could not pay.® Definition and Distribution of Schools. Public schools were defined as those supported wholly or in part by public and charitable funds, or other funds destined for public education. Each municipality had to establish and support its own schools. All departmental seats and all cities of ten thousand inhabitants had to have one superior school, other cities of fewer inhabitants could have superior schools, provided they first established the required elementary schools. Under no circumstances was co-education to be allowed. The decree also called for infant schools and schools for adults in cities of ten thousand inhabitants or more. Encouragement was given to private schools. Special schools for colored children were to be established, where particular attention should be devoted to the moral and religious instruction of the pupils.* Training and Qualification of Teachers. As no system of education could be successful without trained teachers, the decree provided for a normal school, with a model school for practice teaching annexed to it. All elementary school teachers had to pursue the following two year curriculum :—Spanish language, with parsing, composition and orthography, two years; catechism and sacred history, two years; arithmetic, one year; geometry, mechanical drawing and surveying, one year; agriculture, one year; theory and practice of teaching reading and writing, two years; three semesters of observation and practice teaching in the model school. Superior school teachers 3Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico. Secciédn Primera. Titulo I de la Primera Ense- fianza. Arts. 1-9, pp. 82-83. 4Ibid., Seccién Segunda, Titulo I, pp. 85-86. 50 Education in Porto Rico were to pursue a three-year course, with an additional curriculum, and nermal school teachers a four-year course.> All public school teachers had to be Spanish citizens, men and women of good moral and religious conduct and twenty years of age,® except in case of language teachers who could be foreigners, and teachers of incomplete schools who did not have to fulfill the academic requirements of the law. The latter needed only a certificate of good moral and religious character from the local school authorities. Appointment and Status of Teachers. All public school teachers were to be appointed by the Governor General on recommendation from the local authorities. The appointment of private school teach- ers had to be approved by the Governor, and they also had to conform with the academic requirements of the law. In communities where there were incomplete schools, the secretary of the city council or the parish priest could act as school teacher. The profession of teaching was dignified and held as honorable as any other learned profession. Teachers were made government employees and were assured of their positions as long as their behavior was satisfactory. Their status was rendered stable by a provision that they could only be removed from their positions upon just complaint, established by due process of law.’ Salaries of Teachers. In addition to salaries, which were increased materially, teachers were entitled to house rent and to the fees of pupils who could pay. The following were the salaries provided by the decree :° Superior schooiss..) (veya wee.), 0 ula he eee pein 1sDUW Pesos Superior school assistants’... ty 08 wane eee eee OOO ame First:class primary schools )...../40)..) Sethe 28) COO) a Second class primary schools ...............-.... 420 “* mPMUUTK EL) es MMMM) Pa ee Eee Infant schools. Terr ey eM Uri tie haa CUM Nth Adult schools . pete: S00; Tas Women were to fae one- ened hese in eis ee men teachers.? Administration of Education. The administration of the public schools was vested in an insular committee called the Superior Junta of Public Instruction, and in local committees in the towns. The Superior Junta replaced the Royal Academy of Belles Lettres. It ®Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Seccion primera, Titulo II, pp. 83-84. ®Moreno: Seccidn Tercera, pp. 87-89. 7™Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Secciédn Tercera, pp. 97-99. 8Moreno: Escuelas Publicas, Secretaria del Gobierno, April 14, 1866, pp. 128-31. ®Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Seccién Tercera, p. 89. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 51 was composed of the Governor as president, a palace official as vice- president, and twelve members. The former town committees were replaced by the local juntas, composed, in the principal towns, of the mayor, a superior teacher, a member of the agricultural committee, a member of the city council, a priest, and two heads of families. In the smaller towns the committee was composed of the mayor, a member of the city council, the parish priest and four heads of families. The local committees had full charge of the administration and super- vision of the schools of the community.!° Miscellaneous Instructions. In a number of rules and regulations published with the decree, minute details are given as to the functions and the working of the primary schools, teachers’ examinations, the Superior Junta of Public Instruction and the local juntas. Of these rules and regulations the most important are those relating to the primary schools. Minute detail is given as to the qualification of the locality for the school, the management, the admission of chil- dren, length of the school session, punishment and prizes, religious and moral instruction, the teaching of the different subjects, and examinations."! It might be noted here what is said regarding the method of teach- ing: Primary teachers are permitted to use the methods of simultaneous instruction or concert recitation with such modification as may seem best, or they may adopt mutual or Lancasterian instruction wherever this seems more desirable, or they may combine these two methods, in all cases where individual instruction does not seem practicable. All teaching was to be done by text books which were pre- scribed by the government and the Church.® Such were in brief the provisions of the decree whose principal aim was to reorganize thoroughly public instruction. Schools to be Established. Following the publication of the decree, a number of circulars were issued by the Superior Board of Instruction. Of these the most important one concerned the number of schools that should be established in each municipality. The local boards had been asked to furnish the following information: 1. Number of pupils of school age (6-13), in each district, reporting males and females separately according to the census of 1860. 10Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Seccién Cuarta, pp. 89-91. Moreno: Reglamento para las Escuelas Publicas de Instruccién Primaria Element- al, pp. 95-104. 2Tbhid., Art. 47, p. 100. Moreno: Decreto Organico, Seccién Primera, Titulo IV, p. 85. Moreno: Libros de Texto, Secretaria del Gobierno, Junio 30, 1866, pp. 140-41. U. OF ILL. Lip. 52 Education in Porto Rico @. Area of each district. 3. Subdivision of each district (barrio) and the population of each “barrio.” 4. Number of boys assigned to each school, superior, elementary, rural and in- complete.4 From the data furnished by the municipalities, the government determined the number of schools corresponding to each municipality. There were ordered established 283 schools, 200 of which were in- complete, with an annual cost of 85,460 pesos.» (See Appendix II.) Inadaptability of the Decree. Even if it had been a model law, the decree of 1865 could not have been put into operation under the political, social and economic unrest of the times. But the decree was as visionary as any other school law which preceded it both in Porto Rico and in Spain. It can hardly be thought that it was ex- pected to be carried out. There were no teachers to be found and such women teachers as there were hardly knew how to read and write, if judgment is to be passed upon them by the circular of August 20, 1856. The decree called for a normal school, but it was not es- tablished, and even if it had been established, it had to be run two years before it could prepare any teachers who would be qualified to teach under the new law. The municipalities objected to those features that related to them. Their protest was backed up by the teachers as the majority would have lost their positions if the law had been put into operation. A series of modifications resulted that led to its practical nullification. Changes in the Decree. ‘The decree was put into operation July 1, 1866. Its most successful year was the first, but many modifications were necessary before it could begin to function. It will be recalled that on January 27, 1866, the government had assigned the munici- palities the number of schools to be maintained by each, making a total of 283 schools for the whole Island. Legally all the teachers in service should have been dismissed, as the qualifications for teachers and the character of the schools had been changed. Before the de- cree could be carried out, teachers had to be provided. On May 7, 1866, an order was issued by the Superior Board of Public Instruction ordering all elementary teachers to continue in their positions on the receipt of a certificate from the government complying with the de- cree. ‘The requirements for teachers of superior schools were not “Moreno: Estados Triemstrales. Direccién de Administracién local de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Julio 21, 1865, p. 143. See Medelo, p. 172. 1/Moreno: Escuelas Publicas, Secretaria de Gobierno, pp. 128-29. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 53 changed.!® Provision was also made for the certification of teachers for incomplete schools that were vacant, teachers for these schools being certified by the municipalities that employed them.!” Still the number of teachers was not sufficient, and on October 27, 1866, local committees were ordered to hire teachers temporarily to fill vacancies. Teachers not having the proper certificates were to receive only half of the salary attached to the position.!® School attendance was poor during the year and effort was made, with some success!® on the part of the government, to stimulate it. The municipalities refused to furnish the teachers with residences for themselves and families, so that by order of July 24, 1866, the Superior Board ordered that “only the building used for school purposes should be paid by public funds.’”° Educational Conditions in 1867. With those changes the decree operated for one year. At the end of the year there were 240 schools for boys and 56 for girls, with a total attendance of 10,081 pupils of both sexes, at a total expense of 89,280 pesos. Of the total number of pupils, 6,144 were registered as poor and 3,937 as paying students. The total budget does not include the fees of those who could pay. In order to appreciate the effect of the decree during the first year, the statistics of 1864 should be kept in mind.”! Opposition to the Decree. ‘The progress of the decree ended with the first year. Opposition was too strong for it to succeed. The municipalities first manifested opposition by trying to interfere with the duties of the local committees,” that is, to force the committee to employ teachers from any part of the Island. As all that was required of these teachers was a certificate from the local committee, the local committee insisted on employing only those persons of the community who were known to them.” More or less influenced by the municipalities, the committees themselves opposed the decree and showed their opposition by passive resistance or refused to obey Moreno: Escuelas y Maestros, Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Mayo 7, 1866, pp. 132-135. Moreno: Certificados de Aptitud, Junta Superior de Instruccién Piiblica de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Julio 17, 1866, p. 142. 18Moreno: Sueldos. Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica de la Isla de Puerto Rico, October 27, 1866, p. 150. 19Moreno: Asistencia de nifios a las Escuelas, Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica de la Isla de Puerto Rico January 8, 1867, pp. 151-152. 20Moreno: Casa, Junta Superior de Instruccién Publica, July 24, 1866, p. 147. 21Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Vigente, Predmbulo, p. 314. (See Appendix I). 2Moreno: Atribuciones de las Juntas, p. 149. Moreno: Certificados de Aptitud, p. 142. 54 Education in Porto Rico the orders of the government.** On October 24, 1867, the government ordered the local authorities to compile a census of all children be- tween the ages of eight years and fourteen.” In May of the next year the local authorities were reminded of this request and were again ordered to comply with the orders of the government.”> The municipalities which did obey the orders of the government sent reports which were carelessly made, incomplete and full of mistakes.’ Again and again they were reminded of their duties without satis- factory results.”® The municipalities also manifested their opposition to the decree by refusing to pay the house rent of the teachers, by refusing to sup- port all of the schools, by petitioning the government to order some of the superior schools closed, and to reduce the salaries of the teachers, which were considered too large,?® by holding in arrears the salaries of teachers and by refusing to provide the schools with equipment.*° A circular of the government, dated June 30, 1869, has the follow- ing to say regarding the local boards: ‘““Many municipal corporations, in fact a majority of those in the Province, are proved by the innumer- able papers filed in explanation of their neglect, to have seldom com- plied with the orders of the government, and to have opposed its wishes. The apathy and systematic opposition of those who believe that municipal responsibility does not imply scrupulous veracity and observance of duty in matters of public instruction should be demon- strated by facts and figures. If we are to take, however, authentic unofficial testimony, there are towns that are fully as backward in school matters at the present time as before the reforms introduced by the decree of the 10th of June, 1865. It would be a long story to enumer- ate all the causes of this lamentable condition. ‘The most important, however, as the government is frank in stating, is the absolute lack of true patriotism and civic spirit on the part of some local juntas charged with the supervision of public instruction, and the proved negligence of many teachers who, after securing their certificates, treat their positions much as commercial appointments, being per- 24Moreno: Compare pp. 145, 147, 149, 150. Moreno: Estadistica, Octubre 25, 1867, pp. 150-59. 26Moreno: Asistencia a las Escuelas, May 2, 1868, p. 160. 27Moreno: Estados, February 5, 1869, p. 165. 28Moreno: Compare documents in pp. 160-170 inclusive and pp. 184-185. 29Moreno: Rebaja de Sueldos, Junio 9, 1868, pp. 161-65. 30Moreno: Pagos, Enero 15, 1871, pp. 182-83. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 55 mitted to do so through the lack of interference on the part of the authorities immediately over them.’”! Opposition from the Teachers. The opposition came not only from the municipalities, but from the teachers themselves. The new law meant very little to them, because they were having difficulty in collecting any salaries at all, their house rent was not being paid and they had nothing to gain from the law, but much to lose. According to the law the new reform was gradually to replace them by younger teachers, graduates from a normal school; the law also demanded an examination in case any teacher wished to be promoted to the position of superior teacher. Being losers in all respects the teachers effectu- ally opposed the law by passive resistance to the provisions of the decree. The greatest opposition came from the women teachers who were more poorly prepared than the men. Influence of the Opposition on the Execution of the Decree. The result of such opposition was the practical nullification of the decree by orders from the government. ‘The first victory for the munici- palities came when the government yielded to the protest of the municipalities in refusing to pay the house rent of the teachers, and ordered that “‘the public welfare demanded that there should be provided a suitable and commodious room for the schools, to be paid for from the public funds, and not a residence for the teacher and his family.’*? The greatest blow to the decree came two years after when the appropriation for the rent of school houses and salaries of teachers was decreased, with the exception of rural school teachers; when many schools were suppressed, among them all adult schools, and when assistants in superior schools were discon- tinued. The salaries provided for were as follows: Superior schools. .................0...02+-+.+--1000 pesos First class primary schools ..................... 500 a Second class primary schools................... 390 sf aneomplete schools'!) (4. “iy. We alee eee wen lis oe 2 180 ees Inspection. A system of inspection was attempted. On October 19, 1867, a decree was issued by Governor General Marchesi, creat- ing a system of general inspection of public instruction. The decree was approved by royal order of June 25, 1868. It was complete and gave minute details of the qualifications, duties and method of the inspectors. Two inspectors were named, Don Vicente Fontan and eet Arend: Memoria y Visitas, Junio 30, 1869, pp. 167-68. Moreno: Casa, Julio 24, 1866. Moreno: Rebaja de Sueldos, Casas, June 9, 1868, pp. 161-65. 56 Education in Porto Rico Don Federico Asenjo.*4 Nothing is known of the work of these gentlemen. The system of inspection was changed October 10, 1872, when Don Adolfo Babilonia, a primary school teacher, was named general inspector. Inspection remained in the hands of the local committees, which were frequently reprimanded on account of their neglect of duty. In 1873 Don Jose Francisco Diaz was appoint- ed general inspector and his visit of inspection through the Island was announced, but that was the last heard about him*® until he was removed. Nothing is known of the work accomplished by the in- spectors. All the members of the Superior Junta had also powers of inspection.*® Education After the Revolution of 1868. After the revolution of 1868, the policy of decentralization was extended to the Island, the municipalities gained more and more powers, until municipal autono- my was established in 1873 at the beginning of the republican form of government in Spain. The municipal system allowed the munici- palities full authority in questions of education. But the munici- palities were not prepared to handle their own affairs in education, as can be judged from their opposition to the 1865 decree, and from the activities of the municipalities in education as they gained more power. ‘They removed and employed teachers, and established and suppressed schools indiscriminately.*7 At last General Rafael Primo de Rivero intervened and defined the powers and duties of the munici- palities in matters of education, under the new system of decentraliza- tion. This came late and there was not time to try its provisions before changes in the Spanish government brought about changes in the insular government.*® | Summary. The educational progress made under the decree can well be determined from the facts already considered. In June of 1869 there were 313 schools, with an attendance of 8,129 pupils, or a loss of 1,952 pupils from the attendance in 1867. The public expendi- ture for school maintenance that year was 88,136 pesos, or 2,697 pesos less than two years before.*® Political, social and economic conditions rendered progress impossible. There were during the period nine governors, each one with a 34Moreno: Inspection, Octobre 19, 1867, p. 190. Moreno: Visitas de Inspection, Julio 7, 1873, p. 191. 36Moreno: Inspectores, Julio 24, 1873, p. 191. 37Moreno: Reformas de 1874, p. 204. 38Moreno: Atribuciones de los Ayuntamientos, Octubre 27, 1873, p. 192. 39Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico de 1880, p. 314. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 57 different policy and obliged to act in accord with events in Madrid, which could not have been more unfavorable. The decree was good and complete, but impossible of application in a society not prepared for it, and where public opinion was against its operation. School organization continued as before; school teachers continued the same in preparation and efficiency; no improvement was made in school buildings; refusal to pay rent for teachers’ residences meant that they would live with their families in the same house rented for school purposes; teachers’ salaries increased in law and decreased in practice, for the teachers had difficulty in collecting them. After the decentralization, the municipalities did not have enough time to try out the new policies before a change came. Had they had time, some municipalities might have improved conditions, but the majority would not have done any better than under the central- ized system, and perhaps worse for their activities in education, with few exceptions, were anything but creditable. C. Tuer RESTORATION AND REFORMS OF GENERAL SANZ The Restoration and Reaction. With the fall of Castelar as Presi- dent of the executive of the Spanish Republic in January 2, 1874, the republican government of Spain ended. It is true that in name the Republic continued until the Restoration, but the government of the Peninsula was a military dictatorship from January 1874 to Decem- ber of the same year, when General Martinez Campo proclaimed Alfonso XII the rightful ruler of Spain. The young King assumed the reins of government January 14, 1875. The policies of the mili- tarists were very different from those of the Republicans. In Porto Rico the popular Governor, D. Rafael Primo de Rivera, was replaced. by D. José Laureano Sanz, who had been Governor of the Island in 1869, and who distinguished himself by his political persecutions. The home government, fearing that the liberties enjoyed by the natives during the period of the Republic might ultimately lead to the loss of the colony, adopted repressive measures with orders to restore the former political organization. On his arrival the new Governor dissolved the Provincial Deputation, checked the powers of the municipalities, censured the press, interfered with the freedom of speech, and filled all positions with officers in sympathy with the government. He discontinued the Civil Institute, the most popular educational institution of the Island, established the year before.*° 40See Chapter on Secondary Education. 58 Education in Porto Rico Educational Aim of the Government of the Restoration. 'The educa- tional policy of the restoration government is distinctly set forth m the circular of the Minister of Ultramar," January 26, 1874. To quote in part from that document: The new government, which has taken charge of the destinies of the country at such a critical time, considers among its most noble duties to watch with care the progressive, prudent and solid development of education in the provinces of Ul- tramar. . .I charge Your Excellency to try by all means possible that all teachers in that province, in their respective spheres, support and promote the policies of the government, and that you place and maintain in office teachers of the qualifications already named, who are able to inspire and implant deeply in the souls of the young the satisfaction that results from exact execution of duty, from respect for the principles of authority and especially the authority of the fatherland, ‘Patria.’ At the same time, I pray you to make all teachers understand that the govern- ment of the Metropolis is ready to reward all those who, inspired by high and sacred motives, fulfill their mission as instructors of the young; while on the other hand the government is also ready to punish with all rigor all those who because of negli- gence, malice, or any other cause fail to live up to their high calling.” The mission of the teacher and living up to his high calling meant here to subscribe unconditionally to the orders of the government, as it is seen in the following quotation from the same document: You will see that under no pretext whatever do teachers stimulate the spirit of dissension, nor encourage the vertigo of fatal and pernicious political views. The Activites of Governor Sanz. Governor Sanz was just the man to carry out such orders. He demanded of the municipalities a report on whatever action on education had been taken by them during the season of municipal autonomy, a complete record of all teachers, their preparation, qualifications, past record and, above all, political views; how they had entered the service and whether they had been transferred and promoted; what schools had been established by the municipalities and under what conditions and regulations. By the same document, all teachers appointed, transferred or promoted against the provision of the 1865 decree were thereby dismissed and all schools not established in accord with that decree were to be closed. In the meantime all vacancies in the schools were to be filled by teachers of good moral character who enjoyed the confidence of the government. All teachers who had been unlawfully removed by the municipalities were to present their complaints and make applica- “Ministry of Oversea Possessions. “Moreno: Reformas de 1874. Disposiciones del General Sanz, Puerto Rico, 13 de Febrero de 1874, p. 205. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 59 tion for reappointment.“ Such an order meant that all teachers were to be dismissed and their places filled by those who had earlier lost their positions because of their conservative political views. Inspection Suppressed and Teachers Removed. 'The next act of the Governor was to do away with the existing inspection. The general inspector was dismissed and the plan of inspection of 1867, under the 1865 decree, was re-established, but no inspector was named.“ In order to remove all the teachers from the schools, the Governor ordered the full execution of the 1865 decree and following rules and regulations.® As the teachers then in the service had not had the privilege of a normal school education, because there was none, and had not secured their positions in accordance with the decree and following regulations concerning the same, but had been appointed by the municipalities, it meant that all of them would be removed, and so it happened later. Spanish Teachers for the Island. 'The aim of the Governor was to import teachers from Spain for the public schools of Porto Rico. Already he had intimated this to the government in Madrid. On February 25, 1874, he had written the Minister of Ultramar thus: It would be convenient to have a sufficient number of well trained teachers, who are completely Spanish in sentiment, to inculcate in the pupils the most healthy Christian and moral maxims, specially to teach them to love the fatherland so that they may grow to be loyal subjects of Spain, good citizens and fathers able to support their families. As there are not in the Island all the teachers needed, let me suggest that if it is pleasing to you this opportunity be brought before the Spanish teachers, who, having the qualifications, would like to be transferred to the Island, where many schools will be left vacant.“ Porto Rican Teachers Falsely Accused and Dismissed. 'Two months and a half later, the Porto Rican teachers had been dismissed for the most part and another communication went to the home govern- ment so informing. At that time Governor Sanz said: Most of the teachers, some on account of their radical and autonomistic views, others on account of their doubtful morality, some of whom are affiliated with vari- ous secret societies, and because of their hostile sentiment to the Spaniards, which they unfortunately transmit to their pupils, are sowing a seed pernicious to the future welfare of the province and the fatherland, the bitter fruits of which are already being reaped in the sister Antilla (Cuba). Ihave therefore directed as a political measure Moreno: Reformas de 1874, Disposiciones del General Sanz, Puerto Rico, 13 de Febrero de 1874, pp. 206-207. “Moreno: Inspeccién. Decreto, Puerto Rico, 20 de Febrero de 1874, pp. 207-208. “Moreno: Provisidn de Escuelas por Oposicién Decreto, Puerto Rico, 25 de Febrero de 1874, pp. 209-210. “Moreno: Resoluciones adoptadas, 25 de Febrero, 1874, p. 209. 60 Education in Porto Rico of the highest importance that all teachers be removed from the schools wpon the ground that their antecedents and reprehensible conduct renders them unworthy of the noble and lofty mission entrusted to them, especially when, with rare exceptions, none of them have entered into the service by competitive examination, or by legal procedure as required by the existing laws. I have already called your attention to the urgent need of teachers from the peninsula whom we can put in charge of most of the schools that will remain vacant. Moved as I am by the desire to keep this Island united to Spain, again I urge upon you the same need. That union depends principally on the teaching given in the schools, as out of them will come good or bad Spaniards, according to the doctrine taught to the young by the teachers.” It was the intention of the government to give the best paid schools to the Spanish teachers, so that they might be able to profit by the transfer. The main concern during the rest of the period, up to 1880, when a new school law was put into operation, was the appointment, transfer and resignation of teachers. When the 1865 decree was put into operation again it was not so much a question of what should be taught as of who should teach. The feeling between the Governor and the natives was bitter. Even the most conservative in the Island who supported the government began to feel that the measures of the Governor were too severe. The Spanish government hesitated at first to comply with the demands of the Governor, but at last yielded, due to the fact that the children were out of school or taught by teachers who were chosen because of their political affiliations and not because of professional fitness. Appointment of Teachers. On August 31, 1874, the Madrid govern- ment published a list of the schools vacant in Porto Rico and called upon teachers who wished to apply for them to present their qualifica- tions.*® On October 15 of the same year, Governor Sanz did the same for the Island, having been convinced by this time that he should give an opportunity to the Porto Rican teachers. He delayed his action as long as possible to give every chance to the Spanish teachers.*9 It was not until November 3, 1874, that the first teachers were ap- pointed in Madrid. On that date the appointment of thirty-one men and eighteen women teachers was published.*°° The teachers 47Moreno: Remisién, 12 de Mayo de 1874, pp. 211-12. 48Moreno: Concurso, publicado en Madrid, Ministerio de Ultramar, Secretaria General, Madrid, 31 de Agosto de 1874, pp. 213-14. *9Moreno: Cablegrama, al Ministro de Ultramar, Porto Rico, Oct. 13, 1874, pp. 214-15. ; Moreno: Provision de Escuelas por Concurso, Puerto Rico, Oct. 15, 1874, pp. 215- 6. 5°Moreno: Nobramientes, Puerto Rico, Noviembre 2, 1874, pp. 217-19. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 61 named were supposed to take charge of the schools in fifteen days,” but many of them failed to do so as they had to come from Spain. The year 1874 went by with few schools open, and those were in the hands of political appointees specially recommended by the con- servative party, whose influence was then all powerful. All of these teachers, with a few exceptions, were appointed temporarily.” It has been the practice in Spain to regard teachers as government officials, permanently appointed to positions from which they could only be removed by due process of law. Most of the teachers ap- pointed during the period under consideration were temporary teachers, liable to lose their positions or to be transferred at any moment. Disadvantages of Spanish Teachers and More Recognition of the Native Teachers. The qualifications of the Porto Rican teachers and the reasons for their failure to receive appointment were investigated by the Madrid government in April 1875, after the Restoration.® No other appointments were made until July 5 and 6, 1875, when 152 teachers were either given schools or were placed on the waiting list to fill vacancies. These included both Spanish and native teachers.* The appointments continued all during the period. After 1876, when a new governor had been named, he was ordered to hold ex- aminations for teachers in the Island, as it was not practicable to continue to import teachers from Spain. The Spanish teachers took many risks in making the voyage and, after their arrival, in getting used to the climate. The royal orders and decrees on education during this period show that many of the teachers, especially women, appointed in Madrid never came; others came, were displeased with conditions, and being able to do better at home, resigned and left soon after their arrival; still others arrived, became ill, and returned home on leave of ab- sence. Those on leave of absence hired substitutes to keep their schools open and paid the substitutes half of their salaries.°° Most of the teachers were nominated by election, since the Spaniards were the first ones who refused to submit to competitive examinations. 51Moreno: Posesién, Puerto Rico, Noviembre 7, 1874, p. 220. Moreno: Interinidades, Ministerio de Ultramar, Madrid, Marzo 24, 1874, p. 223. 583Mforeno: Maestros no Colocados, Al. Exemo. Sr. Ministro de Ultramar, Puerto Rico, 27 de Abril de 1875, pp. 223-24. _ Moreno: Nombramientos de Maestros, Puerto Rico 30 de Julio, 1875, pp. 225- 27. Moreno: All documents entitled Nombramientos in pages 227-32. “Moreno: Maestros con Licencia, Puerto Rico, 29 de Noviembre, 1878, p. 238. 62 Education in Porto Rico Some of the town councils found fault with the efficiency of the Span- ish teachers to the extent that two of them were dismissed for in- efficiency. The government then replaced them in their former positions, an act which widened the breach between native officials and Spanish teachers, and between Spanish and Porto Rican teach- ers’? which had already been manifested. The Porto Ricans felt that partiality in pay and treatment was shown to Spanish teachers who had received their appointments by royal order.*® Rules Governing Private Schools. Governor Sanz not only inter- fered with the teachers of the public schools but also decreed rules and regulations governing the teachers in the private schools. All private schools were ordered to be closed and their re-opening was prohibited without a permit from the government. No more private schools could be established without authority of the Governor. Only Spaniards and those Porto Ricans who had distinguished them- selves for loyalty to the government were permitted to teach in the private schools. All text books used in the private schools had to be approved by the government, and all private schools were placed under the im- mediate supervision of the government and local committees of public instruction.6? The decree brought the private school pupils under the same teachers as those of the public schools, that is, those approved by the political machine. The wealthy who patronized the private schools could not avoid the high hand of the Governor, nor could teachers, left without positions for political reasons, establish schools. Text Books. The text books used by all the schools were those sanctioned by the government. More than that, the teachers were compelled to teach what the books said, which were supposed to be *“‘as authoritative as or more so than the teacher.’’®° The text book question was abused greatly, as those teachers who enjoyed the favor of the government wrote text books and had the government sanction them. The educational value of the text book was not taken into account, but the political influence of the author to have the govern- ment or the Church declare the books lawful was what counted. Remuneration of Teachers. Each teacher received a salary plus 57Moreno: Reposicién, Gobierno General de la Isla de Puerto Rico, Secretaria, Puerto Ricc, 20 de Deciembre de 1878, pp. 244-48. 583Moreno: Moneda Oficial, Puerto Rico, 14 de Febrero de 1877 pp. 123-34. 59Moreno: Ensefianza Privada, Decreto, Puerto Rico 8 de Enero de 1875, pp. 220-21. 6°Moreno: Libros de Texto, Pureto Rico, 18 de Enero de 1875, pp. 221-23. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 63 two allowances for rent and school supplies. For example, D. Ga- bino Nufiez y Lopez was appointed to the school of Vega Baja by royal order of January 24, 1876, with a salary of 2500 pesetas, 500 pesetas for rent, and 125 pesetas for school supplies.“ It is a known fact that many teachers took the money, rented a house for school purposes as well as a residence for himself and family, and bought as few school supplies as possible, which were in turn generally sold to the pupils, a practice which still prevails in many places in Spain. Educational Conditions in 1878. Education under the conditions related could not prosper very much. General Sanz was followed by two other governors, who, although more liberal, did not do much to improve educational conditions. In July, 1878, a new governor was sent to the Island, Governor Eulogio Despujols. He made a visit of inspection to the schools and devoted his attention mainly to the reorganization of education. One of his first acts was to order the municipalities to furnish the government with statistics showing the number of boys and girls between six and fourteen years of age. On his arrival the Island was reported to have 731,648 in- habitants, 368 schools attended by 12,144 children of both sexes, at an annual cost of 129,457 pesos. He compared that with the state of education in 1867, and said with regard to the failure of the decree of 1865, “Upon investigation of causes that in 1868 nullified the good effects of the Organic Decree, I have become convinced that the chief among them was the fact that its underlying principles, although ap- preciated by the more intelligent element of the population, were not understood by the masses in general. Perhaps there should have been a period of preparation; that a persuasive and authoritative voice should have been heard as the precursor of the coming reform; that before being put into operation its necessity should have been repeatedly enjoined upon the people, until at last the teaching body, the general public and the corporations under whose control it had to be carried out would have been so thoroughly convinced of its value and necessity as to have been willing readily to accept the eco- nomic burdens it imposed. They should have established a system of inspection that from the first day would have insisted on the full execution of the law.’’® General Despujol Begins His Educational Activities. General Des- 61Moreno: Nombramientos en Propriedad, Puerto Rico Feb. 13, 1876, p. 228. ®Mforeno: Relaciones de Nifios. Puerto Rico 23 de Agosto de 1878, p. 237. Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Vigente, Preambulao, p. 316. 64 Education in Porto Rico pujol tried also to have the teachers assured of their positions and secured permanent appointments to all worthy teachers who had only temporary appointments. He even refused to take schools away from teachers who were doing satisfactory work, in order to place the ones appointed by the government at Madrid. He also tried to improve the salaries of teachers, especially rural teachers, who were receiving only fifteen pesos a month. He re-established competitive examinations for superior school teachers, but not for the elementary schools, because there were not enough teachers well prepared, and he would not have been able to fill all the vacan- cies had he insisted on the required competitive examination.“ He appropriated 5,000 pesos for school supplies, which were almost entirely lacking at the time.® He divided the Island into two dis- tricts, north and south, and appointed an inspector for each of them.® Moreover, he tried to prepare public opinion so as to be able to re- organize public instruction on a new basis which he was preparing and which will receive attention in our consideration of the next period.” D. CoNpDITION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN 1880 The period under discussion ends with the year 1880. As to the educational conditions in the Island at that time, the official reports of the inspectors and of the governor speak for themselves. In June, 1880, there were 328 public schools for boys and 104 for girls, a total of 432 public schools, with an attendance of 15,218 pupils, 10,736 boys and 4,482 girls; at a total expense of 191,158 pesos. (See Appendix IV.) Bobadilla’s Report. As to the teachers and their work, D. José Bobadilla, inspector of the northern district, has the following to say: As to teachers, no specified scholastic requirements were enforced. What was the qualification necessary to teach in schools of the lowest class? A simple state- ment of fitness and good character, issued by the local junta and approved by the governor-general. He who could simply read, write and teach the catechism satis- fied the legal requirements of a teacher. It is true that some of the juntas in prin- cipal towns, whose membership included the superior teacher, demanded a strict wat HT Le ovals} We) ®Moreno: Material, Puerto Rico, 4 de Febrero de 1880, p. 254. ®Moreno: Inspeccion. Decreto, Puerto Rico 20 de Enero de 1880, pp. 251-54. Moreno: Inspeccion, Nombramiento del Inspector distrito Norte, Puerto Rico, 1 de Abril de 1880. Moreno: Inspeccion, Nombramiento del Inspector para el Distrito Sud, Puerto Rico, Aibonito, 3 de Septiembre de 1880. *Moreno: Primera Ensefianza, Puerto Rico 12 de Junio de 1880, pp. 256-59. Political Unrest and the Public Schools (1865-1880) 65 fulfillment of the requirement that applicants for teachers’ positions should be examined. Most of the other school boards, however, dispensed with this en- tirely. Moreover section 7 of the regulations issued by the superior junta in May 7, 1866 required that the comisarios of the barrios should be given the preference in appointment for the schools thereafter established, and the sixth section of the same regulations authorized the appointment of any neighbor of good repute to these positions. These rules were made because of the commendable desire to extend the school privileges to the largest number possible, but have had virtually the opposite effect since the discretional authority granted to the juntas has been exercised, not for the purpose of helping the schools, but for protecting their own unqualified protégés. What practical benefit could result from placing at the head of the school an in- dustrious and honorable man without any scholastic qualifications, without the slightest notion of how to teach, without any code of rules to follow, and without any direction or supervision. In these incomplete schools, with a few very rare exceptions, the three or four or five poor children that attended them learned by heart part of the catechism and the epitome of grammar; they added, subtracted, multiplied and divided whole numbers with considerably less certainty than the arithmetic table then popular in the island; they were ignorant of numerical notation, and reading, and they wrote poorly, so that it is easy to see that no great benefit was to be derived from the few days instruction they received before leaving the school.* Infiesta’s Report. Mr. Alejandro Infiesta Garcia, inspector of the southern district, has the following to say: These establishments for popular instruction were rather a burden than a benefit to the people. Statistics, although incomplete and full of errors, as was natural under the conditions under which they were gathered, prove this fact. There was not a single person who could read or write found in most of the barrios where there were these incomplete or temporary schools. These were known as rural schools and fixed by law in a single place, after the first visit of inspection made at the time of the publication of the decree of 1880. What a dark and lamentable picture these schools presented. I who know the endeavors of the government to place public instruction upon a worthy basis that would offer a guarantee of real results, and its desire to provide for the independence and security of the teacher, I, who believe and have always believed that the inspector should not be an unpopular agent of the govern- ment, but a source of inspiration; not an instrument of correction, but an energetic defender of the teacher who should fulfill his duties and work earnestly for those who, in the isolation of the distant barrios consecrate their lives to the priesthood of teaching, I repeat, I cannot view without alarm the utter neglect or pass without censure the absolute incompetency of those intrusted with the care of the young, mere ciphers incapable of instructing the generation that is rising, and for this reason J feel it my duty to call the attention of the government to these conditions, for this generation represents the future of the country.®® Character of Instruction. So far as mstruction was concerned, Mr. Infiesta says: 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 131. 69Ibid. 66 Education in Porto Rico In 1880 I made my first tour. But five towns had maps in their schools. Asa rule there was no class in geography and where this most important subject was taught it was by memory in such a mechanical way that in many towns and in important schools not a single pupil knew to what nation this province belongs. I had the honor to report this to your worthy predecessor, the Count of Caspo, and shortly afterwards the government lent its generous aid, providing each of the schools with a map of the world, one of Spain, and a relief map of the province. Especially in the girls schools geography was absolutely unknown.” Equipment and Supplies. With reference to equipment and sup- plies the Governor said: Coming down to recent times, I may further inform you that eight months after my arrival and while the ayuntamientos were still appointed directly by the govern- ment, the equipment of the schools of the whole island could not have been worse. There were boys’ schools in the principal towns which did not have a single writing book; some had but three copies of the grammar: notwithstanding the fact that the teacher had asked for these books repeatedly and petitions for them had been pre- sented to the ayuntamientos by the local juntas. In one of the girls’ schools the teacher was compelled to teach grammar orally from the only manuscript text that she possessed. But even now, with ayuntamientos elected by popular vote, of the 1,618 boys attending the schools of one of the most important towns of the island, only 637 have seating accommodations. If this is the case after the government has just distributed school desks for 1,120 children of the superior schools of the island, what must have been the condition before, when in one of the heads of the de- partments with over 100 children enrolled, there were, two months ago, but 25 seats provided by the municipality, and in one of the public schools there was not a single writing desk. A trifle over a year ago, the Governor-General provided 1,000 pesos’ worth of new furniture for a school of adults, this furniture has not yet been delivered, because no room has been provided for the schools. If this is the con- dition in the principal towns, what must be the conditions of schools in the villages? Summary. ‘There was no educational progress after the Restor- ation, due to the intense political feeling entering all school matters. Educational conditions in general were the same as in the year 1865, and even worse. The undue attention given to the teacher was not moved by professional objectives, but entirely by political aims. The teacher was a tool in the hands of a despotic Governor. No attention was given to education for its own sake. The problem of the period was not an educational but a political one. In spite of such conditions and lack of educational progress, the conception that education is a function of the state was definitely formulated. Education began to be used as a tool of the state to carry out its political aims. The improvement of conditions toward the end of the period prepared the way for the constructive work of Governor Despujol to be considered in the next chapter. 756th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 131. 1]bid., p. 132. CHAPTER V REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION BY THE ORGANIC DECREE OF 1880 (1880-1898) A. HuistoricaL BACKGROUND Spain After the Restoration. Soon after the restoration of Alfonso XII to his throne, the present Constitution was drawn up and pro- mulgated in 1876. It is a moderately liberal document which has withstood all the political storms since that date. Thereafter until the time of the war with the United States, Spain enjoyed peace at home under alternating Conservative and Liberal ministries, headed respectively by Canovas del Castillo and Sagasta, thinking that in the orderly rotation in office of two great political parties, which were loyal to the throne, the permanence of the monarchical régime would be assured. Government of Porto Rico After the Restoration. In February, 1877, the new Spanish Constitution together with the provincial and municipal laws was extended to Porto Rico and the Provincial Deputation was re-established. Suffrage was extended to any male resident twenty-five years of age or over who had received a profes- sional diploma, or paid taxes to the amount of twenty-five pesos. The major part of the population was excluded from the suffrage under this provision. Autonomy: The Political Programme of the Porto Ricans. During the time of the Republic, in 1875, the Island had enjoyed considerable privileges of self-government. ‘These privileges being suppressed at the restoration, the Porto Ricans began again to plan and to work for self-government. They demanded that the Island be allowed to regulate her own affairs. The demands of the natives were denied by the Spanish government. In the Island the Conservative party, composed of Spaniards born in the peninsula, and of Porto Ricans who were on the side of Spain, ran the insular affairs at their pleasure (67) 68 Education in Porto Rico by means of “‘caciquismo” or “boss” rule. They were opposed by the Porto Ricans who demanded self-government. The Autonomous Party. After ten years of propaganda and po- litical unrest, in order to give form to their ambitions and demands from the Spanish government, a number of popular representatives of the people, opposed to the policies of Spain, met in Ponce in 1887 under the leadership of Don Roman Baldorioty de Castro. They formed a new political party called “El Partido Autonomista” or the autonomous party and demanded of Spain that, while accepting political and judicial identity with the mother country, and recog- nizing her sovereignty over the Island, the Porto Ricans be given the right to regulate all affairs that concerned the Island alone. In other words, they demanded autonomy or home rule. Political Unrest and Persecution. At the same time that this party was organized there was also organized in Ponce a secret society, the members of which aimed to protect themselves from the Spanish business interests in the Island. Don Luis Dabdan, the Governor General at the time, paid very little attention to the movement, but not so his successor, General Don Rumualdo Palacios. He charged the autonomist party with conspiracy against the national integrity by means of secret societies, and instituted what is famously known in the Island by the name of “Los Compontes.”” As the name im- plies, this meant persecution and even torture for individuals sus- pected of conspiracy against the government. The famous “Guardia Civil” or State Police would surprise the homes of suspected individuals at night, would tie them to the tails of their horses, and conduct them to some lonely place, where by means of the whip they were compelled to reveal whatever propaganda they were conducting against the government. The leaders of the autonomous party were persecuted and imprisoned. All men of liberal ideas were likewise persecuted to the extent that in Mayagiiez people preferred to commit suicide rather than to submit themselves to the whipping by the police. The peasants would flee from their huts by night and sleep in the woods to avoid the nightly raids of the police. No news could be sent out of the Island to present complaints to the government at Madrid. At last some autonomists succeeded in flee- ing from the Island and presented their grievance to the home govern- ment. General Palacios was removed immediately and replaced by Don Juan Contreras (in 1887), who put an end to the ‘“Compontes”’ and reestablished peace. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 69 The People of Porto Rico Granted Home Rule. The autonomists continued their struggle against the Conservative Party and met again in Assembly in Mayagiiez, March 1891. At the same time Cuba was preparing to rise in arms against the mother country, and her problems met with sympathy among the Porto Ricans. Events in Cuba went from bad to worse resulting in open rebellion against the government and proposed intervention on the part of the United States. At last, in 1897, autonomy was granted to both islands. It was inaugurated in Porto Rico February 11, 1898. The new government consisted of the Governor General with his Cabinet and a representative assembly elected by the people. But this new govern- ment had hardly begun to function when intervention by the United -Statesin Cuba brought about the Spanish-American War. In view of this background of political and social conditions after the restoration, the insular opposition to the new law reorganizing elemen- tary education, its execution during the eighteen years of its history and the results achieved in 1898 will be better appreciated. B. Dercretro OrGANICO DE 1880 Opposition to the Decree. The new school law under preparation by General Despujol was published September, 1880, to go into effect October 1 of the same year. It was approved with a few simple changes by the Madrid government on February 5, 1881.1 No sooner had the decree been published than certain municipalities began to oppose it to the extent of appealing to the throne. The municipalities contended that their rights were infringed upon, that the new decree placed school administration in the hands of the central authority, the Governor General, and practically deprived the munic- ipal authorities of many of the rights that the municipal laws al- loted to them, thus checking local initiative.2. Chief among the munic- ipalities were San Juan, Ponce, Mayagiiez, Cabo-Rojo, San Ger- man and Adjuntas. But when the question came up for legal de- cision the courts ruled that the Governor possessed the authority to intervene in all such matters, and denied the municipalities the rights which the laws gave them. Under the influence of the Governor a fine was inflicted upon the councillors and a public reprimand was published in the official gazette.’ 1Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Vigente, PreAmbulo, p. 312. Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico Real Orden de 5 de Febrero de 1881, p. 309. 2Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Carta de Remision al Ministerio, pp. 293-94. 3Moreno: Suspensién de Acuerdos y Multas a los Consejales, Puerto Rico 5 de Enero de 1881, pp. 297-300. 70 Education in Porto Rico Divisions of Primary Education. The decree divided primary education into elementary and superior.‘ The first included the fol- lowing curriculum: Catechism, and elements of sacred history;> read- ing; writing; elements of Spanish grammar; elements of arithmetic with the legal weights, measures and money; elements of geography and an elementary outline of agriculture, industry and commerce.® Superior instruction embraced a more extensive treatment of the subjects just named, and in addition the following: Elements of history and geography, especially of Spain; elements of geometry with mechanical drawing and surveying; and an elementary outline of physics and natural history adapted in their application to the needs of common life.” In the curriculum of the girls’ schools, agri- culture, industry and commerce; geometry, mechanical drawing and surveying; physics and natural history were replaced by subjects more appropriate for the sex, namely elementary drawing, designing, needlework, and an elementary course in domestic hygiene.® Classes of Public Schools. Public primary schools were those sup- ported wholly by the towns of the provinces, or those supported in part by public or charitable funds, or other funds destined for public education. The towns were called upon to include in their school budgets teachers’ salaries, house rent for schools and for residences of teachers, and school supplies. In schools not supported entirely by the towns the government intervened only by inspection.® Elementary public schools for boys were divided into two classes, elementary schools of the first class, and those of the second class. Superior schools were divided into first and second classes also.!° Schools of the second class were often promoted to first, so that teachers who were faithful and improved the standards of their schools had an opportunity to have their schools promoted and thus to better them- selves financially.!! Girls’ elementary schools were also divided 4Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, De La Primera Ensefianza, Art. 1. p. 319. ’Spanish Constitution, Art. 11: La religidn Catdélica Apostélica Romana es la del Estado. La nacién se obliga a mantener el culto y sus ministros. Nadie sera molestado en el territorio espafiol por sus opiniones religiosas ni por ejercios de sus respectivos cultos salvo el respeto debido a la moral cristiana, no se permitiran, sin embargo, otras ceremonias ni manifestaciones ptiblicas que las de la religidn del Estado. ®6Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, De La Primera Ensefianza, Art. 2, p. 319. “Ibid., Art. 3, p. 320. 87bid., Art, 4. p. 320. ®Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, De Las Escuelas Superiores y Elementales, Art. 32, 107bid., Art. 33, p. 341. Moreno: Categorias, pp. 343-44; 345-47. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 71 into two classes,” while the four superior schools for girls were to be used as model schools for the training of women teachers." Auxiliary, Rural, Infant and Adult Schools Defined. In addition to the classes of schools named above, there were established auxiliary and rural schools in place of the incomplete schools of the previous decree. Auxiliary schools were those situated in hamlets outside of the larger population centers, and with an attendance of at least twenty pupils. The municipalities supported these schools. Their curriculum embraced the following subjects: Catechism, reading, writing, elements of grammar, arithmetic through common and deci- mal fractions, and the metric system." In girls’ schools sewing was added.'® Rural schools were those established where there were no groupings of dwellings, with an attendance of at least fifteen pupils.” Provison was made for the establishment of infant schools to be taught by the Sisters of Charity, and adult schools.!® The adult schools were discontinued in 1893, because of their practical failure, and only the San Juan school was left in operation.!® There were established also prison schools which were also discontinued, due to their failure. Some superior schools were suppressed later, because of lack of a sufficient number of pupils to attend them.?° Private and Domestic Education. Private schools were allowed to be established, provided the director of each school was at least twenty years of age and possessed a legal teaching certificate.’The age ruling was changed in 1895, when any citizen could establish and teach in a private school.” Parents wishing to prepare their children at home by means of a private tutor were allowed to do so and upon examination the children were admitted to the secondary school. No academic qualifications of any kind were required of private tutors. The wealthy availed themselves of this opportunity to educate their children at home. Daily Sessions. Elementary, superior and auxiliary schools were Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 38, p. 347. 3Ibid., Art. 39, p. 347. M4Jiid., Art. 42, p. 348. 1Jhid., Art. 43, p. 348. 1Ibid., Art. 44, p. 349. W]Ibid., Art. 45, p. 349. 18Ibid., Arts. 45-50, pp. 349-51. 19Moreno: Supresién de Escuelas, pp. 351-53. 20Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 51-52, p. 353. 21Moreno: Edad para Ejecer el Magisterio, pp. 354-55. Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 53, p. 354. 3 Ibid. 72 Education in Porto Rico to have six hours of school work daily, three in the morning and three in the afternoon.** Rural schools were to have five hours daily, from ten in the morning to three in the afternoon, in order that poor children might be at liberty to assist their parents in domestic duties and field labor. The hours in the rural schools could be changed ac- cording to circumstances.” Compulsory Instruction. Elementary instruction was compulsory from six to twelve years of age, and the decree provided for various kinds of punishment to parents who did not send their children to school. It was impossible to put this provision into operation, owing to the fact that there were not enough public schools for all the children of school age. Moreover, parents did not realize the need of an education and would not co-operate with authorities in sending their children to school. Education was gratuitous only for poor children whose parents had to prove their state of poverty before the children were admitted to the school.?8 Under such cir- cumstances it was impossible to have compulsory education. There were many orders issued by the government dictating rules and regu- lations to carry out this provision of the decree, and stating the pun- ishments to parents who disobeyed the law, but these were merely issued and very seldom applied, as is shown by their frequency, and by the fact that they had no effect on parents who did not send their children to school.?9 Report on Attendance. With regard to attendance in the southern district in 1886, Infiesta in his report to the Governor says: Your Excellency, who is perfectly acquainted with this province, knows better than anybody else the long distance the country children have to go to attend school. They have to cross ravines, rivers and mountains. They are badly nourished and exposed to all the rigors of the climate. They can neither attend school regularly nor receive a solid education.” I have visited thirty-five municipalities during the rainy season and I know by experience the great difficulties which must be overcome to have good school attend- ance. There are children whe have to travel three miles across torrents and through perilous trails in order to go to school. Together with these natural obstacles go the wretchedly poor condition of the people, and the ignorance of parents, who, not knowing the benefits of an education, resist sending their children to school.*! *4Moreno: Reglamento de las Escuelas Publicas y Particulares, Art. 12, p. 470. *5Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 48, p. 350. *6Moreno: Horas de Clase, Puerto Rico 30 de Abril, 1880, p. 350. *7Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 5-6, pp. 321-22. *8Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 7, p. 331. *9Moreno: See pp. 321-31 for many circulars. 3°Infiesta, op. cit., p. 10. 7Tbid., p. 10-11. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 73 Article 45 of the Organic Decree rules that no rural school should have less than fifteen pupils. Local juntas have not looked after this. Only four children attend the ‘Rucio’ school of Pefiuelas, eight the ‘Jobos’ school of Guayama, and seven the ‘Descalabrados’ school of Santa Isabel.” Speaking of the attendance in the urban school soon after the de- cree had been put into operation, the same inspector says: The municipal judges neglect to prosecute the parents who do not send their children to school, so one finds the proceedings against the parents laid on the shelf. As a result the children began to desert the schools, thus making the work of the teachers fruitless. In Caguas, during my visit, I found 615 proceedings neglected, the schools with only about half of the pupils attending and a general irregularity in attendance. . . After your circular of December 15, 1884, attendance has im- proved. The average attendance now in the elementary schools is about 70 per cont. Aim and Method of Education. The decree and following rules and regulations placed a great deal of emphasis on the subject matter. An outline of each subject, content to be covered and method of teaching, was dictated by the government. Especial emphasis was placed on religious and moral education.** All studies were to be pursued by means of text books which in turn had to be authorized by the government and the Church.** Many texts were authorized and the teachers were given freedom to choose the texts they wished. Most of the texts were in catechetical form, questions and answers on the different subjects. The pupils committed these to memory and recited to the teacher when called upon. There was no co- ordination of schools, much less a graded system, as each teacher opened and conducted his own school absolutely independently of other teachers and other schools. He selected whatever books he pleased from the authorized number and taught what he wished and as he wished. As learning meant committing to memory the text books the teacher selected, a pupil would attend school for say six years, learning all the books of that school until he could repeat them from cover to cover. If at the end of that time he moved or was sent to another school, the pupil would have to start at the beginning again and commit to memory all the texts of the new teacher, for the new teacher was probably using a different set of texts. Ifathird change in school came, the pupil had to repeat the same process. The teacher did not study nor did he prepare any lessons; it was all done 27bid., p. 31. 33Infiesta, op. cit., p. 14. Moreno: Reglamento de las Escuelas Puiblicas y Particulares, pp. 465-83. %Jbid., Arts. 18-25, pp. 335-40. 74 Education in Porto Rico for him in the text book. The end of the school was not the child, but the teacher. The child was a necessary evil in the school. Method of Teaching. ‘The general method of instruction was the Lancasterian method. The school was divided into sections or classes and advanced pupils were placed as instructors in charge of the differ- ~ ent sections. Each section recited to the pupil instructor while the teacher heard the lessons of the instructors after they had finished their different tasks. Individual study by the pupils, whether in school or out of school, was done in a loud voice. ‘The noise of the pupils studying could be heard several hundred feet before one reached the school. Study meant infinite repetition of the questions and answers until one knew them so well that they could be repeated with- out effort. Often a child might be able to repeat without a mistake the whole of a book, but not know the meaning of any of the questions and answers that he could repeat so well. If the teacher happened to change the form of the question from that in the book, the pupil would frequently be unable to answer. Report on School Organization. Regarding the organization of the schools in practice, their co-ordination and gradation, Mr. Infiesta reports the following in 1886: Speaking of the superior schools, that is, the public superior schools, I must call your attention to a matter that practically nullifies their organization, and prevents the schools from carrying out the purpose of the law. According to article 27 of the rules governing elementary schools in towns where there are superior schools, only children from the elementary schools should enter the superior schools, after they know the commandments, parts of the grammar, common fractions, elements of geography, sacred history, and know how to read fluently and to write some. Your Excellency must have observed, specially in Ponce, many children in the superior schools learning to read in the primer, while you must have observed many children well advanced in their studies, attending the elementary schools. A superior school, with many pupils learning the alphabet, as you have observed, and the teacher teaching fourteen subjects, cannot fulfill its mission.** The superior school of Ponce, in charge of the teacher, D. Francisco Cortés, is an example of the above: On January 1, 1887, it had 59 pupils distributed according to age, thus: 6 of 6 years of age. 5 of 11 years of age. 8 of 7 years of age. 5 of 12 years of age. 10 of 8 years of age. 4 of 13 years of age. 12 of 9 years of age. 4 of 14 years of age.*” 5 of 10 years of age. The same statistics show that there was very little difference between the ages of the pupils in the superior schools and those of the elemen- Infiesta, op. cit.. pp. 17-18. 87Ibid., Second part, Chart No. 1. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 75 tary schools of the first and second classes. Schools were not graded and all schools admitted beginners as well as more advanced pupils. The advanced pupils, as already stated, were used as instructors. Report on Methods of Teaching. Regarding methods of teaching the same report says the following: Just as I have called the attention to the progress made in education, I also must say that in most of the schools the teaching of moral and religious education is only aroutine. The teacher aims only to develop the memory and to empty the catechism into the brain of the pupil without any explanation whatever, or anything else that will help the pupil to understand, appreciate and feel the severe and sublime maxims of the Gospel. If a question in the text is changed or the teacher appeals to the emotions, the child does not understand. Outside of the memory, exercised to repeat automatically the literal answers to the questions, there is nothing. Of course this cannot be said of all the teachers, for there are some who harmonize well the instruction with moral education, but these are in the minority. The inspector would not have been wrong had he affirmed that the same method prevailed in the teaching of most of the other subjects of the curriculum. It cannot be said that there was any system to the schools. It was a personal matter with the teacher as to what he taught, when and how. Some teachers, in spite of lack of system and authority, were skilled and did good work, but the majority neglect- ed their duties. Examinations and Prizes. General school examinations were held every year.*? The local juntas of public instruction would examine the pupils in all the subjects of the curriculum. Prizes were given to those in the different sections who made the best answers in the opinion of the board of examiners. The distribution of prizes was held in the assembly room of the town hall. It was a very solemn affair, attended by the most prominent citizens and officials of the town. The prize winners from the different schools, both urban and rural, would all assemble to receive their awards for their dili- gence. At least one pupil from every school was prepared to make anoration. Theseorations were the basis of rivalry among the schools. At one time the prizes were medals of gold and silver, but during the latter part of the period under consideration, a first prize was one peso, and a second a half peso. Punishments. Rewards were not the only means to stimulate the heart and intelligence of the pupils. The law provided the following 38Infiesta, op. cit., p. 21. 38Moreno: Reglamento de la Escuelas Publicas y Particulares, Seccién Quinta, De los Ex4menes Generales de las Escuelas, Arts. 61-66, pp. 481-83. 76 Education in Porto Rico lawful punishments: 1. To make the child read over and over again the moral principle which he had broken. 2. To make the child copy after school hours a number of lines from the reader or any other book selected by the teacher. 3. To send the pupils out to doerrands. 4. To erase from the honor list the name of the offender, in case he was an honor pupil. 5. To make the child stand up or kneel down for a certain number of hours. 6. To keep him in after school hours.‘ The men teachers, however, did not confine them- selves to these. Gross and cruel punishments were strictly prohibited by the law. But teachers did not stop with legally recognized pun- ishment. Sometimes while the child knelt he was made to extend his arms out and hold a certain number of books in each hand, being forced to keep them up, no matter how tired he was. Sometimes the teacher would make the pupil go down on all fours in a corner of the room, place some grass in front of him and make him wear two long paper ears. Another punishment known to exist, although not common, was to have the pupil kneel down on a grater or some- thing that would hurt his knees. The most common punishment was the famous “‘palmeta’”’ or ferrule. Sometimes a strap was used and applied, generally to the legs or the back of the pupil. The teacher did not spank; he whipped, and the child bore the signs, showing that nothing had been spared to make him feel the effects. The most grave offenses, worthy of the strap or “‘palmeta,”’ were lack of preparation or misbehavior. Often parents objected to the teacher who punished too much and the children were taken out of school and placed under the care of a private tutor. It often happened that the big boys fought the teacher, but corporal punish- ment, as a rule, was popular. ‘The teacher was expected to use it and oftentimes the one who did the most whipping was considered the best teacher. A teacher’s efficiency was judged by the order he kept and by the ability of his pupils to repeat answers to the questions in the books. The end of education was memorizing and the means to that end was the rod, which was applied freely in spite of the law. It is well to remember this practice of Spanish days, for many people to- day criticize the present school system, because corporal punishment is allowed under certain circumstances and in very rare cases, while in Spanish days it was virtually abolished. However, during the “°Moreno: Reglamento de la Escuelas Publicas y Particulares, Seccién Quinta, De los Ex4menes Generales de las Escuelas, Arts. 53-55, pp. 477-78. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 17 Spanish dominion, although prohibited, corporal punishment was used freely and cruelly; to-day, while permitted, it is very rarely employed. | Teachers’ Qualifications. With the exception of foreign language teachers, all teachers had to be Spanish born or naturalized citizens, twenty years of age, of good religious, moral and civic conduct, and the holders of the proper teacher’s certificate.*! Later these qualifica- tions were slightly changed. After 1895, any Spanish citizen of good religious moral and civic conduct, and the possessor of the required certificate was allowed to teach in either public or private schools.” Besides the above, there were certain physical requirements.* Provision for Normal Schools. In order to train teachers, the de- crees provided for the establishment of a normal school for men,*! and four model schools for girls.* These four schools were established in San Juan, Ponce, Mayagtiez and Humacao. They were the four superior schools for girls established by the decree, and their purpose was to serve as model schools where the women candidates for the teaching profession were trained.“ They were supported by the Pro- vincial Deputation and not by municipalities. They served their purpose poorly for ten years and being more or less of a failure the government decided to establish a normal school for women. ‘This school and the normal school for men were not established until 1890. Certificate to Teach. Until the normal schools were established, there were no special schools for the training of teachers outside of the four schools just mentioned. There were, however, certain academic requirements which candidates for the teacher’s certificates had to pursue and be examined in, before receiving the certificate. Four kinds of teachers’ certificates were issued, superior, elementary, auxiliary and rural. A rural school certificate was granted to candi- dates who took an examination in the subjects taught in the auxiliary schools before a committee meeting at the principal city of the depart- ment and composed of the president of the local school board, the teacher of the superior school and another teacher. An auxiliary certificate was granted to a candidate who had attended the normal school, if a 41Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 54. p. 354. “Mforeno: Edad para Ejecer el Magisterio, Marzo 28, 1895, p. 354-55. 48Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 55 and other circulars, pp. 355-58. “Tbid., Arts. 26-28, pp. 340-41. *Ibid., Art. 31, p. 341. “Jbid., Art. 39, p. 347. 78 Education in Porto Rico man; or if a woman, a model school, pursuing the curriculum of the auxiliary school.* Elementary certificates were granted to men who had studied in the normal school and had pursued and been examined in the follow- ing curriculum:—Reading prose, poetry and manuscript; writing, catechism and elements of sacred history, elements of pedagogy, arithmetic, grammar and composition, mechanical drawing, general geography and geography of Spain, outlines of Spanish history, elements of geometry, elements of agriculture, industry and commerce.® They were also granted to women who had studied in a model school and had pursued and been examined in the same subjects as the men teachers, except that they substituted designing, needlework, and hygiene for geometry and agriculture, industry and commerce.*® Superior certificates were granted to men who possessed an elemen- tary certificate and who had pursued and been examined in the following subjects: Catechism and sacred history, writing, pedagogy, arith- metic and algebra, geometry and surveying, mechanical drawing, grammar, geography, general history, physics and natural history. The same requirements were to be fulfilled by women teachers except that they substituted designing and needlework for surveying and mechanical drawing.®® Until the normal school for men was establish- ed, candidates for the auxiliary school certificate had to practice one year in some school. Those for the elementary certificate had to show that they had pursued the studies outlined in the normal school curriculum. Candidates for the superior certificate were required to practice a year in a superior school.*' All certificates were to be obtained by examination. Establishment and Curriculum of Normal School. By the royal decree of June 19, 1890, the Crown authorized the establishment of two normal schools, one for men and another for women.” Each normal school offered a four year course. At the end of the third year the certificate of elementary school teacher was granted, and those wish- ing to prepare themselves to teach in the superior schools pursued “Moreno: Reglamento para ExAmenes de Maestros y Maestras de Instruccién lepaty Elemental y Superior, Arts. 1-3, pp. 489-90. a 49Tbid., Art. 4. 5 Tbid., Art. 5. ‘Jbid., Arts. 6-7, p. 490. ®’Moreno: Real Decreto de 19 de 1890. Creando Escuelas Normales de Maestros y Maestras en Cuba y Puerto Rico, p. 681. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 79 the studies of the fourth year. The entrance requirement was an elementary school education. The men’s normal school offered the following curriculum: First Year. Catechism and sacred history, orthoepy, writing, Spanish grammar, arithmetic, elements of geometry, elements of the history of Spain, music and singing, practice teaching. Second Year. Continuation of orthoepy and writing, continuation of grammar and composition, geometry, mechanical drawing and surveying, elements of geography and general history, agriculture, practice teaching. Third Year. Religion, grammar, outlines of philosophy, physical and natural sciences, industry and commerce, physical education and practice teaching. Fourth Year. Education, rhetoric and poetics, school legislation, arithmetic and algebra, book-keeping, music, singing, practice teach- ing. The curriculum of the girls’ normal school was the same with additional work in designing, cutting of garments and needlework, while surveying and mechanical drawing was omitted.™ Model Schools. Each normal school had a model school of both elementary and superior grades where the students did their practice teaching. The students attending the normal schools were official students or free. Official students were those who registered, paid the entrance fees, attended school and pursued the regular course of study under the instruction of the faculty; free students required permission to attend classes, but were not obliged to attend. They could stay at home or in a private school and go to the normal schools for examinations only. Competitive Examinations. After the students finished the normal school course and had been examined in all the subjects of the curricu- lum, they were ready to take the competitive examinations, held at different dates, which had been previously announced. Regular pro- grams of all the topics on which the students were to be examined were printed and secured by the students. They studied these over and over before the examination, and then when that day arrived they appeared before the board of examiners. Each student was examined individually on the series of topics for the different subjects in the program: the topics selected by chance. Pieces of wood, each one marked with a number, were placed in a box, as many pieces of 33Moreno: Reglamento por que han de regirse las Escuelas Normales de Maestros y maestras de Cuba y Puerto Rico, Arts. 2-7, pp. 694-97. 80 Education in Porto Rico wood as there were questions in the program. The student drew from the box a certain number of these and answered the questions bearing the same number in the program.™ Appointment of Teachers. All appointments of teachers were made by the insular government.» Elementary and superior teachers qualified for appointmeat by competitive examinations. Auxiliary and rural teachers were appointed to positions without examination until 1892, when they also had to submit to competitive examinations.® However, in 1895, auxiliary and rural school teachers were again exempted from examinations.” Teachers’ Salaries. 'The salaries established by the decree were as follows: Boys’ ScHooLs Per Annum Superior Schools Pesos First lage a ee IE a che tal Wud eCe Oe COR Be ne Second ‘Clase i6ohig Gin bacte taste ra ne eh ee «ta eeu & leit Petits ae ee Elementary Schools: First Class atSan Juan, Ponce, and Mayagiies......................-. 720 First Class at other towns........ MEE ae raRy hey aR) Second Clags'at Son Tian Panes and Mavernes Ts eee 540 Second, Class at'other tows iis) sis 6 Fave ee eels oleae anal eke Se en Auxillary Schoolsi icici tee UA Pe re cia cle a ea eae aes cere) es hee te ee ee Rural Sehoolks oie RRs A OF ce de cle LTRs GrRis’ SCHOOLS Superior Schools Ab San Puan oo Ra ee Bony sear eis a et SUL nc Ree ee a 900 At Pericd and Mavapiten 3 los) 10s a dis cid ote a tae vba be amelie oa scree aha feta AG Humiacan sg) lei Oe ae ane ae yo San i INR ar cv ORT ee Elementary Schools: First) Clap iii iGh ati arn Wehner ec oe oe Ae Tana ec Ae ANUS ml ee Second Class. WRC ERE TaN TANIA Mee ae IL ack eM U Eanacalnteg ma anteah dk Zee RE Auxiliary Schools. ee , UMS OS eee By order of Ser tarabern ve “1893, ne Be Bf women Sedans were made the same as those of the men.®® The different munici- palities were free to increase the salaries of teachers if they wished.®! Teachers on leave of absence because of illness received a half of ‘See Appendix 11 for examples of questions. 55Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 59, p. 359. Ibid., Art. 56, p. 358. 56Moreno: Oposiciones, Puerto Rico, 28 de Octubre de 1892, p. 366. '7Moreno: Provisién de Escuelas, Puerto Rico, 6 de Mayo de 1895, p. 366. 58Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 69, p. 374. 8Moreno: Ibid., Art. 70, p. 374. 6°Moreno: Nivelacién de Sueldos, Real Orden de 7 de Septiembre de 1893, p. 375. 6{Moreno: Aumentos Voluntarios de sueldos, Real Orden Junio 24, 1884, p. 376. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 81 their salaries, and the substitutes received the other half. In ad- dition to the salaries the municipalities were obliged to include in their annual budgets a sum for teachers’ residences, based on the following scale: Boys’ ScHOOLs Pesos a Year for Each School For superior schools of the First) Class noes fe ait, Wdctowdls ce dua vntc ae yaa DOO For Superior Schools of the Second Class. .............00.0.0000ceeeeees. 204 For Elementary Schools of the First Class... .......... 0.000000 ce ceueeesee 144 For Elementary Schools of the Second Class...................2....0+... 84 Mora uxilary Schools 2s cae ey a eae ukulele GRry Behe ee tr BO WOPstL Ural SCHOOLS 2): sic tes OUT ode aroies Ete oneal Oe ae Renee crane Ip GrIRLs’ SCHOOLS Pesos a Year for Each School Buperiog school at oan duane. cers a dees ides ede wate rie Halal eliel alien eOO Bredorcchools at Maynetee rnd Ponce PMNS Avon Sheeye aa Gate eittho HOO Ser SCL AUER NEN ORT HO aC ook NC Vong Hlementary) ochools, 1 Firsts Class ivan sect ania! usta eda Oe ey ae Elementary Schools, Second Class). 0.00.00. b bec ek de ee eee es (84 PA TIRAA TY OCHOOIS spit ciate aa een imme e te ALS RMUs EKO URE GA aa Waco aN aa Sig Leal ted eS GOM Fees. ‘The teachers were permitted to collect fees from pupils who could pay, as only poor pupils were admitted free of charge. In 1883, pupils fees were fixed on the basis of the following scale: Auxiliary & Elemen- Super- Rural tary ior Schools Schools Schools Monthly Fee in Pesos Parents paying $25 direct tax to State............... 25 .50 1.00 Parents paying $25 to $50 direct tax to State........ .50 1.00 2.00 Parents paying $50 to $100 direct tax to State....... 1.00 2.00 3.00 Parents paying above $100 direct tax to State....... 1.50 3.00 3.50 Employees earning from $400 to $1000............. .50 1.00 2.00 Employees earning from $1000 to $2000............ 1.00 2.00 3.00 Employees earning above $2000................... 1.50 3.00 3.5085 A year later by royal order, this scale of fees was discontinued, the fees being thereafter settled by agreement between the parents and ®Moreno: Maestros con Licencia, P. R. 29 de Nov. 1878, p. 238. Licencias, Circulars on pages 818-21. Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 77, p. 385. “Ibid., Art. 78, p. 390. “Moreno: Retribuciones, Puerto Rico, 10 de Agosto de 1883, p. 390-91. 82 Education in Porto Rico the teachers. As the municipalities often held the teachers’ salaries in arrears, the fees from the students were very much welcomed by the teachers. All during this period the governors issued circular after circular every year, and some years twice, urging the municipalities to pay their debts to the teachers.” Mr. Infiesta, inspector of the southern district, in his report to the government makes the complaint that while many towns paid their teachers religiously, others did not. He also reported the fact that many teachers had to pay their own house rent from their small salaries.® Teachers’ Pensions. Toward the end of the period, in 1894, the Spanish law of 1857, granting old age pensions to teachers, was made applicable to Porto Rico. In case of the death of the teacher, the widow or orphans were pensioned. By this law, normal school teachers, inspectors and teachers of public primary instruction were after twenty, twenty-five, thirty and thirty-five years of service, pen- sioned the amount of the pension depending on the years of ser- vice. °° , Administration: The Provincial Junta. The administration of education was very little changed by this decree from that of 1865. The Superior Junta of public instruction was now designated as the Provincial Junta. It was composed of the president, who was the Governor, and twelve other members, among whom were the Di- rector of the Civil Institute, the Director of the men’s normal school, the inspector of the district, a priest and four heads of families.” A secretary was appointed, nota member of the junta, and a salaried off- cer.” Provincial Junta was the highest educational authority in the Island and had charge of all matters concerning primary education. In practice the Governor controlled this body, all circulars were issued and signed by him, and the Junta was merely an advisory body to the Governor. The Local Juntas. The local juntas of the 1865 decree retained the same name under a different constitution. They were composed of the mayor of the town as president, a member of the city council, the Moreno: Retribuciones, P. R., 8 de Octubre de 1884, p. 391. *’Moreno: See circulars entitled “‘Pagos’’ in pages 840 to 851. °*Infiesta: Memoria con los cuadros de ensefianza y estadisticos correspondientes, que sobre el estado de la instruccién primaria, en el distrito de esta Provincia, presenta epithe General de la misma. Puerto Rico, Tip. El Comercio, Fortaleza 48, 5) De (Bee **Moreno: Derechos Pasivos, Rea] Decreto de 1 de Febrero de 1894, p. 747-753. “Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art., 87, p. 399. “Tbid., Art., 92, p. 402. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 83 parish priest and three heads of families, where the population of the municipality was ten thousand inhabitants or less. An additional member was allowed for every 4000 inhabitants above this number.” The duties of the local boards were similar to those of the same bodies in the 1865 decree, special emphasis being placed on their supervisory powers. The supervision of education in the municipalities, whether public or private, was in their hands. They had the power to sus- pend teachers in public as well as in private schools. As a general rule they did not attend to take their supervisory duties. As a result the circulars sent out by the Governor, urging upon these bodies to perform their duties, were many.” Mr. Infiesta, in the same report already quoted has the following to say about the local juntas of public instruction: The present school legislation imposes certain supervisory duties on the local juntas. They do not always fulfill their duties. I am not the only one to say so. The professional press says so every day; Governor Despujol said so; Governor La Portilla said so after his visit through the Island; Governor Vega Inclan said so.on April 30, 1883, and your Excellency on April 4, 1884 expressed satisfaction with the work that had been done, and pointed out the things that remained to be done. Then, he goes on and points out that the juntas met once a month, kept their records well and named one of their number to in- spect the schools, thus complying with articles 106, 107 and 108 of the Organic Decree. He says: However, if it is so in the minutes, and if these corporations really take such action, it must be said that their actions are not carried out in practice in most of the towns. With few exceptions the school registers, and especially those of the rural schools, show that the schools are not visited by the juntas. In some of the towns the visits are recorded, but they were never made in school. . . .In places where there are auxiliary committees, .1t would be better that they be suppressed. The records of these committees in the school registers are ridiculous, with many mis- spelled words and without any sense. In Ceiba, for example, I noticed that some members of the local juntas, beginning with the only representative of the town council, did not know how to write. In many of the towns the school is never visited except on examination day.” Inspection. Regarding inspection, the decree gave the right of inspection to the government in the following words: The government will exercise inspection and vigilance over the establishments of instruction, be they public or private, by means of two inspectors, who will be the government’s special representatives. The civil authorities will see as one of their ?2Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 96-97, p. 403. Moreno: See circulars printed on pages 430-440. “Infiesta, op. cit., pp. 28-29. S84 Education in Porto Rico important responsibilities that neither in the public nor in the private schools any impediment will be placed in the way of either the Reverend Bishop or his special representative in the government of the diocese, or of the priests, in the practice of their special ministry. They are to watch over the purity of doctrine, faith and customs.’5 As before, the Island was divided into two districts, north and south, with headquarters in San Juan and Ponce, respectively.” There were thirty-seven towns in the northern district and _thirty- two in the southern.” The distribution of the towns in each district was changed slightly, later, but not enough to change the system. The inspectors were appointed by the Governor General. The qualifications for the inspectors were, a normal school education, with five years experience in a public superior school, or eleven years in a private superior school. In case of lack of men with that prep- aration, inspectors were to be named from among superior teachers with eight years experience.”® After April 9, 1892, the inspectors were named by the crown, from among men teachers holding a normal school certificate of either elementary or superior grade.’® The remuneration of the inspectors was 1600 pesos salary, 100 pesos for stationery and 500 pesos for travelling expenses per annum.®? They were to visit all the town schools and at least half of the rural schools every year.8! The inspectors were the confidentialagents of the government to visit, watch the activities of the schools and report to the government. School Buildings. No school buildings were erected during the period. Some of the municipalities bought buildings for school pur- poses, but very few. The majority of the municipalities rented buildings for schools as well as for teachers’ residences. Generally classes were held in the largest room of the teachers residence, called platsale. The buildings were all poor and generally not fit for the purpose. Governor General Vega Inclan, in a visit of inspection, found this true. He recommended to the municipalities to buy buildings which Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Arts. 79-80, p. 392. *Ibid., Art. 81, p. 393 “Moreno: Decreto Organico, Reglamento de Inspectores Provinciales de Primera Ensefianza, pp. 440-41. ‘8Moreno: Decreto Organico, Art. 82, p. 393. ™8Moreno: Inspectores, Real Orden de 9 de Abril de 1892, p. 393-94. 80Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Art. 83, p. 394. §\Moreno: Visitas de Inspeccién, Puerto Rico. 27 de Abril, 1886, p. 398-99. “Moreno: Decreto Orgdnico, Reglamento de Inspectores Provinciales de Primera Ensefianza, pp. 440-49. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 85 were fit to be used asschoolhouses. Calling the attention of the muni- cipalities especially to the rural school buildings, he asked them to rent better buildings even if they had to increase their appropriations for rent. In 1888 the government requested the municipalities to make appropriations for school buildings.** The same year the government prepared and issued three plans for school houses but nothing was done either by the municipalities or by the insular govern- ment. In the report already quoted Mr. Infiesta has the following to say about school buildings in the southern district, which is representative of the whole Island at that time. Referring to rural school houses, he says: The huts set aside as places to instruct the young look more like miserable hog pens than institutions of learning, many of them with yagua and palma floors, narrow and small, without light, without a place to hang a chart or a blackboard. . . . the children crowded like big bundles in a house used for storage the teachers have not enough room to divide the school into sections, nor any opportunity to develop any sort of method, nor is it possible to work in such places with any advantage. Some of these houses are not worth their annual rent. Occasionally a local junta changes a rural school house from one barrio to another, because the owner of the house wants the place vacated. This moving around nullifies the efforts of the teachers and the municipalities. Regarding the urban school buildings, the inspectors said that the majority were not suitable for school houses.* Supplies and Equipment. As to school supplies, all the municipali- ties were under the obligation of providing them for the poor children, and the local juntas were the bodies authorized to see the law carried out. As the municipalities failed to provide the schools with sup- plies, Governor General Vega Incl4n requested them to pay the teachers every month an extra allowance for supplies.” ‘In spite of all this most of the pupils bought their own supplies. Mr. Infiesta reports the condition of school supplies in his district, thus: The schools are in urgent need of furniture; many do not have a chair for the teacher, nor a crucifix, nor chart, nor clock, nor shelves, nor the tables and benches _ needed, nor a book-case. . . When I began my work as inspector we had none of the Moreno: Instruccién Publica, Abril 30, 1883, p. 329. _ “Moreno: Proyectos de Edificios para Escuelas, Puerto Rico, Agosto 8, 1888, pp. 387-89. SInfiesta, op. cit., p. 19. ' 8 Moreno: Decreto Organico, Reglamento para las Juntas Locales de Instruccién, p. 427. 8™Moreno: Instruccién Publica, Puerto Rico, Abril 30, 1883, p. 330. 86 Education in Porto Rico furniture we have today, but the government supplied the superior schools with good supplies, distributed maps among the elementary schools, and the rest of the equipment has been supplied by the towns themselves from their small appropria- tion. . .not all towns show such lack of interest, Ponce, Juana Diaz, Salinas, Maunabo, Caguas, Yauco, Fajardo, Luquillo, Piedras, and others, have spent money in supplies.® Education Under the Autonomous Government. 1898. ‘The Organic Decree of 1880 was in force until February 11, 1898, when the au- tonomous constitution went into effect, which declared that a colony had full authority to establish its own system of education. At this time the Spanish school law of 1857 went into operation in Porto Rico. ‘The department of education was placed in the hands of Mr. Manuel F. Rossy and Dr. José C. Barbosa, who immediately began to reform education. There was substituted for the Provincial Junta a Council of Public Instruction whose function was to give information and make suggestions in connection with all the ques- tions relating to public schools. The Council consisted of thiry-six members, divided into three sections, and charged with matters pertaining to primary, secondary and professional education, and belles-lettres. They commenced the necessary statistical work for the projected reform. However, soon dissensions arose among the government officials, the members of the Provincial Junta, and the Council of Public Instruction, to the ex- tent that the latter resigned their positions July 22 of the same year.®® By this time the war with the United States was on, and education as well as every other phase of the insular life was in a chaotic condition. CoNDITION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN 1898 The Organic Decree of General Despujol, 1880, was not in force when the United States took possession of the Island, but since the autonomous government had not had time to establish any school organization, what the United States found in 1898 was the fruit of the 1880 decree. The educational conditons in Porto Rico at that time should show what the decree had accomplished. The opinions given here regarding educational conditions in 1898 are either those of Porto Ricans or of committees composed of Porto Ricans and Americans. Report on How the Political Conditions Reflected on Education. Re- 88[nfiesta, op. cit., jahalsy 4 8956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 137. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 87 garding the political conditions of the period, Mr. Enrique C. Her- nandez, Secretary of the Insular Board of Education in 1898, in his report to the President of the same body says: The political and religious persecution that began in the island upon the restora- tion of the monarchy and that had such unfortunate results upon public instruction, continued to increase. There was established here a species of political inquisition by a Conservative or unconditional Spanish party, as it was called, in order to distinguish its members from those Porto Ricans who desired to remain under Spanish sovereignty upon conditions that Porto Rico should possess the same rights as the other Spanish provinces. The purpose of this inquisition was to preserve the supremacy of the party in the government and to secure for its members all the positions, so that Porto Ricans were excluded practically from all public offices of importance unless they happened to be members of this party. The same persecutions made themselves felt in school affairs. Teachers whose political or religious ideas differed from those maintained by the party were sooner or later deprived of their schools. As proof of this, and in order that the standpoint of the government may be seen, we copy the following statement of its policy from the reports of one of its inspectors, Dor Juan Macho Moreno. . . .“The mission of an Inspector of primary instruction in these countries distant from the motherland, and influenced by currents of thought, censurable—if we may not apply to them the stronger terms of pernicious—demands, duties and conditions which can only be satisfied completely by those officers who are fully inspired with the fervor of patriot- ism, who have the strength of will to meet all opposition which their ideals must encounter, able to discover the social wound where it exists, more or less hidden, and to apply to it with all the energy that the gravity of the circumstances demands an effective cauterization. It is the duty of the inspectors to apply all their energy and ability to the task of decapitating this hydra that poisons all its surroundings, and it is the duty of the governor to take the first precautions. In this connection mere verbal expression of unconditional adhesion to our principles is not enough, there must be deeds and actual proofs.’ Report on Administration. Regarding the administration of edu- cation, as provided by the Organic Decree of 1880, and as it worked out in practice, the same report says: If the latter (the 1880 decree) appeared upon the surface to show due deference to local authorities in matters of public instruction, in its practical workings it placed everything in the hands of the governor. As already mentioned, local juntas were composed of the alcade, a municipal councilman,the priest and three heads of families, or more, according to the population of the district. Without reference to the size of the latter, the persons chosen to fill these positions were, as a rule, those who were least eminent for their intelligence and education, and it was not unusual to find members of the local board who knew neither how to read nor how to write. So it happened that the administration of the schools fell practically into the hands of the alcades, the councilman and the priest, or rather into the hands of the first of these, who, as president of the junta of instruction and of the ayuntamiento, the two bodies controlling school matters, possessed practically absolute authority. This 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 135. 88 Education in Porto Rico was especially the case where, in many instances, the alcade was appointed by the Governor. The Provincial Junta, whose principal members were officials of the administration, was a bureaucratic body, without any independence or prestige in the minds of the public, and extremely docile to all the orders of the President. Thus it happened that the Governor exercised practically absolute authority in the appointment and dismissal of teachers, in the creation and suspension of additional institutions, and, in a word, in all that referred to public instruction.*! Report on the Teaching Force. With reference to the teaching personnel, the report says: If we consider the teaching force, we find as a rule that certificates and appoint- ments were given for political rather than for professional qualifications. In an examination the recommendation of an influential patron held more weight than the merits of an examinee. People fancied that these abuses would be corrected when the normal schools were established, in 1891, but in a short time these too were discredited, and as the number of pupils that entered them was very limited, the examination requirements became more lax and recommendations came to have more and more influence with the teachers. We do not wish to be understood as saying that all teachers were worthless. There were many, as there are at the present time, with real ability and true devotion to their work. But the greater number of them were exactly the reverse. In a report presented to General Eaton the 20th of January, 1899, by a teacher and inspector, Mr. José Francisco Diaz, speaking of the condition of Porto Rican teachers before the occupation of the island by the Americans says: “We have here, as a rule, good men and women teachers. If there are occasions where they fail to fulfill their duty this is caused by the neglect and disregard which they have suffered. They were not paid, they were not re- spected or encouraged in their work. They were not provided with means of in- struction. Most of them occupied mere huts in place of houses, and, to cap the climax, they were persecuted upon suspicion of political and religious heresy and were not allowed to develop any form of instruction in harmony with the results of scientific study and experience. In this absolute lack of any system, which, so far as the public welfare is concerned does not exist, the teacher naturally has at times deserted his calling, or has failed to pursue it in the right manner. Few occupy themselves in developing the observation and judgment of the child, in training his reason, in guiding his imagination, in cultivating his aesthetic ideal, in forming his character, in a word, in anything that does not have an immediate effect in making him pass his examination’. °? Report on the Normal School. 'The committee which investigated the work of the normal school for women in 1899 reports: This school was founded in 1890, and has an attendance of 50 students. For admission there is an examination in the subjects taught in the elementary schools. A course of three years is required for an examination for permission to teach in the elementary schools. The time is chiefly occupied with academic studies and only a limited course is given in methods. A practice school is required by law, but prac- tical training is neglected. A candidate, to obtain a certificate for teachingin an 156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 134. 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 136. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 89 auxiliary school, or rural school, must pass an examination during the months of June or September, in Spanish Grammar, arithmetic, reading, writing and dicta- tion exercises ... The school is practically without teaching material, there being but a few maps and charts. There is neither laboratory nor library and but few text books or other essentials to school work. With reference to the instruction in the normal school, the commit- tee says: The pupils of this school were taught without books, by lectures, which were dictated one day and recited the next, and by conversation. The reason given for the absence of books was that the girls were too poor to buy them. All the work seemed of the most elementary character. The note-books were very poorly kept, in pencil, and there was no evidence seen that they had ever been corrected. Stu- dents attend very irregularly and indeed it would seem that it is not a matter of much importance whether they attend or not, as all in time are graduated. There are some lectures given on pedagogy, but nothing was seen to convince the com- mission that this school can prepare anyone to teach, even in the most elementary branches.” This commission made no report on the normal school for men, but the same conditions prevailed in this as in the girls’ school. The general characteristics of the whole system, if it could be called such, was lack of interest and therefore neglect. Report on General Educational Conditions. Mr. Enrique C. Her- nandez, in his report already referred to, gives a general view of educational conditions in 1898, in the following words: It is seen that public instruction was in the same position in Porto Rico when Spanish sovereignty ceased that it had been eighteen years ago when the organic decree of 1880 went into effect. The larger number of schools and the larger attend- ance of pupils indicated in the statistics, signified little when the organization of the schools and the methods of instruction were completely neglected, and there was no provision made for school buildings or for any of the aids necessary to effective in- struction. Admission to the public schools, while open to both sexes in the town, was only granted to boys in the country. Co-education was regarded as a very dangerous experiment, and as there was no rural schools for girls, the latter naturally did not participate in the benefits of education. Speaking of the necessity of es- tablishing schools of this character, General Despujol, in one of his letters to the colonial minister, says: ‘As a general proposition I favor establishing rural schools for girls. As arule, population is scattered in remote and inaccessible places with- out religious instruction or moral restraint, and family unions are formed without the sanction of the sacraments or of the laws, and are of a more or less temporary charac- ter; so that it may be said that the family, in our sense of the word, does not exist in the rural districts of Porto Rico. This is, perhaps the principal obstacle to its future progress. It is easy to understand what an influence to the advancement of Christian civilization would be a school established among these girls, who are one 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 24. “56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 25-26. 90 Education in Porto Rico time to be the mothers of a new generation. But to have these children attend these distant schools, under conditions now existing, would be, in the opinion of many people whom I have consulted, occasion of greater evil than good, and a detrimental influence on the morals of the community! These same conditions were reported a thousand times during the eighteen years that the decree was in force, and indicate how little real study was given to the question of instruction by the Government, whose main interest was that its statistical reports sent to Madrid should always indicate some increase in the number of pupils and schools. The principal argument against co-education was the great danger that would result from the association of the sexes in the schools and the long distance from the homes of the children to those establishments; but at the same time that the educational administrators presented this argument they recognized the fact that the moral condition of the rural popula- tion could hardly be worse than it was then, even though co-education and schools for girls had been established. They never stopped to consider whether co-educa- tion and girls’ schools might not have diminished the evil that they so severely cen- sured. ® : Statistical Data for the Period. ‘The statistics available will give a clearer view of conditions during the period under consideration and in 1898. On July 1; 1881, at the beginning of the period, there were 384 schools for boys and 117 for girls, a total of 501 schools. There attended these schools 10,025 boys and 6,095 girls, a total of 24,120. The expense for these schools were, for personnel 191,424 pesos; for supplies, 71,245 pesos, or a total of 262,669 pesos. On January 1, 1886, there were 408 schools for boys and 127 for girls, making a total of 535 schools. There attended these schools 18,194 boys and 7,183 girls, a total of 25,377 pupils. The expenses were: Personnel, 221,648 pesos; supplies, 88,768 pesos, a total of 310,434 pesos. Besides there were 11 schools for adults, with an attendance of 433 pupils; 38 private schools, with an attendance of 1,670 pupils. The total number of schools, both private and public, was 584 with a total attendance of 27,480 pupils.” On June 30, 1898, there were in existance in Porto Rico 380 public schools for boys, 148 for girls, 1 for adults, and 26 private schools, having an enrollment of 44,861 pupils. The total amount annually expended, including the subsidy granted by the insular government to private schools, was 309,810.75 pesos or $185,886.45.% Summary. Although these reports present a very dark picture of educational conditions in Porto Rico at the time of the American occupation, and those conditions were the fruits of the 1880 decree, %56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 1386-137. %Moreno: Estadistica, Puerto Rico, 2 de Julio de 1881. Infiesta, op. cit., p. 36. War Department, Report of the Census of Porto Rico, 1899. p, 72. Reorganization of Elementary Education (1880-1898) 91 in operation for almost twenty years, yet, in evaluating educational progress, conditions before 1880 must be kept in mind as they form the basis forcomparison. It must not be forgotten either that Porto Rico was a Spanish colony and that educational conditions could hardly be expected to have been better than in Spain. The tendency of the government reports made at the time of the American occupa- tion is to make a comparison, having in mind conditions in the United States; but Porto Rico was a Spanish colony and not an American colony before 1898 and the traditions of her culture were very dif- ferent from those of the United States. In spite of the backward educational conditions presented, a care- ful perusal of the facts revealed in this period will show distinct educa- tional progress. School organization, poor as it was, with elementary and superior schools overlapping each other, was better than before, for although the decree of 1865 tried to organize the schools, its provisions were not put into operation for any length of time. In- terest in education was manifested more than before and more at- tention was given to the establishment of schools, both urban and rural, as well as to their support. While school inspection had received very little attention before, and was generally left to the local authorities, during this period special experienced teachers were appointed as school inspectors, who actually inspected the schools and reported to the government. The work of the inspectors left much to be desired, but they did their work as efficiently as their Spanish colleagues in the mother country. The first and only normal schools in the history of the Island were established during this period, which was a forward step in teacher training. Poor as the training was, it was something which had not been done before, and as good as the training received by the teachers in Spain. Considering their preparation, teachers were as well paid as in Spain and other countries, while the pupils’ fees and presents increased their salaries considerably. ' Much has been said and written against the efficiency of the teachers before the American occupation, and the major part of that criticism is just, judged from American standards for teachers. But the teachers of the time had no American standards to compete with or live up to, and it must not be forgotten that there were good teachers as well as poor ones. Unlike today in Porto Rico and in the United States, teaching was a profession and not a stepping stone to something else, often called 92 Education in Porto Rico ‘something higher.”” Men and women prepared themselves to teach as a life work and became old in the classroom. Educational con- ditions in 1898, although backward, were as good as in Spain and as good as could be expected in a Spanish colony. CHAPTER VI SECONDARY AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION DURING THE SPANISH REGIME (1820-1898) Secondary and Professional Education in 1818. The state of second- ary and professional education in 1818 is described by Don Pedro Tomas de Cérdoba in the following words: What is really needed is the Seminary of the Diocese. Porto Rico lacks such an important irstitution, and her children have to beg for knowledge so necessary to society in other countries. If it were not for the Franciscan and Dominican brethren, who so commendably devote themselves to the instruction of the young, there would be no schools to mold the minds of the young men and to teach them to be men, useful to their country and to the fatherland. Formerly the Porto Rican youth received their education in the universities of Santo Domingo and Caracas, but due to the misfortune these countries have gone through lately, the Porto Ricans have been deprived of this benefit; and although the studies in these universities have been re-established, yet it will be some time before they will have the standard they used to have.! Secondary and Professional Education, 1820-1823. With the rise of the Liberals in Spain on March 12, 1820, the schools of the Church lost their government support and were closed, thus leaving Porto Rico without a school where her children could pursue a secondary or professional education. ‘The state of education between 1820 and 1823 is portrayed in the following paragraphs from a report of the San Juan ayuntamiento a few years later, urging the necessity of establishing a good college in the Island. The creation of the college is necessary, for there has always been a lack of oppor- tunity for study here, there having been no other than that furnished by the con- vents of Santo Domingo and San Francisco, where only Latin, philosophy and theology were taught. To obtain instruction in other sciences the young men were obliged to attend the university of the Spanish island of Santo Domingo or that of CarAcas, which but few were able to do on account of the large expense of travel and living away from their homes. But the lot of the youths and their affectionate parents was still harder when they Ide Cérdoba, op. cit., p. 320. (93) 94 Education in Porto Rico found themselves deprived of these unsatisfactory and costly resources through the transfer of Santo Domingo to foreign domination, the peninsula also invaded in 1808, and the province of Cardcas overcome by the melancholy and lamentable 19th of April, 1820... From that time the youth of this island have lamented the loss of all means of education ... Afterward came the terrible calamity of March 1820 (The Con- stitutional or Liberal Cortes of the year 1820), Here the cloisters even were deserted, the classes in Latin, philosophy and theology were ended, and youth bemoaned bitterly its intellectual desolation. Wealthy parents found neither aid nor resource for the education of their children, who re- mained here isolated and reduced to equality with the unfortunate and helpless. . or they found themselves impelled by necessity or unhappy fate to send them to North America to be educated as well as possible, the remedy being worse than the disease itself which they were trying. to avoid. Educational Agencies. After 1825 the schools were restored to the church orders, which continued their work as before. In the mean- time the Economic Society had begun its activities in education, both primary and secondary. These two agencies, the Church and the Economic Society, other private organizations, and the government, were the agencies active in secondary and professional education in Porto Rico during the nineteenth century. To facilitate this study, this chapter will treat the activities of these three agencies under three sections, that is, the activites of the church, private initiative, and government activity. A. ACTIVITIES OF THE CHURCH Before the rise of the Liberals in Spain, in 1819, the Franciscan — friars founded in their convent in San Juan a chair of theology, which continued until 1839.3 After 1823 they opened their schools again and began to improve them. In January 1825, Vicar-general An- drade founded a Latin school with chairs of Latin, philosophy, moral and dogmatic theology, and civil and canon law.‘ This school did not last long, for in 1826 the bishop of Porto Rico, Dr. Rodriguez de Olmedo, was appointed to the archbishopric of Cuba, while Dr. Don Pedro Gutierrez de Cos substituted him in the diocese of Porto Rico. He began immediately to establish a theological seminary and soon merged the chairs of the Latin school into the diocesean seminary, which *Students who studied in the United States were charged with returning full of radi- cal and pernicious ideas. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 112. *56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 111. ‘There is a difference of opinion as to the date of founding this school and the curriculum it offered. As to the date, two authorities give 1825, while one gives 1824; Brau gives only the following chairs: Philosophy, dogmatic theology and eccle- siastical liturgy. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 118. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 95 he established, and which was opened to the public at the beginning of the academic year 1832. In the autumn of that year a building was erected near the episcopal mansion at the cost of 41,000 pesos, to house the seminary. Among the professors in the seminary were two notable Porto Ricans, friar Angel de la Concepcion Vasquez, born in Juncos, who was the first rector of the Seminary and Dr. Juan Francisco Jimenez, a native of Cabo-Rojo.® Although the seminaries in all countries are founded primarily to prepare young men for the priesthood, thus having the stamp of a professional school, yet they are in fact secondary schools as well as professional schools. The age of entrance at the seminary at San Juan was twelve years; the child pursued a preparatory course before he entered into the studies of the priesthood. Many boys who entered the seminary left at the end of their preparatory course, not wishing to continue the clerical profession; hence many professional men received their preparation for the university at the diocesean seminary. Los Escolapios. In 1837 the Escolapian Brethren, (Escolapios), a teaching order of the Church, opened in San Juan a college called ““Liceo de San Juan” or San Juan Lyceum, which was inaugurated with marked enthusiasm. The college received both boarding and day students, thus giving an opportunity to people outside of San Juan to send their children to this college and be cared for by the priests. It offered courses in primary and secondary education. The secondary curriculum embraced the following subjects: Elemen- tary algebra and geometry, geography, Latin, rhetoric, French, Italian, drawing, music, surveying and commercial arithmetic. The College extended its influence and opened another “‘liceo”’ in San Juan, and still another in Mayagtiez.6 This order of the Church was active all through the century and toward the end received con- siderable material help from the government. In 1895 it opened a school in Santurce, under the name of “‘Escuelas Pias,”’ in the building formerly occupied by the Jesuit fathers. They received an appropri- ation from the government of 12,940 pesos per annum and taught the primary and secondary subjects.’ Cooperative Activities of Church and Government. The activities of the religious orders continued all during the century; such activities, however, are so mingled with the official activities of the government ®Brau, op. cit., p. 243. 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 114. TIbid., p. 140. . 96 Education in Porto Rico that it seems more logical to consider them under the section on government initiative, as the recognition and subsidy from the government made them more efficient and broadened their usefulness. There is another institution, which although subsidized by the govern- ment to the extent of 3000 pesos a year, had its sphere of action pri- marily within the Church and should be considered in this section. It was the College of the Mothers of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, a school for girls, opened in 1880, and located in Santurce in a building constructed especially for its use. General Information About the Church Schools. Some information of 1895 is available regarding the two preceding schools. The di- rector of the Institute of Secondary Education, in the annual report of that institution, says of the Escolapian Brethren: The men who make up this religious order by virtue of their moderate customs, excessive modesty and absolute divorce from civil and political strife, have deserved always the consideration of our governments, to the extent that when in 1834 the mob desecrated the convents in Madrid, and in some of the provinces, and in 1835 the government decreed the expulsion of the regular clergy, the only religious order that deserved the respect of these, was that of the ‘Escuelas Pias.’ Referring to this institution as well as to that of the Sisters, he said: Santurce, the most favored barrio of this capital, counts today, thanks to the magnanimity of Providence, with two colleges; the college of the Mothers of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, where our daughters acquire sound instruction, based on the principles of religion and the family, and that of the Escolapian Brethrem, where our children will receive physical, intellectual and religious and moral education, equal to that given under modern methods of teaching in the most advanced countries.® B. Private INITIATIVE All through the century there were private schools about which little is known. Wealthy parents kept private tutors for their children or sent them to Cuba, Spain, and other parts of Europe, and even to the United States, to pursue secondary and university studies. Private Educational Agencies. When the private educational ac- tivities are considered, the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country stands out more prominently than any other corporation, society or individual, for it was this society (the agency) which gave 8Instituto de Segunda Ensefianza de Puerto Rico. Memoria del curso de 1894— 1895, leida en la solemne apertura del curso de 1895 a 1896, por Don Santiago Hita y Comas, Catedrdtico numerario y Secretario, Precedida del discurso leido en dicho acto por Don Jaime Comas y Muntaner, Catedrdtico Numerario y Director del In- stituto, San Juan, P. R. Tip. Boletin Mercantil, 1896, p. 3. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 97 inspiration and life to every educational movement during the major part of the nineteenth century, and it was this society that contributed most towards improving education, not only by its activities, but also by its moral support of everything which aimed to lift the moral and intellectual level of the people of the Island. However, there were other private agencies which must be men- tioned in a study of secondary and professional education. These are:—The Economic Board of Public Works and Commerce (Junta Econdémica de Fomento y Comercio), and the activities of the Athe- neum of Porto Rico (El Ateneo de Puerto Rico). Private institu- tions allied with the Institute of Secondary Education will be con- sidered in relation to that mstitution. Actwities of the Economic Society in Secondary Education. The origin of the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country, as well as its activities before 1820, have already been mentioned in Chap- ter II. Although it had a program, it did not accomplish much, owing to the political conditions at that time. It began its activities during the government of the Liberals, when Porto Rico became desti- tute of any means of education. In 1822 it established chairs of mathematics, drawing and grammar; in 1823 a chair of jurisprudence, and in 1824 another chair of grammar. The chairs of mathematics and drawing continued for a long time; not so the others, which were revived from time to time, but were not as constant in their success as were the first two.° El Padre Rufo. In the latter part of the year 1832 Father Rufo Manuel Fernandez was appointed canon of the San Juan cathedral. ““E] Padre Rufo,”’ as he was called by his pupils, admirers and friends, was professor of experimental physics in the University of Santiago, Santiago, Spain, when the absolutist reaction of 1823 persecuted all those who had taken part directly or indirectly in the revolutionary movement. Because of his political and scientific ideas, Padre Rufo was a victim of the reaction and was left without his professorship. He was persecuted, imprisoned, and wandered about for many years until 1832, when he was sent to Porto Rico. As soon as he arrived he surrounded himself with youths whom he initiated in the natural sciences. He sent to foreign countries for the necessary apparatus for a physical and chemical laboratory. The Economic Society availed itself of the opportunity and encouraged and supported Padre Rufo in his work. Under the protection of the society he labored for many 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 113. 98 Education in Porto Rico years in the Island, contributed a great deal to education, inspired many young men to pursue a higher education, guiding them in their pursuits.!° Mr. Enrique C. Hernandez, already quoted, says the following about Padre Rufo and his work: A man of vast knowledge and unlimited love of education, to which he consecrated his life and his money; a broad mind, in which the liberal ideas of his epoch germi- nated quickly; a heart always open to whatever signified progress and aid for the destitute. In 1844, when the Count of Mirasol came to the Island, as its Governor General, the Economic Society was at the height of its usefulness. To the chairs of mathematics and drawing already mentioned it had added several others in the course of the twenty years, and at this time it offered the following course: Arithmetic, algebra, elementary geography, drawing, French, English, rhetoric, geography, physical chemistry and commercial arithmetic. The Diocesean Seminary at this time was run down, while the courses of the Economic Society were most popular and successful. The Society was very much in need of adequate quarters to hold its classes, so in 1843 the Seminary and the Economic Society were authorized to unite. The Society held its classes on the lower floor of the Seminary building and was attended by some of the Seminary stu- dents,” in spite of the fact that the ecclesiastical chapter had already pronounced its anathema on the study of science. Attempts to Establish a College. Father Rufo recommended to the Economic Society the establishment of a college in the Island, where university studies might be pursued. The Count of Mirasol received the idea with much enthusiasm, and in June 27, 1844, the Society considered the project in one of its sessions. It was decided to es- tablish a college, to be called the Central College. As there were no means to establish and maintain such an institution, a popular subscrip- tion was opened by the Governor General, which amounted to 23,796 pesos, of which 8,659 were collected the following year, and the Econom- ic Society offered to contribute 1,600 pesos annually toward its maintenance. There were no teachers for the college, so a member of the Economic Society, Don Florentino Cumbernat, proposed that the Society should send young men to Europe to study agronomy on 10Figueroa, S., Ensayo Biogrdfico de los que mas han contribuido al progreso de Puerto Rico, pp. 127-36. 156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 114. 256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 115. Also compare Elzaburu, op. cit., pp. 16-17. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 99 condition that on their return they should teachin thecollege. Father Rufo promised to send and support his two best pupils; one of them was to study new methods of teaching in Spain, France and Belgium, andjthe other the natural sciences. Early in 1846, four young men set out for Spain, Eduardo Micauet, Julian Nufiez, José Julian Acosta, and Roman Baldorioty de Castro. The first two died in Madrid soon after their arrival and the other two returned to the Island in 1852 and began work for the welfare of their fellow citizens. This was the only practical result of the movement toward the es- tablishment of the college, for the idea of the college died out, and in 1848 the money collected was returned to the subscribers.” Petition for Secondary Education and Results. In 1846 the Economic Society petitioned the government to establish at its own expense the studies of secondary education as in Spain. ‘The report of the At- torney General the following year shows what became of the petition: On the 10th of September, 1846, the subscriber had the honor of giving his opinion to the ex-Sefior Captain General, Count of Mirasol. . . .He thought that there were great difficulties in the way of giving the necessary breadth to instruction and that new literary establishments should not be considered, although primary instruction should be provided, and we should try to give the natives of the island teaching auxiliary to commerce and agriculture. Today he will add that it should not be forgotten that in this capital there is a seminary (Consiliar) where, besides the in- struction especially pertaining to this institution, they teach mathematics, drawing, the French and English languages, physics and chemistry, whose professors are paid by the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country. This establishment, properly organized, would satisfy the necessities of the epoch very well, without at present going to the expense of any others, which could not be sustained, owing to the want of necessary means. Therefore, primary instruction and a part of the branches of secondary instruction should be the only basis of any plan of studies which may be formed."4 The Jesuits. The Economic Society continued its classes in the lower floor of the Diocesean Seminary until 1858, when the Jesuits took charge of secondary education in the Island. The influence of the Jesuits began to spread more and more, and little by little the professors of the Seminary and the teachers of the Economic Society” were turned out of the Seminary building. As the work of the Jesuits began to supply the needs of secondary education, the work of the Economic Society began to decline. However, it continued its work of supporting the activities it had already begun, and gave advice concerning educational policies. In its last years, toward the end of 856th Cong. S. D. 363, pp. 115-16; Brau, op. cit., p: 252. “56th Cotig. S. D. 363, p. 116. bThid., p. 122. 100 Education in Porto Rico the Spanish dominion, it established various free courses, among them book-keeping and other studies required of naval machinists.!® Asociacion de Damas para La Instruccion de la Mujer. In 1886 there was a movement among some influential women to estab- lish an association for the education of women. ‘The association was formed, with the following aim: ““To provide the daughters of poor families, or moderately situated families, who wish an education, the means to acquire it, leading toward a profession such as teachers in public or private schools.”” After the adoption of a constitution the matter was dropped. La Sociedad Protectora de la Inteligencia. Although Porto Rico never had a university, yet all through its history university courses had been demanded by those who were not able to send their chil- dren to the Spanish universities. The chief reason the government gave against the establishment of such an institution was lack of funds. As a refutation to this argument, in 1879 the physicians, lawyers and pharmacists of the Island petitioned the government at Madrid for authority to establish a university, offering their services to teach gratuitously. The request was refused.!® Those interested in the secondary and higher education of the youth continued their efforts and founded in 1880 “‘La Sociedad Protectora de la Inteligen- cia,” The Society for the Protection of the Intelligence. This society continued its activities until secondary and higher education was provided by the government of the United States. During the years of its existence it provided means for many young men to se- cure a secondary and higher education in either the United States or Europe.!® Attempt to Establish University Studies. The efforts to establish university studies continued and in April, 1887, the matter was considered by the Provincial Deputation, the members of which, after long discussion and debate, ended with the following resolution: This body will “remind the Supreme Government that it should act promptly on the petition to establish a university in the island.’’?° The same year there was a movement to establish a private university allied to the university of Havana, that is, the students were to re- ceive their instruction in the Island, but as registered students of the University of Havana, and were to go there to be examined. As 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 140. “Reglanemto de la Asociacién de Damas para la Instruccién de la Mujer, p. 5. 1856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 140-41. 1956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 141. *0Elzaburu, op. cit., pp. 27-28. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 101 there was no place to hold the classes, Don Manuel Elzaburu, Presi- dent of the Porto Rican Atheneum, proposed that this institution be made the center of the university studies.?! El Ateneo. The Atheneum is a scientific-literary society composed of members from the intellectual class. Itisacenter of culture where conferences and lectures are given and every effort made for the ad- vancement of learning. The Porto Rican Atheneum was founded in 1876 and from its beginning it has labored for the intellectual progress of the Island, supported several chairs of learning, opened its hall to all persons able and willing to give public lectures, and has held an- nual scientific and literary contests. Uniwersity Studies in the Atheneum. The proposal of the President of the Atheneum to establish university studies within its walls was accepted. The officers drew up a plan as a basis to be followed and sent it to Madrid for the approval of the Central Government.” The government offered to pay the travelling expenses of a committee of professors from the University of Havana to come to Porto Rico to examine the students, thus facilitating matters still more. The university studies under the official name of Institution of Higher Studies were begun in the Atheneum at the beginning of the academic year 1888-1889."4 The inauguration took place October 10, 1888, with an address He the president of the Atheneum. Thirty-three students registered the ~ 21Elzaburu, op. cit., p. 30. 2Thid., p. 30. BT bid pos 4Faculty of Philosophy and Letters: Metaphysics: Don Julio Ma. Padilla, Licentiate in Laws and Philosophy and Let- ters. Universal History: Don José Julian Acosta, Licentiate in Sciences. _ General Literature: Don Alberto Regulez y Sanz del Rio, Doctor of Philosophy and Letters. Greek Language: Don Enrique Alvarez Perez, Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters. Faculty of Laws. Metaphysics: Sr. Padilla. Spanish and General Literature: Dr. Regulez. Critical History of Spain: Don Manuel Tenés, Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters. Faculty of Medicine. Advanced Physics: Don Jaime Anunexi, Industrial Engineer. General Chemistry: Don José de Jesus Tizol, Doctor of Medicine and Surgery. Mineralogy and Botany: Don Agustin Stahl,-Doctor of Medicine and Surger y. Zoology: Dr. Stahl. Faculty of Sciences. Mathematical Analysis: Don Juan José Potous, Colonel (retired )of Inf. Geometry: Don Juan B. Rodriguez, Civil Engineer. General Chemistry: Dr. Tizol. Mineralogy and Botany: Dr. Stahl. Languages French: Don Leonides Villalén. German: Dr. Stahl. Etzaburu, op. cit., pp. 44-46. 102 Education in Porto Rico first year in the different faculties, and twenty-two in the second year. The university functioned for two years offermg university work, but as it proved financially burdensome to the government to bring pro- fessors from Havana to examine students and as there were also many unanticipated expenses, it was found necessary to confine the instruction to the secondary school subjects preparatory to admission to the University of Havana. After the academic year 1890-1891, the students pursued the secondary subjects and the government sent them to Havana to be examined. Since there were at this time the official Institute of Secondary Education and many other private secondary schools, these courses of the Atheneum im the secondary school subjects were not needed; as a result interest began to decline and the Institution of Higher Studies met a natural death. The most valuable and practical course offered by the Atheneum was one for midwives, conducted by Doctors Hernandez, Barbosa and Tizol.?5 C. GoOvERNMENT ACTIVITIES Belatedness of Government Activities. When it comes to govern- ment activity in secondary and professional education, the first thing noted is its belatedness, Attention has already been called to the efforts on the part of citizens of the Island ever since the middle of the eighteenth century, to establish a university or university studies. Refusal from the Madrid government was the answer to the pe- titions of the islanders. At last, in 1840, by royal order, the gov- ernment authorized the establishment of classes in law. On the fourth of September of the same year, the Governor General wrote the Lawyers Association for information on the subjects which were to be taught and the text books needed. Examinations were held the next year, and at least one, Don Benito Alonzo Diaz Perez, was authorized to practice law, as he was admitted to the Porto Rican bar, May 27, 1841.% Very little is known of the later history of these classes and like other movements of the same nature, it passed away unnoticed. Royal Sub-delegation of Pharmacy. It was not so, however, with the faculty of pharmacy, established in 1841, by the Royal Sub- delegation of Pharmacy. This faculty continued its work until December 1, 1898, when by order of the American Military Governor, it was abolished. The work of this body was confined mainly to examining candidates of pharmacy. The candidates generally studied 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 141. 6Elzaburu, op. cit., p. 21. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 103 by themselves or with some pharmacist working in the drug store, and thus received practical training. When they were ready for ex- amination they appeared before the sub-delegation of pharmacy. Many young men thus prepared themselves at home for their life work.”” Government Recognition of Church School. The next government move was for secondary education, May 3, 1851. By royal order, the government authorized the Seminary of the diocese to grant the degree of bachelor of philosophy upon the completion of a secondary course of study equal to that required in Spain.?® The Seminary was not prospering and something had to be done to save it. The authority of the government to grant degrees did not help very much, and the studies offered by the Economie Society proved more popular with the youth than those of the Seminary. A step forward was taken when the Jesuits were authorized to establish a secondary school in connection with the Seminary in 1858. One of the reasons for the establishment of these secondary studies was “‘to prevent the young men from going to the United States to secure their education, on account of the radical and pernicious ideas that they brought back with them.’’° The Jesuits. The support of the Jesuit school is clearly set forth in the following paragraph: Convinced of the feasibility and immediate necessity of establishing a secondary institute organized with the courses now required in Spain, in order that it may qualify students for the universities and institutions of the Kingdom, we believe that there is no measure more proper to secure this result than to found a Jesuit college to take supervision of such instruction, to be supported from the funds real- ized from the lease of the property of the monastic orders which is now at the dis- posal of the royal treasury, and with the endowments for masses and anniversaries, and for the support of shrines and other pious objects which have accrued to the benefit of the religious corporations of Santo Domingo and San Francisco.*° Thus was secondary education officially established, but it must be kept in mind that it was official because it was recognized by the government, but the administration of the school and the teachers were under the Jesuits and therefore a Church school. However, the young men of the Island had a place to go to school and their work was as valid as that of the state secondary schools. The Jesuits were allowed to use the Seminary building, together with the Seminary and the Economie Society. They became stronger ZIbid., p. 21. 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 121. 297ind., p. 122. 30Tbid. 104 Education in Porto Rico and stronger, began to gain the confidence of the people, their students seemed to get results, and soon they became the teachers of the best young men, for the boys that went to the Jesuits as students were from the best homes of the Island and from the moderately or well to do rather than from the poorer classes. As the Jesuits progressed the Economic Society began to decline, and even the doctors of the Seminary, the teachers of theology, were obliged to give up their classrooms to the new teachers, who remained masters of the situation, settled in the building of the Seminary, and remained there with much success until 1878, when the insular gov- ernment built for them a new building in Santurce.*! Their success was constant except during the period of the Republic, when they met with reverses from the Government, but this was not due to the lack of efficiency or effort but to political conditions. The Jesuits were the first to organize secondary education in the Island on a stable basis; they were the first to have a definite program for second- ary education, they were the first to provide teachers especially pre- pared for their work, and who devoted all of their time to the chil- dren; they were the first who made teaching and nothing else their business, hence their success. Sporadic Activities of the Government. From 1852 to 1860 there was a movement on the part of the government to establish a tech- nical school. Although the school was needed, the purpose was to create positions for José Julian Acosta and Roman Baldorioty de Castro, the two young men who had studied abroad and whom the government had promised to employ at the completion of their university course and return to the Island. As the young men re- turned from Spain and there was nothing for them to do, since the proposed Central College never materialized, the Governor General ordered the establishment and support of chairs in chemistry and mechanic arts, to be filled by the two young men concerned and to be the nucleus for an Industrial School. The following year they also taught classes in commercial and agricultural geography and botany, which were to be paid by the Economic Society and by the Board of Public Works and Commerce of San Juan (Junta de Fomento y Comercio). This board also planned to add courses in agriculture and commerce.” In 1857, the Madrid Government ordered the establishment of a special school of surveying and architecture, and it was thought: ad- 31I bid. 2Tbid., pp. 122-23. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 105 visable to gather all the scattered efforts of individuals and societies to make one good school. At last in 1860 a project was adopted for the establishment of such a school but there were not enough funds to support it, nor was there a building to house it. The project was abandoned as impracticable, but it was reeommended to continue the classes in agriculture, commerce, navigation and surveying. The report was submitted to the provincial and Madrid governments, but the negotiations ended and no school was founded.** Escuela Filotécnica. In the meantime Acosta and Baldorioty de Castro continued their activities in behalf of the moral and intellectual uplift of the people, but the political conditions of the time required much of their attention and they could not devote much time to teach- ing. After the restoration, when political conditions were quieter, in 1878 Baldorioty de Castro tried to found a school in Mayagtez under the name of “Escuela Filotécnica.’’ His aim was to establish a regular primary superior school, but with the privilege to make his own curriculum, which was more secondary than primary. After much correspondence and arguments pro and con, he was denied permis- sion to establish the school.*4 Secondary Education During the Period of Political Unrest. The Civil Institute of 1873, established during the Republic, had a short life, not having time to instruct its pupils one whole year be- fore General Sanz suppressed it. A secondary school after the type of those in Spain was not founded permanently until 1882, when the Institute of Secondary Education was founded, upon the model and upon the same basis as the Spanish institutions of the same category. In the meantime the Jesuits were in charge of secondary education in the Island, but their conflicts with the Liberals during the last two decades had hampered their popularity and had built a breach between them which widened more and more as the people of Porto Rico struggled for political independence. The need of an official institution for the province and separated from the Church, was evi- dent. Institute of Secondary Instruction. The Civil Provincial Institute of Secondary Instruction was founded by royal order, October 20, 1882, when the Governor General received a cable from the Minister of Ultramar, authorizing the opening of the school at the beginning of the month of November of the same year, and further authorizing the Governor to appoint temporarily the professors so that classes 356th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 123. 34Moreno: pp. 239-43. 106 Education in Porto Rico might begin at once.* The establishment and opening of the In- stitute was received with a great deal of enthusiasm by all the people. Dr. Ferrer describes the enthusiasm that attended the foundation of such an institution in the following words: The sentiment with which the establishment of the institute was received in our country, always eager for progress and devoted to culture and enlightenment, was manifested by the general enthusiasm with which it was received, and still more by the large number of students who flocked to the capital from all parts of the island to take advantage of the opportunities that it offered for higher instruction than before was known. Courses of Study. Pupils entering the Institute had to be examined in the subjects of the elementary school as outlined in the Organic Decree of 1880.57. Thus the student was about ten years old when he entered the Institute. The regular course was four years.*® The following was the official course of study: Latin, Spanish, Rhetoric and Poetics; Geography; History of Spain; General History; Psy- chology; Logic and Ethics; Arithmetic and Algebra; Geometry and Trigonometry; Physics and Chemistry; Natural History and Agri- culture; French, English and German.**® A student finishing the official course of study received the degree of Bachelor of Arts and was ready to enter the university for professional study. During the years that the Institute functioned it developed a second curriculum which was added to it as other schools failed. By the year 1895 it was offering a special curriculum entitled “Estudios de Aplicacion,” that is, practical studies. ‘The following course of study was offered: Business Arithmetic and Bookkeeping; Commercial Geography and Statistics; Political Economy and Business Legis- lation, practical exercises on commercial transactions; Applied Chem- istry; Industrial Mechanics; Drawing.*® ‘This course was patronized by very few students as the learned professions were the most popular among the educated classes. In the year 1894-95, only thirteen stu- dents pursued this course of study.“ It was a four year course and graduates received diplomas in the following professions: Commercial Expert, Mechanical Expert and Chemical Expert.” % Proyecto del Reglamento del Instituto. Civil Provincial y Colegios Privados de Segunda Ensefianza de la Isla de Puerto Rico, p. 1. %56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 138. 37Proyecto: Art. 90, p. 22. 38The curriculum was changed later toa five year course, since in 1898 the course comprised five years. See 56th Cong. S. D. 363, pp. 22, 23. 39Instituto de Segunda Ensefianza de Puerto Rico, Memoria del curso de 1894-1895, p. 38. 40Memoria, 1894-1895, p. 38. Jbid., pp. 36-37. “Proyecto, op. cit., Arts. 169-170, pp. 40-41. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 107 Fees. Each student taking the entrance examinations paid an entrance fee of two and a half pesos. The total amount of fees was distributed in equal parts among the examiners.“ At the beginning of the year all the students paid a registration fee. At the end of the year each student paid a fee of two and a half pesos for each sub- ject he was examined in,* and on graduation all candidates for the B.A. degree paid twenty-five pesos for their diplomas and two and a half pesos for their expenses. Candidates for the technical diplomas paid thirty-seven and a half pesos for the diploma and two and a half pesos for their expenses. A small number of honored students were given free tuition.“ Teachers. The first teachers appointed were all Porto Ricans who served temporarily until the regular professors arrived from Spain, when all the faculty became entirely Spanish, with the exception of one member, who wasa Cuban. All the teachers had to be university graduates. The first director of the Institute was Don José Julian Acosta, who acted in that capacity until June 24, 1884, when he re- signed. This worthy Porto Rican, one of the best minds Porto Rico has ever produced, served later in the Institute as assistant professor of agriculture until his death, August 26, 1891.7 The salaries of the professors were 1500 pesos a year and those of the assistant professors 750 pesos.*® Financial Support. The school was supported by the provincial government from the insular revenues until 1891 when the central government assumed the responsibility of its support. When the Island was given autonomous government in 1898, it was again sup- ported by the provincial government.*® Accredited Institutions. ‘The Constitution of the Institute provided for a credit system of private institutions of secondary education, several of which were allied to the official Institute. The Institute credited also work done at home under private tutors. The Director of the Institute was superintendent of all schools allied to the official school, and he appointed a board of examiners to go about to the different towns to examine pupils of private schools, or who studied at home. All rules and regulations regarding studies had to be com- plied with by all students, whether private or official. It is a known fact that the aim of the private schools or tutors was 8Jbid., Arts. 90, p. 22. “Tbid., Arts. 99 to 101. “SJied., Arts: 112, p. 28. “Jiid., Arts. 173, p. 41. 47Memoria, 1894-1895: p. 64. 48Proyecto, op. cit., Art. 25, p. 9. 497bid., Arts. 58-59, p. 16; 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 139. 108 Education in Porto Rico not to educate, but to prepare their students to pass the official ex- aminations, making education mostly a matter of cramming. The directors of private schools exerted a great deal of influence over the institute professors in order that their pupils might pass the examina- tions. The professors were also bothered with all sorts of reeommen- dations from the parents of children who used their influential friends in order that their children might pass the tests. The institutions recognized by the official school were the following: The Free Insti- tution of Public Instruction, San Juan; Central College, Ponce; The College of the Paulist Fathers, Ponce; El Divino Maestro, Ponce; E] Divino Maestro, San German; Lyceum of Mayagiiez; Lyceum of Guayama; The Jesuit College, Santurce; San Juan Bau- tista, San Juan.5° At the beginning the Institute was very popular, but later the professors.were charged with political intrigue and schem- ing for personal profit. At the same time private schools and church schools were founded to prepare students for the official examinations. As a result the Institute maintained its own for the first ten years, but after that began to decline, while the enrollment of the private schools increased. Efforts to Establish Professional and Trade Schools. There were other efforts on the part of the Government and the municipality of San Juan which should be mentioned in thischapter. In 1883 there was established in San Juan a professional school for the preparation of surveyors, builders, commercial and industrial agents, and engineers. Few students patronized this schools and it had a very short life. The studies were incorporated into the technical courses of the Insti- tute.2 In 1886, the city of San Juan established a trade school, the object of which was to provide an opportunity for workmen and others to acquire a broader and more scientific knowledge of their particular arts and trades. The school was also closed for lack of popular in- terest and pupils to attend it.” In 1896 another school for the purpose of instructing workmen was established. The workmen were taught reading and writing, while popular lectures, mostly civic, were given for the benefit of all those who desired to attend. The lectures were given by prominent citi- zens, mostly of San Juan, on the following topics: History of Spain, Political Economy, Popular Law, Talks on the Works of Samuel ‘°Memoria, 1894-1895. Op. cit., pp. 67-68. 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 140. 51Compare Appendix V. & 56th Cong. S. D. 3863, p. 143. 83Jbid., p. 1389. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 109 Smiles, Geography of Porto Rico, and Practical Ethics. Many workmen attended the lectures.*4 In 1896 the Provincial Deputation considered the establishment of a trade school in the orphan asylum. It ordered equipment from Europe and opened the school which functioned until the United States took possession.” D. CoNnpbITIONS OF SECONDARY AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION IN 1898 What the United States Found in 1898, and Reports. Having con- sidered the chief movements and institutions in secondary and pro- fessional education, it remains now to see what the United States found in secondary and professional education in 1898, when she took possession of the Island. Besides the normal schools the United States found the trade school and the Institute of Secondary Instruc- tion. The committee appointed to inspect these institutions was composed of the following men: Dr. Manuel F. Rossy, Major T. Van R. Hoff, Dr. Francisco del Valle Atiles, and Dr. George G. Groff, two of whom were Americans and two Porto Ricans. This committee called on expert aid when needed. The committee re- ported in part as follows: Location and Cost of Buildings. The institute at present has no building of its own. Some classes are held in the Weather Bureau Building, some in the Athen- eum, some over a drug store on the Plaza, and others in the houses of the pro- fessors . . . The industrial school is in buildings forming a portion of the Asilo de Beneficencia. The cost of the buildings cannot be given and it is immaterial since, excepting those occupied by the industrial school, their use is only temporary. Industrial School. The industrial school is in the same building as the orphan school and insane asylum. It is supplied with appliances and machinery for instruc- tion in the trades. There are shops for instruction in typesetting, carpentry, mechanics, bookbinding, tailoring, chemical industries, shoemaking, masonry, model-making, sculpture, lithography, and the manufacture of tobacco. There was a branch of industrial training for women in another part of the city where nightly instruction was furnished in drawing. Boys were admitted to the industrial school after examination on the subjects of the elementary school instruction and could continue their studies, four, five or six years, according to the grade under- taken. The annual expenses are reported as $17,857. Total attendance for 1897 and 1898 was 312. This useful institution was sometimes suspended for lack of funds. Tuition was free, and there was no matriculation or other fee, the cost being borne wholly by the colonial assembly, (provincial deputation).*” Methods of Instruction. In the institute the methods were investigated by Professor J. G. Meyers, a former instructor in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- “Ibid., 143. SIbid., p. 140. 6Ibid., p. 22. ‘]Ibid., pp. 24-25. 110 Education in Porto Rico nology, and by Dr. Ward, of the New York Independent. Professor Meyers found the instruction to be by lectures, given to boys who could not enter any college in the United States. No text books were used. Each professor lectured one hour each day. The work seemed to be of an exceedingly elementary character, and the professors in their lectures rambled from subject to subject, showing no evidence of preparation. Mr. Ward testified that the instruction was as nearly worthless as possible. The professor of English was absent on each of the times that Professor Meyers visited his class. The summary of Professor Meyer’s report is herein given. . . The peculiar features of the Institute de segunda Ensefianza are: (1) Work is pretended to be done on the Spanish university plan; the boys are not taught but are lectured to. (2) Teachers do not work on the blackboard and do not correct the texts that are dictated by them; the texts dictated are mostly verbatim copies from Spanish books. (3) No text books are used; it is pretended that boys are requested to study refer- ence books; this pretension does not hold. One of the reasons given for the absence of text books is that the book stores do not keep them. It is evident that if text books are not kept, reference books will not be kept either. Another reason given is that, according to the principal, no text books are kept in the French schools, a statement which is generally accepted by the teachers as true. (4) Generally only one boy recites during one session. (5) All the boys are deficient in Spanish grammar and orthography. (6) No teacher, except Dr. Torriente, devotes more than one hour to his daily duties at the school. (7) The principal leaves the school after he has finished his lesson. (8) The janitor, his family and relations, are too prominent in the school. (9) The beginnings of the sessions is not indicated by a bell, and time is not kept by the teachers. (10) It is impossible to ascertain the exact number of boys who attend the school. (11) Classes are not graded, and work requiring three hours is done in one. Methods of Matriculation and Graduation. At each of the schools an entrance examination in the subjects taught in the elementary school is required. At the normal school the examination consisted in writing three lines from dictation and solving one problem in arithmetic. It is believed the examinatior in thé institute is not more severe. At the industrial school a physical examination and a certificate of good character is also required.*? Three, four or five years after matriculation the student is entitled to apply for final examination. If he passes this he receives a diploma or certificate, depending upon the school from which he graduates. In case he graduates from the institute his diploma entitles him to enter the Spanish universities. The peculiarities of this system are: (1) No regularity of attendance seems to be required. . . .(2) By payment of double fees no attendance at all was required at the school. (3) Other schools can be affiliated with the institute and normal school, and their pupils graduated with all the honors and privileges of the State schools by payment 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 25. 5°This was due to the fact that most of the pupils entering the technical school were from the poorer class, considered a lower social class. Secondary and Professional Education (1820-1898) 111 of double the examination fees charged at the State school. (4) A matriculation fee is charged in each subject pursued and an examination fee in each branch.© Suppression of Schools by United States Government. Before the investigation of the committee, the industrial or trade school had already been suspended; upon the recommendation of the committee the Institute and the Normal Schools were then suspended in June, 1899, at the close of the academic year.*! On July 28, 1899, by General Orders No. 108, the degree of bachelor was abolished and in lieu thereof a certificate was authorized to be issued by the insular board of education and signed by the president, stating the subjects completed by students upon whom the degree of bachelor was formerly conferred.” Summary. To summarize, it has been seen that there was no definite organization of secondary or professional education during the Spanish government before 1882 when the Institute was founded; that whatever existed of the two was the result of sporadic attempts here and there by the Church, private societies or clubs, municipalities, the government, and above all, by individuals of foresight and de- votion to the welfare of the people; that all these attempts showed lack of knowledge of conditions or needs and of foresight, and therefore a lack of a definite end or aim; that the intellectual progress was due to infiltration of ideas from the outside, through the press, through teachers that came to the Island, and above all, through the efforts of the boys who left their homes and their Island to be educated abroad, and on their return threw themselves into the struggle for political, social and intellectual progress in behalf of their people. If there were in Porto Rico during the Spanish government, pro- fessional men of worth, as there were; if there were men of letters, poets, orators, and editors, as there were; they were the results of the above influences more than the results of a well organized system of public instruction, whether primary or secondary. The existence of such men was not so much due to the system of public instruction, but to their natural intelligence and in spite of the available schools. However, Porto Rico was as well off as Spain educationally. The Institute was as good as the best in Spain and as good as could be expected in a Spanish colony. It was an institution that, judged with Spanish eyes and Spanish standards, was not bad, but, of course, when compared with American standards it fell short. But American 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 26. lIbid., p. 22. ®Ibid., p. 29. 112 Education in Porto Rico methods, ideals and standards did not develop in Porto Rico until after the war, and in judging the educational institutions they must be judged by the prevailing standards. The cultural status of Porto Rico in 1898 compared favorably with that of Spain, which was all that could be expected of a Spanish colony, the population of which was three-fourths Spanish. PART II EDUCATION UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (1898—1920) CHAPTER VII AMERICAN OCCUPATION AND THE BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION A. Hustoricat BAcKGROUND SINCE 1898 The United States Occupation of Porto Rico. The autonomous government granted Porto Rico, November 25, 1897, was of short duration, for, a few months after the elections, April 21, 1898, Govern- or-General Macias suspended the constitutional guarantees and de- clared the Island in a state of war, although war was not formally declared until the 25th. On May the 12th, the city of San Juan was bombarded by Admiral Sampson, a few buildings being damaged and probably a dozen casualties. On July 25th the American forces occupied Guadnica and three days later Ponce. After a few skir- mishes in the western part of the Island, southwest and near the Asomante on the military road, the protocol was signed providing for the cession of Porto Rico to the United States. On October 18, the last of the Spanish troops to sail embarked for Spain, the forces of the United States occupied San Juan and raised the flag on the Fortaleza, proclaiming United States sovereignty and the end of Spanish rule. Military Government. At the withdrawal of the Spanish troops, Major General John R. Brooke became Military Governor. On November 29 he abolished the Provincial Deputation and made other changes in the insular administration. On December 6 he was fol- lowed in office by Major General Guy V. Henry, who by executive order of February 6, 1899, dissolved the insular Cabinet of secretaries and constituted the departments of State, Justice, Finance and In- terior, each presided over by a chief. On May 9, 1899, he was suc- ceeded by General George W. Davis as Military Governor. On (113) 114 Education in Porto Rico August 12 the Governor abolished the existing form of government and created a Bureau of Internal Revenue, a Bureau of Agriculture, a Bureau of Public Works, a Judicial Board, a Board of Charities, a Board of Health, a Board of Prison Control, a Board of Insular Police, and the office of Civil Secretary of the Military Governor. Civil Government. By act of April 19, 1900, which went into effect May the first, the United States Congress made provision for a Civil Government to consist of a Governor and an executive Council of eleven members to be appointed by the President for terms of four years, a House of Delegates of thirty-five members, and a Resident Commissioner in Washington to be elected by the qualified voters. The Executive Council was composed of the Insular Cabinet and five other persons of good repute. The Cabinet included a Secretary for Civil Affairs, an Attorney General, a Treasurer, an Auditor, a Com- missioner of the Interior and a Commissioner of Education. The Executive Council and the House of Delegates comprised the Legis- lative Assembly of Porto Rico. On May 1, 1900, this government was established by the inauguration of Governor Charles H. Allen. Such was in general outline the civil government of Porto Rico until the present government was established in 1917. Present Government. By the Organic Act of Congress of that year, known as the “Jones Act,’’ a change was made in the government of the Island. The main features of that Act are the granting of United States citizenship to all the people born in the Island, the separation of the legislative and executive functions and the extension of the appointive Upper House to an elective Senate. The govern- ment is representative. The franchise is restricted to citizens of the United States twenty-one years of age or over, who have been in residence one year, with such additional qualifications as may be prescribed by the Legislature of Porto Rico, but no property qualifica- tion may be imposed. The executive power resides in the Governor, appointed by the President. The legislative functions are vested in a legislature of two elective houses, the Senate composed of nineteen members (two from each of seven senatorial districts, and five senators at large) and the House of Representatives, composed of thirty-nine members (one from each of thirty-five representative districts, and four elected at large). The Island is represented in Congress by a Resident Com- missioner elected by the people for a term of four years. There are six departments with a chief at the head of each. American Occupation and School Organization 115 Municipal Government. After the United States took possession, the municipal government continued substantially unchanged although reforms were introduced from time to time until the establishment ot the present commission form of government. The present municipal government went into effect October 9, 1919, and since then has been slightly changed as experience has shown the need. This abolished practically all the existing municipal institutions and substituted a new body called the Municipal Assembly, which is the chief center of all local government. This assembly is elected by the people. It is bi-partisan in character and somewhat larger in each munici- pality than the old municipal council. The actual administration is carried out by a commission of from three to five members, according to the size of the city, one of the members being the municipal commissioner of education. This com- mission is selected by the Assembly and responsible to it. The As- sembly also makes the budget, levies the special taxes and in general controls the local government. The law reapportioned the receipts from the general property tax, granting the municipalities a larger share, and abolished much of the supervision over municipal affairs hitherto exercised by the officials of the insular government. This municipal law is radical and original whev we consider how far local government is put in the hands of the people. At the same time it gives the municipalities an opportunity to develop a larger and more complete local life, and serves as a school for training in self-govern- ment. B. ScHoot ORGANIZATION UNDER THE MiuitaRy GOVERNMENT Porto Rican Leaders Voice Public Sentiment in Education. The public schools continued their work as they were organized, and al- though they were more or less disturbed, due to the change of gov- ernment and the resignation of Spanish teachers, yet normal con- ditions were re-established soon, and it was the desire of the new gov- ernment that they continue undisturbed as far as possible. Twelve days after the American flag had been raised at the Fortaleza, the first move toward a new policy of education was taken by a number of representative Porto Ricans, who in response to a public call met in Assembly at the theatre in San Juan, October 30, 1898, and adopted several resolutions, which manifested the great interest the leaders of Porto Rico had in education and stated their realization that the educational system needed to be improved. 116 Education in Porto Rico Since this was the first public expression of the people on education under the American flag, it should be noted and preserved in the history of education of the Island. The following resolutions were adopted: As regards public education, the best means of advancing our people would be kindergartens and normal schools as established in the United States. Our ele- mentary and superior schools should be transformed and graded according to modern pedagogic methods. Secondary instruction should be a continuation of the primary and a preparation for the superior and collegiate. Universal education should be introduced on the best models of the United States. There shouldbe established schools for adults, Sunday schools, schools of arts and trades, libraries, museums, academies of fine arts and literary clubs. Education must be obligatory and gratui- tous and it must be compulsory on every municipality to sustain its own schools, the number being fixed by law with reference to the population. If the municipality be unable to sustain all the schools, the State should establish the necessary ones. Grades of instruction should be three—the fundamental or that given by the public schools; the secondary, which should give positive notions on scientific, civic and technical subjects; the professional, which comprehends the knowledge of juris- prudence, medicine, engineering, and technology, the universities to diffuse general knowledge of science for purpose of high culture. For the formation of a competent body of teachers, it is necessary to establish normal schools for teachers of both sexes, normal schools for professors, normal schools for university teachers, and military and naval schools.! Some of those leading citizens who helped draw these resolutions are still living to-day, and have seen their dream partly realized in twenty years of American occupation. The part that native in- terest and initiative has contributed to educational ambition and growth should not be forgotten. Although these resolutions had no legal sanction and were only a popular expression of the will of the people, they contributed greatly to hastening reforms in education. They also showed the American government what the will of the people was in matters of education, and that the citizens of the Island would support any improvements in education that the government of the United States might wish to introduce. First Official Educational Activities. The United States officials surveyed the situation and acted slowly as many matters had to be cared for. By general orders number 17, issued November 29, the Provincial Deputation was discontinued, and all matters relating to education which had been in charge of that body were transferred to the department of the interior, which was still to be created officially in February of the next year.2 By general orders number 18, issued 156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 20. 2Tbid. American Occupation and School Organization 117 December 1, the royal sub-delegation of pharmacy was abolished, and the secondary institute was authorized to grant certificates to pharmacies. The archives of the sub-delegation were placed in charge of the Institute.’ First Official Utterance on Education. The first official utterance after the American occupation regarding public education was that of General Guy V. Henry. Addressing the council of secretaries, which was still in existence, he said: ‘“The system of school education should be looked into, and it is my desire to ascertain how many teachers they (the municipalities) can pay, who can teach the Ameri- can or English language, commencing with the younger children. It is believed that those who can speak English only can accomplish the purpose by object lessons. It is thought that American women for teaching can be obtained for fifty dollars a month in gold, and they are well worth it. The young children are anxious to learn and now is the time for them to do so. If Alcades can report to me how many teachers they can so employ, they will be brought from the United States and sent to these towns.’ Educational Conditions Investigated. But so far, no actual con- structive work had been undertaken by the military government to investigate and modify the then existing school system. The edu- cational survey to investigate educational conditions began in Janu- ary, 1899, under the leadership of Dr. John Eaton, formerly United States Commissioner of Education. He was invited to come to Porto Rico to reorganize the school system, assisted by Dr. Victor S. Clark. They found the schools in a rather chaotic condition, due to the general excitement of the war, the departure of teachers to Spain, and the fact that in the absence of a legal head of the educational system, every municipality and even every teacher acted independently and many disregarded the existing laws and regulations. They found it difficult to give an accurate report of actual conditions because there were no authentic data to be found. However, the investigation continued, and by the end of April, 1899, recommendations were made providing for necessary changes in the laws governing public education.® The School Laws of 1899. In the meantime the department of the interior was established and education made one of the bureaus of that department. Dr. John Eaton was made chief of the bureau of 356th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 20 4 Ibid., p. 21. 5Tbid. 118 Education in Porto Rico education, in charge of all educational and charitable institutions, the basis for the school laws enacted by order of General Guy V. Henry, May 1,1899.° These laws, as compiled by Dr. Victor S. Clark, consist of two parts, the law of school districts, and laws concerning public instruction. Being the first school law of Porto Rico under the government of the United States, it is important to review its chief provisions. The law urged the district to organize and establish public schools, but did not compel them to do so, it being permissive and not manda- tory. The first part authorized the establishment of school districts and provided regulations for conducting the business of the same. Any barrio or town district was to have five trustees, that is, a school board of five members. In the town districts these officers were to be elected by twos and threes upon alternate years, and their terms were to be two years or until their successors were elected. In barrio districts the trustees were to be elected annually. ‘The law defined the duties of the officer and established provision for taxation and bonding of districts.’. By the end of the year only one district, that of Ma- meyes, in the municipality of Utuado, had been organized according to law.® Part II of the School Laws. ‘‘Laws Governing Public Instruction,” was put into operation July 1, 1899. The law defined a public school, the rights of pupils, and the school year and its divisions. It abolished the fee system, made the public schools entirely free to pupils of all classes and degrees, established a graded system of schools in towns, and prescribed a legal course of study. It determined the legal qualifications of teachers in the primary and secondary schools and the university of Porto Rico, and their salaries and payment of the same. It authorized the provision of free text books for the public schools. It defined the relation of the municipalities to the public schools and granted powers to municipal school trustees to appoimt teachers. It authorized the establishment of high schools, a normal school and the organization of professional schools of the University of Porto Rico. It provided rules and regulations governing the finances and accounts of the bureau of education.® The School Law not Adaptable. This law met with a great deal of opposition due to the fact that it was not adapted to existing con- 656th Cong. S. D. 363, 7Clark, Victor S., The School pe of the Island of Porto Rico, May 1, 1899, pp. 1-10. 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 26. °Clark, Victor, op. cit., pp. 10-47, American Occupation and School Organization 119 ditions. It must be admitted that the laws were too democratic to be carried out properly, for the political and social conditions re- quired a more centralized system of education than, this law provided. However, the law remained in force until the first year of the establish- . ment of the civil government and in the meantime it was modified as subsequent experience showed the need. On May 9, 1899, when Brigadier General George V. Davis became military governor, he app ointed a committee of Porto Rican teachers selected from different parts of the Island, who were to act in conjunction with the director of public instruction to review the laws and make desirable recom- mendations. !° The committee met and reported and their reeommendations were in the main followed by the educational authorities, but no special orders were issued to that effect. Some of the recommendations were disregarded as impracticable, such as the one that public school salaries be increased, and that one-half of the salaries be paid during vacations." Need for Centralization in Administration: Board of Public Instruc- tion. Sofarthe government of the United States had had possession of the Island for about a year. A general survey of educational con- ditions had been made. Education was administered through a bu- reau of education under the department of the interior and under the leadership of the Director of Education. Dr. Eaton had resigned and returned to the United States in the latter part of May. The new school law was to go into effect July 1. On July 8 an Insular Board of Education was established. On August 12 the bureau of education was discontinued, and the Insular Board of Public Instruction took its place; the president of the Board was really the director of educa- tion who had to report directly to the Governor." Thus the process of centralization in the administration of educa- tion had begun, and it had to continue, due to the failure of the local boards to perform their duties and to the influence of politics on the local boards. On October 12, it was ordered that no more than three of the five school trustees should belong to one political party. This was due to the fact that many towns were completely under the ad- "The following members composed the committee,—José Becerra Zayas and José Infante Saavedra of San Juan; Eladio J. Vega of Ponce, and Manuel Maria Arroyo, of Mayagtez. 156th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 28. The following were the members of the insular Board of Education: Dr. Victor S. Clark, Pres. George G. Groff, Henry Huyke, José E. Saldafia, and R. H. Todd. 356th Cong. 8. D. 363, p. 29. 120 Education in Porto Rico ministration of one political party, there being often less than one hundred of the opposing party, so the party in power controlled the schools. The local boards had the power to appoint teachers but they neglected to do so, so on October 19th it was ordered that the president of the Insular Board of Education could appoint teachers for the public schools, whenever or wherever the municipalities failed to do so within five days after being notified by the President of the Insular Board that such appointments had to be made.“ A New Board of Education and Further Centralization. Due to the fact that administration of public instruction was being more and more centralized, not by law but by failure on the part of the municipalities to do their duties, and also in order to have a more representative body in charge of education, a new Board of Education was ap- pointed on January 7, 1900. The Island was divided into six school districts and representatives were appointed from each district. District I, San Juan, was represented by Victor 8S. Clark, President; George B. Groff, José A. Saldafia, and R. H. Todd; District II, Fajardo, was represented by George Bird y Arias; District III, Arroyo, by Henry Huyke; District IV, Ponce, by Rosendo Matienzo Cintrén; District V, Mayagtiez, by Bartolomé Esteva; and District VI, Arecibo, by J. Ruiz de Sagredo."® Further needs of centralization and also the natural process of its evolution can be seen by observing more failures on the part of the local boards and increased assumption of duties by the Insular Board of Education. By the same order of January 7 it was ordered that where municipalities had failed to provide proper quarters for schools, but had contracted with teachers for the same, the salaries of these teachers had to be paid by the municipal authorities and not by the insular government; that municipalities should elect teachers im- mediately where they had not done so; that municipalities should open sufficient schools to accommodate all the children in their juris- diction, and to support the same until the insular government was in a position to make special provision for such institutions; that the President of the Insular Board, through the English supervisors, should rent rooms for public schools wherever the municipalities had failed to do so of their own accord. The Need of a Very Centralized Department of Education. It was evident that the local school officers were not prepared to carry on 456th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 29. 1Ibid., p. 30. 6 Ibid. American Occupation and School Organization 121 the administration of the schools. They had every opportunity to show their ability, but they failed to perform their duties, which was the most obvious way to show their lack of ability or desire to run the local schools. It was also evident that the Organic Law of the school districts was premature and that it was issued without knowl- edge of the people’s ability for self-government. The local boards were complete failures; they could not administer the schools efficient- ly, showing that centralization in school administration and a great deal of it, was absolutely necessary for the success of public instruc- tion. The Insular Board of Education as well as the military officials realized that with the change from a military to a civil form of govern- ment, a great deal of attention had to be given to education, and specially to the administration of education, and that in order to have a working system of public schools, there was need of a special department of education. When the Organic Act establishing a civil government in Porto Rico went into effect, on May 1, 1900, it pro- vided for six executive departments, and one of these was the depart- ment of education with a commissioner at its head. Difficulties Revealed. The nineteen months of military government preceding the establishment of civil government was a period of re- adjustment, of becoming acquainted, with a great desire on the part of the people of the Island to know and understand their new rulers, and as great a desire on the part of Americans to be understood. But the two civilizations, being so different and coming together so sud- denly, it is not surprising that there were many misunderstandings on both sides. The aim of the American educators should have been to establish an American system of public schools, based on the demands of local psychology, adapted to local needs, a system of public schools embracing American ideals of education and yet adapted to a Latin American civilization, and capable of being put into operation in such a civilization. But on the contrary the people of the United States, having had no experience in colonial educational problems, trans- planted the American school system to Porto Rico irrespective of conditions different from those of the United States. The First American Schools atWork. Inthe meantime the emphasis in the schools was placed on the study of English and on patriotic exercises. The great desire of all was to learn English. Everyone who knew a little English became a teacher of the language and gave private lessons, and was very much in demand as interpreter. The 122 Education in Porto Rico first utterance of an American official on education was in reference to teachers, ‘““who can teach the American or English language, com- mencing with the young children.”’ Next to English, patriotic ex- ercises received the attention of the American educators. The children of Porto Rico are musical. As soon as the Americaa songs were sung in the schools they became popular with the children and could be heard in the streets, in the country, and even in the tobacco factories. Translations into Spanish were made, and it was amusing to hear Porto Rican children singing ‘““My country, ’tis of thee” and “My native country, thee.” Another favorite exercise was the salute to the flag every morning on entering school, when all the children would salute the flag and swear allegiance to the great Republic which it represented. Latin people are inherently patriotic. They love the very soil, the earth of the country they are born in, so these songs and exercises took a passionate hold of the children. Their love of “‘Patria’’ took posses- sion of them and they expressed staunch allegiance to the United States. Dr. M. G. Brumbaugh, the first Commissioner of Education, has a great deal to say regarding patriotic exercises. “In almost every every city of the island,” he says, “‘and at many rural schools, the chil- dren meet and salute the flag as it is flung to the breeze. The raising of the flag is the signal that the school has commenced and the flag floats during the entire session. The pupils then sing America, Hail Columbia, Star Spangled Banner, and other patriotic songs. The marvel is that they sing these in English. The first English many of them know is the English of our national songs. The influence is far reaching. In many schools the children also sing Borinquen, then ‘canto provincial’ of the island. . . . Washington’s Birthday exercises were proposed and outlined by this department in a circular letter to the supervisors .. . The exercises were a fitting occasion to display their patriotism and their school training. In each case the exercises consisted of patriotic songs and speeches on Washington and on patriotism by the people . . . At least 25,000 children participated in these exercises and perhaps 5000 citizens joined in the patriotic demonstration. These exercises have done much to Ameri- canize the island, much more than any other single agency. The young minds are being molded to follow the example of Washiugton. Is is one of the gratifying results so far achieved in our work.” In 1900 the average Porto Rican child knew more about Washing- American Occupation and School Organization 123 ton, Lincoln and Betsy Ross and the American flag than the average child in the United States.!” School Statistics in 1900. At the end of the first term of the scho- lastic year, 1899-1900, just before the establishment of civil gov- ernment, there were enrolled in the municipal schools of the Island, 24,392 pupils, of whom 15,440 were boys and 8,952 girls. The average daily attendance was 20,103, or 82% of the total. This large per cent was due to the fact that in many of the schools there was a waiting list, and the child failing to attend lost his seat. 5,175 pupils applied for admission to the schools and were refused for want of accommodations. About 3,000 children were receiving all their in- struction under American teachers and about one-third of the total number enrolled received English instruction from the English speak- ing teachers. Over 15,000 children were just entering the schools and did not know how to read or write, while 96% of the total en- rollment was in the lowest three grades. Nine hundred and eighty- four were doing what was called advanced work, that is, they were capable of performing easy problems in long division, and some were studying fractions and decimals in arithmetic. Two hundred and eighty-seven rural and two hundred and ninety-five town teachers were employed. Of the 620 schools provided for in the insular budget, 38 were closed for failure of the municipalities to provide proper buildings or to select teachers. There were nine rural schools reported with an enrollment of less than 20 pupils, while 309 reported the full enrollment of 50. The average age of the pupils enrolled was nine years.!® " WReport of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico to the Secretary of the Interior, EaAtS. 4. 1901, p. 72. 1856th Cong. 8. D. 363, p. 39. CHAPTER VIII SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION * The administration of the public school system of Porto Rico is very highly centralized, with the central offices located in San Juan. Each municipality has its local school offices. The Island contains at present seventy-six units of political organization known as “‘munic- ipalities.”” The school district is coterminous with the municipality and the local school officers have jurisdiction over all schools within their respective districts. As a connecting link between the central and the local offices there is a supervisor of schools who represents the Department of Education in the municipality, and vice versa. For the purpose of this chapter the subject will be treated under three divisions, namely, the Central Offices, Supervision, and the Local Offices. A. Tuer CENTRAL OFFICES Organization of the Department of Education. ‘The process of cen- tralization in school administration was a natural one. It grew out of conditions that had to be met. The second President of the In- sular Board of Education, Dr. George G. Groff, became acting com- missioner of education, May 1, 1900,! and remained in that position until Dr. M. G. Brumbaugh, appointed commissioner of education by President McKinley, took charge of the office, August 6, 1900. The Commissioner organized the department of education with the following staff: ‘The Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner, a disbursing officer, a secretary, two stenographers, a book-keeper, a shipping clerk, a messenger, and a janitor.2, The department moved September 1, 1900, into a few rooms in the Intendencia building on Plaza Alfonso XII, from the three small rooms it occupied in the upper story of the executive mansion.’ ~ *See Appendix VI for a diagram of administration. 1The Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1900, p. 9. 2Ibid., 1900, p.10. 3Ibid., 1901, p. 8. (124) School Administration and Supervision 125 The Need of a New School Law. Although the new department had been organized and had begun work, yet the laws governing education had not been revised, nor repealed, so there was now a department of education under a civil government, governed by military orders. It was hard for the department to do its work under these orders for many reasons. According to Dr. Groff, the laws had been written in part by Dr. Eaton, who was in the Island three months, and who made but one trip outside of the capital.* Dr. Eaton did not know Porto Rico, its people and its needs. He simply tried to adapt the school system of Massachusetts, based on clear and democratic principles, to a Latin American civilization, when the people were not ready to conduct their own affairs in matters of education. Dr. Brumbaugh summarizes the working of the military orders in the following words: The law authorizes the granting of licenses to teach to all teachers for five years. It does not require an examination of applicants, provided they hold a Spanish or a Porto Rican title. It gives the power to employ teachers, wholly to local boards. . Licenses were issued in great numbers, vastly more than there were schools upon the Island. The power to control the teaching force is thus taken bodily from the de- partment and placed with the local boards. This is fatal to the advancement of the schools. It is impossible to supervise education as required by the act of Congress, providing a civil government for Porto Rico, so long as the commissioner is absolutely helpless in the control of teachers. There should be a change here that would make it impossible for incompetent teachers to hold a license, and that will protect good teachers from the competitions and machinations of worthless teachers and from the pernicious interference of politicians. The department does not covet power, but it is willing to assume power when by doing so it can give security to worthy teachers and the best instruction to the pupils. Local boards of education are constituted by the same law. These are required to pay rent for teachers’ homes, select, rent and equip buildings for school purposes, and elect teachers for the schools. They have the power to assess or collect any money. They are entirely at the mercy of the aleade of any Ayuntamiento of the several municipalities. These municipalities are frequently in debt and make no appropriation to the local boards. Thus they are by law compelled to make con- . tracts which by law they are helpless to honor. Many of these boards are composed of good men, anxious to promote education, and to cooperate with the department, but they frankly confess their inability to do as they would like, because they have neither power nor resources to do so.5 Provision of the Organic Act Regarding the Commissioner of Edu- cation. Although the Commissioner of Education is appointed by the President of the United States, for a term of four years, or at 4Ibid., 1900, p. 10. ‘Thid. 126 Education in Porto Rico the pleasure of the President, to be legally the chief of the department of education, yet most of his powers proceed from the Insular Legis- lature. The Organic Act for Porto Rico, passed by the Congress of the United States, April 12, 1900, and which became effective in Porto Rico May 1, has the following provision regarding the Com- missioner of Education: That the commissioner of education shall superintend public instruction through- out Porto Rico and all disbursements on account thereof must be approved by him, and he shall perform such other duties as may be prescribed by law, and make such reports through the governor as may be required by the Commissioner of Education of the United States, which shall annually be transmitted to Congress.® Federal legislation for Porto Rico requires certain duties of the Commissioner as an appointee of the federal government, but the Insular Legislature prescribes his duties in detail as the administrator of the insular school system and as an officer paid by the insular government. ; The School Law of 1901. Until 1916, the Commissioner of Educa- tion was a member of the upper house of the legislature of Porto Rico, the Executive Council. This being so, it was practically easy to legislate for schools, more so when the Assembly or lower house, composed of Porto Ricans, were all in favor of the extension and im- provement of the system of public instruction. Dr. Brumbaugh himself prepared the school law known as “An Act to Establish a System of Public Schools in Porto Rico.”’ This law was presented to both houses and approved January 31, 1901, to go into operation on and after March 25, 1901. It centralized the administration of the schools, giving much more power and responsibility to the Commis- sioner of Education. Purpose of the School System. Section I of this law provides: That there shall be established and maintained a system of free public schools in Porto Rico, under the direction and supervision of the commissioner of education, for the purpose of providing a liberal education for the children of school age in Porto Rico, for the establishment of higher institutions of learning, including colleges, universities, normal, industrial, mechanical, agricultural and high schools, together with such other educational agencies as the commissioner of education may from time to time establish and direct.? Duties of the Commissioner. And section 23 of the same law sets forth the duties and powers of the Commissioner in the following paragraph: SOrganic Act for Porto Rico, April 12, 1900. "Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, April 9, 1901, p. 164. School Laws of Porto Rico. School Administration and Supervision 137 The commissioner of education, being required by act of Congress of April 12, 1900, to supervise education in Porto Rico, he shall, to comply with said act, appoint from time to time supervisors, or superintendents of schools, who shall be subject to the commissioner in all respects; he shall prepare and promulgate all courses of study, conduct all examinations; prepare and issue all licenses or certificates to teachers; select and purchase all school books, supplies and equipments necessary for the proper conduct of education; approve of all plans for public school buildings to be erected in Porto Rico; require and collect such statistics and reports from all school boards, supervisors or superintendents and teachers as he may require; and formulate such rules and regulations as he may from time to time find necessary for the effective administration of his office.’ Further Centralization. In contrast with the military orders, where administration of schools was in the hands of local boards, there is now a high degree of centralization. This had to come, first, because the local boards were a failure, and second, in order to comply with the Organic Act of April 12, 1900, which in itself gave the Commis- sioner ample powers and wide responsibilities. From time to time the legislature of Porto Rico has legislated with respect to the duties and powers of the Commissioner of Education, and the tendency has generally been to extend more and more his powers and duties, to centralize the system more and more. In 1915 the duties and powers of the Commissioner were sum- marized in the following words.: The commissioner, appointed for a term of four years, or at the pleasure of the President of the United States, with full powers of appointment over all subordinates, except certain classes of teachers, is empowered to determine the course of study, the length of the school year with limitations prescribed by law, and the length of the school day. He is in charge of the examination and certification of teachers, and no expenditure of public moneys for school purposes on the part of either the school boards or any of his subordinates in the department can be made without his ap- proval. He is a member of the executive council, ex-officio president of the board of trustees of the University of Porto Rico, and of the insular library.? Additional Duties of the Commissioner. Still other responsibilities have been added to the official duties of the Commissioner, not direct- ly connected with the work of the department of education, to the extent that a considerable part of the time, which should be devoted primarily to education, is taken up in other duties. Dr. Paul G. Miller, the last Commissioner of Education, speaks of such a state of affairs in the following terms: In addition to his regular duties as commissiorer of education, the present in- cumbent has served in the following capacities: Member of the Executive Council, 8[bid., School Laws of Porto Rico. p. 168. %Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 314. 128 Education in Porto Rico Member of the Public Service Commission, President of the Board of Trustees of the University of Porto Rico, Chancellor of the University of Porto Rico, President of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Library, President of the Teachers’ Pension Board, and Chairman of the Chapter School Committee of the Porto Rico Chapter of the American National Red Cross. Through recent legislative action he has been made a member of a scholarship committee and of a committee to investigate and pass on pension claims of certain teachers. The public service commission has frequently held three meetings a week., With these multifarious demands upon the commissioner’s time, it has not always been possible to give the closest attention to the work for which he was primarily appointed.!° From the above is seen the unusually high degree of centralization of the department of education, the unusual number of powers, duties and responsibilities of the Commissioner, and the tremendous amount of influence which he is in a position to exercise in the general government of the Island. The new Organic Act has relieved him of his legislative duties, but there is still a danger of his accepting other duties alien to the work of the department, and thereby causing a detriment to education. The Commissioner of Education in Porto Rico is then the pivot man around whom the whole insular system of education revolves. Present-Day Organization of Central Offices. In comparison with the organization of the department in 1900 by Dr. Brumbaugh, it is well to notice the organization today. With the gradual extension of the school system the personnel of the department has increased so that today it is composed of the following: the Commissioner, the Assistant Commissioner, the division of property and accounts, the bureau of municipal school affairs,* and the division of supervision and records. Each division has a chief appointed directly by the Commissioner and responsible to him. The field staff is composed of three general superintendents, one of whom is general superintendent of Spanish; three general supervisors, manual arts, agriculture and home economics; and forty-one district supervisors, one over each school district. | The Assistant Commissioner. The Assistant Commissioner of Edu- cation is chosen and appointed by the commissioner at his pleasure, and, until recently, he was the head of the division of supervision. Due to the many duties of the Commissioner, he relieves him of much detail work. In the absence of the Commissioner from the Island he assumes all the responsibilities of the office of commissioner, except 10Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 532. *Until 1919, the division of school board accounts. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, pp. 534 and 588. School Administration and Supervision 129 President of the Board of Trustees of the University, and Chancellor of the same. When the Commissioner had legislative duties, the Assistant Commissioner did not assume these in the absence of the Commissioner.” Division of Property and Accounts. The division of property and accounts handles all matters in connection with the purchase, dis- tribution and custody of books, supplies, and all office and school property bought and furnished by the department. It prepares and certifies the pay rolls of teachers and employees paid by the depart- ment, and keeps a record of their absence. It also keeps service records. The Bureau of Municipal Affairs. The bureau of municipal affairs handles all the work in connection with the approval of muni- cipal budgets and examination and auditing of all municipal school accounts. It prepares all data relative to the financial standing of the municipalities; it is required to pass upon the advisability of granting them authority to contract indebtedness, borrows money or issues bonds; it handles all the detail arising from the selection and purchase of sites by municipalities, and for the construction and repair of buildings. The work of the chief of the bureau can only be appreciated when a study is made of the increase in the municipal support of the school system since 1898. Division of Supervision and Records. The division of supervisio and records is headed by the secretary of the Department. This division handles all details which arise from the examination and certification of teachers, keeps all documents and official records, files all official correspondence, prepares all statistics in connection with the work of the school system, and aids the Commissioner in all matters which do not fall in the jurisdiction of any of the other divisions. Summary of Organization. 'The organization, administration and work of the department of education of Porto Rico is seen then to be characterized by a high degree of centralization. The public school system of Porto Rico is headed by the Commissioner of Education who is appointed by the President of the United States for a term of four years, or at his pleasure, with full power of appointment over all subordinates, except certain classes of teachers. He is responsible to the Governor in that he reports to the War Department at Wash- ington through him. 2Ibid., 1915, p. 315. 130 Education in Porto Rico The insular legislation enacts laws for the Commissioner to execute, so he is responsible to the legislature but his tenure of office does not depend on that body. By law he is president of the board of trustees of the University of Porto Rico, chancellor of the University, in which he has a large influence in the selection of the university faculties, and in its government and policy. He appoints all his subordinates: that is, the Assistant Commissioner, the general super- intendents, the district supervisors, the general supervisors of home economics, manual arts and agriculture, and the heads of the divisions. He also appoints directly teachers of English and other special teachers, and he must approve the nominations made by the local officers, so that the nominations of teachers must be approved by him to make their appointments complete. All expenditures for educational purposes, whether for insular, municipal or university funds, are subject to his approval. The Commissionership a Political Office. Such a centralization in the hands of one man has its advantages and its disadvantages. The Commissioner is a political appointee. In order to keep the schools of Porto Rico out of insular politics, the Commissioner of Education with his wide powers, has been an appointee of the President. There is no doubt that if he were to be selected as the other heads of de- partments are, he would be a member of the party in power. Whether the Governor and the legislature would select the best man for the place irrespective of political affiliations, or whether they would select a politician, is not to be considered here. However, since it is almost certain that if the Commissioner were to be selected by the insular authorities politics would enter into his appointment more than if he were a presidential appointee; and since the head of an educational system should be chosen not because of his political affiliations or even of citizenship, but because of personal fitness and preparation to perform the duties which such an office would devolve upon him, it is better that for the present the Commissioner of Edu- cation should be appointed by the President. Frequent Changes of Commissioners. It may not be hard to prove that federal politics have entered in the appointments of commis- sioners of education in Porto Rico, for changes of administration in Washington and changes in federal appointees in Porto Rico have correlated highly. However, the changes in Washington do not come often enough to make frequent changes in the Commissioner of Education. The changes in the office of the commissioner have been School Administration and Supervision 131 due more to the fact that all of them, with the exception of the present one, were Americans from the Continent who did not care to remain in the Island for a long term, so that in the last twenty-one years there have been six commissioners of education, or an average of a three and a half year term for each. As each commissioner has had different policies from the preceding one, the department changes its policies with the change in commis- sioner and oftentimes a man has not been in office long enough to study the Island, know its needs, understand the people, and get his policies working, when he left. The work of the department would be more efficient if the commissioner could carry out his pro- gramme through a term of at least eight years. However, these changes have their advantages in that they keep new blood entering the school system. Anyone of the North who has worked in the tropics knows that due to isolation and climate it is easy to get stale, to stagnate educationally. The frequent changes, with all their dis- advantages, bring in new blood, new aims, new methods, and stimula- tion to professional growth. The Commissioner Must Play a Political Game. As already stated, the insular legislature must pass the laws which the Commissioner executes and must appropriate all insular funds for the school system. The Commissioner then is responsible to the people through their legislature, and at the same time must keep on good terms with that body, so as to have his measures and recommendations passed upon. If he is not in accord with the legislature, that body can hinder his work by failing to appropriate the necessary funds. To a certain extent, however, he must play a political game in order to have the school system run smoothly. Happily no body of citizens in Porto Rico has realized the need of public education more than the legis- lature, with the result that the Commissioner has generally had the support of the legislature in his effort to conduct the department efficiently. Such being the case, the legislature serves as a check on the Commissioner, even though it has no voice in his selection. Thus far the presidents of the United States have been wise in the selection of commissioners of education. No one would challenge the statement that all the commissioners of education to Porto Rico have been men of ability and professional training. They have per- formed their task to the best of their abilities with the help of their subordinates, many of whom have been, and are, Porto Ricans. They have not been infallible, but that is to be expected of every human 182 Education in Porto Rico being. Due to the extreme centralization of the department of education, it is most important that the Commissioner be a man of integrity and well qualified for his office, for round him revolves the whole educational machinery, and a poor and inefficient Commis- sioner means a poor and inefficient system of schools. B. SUPERVISION The First Supervisors. ‘The first supervisors under the govern- ment of the United States were appointed as a result of a general need for English teachers. It will be remembered from Chapter VII that General Guy V. Henry, on December 7, 1898, expressed his desire to secure teachers “who can teach the American or English language.” There were no English teachers to employ and none were employed until March 23, 1899, when by order of the military governor sixteen English supervisors were appointed for the whole Island, their duties combining those of itinerant English teachers and inspectors of schools. They rendered frequent reports to the Bureau of Education, held teachers’ meetings and acted as instructors of English to both teachers and pupils. According to Dr. Clark the department of supervision, because of the nature of the work, became a most important agency in the development of the school system." Academic Qualifications of First Supervisors. The first supervisors were chosen from American and English nationals residing in the Island at the time and who were willing to work at a small salary.“ They were paid fifty dollars a month, American currency. According to Dr. Groff, these men were “‘ex-soldiers, ex-teamsters, ex-packers, and other such men very largely,’ yet their academic preparation shows that the most of them were academically qualified, if not pro- fessionally. Dr. Victor S. Clark says that ten held degrees from colleges or universities in the United States or England, or had com- pleted special courses in such institutions, three were graduates of city high schools, and one of these had taken some work in a profes- sional school, and one reported only a common school education and experience as a teacher in the public schools of Ohio." Americans vs. Porto Ricans for Supervisors. Although many Porto Rican teachers were as well qualified academically and knew the Janguage and the people, yet these positions were given to foreigners 356th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 27. M4Jbid., 15 Report of the Commissioner of Education for Pons! Riv. 1900, p. 11. 1656th Cong. $.D. 363, p. 34. School Administration and Supervision 133 who could not communicate with the teachers. It is well to note the reasons given by Dr. Clark in support of the argument that it was desirable supervisors should be foreign born. He says, “These men must be for some time to come Americans. Native inspectors suffer many disadvantages; they are not accustomed to the standards of the States and therefore not disposed to require such standards in the schools here. They do not command the same respect from the teachers that well qualified men from other countries would command at the present time. Finally many of the most trying and delicate duties of the supervisors are connected with local difficulties arising through partisan political jealousies and animosities. While it may not be impossible to secure impartial action in such cases from native supervisors, it would be impossible to prevent charges of partiality, and the belief on the part of many teachers and patrons of the schools that injustice was being done, would weaken the author- ity of our representatives.” This is true and its being so is much more interesting when the change in the last twenty years is noted, and the fact that to-day 31 out of 41 district supervisors are native born, while all the assistants are also native born, showing the advancement made in the prepara- tion of men to occupy positions of responsibility in the school system.'® Duties of First Supervisors. 'The duties of the first supervisors were as follows: “‘(1.) To hold teachers’ meetings for instruction in English and methods. (2.) To render a monthly report upon all the schools of their district, including special reports upon enrollment, methods, conditions of school buildings and surroundings, the pro- gramme followed in the schools and the progress made in individual subjects. (3.) To pay the teachers their monthly salary checks. (4) To distribute and keep account of all text-books and government supplies for the district. (5.) To preside at the quarterly examina- tions given by the insular board of education for teachers and for students desiring to enter secondary schools. (6.) The supervisors acted as direct representatives of the insular board in securing school buildings, in seeing that the school laws were enforced, that buildings complied with the requirements of the laws, in stimulating local action in the way of securing school supplies, and in investigating the mul- 156th Cong. S. D. p. 34. 18Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 583. 134 Education in Porto Rico titude of petitions and complaints pertaining to the schools of the different municipalities.’’!° Difficulties of First Supervisors. In the exercise of their duties, the supervisors met with a great deal of opposition and difficulties, due to the nature of their work, to the friction of races and to the lack of a common language to communicate with the teachers. The teachers looked upon supervision as detective work from the officials of a government that had come as conqueror. The supervisors knew no Spanish to explain their positions and their motives, the teachers knew no English to communicate with them. Some time the super- visors knew enough Spanish to use the wrong phrase at the wrong time. The teachers were not accustomed to close supervision. Asa general rule they did as they pleased in the conduct of their school work, they smoked in the classroom and often neglected their duties. Somietimes failure to do better led to dismissal of a teacher. That teacher was a well known citizen of the community, had lived and taught there for several years and was looked upon with respect by the community. Dismissal then meant intrusion on the part of a foreigner. Local petitions would be sent to the authorities asking that the teacher be reinstated; and thus grew the animosity between the supervisor on one hand and the teacher and the municipality on the other, a state of affairs which made the task of the supervisor a difficult one. Yeta great deal of good was derived from such super- vision. ‘Through these officials local conditions were investigated, the educational sentiment of the various districts was found out and plans were formulated to select a more efficient corps of assistants and to apply better methods of supervision. The Supervisory Staff Enlarged. With the beginning of the civil government and the establishment of education with an educational expert as chief, supervision of schools was one of the first matters to receive the sttention of the Commissioner. Dr. Groff, on retiring as acting commissioner, recommended that the force of supervisors be reduced more and more. “The law,” said he, “‘fixes the number at sixteen. I would have, if I had remained in the office, reduced the number to ten the present year. After that we might reduce the | number to five or seven.’’?° Dr. Brumbaugh, on the contrary, instead of reducing the number, 1956th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 34. 20Report of the Commissioner of Education to Porto Rico, 1900, p. 11. School Administration and Supervision 135 reorganized the force, secured sixteen supervisors allowed by the law and placed them with increased power and dignity at the front of education in their respective districts. They were given clearly de- fined territory to supervise and their salaries were increased to $87 per month. The Commissioner kept in very close contact with the supervisors through correspondence, secured from most of the munic- ipalities provision in their budgets for the house and office rent of supervisors; and from the legislature recognition of these supervisors as necessary officers of the department and worthy of a living salary. The legislature responded by increasing the salary of the super- visors to $1200 a year. The Commissioner undertook the personal leadership of the work of supervision and instituted conferences of supervisors held at the rooms of the department during the holiday recess, where a few days were spent in earnest discussion of the prob- lem and general work of supervision.2!. Such was the beginning of the system of supervision prevailing in Porto Rico today. Development of Supervision, Provisions of Law of 1901. While it is impossible to give in this brief account a detailed development of supervision in Porto Rico, it is very important that its development be presented even if in general outline only. The first school law enacted by the insular legislature was that of April 9, 1901. This law continued the office of “English supervisors” and provided for the supervision of schools in the following terms: The supervision of schools is at all times under the immediate direction and guidance of the commissioner of education and shall in every manner consistent with the welfare of the schools cooperate and assist the local boards in performing their duties under the law. Their duties shall be prescribed by the commissioner of education and their services may be dispensed with at any time he may deem it necessary for the good of the schools todo so. They shall receive the cordial support and assistance of the teachers, parents, and school boards, and their function as representatives of the commissioner of education shall be respected and obeyed.” The official name used in reference to these officers was supervisors or superintendents of schools.”8 Provisions of 1903 Law. The school law of 1903 changes the name of the office from “‘English supervisor” to “Superintendent of Schools” and it prescribes the duties of the superintendent in almost the same words as the law of 1901 and it adds the following: They should be furnished by the school boards with a suitable office for the trans- action of their public business or office rent in lieu thereof, but with no house rent. *1Report of the Commissioner of Edccation for Porto Rico, 1901, p. 39. School Laws of Porto Rico, April 9, 1901, page 23. *%Ibid., April 9, 1901, Sec. 23, p. 13. 136 Educatton in Porto Rico They shall make annual report to the commissioner of education on the condition of the schools in their districts. Said report shall be presented June first of each and every year. They shall make such additional reports, statistical or otherwise, as the said commissioner may direct.*4 With very few changes the duties of the superintendent have con= tinued to be the same, with a growing tendency to make this official a professional head, and decrease the clerical duties. The term “superintendent”? was changed later to “supervising principal’’; while new officers were appointed under the title of “‘general super- intendents to be subject in all respects to the commissioner, who shall prescribe their duties.’’° Additional Supervisors. In the academic year 1913-1914, due to the addition of manual training, household economy, agriculture, music and drawing, to the elementary course of study and due also to the pew emphasis placed on the study of the Spanish language, the division of supervision was augmented by a supervisor of Spanish, asupervisor of manual training, a supervisor of domestic science and household economy, and a supervisor of playgrounds and athletics.” In 1915 the term “‘supervising principal” was changed again to that of “supervisor” which is still the official name of that office. For administrative purposes the Island of Porto Rico is divided into political units known as municipalities. Each municipality con- sists generally of an urban center and an outlying rural territory, subdivided into wards or “‘barrios.”’ The Island is divided into seventy-six minicipalities. For the purpose of supervision it is divided into school districts. During the first year of the American occupation it was divided into sixteen school districts, which number continued until 1902. At that time the number was increased to nineteen. In the academic year 1903-1904, the number was reduced to eighteen. From 1904 to 1908 it continued to be divided into nine- teen districts. School Districts. At the session of the insular legislature in 1908, the Island was newly districted and provision was made for thirty- five school districts and an automatic increase as the necessity of the different districts demanded.” Since then the number of school dis- tricts has varied. From 1909 to 1911 there were forty-three, and at that time the number was decreased to forty-one, which is the *4Tbid., Approved March 12, 1903, Sec. 62. p. 19. *Ibid., Compiled by Carey Hickle, Aug. 1914, p. 47. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 358. 2Ibid., 1913, p. 247. School Administration and Supervision 137 present subdivision.?® The supervisor is the educational head of the school district. Today school districts are graded into classes: First, municipalities having one hundred schools or more; second, municipalities having from fifty to ninety-nine schools; third, munic- ipalities having less than fifty schools.?° Salaries of Supervisors. The salaries of supervisors have been in- creased from time to time. In 1899 when the office of supervisor was created, the salary was $50.00 a month. On July 1, 1899, the salary was increased to $900.00 a year, from which the supervisors paid their own transportation. The supervisors of San Juan and Ponce acted also as school principals and received a salary of $1200 a year.®° In 1901 the supervisor’s salary was increased to $1044 a year and soon to $1200 a year.*! On March 12, 1908 the school districts were classified into first, second and third classes and salaries fixed to the category of the district. In 1908 the salary schedule for supervisors was as follows: First class districts—$1500 per annum. First i ip 1300 “ ie hind) _ 1200 “ or In addition to the above fixed salaries, first and second class dis- trict supervisors received from the municipal school boards an allow- ance of $240 per annum for house and office rent, and third class dis- trict supervisors, $200 per annum for travelling expenses.” AlI- though the cost of living has increased, the salaries of supervisors remained stationery until 1918.* The salaries of the general super- visors as fixed by law in 1908 was $1800 per annum.* Personnel and Qualifications of Supervisors. The personnel and | qualifications of supervisors during the military government has al- ready been considered in this chapter. Until 1909, no law was passed prescribing academic standards for supervisors, or limiting the number to American or native born. The supervisors were ap- pointed by the Commissioner of Education, and he generally appoint- ed them on the basis of training, successful experience and general efficiency. The only requirement ever made was that of 1909, when the legislature ruled ‘‘that after June 30, 1909, no person shall occupy 287Tbid., 1909, p. 250. 29Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 314. 30Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1919, p. 39. 31School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 p. 46. 256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 34. *These have increased substantially in late years. 138 Education in Porto Rico the position of supervising principal, who shall not hold a principal’s license issued by the Department of Education of Porto Rico, in pursuance of the provisions of section 38 of an act entitled “The Codified School Law of Porto Rico’ approved March 12, 1903.’’% Generally the supervisors have been teachers who have been pro- moted because of their efficiency. The question of birth has not been emphasized and if at all the department has been working toward having as many Porto Rican born as possible, realizing that the future of the public schools is in the hands of the native born. Regarding the supervising staff, the last commissioner of education, Dr. Paul G. Miller, had the following to say: At the present time of the forty-one district supervisors, thirteen are American born and twenty-eight are Porto Ricans; thirty-seven are men and four women; seven are graduates of American colleges or universities, but only one of these is a native Porto Rican; ten are holders of a normal school diploma, and all hold the principal’s teachers license. Practically all of them have taken special courses in normal schools, colleges and universities, and not a few of them have received prac- tical training in the field as assistants of older and experienced men. In fact the plan of assigning candidates, who apparently possess desirable qualifications for supervisorship to serve as assistants, has proved to be one of the most satisfactory means of assuring competency and success in the service.*4 The Supervisor 1s Primarily an Administrative Officer. As to the efficiency of the work of supervision, much has been accomplished and still more remains to be accomplished. The work of the first super- visors has already been described. They were inspectors rather than supervisors. In the discusssion of this chapter it has been shown the change of name from time to time of the official called today a super- visor, almost every new Commissioner changing the name. The name used first was “English supervisor,” then later “superintendent” still later “supervising principal” and today “‘supervisor.”” Although the name changed, the duties did not change much, with the exception of the natural evolution of duties attached to the office. The mere history of the office shows that the duties of this official were such that it was hard to choose an appropriate name. He is not a supervisor, as the term is professionally used, that is, the person who supervises instruction, studies both teachers and pupils, and introduces methods to improve the teachers and the general character and quality of classroom activities, with the child as the ultimate 3 School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 p. 45. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 560. Since this date more Porto Ricans have been appointed. School Administration and Supervision 139 aim. Most of the time of the supervisor is taken up with duties out- side of the school, duties of an administrative and clerical character. As to his visit to the average teacher he is “‘el inspector de escuelas,”’ which means exactly the same as the European inspector of schools. The teacher does not see a helper and a councillor in the supervisor, but a higher authority, a superior. Activities of the Supervisor. The office of supervisor in Porto Rico is a very important one, but his duties today are such that he has very little time, if any, for real supervision. A quotation from the report of the commissioner of education to the Governor will give the reader an idea of the function of supervisors in Porto Rico. “He receives and distributes all text books and supplies for the district and keeps a property account of all msular government property in his care. He makes the necessary change of reports in the teaching force, so as to enable the central office to make out pay rolls correctly. He attends school board meetings and assists in the many varied activities taken in these meetings, such as the establishment of new schools, the selection of building sites, school furniture and equipment, the nomination of teachers, the formation of the school board budget, and the making of repairs of the school buildings. He takes an active and in most cases the principal part in enforcing the present defective compulsory attendance law. He takes the leading part in the rural campaign to awaken the interest and secure the cooperation of the peasantry in school work. He visits schools and confers with teachers as to the improvement of their work, and prescribes and makes out examinations for pupils. He conducts examinations for candidates for the teachers licenses, confers with patrons of the school about numerous matters concerning the progress and welfare of the pupils, and renders numerous reports to the central office. During the recent war, the supervisor of schools has been a leader and pro- moter of practically all war activities, from the sale of war saving _ stamps to rendering assistance in carrying out the draft law.* Too Many Outside Duties of the Supervisor. The supervisor, ac- cordingly, has to do everything that nobody else will do, together with his official duties. He is more of a general efficiency man or social worker than a supervisor of instruction. However, these num- erous activities quoted above show the importance of the office of supervisor, the prestige he has in the community, and the possibilities within his power to penetrate into the life of the community and Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 560. 140 Education in Porto Rico help out in its general uplift, if he had a staff to which he might dele- gate many of the present duties and responsibilities. But as it is today, he is not a supervisor of schools technically speaking, and he has not the time to supervise the instruction as a supervisor should. As it will be seen in another chapter, the rural teachers in Porto Rico are the ones who have the greatest task to perform and the greatest service to render. ~ Many rural teachers are poorly prepared for the performance of their duties and are sadly in need of supervision and help. A visit or two a month and often less does very little for them professionally. They need personal contact, help and sympathy from the supervisor which it is impossible for the present official to render with his multifarious duties. C. Tuer Locatu OFFICES The first school law of Porto Rico under the government of the United States, provided for the election of five school trustees in each municipality which composed the school board, and the large powers of these boards, plus their failure to perform their duties as prescribed by law, led more and more to the centralization of school administration. It remains to consider here the workings of the school boards from 1901 to 1919, when they were replaced by the municipal commissioner of education. Work of the Boards. During those eighteen years, the school boards were composed of three members, elected by the qualified voters of each municipality at the regular municipal election. As already noted, a municipality includes the whole municipal district, so these three officers were elected by all the voters, both urban and rural, and represented the same in all school matters. They were given ample powers to hold in their corporate names the title to land and other property acquired for school purposes; to be in charge of school build- ings in their respective districts; to build, repair, remodel and improve school property in general; to rent buildings for school purposes; to provide a suitable equipment and furniture for the school buildings; to employ janitors, nominate rural and graded teachers and principals and to perform such duties as the Commissioner of Education might require in accordance with the school laws. In case of a vacancy the Commissioner appointed a member to serve in the place of the retiring member. The Supervisors and the Board. The supervisor of schools was an ex-officio member of the board, and was entitled to participate in its School Administration and Supervision 141 discussions, to receive notice of its meetings, to examine its minutes, records and accounts in like manner as a duly elected member of the board, but had no vote. He shared with the school board the right to assign the teachers to their respective grades and schools. The supervisors and the boards worked together effectively with rare exceptions of friction due generally to misunderstandings and not to lack of good will. The school boards were the direct representative of the people, while the supervisor was the representative of the de- partment and thereby of the insular government. Municipal Commissioner of Education. Under the new municipal law school boards are abolished and in place thereof there is provided a municipal commissioner of education who has all the powers and duties formerly exercised by the school boards except the voting on the school budget. There is also a supervisor of schools in every district who acts as professional head and representative of the department of education. Criticisms and Answers. It has been charged that such a central- ized system curbed local initiative, and thereby delayed preparation for self-government; that as each district elects its mayor, now, its municipal assembly, its representatives and its senators, so they should elect its sheool officers; that such a centralized system of administration takes away from the people a further opportunity for the practice of self-government. In answer to such contentions, it might be stated that the other machinery of government furnishes ample opportunity for lessons and for practice in self-government, especially now with the new municipal law, when more people will take part in local politics. At the same time, the new municipal law shows the tendency of the legislature to centralize more the educational machinery, for only one school officer is selected to represent the people, the municipal commissioner of education, instead of the school board of three members. The failure of the local boards of the Spanish régime and the power of the Governor in spite of the local boards, as well as the inefficiency and lack of initiative of the school trustees during the American military government, should not be forgotten. General Tendency toward Centralization. Moreover, the general tendency in the last fifty years has been toward centralization as the most efficient way to conduct a school system. This tendency has not been observable only in Europe where the governments have used the public schools for nationalistic ends, but also in the United 142 Education in Porto Rico States, known as the champion of democratic ideals. Centralization of the educational system in Porto Rico has done away with many of the petty local political issues entering the schools, and even with such a highly centralized system local politics have entered too much into school matters and many a good teacher has been left without a position because he or she did not happen to belong to the party in power, while inefficient teachers have been nominated by local boards not because they were better qualified but because they were willing to comply with the requirements of the politicians. The people of Porto Rico are well acquainted with the fee of twenty-five dollars that each teacher had to promise to pay to the party in power before he received his nomination from the municipal school board. Only the determination of the last Commissioner of Education to do away with such corruption on the part of the local boards secured good teachers the assurance of their positions. Conclusion. It is the opinion of the writer that the present highly centralized educational system is the best for Porto Rico. Whether the Commissioner remains an appointee of the President of the United States or whether he will be selected by the insular authorities, the high degree of centralization should be continued, and the Commis- sioner will be the one man responsible for the success of the system. When something goes wrong or when the results achieved do not come up to expectations, there will be one man who will be responsible for undoing the wrong or for achieving the results compatible with the existing circumstances. However, there is the danger in the present system to add to the official duties of the Commissioner out- side duties to the extent that his usefulness as the administrator of the school system is impaired. There is also the danger of the Commissioner making of his office a bureaucracy by failing to delegate powers to his subordinates. Since these evils are so imminent, so much more the need that the Commissioner be a man qualified to overcome these dangers. | Complaints have been heard from time to time that the central- ized scheme of administration lends itself to inefficiency on the part of the Commissioner, that he would not choose as subordinates men of ability and training, but only those whom he could handle. This might be true, therefore the importance of choosing the Com- missioner on his personal qualities, preparation and ability instead of on his political adherence. Commissioners have been accused of being tyrannical and unjust. School Administration and Supervision 143 It would be an impossibility to find a perfect, infallible commissioner, one who did not make mistakes, who was liked by all and who pleased everybody. The fact that such a man cannot be found does not take away the virtues of the centralized system of school adminis- tration as the one under which the best results can be achieved. A comparative glance at Part I and Part II of this work shows a great contrast and reveals the progress attained in education in Porto Rico in the last two decades, not a small part of which has been due largely to the centralized control of public education. CHAPTER IX THE TEACHING PROFESSION A. Preriop oF READJUSTMENT TO OcTOBER 1901 The Need of Trained Teachers to Begin the System. When the United States officials began to reform the system of public instruc- tion, one of the most serious problems they encountered was the ques- tion of teachers. The problem was not only one of teacher training, but also of what to do with the Spanish teachers they found. The first school law, issued May 1, 1899, under the governorship of Gen- eral Guy V. Henry, organized public instruction from the elementary school to the university, and established new requirements for teachers in the public school system, that is, requirements for elementary, secondary and university teachers. Although there was no university, there were no secondary schools, and very few and poor elementary schools, without American trained teachers to teach in them, yet the law was supposed to go into effect, “‘on and after the beginning of the fall term of 1899.” Provisions of the Law Regarding Teachers: Unwersity Teachers. “Every professor, instructor, or teacher of any grade in the University of Porto Rico or any allied professional school except the School of Commerce, who receives a salary from the public funds, must possess (a) a degree from a college or gymnasium of America or Europe, or a diploma equivalent to such a degree, showing that he has completed satisfactorily a course of at least three years in subjects higher than the secondary school studies, and (b) a degree as doctor or an equiv- alent degree from a university of America or of Europe of standing, showing that he has completed a course of at least two years in the special subject in which he will give instruction.” Secondary and Normal School Teachers. “Every professor, in- structor or teacher of any grade in any secondary school of Puerto Rico (normal school or high school) except critic teachers, and teachers of drawing, sloyd, manual training or music, must possess the qualifications stated in clause (a) of the first paragraph of this (144) The Teaching Profession 145 act. Critic teachers in normal schools must be graduates of normal schools where model school work is done in connection with profes- sional training, or graduates of pedagogical courses in a college of repute with experience in model school work.”’ Elementary School Principals. ‘“‘Principals of graded schools must be college or normal school graduates.” Graded School Teachers. ‘‘Graded school teachers must be grad- uates of normal schools, or graduates of secondary schools preparing for the best American universities with at least one year’s experience as a teacher.” Rural School Teachers. ‘Rural school teachers must possess cer- tificates granted by the Bureau of Education upon examination in accordance with the regulation provided for in this act.” ‘“‘“Any teacher possessing qualification for teaching in schools of a higher grade may teach in a school of a lower grade.””! The provisions of this law regarding teachers remind one of the 1865 decree, setting qualifications for teachers to go into effect in four months, when there were no teachers of such qualifications nor ways to prepare them. It does not seem the work of an American, but it was. The law was good but there were no teachers who could qualify to teach, therefore the necessity of securing teachers in order to continue with public education. Action of the Board of Education. In order to be able to open the schools in the fall term, the Board of Education had to certify teach- ers, and in August 21, 1899, at the regular meeting of the Board the report of a committee upon teachers’ titles, previously appointed, was adopted as follows: “that in admitting new candidates to the profession of teaching, certificates shall be granted only upon ex- amination or upon diplomas from reputable normal schools, colleges, and universities; that the standard of examinations shall be main- tained equal to that observed in New York State, Ohio, Minnesota, California and other States of the Union. “That all teachers of Porto Rico holding superior titles under the former law shall receive principals’ certificates. “That all teachers holding rural or auxiliary titles under the former law shall receive rural certificates.’ Examinations. Moreover the Board established certain regula- 1The School Laws of the Island of Porto Rico, May 1, 1899, Part II. Laws concerning Public Instruction, Sec. V. 256th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 31. 146 Education in Porto Rico tions for teachers’ examinations upon which rural, graded and prin- cipals’ certificates were granted. The examinations embraced Spanish and English, arithmetic, geography, United States history and school methods; while for a principals’ certificate especial examinations in algebra, geometry and physical science were required.’ As a result of this, by January 1900, 162 certificates were granted by the Insular Board of Education; 775 were granted in exchange for titles held under Spanish Law; 26 upon examination, and the rest were granted to American teachers who taught in English.t| Thus the problem of supply of teachers was solved for the time being. Summer School, 1899. In the meantime the Board of Education began to make provisions for the training of teachers and opened in July 1899 a summer school for teachers. The work was confined to the grammar school subjects. There were 49 boys and 27 girls in attendance in the practice school held during the forenoon, and about 30 teachers attended these sections for observation and practice, and attended special afternoon classes in the grammar school subjects and English.° The Model and Training School. The summer school opened in the same rooms, September 24, 1899, with a high school department. All instruction was given in English and all text books were in Eng- lish. It must be kept in mind that the Porto Rico pupils knew very little of this language. The school had a good faculty of eight teachers. In January 1900 it was moved to a twelve room frame building in Puerta de Tierra, erected for its accommodation, when a department of Spanish under Dr. Antonio Rosell, and a department of biology were established. There were other plans for the school and among other things it was to be used as a practice school for the training of teachers. A kindergarten training class of young women was started. The school and all its plans came to an end July 1, 1900, when fire destroyed the building. This school had no relation to the school system, being an institution unique in its character. During the year of its existence it was not successful, having no aim, and very little is known of its accomplishments during the year. Dr. Groff said, regarding it, that “It was originally started as a school for American children.” Of its work he said, “It was a 56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 41. ‘Tbid., p. 42. 5Ibid., p. 36. SIbid., p. 36. The Teaching Profession 147 laughing stock for all who knew anything about schools, but I thought it best to let it die easily.’ The Fajardo Normal School. In July 1899 the director of public instruction issued a call to all the municipalities to issue a bonus for the establishment within their jurisdiction of a normal and indus- trial school. The municipality of Fajardo made an offer of $20,000 for the school, provided the insular government would appropriate a like amount. The insular government accepted the offer and a committee of the Board of Education inspected the Fajardo sites. The Board authorized the purchase of over 93 acres of land, and plans and specifications were prepared by the department of public works for an eight-room school building and a four-room shop and labora- tory, to be erected immediately. It was the design of the committee that this institution should furnish manual training courses and courses in agriculture and that there should be connected with it a model school for practice teaching and a normal department.® Nothing more was done for almost a year and the citizens of Fajardo were rather impatient at the delay. In the summer of 1900 Dr. Groff authorized the opening of a summer session to be maintained three months. One teacher was to do the entire work, but later another was appointed and a small primary school was opened. The school continued until October 1, 1900, but its work had no value for professional training. It was a normal school in name only, as with few exceptions the pupils should have been in the public schools and were not prepared to take up professional work. Normal Course Begun in Fajardo. As will be noted by consulting the map, Fajardo is situated on the extreme north-eastern corner of the Island and very difficult of access. To reach it from the other parts of the Island was very expensive. In this respect the choice of the location was an unfortunate one as the average teacher candi- date could not afford the trip. Nevertheless the school was opened October 1, 1900, with a faculty of five trained teachers. It was equipped and prepared to receive one hundred pupils, but less than twenty enrolled at the opening of the school. The small enrollment was due in no slight degree to its inaccessibility. The industrial department was not opened. The normal department offered the following course of study: TReport of the Commissioner me Sate for Porto Rico, 1900, p. 20. 856th Cong. S. D. 363, p. *Report of the Commissioner of Tduvotion for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 41-42. 148 Education in Porto Rico PREPARATORY YEAR First Semester: (1) Professional Studies: school management, psychology and observations in model departments and child study (four hours a week). (2) Language: English grammar. Spanish grammar (four hours a week) (4) Science: Descriptive geometry, simple biology (three hours a week). (5) Art: Penmanship, composition (English), music, modeling in clay (four hours a week). (6) Civic Studies: History of Porto Rico (three hours a week). Second Semester: (1) Professional Studies: Methods, standard psychology, observa- tion in model department continued (four hours a week). (2) Language: English grammar, Spanish grammar, elocution (four hours a week). (3) Mathematics: Arith- metic (three hours a week). (4) Science: Physical geography, psychology and hygiene (three hours a week). (5) Art: Composition (English and Spanish), music, drawing (four hours a week). (6) Civic Studies: History of the United States, colonial and Revolutionary epochs (three hours a week). JUNIOR YEAR First Semester: (1) Professional Studies: History of ancient education, principles of education (four hours a week). (2) Language: American literature (three hours a week). (3) Mathematics: Algebra (three hours a week). (4) Science (three hours a week). (5) Art: Composition (English and Spanish), drawing, plastic modeling (four hours a week). (6) Civic Studies; United States history, administration epoch (three hours a week). Second Semester: (1) Professional Studies: History of modern education; educa- tional theory (4 hours a week). (2) Language: Spanish and English literature (3 hours a week). (3) Mathematics: Geometry (3 hours a week). (4) Science: Biology (3 hours a week). (5) Art: Composition (English and Spanish); water colors, gymnas- tics (4 hours a week). (6) Civic Studies: General history (modern); elementary civics (3 hours a week). SENIOR YEAR To be deferred.'® The school was not a success, first because it was inaccessible and only a small number of students could be attracted to it; second, the faculty was not in harmony; and third, the people would not support a school in’ Fajardo. They could not entertain the idea of its es- tablishment in such an inaccessible place."". Doctor Brumbaugh, be- ing convinced of these facts, began to take steps to remove the normal school to Rio Piedras, seven miles from the city of San Juan. After some legal questions had been solved the site for the new normal school was secured and a building begun immediately, which was ready for occupancy May, 1902. In the meantime the Insular Normal School began its work October 28, 1901, in the Governor’s palace in Rio Piedras. Such was the beginning of the normal school, the nucleus of what is to-day the University of Porto Rico.” 10Report of the Commissioner ee Education for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 42-43. U]bid., 1901, p. 43. Ibid The Teaching Profession 149 Teachers’ Institutes. The first teachers’ institutes, sometimes called summer institutes and summer schools due to the length of the session, lasting several weeks in the summer, were another agency the de- partment of education used for the training of teachers. In the summer of 1900 a group of teachers were sent throughout the Island to conduct a series of teachers’ institutes. For many reasons, which are not necessary to our study, these institutes were a failure.” Although the educated classes in Porto Rico have always appre- ciated the schools and have done their part to support education, the masses of the people which are of course in the majority, have been ignorant and have not realized the need of an education. The school to them was an institution imposed upon the people for reasons not apparent to them, hence the need of propaganda to bring the claims of the public schools before the masses of the people. The Teachers’ Institutes, or Teachers’ Conferences, as they were generally called, were used by the Department of Education to make propaganda in behalf of the public schools. Early in the spring of 1901 the Com- missioner organized a series of conferences to be given throughout the Island the purpose of which was not so much to talk about methods or show the native teachers how to teach, as simply to spread the gospel of the public schools. The Commissioner invited two American educators to ac- company him in the campaign to popularize public education. The Honorable O. T. Carson, ex-school commissioner of the State of Ohio, ex-president of the N. E. A., and editor of the Ohio Educational Monthly, and the Honorable Henry Houck, for many years deputy superintendent of public instruction for the State of Pennsylvania, were secured to accompany the Commissioner. They volunteered their services without compensation and reached the Island March 8, 1901. The meetings began inSan Juan and Rio Piedras with five sessions on the eighth and ninth of March. They were well attended. General educational ideals were presented and the teachers were led to understand something of the purpose of an educational system. Several mass meetings were held in Mayagtiez, San German, Yauco, Ponce and other towns with marked success. Many teachers attended, but above all citizens whom the speakers wished to interest in the public school." Summer Normal Institute. In the summer of 1901, a summer nor- mal institute was held in San Jaun for ten weeks. The attendance 8Ibid., 1900, p. 16. “Ibid., 1901, pp. 25-28. 150 Education in Porto Rico was so large that no room in the school buildings was adequate for the opening exercises. The city theater was secured and an attend- ance of over 1600 crowded in. Eight hundred thirty-six people were enrolled as pupils, instructed by a faculty of 16 teachers. The pupils were school teachers in active service and candidates for teachers’ licenses. At the close of the session an examination was held and there were issued 161 new rural certificates, 26 graded and 8 principals certificates. The certified teachers who attended the sessions re- turned to their work better prepared to perform their respective tasks. Too much can not be said in praise of those who attended the summer institute, many of them making great sacrifice in order to attend and to improve themselves. The curriculum included English, Spanish, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history of the United States and Porto Rico, physiology, methods and management in teaching, and nature study. There was also maintained a primary school which served as a model for the teachers. Many of the candidates not successful in securing a license to teach entered the Insular normal school in the autumn." , Porto Rican Teachers in the United States. Another method used by the department of education to improve the preparation of the teachers was to secure for a number of them the rare opportunity of study in the United States. During the summer vacation of 1899, forty-eight Porto Rican teachers were granted government trans- portation to the United States in order that they might study the English language and American school methods. Many of these teachers returned after the vacation was over and rendered excellent service in the schools. The States of New York, Vermont, New Hamp- shire, and Minnesota offered free tuition to Porto Rican students in their normal schools, and the Chautauqua Assembly granted a like privilege.1® Besides the teachers, picked youths from the public schools were sent to preparatory schools in the United States. By the summer of 1901, 219 pupils had been sent North and were under the personal oversight of the Commissioner of Education.” Some of these pupils were sent to very good schools, while others were not so fortunate, mistakes having been made in selecting some of the schools. Never- 1©Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 28-35. 656th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 42. “Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1901, pp. 74-75. The Teaching Profession 151 theless the majority of them succeeded, and many of them returned later and made and are making their contribution to the educational as well as to the general progress of the Island. First American Teachers in Porto Rico. This account of the early efforts put forth to train teachers for the public schools of Porto Rico would not be complete without some reference to the first American teachers who came to Porto Rico. They were pioneers in a strange land, among peoples of a different language and in an entirely different civilization from what they were accustomed to at home. The first American teachers in Porto Rico have been severely criticized by some, while more thoughtful people have been more charitable in their judgment and have not forgotten to acknowledge their ser- vices and rendered them due praise. Many a girl came from the United States all alone and was assigned to a small central town, where she knew no one, heard no English. Often she became home- sick, resigned and went home. She was charged with being an adventurer and an undesirable teacher. Nevertheless, it was the most natural thing for her to get homesick under the circumstances, to want to go home, and to do so if she could. At the same time there were adventurers, teachers who were not the most desirable nor the best prepared. It is well to quote here Dr. Brumbaugh’s evaluation of these teachers as the opinion of the man who came in contact with their work. He said in part, “These American teachers at the outset were mostly young men who came to Porto Rico with the American army. None of them knew Spanish, and some of them knew little English. Gradually the quality was improved by the addition of groups of teachers, mostly women, from the United States ... These teachers were selected solely upon application and testimonial, and were not always desirable persons for the work nor typical representatives of the vast army of American teachers, but some of them merit the warmest commendation and the greatest respect. Under circumstances most unusual and conditions most unpropitious they entered upon their labors and did nobly. Living often in a remote village, without a single associate who spoke the English language, they struggled on and accomplished much good. One group deserves no credit—the seekers after novelty and new ex- periences, mere adventurers, who imposed upon the administration and the children and who used the salary and position of teacher solely to see a new country for a year and then return. Fortunately these are gone and the better teachers remain to carry on a really 152 Education in Porto Rico helpful and arduous task. The people of Porto Rico patiently bore with these adventurers and quietly longed for their departure.’ B. AcADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION SINCE 1901 The Normal School. The normal school being established in the Governor’s summer palace at Rio Piedras opened its first session the last of October 1901 with over 100 pupils. Of these several were rejected and others allowed to try the course of study for longer or shorter periods, but finally were rejected as better fitted for the work in the common schools. Of those who remained, thirteen were poorly equipped, but were allowed to remain and formed a preparatory class, following the curriculum of the eighth grade in the public schools. The enrollment for the year was ninety-one, thirteen in the preparatory year, sixty-two in the first year and sixteen in the second year.!® On May 30, 1902 the school was moved to the normal school building especially constructed for the purpose. The new building offered great advantages to the pupils. It had large and airy class rooms, an auditorium seating three hundred persons, two gymnasiums, one for boys and one for girls—equipped with showerbaths and lockers and all necessary appliances for physical training, plenty of room for laboratories to be installed as needed and a large room for a library.”° In its new quarters the normal school opened its regular session September 29, 1902, with an enrollment of 136 and offering a three-year course beside the preparatory year, that is, three years after graduation from the eighth grade. The school graduated its first class of four, June 19, 1903.74 The Normal Department of the Unwersity of Porto Rico.* The normal school was established, at work, and producing results. In the mean- time by act of the legislature, the University of Porto Rico was founded, March 12, 1903.22 The normal school was reorganized as the normal department of the University of Porto Rico to comply with the law, which provided for “‘a normal department to be known as the insular normal school for the training of teachers in the subjects 18Report of the Commissioner, of Education, 1901, pp. 14-15. 19Tbd., 1902. p. 121. Report of the Principal of the Insular Normal School. 207Tbid., p. 36. *17bid., 1904 pp. 166-167. Report of the Principal of Insular N. S. *See chapter on Secondary and Higher Education. 22An act establishing the University of Porto Rico, to amend section 973 (923) of the Civil Code of Porto Rico and for other purposes. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1903, p. 251 ff. The Teaching Profession 153 taught in the public schools of Porto Rico and to be supported by annual appropriations by the legislative assembly.’’? This act turned over to the Board of Trustees of the University of Porto Rico the insular normal school, consisting at this time of the main normal school building, a practice school in its own building, an agricultural station building, a principal’s residence, about 100 acres of land to- gether with their equipment. The insular normal school thus became the normal department of the University and the only department in operation at the time the University was founded. The entrance requirements were now advanced to the completion of the eighth grade or examinations on the subjects of that grade. Above this the normal department offered a three-year course, and a course for rural teachers was also established.” In 1905 the regular normal course was increased to four years be- yond the eighth grade. At the end of the first two years those who applied and passed the required examinations were granted certificates to teach in the graded schools, and those completing the four-year course received the diploma of the school which entitled the bearer to a principalship in the graded schools after one year of teaching experience.” In the meantime a school of eight grades had been developed in connection with the normal department, which served as a model and practice school to the normal students. The seventh and eighth grades, moreover, served as preparatory grades for the normal course. The University continued offering this course of study for the preparation of teachers until 1910. By that time the department was well established, had turned out many teachers and was being patronized by the young people more and more. During the nine years of its existence it had graduated 82 students in the four-year course, and had issued 299 certificates to teach in the graded schools to those who had pursued only a two-year course. While the tuition in the normal department had always been and still is gratis, stu- dents were further assisted by a number of scholarships granted each year by the insular legislature to the most meritorious as well as most needy students in the public schools, and tended to cover the cost of board in Rio Piedras. The school library had grown in the 2Ibid., Section 18. “4 Ihid., 1904, p. 22. Ibid, 1904, p. 298. 67 bid., 1906, pp. 100-102. 154 Education in Porto Rico meantime and had 4,000 volumes. The course of the practice school had been raised to nine years, serving as a preparatory course to en- trance in the normal department.” At the reorganization of the University in 1910, the entrance re- quirements of the normal department were advanced to the com- pletion of the ninth grade. The normal courses after that con- sisted of two and four years each, leading to the graded teacher’s certificate and to the diploma of the normal respectively.22 Even against this advance in the entrance requirements, the enrollment of the school increased, and by 1915 the normal department of the University alone had 499 students. The academic requirements for admission and graduation remained the same until 1915 when the completion of the tenth grade was required for entrance, the elementary course of two years was elimi- nated, and all students pursued a four-year course, thus giving the equivalent of two years of college work to all graduates. Graduates of the high schools, desiring to enter the normal department, were admitted and given a two-year normal course.”® This change was felt immediately in the enrollment of the normal department of the university. Very few students enrolled in the first and second year courses because nearly all candidates preferred to complete the high school work and obtain their diplomas before entering the two- year course for high school graduates.*° Because of the need of rural teachers the normal department formulated and adopted a special course for rural teachers to go into effect in 1917. The special course consisted of work in agriculture, manual training and home economics, elementary science, rural school management, rural school methods, and rural hygiene and sanitation.*! This course proved to be a success, and was a move for specialization in teacher training. In addition to this course, and to those preparing principals of graded schools and teachers of home economics, plans began to be studied for the preparation of teachers of the primary, intermediate, and upper grades of the elementary school, together with a scheme of guidance for the purpose of aiding the prospective. teacher in his selection of a field of specialization.*? Graduates of the normal school department who wished to prepare *7Ibid., 1910, pp. 36-38. *8Ibid., p. 36. 227Tbid., 1915, p. 391. 30[bid., 1917, p. 503. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1916, p. 409. 2Ibid., 1917, p. 503. The Teaching Profession 155 themselves for administrative positions or to teach in high or con- tinuation schools, were given the opportunity to enter the College of Liberal Arts,** with the provisional rank of Juniors, and to complete the course in two years, receiving the degree of B.A. in Education. The University practice school had developed by this time a four- year high school course and those preparing to teach in high schools practiced in the University High School.* In order to articulate better the university with the public school system, during the academic year 1917-1918, questionnaires were distributed to all supervisors of schools and to former students of the normal school who were teaching in the public schools. The question- naires were devised to secure the criticism of former students and representatives of the public school system, on the courses offered at the University for the training of teachers.** This was in prepara- tion for the reorganization of the courses of study which took place in 1919. At that reorganization the normal department became the Normal College of the University of Porto Rico with its eight-grade elementary practice school and the University High School.*6 The Normal College. Graduation from an accredited high school and the attainment of a specific standard of scholarship are the requisites for admission to the Normal College, with the exception of the course for the preparation of rural teachers. The Normal College gives a two-year course for high school graduates leading to the English graded teacher’s license; a three-year course for high school graduates, for the preparation of special teachers of home economics leading to a diploma and license to teach home economics in elementary and continuation schools. A supplementary one-year course in home economics leads to the degree of B.A. in Education and prepares for teaching of home economics in high schools. The Normal College offers two other courses leading to the degree of B.A. in Education—one a two-year course supplementing the normal course and preparing for teaching in public and continua- tion and high schools, and the other a four-year course for high school graduates preparing for high school teaching and principal- ships. Those who have satisfactorily completed the ninth grade in the public schools or any accredited high or continuation school 33See Part II, Chapter on Secondary and Higher Education. %4 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1917,p. 503. Ibid., 1918, p. 562. Ibid. 1919, pp. 609-611. 156 Education in Porto Rico may be admitted to the special one-year course for the preparation of rural teachers.’ Since its foundation, to the end of the academic year 1920, the Normal School issued the following certificates: Degree of B.A. in Education.................... 2 Elementary Normal Certificates.................. 1007 Rural ‘TVéachers:Certificates 000 0/0 eee 296 Normal School Diplomas. i. at, 2 eee 420 Wh Age at alse menI NL Al ite MRK Ne nieta TONY Ye b) Sd 1725** Teachers Trained in High Schools. Besides the normal school, the Ponce high school offered normal courses for several years and at the completion of the high school course graduates were entitled to the graded license to teach in the public schools.*® The Ponce high school prepared altogether 117 students to teach. In 1919 an act was passed by the legislature authorizing the Commissioner of Education to establish training courses in high schools for rural teachers and for other purposes.*° As a result special courses for the preparation of rural teachers were offered in the high schools of San Juan, Ponce, Mayagiiez and Aguadilla and a total of 57 teachers’ licenses were issued on the basis of high school diplomas in June 1920.4 Improvement of Teachers in Service. The summer schools have been another agency employed to prepare teachers. Many graduates from high schools have attended the summer schools held in Rio Piedras and Mayagitiez and have qualified for the rural teachers license and for the license of teacher of manual training. The teachers’ conferences and institutes have been another agency which has contributed greatly to the improvement of the teachers in the service. This was specially true in the early days of the American occupation, due to the fact that the teachers had not had professional training and the meetings served not only as a source of professional inspiration but also as a source of instruction. However, with the development of professional training the emphasis was shifted slowly from the teachers’ institutes to teachers’ meetings and con- ferences. Annual Catalogue and Announcement of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-1922, pp. 33-34. *8{bid., pp. 104-32. 39Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 327. 407bid., 1919, p. 581, “Thid., 1920, p. 421. The Teaching Profession 157 In the academic year 1919-1920 the institutes were revived again. In the beginning of the school system the outside speaker came to talk to the teachers and magnified public education as the best means to prepare a people for citizenship and self-government; in the later days the question of method and insular educational problems have occupied the attention of the teachers in their meetings. In the beginning the speakers who generally came from the continent and did not know Spanish, nor the specific problems of the Island, pre- sented to the teachers general educational ideals through interpreters, the teachers receiving instruction at second hand and often very unsatisfactorily; in the later days native teachers have taken over this work and in their teachers’ meetings, conferences and institutes, they deal with the practical problems which they encounter in their daily work. Propaganda Conferences. Reference has already been made to teachers’ conferences when Dr. Brumbaugh was Commissioner, but in order to appreciate the contrast better, other accounts of teachers’ meetings and conferences at the beginning will be cited in comparison with those of the present day. Doctor Samuel McCune Lindsay, Commissioner in 1902, reporting on teachers’ meetings and confer- ences says: “In addition to the conference of the supervisors it was found advisable to continue the plan of holding a series of meetings in different parts of the island for the purpose of raising a healthy and active interest in normal education and in the public school. “For this purpose the commissioner invited Dr. James Earl Russell, dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, one of the best training schools for teachers in the country, and himself a man widely known as a leader of educational thought in the States, and Dr. C. Hanford Henderson, a pioneer worker, writer and thinker in the work of manual training, physical culture and other highly important features of modern education, to accompany him on a brief trip to visit some of the schools of the island. These gentlemen very kindly consented to give their services without re- muneration and in this way do what they could to assist the educa- tional work in Porto Rico. Their travelling expenses were paid by the Department and no other returns were made for the very valuable services which they rendered, except the grateful thanks since ex- pressed in many ways from teachers and parents in the leading towns in Porto Rico. “For eight days they held meetings and gave stirring addresses, 158 Education in Porto Rico and by reason of favorable weather and excellent preparation for travelling facilities we succeeded in covering a large territory. Start- ing from San Juan we addressed meetings of pupils, teachers, and general public in the school houses and public squares of the following places: Manati, Arecibo, Camuy, Quebradillas, Aguadilla, Maya- giiez, Cabo-Rojo, Sabana Grande, San German, Yauco, Ponce, Cayey, Coamo, Rio Piedras and San Juan. One day as many as seven meetings were held, and, notwithstanding the physical fatigue of this rapid trip, we met with such enthusiastic reception wherever we went that all felt encouraged and repaid. The general public is much more interested in matters of public education in Porto Rico than in most communities in the States.” Teachers’ Conferences and Meetings Today. In contrast with the above meetings of propaganda, Dr. Paul G. Miller, the last Commissioner, reports:—‘“The department conducted three-days teachers’ institutes in nine different centres. The character of the meetings was inspirational as well as instructional. The day meet- ings were devoted to the observation and discussion of model demon- stration classes, as well as to the treatment of professional topics relating to the management, methods and principles of teaching. Representatives of the department and of the University of Porto Rico took part as conductors, and gave addresses on important phases of school work. Local and outside speakers were employed.’ During the academic year 1919-1920, there were held 1975 teachers’ meetings. The purpose of those meetings was to discuss educational questions more or less common to all. Demonstration classes followed by analysis and criticism were used. Some of the topics discussed in the teachers’ meetings were: Teaching of oral English in the primary grades; Teaching of arithmetic in the primary grades; Proper assignment of lessons in the intermediate and upper grades; Proper motivation of the work in all grades; The Zaner system of penmanship; Teaching of reading and writing of Spanish in the first grade; Making the work in agriculture of most practical benefit to country people; The Home Garden movement; The Rural Uplift movement. During the year there were held: 1,015 urban teachers meetings; 773 rural teachers meetings; 187 general meet- ings; total, 1,975 teachers meetings.“ “Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1902, p. 38. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 429. “Tbid., p. 430. The Teaching Profession 159 Professional Reading Courses. Still another agency which has contributed greatly to the improvement of teachers in service is the professional reading courses. In 1899, the Board of Education realized the value of this sort of instruction, but had to contend with the fact that there was no professional literature in Spanish to put in the hands of the teachers. To remedy this, the Board began to publish in pamphlet form what were called Teachers’ Bulletins, some- times in English, sometimes in Spanish and other times in both languages. These little bulletins were sent around to the teachers bearing instructions on topics such as the following:—The outline of the Course of Study;* Grading Pupils and arranging Programs; How to teach Reading; Plant Lessons, etc.“ Good Health and How to Attain It; The Food We Eat; The Liquid We Drink; The Air We Breath; etc.*7 The pamphlet form of instruction gave place to the Teachers’ Manual, a book of six hundred pages in English and Spanish, prepared by the Board of Education, the purpose of which was, “to place in the hands of the teachers and school officials of this Island a brief account in Spanish of the educational thought and literature of the system of school organization: at present prevailing in the United States.’’4 As the teachers learned English current professional literature in that language began to be introduced. Later as the normal school developed, it began to introduce and encourage the reading of pro- fessional literature and since then the Department of Education has had as one of its chief objective, what it terms, “‘Professional Reading Courses.”’ The last Commissioner of Education reports as follows with respect to Professional Reading Courses: ‘“During the academic year 1919-1920, the following books were read in the reading courses. For rural teachers: Woofter, Teaching in Rural School; Huyke, Nios y Escuelas. For urban teachers: Kendall and Mirick, How to Teach the Fundamental Subjects; Freeland, Modern Elementary School Practice. Many teachers subscribe to leading magazines such as: Normal Instructor and Primary Plans; Primary Education; The Elementary School Journal. Thus with the co- operation of the insular and municipal governments Porto Rico has a large number of school buildings of which she can be justly proud. The photographs in Appendix VIII show the progress in school buildings better than can be expressed in words.” The buildings erected to-day show quite a contrast to those of the early years of the American occupation. The early buildings erected with the money refunded by the Federal Government, Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 545. °3School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 Sec. 17, p. 10. 24 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 545. 2Tbid. p. 546, 26 Appendix VIII. 184 Education in Porto Rico homely and deficient as they were, appeared to the people accustomed to the schools of the Spanish dominion, as palaces devoted for school purposes. It was common to hear the phrase “Un gran colegio” (a great college) in reference to the school buildings which were being erected. But the buildings of to-day excel in every respect those of the early years. They are well equipped with proper pro- vision for sanitary toilet facilities and lighting for night classes or public meetings held in the evening. Among the best rural school buildings being erected to-day are those for the consolidated rural schools. The best of these consists of five class rooms, an office for the principal, a store room for tools, and facilities for manual training, and it has a site of three acres of level ground for carrying on work in agriculture.” The following tables will show the great advancement made in providing school buildings and facilities for the children of Porto Rico, but they will show also that this work also has just begun and that the majority of the children are still gomg to rented buildings. Taste 1. Totat NuMBER or BUILDINGS.”® PUBLIC PROPERTY RENTED TOTAL Used for urban schools......... 164 204 368 Used for rural schools......... 405 1130 1535 Totakwig ces Fee neue ear 569 1334 1903 TABLE 2. Totat NuMBER oF Rooms PUBLIC PROPERTY RENTED TOTAL In buildings used for urban schools 964 456 1420 In buildings used for rural schools. 478 1198 1676 Patani a eae 1442 1654 3096 TaBLE 3. PusBiic PRoPERTY.?® NUMBER OF BUILDINGS HAVING: URBAN RURAL TOTAL 1 Room . 26.. Fe ABT i aD 368 2 Rooms. Lh A A 57 78 3 Rooms.. Ory ae: y Ate ate 1l A ROOMS eA IA A sie ee rie LE SIs eee ea bo Nei ee F Saban gue 33 27Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 546. 287bid., 1920, p. 434. 29Tbid., 1920, p. 434. Problems in Elementary Education 185 TABLE 3 (Continued) NUMBER OF BUILDINGS HAVING: URBAN RURAL T.T.L. ER MEROOLAS Se oe od hthp ach a Mere ee rane ated A Rae Lav Ly Lak ae ER OC A eee SY cue A Cia EAHOTELS lteter Shs od) hb Lee SRLS A RN MRT ELDON Se Ae D5 5h ey ee ae Ae BO 7 Rooms.... 3 —_ 3 8 Rooms..... 15 Pa TE ae 15 SPER OTIS 5: sae « bole ES : Dy Maenyied ee Te lyin g PA) PEOCHSITUS ai 8! 5h 3 e's os LS idome CUA Cem LEU Ue ella e eiek BE Sine CIO INDY BU — 2 EEC OOTIUS fate LOS a dank) ee OES eM TE, PAL EPO TY Cd So ATCT MPL, D ELG DIP IN Oa eos SANS 8 Q TP RELOOMIS ye ick fe Oto ial UP ted eG ee I EO Os se LOCO Tw aPEUW TA Semsrritt AUP Te OTE SS BAP TR ORES 84105555 BAUS CAMA Mie eer ee Sent ee gah ch Lead He — 2g DD eROOMS 4. 645.060 : ; ee 1 — 1 POL ROOMS 6c esas tls ee Re te Cerna MT are An coke ee AD yc ted ne —_ 6 TSP EROODIS Mac aah cosh os te esly cily Sel RUPE eA ArT TELL eae MAL eFC _ 2 PO ROOTS Yee ie ae he RGR MRL ay SCE cael Ue UA GPU ie Ata a —- 1 DU SERGOMIS State aint See ey eRe MT OE SEEN LES Cae Are kA TR AR FURL — hay 4 ye WT RSES 1S py en RAO CL aL ACE ae VIC cE aN ped aa ee SBE ag ef — 1 TFotal @onic cena taut (otlg Pirin amen iLe Mie ae areal ao? de 405 569 School Furniture. Practically no modern equipment existed at the time of the American occupation. To-day all publicly owned buildings and many of the rented buildings are equipped with modern furniture. The antiquated type of long benches and tables can still be found in remote rural schools of which there are about four hundred without modern equipment. The department has been trying to get rid of the old furniture and has insisted that additional schools be supplied by the school boards with modern furniture and other equipment.*° School Supplies. According to law the municipalities provide desks, school furniture, bookcases, chairs and desks for teachers, clocks, proper receptacles for drinking water, supplies for janitors and all other necessary equipment for the school room, except text books and such stationery supplies as the department of education may furnish.**. The department should furnish school text books and supplies, not furnished by the municipalities free of charge to the pupils of the public school up to and including the eighth grade, but the Commissiover is authorized to sell text books, and pupils of continuation and high schools are required to provide their own books and supplies.” 30Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 548. 31School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Sec. 79, p. 23. 32 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 434. 186 Education in Porto Rico The legislature has not always appropriated sufficient funds to enable the Commissioner to comply with the law. Until 1914 the appropriation for the text books and supplies, although not large, in some measure provided the needs, but since that date the prices of text books and supplies have increased and the department has not been able to buy the necessary supplies. Added to the increased cost, the increase in schools and enrollment has still made it more difficult for the department to comply with the law. Since 1917 no increase was made in the appropriation until 1921-22 when the appropriation was increased, while prices and enrollment have increased. The result is that many text books are not only in a very unhygienic condition, but actually filthy and should be burned.® Nevertheless when compared with Spanish times, inadequate as is the present appropriation, great progress has been made. The following table shows the appropriations made for text- books and supplies for the last eleven years: LOO OTs rele nlanie a ere tis Some ete eee eee OU ES hs Be actin UA at geen Shela edin tin ondals eh i AEE POR LORS oie subi ths aahaty plies Wakpue ktm neil Re yO POLS LO ae ti Poy shal hoe cop uh Bo Rte ae igi Ernie pea UO TOD BOND ilu, gee Selle oki cle ieee eile ipper eta en bye tael TOS NORGE LOTS EDL G oa cil tues hese bk ules ll Sa eS OU POLO SLO DT ew setts Ga hiaheears eek Crane tae ten be eth, COUR BLOTS ile feos i Ae ps BLN Ghee Pence an gu Sg a LOLSHESLO ee ee ee etaen rel kh i ert nee a I DOO LOS neh, aisle Biol ene an be bukty es MOe ace amean Ra IK POZO PTOZ EG iiclsls tiarvisth cote gone Sa ede ai oiere el emm enn beds Ae [A Col tdi tare Pe MeN tee SOM CN Ns iden sta ale Tet UE Te D. Co-EpucATION Still another problem which faced the American educators was the problem of co-education. The American people can not appreciate this problem as well as a Spaniard or a Latin-American. The Americans went to Porto Rico from a country where the boys and girls go to school together from the kindergarten to the university, where woman enjoys greater freedom than in any other country of the world, and where there is no appreciable difference of intellectual, social and moral standards between men and women. They went into a civilization where it was thought morally wrong for boys and girls to go to school together, where woman by tradition was destined ®Ibid., p. 434. “Ibid., p. 435. Problems in Elementary Education 187 to submit herself to the will of man and where there was avery differ- ent and marked contrast between the intellectual, social and moral status of men and women. Woman was not supposed to be as well educated as man, and therefore the government had made very little provision in the cities _for her intellectual development, and none in the country districts. If she belonged to what was called the first social class, she was given an education which aimed more to furnish a certain cultural polish than a development of her mental abilities, and her moral purity was watched over that not even the interesting glances from the opposite sex might contaminate her. If she belonged to the middle class she might attend the public schools for girls where she learned to do fancy work and sewing or study to be a teacher, and make an honest living as best she could, always being careful that her relations to the other sex were very - carefully supervised. But if she belonged to what is often called the lower classes, the peasant class or the colored class, she was not supposed to have any education whatsoever. To establish an American co-educational system of public educa- tion in such a society was to accomplish that which Spain and even all Europe had not yet accomplished; it was to step in a day over centuries of world traditions, prejudices and customs. But the co-educational system was established, it was established for the best, and only two decades of its history has so raised the intellectual, economic, social and moral status of woman that she is becoming more and more the equal of her brother economically, while she is every bit his equal intellectually and social- ly and at the same time has preserved her moral superiority. EK. ADAPTATION The greatest problem which confronted the American educators when they began to establish a system of public instruction in Porto Rico was the adaptation of a standard American common school system to a Latin American civilization, mostly of Spanish blood and traditions and whose vernacular was Spanish. This task can not be appreciated without a careful perusal of the first part of this work, where the Spanish system of public instruction is presented, and where the author has tried to emphasize the fact that there was no ‘‘system”’ at all to the system; that every teacher was a rule unto himself or herself and did as he or she pleased irrespective of authority; 188 Education in Porto Rico that there was no school organization of any kind, all the schools being ungraded; and that there was no aim whatsoever in education. To establish an American system of public instruction, the American educational ladder as it is often called, a working system so co- ordinated that one step leads to all the others, and on to a definite goal, to do that among people of such a culture and psychology as the Spanish education produced, is a greater task than most people think. But this task is made still more difficult when the attitude of the people toward manual labor, and when the language problem are taken into consideration. No one can appreciate the seriousness of these problems, and the difficulties to be encountered, as well as the person who has lived among the people and who speaks, thinks and feels in both languages. The new generation of Porto Rico, educated in the present public schools and a bilingual people, will be able to appreciate these problems and look with admiration at the efforts put forth to introduce into the curriculum subjects requiring manual activity and to establish a bilingual system of education and with sympathy for the many mistakes and failures made. Traditional Professions of Porto Rico. The traditional professions of Porto Rico, as well as of any other Spanish country, were law and medicine, with perhaps the priesthood, pharmacy and teaching as close seconds. These were pursued generally by young men be- longing to the first social class and of some economic means. But other people were not barred from the professions and the highest aim of many poor boys of good families was to study one of the tra- ditional professions. Such being the case, manual labor in the trades was left to the artisan class, either boys from good families whose parents could not afford to give them the advantages of a profession, or colored boys who aimed to rise higher than the average member of their class. The lowest kind of manual labor, that is, the digging of the ditches and the tilling of the soil, was left to the peon class, made up of the poor white peasant or the colored man brought up accustomed to such work as a slave. Importance of Studies Requiring Manual Activity. While sewing and embroidery as occupations for women were more or less re- spectable due to the fact that they constituted required studies during the Spanish régime, cooking and laundering was left to the very poor or low socially, and to be called a “‘cocinera’”’ or “‘lavandera”’ Problems in Elementary Education 189 was the greatest insult that could be offered to a woman or a young girl. Withsuch occupational distinctions, any work requiring manual activity was barred from first-class society of means, as a general rule, and it was considered degrading for the sons or daughters of the rich even to get their hands dirty in the performance of a manual task. Of course there were exceptions, but such was the general rule. Hence the importance of the studies of manual training, home economics and agriculture, not only as a means to bring about better home conditions, but also to transform the viewpoint of the people on manual labor, to exalt the dignity of labor and to show that in these “humble” occupations are hidden possibilities of professions as honorable as any of the traditional ones and in most cases more remunerative. The introduction of such subjects in the school curriculum was not going to be a very easy task, nor was it going to be accomplished in a day. Fifteen years of American occupation went by, before they could be made an integral part of the school curriculum to be required of all pupils. And this is still more sur- prising when one thinks of the fact that just such studies have been and are one of the greatest needs of the Island, for the one serious problem of Porto Rico is to prepare the people to be self-supporting, and by self-supporting is not meant the ability to eke out a mere existence, but to enable the people to provide for themselves sufficient food, clothing and shelter for the enjoyment of a normal life. The Language Question. The problem of adaptation found its greatest difficulties in relation to the language question. Since there seems to be a misunderstanding as to what is the vernacular of the people of Porto Rico, since the status of Spanish has been the center of much passionate discussion and since on this question of the two languages hinges to a great extent the future usefulness of the Island of Porto Rico as an American possession, it seems advisable to state the problem as fully and clearly as possible. The Language of Porto Rico. Dr. Victor S. Clark, President of the Insular Board of Education in 1899, in his report on education in Porto Rico, under the heading of “Remarks and Recommendations,” reported as follows: “In conclusion we would say that careful study of the history of the public schools of Porto Rico, as outlined in the secretary’s report, will help one much in appreciating the character of the problem here. There does not seem to be among the masses the same devotion to their native tongue or to any national ideal 190 Education in Porto Rico that animates the Frenchman, for instance, in Canada or the Rhine provinces. Another important fact that must not be overlooked is that a majority of the people of this island do not speak pure Spanish. Their language is a patois almost unintelligible to the natives of Barcelona and Madrid. It possesses no literature and little value as an intellectual medium. There is a bare possibility that it will be nearly as easy to educate these people out of their patois into English as it will be to educate them into the elegant tongue of Castile. Only from the very small intellectual minority in Porto Rico, trained in Europe and imbued with European ideals of education and govern- ment, have we to anticipate any active resistance to the introduction of the American school system and the English language.’’*> And Dr. Brumbaugh, reporting on the language question in 1901, wrote as follows: ““The people speak a very imperfect Spanish. The rural teachers and many of the graded have the same patois.’ Both of these gentlemen were very much mistaken or misinformed, but especially Dr. Clark, for any one would agree with Dr. Brum- baugh that the Spanish spoken in Porto Rico is not by any means perfect. They would challenge himonthe “‘patois” question as applied to Porto Rico and not to any nation, as a very small percentage of the population of any nation speaks the national language perfectly. Dr. Clark is mistaken, to say the least, when he says that there does not seem to be among the masses devotion to their native tongue, while Dr. Brumbaugh is very much to the point when he says “The Spanish language is precious to these people. All their history and their traditions and their civilization are bound up with it.’’%” Moreover, Dr. Clark was ignorant of the facts when he said that the language of the Porto Ricans was a patois almost unintelligible to the natives of Barcelona and Madrid; that it possessed no litera- ture, and little value as an intellectual medium; and that there was a bare possibility to educate the people out of their patois into English as it would be to educate them into the elegant tongue of Castile. Any one having a fair knowledge of the “elegant tongue of Castile” would not make statements as the above. Were a Porto Rican to speak his native language in Barcelona, or any place in Catalufia and Valencia and not be understood, it would not be the fault of the language of the Porto Rican, but it would: be due to the fact that the %56th Cong. S. D. 363, p. 60. 36Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1901, p. 65. 37 Thid. Problems in Elementary Education 191 common language of these two provinces is not Spanish and much less pure Castilian. The Barcelonan would not understand the Porto Rican, not because the latter could not speak Spanish but because the native tongue of Catalufia is Catalan, and the majority of the people speak their language in preference to Spanish. The same could be said of Valencia and other provinces of Spain, where a large part of the country population do not speak Spanish at all. The average Porto Ricar speaks Spanish more correctly and pro- nounces it more nearly like the Castilian pronunciation than the average inhabitant of eastern Spain. Spanish is more the language of Porto Rico than of Spain herself for every inhabitant of Porto Rico speaks it, while every inhabitant of Spain does not. Dr. Clark was also in error when he said that the language of Porto Rico possessed no literature. Not only is the whole field of Spanish literature open to the Porto Rican, but he has a native insular litera- ture of which he is justly proud, and this is written with the orthog- raphy of “‘the elegant tongue of Castile.” The falsity of the statement that the language of the Porto Rican possesses little value as an intellectual medium is so evident that it needs no refutation. But Dr. Clark failed absolutely to understand the psychology of the people when he stated that there was a bare possibility of educating the Porto Rican out of his “patois’”’ into the English language. There is as much possibility of educating the Porto Rican out of his “‘patois’’ into the English language as there is of educating the Frenchman out of his French into German, and vice versa; or the American out of his English into the Spanish of Mexico or vice versa. Spanish is the Vernacular. At the time of the American occupa- tion, the Porto Rican problem was compared too often with the Philippine problem, when they had very little in common. Porto Rico with a homogeneous population, mostly of European descent and a common language presented a very different problem from the Philippine Islands, with its population mostly of oriental descent and its many dialects. ‘Before Jamestown or Plymouth Rock, Porto Rico was a well- developed and socially organized community, speaking the Spanish language.” It is true that in 1898 a large majority of the population was illiterate and naturally did not speak literary Castilian, but these uneducated people did not speak a patois any more than the uneducated classes of the United States and England speak an 192 Education in Porto Rico English patois. Their Spanish did not conform with the standards of the “Real Academia” any more than the language of any uneducated people conforms to the literary standards of their national languages. Spanish is the insular language, the vernacular of the people and worth conserving. Eagerness to Learn English. On the other hand as soon as the Island became a possession of the United States and English the official language, the people saw immediately the need of learning English. Any one who could speak a little of the language became a professor and gave lessons to the many men and women who desired to study. Many American soldiers became instructors when not on duty and would spend much of their time ir private homes giving lessons. When English was introduced into the public schools it was welcomed by the population as a whole and parents took pride in relating how their boys and girls could speak with the Americans and act as interpreters. The public school teachers took up English and made marvelous progress in the first five years. Bright and ambitious boys and girls were given an opportunity to go tothe States to school provided they krew enough English. Regarding the efforts of individual pupils to qualify for this oppor- tunity, Commissioner Lindsay said: Some of the efforts of individual pupils are almost pathetic. One boy who is studying with the hope that he might be sent to school in the States has to earn his living during the day and has only his nights, without the aid of a teacher in which to study and acquire a knowledge of English. In writing to the Department for ad- vice he wrote in English as follows: ‘It istrue, lamina position with the San Juan Light and Transit Company, but I can too little that scarcely it is not sufficient for me to address myself. I have prepared myself to can be a teacher the next time for being not able to pay one who could give lessons to me. This letter will not be correct but it is a sign of my progress in the English language. I wait fora satisfactory answer, for I go every time forward and forward. I spend some hours at night in studying alone, by that reason all that I study I try to understand it well for I have no other man who can explain me that I study at night. That is the poor life. At the end of September I will be 16 years old.% Attitude in the Island on the Language Question. With the ex- ception of a few politicians who have availed themselves of the lan- guage question to further their personal, selfish, political ends and ambitions, for the last twenty years, no one has failed to see the advantage nor questioned the wisdom of learning English, and more so since the citizens of Porto Rico were made citizens of the United *8Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1902, p. 33. Problems in Elementary Education 193 States. The present attitude of the Island on the language question can not be better presented than has been expressed by Mr. José Padin, for some time Assistant Commissioner of Education. He says: “‘Although this language question has been discussed with considerable animosity, the wisdom of teaching English in the public schools has never been seriously challenged by the people of Porto Rico. They are as keenly alive to their linguistic opportunity as the school authorities have ever been. A great many people question the advisability of teaching subjects other than the English Janguage in English and argue that this tends to retard the progress of the pupils and to destroy the purity of the Spanish language— the thin, entering wedge which must, eventually, destroy the mother- tongue of the people of Porto Rico and, with it, their individuality. Personally the author believes that no matter what the ultimate status of Porto Rico may be (and he grants that the ultimate status of Porto Rico and its language question are intimately related), this island will remain an intellectual and spiritual as well as an economic dependency of the United States. Our youth will continue to go north for advanced academic and technical training. Our merchants and professional men will keep in close touch with the North American development of business and science. The steamers that will continue to ply between our ports and the northern coasts will feed the current which has had already a tremendous influence on our life. There is not any escape from this transforming influence. Our insular life is not self-sufficient. ‘The stimulus and inspiration for continuous growth must come from without. They will come from the United States. And because North American ideals are destined to exercise such a powerful influence on our life, it is desirable that we make the closest acquaintance with those ideals. “The majority of the people of Porto Rico cannot familiarize them- selves with North American ideals at first hand, that is, by actually living in the United States; consequently they must do so through the next best means: through the English language. A superficial knowledge of the English language is not enough. For cultural purposes in the ordinary sense, a reading knowledge of a language may be sufficient. To catch the spirit that animates the life of a people, to know and absorb their ideals, it is indispensable to master their language, to possess it wholly. Therefore in attempting to give the children of Porto Rico as complete a mastery of the English language as it is feasible to give through the medium of a school 194 Education in Porto Rico education, the department has acted with the fullest realization of the educational interest of the people.’’*? The Language Policy of the Department. From the beginning of civil government, the department of education saw what an asset the knowledge of Spanish was, and at the same time the necessity, oppor- tunity and privilege of learning English. Thus in 1901, Dr. Brum- baugh reported to the Governor of Porto Rico as follows: ““The people are anxious to have their children acquire the language of the United States. They also love their native tongue. . .Teachers from the United States must teach these children the language of the United States. They must also teach the native teachers how to acquire and impart the English language. The native teachers can teach the Spanish language and need only for this work, the example and direction of trained professional teachers. . .The normal school and other agencies must speedily give the teachers of these schools a knowledge of the English language, that all the children in the schools may have instruction in both languages. . .The Spanish language will not and should not disappear from these schools. It will be a hindrance, not a help to deprive these people of an oppor- tunity to acquire both languages.”?° Thus from the beginning the aim of the department has_ been to establish and to develop a bilingual system of education which would insure the conservation of Spanish and the acquisition of English, both to be mastered sufficiently for practical use. This aim has been adhered to ever since. In order to carry out this policy, different plans have been tried and changed as experience has dictated. Text Books. The problem of adaptation gave rise to another problem very closely related to the language question. This was the problem of text books in the English language and adapted to insular conditions. On the arrival of the American school authorities, they found such text books as Epitome of Spanish Grammar; Gram- mar of the Spanish Royal Academy; pamphlets on the rules of syntax and orthography, several catechisms of the church; several books on Bible history, mostly in catechism form; a small geography of Porto Rico and a general geography of Palucia; a short history of Spain in catechism form and several readers such as Juanito and Carrefio. Such books could not be used with the establishment of the new 39Padin, José: The Problem of Teaching English to the People of Porto Rico, Gov’t of Porto Rico, Dept. of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 1, pp. 12-14. 40Report of the Commissioner of Education, p. 14. Problems in Elementary Education 195 public school system. But there were no others in Spanish, and American text books besides being in English were not adapted to conditions and school problems of Porto Rico. Thus one of the primary difficulties in the conduct of the schools was the absence of suitable Spanish text books. First Text Books. With the acquisition of the Spanish colonies by the United States, one of the first things American publishers did was to have standard American text books hastily translated into Spanish. For lack of something better many of these were adopted, but none of them had been prepared with special view of the needs of the Island. Reading, writing, arithmetic and other subjects do not vary with degrees of longitude and latitude or variations in tempera- ture, but books prepared on such subjects can present an environ- ment entirely foreign to the child. Such was the case not only in Porto Rico, but in all the Spanish possessions transferred to the United States as a result of the war with Spain. Readers with stories on sleighing and skating parties could not be appreciated by the children as well as if they had treated of swimming parties or even picnics where the traditional roasted pig was the center of attention; and problems of arithmetic on apples, peaches, pears, bushels and what not, could not be appreciated by the children as if they had been on bananas, nisperos, aguacates, oranges, and fanegas or quintales. In writing it was a very common thing to see a child with a copy book copying down English words and phrases the meaning of which he did not know from Greek. Even these poor supplies were not always available because pub- lishers were slow in filling orders.*! Steps to Provide Text Books. For a considerable time translations and such Spanish books as could be secured were used in the schools. As the teachers progressed in the use of English, text books in that language were introduced, but no books adapted to Porto Rico were produced very soon. The first Porto Rican books were the readers prepared by Mr. Manuel Fernandez Juncos, and a History of Porto Rico, by Mr. Salvador Brau, published in 1904. “Moral Social’? by Eugenio Maria de Hostos was adopted.” In 1905, a committee was appointed to select books most adaptable to local conditions and so it happened that as books became dilapidated they were replaced by the texts recommended by this committee. Special 41Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1900, p. 21. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 556. 196 Education in Porto Rico copy books were prepared about this time, which in the first four grades had an equal division of Spanish and English sentences in the exercises to be written by the children.* The first attempt to produce English readers adapted to the in- sular environment was in 1906 when Miss Grace Mowry, critic teacher in the practice school connected with the Insular Normal School, prepared the Spanish-American primer, which was followed by the Spanish-American First and Second Readers, prepared by Mr. Paul G. Miller, then principal of the Normal School. Another English text published just before these readers was “‘Facts of Porto Rican History for Grammar School Pupils,’ 1905, being a condensed text on Porto Rican history by Mr. E. N. Clopper, then principal of the Central High School of San Juan.” In the meantime, most of the textbooks used were those recom- mended by the committee already mentioned and still most of them American texts. In 1907, there was introduced for use in the lower grades and in the rural schools an arithmetic in the Spanish language, but this was also a translation under the supervision of the Depart- ment of Education.” The same year, Superintendents Warshaw and Conant prepared a manuscript of a geography of Porto Rico which was published asa special chapter of Cornman and Gersons Geography Primer.*© An act of March 9, 1905 was passed by the legislature pro- viding that, ““The department shall procure for the use of the public schools in Porto Rico, a reading book which shall contain the best passages of local literature in prose or verse, by leading Porto Rican writers, with brief biographical notes of each author.’’” In accordance with this provision the department made a contract with Mr. Manuel Fernandez Juncos for the preparation of a work of this nature, and the volume edited by him, “‘Antologia Puertori- quefia’’, was adopted for regular use as a reader in the higher grades.*® Not very much was done in the production of textbooks until 1915, when a new impetus was given to the preparation of books especially adapted to the needs, interests, and environment of the Porto Rican children as well as to the bilingual system of instruction followed in the schools. However, in the meantime, supervisors and teachers Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1905, p. 18. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 556. *Report of the Commisssioner of Education, 1906, p. 47. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 418. *“‘The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1907, Sec. 107, p. 41. ‘8Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 418. Problems in Elementary Education 197 were busy in the class rooms experimenting in their daily work with an end in view of improving instruction, devising methods and collecting material specially adapted to the local needs and environ- ment. As the important problem was the language question, the teaching of Spanish and English received special attention. Several people published the results of their class-room work. These were discussed in teachers’ meetings and in conferences. As a result Mr. José Gonzalez Ginorio prepared and published his series of books on the teaching of Spanish, which have been adopted by the department of education and are to-day the standard Spanish readers in the Jower grades. Other works on the teaching of Spanish which have received the attention of the department: “El Buen Castellano” by Mr. Manual G. Nin has been tested in some of the grades. Also ‘‘Gramatica Castellana” by Mr. Felipe Janer has been adopted for work in the eighth and ninth grades.*? For the teaching of English Mr. Joseph Morin developed his method and has published a series of readers adapted to local conditions, which have also been adopted by the department of education. Among other text books prepared specially for Porto Rico and dealing with insular subject matter primarily is Hygiene Practica, by Dr. Bailey K. Ashford, one of the foremost authorities to-day on tropical diseases and hygiene. This has been a valuable contri- bution and it is used as a text book in the intermediate grades. Miss Grace J. Ferguson has prepared a book on Home Making and . Home Keeping, which is perhaps the only home economics textbook in English dealing with tropical conditions. Miss Laura M. Seale, instructor of mathematics in the University of Porto Rico, has rendered valuable service in the preparation of a series of texts on arithmetic consisting of a Manual of Arithmetic for teachers, to be used in the teaching of arithmetic in the first and second grades, a Primary Arithmetic for third and fourth grades, and an Inter- mediate Arithmetic for the fifth and sixth grades. The subject matter is such as is familiar to the children. The system of weights and measures legally adopted in the Island is introduced in the ex- ercises. The problems are taken from practical life situations and deal with the insular industries and commerce.*° Ever since the American occupation many teachers and other citizens have criticized the public school system, on the ground that no religious or moral training was given therein. Reference has been 49Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 556. 50Tbid. 198 Education in Porto Rico made from time to time to the Spanish days when religious instruction was given in the schools. ‘To fill this vacancy in the public schools, to satisfy the demands of many people and at the same time to avoid sectarian religious teaching, Miss Susan D. Huntington, for many years professor at the University of Porto Rico, who, because of her contact with hundreds of young teachers who have gone out of the Normal School and her long residence in the Island, is well qualified to know the heart of the people, has prepared two bulletins on ‘‘Moral and Civic Training.” The first is in Spanish and intended for grades first to fourth inclusive and the second is in English and intended for grades fifth to eighth inclusive. Other text books are in the process of preparation, among thema History of the Island adapted to the fourth and fifth grades and another on Nature Study of the Island. Such has been the progress made in providing suitable text books for the elementary schools. The production of text books is a matter of experience and experi- ment and twenty years is comparatively a short time to do very much in this field, specially in a country with the educational prob- lems of Porto Rico. SUMMARY These outstanding problems have received the attention of the Department of Education but they are far from being solved. The extension of the school system and the adequate provision of buildings and equipment are primarily financial problems and can not be solved until some way is found to increase the appropriations for education. Co-education has been established and the experience thus far has not supported the contentions of its enemies during the Spanish régime. On the contrary co-education has had a beneficial influence on the education of both boys and girls. The American system has been established and extended, and the experience of the last two decades has shown that the eight year elementary school is not adapted to the needs of Porto Rico; nevertheless such organi- zation is still in force. The problem of adaptation is going on very slowly and it must be admitted that no intelligent adaptation worth mentioning has as yet been accomplished. Whatever adaptation has been ac- complished has been the result either of common sense on the part of skillful teachers, or of accident, but not the result of scientific in- vestigation. The tendency has been to copy and imitate the Ameri- Problems in Elementary Education 199 can system rather than to create. However, recently this problem has been receiving much attention and the results are already notice- able. In spite of the lack of a scientific approach there was so much to be done at the time of the American occupation that good results had to come from any sort of system, and the great educational progress since 1898 must be recognized. But there is no doubt that more could have been accomplished had there been an intelligent adaptation. To appreciate how these problems have been approached and are being solved, a study of the work of the elementary schools is neces- sary. CHAPTER XI ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: II. THE SCHOOLS The rural and graded schools, often called the commor schools make up in the most part the public school system of Porto Rico. They are designed for purposes of general education, their object being to spread education broadcast so as to reduce the amount of illiteracy and give every possible encouragement to the develop- ment of the intellectual powers of the children of all grades of attain- ment, as they are brought together in rural schools, where a single teacher teaches all the subjects of the curriculum varying greatly according to the age and attainment of the pupils; and as they are brought together under more favorable conditions in the urban dis- tricts where the number of pupils permits of a more exact grading and of the assignment of different grades to special teachers. The night schools soon developed as an adjunct of the common schools, because many children could not attend the day schools. A. Rwurawt ScHOOLS Rural schools are those outside of the seventy-six urban districts of the Island. For some time some rural schools were conducted near the urban districts, but now these have been removed to the country where they belong. The rural schools form the great majority of the elementary schools. Rural Population. According to the 1899 census, Porto Rico had a total population of 953,243 inhabitants of which 78.6 per cent was rural, that is, living in the country or in villages under 1,000 inhabitants.!. The census of 1910 as well as that of 1920 defined urban population as “that residing in cities, towns and villages having 2,500 inhabitants or more, the remainder being classified as rural.”? According to this definition 80 per cent of the total popu- lation in 1910 was rural,’ and 78.2 per cent in 1920.4 It must be NGoieus of Porto Rico, 1899, p. 44. 274th Census of U. S., 1920 Bulletin, Population of Porto Rico, p. 1. 3Ibid., p. 2. 4Thid. (200) The Schools 201 kept in mind, however, that this definition of rural population and this census computation is not entirely satisfactory for school pur- poses. The Federal census credits Porto Rico with only two cities and thirty towns of over 2,500 inhabitants, whereas the Island has seventy-six distinct municipalities each one of which has an urban center and at least an urban graded school. Rural enrollment ac- cording to the department of education includes the population attending rural schools outside of the seventy-six municipalities, while urban enrollment includes all those attending schools in the urban districts. Therefore there are thousands of children in the territory classed as rural by the census who attend urban schools. There are also many children who live in the country but who attend the graded schools in the towns; these are generally the children of families of means who desire their children to continue in schools after they have finished the rural school course. There are also many children who live in semi-urban districts who attend urban schools. Rural School Census, 1920. There is no legal provision in Porto Rico for the enumeration of the children of school age and those of compulsory school age. The present compulsory school law can- not be enforced as there are not as yet school facilities for all the children of compulsory age. In order to find out the rural popu- lation of school age in those barrios where there are schools established, and in order to know more correctly the rural school population, that is those children that go to rural schools outside of the villages, the department of education undertook to make a rural school census. This census includes only the population in rural barrios or wards, where schools are established, no enumeration being made of a few barrios where there are not as yet any schools, nor was any effort made to reach the children living at unreasonable distances from any school. | Imperfect as this census is, it showed, however, that in these barrios where schools are established, most of the children are being reached by the school; that the rural school population is not nearly as large as the Federal census would indicate; that many children from the country are attending urban schools; that the course of study is limited to the first four grades as a rule; and that school facilities are lacking for many thousands of children, especially considering that over 90 per cent of the rural schools are on double 202 Education in Porto Rico enrollment, that is, forty children attending from nine to twelve o’clock in the forenoon and another group of forty from one to four o’clock in the afternoon. The census further shows that on the territory it covered, there were 204,017 children of school age, 116,783 children of compulsory school age, and that there was a total enrollment in the rural schools of 115,077 pupils.® Extension of Rural Education. Notwithstanding this decrease in the rural school population as presented in the Federal census, the fact remains just the same that the problem of elementary educa- tion in Porto Rico is a problem of rural education, the rural popula- tion being much larger than the urban. It remains now to show what has been done in the past two decades to provide school facilities for this mass of rural school children. The extension of education in the rural districts follows the same general outline of the extension of education since the United States took possession of the Island: first the period to 1907, the period of establishment; second to 1914, the period of extension; and third, since 1914, a period of readjust- ment and adaptation of the rural schools to local needs. During the scholastic year ending June 1899, there were reported 313 rural schools, 426 barrios without any school facilities and 267,- 630 children most of them from the country out of school.6 Rural schools were established so that by 1903 there were 580 rural schools.” In subsequent years there was a decrease in the number of schools maintained until 1907 when 614 schools were established.® Rural school extension progressed steadily during the period of exten- sion until 1914 when there were 2,390 rural schools, an increase of over 389 per cent. These schools were taught by 1,235 teachers, 94 per cent of whom had double enrollment.?® New Aim in Rural Education. So far the emphasis had been placed on extension of school facilities for the largest number possible, adding one more grade here and there whenever pupils desired to continue in school beyond the grade the school reached. Most of the work was done in Spanish with a few exceptions of schools which conducted their work in English as a medium of instruction. Since 1915 under Commissioner Paul G. Miller, rural education took another course. This last period has had two aims, first to use the rural school as a community center to awaken public interest and extend 'Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, pp. 418-19. *56th Congress, S. D. 363, pp. 151-152. "Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1906, p. 67. ®Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 392. 7TIbid., 1914, p. 358. The Schools 203 the usefulness of the rural school, and second, to consolidate rural schools wherever possible. During this period the number of rural schools have decreased but the number of teachers and enrollment have increased. Most of the teachers have had double enrollment. In 1918, 87 per cent of the rural schools were on double enrollment; in 1919, 90 per cent and in 1920, 90 per cent.!® In spite of the double enrollment, during the academic year 1919-1920 thousands of pupils of school age were turned away, and still there is an average of 67 pupils to each teacher and a total enrollment of 115,077 pupils." The Course of Study. There has never been much difference between the content of the course of study offered in the rural schools from that offered in the urban schools, as the first three grades of every school, whether urban or rural, must aim more or less for the same thing. Until 1908, the curriculum of most of the rural schools was limited to the first three grades of the elementary school course of study and in many of them only work in the first grade or in the first two grades was Offered. In the scholastic year 1908-1909 the fourth grade was added in a considerable number of schools and in the following year instruction in the fifth grade was offered where there were enough advanced pupils to form a class.” So far the medium of instruction in the class room had been Spanish, but now some teachers at their own request were allowed to conduct all of the classes in English.¥ The following year the sixth grade was added to the rural school curriculum, but there were no pupils enrolled in that grade, and more- over, in all the rural schools of the Island, at that time 1642, only 31 offered work in the fourth grade and three in the fifth grade,” so practically the course of study was thus far confined to the first three grades. By 1914 the academic content remained the same but considerable more emphasis was being placed on the teaching of agriculture and music. The rural school was being used more as a center for general agricultural instruction and propaganda. Regarding the work of the year the Commissioner reports as follows, speaking of the work in agriculture: “‘In the rural schools an average of 44,392 boys took advantage of the instruction offered and in many cases the girls ~10Taken from the Governor’s reports for the respective years. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 417. 12Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1911, p. 6. 13 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 209. 4Jhid., p. 181. 204 Education in Porto Rico aided in the work, although it was not compulsory for them. The work was conducted under the direction of the regular teachers, the special teacher of agriculture visiting as many rural schools as possible each month. During the year 1,135 vegetable gardens, occupying an area of approximately 225 acres, were in operation in the rural communities. . .A total of 7,866 home vegetable gardens were culti- vated by the pupils in the rural districts.) Rural Uplift Campaign. In recent years the course of study has been limited generally, except in the consolidated rural schools, to the first four grades of the elementary school course, following more or less the same methods as in the urban schools. As already stated the aim during this latter period has been placed on the use of the rural school as a community center and in the extension of the use- fulness of the school. In order to accomplish this end a rural up- lift campaign was ushered in, in 1916. Its purpose was: To reduce illiteracy; to arouse the interest of the rural population in rural education; to help the peasantry to improve living conditions; to put these people in touch with the world beyond their huts, giving them a taste of the things that make life more pleasant; to make the rural school the social center of the barrios and to improve rural home and community sanitation. From this campaign there de- veloped various activities as evening classes for adults; parent organ- izations and meetings; rural conferences; reading and library facili- ties; instruction in gardening and rural industries and visits to homes of parents. The most salient feature of the rural campaign was the gathering of parents for the purpose of hearing simple addresses and lectures relating to the rural school and to community life. As a result the peasant has come to realize that the public school belongs to him as much as it does to the planter or the merchant. The rural teacher has become a teacher of the community. The visits to homes of the illiterate peasantry has done much to stimu- late the interest of parents in schools, and the result is better attend- ance and greater co-operation with the teachers. The rural school is reaching out to the home and assuming a leadership in local affairs. It is improving home and communal living conditions without tres- passing into the field of politics.'® In 1917 the legislature appropriated salaries for 275 additional rural teachers, the parent associations increased to 494 and they held 150 meetings during the year. Through the efforts and co- Ibid., 1914, p. 362. —*Ibid., 1916, p. 354. The Schools 205 operation of these associations the following improvements were made: Higher enrollment, greater regularity and punctuality in attendance, many roads have been repaired and a number of bridges were built, a more adequate number of latrines were built and higher enthusiasm and keen interest was aroused in the work of the schools, rural conferences were held, rural libraries were established, and books were bought by parents associations and school boards; 120 rural schools were operated independently of the department where night sessions were maintained to teach reading, writing and elements of arithmetic to illiterates. They were taught by the local school teachers who did not receive any additional remuneration for their extra service. One supervisor edited a rural school paper for free distribution which the children read to their unlettered parents.!” The work was continued in subsequent years and in 1920 the re- port of the Commissioner reveals that the parents associations have co-operated with the schools. Rural conferences have resulted in better attendance and in drawing the interest of parents in the school. Hygienic conditions have been improved. The “Botiquin Escolar” or school medicine chest has become an institution in many schools. Any one who knows the Porto Rican peasants and the money they waste in all sort of medicines and vaselines knows the value of the medicine chest and the guidance on the part of the teacher in the use of medicines. Improvements of roads and bridges have been con- tinued. Libraries and reading centers have prospered. The special teachers of agriculture have carried the message of modern agriculture to many small farmers. The following facts for the academic year, 1919-1920, will show more concretely the activities of the rural school :— Parents AssOCigVionse eects) eee re set te att melee Ca eri aCe mene RI Ligh Number Ob Mee Lings series ts ee ce nee i ee SI LD LR LIS. OG Total number olsrural conterencest ar.) ) tne aati aitk aioe ae ae aie deo Total number of visits to parents homes.......................142030 Lota number obrural libraries siya aU cb ane ot AL ayes tea pe LOL Votal nnmber of reading. centersiyn. cee a ae pets oie een 166 Total number of rural schools where night sessions were maintained by rural teachers without remuneration................-..-05 14018 Consolidated Rural Schools. Before 1915, in rural communities where there were many children requiring the services of two teachers a two-room school house was built, and the two teachers would divide 7]bid., 1917, p. 463. 18Tbid., 1920, p. 419. 206 Education in Porto Rico the work between them, one teaching the lower and the other the upper grade. Together with the campaign for improvement of rural education, the consolidation of rural schools was begun. Due to the topography of the land, the many streams and rivers which swell into raging torrents during the rainy season, and the lack of more rural roads, the consolidation of rural schools has been limited thus far to the coast districts where better means of communication are available. Up to 1920, 96 consolidated rural schools had been established with from two to four rooms. In these schools the organization is carried through the sixth grade and in two of them the full eight-grade elementary course of study is maintained.'® These schools bring together two, three, four or more schools and their teachers within one building or common center, in contrast with the average rural school where often an inexperienced and immature teacher struggled alone with two, three and four grades with a large enrollment and on a double enrollment plan. They also constitute the community center of their respective barrios, wherein are to be found rural libraries, means for entertaining and social functions, and where noon-day lunches are distributed free to underfed pupils. The establishment of such schools, which aside from their social value improve the means and methods for academic instruction, is changing slowly the rural communities of Porto Rico. The leisure time of the Porto Rican peasant hangs heavily on his hands. He is generally a gambler and would not object to live by chance if enough good chances would come his way, and so spends his leisure hours shooting dice, playing cards or fighting game- cocks. The consolidated rural school can fulfill a great service pro- viding wholesome activities for this class of people, who make up the majority of the population of the Island. Enrollment, Attendance and Promotions. The enrollment of the rural schools is large, due generally to the fact that there are not enough schools to accommodate the children, the majority of them being on double enrollment. As far as data are available, for the last ten years or so, since the department has aimed to reach as many pupils of school age as possible, the following table shows the per- centage of schools with double enrollment at various times: 1910 62 per cent of the schools were on double enrollment 1913 84 6é eé “ce 6é “cc “ 6c “cc oe Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 411. The Schools 207 1914 94 per cent of the schools were on double enrollment 1918 87 66¢ 6s 6é 66 66 66 66 66 66 1919 90 66 66 66 ce 66 ce 66 6s 66 1920 90 66 ee se sé sé 66 6¢é 66 sé The only reason for such conditions is the lack of facilities to accommodate all those who go to school.?° Attendance has improved in the last two years. The following table shows the percentage of average daily attendance from 1912 to 1920: Pe DD Aiea ply a SOMME Ae eae ga al 71 per cent OL aT iae Cae Ciena a eee a oreo. 8S Den CORLL, LOLA Oy een CREME ORL ns deen DEL CON’ LOTS Bie Mere i en OR OT aR ner cent LLG Pua Ui att aniy ae onal cate hr bare te 77.6 per cent POD Sau apache been ese lg Oud DOT COLE LORCA Re me om iusiie tenn kel aad LO Det CONE TOTO pee he One econ n na nee UN Den Cant 1920 Ware ea tenn tate nai (SOUP ner oem tah Promotions. As a general rule, promotions in the rural schools have been low. In the first years of the system this was due mainly to poor attendance, to lack of adaptation of the course of study, to defective grading and many times to defective teaching. In 1906 and 1907, only 41 to 47 per cent respectively were promoted. From 1907 to 1915 a system of flexible promotion was adopted with good results but still the percentage of promotion was low. That system has been continued and in late years there have been some improve- ments, but still a high percentage is not promoted. During the last few years when emphasis has been placed on rural education, pro- motion has ranged from 60 to 72 per cent. In 1916, 60.5 per cent | were promoted; in 1918, 72.6 per cent; in 1919, 65.6 and in 1921, 68.9 per cent were promoted.” The chief causes for the low percentage of promotion are irregular attendance, due a great deal to illness; bad roads and heavy rains; poverty and undernourishment, mavy pupils not being able to do good work because they are not sufficiently and properly nourished; while double enrollment, confining the child to a three- hour session a day, is another chief cause for retardation, as the pupils are not a sufficient time under instruction to cover the required work of the course of study. )26Cémputed from Reports of the Governor for respective years. *1Pata taken from the reports for the respective years. Computed from the Reports of the Governor for the respective years. 208 Education in Porto Rico The Rural School of To-day Leaves Much to be Desired. 'The pupils who attend the rural schools are the children of the peasantry, who have inherited poverty from generations and before whom there is a dark future. The great majority of the children belong to this class. They are born in mere huts, brought up often in large families, underfed, and scantily dressed. They attend the rural schools and finish the fourth grade when they are fortunate to remain the four years in school. They know some reading, writing, and arithmetic, a little geography and a little history and they are not illiterates, but they are not prepared for anything. The great majority can not go to town to school to continue their education. Mere knowledge of reading and writing does not guarantee food, clothing, shelter, and after all that is what the peasantry as well as anyone else needs. The rural environment is anything but wholesome. There is very little opportunity for work outside of the sugar cane fields and coffee plantations, and even these industries do not furnish enough labor for the numerous peasantry, and when they do, wages are low. Literacy is not necessary to cut cane and pick coffee beans, and as a general rule the illiterate is happier in such work than the literate for the latter has learned enough to learn to be unhappy and dissatisfied with his state. The school does not prepare the child for anything, and there is no future for him but an early marriage and to settle down to bring to the world a large and unfortunate family and to continue the traditions of his forefathers. At the age of thirty or thirty-five, the peasant is an old man or an old woman and death generally comes prematurely. What a task for the rural schools; not only to give the peasant a knowledge of reading and writing, this is the least, but to prepare him or her to be a self-supporting man or woman. ‘This task is entirely for the future as very little has thus far been done to improve the economic condition of the peasant, which is after all the basis of all his happiness. B. GRADED SCHOOLS Definition. 'The graded schools are those established in urban centers, carefully graded from the first to the eighth grade and preparing to enter the high school. All urban communities have graded schools and as a general rule each grade is taught by one teacher. For the purpose of the department of education urban population comprises the inhabitants of the seventy-six towns of the Island, hence the urban population according to the department is The Schools 209 larger than that according to the United States Census. According to the latter, the urban population of school age in 1899 was 68,992; in 1910, 78,128; and in 1920, 98,851, but according to the depart- ment these would be increased considerably. In view of the fact that there are no data of the urban population as defined by the de- partment of education, this study will be based on the data furnished by the Federal Census. Extension of Urban Education. It was some time after the Ameri- can occupation before the graded schools were functioning well, so the first years were spent introducing and adopting the courses of study. By 1906-1907, the graded schools were well organized and could well compare with any other urban graded school system. The estimated school population then was 354,721” and on the basis of 21 per cent of urban population the children of school age in urban districts would be 73,491. The urban schools had an enrollment of 29,904 or 40.6 per cent of the urban population of school age. In 1910 the estimated school population was 390,000 and the urban school population 78,000. The enrollment in the graded schools then was 35,000 or 44.8 per cent of the urban population of school age. The enrollment increased steadily until 1914 when it reached 70,954, the highest enrollment on record. The estimated urban population of school age the next year was 88,049 of which 80.5 per cent enrolled in the graded schools. It must be kept in mind that this was the “‘year of the big budget,” and consequently the year of highest enrollment. After 1914 the enrollment decreased reaching the lowest point in 1918, when 50,060 children, were enrolled in the urban schools, but it rose again, and in 1920 it was 59,174, or 60 per cent of the estimated urban population of school age, which was then 98,851. The enrollment for 1921 continued, the increase being 62,126, but even yet there are not schoo] facilities for at least 36,735 children between the ages of 5 and 18, However, great progress has been made in the extension of urban education, much more so than rural. In 1912 there were only 752 urban graded schools, while in 1914 there were 1,344,"4 and in 1920, 1,204. Since the urban school census is larger than the figures of the Federal census would show, with this added increase, the chil- dren of school age in urban districts would increase considerably, 23See Appendix VII, ‘Table I. *4Including 319 schools on double enrollment. 210 Education in Porto Rico thus increasing the lack of school facilities for all the children of school age. 3 The Course of Study. Several courses of study have been adopted from time to time by the department of education. The first one was promulgated by General Henry in 1899, the second was prepared by Dr. Brumbaugh in 1901, the third by Commissioner Falkner in 1906, and the fourth by Commissioner Dexter in 1909, and put into operation that same year. After that the course of study has been revised from time to time accordingly as emphasis was placed on one or another subject of study. These different courses differ very little in content, for the work to be covered in the elementary school is very much the same, but they differ inasmuch as the emphasis placed on the language to be used as a medium of instruction has changed. Also, from time to time, more emphasis has been placed on the teaching of special subjects. The courses prepared by General Henry and Dr. Brumbaugh were based largely upon experience of American schools. Local needs had not yet made themselves sufficiently felt to exercise much in- fluence in the shaping of the course of study. As time went on these needs were better understood, the course being changed ac- cordingly. Moreover, the first courses of study were based upon the supposition that the instruction in the schools was given in Spanish, with the teaching of English as a special study only. But the teachers made great progress in the use of the English language between 1900 and 1907. As they became more and more versed in English, they continued changing the medium of instruction, using more English and less Spanish. The work to be covered in the eight grades was the same whatever the language employed, but it had to be differently distributed accordingly as English or Spanish was the predominant medium of instruction. By 1907 English had become predominantly the language of the class room so that the course of study was changed to fit this need. The changes made then had to be adopted slowly as not all teachers could use the English language well, but the aim was centered on the use of English as the medium of instruction and all teachers had to begin a gradual adaptation to that aim. The course of study was more of a model to go by than a law to be rigorous- ly enforced. The changes made in 1909-1910 were also based on the language question. In almost every town, the strongest English graded teachers (Porto Ricans who excelled in the knowledge and use of The Schools 211 English) were assigned to the first grades, and English graded teachers almost equally proficient to the second grades. The Spanish graded teachers (those whose English was not good enough to conduct the class in that language) were as a rule assigned to the third and fourth grades where they taught Spanish and possibly one other subject. In order that the pupils of these grades might be permitted to do practically all their work in English, these Spanish graded teachers would exchange class rooms with the English graded teachers and the teachers of English (American and some Porto Ricans who knew English well) in such a way that while they were teaching Spanish in a room other than their own, the English graded teacher or the teacher of English as the case might be, would be teaching a certain subject in English in the room. The teachers of English, generally Americans, were given grades fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth.* Thus the children heard good English and received good English instruction at the beginning and at the end of their school course. Moreover as the American teachers did not know Spanish and there- fore were not fitted to teach the first grades, they obtained better results with the pupils in the higher grades who were more advanced in English. Other changes made before 1915 were due to the em- phasis given to the teaching of special subjects such as music, drawing, manual training, home economics and agriculture. The changes made since 1915 have been based mostly on the teaching of Spanish and English. Enrollment, Attendance and Promotions. The following table, computed from the Governor’s report for the respective years as far as the data are available, will show the improvement in enroll- ment, attendance and promotions since 1906 at which time school extension became a special aim of the department of education. Year Total Enrollment Average Percentage Per cent Attendance of Attendance Promotion 1906 28,116 20,703 73.9 54 1907 29,904 20,672 74 64 1908 25,702 Se es — 1909 32,547 ss SUE IRE — 1910 35,000 31,200 89 eri 1911 46,173 38,800 79.7 68.9 1912 58,809 40,966 79.1 68.78 1913 52,594 41,351 78.7 ari 1914 70,954 57,230 80.6 ee Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, pp. 7-8. 212 Education in Porto Rico Year Total Enrollment Average Percentage Per cent Attendance of Attendance Promotion 1915 65,428 52,417 80.1 77.7 1916 60,623 50,763 83.7 — 1917 53,372 43,317 81.2 76.2 1918 50,060 41,286 82.4 81.8 1919 54,422 44,879 82.4 76.7 1920 59,174 49,821 84 82.6 1921 62,126 ees ee 81.7 The percentage of attendance is still low. It must be remembered that this is computed on the basis of the total enrollment and not on the basis of the average daily enrollment, in which case the per- centage of attendance would be much higher. Promotions are also low, but a great improvement has been made since the academic year 1905-1906. Poverty and illness, chiefly uncinariasis, among the children is accountable for much retardation and inefficient school work. Double enrollment in some urban schools, causing groups of pupils to receive only half time instruction, is another cause for re- tardation and low promotion. Graduates of the Graded Schools. Ever since the graded schools were established, they have offered an eight-year course of study asa requisite to enter the high school. They have aimed to give a general education and to spread education broadcast thus reducing illiteracy. A study of the number of eighth grade diplomas issued since 1903 will show how many pupils have completed the course of study every year. Year Diplomas Issued LOOSING a nan 2 eA eee) Ee avs eee chee me As LOO it vad cole, Mickle tales Basak McRae Renee 45 POG rey apetatllo sie 8 UTNE Ueare: © ei uia eae et ie ete me ABD si ot AT ee Cia rena ln eto aseone True e a YA LOS yi eee ie ai che) SAR Ae eo RM AAPM NG Bey ARYL Me Ab ase atrs hep i: CALE MLR af Moet teat a te Cig eta} ED FURR Ga aPUPa are wT oe Miner A WA ee FEAL 707 OD te carton Cais Werte hak eane et oe eter ate ee oO TO LG eR ae oni Ree aarti one ate 1,325 He Me tile ea mae ar La Pied YUN UN Wii i bad Wal a 2. LR De Saar Adins Cie os Mpa eA ta rere Mee tite) SMBS ak HUY DOUG ie SNS ati Wel diate wire k oe Late ata eat PRI Oy Ee TOR eee Biche Ao, Ruan et CU i Cae NOU Tis BDU OAT Recah ike oi a heat Oat 1,935 TOTS sites Side rela tae ake on oe otnaw LaMar ane MaSes Cea The Schools 213 EER BO earns Ca eb Maret RAM aaa 2h | 1920) a ah ae aetna aie} puee, 2a 1SZE sere dete leis. epee Although the graduates from the elementary schools have in- creased in late years, yet the majority of the pupils have dropped out before completing the elementary school course. Many drop out of school when they complete the eighth grade, while a few con- tinue and take a high school course, and still a smaller number go to college and university. The eight year elementary school course has prepared those who continue in school beyond the eighth grade. It has prepared them for something. It has accomplished its pur- pose. Pupils leaving the school at the end of the eighth grade are not prepared for anything in particular. They have a general educa- tion and are prepared for further study, but as far as being pre- pared to be self-supporting they are not. Their schooling of course will be an asset in whatever trade or profession they may enter, but the school has not prepared them for a life work. Still the largest number of children drop out of school sometime between the fourth and eighth grade. These are not illiterate. They know reading, writing, arithmetic, some geography and some history, and that is about all. This is, no doubt, a great deal, but should the school stop with that? The majority of the pupils re- ceive such an education and no more. The school has not prepared them for anything in particular. Hence the need of a new aim and an organization to achieve that aim. C. Nicut ScHOoOoLs The first school law of Porto Rico under the civil government approved by the legislature April 9, 1901, provided for night schools as follows:— ‘The commissioner of education upon application of twenty young men unable to attend day school for justified reasons, may establish a night school in each town and may also close the same when the average attendance in any one month does not reach twelve stu- dents.’’2”? Later the following clause was added to the above pro- vision :—‘‘adults may be admitted to night school when in the judg- ment of the local school authorities they are able to profit by the in- struction offered and their presence in the said night school will 26Data taken from the Reports of the Governor of Porto Rico for the respective years. 27Compiled School Laws of Porto Rico, April 9, 1901, Sec. 26. Q14 Education in Porto Rico not operate to the exclusion of eligible young persons who desire admission.’ By subsequent legislation the Commissioner of Education has been empowered to establish at his discretion a night school in each municipality and may establish more than one school in any city where in his opinion the demand for such a night school may warrant it.2? As provided by law, therefore, the night schools are an adjunct part of the public school system of Porto Rico. Although the night schools were intended for boys and girls of school age who could not attend school during the day, yet the first who petitioned for these schools were laborers and clerks, that is, adults. Reporting on the beginning of these schools, Dr. Brum- baugh says as follows:—‘‘Last year several of these schools were opened as soon as the law became operative. Many more will be opened this year. The petitions reveal peculiar conditions, many laborers and clerks petition the department for night schools. Under the law, those above the legal school age are not entitled to receive free education at a night school yet these are the ones that petition most earnestly for such schools. Their action reveals the great desire of many citizens to acquire an education. The demand is for instruction in the English language, in the history of the United States and in arithmetic. Itis a great opportunity and one that must be seized. As soon as the salary list of the day schools is determined the remainder of the budget will be used to open as many of these schools as the available finances will allow.’’° Some schools were opened the next year and as it was to be ex- pected, many of the pupils were adults. Moreover about this time the cigar makers union demanded of its members the ability to read and write, hence their desire for night school instruction. Com- missioner Lindsay reported an attendance of 2,767 for the year 1901- 1902, with 64.7 per cent of the pupils in actual attendance, and most of these persons of adult years, occupied at hard work during the day.*! Due to the attendance of adults the legislature in 1903 made provision for them. ‘The night elementary school was a new thing, and like all new things it was welcomed by the people. Neverthe- less, the schools were merely on trial, their future undecided, as it depended on how the people patronized them and how the legislature would provide for their support. *8Comptled School Laws of 1903, Sec. 61. 29Act of March 9, 1905, School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914 (155). Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, pp. 59-60. 1Ibid., 1902, p. 26. The Schools 215 Extension of Night Schools. The history of the night schools follow the general outline of education in Porto Rico since 1898. Three periods are well marked, first, the period of establishment, and trial of the schools to 1907; second, the period of school extension, to 1914; and third, the period of adjustment to circumstances and in- sular needs. The first period is characterized by a sudden rush of adults to night schools, followed by a fall in their attendance and an increase of children of school age. While during the first two years of their existence most of the pupils were adults, by 1906 they made up only 23 per cent of the total,* and by 1907 only 16 per cent.* Of the 2,846 pupils enrolled in 1906, 1,081 were between the ages of 15 to 18 years, while 1,121 were between six and fifteen years. Of the 2,646 enrollment in 1907, 429 were adults, 828 between 15 to 18 years of age, and 1,389 between 6 and 14 years.* After all the petitions and enthusiasm of the adults they left the schools which were then patronized more by children of school age between 10 and 14 years. When Dr. Dexter became Commissioner he applied his policy of extension to the night schools. So far these schools had been con- fined to the urban districts, but in 1909 and 1910 quite a number were established in rural districts. Because of illiteracy the rural districts need the night schools more than the urban. As soon as night schools began to be established in the country, petitions came from young people in rural regions requesting the establishment of rural schools for an opportunity to learn to read, write and some in- struction in arithmetic. By 1912 there were established altogether 139 night urban schools and 209 rural, the former with an enroll- ment of 8,594.°°> In the year 1913 there were established 150 schools within urban limits and 149 in rural districts, with enrollment of 7,430 and 5,157 respectively. Still the extension of night schools continued and by 1914 there were 565 both urban and rural.** This made it possible for many who could not attend school during the day to do so at night. For the next academic year there was no appropriation made, but the yearly budget carried with it a provision that “as scholarships granted for the training of young men and young women from Porto Rico in the schools of the United States become vacant, no new Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1906, p. 104. 38Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 411. 4Ibid., p. 412. 35 Tbid., 1912, p. 233. 367Tbid., 1914, p. 361. 216 Education in Porto Rico appointments thereto should be made, but the surplus fund resulting from such vacancies should be devoted to the maintenance of night schools.’’*7 With these funds 185 night schools were opened and maintained for eighteen weeks or 85 school days, 128 of these were maintained in urban districts and 68 in rural,®®* and the policy of extension came to an end with the change of Commissioner, but more so due to lack of funds. Technical Instruction and Sewing in Night Schools. Besides the night schools conducted strictly on academic line, several super- visors recommended the establishment of instruction in sewing and manual training into the night schools.*® During the school year 1912-1913, sewing was offered in one of the night schools for half an hour each night,’° and a night trade school was established in San Juan, giving instruction in plumbing, bricklaying, carpentry, auto- mobile mechanics, and mechanical drawing. The session lasted five months during which time 206 were enrolled but only with an average attendance of 85. However, at the expiration of the five months experimental period, the interest was such that the ad- visability of continuing the work without interruption was un- questioned.*! The next year twelve industrial night schools were maintained in different towns with a total enrollment of 378, the average age of the students being 24 years. The San Juan school offered the same curriculum as the year before and added sewing for the girls. The instruction in most of the other schools was confined to elementary wood working.” Later Instruction in Night Schools. The budget for the academic year did not permit the maintenance of night schools in 1915. In 1916 they were revived, confining themselves to the instruction iv the regular elementary school subjects and mostly among illiterate boys and girls who desired to learn to read and write. It was not until the scholastic year 1919-1920 when technical instruction was re- vived and given in Boldorioty de Castro Graded and Technical School, when 244 pupils had instruction in industrial subjects.“ The night schools were continued during the academic year 1920- 21 with an enrollment of 2,987, with 158 enrolled for industrial, technical instruction.“4 | The retrenchments taken since 1915 were 37Ibid., 1915, p. 328. 38Tbid., 1915, p. 328. 39Jbid., 1911, p. 193. Ao Tbeds, LENS pues se: 41Jbid., 1913, p. 334. ®7Ibid., 1914, p. 361. “Ibid., 1920, p. 415. “The Porto Rico School Review, Sept. 1921, p. 10. The Schools Q17 due mostly to lack of funds;at the same time care has been taken in avoiding numbers. Although the work has beer confined mostly to the elementary school subjects, yet what has been done has been done more thoroughly and efficiently than in past years, and the schools have aimed to provide elementary instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic for five months of the year, two hours each evening, for five evenings a week, to the many boys and some girls who do not get to school during the day, or to young men who are illiterate and desire to learn to read and write. Private Schools. Soon after the American occupation the Protes- tant denominations established many mission schools in Porto Rico. It has been the policy of the Protestant churches to co-operate with the department of education, hence they have aimed to supplement the work of the department. At first these schools aimed to give the same general education as the public schools, but as the public schools extended, the mission schools have been turning their attention to industrial education, chiefly hat making, basket weaving, em- broidery, and lace making. These schools follow the elementary course of study of the public schools. The Roman Catholic church has a system of parochial schools, very strong in San Juan, Maya- giiez and Caguas, and there are other private schools conducted by individuals for profit as a means of livelihood. In 1920 there were forty-six privete schools with a total enroll- ment of 5,283 and a teaching force of 187. They offered work ranging from kindergarten to high school instruction. Twenty-one of them followed the official course of study for the common schools, as out- lined by the department of education.*® The private school as a force in education is increasing while also more advantage is being taken of the facilities offered by the public schools. At the present time there is plenty of opportunity for private schools to render a great service as long as they co-operate with the department of education and aim to educate rather than to gain recruits for a particular sectarian, denominational or political belief. Summary. Instruction in the elementary school subjects is given in three kinds of schools, rural, graded and night schools. The rural schools are offering as a general rule instruction in the first four grades of the elementary school course, but the consolidated rural schools are offering as much as possible the graded school course. The graded schools offer an eight-year course leading to the ~ Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 432. 218 Education in Porto Rico eighth-grade diploma. The night schools confine themselves mostly to instruction in the first few grades of the elementary school course given to the many boys or girls who do not get to school during the day or to illiterate young men and women who desire to learn to read and write. The rural and graded schools function ten months during the year, the night schools about five months. A reorgani- zation of the schools adapting them more to meet the local conditions is necessary. They should contribute more toward preparation for life in view of the great need among the poor people to fit themselves for a life work. The aim of the private schools should be to supplement as far as possible the public schools and co-operate with them in the great task of educating the masses. CHAPTER XII ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: TI. SPECIAL SUBJECTS AND AUXILIARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES By special subjects is meant those studies in the curriculum, the teaching of which receives specific emphasis because of their general practical value. The most important of these are: English and Spanish, Manual Training, Home Economics, Agriculture, and Physi- cal Education. A. THe TEACHING OF ENGLISH Since the establishment of Civil Government and the present system of public instruction, the aim of the department of education has been to develop and establish a bilingual system of education which would insure the conservation of Spanish and the acquisition of English, both to be mastered sufficiently for practical use. As Spanish was the language of the people, the immediate need was the acquisition of English. In order to carry out the policy of the de- partment, different plans have been tried and changed as experiences have dictated. English in the Graded Schools. 'The first plan tried was the teaching of English by a special teacher. The law provided that, “In every village and city maintaining a graded system of schools there shall be at least one teacher of English, and as many more as the Com- missioner of Education may appoint.”! No attempt was made to teach English in the rural schools any more than the rural teacher could do alone. The work of these special teachers of English was to give instruction in the English language to pupils and native teachers. The native teachers were placed in charge of the grades and taught all the subjects of the curriculum in Spanish, while the subject of English was taught by the American teachers who went from grade to grade teaching English three to six periods a day.” 1The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1901, Sec. 18. 2Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1904, p. 25. (219) 220 Education in Porto Rico It became evident that the teaching of English as a special subject, using that language only during the English class, was not giving the pupils sufficient ear and verbal drill to master the language for practi- cal purposes. Especially was this so, when Spanish was used the rest of the day in school, as well as on the playground, the street, and in the home. The pupils did not hear English enough to accustom themselves to think in the language, hence a new plan of instruction had to be devised. The next plan tried was to introduce English as the medium of instruction in the class room. This was tried in the schools of San Juan, Ponce and Mayagitez, during the academic year 1903-1904, and proved successful, the pupils seemingly making more progress in English.2 The Porto Rican teachers had already made progress in the use of the English language. Moreover a special course was offered for teachers desiring to qualify to teach all the subjects of the curriculum in English. Fifty-four teachers passed the examinations and qualified,t and during the year 1905- 1906, one hundred and sixty schools were taught wholly or partly in English as follows: 1. Schools taught wholly in English by American teachers.............. 37 2. Schools taught partly in English by American teachers............... 34 3. Schools taught wholly in English by Porto Rican teachers............37 4. Schools taught partly in English by Porto Rican teachers.............52° Total 060 GC eal a cae ott ate tee eke a ttt Ba oe This was the beginning of the introduction of English as the medium of instruction in the class room. English was introduced more and more extensively as Porto Rican teachers were licensed as English teachers and permitted to teach all the subjects of the curriculum in that language. In the grades taught by American teachers, a teacher of Spanish would come daily to teach Spanish, during one period. The change from Spanish into English as the medium of instruction in the class room was made gradually. The following table shows the progress that was made in the use of English as the medium of instruction in the graded schools from 1905 to 1912, when the bi- lingual system had been fully developed: Ibid. 4Tbid., 1905, p. 19. 5Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1907, p. 382. Special Subjects 221 Graded Schools 1905— |1906— 1907- 1908- 1909- 1910- 1911- Taught 1906 |1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 Wholly in English 74 202 288 442 607 659 759. Partly in English 86 | 187 128 64 67 31 11. English as a special subject or no English 340 113 147 157 4 5 1, Total graded schools 500 502 563 663 678 695 771.0 Percentage wholly in English 15 40 51 67 90 95 98.4 Percentage partly in English 17 ot 23 10 10 5 1.68 By 1915, the approximate distribution of English, Spanish or either in the class room as media of instruction in the different grades of the graded school system was as follows: English Spanish _ Either Total Grade a oo Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 1-2 37.5 28.1 34.4 100 3 43.1 30.8 96.1 100 4 36.95 36.95 26.1 100 5 49,2 26.1 94.7 100 6 53.8 18.5 al 100 TET eis atk ATCA as RIED NG 55.4 18.5 96.1 100 Ree nicest Faas ard be A siacae FN 55.4 18.5 26.1 100. DE eee ae | eee MEL US NTL Hc ue ere ke Le 7 AVETAGCs ana e eatiet 47 34 25.35 27.31 100. English in the Rural Schools. Rural schools conducted wholly in English were unknown before 1909. That year one hundred twenty- four teachers asked for and obtained permission from their super- visors to teach all the subjects of their schools in English. The use of English as the medium of instruction in the rural schools grew as shown in the following table: 6Ibid., 1912, p. 248. 7Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 343. 229 Education in Porto Rico Rural Schools 1908- Per 1909- | Per 1910- Per 1911- Per Taught 1909 Cent 1910 | Cent | 1911 Cent | 1912 Cent ef | | ef | LL SF Wholly in Eng- lish | 124 15 154 16 188 17.0 Partly in English| 183 20 209 22 222 23 | 238 22.0 English as a Special Sub- ject 152 B7 a) 697 64. 564 59 | 665 60.05 No English arg 63 4 1 13 2 6 .58 By 1915 in the rural schools the work of the first grade was done exclusively in Spanish. English was taught as a special subject in grades two to four inclusive, fifteen minutes being devoted on an average to instruction in English.°® Such was the status of the language question after seventeen years of endeavor to adapt a system of education based on American methods. Such was the status after many experiments, much trying and much rejecting here and there. In the meantime the language question had become the subject of controversy among school people and even politicians. Many school people felt that the bilingual system as developed was not rendering satisfactory results either in Spanish or in English. Many trials and experiments were being conducted in the teaching of the two languages. Politicians availed themselves of the opportunity to attack the scheme of education in force as “‘an insidious attempt to eliminate Spanish, the thin, entering wedge calculated to destroy the personality of the people of Porto Rico.” The whole controversy was centered on how much time should be devoted in the schools to each language, how far should Spanish be the medium of instruction and how far English. First Attempt to Study the Language Question. In 1915, Dr. Paul G. Miller returned to Porto Rico as Commissioner of Education. He conducted a series of educational tests in the elementary schools to ascertain the efficiency of the school system. Mr. José Padin, then general superintendent, availed himself of this opportunity to make a study of the English of the pupils of the eighth grade who had had all their schooling under the bilingual system. The result was a bulletin published by the Department of Education entitled: “The Problem of Teaching English to the People of Porto Rico.” 8[bid., 1912, p. 248. %Ibid., 1915, p. 343. Ibid. Special Subjects 223 The aim of the study as expressed by the author was: Due to the fact that both English and Spanish are used in the elementary graded system as the medium of instruction and that the relative amount of time which should be devoted to each language is a much disputed question, it was deemed advisable to examine the papers written by the eighth-grade pupils to find out the quality of English which they have acquired after eight years of training under the teaching plan now in force and to try to discover whether the results of this teaching, as revealed in the papers, justify a readjustment of the present bilingual plan of instruction. The data contained in the papers examined are specially valuable because the students now enrolled in the eighth grade have received practically their entire school education under the bilingual plan of instruction in force. These pupils represent the finished product of the bilingual scheme of instruction. The quality of English which they can write may be taken as typical of the best that can be acquired under the plan in use.!4 The most common mistakes found in all the papers examined, classi- fied under nine heads, were as follows: 1. Misuse of nouns and adjectives, such as: ““We can be liberty,” ‘a nation is progress, . .. ,° Also common mistakes in the use of some, any, anything, much, many, few, little, etc. 2. Irregular plurals, such as: ‘“‘mens,’’ “childrens,”’ etc. 3. Division of words into syllables, such as: “‘who-le,’’ ““becau-se,” *‘go-ods,”’ ““ma-de,”’ ete. 4. Inflection of the adjective in number, such as: “importants things,” “‘others things,’ “goods lands,” etc. 5. Comparison of adjectives, such as: ‘“‘the soldiers are as better as the lawyers,” “‘more deeper,” “more larger,” “as largest,’’ etc. 6. Use of pronouns, such as “She (San Juan) can be the capital,”’ ‘‘soldiers have his breakfast,” “‘the newspapers can say anything he wants,” “all body have a person that rules upon him,” “they had to work to maintain himself,” etc. A remarkable passage was_ the following: ‘‘I think that if your rich we should be happy because a person that have money they can do everything they wanted and because he spent all the money they have and no body can said nothing.” 7. Use of the auxiliary verbal forms, “do,” “does,” “did,’’ such as: “If they does not work,” ‘“‘does not means,” “he do not put,” “did not saved him,”’ etc. 8. Use of the verb, such as: “he would spends,” “to made,” “‘we must said,’ “those who becomes rich lives in good conditions,” ‘‘a teacher, a doctor, a lawyer and a merchant has to work,” “will engaged in agriculture,” “‘to remained,” “we can saw,” etc. The 99 66 99 66 99 66 1Padin, José, op. cit., p. 5. 294 Education in Porto Rico errors found in the idiomatic usage of such verbs as to be, to do, to make, ete., are too numerous to mention. 9. Tense sequence, such as: “‘if it was not true we shall come to school,” “if we don’t work it can be,”’ “if [should be rich I am always thinking in money,”’ etc.” The majority of these errors can only be appreciated by a person who knows both languages. Some of them would be impossible to an American child, but not so with a child whose vernacular is Spanish, and who hears English only in the class room and many times incor- rectly. Causes for Failure in the Teaching of English. In searching for causes that would produce such results, which were an indictment of the bilmgual system in force, Mr. Padin attributes the failure to three causes: first to poor teaching; second to the fact that the method in operation was psychologically wrong, and third, he places all the responsibility on those who imposed the method and attempted to teach English to the Porto Rican child as it is taught to the American children.” He summarizes his investigation thus: Results show that, in regard to the acquisition of English, the bilingual plan breaks down in the elementary graded schools. The evidence examined shows that the prob- able cause of this failure lies in the misconception of the method and material best suited to teach English to non-English speaking children who are studying at the same time their mother-tongue. This conception is revealed in the attempt to teach English to the Porto Rican children as if it were their mother-tongue, without regard to the fact that they live in a non-English environment, and utilizing the advantages which accrue to the children from linguistic training in their native language. Because of this misconception, a great many things are taken for granted, others are unduly em- phasized and still others, which should demand the closest attention, entirely over- looked. To remedy this evil it is recommended that the course of study to teach English be revised along the following lines: (a) Elimination of reading as the main object and substitution therefor of a plan in which conversation and written expression receive the chief emphasis; (b) the teaching through Spanish of all rules of punctuation, capitali- zation and whatever is common to both languages, because Spanish is the medium which offers the least resistance to the effective mastery of these things; (c) special attention to peculiar English idioms and structure; that is, to those features which make this language difficult for Spanish speaking children." Present Language Policy. As the result of this study and recom- mendations, since 1917, Spanish has been used as the medium of imstruction in the four lower grades, and English taught as a special 2For details of the investigation see Padin, José: The Problem of Teaching English to the People of Porto Rico. 3Padin, José, op. cit., pp. 17-20. M47bid., pp. 25-26. Special Subjects ao subject. The transition from Spanish to English is made in the fifth and sixth grades, and in the two higher grades, English is the medium of instruction while Spanish is taught as a special subject. In the rural schools the language of instruction is Spanish, except in the consolidated rural schools having higher grades, where the plan is the same as that of urban schools.” Instead of teaching children to read English beginning with the first grade, oral English is taught in the first and second grades and formal reading is deferred until the third grade. As far as the ex- periment has been tried, results seem encouraging. The shifting from conversation to reading as the medium to begin the study of English, gives the pupils an oral vocabulary before they begin formal reading, thus putting the Porto Rican child nearer to the level of the American child who hears four to five years of English before reading.'® Nevertheless the Porto Rican child still has the handicap of his Span- ish environment, in addition to the fact that he is learning two languages at the same time. The teaching of oral English with texts specially prepared for the purpose has been made possible by the work of Mr. Joseph Morin, for some time supervisor of schools and at the present time general superintendent. He has prepared two teachers’ manuals for first and second grades, and a beginner’s reader for the third grade. These texts are the result of years of experience and trial in the class room. They are a product of the schools and all the content deals with situations familiar to the children. Due care is given to pronunciation which is very hard for people of Spanish speech to master. This is still more difficult when one takes into account the fact that English in the lower grades is taught by Porto Rican teachers whose mother-tongue is Spanish and the majority of whom have never been outside of the Island. Other particular subjects specially hard for Porto Rican children are emphasized and plenty of drill exercises provided. English After Twenty-four Years of American Occupation. At the end of twenty-four years of American occupation in Porto Rico, and twenty-two years since the present system of public instruction was begun, it is fair to confess that the schools have not made the prog- ress in English that had been expected. The people of the Island are far yet from being a bilingual people. In the cities English is quite generally spoken, but the country masses do not know enough Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 563. 6 Ibid. 226 Education in Porto Rico English for any practical purpose, and they never will until the rural schools offer a course which will assure the acquisition of English. Four years in the rural school, being taught in Spanish with English as a special subject, give a mere vocabulary which the child forgets soon after he leaves school. ‘That accounts mostly for the fact that to-day after twenty-four years of American occupation only ten per cent of the people over ten years of age can speak English.” There is no doubt that too much reliance has been placed on the importation of culture, in adapting more than in creating, but the best culture is that which although influenced by many currents is manufactured on the native soil and by the native people. Past mis- takes can not be undone, but they can serve as experience to profit by. Emphasis on Spanish To-day. With the emphasis on the study of English the teaching of Spanish has not been neglected and since 1914 it has received a decided impetus. Since the above year, the office of General Superintendent of Spanish has been maintained in the department of education. This officer gives all of his time to the supervision and improvement of the teaching of the vernacular. The people of Porto Rico speak better Spanish to-day than during the Spanish régime and this language is being better taught to-day than at any other period in the history of the Island. B. ManvuauL TRAINING Industrial Schools. The first type of school work requiring manual activity was attempted in San Juan in 1903, in the so-called industrial school. Subsequently other schools of the same nature were estab- lished in Ponce, Mayagiiez, Arecibo and Guayama, appropriation being made by the Legislature during the five-year period from 1903 to 1907, when support was discontinued, the schools closed and their property disposed of. As much as these schools were needed, the schools were not successful owing to lack of specially trained teach- ers to take charge of instruction, and to lack of appreciation and understanding of industrial education on the part of the people and legislators.}8 Manual Training After 1907. After the failure of the industrial schools in 1907, the Island was left entirely without provision for any Fourteenth Census of the U. S., 1920. Bulletin, Population, Porto Rico, p. 13. 18For a detailed account of these schools the reader is referred to the reports of the Commissioner of Education for the five-year period, 1903-1907, and especially the reports for the last two years named. Special Subjects 227 form of manual instruction in the public schools. With no appro- priation providing specifically for such work it was impossible to accomplish much in the teaching of manual training. For a time such work as was done, goes to the credit of some teachers here and there, who having special aptitude and bent for construction work in wood, received encouragement from the department and devoted some time during school hours to the work of the manual arts. They did not stop with what is commonly called manual training, but also constructed various articles out of such native products as bamboo and various fiber products. In addition to this semi-official work, the regular work of manual training began to gain in popularity in 1910, and during the school year, there were regular manual training shops in operation in con- nection with the schools of nine towns with about 500 pupils receiving instruction. In Rio Piedras the boys built a two-room house for carpenter shops and domestic science room, and made their own tables, besides other articles for the use of the school. In another town playground apparatus was built, repairs were made in school buildings and a fence constructed and put in the plaza. A further indication of the interest in this field of work was the fact that in 1911, in the summer institutes for teachers, there were forty-eight students enrolled in the manual training classes. From these indications, showing that the sentiment was sufficiently strong to warrant more decided steps in this direction, the department of education made some provision to introduce the study of manual training in the new course of studies for the continuation schools, and a special teacher experienced in teaching this subject was assigned to each continuation school, leaving opportunity for as many boys as could be accommodated'from the elementary schools to receive instruction.!® The work grew the next year and some sort of manual training was offered in sixteen school districts, 758 boys receiving the advantages of such instruction. Although the regular work of manual training was generally limited to the seventh, eight, ninth and tenth grades, yet the lower grades did some work in manual arts such as clay modeling of fruits and dishes, and made articles of straw and fibers.”° Manual Training a Subject in the Curriculum of the Graded Schools. In 1912, Mr. E. M. Bainter was appointed Commissioner of Educa- tion. He was a specialist in vocational and prevocational education 19Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 189. °Ibid., 1912, p. 224. 228 Education in Porto Rico and gave the first real impetus to manual training, home economics and agriculture as subjects in the regular curriculum, so that beginning with the autumn term in 1913, manual training was given a place in the curriculum of the urban schools, and made obligatory for all boys enrolled in grades six to ten inclusive in those towns where the number of pupils in the grades mentioned warranted the equipping of a shop and the assignment of a special teacher to handle the work. Complete equipment for the instruction in wood working was bought by the school boards of forty-nine towns, and the department ap- pointed fifty-three teachers who had received special training in this line. Thirty-one of these were assigned to the upper grades of the elementary school and twenty-two to the continuation schools. An average of 3,181 boys were enrolled in the manual training classes throughout the year. A general supervisor of manual train- ing was appointed who prepared a course of study for the different grades, and in addition to the working out of the different projects stipulated, the pupils in many instances constructed furniture for the rural schools, repaired school property, and constructed manual training shops from plans prepared by the general supervisor, the school boards paying only for the material employed in the construc- tion. Three periods of fifty minutes each week were given in the grades, and five periods of fifty minutes each per week in the contin- uation schools. Thus manual training was established in the curric- ulum and became very popular with the boys. The next year it was continued with success, 3,033 boys having had instruction, dis- tributed as follows: High schools, 487; continuation schools, 518; eighth grade, 1,029; seventh grade, 694; and sixth grade, 305.” Manual Training in the Rural School Curriculum. So far manual training had been confined to urban centers, but in 1916 two con- solidated rural schools offered it for the first time in the country districts.” During the war the instruction in manual training was badly handi- capped due to the general restless condition, to many war activities which required a great deal of time, and especially due to the fact that one-half of the teaching force entered the service of the United States as either officers or soldiers. With the establishment of normal conditions, instruction in this subject has received its place again in *1Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 363. 2Ibid., 1915, p. 332. 8Ibid., 1916, p. 357. Special Subjects 229 the curriculum as a study firmly established, and it is being extended in the elementary school as means and circumstances allow. Prevocational Education for Boys. After the failure of the indus- trial schools, outside of the special subjects in the curriculum no pre- vocational preparation of any kind was given until recent years. From the manual training classes many boys have gone into car- pentry, so that their school training was in some measure prevoca- tional, but that had not been the general aim of the instruction in manual training. Thus far, there is only one public school in Porto Rico, the aim of which is “to give boys in the upper grades such indus- trial training as may fit them for a vocational career.” The training may lead through an apprenticeship to the position of foreman or factory superintendent, or through further technical training to va- rious fields of engineering.* This school is the Baldorioty de Castro Graded and Technical School. As the name implies it is a public graded school, offering advantages for prevocational training. The course has been so arranged that boys in the seventh grade get an opportunity to acquaint themselves with the various types of occupations offered by the school. An effort is made to ascertain the natural abilities of the students, acquainting them with the charac- ter of the work available in industry, observing their shortcomings and aptitudes and discovering their limitations of mind and body. At the end of the first year, the boys and the parents are consulted, and based on the reports of the teachers a selection of one of the courses offered is made. After the particular course has been selected, the boys specialize therein during the eighth and ninth grades, ex- tending this study by related work in mechanical drawing, mathe- matics and academic subjects. Every instructor in the school has had an actual trade experience and is a specialist in his line. All shop work is done according to trade standards, by actual trade pro- cesses and approved methods of the commercial shop.2> The school is new and in its period of formation. It is well equipped and should prove of great value in preparing boys for an actual occupation in life. The Island is in need of more schools of this type, but owing to their expense in equipment and administration it cannot afford many of them. C. Home Economics Home Economics After the Failure of the Industrial Schools. The —— 4Ibid., 1920, p. 423. 5 Ibid. 230 Education tn Porto Rico Spanish woman seems to possess an exceptional aptitude for needle work of any kind. Needle work had always constituted a regular study in the curriculum of the Spanish public schools. Such being the case during the Spanish régime, girls’ schools began as centers for religious instruction and needle work. With the change in sovereign- ty, the value of this work was not appreciated by the American authorities and it was eliminated from the course of study. Cooking was not taught in the Spanish schools. With the founding of the industrial schools, sewing and cooking were introduced as regular studies, but the failure of these schools eliminated this kind of in- struction from the public school system, not to take its place again as a required study until 1913. However, the natural aptitude of the Porto Rican woman for needle work, as well as the tradition that girls should be taught to sew, embroider and do drawn work in the schools, revived again this work and by 1909, in one district, classes in sewing were given in connection with the regular work of the graded schools. At the beginning of that school year, some of the lady teachers in the graded schools interested many of the older girls in the organization of a “School Girls Association.”’ As it was natural, general needlework developed into one of the main features of the Association. The classes were held on Saturdays, three hours in the forenoon and two in the afternoon. The girls were taught plain sewing, knitting, and needle lettering. The success of this Association interested the pupils and parents. In order to extend the work to other districts of the Island, the Com- missioner of Education notified the school boards that he would ap- prove small amounts as extra salaries for teachers who were competent and willing to teach sewing after school hours and on Saturdays.” The school boards responded so encouragingly to the suggestion of the Commissioner, that during the school year 1910-1911, a regular course in sewing was offered in fifty-six of the sixty-six towns of the Island at that time, and 5,241 girls or almost 76 per cent of those enrolled in the grades of the schools in which sewing was offered took advantage of the instruction. In many places where the work was started so many girls enrolled that it was necessary to divide them into groups, each group receiving two or three lessons of one and a half hours duration each week. The groups met after regular school hours and on Saturday mornings. *6Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1910, p. 12. Special Subjects 231 In many instances the school boards provided the equipment, while in others it was supplied by either the pupils or parents or both.” The course of study comprised graded work from the third to the eighth grades inclusive.?® Popularity and Establishment of Home Economics as a Subject of the Curriculum. In 1910, courses in cooking were offered to the girls in the high and grammar schools of San Juan. The course included lessons in the hygiene of cooking and digestibility of the different kinds of food. The girls were taught to set a table and how to wait on guests.?® Instruction was continued the next year and extended to Rio Piedras, Juncos, and Yauco. The total enrollment for the year was 159.3° The attitude of the general public was very favor- able, and the department appointed a teacher of cooking and sewing to each continuation school and made instruction in these subjects obligatory in these schools.* The next school year witnessed great progress in the instruction of sewing and cooking. Although two school boards were not able to continue their support to the sewing classes, 54 towns offered work to over 5,000 girls, who were found in all grades from first to tenth inclusive. The classes were held as a rule after school hours and Saturday forenoons. The work by this time had extended beyond plain sewing, and among the articles made could be found all sorts of articles of daily use, such as slippers, handkerchiefs, pillow-cases, dresses, waists, table covers, napkins, laundry bags, hand bags, book covers, night-gowns, aprons, corset covers, doilies, laces, embroidery, sheets, drawn-work, kimonos, cushions, brush-holders, etc.*? The cooking classes also progressed, instruction being offered in 13 municipalities with an enrollment of 361. With the exception of San Juan, the local boards furnished the equipment. Some munici- palities offered instruction in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades while it was required only in the ninth and tenth grades.* The next year fourteen towns offered instruction in cooking with an enrollment of 445, while 63 offered sewing with an enrollment of 6,329.*4 The pupils and the general public were interested, the school boards responded with their support. The girls were becoming proud that they could cook and many parents bought ovens and special cooking 27Tbid., 1911, pp. 189-191. 28Tbid., 1911, p. 192. 29Thid., 1910, p. 11. 30Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 192. 17 bod. 32[bid., 1912, p. 225. 38Ibid., p. 226. 47 bid., 1913, p. 337. 232 Education in Porto Rico utensils in order that their daughters might make at home the things they had learned at school. The time was ripe to introduce home economics as a required subject in the course of study. A supervisor of home economics was appointed who prepared a course in cooking and sewing. Monthly bulletins were published and sent to the special teachers in home economics with specific instructions as to what should be done each day. The subjects of health and sanitation as applied intimately to the home; the care of children and invalids; the proper feeding of children and adults; ventilation, cleanliness in the matter of person, clothing, and house; preparation and serving of foods, as well as the manner in which they are obtained, sold, and distributed; the manufacture of cloth, beginning with the more primitive methods, the proper selections of materials for garments for different purposes; colors, their combination and harmony; a small amount of work in textiles, and their manufacture; and the making of garments for outer wear, were all taken up during the year.* Instruction in home economics was made obligatory for all girls enrolled in the sixth to the tenth grades inclusive in the urban centers. Cooking was taught three days a week and sewing two days, five periods of fifty minutes each being devoted to this work each week in the grades as well as in the continuation schools. The Teaching of Home Economics During the War. Home econom- ics has been a required study in the curriculumsincethen. Instruction in this subject has been extended in some places, while in others, chiefly the small towns where there have not always been enough pupils, it has been discontinued temporarily. Owing to changed living conditions during the war the course of study in practical cook- ing was changed entirely. Since it was feared that communication with the mainland might be interrupted at any moment, thus de- priving the Island of its weekly food supply from New York, bulletins were prepared to instruct students and their families in preparing a diet that would make use of local food products.*’ This furnished a good opportunity to study the native food prod- ucts and to adapt the school course in cooking to local food problems. Mothers’ classes were given once a week, where the use of wheat substitutes and war-time menus were studied. Such extension work 8 Ibid., 1914, pp. 363-64. 36Tbvd. Compare also 1915 Report, p. 332. 37Tbid., 1918, p. 516. Special Subjects 233 was carried on by means of lectures and demonstrations by the teachers of home economics in some rural districts. An oven made from a five-gallon oil can was shown with a view to promote baking and decrease frying. Bread substitutes were taught and gardening encouraged.*®> The sewing classes studied the change produced in clothing problems during the war. Clothing conservation was taught as well as the purchase of durable clothing and the elimination of unessentials such as laces, ribbons, dress trimmings and jewelry; pajamas and refuge garments, bandages and other hospital articles were made and sent. to the Red Cross. New Course of Study in Home Economics. In 1919, Miss Elsie Mae Willsey was appointed special supervisor of home economics. She has prepared a new course of study in home economics for the elemen- tary and high schools,*® and has given a new impetus to the work. Before its publication the course was tried in the schools, five hours per week being devoted to home economics all through the year. The study of foods, clothing and household management was taken up. Special emphasis was given to the food values of native foods and to the selection and preparation of them. As far as possible the products of the school gardens were utilized. In the clothing and textile work, the aim was centered on giving the pupils work to meet present-day need, including designing and making of garments for the pupils and members of their families, with special stress on the selection and designing of material. In the course in household management, in addition to the work ordinarily given, special em- phasis was put on home laundering and the pupils laundered each article made in the clothing class before taking it home.*° The present course in home economics, besides the work in cooking and sewing, includes instruction in Porto Rican lace, millinery, menu making, marketing, home hygiene and care of the sick with infant and invalid dietetics, house planning and furnishing, house sanitation and household management. As arranged to-day, the work is special- ly prepared for the two upper grades of the elementary school and the first three years of the high school. With the rearrangement of the school system and the adoption of the 6-3-3 plan, now under consideration, instruction in home economics will become to a great extent the work of the Junior High School. 387 bid., p. 517. 39Willsey, Elsie Mae: Course of Study in Home Economics for the Elementary and High Schools of Porto Rico. 49Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 422. 234 Education in Porto Rico Prevocational Work for Girls. Although many girls have left the schools and because of their training in sewing, dressmaking, lace making and millinery have been able to make a living, yet the general courses in home economics offered at the schools have not been given with the prevocational idea foremost, but rather to teach right stand- ards of utilization and consumption, and to establish effective powers of working or performing productive functions in the home.*! Not- withstanding, dressmaking, lace making, drawn work and embroid- ery have been occupations of many women and girls for many years. There was no market for their articles during the Spanish régime but they would sell to the wealthier classes. With the American occupa- tion and the opening of the Island to tourists, a market began to open. The American teachers have bought many of these native articles and have sold them in the States. Many of them have acted as agents for some firm in the North. Corporations in the States have sent their agents all over the Island to buy as much of these articles as possible. In 1915 the supervisor of home economics, by direction of the de- partment of education, began to give some official attention to this nascent industry. A market was created in the States, and the em- broidering of ladies underwear was carried on extensively in many centers. The material to be embroidered was shipped to the Island from a firm in New York and the embroidered articles were returned for sale. Workers received pay varying with the quality and com- plexity of the work done.” Of late years there have been a number of firms engaged in the manufacture of hand-made articles, such as blouses, underwear, children’s garments, handkerchiefs and others. One of the problems which these firms had to solve was the preparation of skilled workers, expert in needle work, who do not only know how to do the work, but who comply with a certain standard. To meet the demands for skilled work in these lines and at the same time to prepare women and girls to be self-supporting, the legislature made provision in 1919 for twenty instructors in needle work, embroidery and drawn work. These instructors were assigned to municipalities where prospects for success seemed best. Ten municipalities engaged their own in- structors and financed the work. By double work on the part of in- structors, thirty-four centers enjoyed the advantages of this work and a total of 2,325 were enrolled during the year. Classes met from “1Willsey, op. cit., p. 3. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1917, p. 467. Special Subjects 235 four to six on school days, and from nine to eleven, one to three, and three to five on Saturdays. Enrollment was opened to women and girls thirteen years of age or over.” The course of study was framed by Miss Willsey after conferences with manufacturers and includes problems of construction and dec- oration appearing in the respective articles manufactured. It aims first to prepare women and young women to earn a living, and second, to train expert workers to satisfy the increasing demands for workers in sewing and all kinds of needle work. At the end of the course if the work has been satisfactorily done the department grants a diploma of Graduate in Sewing, Embroidery and Drawnwork.“ Native Industries. The traveller in Porto Rico may meet any moment along the road or in the streets of the cities, the hat vendor, or the hammock vendor, or a boy selling brooms, or he may meet a man selling ropes or another man loaded with all sorts of articles, and on examining he would see strings of beads of different varieties; mats and carpets, straw hand bags, bead curtains, wooden toys of all sorts, spoons and kitchen utensils made of higtiera, palm leaf fans, etc. These constitute what is generally known in the Island as native industries. Many a poor peasant makes his living and sup- ports a family entirely from one or several of these industries. In many interior districts there is an absolute lack of gainful occupations and many people depend on these native industries to earn a little money wherewith to buy the necessities of life. The hat weavers can make a good living if they have an assured market for their product, and the same could be said of others of these industries. These articles are made from palm fiber, maguey, bejuco, ema- jagua bark, grasses, vines, bamboo, higiiera, raffia, cocoanuts and other materials, all of which but raffia can be secured in the Island. How- ever, as these industries are not established for exploitation, excepting hat weaving, no one exploits the source of raw material, and their success depends largely on the kind of raw material which may happen to grow in any particular region. For the last fifteen years, the schools have given some attention to these native industries. A good many of the small articles have been made in the lower grades and have furnished material for manual work. Many municipalities have held special classes after school hours in hat weaving. Special teachers have been employed here and there, but these industries have not been placed firmly on 43Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 422. “Willsey, op. cit. 236 Education in Porto Rico a prevocational basis. It is not likely they will be placed on such a basis until adequate financial help can be secured to carry on the work, and a dependable source of raw material has been established. Nevertheless, instruction in these industries has been offered for the last seven years in several municipalities. In 1919-1920, 37 of the 76 municipalities offered some instruction in the native industries in a total of 323 class rooms. Instruction was given in hat, basket, mat and hammock weaving; and broom and rope making. The work was done outside of school hours and was voluntary on the part of the teachers. No credit was given as school work. In these classes lace and embroidery were also made.* Besides the lack of funds to carry on the work and the uncertain supply of raw material, prevocational courses in native industries will not be successful until special teachers are trained for the work, the products standardized and a dependable market provided. Notwithstanding, these native industries furnish ample field for the extension of prevocational education. D. AGRICULTURE Sufficient data have already been given to show that Porto Ricois for the most part a rural community, and that the majority of the children of school age in the Island live in the country. Without doubt the subject of agriculture comes closer to the actual needs of the masses than any other in the school curriculum. Porto Rico is an agricultural island, and the teaching of agriculture in the schools is an economic and sociological necessity if the masses are to live rather than merely exist. The great majority of the laborers are employed in the cultivation of sugar cane, coffee, tobacco and fruits. Their wages are low and their families are large. In addition to low wages, any one acquainted with the facts knows that the laborers do not always work the whole day, that strikes are frequent and that the extent of unemployment and suffering during the dull seasons is tremendous. The high price of sugar and tobacco during the war, and the draft which called to the colors several thousand laborers, remedied the wage problem somewhat, but the demobilization and the decrease in price of sugar and tobacco after the war left the laborers in a worse estate than before. The best way to help these people is by teaching them to get the most out of the soil, and the only way to reach them 46Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, pp. 424-25. Special Subjects 237 is through the public schools, where they can be taught to improve their economic conditions by interest in and work on the soil. The Agricultural Rural Schools. Instruction in agriculture was first given in what was called the agricultural rural schools. They were originally designed to offer besides the elementary school curric- ulum, instruction iv the cultivation of the soil and the raising of the ordinary vegetables and farm products and experimentation in the scientific cultivation of plants in which the agricultural community im the neighborhood of the school might be interested. It was the intentiou that the work should be done by the pupils themselves, and that the work accomplished might have value not merely as an object lesson to the community, but also in the intellectual development of the pupils and in their preparation for their future careers.“ These rural schools were organized on thesame general lines as the common rural schools only that they had at least one acre of land around the school building available for purposes of practical cultivation. Due to the fact that there were no teachers prepared to teach in them and there was no special equipment for them, the schools did not have a good beginning. Nineteen were started altogether in different parts of the Island but some of them were soon changed into the regular common rural schools. They continued for several years and every year the regular common school work crowded out more and more the special feature for which they were established when at last they were merged into the rural school system and special mstruction in agriculture was introduced into the regular elementary school curric- ulum. The Teaching of Agriculture After the Failure of the Agricultural Rural Schools. On the failure of these schools, in order not to drop entirely from the curriculum the subject of agriculture, six special teachers of this subject were appointed and a plan was formulated by which the teachers of agriculture gave forty-five minute classes daily to all pupils enrolled in the graded system of the towns to which they were assigned from the third grade up; and aside from this two hours or more weekly for actual field work.*” Although the work was limited to a few municipalities, it was a success, over 1,200 pupils re- ceiving instruction in agriculture, practical work in school gardening being conducted hand in hand with the theoretical work. The success was such that plans began to be formulated immediate- “Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1902, p. 19. s7Ibid., 1910, p. 11. 238 Education in Porto Rico ly for the extension of instruction in this subject. The two main difficulties in extending the work for the next year were the im- possibility to secure teachers competent to give instruction and the budgetary limitations. Due to the latter, only five teachers of agriculture could be appointed for the academic year 1910-1911, but the enrollment was higher than the year before, showing the interest in the work.*® The budget for the next school year made provision for ten special teachers of agriculture, but owing to a lack of trained men available for this work, only seven appointments were made. They devoted their time teaching pupils of both graded and rural schools, holding conferences and classes for teachers, conducting public meetings in the country and arousing interest in agriculture in their respective districts.* Agriculture as a Subject of the Curriculum. The time was ripe for introduction of this subject into the curriculum, but there were not teachers specially prepared to teach it. With the end in view of preparing teachers of agriculture, the commissioner of education for the United States and the commissioner of education for PortoRico in consultation at Washington decided that it was highly desirable to hold a series of one-week institutes throughout the Island for the purpose of giving instruction in agriculture to teachers iv the rural and graded schools. The plan contemplated closing the schools in a given district for one week, assembling the teachers in a convenient central point, and requiring their attendance at the exercises of the institutes. This was put into effect for two years, with institutes in thirty-five districts the first year and in forty-one districts the second. The institutes were discontinued in 1913 not because they were not successful, but because it meant that 150,000 pupils enrolled in the public schools were out of school one week in the year. Besides, teachers wishing to prepare to teach agriculture had plenty of oppor- tunity to do so in the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, already in operation. As a result of this agricultural propaganda, the special preparation of teachers and the aid by budgetary provi- sion, the subject of agriculture was given a place in the elementary school curriculum in 1913, to be required of all boys enrolled in grades sixth, seventh and eighth of the graded schools, two days a week, with the special teacher of agriculture giving the instruction. The teacher devoted the other three days a week to the supervision of the work in agriculture in the rural schools. Forty-one teachers of agri- 48Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 186. 49Tbid., 1912, p. 210. Special Subjects 239 culture were appointed for the entire calendar year at a salary of $75 a month.®° With the extension of the instruction in agriculture provision was made at the Insular Normal School for the preparation of teachers.*! The work functioned very successfully for a year.” Agricultural Instruction During the War. But this was only tem- porary, for the next academic year opened with the forty-one special teachers eliminated from the budget. This meant the elimination also of agriculture as a required subject in the urban schools, except in those centers where teachers took special interest and desired to do something after school hours. In twenty towns instruction in agriculture was carried on spasmodically and reports state that 807 pupils were given some instruction in this subject during the war. Agricultural instruction, although a required subject in the curriculum, went back to its former status after the failure of the agricultural schools. However, circumstances now were quite different from those of 1908- 1909. ‘There were now teachers prepared to teach agriculture, and all rural teachers had had some instruction in the subject. Besides, the World War created special problems of food conservation. High prices and fear of lack of food supplies from the continent turned the attention of the people to the soil, which was cultivated and planted with native food crops. The department took advantage of these conditions and started itsrural campaign. The rural teachers became interested in the work of rural uplift. They turned their attention to agri- culture and the cultivation of home and school gardens. Ten special teachers of agriculture were appointed in 1916, who worked in co-operation with the special agents of the food commission. All during the war, attention was centered on practical agriculture and work was carried on in every school that had land available for demonstration plots. Girls as well as boys were taught to cultivate home gardens and many women teachers were as successful in teach- ing gardening as the men. Necessity made the teaching of agri- culture not only successful but practical. Instruction in Agriculture Today. After the war the budget was increased so that instruction in agriculture could be resumed. In 1919, forty special teachers of agriculture were appointed, and the same number was continued for 1920-1921. Besides the work of ‘°Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 335. *Lbid., p. 336. Compare Report of 1914, p. 362. 8Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 553. 240 Education in Porto Rico teaching in the urban schools, they devoted part of their time to the instruction of other teachers. Speaking of their duties and work, the Commissioner of Education reported that they were in charge of the school and home garden movements in their respective dis- tricts. They assisted in obtaining a satisfactory enrollment and main- taining attendance and were the leaders in the rural uplift movement, assisting teachers in organizing conferences among country people. They also acted as intermediates between farmers and the Insular and Federal experiment stations. In one district vanilla slips were dis- tributed and the people were instructed how to cultivate the plant, and cure the beans, resulting in the establishment of an industry which promises to be very profitable. In several municipalities farmers have been encouraged to plant soy beans which have been used instead of the more expensive oil protein food imported from the States. The people of Porto Rico have been very careless in animal breed- ing, and now the teachers of agriculture are taking some interest in this line. They are helping the children to form pig and poultry clubs and have aided the farmers in procuring better breeds of pigs and poultry than those commonly found. The teachers are also helping the small farmer financially. Porto Rico banks charge a high per cent of interest. Some teachers have helped in establishing co- operative societies and securing loans of money at a lower interest than usual. The agricultural teachers are beginning to co-operate with the Department of the Interior in securing the necessary action to make operative the law covering the irrigation project. Thirty- six school fairs were held during 1919-1920 at which $3,246 were dis- tributed in prizes to teachers and pupils.* During the academic year 1920-21 instruction in agriculture was given in 1,715 different class rooms, fifty school fairs were held, and 39,672 home gardens were culti- vated through the efforts of the school.® It is to be hoped that the present interest will continue, whatever the policies of the department of education may be in the future and that the school will do her full share in preparing the masses of future citizens to be self-supporting. E. Avuximrary EpucationaL AGENCIES Eatra-Curricular Activities. EExtra-curricular activities introduced into the public schools with the American occupation were a novelty to the people. Such activities were unknown in the Spanish schools. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920, p. 424. %The Porto Rico School Review, Vol. 6, No. 1, Sept. 1921, p. 11. Special Subjects | 241 These did not even have a period of recess during the daily session, much less games and other activities connected with the school. The work in Physical Education is carried on in connection with athletics as the climate permits outdoor sports all the year round. The first to introduce the idea of athletics into Porto Rico were the American soldiers. No sooner had they landed, unhitched their horses and mules and pitched their tents, than they were playing “catch,” and from this, if there was enough ground, a regular base- ball game would follow. As was natural it did not take long for the children to be playing ‘‘catch”’ also. They also began to improvise some sort of base-ball. As soon as games were introduced into the schools, base-ball became the favorite game among the children. But organized playground work as a policy of the department of education did not come until 1908. Prior to that the playground established in Ponce by the Playground Association of Porto Rico was the only one in the Island. The playground movement was welcomed by the municipalities and school boards generally cooperated in the movement, donating and buying land and providing funds for equipment. The movement. was such a success that by 1913 a general supervisor of playgrounds and athletics was appointed. He prepared a course in physical edu- cation, which was put into operation in September 1913 as an integral part of the school curriculum and required of all children. He had direct charge of all the work in physical culture given in all the schools, he was to supervise and encourage the development of the playgrounds Towns with Land set aside | Total Money Spent |Children using School Year Playgrounds | for Playgrounds | for Playgrounds, | Urban Play- 1908—1915 1908—1915 grounds (Acres) 1908-1909 yar | QA $3,000 5,000 1909-1910 AS 50 8,250 15,000 1910-1911 52 58 19,746 18,420 1911-1912 58 59 30,737 23,902 1912-1913 61 61% 43,209 26,564 1913-1914 65 7234 54,538 29,008 1914-1915 68 75% 59,982 34,01556 56Ibid., 1915, p. 336. Q42 Education in Porto Rico movement in the different towns and direct all forms of athletics connected with the public school system.” The preceding table will show the growth of the movement and the increase from year to year until 1915 in the number of towns pro- viding playground facilities for children; the amount of land utilized for the purpose, the amount of money expended for the purchases of sites, equipment, etc., and the number of public school children mak- ing use of the facilities furnished. The following table shows the number of organized teams in the different branches of athletics: Base Ball Track Basket Ball Total Prior to 1913 44 18 Q 64 1913-1914 55 98 97 110 1914-1915 73 39 58 170.8 Since 1910 there has existed an Interscholastic Athletic Association of Porto Rico, the membership of which is made up of the local asso- ciations of the different schools and towns. All the school athletics are directly in charge of the board of directors of this association. The constitution and by-laws are subject to the approval of the Com- missioner of Education.®? For the purpose of athletic contests, meets and interscholastic games, all the children in the public schools are divided into three classes. In class A, only pupils regularly enrolled in the high schools and in the departments of the University may take part. Under class B, only pupils enrolled in the eighth grade and lower grades are eligible to take part. Under class C, pupils en- rolled in any of the grades from the tenth downward in school systems which maintain continuation schools are allowed to enter.°° Due to the war, the decrease in the budget and the attention shifted to military drill, the position of special supervisor of athletics was eliminated in 1914, and since that time the work in physical education has been carried on by the regular teachers, who followed the course of study prepared by the former supervisor. This position has been revived for the year 1921-1922, and it is hoped that it will continue, that the prewar enthusiasm will be revived and that athletics will pre- serve its proper place in connection with the public school system. " "Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1913, p. 372. *8Ibid. ! 59Tbid., 1912, p. 257. S°Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 23. Special Subjects 243 This branch of extra-curricular activities is very important in Porto Rico. Besides their physical value, group athletics have a special social value for any people and especially so for people of Spanish blood and traditions. The Spaniard is an individualist. Independently he can do anything within his ability, but as a rule he will not cooperate. He is not a good loser, but wants victory first, last and always. Group athletics in Porto Rico have developed cooperation, and team work among the children, respect for authority and for the rules of the game. At the same time the children are learning to be as good losers as winners and good sportsmen. Although base-ball is the favorite game, and anywhere one may go children and young men may be seen playing some form of the game, yet there are other popular games and sports, such as circle ball, straddle ball, circle wind or maze-without ball, prisoner’s base, line volley ball, basket ball, soccer and track and field sports. The inter- scholastic meet is an annual affair and any one from the continent witnessing one of these at the Hippodrome grounds in San Juan would not see much difference from like events in the North, while the enthusiasm, Latin in nature, generally runs higher than among Anglo- Saxon people. School Days and Festwals. During the Spanish régime there were many holidays and festivals due to the fact that the church holi- days were kept as well as the insular and national. On holidays schools would close, no entertainment of any kind being provided for the day unless church attendance was required. Since the Ameri- can occupation the holidays have furnished an opportunity for special study in the class room in preparation for the day. Such days as Washington’s and Lincoln’s birthdays, Memorial Day, have been used as the basis for the study of American ideals and patriotism. It is very easy for people of Spanish countries to celebrate anything, always being ready to make the most of an opportunity for a good time, easily throwing all their enthusiasm into whatever is to be celebrated. Such being the case the school holidays and celebrations are celebrated rot only by the children, but by the parents as well. A school celebration is a municipal celebration. Thus such events have furnished an excellent means of establishing closer relations be- tween the schools and the public. Exhibits of work done in the class room are usually displayed, giving the parents some idea of what is being done in school. Some of the days observed are: Washington’s Birthday, Lincoln’s Birthday, Mother’s Day, Armistice Day, Colum- Q44 Education in Porto Rico bus Day, Thanksgiving Day, Abolition Day, Memorial Day, Arbor Day. The usual programme for these celebrations consists of recita- tions, songs, speeches, both by the children and by citizens, street parades, short dramas, and concerts. At the close of the school year, commencement exercises have unusual significance in the life of the community and the most is made of the event in every community having a graduating class of any kind. School Bands. For the last twelve years school bands have been a special feature in many municipalities. They have not always been successful in all the municipalities, the number of municipalities having them varying from time to time, but as a general rule the school band movement has been very successful. The teachers and equipment have generally been provided by the local school officials, while many boys gifted in music have purchased their own instruments and pursued in part a musical career. Instrumental music plays a very important part in the social life of the Island, and nearly every town has a municipal band. In many towns the school bands have taken their place in the social life of their respective communities, thus many school boys have had an opportunity to earn some money. School bands furnish the music at school festivals, school exercises, teachers’ conferences, at meetings of parents’ associations and athletic meets. They also give evening concerts at the public plazas, while church festivals and funerals often call on them to furnish the music.*! Physical and Social Welfare. The one activity originating with the teachers in cooperation with citizens is the school lunch move- ment. As already mentioned, the greatest problem of Porto Rico is poverty. Thousands of children go to school undernourished, pale and anemic. It is impossible for these children to do satisfactory school work. The movement originated some ten years ago, but its growth has been very slow due principally to lack of funds. The growth has been made possible in recent years by the increased support of the municipalities together with that of the legislature. The latter appropriated $10,000 for the year 1919-1920, thus making possible a large increase in school lunches. Supervisors unanimously declare that the establishment of the school lunch rooms has_ been immediately followed by more regular attendance and greatly im- proved class-room work.” “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, p. 576. “Detailed account of School Lunch movement may be found in the reports of the Special Subjects Q45 School Activities Connected With the Prosecution of theWar. Among the many activities of the schools connected with the prosecution of the war, such as the selling of War Savings and Thrift Stamps, and Liberty Bonds, and the activities of the Victory Boys and Junior Red Cross, the latter rendered excellent service during the war and has continued its activities. Of the Junior Red Cross the Com- missioner of Education has said:—‘“‘Aside from the rural campaign which has been carried on by the department in recent years, there is no other supplementary activity or agency connected with the edu- cational work that has attained the importance of the Junior Red Cross, and it deserves corresponding credit for the various lines of meritorious work performed.’ The Junior Red Cross was organ- ized in 1917, and immediately after its organization was called upon to help in the many civic and patriotic undertakings in which the schools took such a large part during the war. As soon as the Armis- tice was signed it prepared a peace programme which is being carried out with enthusiasm that characterized all its work during the war. The size of the organization and its activities have so increased since the war, that it has been necessary to employ a person to devote all of her time to the activities of the organization, under the official name of Executive Secretary. Her salary represents the only running expenses of the Chapter. “The Society is to-day stronger than ever and is planning for the future. At the invitation of the department of education and the Junior Red Cross, the Children’s Bureau of the U. 5. Department of Labor will carry on a Children’s Year Survey in Porto Rico. Matters pertaining to the health of the child as well as to the recreation and play will be given most attention. A Child Health Campaign will be launched in December, with a health week, inaugurated at the annual session of the Teachers’ Association. The Recreation and Playground movement will be launched this summer.’ As it will be seen in these data the Junior Red Cross has developed into a Child Welfare Organization and its work is most effective in such a large and needed child population as Porto Rico has. Commissioner of Education since 1917, and especially in the late reports which show the growth of the movement. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1920. 64For data dealing with the activities of the Junior Red Cross see The Porto Rico School Review, for Sept. 1921, pp. 40-47. 246 Education in Porto Rico SUMMARY OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION A perusal again of educational conditions in Porto Rico at the end of the Spanish dominion as presented in the first part of this work and a review of the progress made in two decades of American occupation would bring forth the contrast of what Porto Rico accomplished in education under the Spanish government in four hundred years and what she has accomplished in twenty years under the government of the United States. The writer can not improve upon the report of Dr. Paul G. Miller, recently Commissioner of Education to Porto Rico. Dr. Miller came to Porto Rico as a young manin1898. He saw conditions as they were then, and since has given the greater part of his services to the public schools of the Island. He reports to the Governor asfollows: “Complaints are occasionally made that the school system as at present organized does not fulfill its mission, that facilities are not available for many children of school age and that a comparatively small number are actually en- rolled in the schools. This charge is abundantly true, but the persons who make it are prone to forget the conditions that existed when the change in sovereignty occurred. Broadly speaking, at that time one child out of fifteen of school age attended school. During 1918- 19 (twenty years after) facilities were available for one child out of three of school age. During the year ending June 1899, there were reported 212 town schools and 313 rural schools. There were 426 rural barrios without any whatever, excluding the municipalities of Barranquitas, Ciales, Comerio, Maunabo, Ponce, Yauco and Utuado, for which the number was not reported. The last named municipal- ity included, at that time, Jayuya. Territorially speaking it is the largest in Porto Rico, and in 1899, with a population of 43,860, it had nine teachers and an attendance of only 262. In that muni- cipality alone there were reported 14,894 school children without school facilities. In Ponce where the number of barrios without any educational advantages was not available at that time, there were reported 11,563 children without school facilities, and in Yauco 8,819. The enrollment for that year is reported as 19,804 boys and 9,378 girls, a total of 29,182, but only 14,720 boys and 7,153 girls, or 21,873 pupils, were reported to be in actual attendance. The total number of children between the ages of 4 and 16 years which was then the legal school age, who were without school accommodation, was reported as 268,630. The Federal Census Bureau estimated Special Subjects Q47 the school population, that is, those between the ages of 5 and 18 years, to be 434,381 in July, 1919. Of this number the total en- rollment was 160,381 or more than five and one-half times the number of children enrolled in 1899. The reader’s attention is invited to the comparative table, giving the number of teachers, the enroll- ment, the barrios without school in 1919, and the increase in teachers and pupils. No detailed statistics as to eprollment by municipalities were found in 1899 and consequently the number in actual attendance has been given in each case.’’® Appendix IX shows the results of four hundred years of Spanish elementary education in Porto Rico. The figures speak for them- selves. Nevertheless the work has just begun and the problem of popular education is still the great task to be accomplished. It is not only a problem of extensiov of school facilities but also a problem of adaptation to local aims and local needs. Elementary education in Porto Rico leaves much to be desired. A great deal has been done, and this has revealed what remains to be done. Much of the future depends on the support of public education, which in turn depends on the ability of the Island to increase her revenues for public education. ®Report. of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1919, pp. 535-38. CHAPTER XIII SECONDARY, HIGHER AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION The history of education in Porto Rico shows that, although elementary education was neglected, provision was always made for the education of the few in what might be called the secondary schools. History shows that at various times attempts were made to establish university studies. The idea of secondary and higher education was not new in the Island at the time of the American occupation, but the extension of education to reach the masses of the people was, if not new in theory, new in practice. It was hard for some people to understand that the establishment of elementary education should precede secondary education. So when Dr. Brumbaugh began to establish the public school system, placing the emphasis on the extension of elementary educa- tion he met severe criticism from a few people who wished higher insti- tutions of learning to be created before the elementary work was organized. Dr. Brumbaugh answered these critics that the greater need was to the larger number and pushed the elementary schools to the point of complete organization, giving the high school work only partial support. Outside of the Insular Normal School for the prepa- ration of teachers no support was given at first to collegiate and pro- fessional education. Definition of Secondary Education. Secondary education in Porto Rico, since its organization, includes that educational training given to pupils who have completed an eight-year elementary course or its equivalent. Itis givenin two types of schools, known as high schools and continuation schools. Historically the high school came first. The high school in Porto Rico is the same as the traditional high school in the United States, that institution offering a four-year course of study beyond the elementary school of eight grades. High School in San Juan. With the burning of the Model and Training School on July 1, 1900 no school facilities were left for pupils 1Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1901, p. 61. (248) Secondary and Professional Education 249 of high school standing. There were not very many of them, only a few American children, and some of the pupils of the former “‘Insti- tuto” who, according to Dr. Brumbaugh, were poorly prepared to do high school work.2, On November 1, 1900, the English and Graded School of San Juan was established in the Beneficencia building and besides kindergarten and eight grades of elementary school, high school work was offered’ and carried on in two divisions, covering a three-year course, the English and the Spanish. The pupils of the former came up through the grades of the English Graded School and those of the latter came up through the grades of the five elementary schools of the city. Other High Schools. The following year the Ponce high school was begun in connection with one of the graded schools. The eight grades which formerly constituted the so-called American school were taken over by this graded school and the first year of high school work was added. The pupils entering the ninth grade were the graduates from the eighth grade of the American school and from the Pujal Street graded school. Since all the pupils had come up from the elementary school and had been taught in English, all the work of the high school was begun in English, except the study of the Spanish language.* In 1904, San Juan graduated its first high school class, the first in Porto Rico. The same year high school work begar in Mayagtiez with the ninth grade, for the eighth grade pupils who had finished in the elementary schools of that city. The Island had now three high schools. The Fajardo high school had been authorized, but it had no students of high school grade.’ For some time these three high schools were the only secondary schools and pupils from other towns came to them for their high school work. Continuation Schools. Due to the fact that graduates from the eighth grade were increasing and that many of these wished to con- tinue their studies but were unable to do so since they were scattered all over the Island and could not all be brought to the three high schools maintained, the department of education began to establish “continuation schools” in some of the larger centers of population for the purpose of taking the pupils upon the completion of the common school course and carrying them ore, two or three years (geverally two), further in their educational career without the necessity of 2Report of the Commissioner of Education of Porto Rico, 1901, p. 62. 3Ibid., 1900, p. 21. 4Ibid., 1903, p. 173. 5Ibid., 1905, p. 12. 950 Education in Porto Rico leaving home. Thus the continuation school began as an extension of the elementary school course and not separate from it. During the year 1909-1910, the first year of the continuation schools, eighteen schools were maintained, that is, eighteen municipalities offered the first or the first and second years of the high school course.® As soon as these schools were established a curriculum was formu- lated for them based principally upon manual training for boys and cooking and sewing for girls, but the academic studies of the regular high school course of study were pursued also, so that the pupils could enter any of the four-year high schools and receive full credit for the work done in the continuation schools. However, although emphasis is placed on these two studies the continuation schools are far from being prevocational or vocational schools and do not fit the students for specific vocation. They were established mainly to provide further study beyond the eighth grade. Continuation Schools Developed into High Schools. Since the es- tablishment of the continuation schools, the growth of secondary education has been rapid. These schools furnished a nucleus upon which to build high schools offering the four-year course of study. So it has happened that eight continuation schools have grown into high schools. That of Arecibo became a high school and graduated its first class in 1912.7 Humacao offered a four-year course in 1913.® Bayamén, Yauco, Guayama, Aguadilla, Fajardo and Caguas ad- vanced their continuation schools into high schools and offered a four-year course in 1916.2 This makes a total of eleven high schools, which is the number in operation to-day. Besides the high schools, the University of Porto Rico maintains a University High School in Rio Piedras and subcollegiate work in Mayagiiez. The number of continuation schools has varied from time to time, some being dis- eontinued upon lack of sufficient pupils. In 1920, there were eleven high schools with an enrollment of 2,687 pupils and twenty-two con- tinuation schools with an enrollment of 944 pupils. These engaged 108 high school and 57 continuation school teachers. The eleven high schools graduated 399 students, 234 of these in the general course and 105 in the commercial course.’ The Courses of Study. The basis for admission to the high and continuation schools is the common school diploma received by all *Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 8. "Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912, p. 207. *Tbid., 1913; pH) S26; *Tbid., 1917, p. 464. 10Tbid., 1920, p. 421. Secondary and Professional Education 251 who satisfactorily complete the work of the eighth grade, but ad- mission may also be obtained by examination or by certificate from the schools of acknowledged standing. Since the general aim of the high schools has been to prepare for college, the course of study has been based on the college entrance requirements and has varied accordingly as these requirements have varied. In 1906, San Juan graduates were represented in Cornell, Princeton, Dickinson, and Rutgers; while Ponce graduates were to be found in Cornell, Syracuse, and University of Pennsylvania." In 1905, a commercial course was established in the three high schools in operation. The course offered two years in commercial subjects and at the end of the two years a commercial certificate was granted.” The courses of study continued the same with more or less changes until the fall of 1913, when the commercial course was increased to four years and at its completion a commercial high school diploma was granted.“ The high schools offered now two courses, a general course in preparation for college and a commercial course in preparation for business. With the exception of Spanish, which is taught as a subject, the official language of the high school is English. Both languages are mastered as far as possible and com- mercial students are prepared to work in both. Many graduates of the high schools of Porto Rico hold responsible positions in offices in New York and other parts of the United States where a knowledge of both Spanish and English is required. Buildings and Equipment. No special provision for high school buildings was made until 1913. Before that, high school work was conducted in the same buildings with graded schools or in rented buildings not at all fitted for the purpose, thereby considerably hamper- ing the work. The legislative assembly at its session of 1913 appro- priated the sum of $150,000, for the construction of four new high school buildings, one in San Juan, one in Ponce, one in Mayagtez and one in Arecibo, on condition that the school boards of these cities furnished the necessary sites and contributed a total of $90,000 toward the construction and equipment of the buildings.“ Although the insular legislature did not appropriate any money for the high school building at Humacao, nevertheless the school board of that city purchased a tract of some three acres of land and obtained a Report of the Commisstoner of Education for Porto Rico, 1906, p. 97. Tighe 13 Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 360. “Ibid. 252 Education in Porto Rico loan from the insular government. It immediately began con- struction on a thirty-five thousand dollar high school building," which was ready for occupancy September 1914. The Ponce building al- though not finished was ready to house the high school in January 1915, and the Arecibo building was ready for September 1915. The expenditure of these buildings was as follows: Humacao, $33,100; Arecibo, $50,000; and Ponce, $150,000. In addition to this expenditure, the department fully equipped these buildings with the necessary furniture and laboratory apparatus, so that from a material standpoint the secondary schools were now for the first time in exceptionally good condition.’ The Mayagtez building was erected at a cost of $50,000 and was ready for use in 1917.6 How- ever six high schools have been added since and as they stand to-day comparatively few possess adequate housing facilities. Only the four named above occupy buildings specially constructed for the purpose. The Central High School in San Juan is still in temporary quarters, but plans are being formulated for the erection of a $400,000 building to accommodate 1,200 pupils. The Fajardo high school has been transferred to a building the gift of Dr. Santiago Veve. This building has been remodeled for the purpose. The high schools of Aguadilla, Bayamoén, Guayama, Yauco and Caguas are still grouped with gram- mar rooms in elementary school buildings. Only the four high schools with buildings are now adequately equipped. Some have rather meagre equipment, while others are not in a position to make use of more equipment because of lack of space.” Higher and Professional Education. 'The one institution offering higher and professional education is the University of Porto Rico. It was established by act of the insular legislature, approved March 12, 1903, to “‘provide the inhabitants of Porto Rico as soon as possible with the means of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the various branches of literature, science and useful arts, including agriculture and mechanical trades, and with professional and technical courses in medicine, law, engineering, pharmacy, and in the science and art of teaching.’'8 The government of the University was “‘vested in a board of trustees composed of the Governor of Porto Rico as a member and its honorary president, the commissioner of education as a mem- "-BIbid., 1915, p. 325. I bid., 1917, p. 364. Ibid., 1919, p. 565. 18The Law Establishing the University of Porto Rico. Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1903, p. 251. Secondary and Professional Education 253 ber and its president, the attorney-general, the secretary and the treasurer of Porto Rico as ex-officio members and six other members, one of whom shall be the speaker of the house of delegates, to be appointed by the governor of Porto Rico for a term of three years.’’!9 The membership of the board was changed later to seven members composed of the Commissioner of Education, the treasurer of Porto Rico and the speaker of the house of representatives as members ex-officio, and four other members appointed by the Governor for an unlimited term of office. The Commissioner of Education is president of the board of trustees and Chancellor of the University. The immediate government of the University is entrusted to the Chancellor and the respective faculties.?° The law further provided that the University should consist of the following departments, to be organized in the order of their importance as soon as the necessary funds might be available: (1) “A normal department, to be known as the insular normal school, for the training of teachers in the subjects taught in the public schools of Porto Rico and to be supported by annual appropriation by the legislative assembly.”’ (2) “An agricultural and mechanical department, for the train- ing of teachers and for the promotion of agricultural and mechanic arts, to be maintained in conformity with an act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, being an act entitled, ‘An act to apply a portion of the proceeds of the public lards to the more complete endowment and support of the colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts, established under the provision of an act of Congress approved July 2, 1862,’ and the legislative assent required by section two of the act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, is hereby given and the conditions imposed by that act, as well as those imposed by the act of Congress approved July 2, 1862, are hereby accepted and imposed by this act upon the University of Porto Rico, and all moneys accru- ing thereunder are accepted under the conditions and terms in said acts named.” (3) “A department of the natural sciences and engineering.” (4) ‘“‘A department of liberal arts.” (5) “A department of medicine.” 19The Law Establishing the University of Porto Rico. Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1903, p. 251, Sec. 2. 20The same law, Sec. 7., op. cit. p. 252, and the Annual Catalog and Announcement of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-22, p. 23. Q54 Education in Porto Rico (6) ‘A department of law.” (7) “A department of pharmacy.” (8) “A department of architecture.” (9) “A university hospital.”’ (10) “And such other departments germane to a well-equipped university as the board of trustees may from time to time be able to establish.’’! Of the above departments, the normal department, to-day the Normal College, was the first to be established and has already been considered fully in connection with the teaching profession. The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Directly in the rear of the grounds of the normal department, the department of education acquired a farm of about one hundred acres which was transferred to the University after its organization as the site of its college of agriculture, thus giving it a property of one hundred and twenty-three acres located at Rio Piedras, seven miles from the capital, San Juan.” The agricultural department of the University was organized in 1904, the first pupils being received February 3, 1905.” In the spring of 1908, the board of trustees decided to discontinue instruction in agriculture for the academic year, and devote its energies to the development of the farm as a successful demonstration plant for students. This was carried out and enough progress was made to warrant the reopening of the school for the academic year, 1909-1910. A dairy was established and the cultivation of many of the native products begun, on a small experimental scale. The school opened with forty students and five instructors, but handi- capped by lack of public interest, it was almost impossible to secure students sufficiently advanced in education to fully profit by the in- struction given.” In 1908, the government of the United States extended to Porto Rico the benefits of the Morril-Hatch funds to go toward the main- tenance of the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Immedi- ately after, the insular legislature made appropriations for the purchase of land and for the construction of a college building in Mayagiiez. The land consisting of one hundred acres was purchased during 21The Law Establishing the University of Porto Rico, Sec. 8, Report of the Commisston- er of Education of Porto Rico, 1903, p. 252. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1912, p. 280. Ibid., 1911, p. 247. *4Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 38. Secondary and Professional Education 255 the following year. It adjoins the land of the United States experi- ment station. In 1911, the students were removed from Rio Piedras to Mayagtiez and were given instruction in the Mayagtez high school. A faculty was selected January 1, 1912, and the depart- ment of agriculture of the University of Porto Rico opened the follow- ing September under the name of The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the University of Porto Rico. It began its academic work with an enrollment of 126 students and a faculty of eighteen members, offering courses in sugar-chemistry, agriculture, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, home economics and special work.” A five-year under- graduate course of study was offered, accepting as entrance require- ments the diploma of the eighth grade of the public schools.” The standards advanced rapidly, keeping pace with the progress in the public school system. To-day this college corresponds to those colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in the States. Besides the four-year college courses, a preparatory course of two years is offered, as it has been found that the training of these two years re- sults in better mastery of the collegiate courses. The requirements for admission to the collegiate courses have been kept at fifteen units as the recognized standard. High school graduates are admitted directly into the college courses.”§ College of Inberal Arts. So far no provision had been made for students wishing to pursue a collegiate course in the liberal arts. There was not a liberal arts college in the American sense of the word, and students wishing such training had to go to the States. To meet the growing demand for a more cultural college course, where at the same time some preparation for scientific study could be obtained, the board of trustees, at its meeting of April 4, 1910, authorized the department of liberal arts to take up the work at the end of the high school course and continue it on the basis equal to the universities in the United States. A temporary dean was appointed and two in- structors authorized, the balance of the instruction to be given by the teachers of the normal department.’® The college course was inaugurated September 1910. The en- trance requirements were those of the college entrance examination boards of the United States. A course of study of two years was Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 191%, p. 282. *Ibid., 1913, p. 397. 27Ibid., 1912, p. 282. 287bid., 1920, p. 463. 29Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Raco, 1910, p. 39. 256 Education in Porto Rico offered, the intention being to arrive at some understanding with some of the best universities in the north so that students pursuing the two-year course could be transferred to the States and obtain a college degree on the completion of two years’ study, thus combining the advantages of a reasonable cost of education with the advanced culture of the older universities in the continent.2° The college, however, developed a four-year course soon and granted its first degree in June 1915. During the same year it offered post-graduate work for the purpose of obtaining the degree of Master of Sciences. This was the first post-graduate work to be given on the Island.*! To-day the courses in the College of Liberal Arts are designed to meet the needs of the following classes of students: (1) Those who wish to take a four-year college course for general culture; (2) Those for whom the four-year college course will serve as a basis for advanced professional or technical studies later; (3) Those intending to enter a medical college and matriculating in the two- year pre-medical course. The degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bache- lor of Science are conferred upon students satisfactorily completing the corresponding four-year courses, both of these are liberal or cul- tural courses, the latter involving specialization (major and minor work) in the natural sciences or mathematics rather than in other departments. The two-year pre-medical course leads to no degree, diploma or formal certificate other than the regular certificate of credits and marks which are given to any University students upon request.” The Colleges of Law and Pharmacy. As recorded in another chapter, law was one of the traditional professions, with perhaps pharmacy as a close second. Therefore, academic work of collegiate rank could not exist long without a demand for studies in these two professions. The colleges of law and pharmacy were authorized by the legislature in 1913 and opened the following September, As was to be expected these two colleges were patronized immediately. opening with entering classes of nineteen and twenty-four students respectively. Since their beginning the entrance requirements of both colleges demand the completion of a high school course or its equivalent. The College of Law offered a course of study of three 3°Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1910, p. 39. Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1915, p. 3938. Annual Catalog and Announcement of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-1922, p. 43. Secondary and Professional Education 257 years, based op the subjects required by the Supreme Court of Porto Rico. The College of Pharmacy offered a course of two years, based on the requirements of the Insular Board of Pharmacy, with such additions as local conditions demanded.® In 1917, the law course was increased to four years and the phar- macy course to three.*4 Since the latter did not prove popular with students and was evidently thought too Jong, the work was reorgan- ized in 1919, offering both the two and the three-year courses, the first leading to the degree of Graduate Pharmacist, and the supple- mentary course of one year leading to the degree of Pharmaceutical Chemist.» The four-year course in the College of Law leads to the degree of Bachelor of Laws. It is fully adapted to the laws and con- ditions in Porto Rico. As it stands to-day, the University of Porto Rico comprises the colleges in Rio Piedras, that is, the Normal College, the College of Liberal Arts, the College of Law and the College of Pharmacy; and in Mayagitiez, the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. No other collegiate or professional departments have been established on account of lack of funds in the insular budget to maintain them.* Tuition in the Normal and Liberal Arts Colleges is gratis; in the other colleges there is a tuition fee not exceeding fifty dollars a year. The University is thus the culminatioa of the public school system, the last step of the American educational ladder. Resources of the University. The University is maintained by the following funds and appropriations: 1. The University Fund: The sources of this fund are as follows (a) All escheated inheritances in Porto Rico, (b) Fifty per cent of all fines imposed by the courts of Porto Rico, which are paid into the Insular Treasury, except those imposed for cruelty to animals, and (c) Royalties from all franchises or public rights. This fund is available for the current expenses of the University, the repair of buildings and general expenses of operation. 2. Permanent University Fund: Twenty-five per cent of all proceeds from the sale of public lands in Porto Rico is set aside for this fund. Seventy-five per cent of the income from the imvest- ments of this fund is available for the payments of current expenses, the purchase of equipment or the construction of buildings. The 383Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1914, p. 407. 47Thid., 1917, p. 504. 35Tbid., 1919, p. 611. 36See Appendix VII. Table II. For expenses in higher and professional education. 258 Education in Porto Rico remaining twenty-five per cent must be reinvested in reliable se- curities. 3. The Morrill Fund: The University receives annually the sum of $50,000 under a federal act providing for the maintenance of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. 4. A variable amount appropriated annually by the insular legislature. 5. Tuition, matriculation, laboratory and miscellaneous fees.*’ Equipment. All buildings and grounds of the University have been provided through funds appropriated by the insular legislature. At Rio Piedras, the University owns a farm of one hundred and thirty acres and at Mayagiiez it has a campus of thirty acres and a farm of one hundred acres. The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts was housed mainly in two concrete buildings, one with four labora- tories and six class rooms and the other a ten-room concrete building. Besides these there are outside buildings for the shops, plant houses, stables, dairy, chicken runs and swine yards. These buildings were well equipped with the necessary laboratories and scientific apparatus for the technical courses offered in the college. The earthquake of October 11, 1918 destroyed one of the buildings completely together with the chemical, bacteriology and plant pathology laboratories. Since then the lost equipment has been replaced slowly and more additions have been made. The Material Accommodations of the Rio Piedras Colleges are as Follows: A two-story concrete building, called the normal building; the Baldorioty building, a two-story reinforced concrete building; the assembly hall and gymnasium building; the manual training shops; laboratories of chemistry, physics, biology, pharmacy, physiology, and bacteriology, cooking and sewing; residences for the dean and six other families, and the Practice School building, a two-story concrete structure. The library, housed in the north wing of the Baldorioty building, contains about 14,000 volumes, exclusive of the reports and pamphlets issued by the govern- ment. Standard fiction and works of reference, both in Spanish and in English, are available for all departments of the Uni- versity. The Degetau art collection, some three hundred pictures left by Mr. Federico Degetau upon his death is a part of the equip- ——_____ 37Annual Catalog of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-1922, p. 23. Secondary and Professional Education 259 ment of which the University is very proud. These are hung in the library and Practice School.** The life of the University is similar to that of like institutions in the north. There are no dormitories either in Mayagiiez or Rio Piedras, but the students live close by in the towns and are near enough to the colleges to spend most of their time in University activities. The customary undergraduate activities in the way of literary so- cieties, scientific and social clubs, etc. are found here. Popular among the activities of the University are those connected with the Athletic Association and Military Science and Tactics. All male students take military drill, while all students of the University must be members of the Athletic Association and participate in its activities. Scholarships. The government of Porto Rico has at various times made provisions for the maintenance of deserving students at different educational institutions in Porto Rico and in the United States through the establishment of scholarships, thus making it possible for the bright pupil in the remotest barrio within the Island to be carried through to graduation at the best universities in the States entirely as government scholarship students. The following were the classes of scholarships provided for: Graded, high school, college of agriculture, normal school, industrial, professional and municipal. The number of scholarships has varied from time to time according as appropriation was made to supply them. Legislation secured in 1908, empowered the school boards to use not more than five per cent of their total income for the purpose of maintaining in the graded schools, pupils who had completed with credit the work of the rural schools. This enables the bright pupils of the rural districts to obtain common school diplomas as scholar- ship students.*® To students who have received their common school diplomas there were open through appointment by the Commissioner of Education scholarships of an annual value of one hundred and eigh: dollars in the high schools. These were distributed equally as far as possible among the different electoral districts. Since there were no charges for tuition, text-books and supplies, it was possible for the student to support himself entirely on the scholarship. These were renewed from year to year until the high school course of four years was com- 38 Annual Catalog of the University of Porto Rico, 1921-22, pp. 24-27. 39The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Act. of Feb. 19, 1908, Secs. 207-210 inclusive, pp. 57-58. 260 Education in Porto Rico pleted, unless the student’s record was such as to warrant revoking of his scholarship. When the Agricultural College received graduates from the eighth grade, and the pupil desired to enter this school in- stead of the high school, there were open to him scholarships ranging in value from forty to one hundred dollars. These were granted by the Commissioner of Education.*° For some time a number of scholarships were maintained for pupils who had finished the ninth grade and desired to become teachers. These scholarships were of an annual value of one hundred and eighty dollars and were granted only to students entering the first year of the Normal College, but could be continued under certain restrictions until the completion of the course.*! Still another class of scholarships was open to graduates of the eighth grade. A number of these of an annual value of $250 each were available for colored boys completing the common school course. They were selected by the Commissioner of Education and were sent to Tuskegee Institute, Hampton Institute or other schools of a similar character to pursue studies or trades.” For a number of years the insular government maintained a number of scholarships of an annual value of $500 dollars each, available to graduates of high schools for the purpose of studying in the colleges and universities of the United States. In the case of men, preference was given to those who wished to fit themselves as scientific agricul- turists, engineers or foresters. Many young men and women of Porto Rico have been beneficiaries of this class of scholarships and have studied and graduated from such universities and colleges as Columbia University, Cornell University, University of Pennsyl- vania, Pennsylvania State College, Ohio State University, Univer- sity of Michigan, University of Louisiana, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.* The legislative assembly of 1911 enacted a law empowering the municipalities to maintain under certain restrictions, scholarship students in colleges and universities in the United States. Bene- ficiaries of these scholarships were required by law to pursue courses leading to degrees in one of the following subjects: Agriculture, “°The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Act of March 14, 1907, as amended Feb. 15, 1908, Secs. 194-199 inclusive, pp. 54-55. “The School Laws of Porto Rico, Act of March 12, 1903, as amended March 1, 1906, and March 12, 1908, Secs. 200-206 inclusive, pp. 55-57. “The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Secs. 176-178 inclusive p. 52. The School Laws of Porto Rico, 1914, Secs. 174-176; 180-193, pp. 51-54. Secondary and Professional Education 261 agronomy, forestry, and the various branches of engineering.“ With the development of the University of Porto Rico scholarships to the United States decreased as the students could secure the desired training at home. With the extension and improvement of the public school systems the elementary and secondary scholarships have also decreased.“ SUMMARY Secondary education began about the same time as elementary education was established. Since the problem of Porto Rico has not been and is not one of secondary or higher education, but is of elementary, the secondary schools have not developed as fast as the elementary schools. They have developed as fast as they are needed under the present organization, and there is danger of establishing too many secondary schools without having the personnel or equip- ment to do standard secondary school work. Like the elementary school the secondary schools need reorganization suited to conditions and needs of the pupils who attend thera. The University of Porto Rico established by law in 1903 has developed slowly and is taking care creditably of the higher education of the youth of the Island. While the University was being developed, Porto Rican students received their higher and professional education in the United States. They continue to do so to-day to pursue studies in those professions which the Insular University does not yet offer. The work and scope of the University is limited greatly by the lack of funds, being much in need of equipment and of means to extend its usefulness broad- cast through the Island. “Report of the Governor of Porto Rico, 1911, p. 199. 45See Appendix VII. Allottment for Scholarships since 1902, Table II. CHAPTER XIV CONCLUSIONS AND PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS Porto Rican Civilization. ‘The first Commissioner of Education to Porto Rico, reporting on the culture of the people, said: “This people has a civilization that, in many respects, is as far advanced as that of any stable country of Europe or America. It is wide of the mark to think these people lacking in civilization. It is not the absence but the kind of civilization that impairs our progress. The forms of the civilization developed here under Spanish dominion are so thoroughly fixed, so inelastic, that the real difficulty is not so much to impart a new as to break the fetters of the old civilization. Before Jamestown and Plymouth Rock, Porto Rico was a well developed and socially organized community. That some elements of this old civilization are admirable and much to be desired is patent to any student. ‘That others are greatly to be regretted is equally true.’”! Ever since the American occupation one of the most delicate problems has been and is the preservation of the desirable characteristics of the native culture and the introduction of North American culture. Education in Porto Rico for the Last Two Decades. One who saw Porto Rico twenty-five or thirty years ago and returns after a long absence sees amazing changes. He finds that the life of the Island has completely changed. But one who goes to Porto Rico from the United States for the first time finds a different civilization. He sees wealth among certain classes. He finds English spoken quite generally among the younger generation and signs of progress at every turn. But when he penetrates into all the districts of the Island, mixes with all classes and meets representatives of the one million and three hundred thousand inhabitants, he comes to the conclusion that Porto Rico when compared with the United States is still an undeveloped country with a different civilization. However, if a visit is made not only to Porto Rico, but also to Cuba, other Spanish-American republics and even to Spain, the traveller will see 1Report of the Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico, 1902, p. 64. (262) Conclusions and Present Day Problems 263 many common characteristics in their civilizations all of which can be traced to Spain, the mother country. But he will also see many differences and contrasts and the most striking of these, as far as Porto Rico is concerned, is the problem of and the system of public education. In 1898 a Porto Rican could visit Spain and other Spanish countries and find very little difference in the educational systems and even feel himself at home in their schools. But that is not true to-day. In spite of the progress which all Spanish countries have made since the Spanish-American War, education in Porto Rico stands out distinctly from that of any other country speaking the Spanish language. Four hundred years of Spanish rule and civilization left an imprint which will not be erased and which it is desirable not to erase; twenty-four years of American occupation have given Porto Rico a system of public instruction which is destined to take the best of Spanish civilization and the best of North American eivili- zation and evolve a new culture distinct from that of Spain or other countries speaking the Spanish language, and distinct as well from the civilization of the United States. The Need of a Clearly Stated Educational Avm. The insular de- partment of education has never had a permanent definite and specific cultural aim for the Island. The schools have been functioning with success, but not knowing clearly what they were supposed to accomplish. ‘The time has come to establish and define a goal. The elementary school as such has a definite, specific aim and so do. the secondary school and the university. But the Island as a whole: should have a general comprehensive aim and every part of the school system should be focused to itsrealization. Educationis the toolin the hands of the Island to realize that insular aim. Geographical en- vironment as well as circumstances have furnished Porto Rico with excellent opportunities to make of herself a contributing factor to American civilization, provided she knows how to choose that aim and how to direct her forces toward its accomplishment. Porto Rico’s Cultural Aim. ‘The educational experience of the last two decades shows that the Island is on her way toward the creation of a new culture. That new culture is not sufficiently developed to exhibit clearly defined characteristics. Its Spanish elements and its American elements are in the process of amalgamation. They are still quite distinct one from the other. But the history of public education since 1898 in contrast with that of the Spanish régime 264 Education in Porto Rico shows that the process of amalgamation is going on, perhaps at a much more rapid pace than appears at first sight. While this amal- gamation toward the production of a new culture is going on, we should have clear aims to work for. The first one should be the preservation of the best of Porto Rican culture, namely, those characteristics of Spanish culture trans- ferred to, and assimilated in the Island during four hundred years of Spanish rule and dominion, and those characteristics which have evolved from the native soil; the second aim should be the intro- duction and assimilation of the best of North American culture; and the third aim, the introduction and assimilation of the best of Spanish-American culture from the Rio Grande to the Horn. Porto Rico should be a center for the cultures of the Americas to meet and influence the native culture and each other. It would be a mistake to try to exist isolated, self-satisfied and hostile to foreign influence in the insular environment. It would be a greater mistake to intro- duce North American culture, copy it and imitate it and at the ex- pense of the native culture, expect to make New Yorkers, Pennsylvan- ians, Ohioans or what not out of the Porto Ricans. Such an attempt would not only be fundamentally wrong, but it would be futile. It would be a great pity and loss that Porto Rico with her location, language and culture should miss the opportunity of receiving from and exercising influence upon the rest of Spanish-American countries and upon modern Spain herself. Therefore, the aim of education in Porto Rico should be the creation of a new culture distinctly Porto Rican, adapted to the needs of Porto Rico and for the benefit of Porto Ricans. It should be sufficiently North American to enable the people to understand the United States, to sympathize with the national policies and problems and to prepare them to participate in the national life as citizens, quite as intelligently as the citizens of the different States. It should have an international scope and be in sympathy with Spanish and Spanish-American culture. Centralization of Administration as the Best Means to Accomplish the Desired Aim. After a careful investigation of educational con- ditions in Porto Rico in 1898, after a study of the influence of four hundred years of Spanish education, and after even trying for two years a system of schools administered separately by the municipali- ties, which proved a failure, the authorities in charge of the organi- zation of the school system saw that only a very centralized, insular controlled system of schools could achieve the desired end. Hence Conclusions and Present Day Problems 265 the present system of school administration, headed by the Com- missioner of Education, an appointee of the President, with full power to run the schools and linked with every educational activity from the office of the Commissioner to the pupils of the kindergarten. Thus far such a plan has worked and should be continued as long as it will work. The Office of the Commissioner in Case of Change of Political Status. The status of Porto Rico is likely to be changed in the near future. Therefore it is likely that the time will soon come when the Com- missioner of Education will not be an appointee of the President. The office of Commissioner of Education is the most important public office in the Island. The system of education is so organized that he has complete control over public instruction. To a great extent the efficiency of the school system depends on the efficiency of the Com- missioner. In the interest of public education, he should be an expert educator of training and experience, who shall have a continuous term of office so that he may bring to bear in the administration of education the accumulated results of experience. Such a man should be chosen irrespective of political parties, religious creed and even, if necessary, of citizenship. Like a great surgeon who has specialized in his profession and may be summoned by any one in the world to practice his surgical skill, the educator is a man who has specialized in the science of education and should be appointed to office on his merits as a professional expert. The Island will be called upon to devise a way for the selection of such an expert and care should be taken that he shall always be an expert educator. With a man so qualified there is no danger in the highly centralized system and it should be continued as long as the right kind of men are available for the post of Commissioner of Education. Supervision of Instruction. Closely related to the work of the Commissioner is the work of supervision. The present supervisors and assistant supervisors are not technically speaking supervisors. They are administrative officers with very little time to supervise instruction. They have not the time to study the work of super- vision or to study the teachers and pupils and are not in a position to introduce methods leading to the improvement of the teachers and the general character and quality of class room activities. Their position should be definitely recognized as administrative and be given the title of Superintendent. Although it is argued that a well trained corps of teachers need no supervision, yet the tendency 266 Education in Porto Rico in recent years has been the opposite. Supervision of instruction whether by the principal or by a specially trained supervisor is becoming more and more popular. The Normal College of the University should be the center where principals and supervisors are specially trained for the supervision of instruction. The schools are in need of a staff of supervisors under the Superintendents who devote all of their time to visiting a certain number of teachers, who study those teachers and their pupils and who meet with the teachers for conference and study. Such a staff of supervisors would have an opportunity to know their teachers and their pupils and would be able to introduce methods the end of which would be the improvement of the teachers and their work with the child as the ultimate aim. The Teachers. In order to achieve a common goal as soon as possible with the least loss of energy all those engaged in the common task must cooperate. The Spanish teachers of 1898 could not do that. They had been brought up and educated in a Spanish in- dividualistic atmosphere accustomed to do as they pleased and to act when they pleased irrespective of law. These teachers had to adapt themselves to the new system or leave the profession. Both things happened. Many left or were asked to leave the schools and many prepared themselves all over again to teach in the new system. But these were few and with the extension of the school system more teachers were needed. The progress in the training of teachers grew from a very humble beginning of institute work, through a very deficient normal school course and on with additional require- ments from time to time, until to-day when they are trained in the Normal College of the University of Porto Rico. What the teaching occupation lacks in Porto Rico is what it Jacks in the United States, namely, professional spirit. Professional Spirit. The Porto Rico Teachers’ Association is rendering excellent service to the teaching profession and to the Island as well through its activities, recruiting every teacher and impressing upon them the worth of their calling. This Association has done and is doing a great deal in creating a professional spirit among the teachers. But among many of the most gifted intellectually the teaching profession is still “‘a step’? to something else which offers a higher remuneration. Considering the increase in academic re- quirements and the increase in the cost of living in late years, teachers’ salaries have not kept pace with these. In order to attract the best intellect of the Island into the teach- Conclusions and Present Day Problems 267 ing profession and in order that those entering the profession may be willing to go through the years of training for qualification to teach, teaching must be made worthwhile financially. By this is not meant that teachers should hope or aim to get rich, but it is meant that teachers should be worthy of their hire, that they deserve a comfortable living, making it possible for their homes to be ex- amples to their pupils and to society and that ample provision should be made for after years when they can no longer remain in active service. In practically all European countries and Latin American republics the teaching profession is nationalized. The teachers are employees of the State as they should be. Salaries are not high comparatively speaking, but the teachers are assured of a home, a decent living and provision for old age. The United States is one of the few countries where the teacher has had to shift for himself when he could no longer secure an appoint- ment and even in the United States this is changing to-day. Porto Rico can not demand high intellectual ability and long thorough training unless she is ready to support the teachers as they deserve. When the present and future comforts of the teachers will be assured, teaching will become a permanent profession. Gifted young men and women would offer themselves as recruits and there would be an opportunity to choose the best material. It would also offer an opportunity to make the profession attractive to men. Professional spirit can not be established on sentiment alone, there is an economic factor which must be taken into consideration. Reorganization. At the present time Porto Rico has an elementary school of eight years and a high school of four years. Why there should be such an organization when the majority of the children receive only a four-year elementary school course, can not be ex- plained. There is no reason for the “eight-four” plan existing in Porto Rico. The only reason is that it has been the prevalent organi- zation in the United States. This study has already shown that such an organization is not adapted to the needs of the Island. It is clear that it was borrowed from the United States, transplanted and imitated, mainly to comply with academic requirements in case Porto Rican pupils completing elementary and secondary education could enter the colleges and universities in the United States. In other words the interests of the masses of Porto Rican children were and are being sacrificed for those of a very small number who might want to enter college and the university. Such is a very poor 268 Education in Porto Rico excuse for the introduction and retention until to-day of the “eight- four” plan, and it should be changed. The schools should be re- organized to suit conditions, and in that reorganization the present tendencies in the United States can help us much. Present Tendencies of Reorganization. 'The reasons for the “‘eight- four’ organization in the United States are not clear. This distri- bution of time to elementary and secondary education has not been the result of careful definition of the function of the two types of schools. For the last two decades or more a general popular belief in education has resulted in the establishment of four-year high schools the country over, but this “‘belief’? in secondary education has not been based on a clear definiton of the function of the secondary school. Parallel with the popularity of secondary education there has grown a movement toward the reorganization of elementary and. secondary education. The results of this movement are generally accepted to-day. It is popularly known as the “six-three-three”’ organization, that is, an elementary school of six years, a junior high school of three years and a senior high school of three years. The chief causes for this reorganization may be summarized as follows: 1. Educational leaders have realized that there is a waste of time in the “eight-four’’ organization and that the elementary school is not preparing for the high school. 2. Educational statistical studies of the last fifteen or twenty years have shown an enormously high rate of pupil mortality beginning at about the sixth grade and continuing through the early years of the high school course, showing that for a large number of children the elementary schools are not fulfilling their purpose. 3. The development of the “scientific method of education” has shown that there is a wide variation in capacity, interests and needs of children in and out of school which demands a corresponding variety in the curriculum of secondary education. 4. There is to-day an increasing appreciation of the fact that during the later years of the common school course, years of early adolescence, most elementary school pupils are going through changes in the nature of a rapid approach to adulthood, requiring changes in many features of the school, among them in the teaching staff. 5. Itis argued that the proposed organization is more economical chiefly in buildings and equipment. Functions of the Schools According to the New Organization. The Conclusions and Present Day Problems 269 new organization, being the result of experiment and study defines the purpose of each of the schools and how it should be accomplished? The Elementary School. ‘The purpose of the elementary school is to provide experience in meeting the common needs of all, regard- less of sex, vocation or social status,” or in terms of the general aims of life, ‘To provide that general basis for health, equally desirable for all; to develop that practical efficiency in activities shared by all in daily work and intercourse; to develop those ideas of habits of civics and other forms of group activity of equal value to all; and to cultivate interests and means of recreation common to all.” This common training required of every citizen should be realized before the period isreached, when different needs become so prominent that a differentiated curriculum is necessary to meet them. When that period has come the work of the Junior High School should be introduced. The Junior High School. It is the purpose of the junior high school to continue the common studies necessary to participate in meeting the needs represented by the general life purposes of all and at the same time provide for individual differences. It is the place de- signed for the child to find himself, to expose and reveal his individual interests. This is done by allowing some choice of subjects during the first year of the course and still more during the second and third so that by the age of fifteen each pupil will be engaged for nearly half of the time in meeting needs which are individually and personally his own and the remaining time is given to meeting needs common to all and appreciated as common by all. Thus the common interests of the group as well as the individual interests are cared for. The Senior High School. It is the purpose of the Senior High School to prepare for college those who have the capacity for a higher edu- cation, and to prepare for a life work those who can not spend more than three years beyond the junior high school. For the latter the high school becomes a vocational school, for the former a preparatory school offering choice of subjects which form a basis for the later directly vocational work awaiting them in the college or professional school. The Higher Schools. The higher schools are designed for those wishing to postpone their vocational training beyond the high school and thus secure a more scientific and thorough preparation in 2This summary follows closely the discussion by Dr. Bonser in the book already referred to; pp. 61-71. 270 Education in Porto Rico college, or for those who still follow a general cultural course in college in preparation to pursue one of the professions in the university. The Need of Reorganization in Porto Rico. As far as Porto Rico is concerned there is no doubt of the need of reorganization of ele- mentary and secondary education. The present tendency in the United States has already had its influence in Porto Rico and the last Commissioner of Education recommended a _ reorganization based on the “‘six-three-three” plan. Merely the fact that such is the tendency in the United States is no reason why it should be adopted in the Island where the problems are very different from those on the Continent. ‘To do so would be to err as in 1901 when the “‘eight- four” plan was adopted. The “six-three-three’ plan, however, has scientific reasons for existing. Those reasons might help Porto Rico in furnishing bases for a special insular organization. As long as the rural schools are on double-enrollment and offering only a four-year course it seems futile to think of reorganization on the “six-three-three’’ basis. There is no use in adopting a plan when it is not going to be put into operation. The present rural schools do not so much need reorganization as opportunities to offer a more complete course of study with special emphasis on agriculture and those desirable activities which the children are going to do any way at the end of the course. The consolidated rural schools can follow whatever organization is adopted for the urban schools. The “six-three- three’ plan can help in the reorganization of the urban schools. Nearly every municipality has now an eight-year elementary school and many have continuation schools. Reorganization as Applied to Porto Rico. The present elementary and continuation schools are not preparing the children for anything in particular beyond giving them a common school education and at the same time the children are being kept ten years in school. There are some small towns in the Island having very few pupils in the seventh and eighth grades. A six-year elementary school can furnish the common knowledge necessary to all as members of society. The shortening of the eight-year course of study to six years would not make much difference in the general culture of the masses. The funds spent now on the seventh and eighth grades and in the con- tinuation schools could be used to establish junior high schools in towns having a sufficient number of pupils to warrant the under- taking. Conclusions and Present Day Problems Q71 At the same time senior high schools could be established in those larger towns having also a sufficient number of pupils to justify them. A system of scholarships can be maintained making it possible for promising pupils who finish the elementary school in the small towns and in the country, to study in the nearest town having a junior high school. The same can be done with junior high school pupils desiring to continue in the senior high school. Content of the Elementary School Curriculum. The content of the elementary school curriculum should be ‘‘made up of those activities in which every one must participate with a like degree of knowledge and with like attitudes and appreciations, in order that there may be a unified, efficient and stable social life.” During the years from six to twelve the interests, thoughts and feeling of children are more nearly alike than at any other period of their lives and therefore most susceptible to a common appeal. Every child of the Island should have the advantages of such an education. At the same time these first six years should prepare every child continuing his studies for entrance into the junior high school. Function of the Secondary School in Porto Rico. The children of Porto Rico mature early and rapidly. For a large number of them secondary education should be vocational. It should aim to prepare many to secure a livelihood for themselves and those depending upon them, to serve society well in their vocation and to find in that vo- cation their own best development. The majority of the children are poor. They are not only anxious to fit themselves to earn a livelihood but they are in actual need of earning something for them- selves and their families. A curriculum preparing the child for some definite occupation would furnish the greatest incentive to finish the elementary school and to remain for the junior high school. The average boy or girl does not aim for even a high school education much less a higher education. Even those who aim for the pro- fessions consider the years of high schools and professional training too long a time to be spent in preparation. The average Porto Rican boy or girl wants to cut his course as short as possible to go to work and earn a living. This attitude on the part of many furnishes fertile ground for the success of schools which pretend to prepare for college in two years beyond the eighth grade as it also furnishes fertile ground for the propaganda of so-called colleges in the United States. Such being the attitude among the people the sBonser, op. cit., p. 61. Q72 Education in Porto Rico junior high school could render a great service in preparing many of the children to earn a living as soon as possible. But the interest of secondary education must not all be immediately vocational. The secondary schools should also prepare for college and the university, as there are always a large number of pupils who aspire to be teachers, lawyers, physicians, engineers, agriculturists, and so on. The junior and senior high schools should furnish a preparation which would facilitate the studies of the latter class when they enter the higher schools. Function of the Secondary Schools in Terms of the Curriculum. In order to make clear the function of the secondary schools we might think in terms of the principles underlying the curriculum. No curriculum of the secondary school can be satisfactory and com- plete without giving due regard to each of the main objectives of education in a democracy, which according to the report of the Com- mission on Reorganization of Secondary Education‘ are: Health, Command of fundamental processes, Worthy home membership, Vocation, Citizenship, Worthy use of leisure and Ethical character. Application of These Objectives. Recognition of these objectives means that the curriculum gives due attention to each of them. Health as an objective means that the curriculum should include physical education supplemented by science courses focused on personal and community hygiene. Command of the fundamental processes means that the elementary school should furnish sufficient preparation to enter the secondary schools. Worthy home member- ship calls for the development of those qualities which make the in- dividual a worthy member of the family rendering and deriving benefit from such membership, which in turn demands emphasis on the social studies and household arts. Citizenship demands em- phasis on the social studies. Vocation as an objective demands that many pupils spend much of their time in specific preparation for a trade or another occupation to be given during the secondary school period. It also demands that those who go beyond the high school pursue studies that serve as a basis for advanced work in the college or university. The worthy use of leisure and ethical character are objectives which deserve special attention in Porto Rico in view of the fact that the environ- ment of the children is anything but healthy ethically. Much ‘Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Edu- cation, Bulletin 1918, No. 35, pp. 10-11. Conclusions and Present Day Problems 273 emphasis therefore should be given to such subjects as literature, art, music and others so taught as to develop appreciation and sufficient choice for personal and vocational interests. Constant and Variable Subjects in the Curriculum. The subjects of the secondary school curriculum should be so arranged that those children who can not go beyond the junior high school are prepared to earn a livelihood and can go out into a definite occupation at the end of the ninth grade. Most of the pupils who finish the eighth grade to-day and do not go beyond would be in this class. Pupils of the elementary school who because of over-age or other reasons do not derive due benefit from the instruction there should be trans- ferred to the junior high school to be prepared for a trade or another gainful occupation. The pupils who are going to-day through the high school but not to college would take up work leading to a gain- ful occupation at the end of the twelfth grade. Those going to college would take the subjects leading directly to the college courses of their special interest. In the meantime the unification element should not be forgotten and studies on citizenship knowledge and activities should be con- stant all through the six years of secondary education. The con- stants can be determined on principle by the needs of the individual as a member of society and by the general aim of the school system. The variables may be determined for the most part by vocational needs and depend on the locality the individual may live in, the opportunity it offers in the various vocations and the abilities of each person concerned. The Higher Schools. No educational system is complete with- out a free university at its apex. Free education should not stop with the elementary or secondary schools, but it should go on to college and university grade. A democratic state is under the obligation to provide free higher education to every child who has the intellectual capacity to profit thereby. The higher institutions of learning are the places to train leaders. Leadership should not be the privilege of the few, who because of social, political or economic status are in a position to lead even when short of intellectual or moral capacities, but it should be the right of all. Leadership should be competitive, open to every one intellectually and morally en- dowed to lead. It is the business of the school system to find that natural endowment, to open the way for its development and to Q7 4 Education in Porto Rico guide it during the process of training, and it is the business of the State to provide the schools where that training can be secured. Not until public education is crowned by a free public university can the state say that the doors to the highest service and the noblest personal attainments are open to every one who can show himself or herself capable and worthy to enter them. It is to the credit of the people of Porto Rico that ever since 1770 they have aspired to have a university, as it is also to their credit that under the in- fluence of American ideals of democracy they established and have maintained the present University of Porto Rico. As it stands to- day, the University is only of collegiate grade, very little opportunity being offered for graduate study and research. It is still in the process of realizing its original programme made at the time of its foundation. The realization of that programme and the additions that should be made to it depend on financial support. The Future Scope of the University. Like the State universities on the Continent, which were founded to serve the people of the par- ticular States, the University of Porto Rico was founded primarily to serve the inhabitants of the Island. But this does not hinder it from fulfilling a greater service, a service greater than that of any of the State universities of the Continent. While the State Uriversity is more or less limited to the boundaries of the State, the University of Porto Rico has an international scope. She is so situated geographic- ally that she can unite the two Americas and thus make its field of operation the entire western hemisphere. Porto Rico as a Meeting Point Between the Two Americas. 'There is no other American territory so endowed by nature and circum- stances to offer the same opportunity as a cultural meeting point between the two Americas as Porto Rico. Cuba is not United States territory. Haiti and Santo Domingo, now occupied by the United States military forces, will not remain so for very long. The Canal Zone is a strip of land maintained chiefly for the purpose of trafic. Its inhabitants are all North Americans and its system of education lacks the Latin-American atmosphere and _ problems. Porto Rico is the only country in the world where North American ideals are being put into operation in a Latin-American civilization of a high type. There is no other region where the two civilizations can touch each other and influence each other so effectively as in Porto Rico. Present Intercourse Between the Americas. The spiritual ties of Conclusions and Present Day Problems 275 Spanish America are European, chiefly Spanish and French. Yet, due to geographical position, to United States prestige as a world power, to her wealth and her industries, to her enterprising men and their ability to get results, to her general internal progress and especially to her institutions and progress in popular education, and due also to the commercial relations that are bound to exist between the two Americas, and to the needs of Spanish America, the republics of the south can not ignore their northern neighbor. They see that they can learn much from her. In order to know the United States better, hundreds of Latin-American students and many professors are coming to the northern universities. They are coming in contact with North American life, institutions and ideals. They will go back home and strengthen the ties between the north and the south. On the other hand, North American scholars are visiting the southern countries and are finding out that there are other things there besides bull fights, revolutions and Indians. They are finding a culture and a civilization worthwhile studying and appreciating. These return to the North and are doing their share in establishing closer relations between the two peoples. But unless the universities of North America make a special effort to attract Spanish-American students, and recognize their academic degrees as does France and Spain, the students who are coming now to the United States will turn to Europe again and study in European universities as they did before the war. Since the close of the war, Spanish-American stu- dents are again turning their interest to the French universities where their Bachelor of Arts degree admits them to the professional schools. Porto Rico as a Center for the Study of Spanish. Two great world languages are spoken in the western hemisphere, English and Spanish. North America is permanently English speaking, Spanish America is permanently Spanish speaking. The likeness of Portuguese to Spanish is such that the former can be included in the latter. Since the war, Spanish has largely taken the place of German in the public schools and colleges of North America. The interest in the study of Spanish is primarily utilitarian, but the mere study of the language has given rise to interest in Spanish culture. Many people are studying Spanish, not only as an equipment to understand and to trade with the Spanish countries, but also for cultural purposes, to know more about Spanish art, history and literature. Porto Rico furnishes a place under the American flag and at the doors of the United States where the best training in the Spanish language can be secured. 276 Education in Porto Rico The people of Porto Rico speak better Spanish to-day than during the Spanish régime. A language is correctly spoken in proportion as education is extended to reach the masses and in Porto Rico to-day more attention is being given in the schools to Castilian pronunciation, Spanish literature and general usage than in the Spanish schools. Unless a person can go to reside for a season in Old or New Castile, in such Castilian cities as Valladolid, Burgos, Avila and others, he can not acquire Spanish better in any other place than in Porto Rico. Few people intending to fit themselves to teach Spanish can go to Spain, while many can go to Porto Rico, which is the reason why many Spanish teachers of the United States have prepared themselves in Porto Rico. The Insular University is to-day training Spanish teachers for the schools and colleges of the Continent. A Center for the Study of English. The interest of the United States in Spanish can well compare with the interest the Spanish Americans have in English. South of the Rio Grande, English is taught in many secondary schools. The University of Porto Rico with her standard colleges of Education and Liberal Arts offers splendid opportunities for Latin Americans to study English in a country with traditions similar to theirs, among a people largely of the same origin and in sympathy with their traditions, culture and institutions, and in a society in which they can mingle without racial differences or prejudice. Latin-American students find it hard to adapt themselves to North American customs and they actually go through a period of agony when they first come to the United States, especially if they do not have a speaking knowledge of English. Many of them feel that they are not welcomed. ‘They become homesick and return home without having accomplished what they set out to do, when only a little guidance on the part of the colleges and universities would contribute a great deal to their academic success. Advantage of Environment. A still greater opportunity for Latin- American students is the fact that Porto Rico offers them an Ameri- can education accredited in the colleges and universities of the North im an environment similar to theirs and without any danger of their becoming so Americanized that they would not feel happy on their return home. Many students come to the United States and when they return home they are actually foreigners in their own country, they have grown out of sympathy with their own peoples. If they Conclusions and Present Day Problems a4 i stay at home they have to go through a period of adaptation, but many of them leave their homes forever and thereby destroy their future usefulness for their country. The Porto Rico environment offers similar conditions and problems in a society in a great many respects like theirs. Moreover, they are in an American atmosphere witnessing constantly the efforts being put forth to adapt North American ideals to a Latin-American civilization. Such an experi- ence would equip them to act as interpreters of North American culture to Spanish-American peoples. A Center for Business Training. The interest of the United States in Spanish is primarily to fit men and women to participate in the commercial relations between the two Americas. Trade with Spanish America is being encouraged more and more and as the southern countries with their immense undeveloped resources are opened to the world the commercial interests will still be greater. Porto Rico offers an opportunity to train men for this purpose among Latin-American people with whom they would have to deal in business relations. At the same time students from the south could come for their train- ing to Porto Rico where there is enough of the American element to come in contact with North American business methods and life. The University of Porto Rico is contemplating establishing a College of Latin-American Trade and Commerce to attract students from the two Americas. Due to lack of funds this college is still an ambition. A Center for Diplomatic Training. Much of the misunderstanding between the two Americas has been due to the lack of preparation of those who represent the United States in the diplomatic and consular service. The United States is judged to a great extent by her repre- sentatives. Their ability to mix with Latin-American peoples and according to Latin-American etiquette, is a great asset to such men. Another handicap of the people in the diplomatic and consular service is the language. The Latin-Americans although critical of the poor use of Spanish enjoy hearing a foreigner use their language correctly. Again the University of Porto Rico is a center that could be profit- ably used by the United States to train future diplomats for Spanish America, in a Latin-American atmosphere and among the kind of people with whom they will come in contact in the service. But the United States should give an opportunity to Porto Ricans in the diplomatic and consular service. There are many who are thorough Americans of suitable education and experience who should be recog- 278 Education in Porto Rico nized and selected for such service. One of the future plans of the University is a College of History and International Law and Diplo- macy where special effort will be made to prepare those who desire to enter diplomatic and consular service. A Center for Agricultural Study and Research. Finally Porto Rico offers a future center for scientific research and study especially in the fields of agriculture and medicine. The soil is rich in yields of tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, fruits and many other tropical products common to the vast areas of undeveloped tropical America. A\l- ready students from some of the other West Indies are attending the College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts in Mayagtez. This College and the United States Experiment Station have already rendered ex- cellent service to tropical agriculture. These should be developed to minister to the further prosperity of the Island and also to con- tribute scientific and practical knowledge to the development of all tropical and semi-tropical regions of the Americas. At the same time North American students interested in tropical agriculture could take their college course or part of it in the University of Porto Rico and thus fit themselves in contact with the practical problems of tropical agriculture. The graduates of the College of Agriculture are preferred by the sugar planters to those who take their training in the North. The latter have to pursue an apprentice- ship course before they can render their best service to the companies while the former receive their training in contact with the practical problems. A Center for Research and Study in Tropical Medicine. The opportunity for research work in tropical medicine is even greater than that of agriculture. There is great need in tropical America for medical progress and sanitary reform. ‘The work of sanitation in Cuba, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, Haiti and above all the Panama Canal Zone and some South American ports has over- thrown forever the idea held until recently that life in a warm climate was less healthful than in the North and that the death rate must always be greater in the tropics. ‘The Canal Zone, once uninhabitable by the white man, is to-day one of the cleanest and most healthy spots in the American continent. The task of health and sanitation in Porto Rico is as great as that of education. They are so closely related and one so dependent on the other that it is hard to separate them. Like Porto Rico all tropical America has been sadly neglected in health and sanitation. Porto Rico is fighting hard against the Conclusions and Present Day Problems 279 prevalent tropical diseases. The International Health Bureau of the Rockefeller Foundation has sent a Commission to the Island to cooperate in the warfare against disease. Institute of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. These conditions have led to the foundation of the Institute of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Soon after the American occupation, a Superior Board of Health was organized and a laboratory equipped to make scientific investigations. ‘Success in scientific research was marked by the discovery of the anemia germs by Dr. Bailey K. Ashford. This led to the passage of a law in 1904 which created ‘“The Porto Rico Anemia Commission.’ Dispensaries were established in various parts of the Island for the treatment of uncinariasis. The work continued until 1912 when the law creating the Institute was passed. Since its establishment the staff of the Institute has been busy in the study of tropical diseases such as uncinariasis, dengue fever, suspected yellow fever, sprue, bubonic plague and others. Valuable information has been given out in numerous investigations. It is the opinion of Dr. Ashford, who is recognized to-day as one of the world’s foremost authorities in tropical diseases, that it should be the policy of the United States to make Porto Rico the center for research and instruction in branches of medical and sanitary science: relating to the tropics. This Institute will be closely connected. with, if not an integral part of, the College of Medicine of the University of Porto Rico provided for by law, but not yet established because of lack of funds. This college will furnish a center for the study and. treatment of tropical maladies,the mfluence of which can be ex- tended to all tropical America. ‘The North and the South can then meet in Porto Rico for scientific research and study and thereby understand each other’s scientific problems and cooperate in solving them. SUMMARY The need of inter-American understanding demands relations other than material ones. No matter how different peoples may be in ancestry, educatior and environment, they may always meet sympa- thetically on an intellectual basis. Porto Rico offers an oppor- tunity not only as a meeting point for common ideas and amalgama- tion of different ideals, but also as a place where these ideals can be increased and thereby establish and maintain closer international relations between the two Americas. 280 Education in Porto Rico It offers a center for the trade of both Americas to meet and thereby establish and maintain closer commercial relations. It offers a center for scientific study and research where scientists from the North and from the South can meet and cooperate in solving problems of health and sanitation. Her bilingual population, her Spanish environment and traditions and her American philosophy and institutions will perpetuate the elements common to both civili- zations without loss of contact with either of them. Eminent scholars and publicists from Spain and from Latin America can come to the University of Porto Rico and give lectures to students who under- stand Spanish perfectly, while distinguished authorities in science, literature, government, politics and law can go from the United States and give lectures in their subjects to those same students who also understand English perfectly. This distinctive opportunity should be exploited in the interest of Pan-Americanism, that it may become a fact and not merely a dream or interesting aspiration. APPENDICES APPENDIX I SCHOOL CENSUS OF PORTO RICO—DECEMBER, 1864 Num- | Public Private Number of Pupils Number of ber Schools | Schools Boys Girls Teachers PPS SACOG MINIM PU, SCN RN FURR ay Lito District ; bo bo ® alaries Fami- n on n w i=] =} te is] a o “at ; a | ow B a | a Pesos lies Parag pace Wiest heey at By Pte Bea bee Bes 3 8 a ANCHOR E TE SOW EAD MT apie Wed he lets hi ———_ | | | | | | | | S| | SS SSS NTT San Juan...| 10,603 | 21 8 3" 1 | 304} 181) 485) 93) 72] 165) 24 9 10,032 Aguadilla..} 13,099 | 7 6 | — | — | 117} 148} 265] 103] 51) 154 7 6 4,050 Arecibo....| 13,916] 8 7} — |— | 128] 178] 306) 56; 45] 101 8 7 2,750 Caguas....} 11,546 | 10 8 2) — | 164] 130} 294] 131] 80] 211; 10 ri 4,800 Humacao...| 10,814] 8 7|— 1 | 147] 137) 284) 93] 45) 138 8 7 4,470 Mayaguez..} 8,148] 4 4 2 1 68] 36] 104) 47) 20) 67 6 4 1,600 Poncel aes 18,244 | 13 6 8 6 | 309] 183] 492] 146] 48] 194] 21 12 5,840 San German] 12,447} 3 2 1{/— 78] 88] 166; 26) 36) 62 4 2 2,000 Totals... 98,817 | 74 | 48 | 16 9 |1315]1081}2396} 695] 397|1092| 88 54 35,542 APPENDIX II NUMBER OF SCHOOLS THAT SHOULD HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED IN PORTO RICO ACCORDING TO THE DECREE OF 1865 9g ed 3 2 a 2 pe B ie r=} 2 8 sn 8 8 BZ x) S73 3 e | g5)38 | 23 | 23 | ss | 38] se) oe jaa |. Teta aa] aj oa | mw n 8" she} oe) oH 9 ar oO =I wed we OA 36 Amount ° ue oN Om > VY w» 0,2 oY? fe a Oasis Be Poe | Os) OF) [08 we Pas of > aed Ls edd eed a= ee ated ds Pc ns es MOMs Dewy eRe ARTZ t Towns 5 oS af ei og 30, 3a 3.4 aH 3 Salaries S jet eo lee | se ad | ae lawl eet oe 2 | §s Be ace eng Un CMU in 4 ae eve a pe a a a a im ee Pesos San Juan...| D.S 7 aoe — 14 1 1 1 17 5,420 Adjuntas...| 2nd. 15 — — 1 3 — —- — 4 960 Aguada..... 2nd. 16 —_ — il 4 — — — 5 1,140 Aguadilla...] D.S.| 21 1 — = 5 1 1 1 8 3,800 Aguas Bue- NaS oacwss 2nd. 10 — — 1 2 — —_ ns 3 780 Aibonito....| 2nd. 9 — — i 1 — — — 2 600 Anasco..... 1st. 23 1 — 6 — — — 7 1,680 Arecibo..... Das 18 1 — — 4 1 1 1 7 3,620 AST YO ania os Ist. 4 a 1 —_— 1 —_— — oa 2 780 (281) 282 Education in Porto Rico APPENDIX II CONTINUED wm e 8 3 3 ie fe v2 4 a eB F B32 | 93 | 83 8s [es |ws | $8 | a2 hase 3 G1 gn lon |]On | So | BS | BS | 8a Er aa Towns nd ‘O.c oy le] 30h en aN On Oe Aas: of mp 9 45 | ns as a2 A+ By BS = | Solari o o Se | Ba oa 3 3a Bog »°t Se, alaries » | oh ia2g}me | so | 48 | 2s | 2m] ss | se 3 a 3 a g Z2|ns 16 @ S na & a a - 2H Pesos iced Aha) Be coisa ANad CU OU Bo. Barran- quitas 2nd. 8 aaa — 1 1 al 3 pe 2 600 Barros...... 2nd. 17 =a a 1 3 _ ee) Els 4 960 Bayamon...} Ist. 14 cas 1 cae 3 Hes. sa pa 4 1,140 Cabo-Rojo..| 1st. 7 ey 1 es) 3 fas sea a 4 1,140 Caguas..... ASE oles Ph ae 1 tes 5} — | — | — 6 | 1,500 Camuy..... 2nd. 12 — ms 1 2 os ie Bay 3 730 Carolina....| 2nd. 6 => ars 1 1 Ste ae in 2 600 Cayey Ist. 20 — 1 ce 5 aes a mg 6 1,500 Ceibac catia: 2nd. 8 —_ _— 1 1 Sot patel bie 2 600 Ciales...... 2nd. 9 aed sama 1 1 ee Jan clk 2 600 Cidras aie 2nd. 14 _— — 1 5 ip ely ‘ee 6 1,820 Coamo..... 2nd. | 11 = — 1 2 ¥a! ef he 3 780 Corozal.....| 2nd. | 12 a ait 1 3 = ao ee 4 960 Dorado..... 2nd. 5 — — 1 1 abs ae ee 2 600 Farjardo....{ Ist. 9 —- 1 = 2 re ne ue 3 960 Guainabo...| 2nd. 12 mend — 1 1 “ae Sa) 2 600 Guayama... D.S li i HIE con 2 A uf 1 5 3,760 Guayanilla..} 2nd. | 14 ame a 1 3 ae bert 4 960 Gurabo..... 2nd. 9 —- == 1 3 (Ais pb. oes, 4 960 Hatillo 42%): 2nd. 8 ad — 1 3 ot —— pias 4 960 Hato Grande} 2nd. li on aes 1 4 ot fae) 5 1,140 Humacao D.S 12 1 ao ae 3 1 1 1 6 3,440 Isabela..... 2nd. 12 — —— 1 3 mat, oe 4 960 Juana Diaz Ist. 21 a 1 = 5 ae we piste 6 1,500 Juncos..... 2nd. 8 =a —— 1 3 Lash yell Mad 4 960 Lares...... 2nd. {| 11 ima = 1 2 ee ee at 3 730 Loiza sean 2nd. 10 a= = 1 1 is Age es 2 600 Luquillo....] 2nd. 7 Goat ae 1 1 ee #T. au 2 600 Manati..... Ist. 10 aT 1 x 3 me = at 4 1,140 Maunabo...| 2nd. 8 = — 1 2 i Eee 3 730 Mayagnez D.S 28 1 = —_ 6 1 1 1 9 3,980 Moca...... 2nd. 12 am 1 4 see 7 5 1,140 Morovis....| 2nd. 14 Ta can 1 Ye ae nats pabale 3 780 Naguabo....} Ist. 10 ae 1 — 1 (heh rit mE 2 780 Naranjito...| 2nd. 8 a. aap 1 2 Be lies eye 3 780 Patillas..... Ist. 15 — 1 — 4 LD, oe wey, A 1,320 Pejfiuelas....| 2nd. 17 Py al 1 3 Hak vane dai 4 960 Pepino..... Ist. | 25 cn 1 _ 6 a we hes 7 1,680 Piedras..... 2nd. 8 TPF ire 1 2 oe ax a 760 Ponce...... D.S.| 24 1 ai — 6 1 1 1 9 3,980 Quebradillas | 2nd. 8 = faa 1 2 ee nad. 3 780 Rincon..... 2nd. 9 a Ba 1 2 — ws soe 3 780 Rio Grande.} Ist. 6 a | 1 3 — = Ans 4 1,140 Rio Piedras.} Ist. 6 = 1 az 3 ae EY hd 4 1,140 Sabana del Palmar...} 2nd. 9 a mo 2 ait nels Lees 3 780 Sabana Grande...i 2nd. 8 — — j 2 pean As rE, 3 780 Number of Schools and Decree of 1865 283 APPENDIX II CONTINUED Salinas..... 2nd. 6 woe — 1 1 — 2 600 San German | Ist. 29 oe 1 — 7 — 9 2,160 Santa Isabel | 2nd. a — — 1 1 1 2 600 Toa Alta....} 2nd. 8 oo a 1 2 — 3 780 Toa Baja...| 2nd. 5 — — 1 1 — 2 600 Trujillo..... Altoouiss: 2nd. ie — —_ 1 2 _ 3 780 Trujillo..... Bajo..... 2nd. 7 — — 1 2 — 3 780 Utuado..... 2nd. 22 —— — 1 5 oe 6 1,320 Vega Alta 2nd. 8 — —_ 1 1 — 2 600 Vega Baja Ist. 14 — 1 —_ 3 —_ 4 1,140 Yabucoa 1st. 10 — 1 — 3 — 4 1,140 Yauco...... Ist. 19 — 1 — 4 — 5 1,320 Isla de Vieques...| 1st. 8 — 1 — 2 — 3 960 Totals...... # 18 43 | 200 8 283 | 85,460 284 Education in Porto Rico APPENDIX III EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS ON THE DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF THE CURRICULUM USED FOR TEACHERS’ COMPETITIVE EXAMINA- TIONS FROM 1880 TO 1893. For Superior TEACHERS RE tIGION. 1. Qué debe hacer el cristiano cuando llega al uso dela raz6n? Doctrina cristiana. Verdades de neustra fé. Basta esta para salvarse?. 2. Dios y unotrino. Divinas personas. Cual de ellas se hizo hombre y conqué fin? . 3. Dénde encarné el Verbo divino y comé se verificé este misterio? 7. Decdlogo. Preceptos que comprende. Fé, esperanza y caridad 8. Religiédn. Idolatria. Herejia. Superstici6n. Impiedad. Sacrilegio. Jura- mento, Blasfemia. 12. La Iglesia Catélica. Sus caracteres y jerarquias. Quién ejerce la suprema autoridad en la Iglesia y con qué titulo? 17. Existencia de Dios y principales atributos. Existencia e inmortalidad del alma humana. 18. Prubeas de la divinidad de la religién cristiana. Milagros. Profesias. 19. Deberes del hombre para con Dios. Necesidad y obligaciédn de dar a Dios culto interno y externo. Debemos tambien darlo a la Virgen, a los Santos y a sus imagenes y relfquias? 21. Historia Sagrada. Epocas en que se divide. Creacién del mundo antes del diluvio. 23. Estado del mundo despues del diluvio. Vocaci6n de Abraham. Cémo probé y recompensé Dios la fé y obediencia de este patriarca? De qué es figura el sacrificio de Isaac? 26. Moisés. Aaron. Las plagas. Salidas del cautiverio. Paso del Mar Rojo. Monte Sinai. Promulgacién de la ley. Muerte de Moises. 28. Divisidn del reino de Israel a la muerte de Salomén. Caida de Israel y de Jud4é. Toma de Jerusalem. por Nabuconodosor. Destruccién del templo. Cautividad de Babilonia. Prepagocia. 1. Su definici6n como ciencia y como arte. Su divisiédn. Diferencia entre la educacién y la instruccién. Fundamento, objeto é importancia de la educacién. Partes dela misma. Agentes, extensi6n y principios mas notables de la educacién. 2. Sucinta idea del hombre. Tejidos .Organos. Aparatos y funciones. Clasi- ficaciones de las funciones. 6. Funciones de relacién. Aparatos de las sensaciones. Sistema nervioso y sus divisiones. Sistema ganglionar. Nervios y funciones. 7. Cinco sentidos. 9. Objecto e importancia de educacidén fisica. etc. 10. Objeto e importancia de la educacién intelectual. ete. Examples of Questions 285 11. Memoria. etc. 12. Sensibilidad. etc. 14. Educacién religiosa. etc. 15. Dela Instruccién. etc. 17. Fundamentos de los programas de primera ensefianza en sus dos grados, y extensién que convendra dar a acada asignatura en las diversas clases de escuelas. 18. Objecto de los métodos. Procedimiento y forma de ensefianza. Método general y particular. ete. GRaAMATICA. 1. Idioma o lenguage. Gramdtica: Partes en que se divide y su explicacién. Fin de la gramatica. 2. Alfabeto. Letras: su divisién. Siflabas: sus clases. Palabras: su_ clasi- ficacid6n segun las ideas que representan. Fracién: sus partes. Cud4les son las variables y qué alteracién sufren? 4. Nombre: su divisién en, genérico y propio. Accidentes gramaticales del nombre. Género de los nombres por su significaci6n. Idem por sus termin- aciones. Excepciones en cada uno de los casos. 9. Verbo: Su divisidn y accidentes. Modos principales y subordinados, expli- cando sus diferencias. 11. Verbos regulares e irregulares: clases de los irregulares. Reglas respecto a sus letras radicales, y a sus terminaciones con las excepciones que hay. Ejemplos. 17. Sintaxis: Definicién y divisién. Concordancia: sus clases. Régimen: diferen- tes clases de régimen. Construccién: su division y ejemplos. ARIMETICA. 1. Nociones preliminares. Adicién. Sustraccién. Miultiplicacién. Divisién. Usos de las cuatro operaciones. Problemas. g. Propiedades generales de los nimeros. Caracteres de divisibilidad por dos y sus potencias; por cinco y sus potencias; por tres, siete, nueve once. Ntim- eros primos- M. C. D. y M. C. M. 5. Cuadrado y raiz cuadrada de los ntimeros enteros, fracciones ordinarias y fracciones decimales. Cubo y raiz ctibica de los nimeros enteros, fracciones ordinarias y fracciones decimales. Propiedades generales de las potencias y raices. 7. Regla de tres simple y compuesta. Regla de interés simple y compuesta. Regla de descuento comercial y racional. Fondos piublicos. 8. Repartimientos proporcionales. Regla de sociedad, Regla aligacién. Regla conjunta. Regla de falsa posicién. ALGEBRA. 9. Objecto del Algebra. Diferencia que existe entre la resolucién algébréica numérica de un problema. Definicién de coeficiente y exponente igualdad, ecuacién e identidad. Definiciédn de término. Clasificaci6n que se hace de las expresiones algébricas segun el ntimero de sus términos. 15. Ecuaciones: Clasificaci6n segun el numero de sus incognitas y el valor de sus exponentes. Principio en se fundan la resclucion de las ecuaciones de primer grado con una sola incdégnita. Transposicién de términos. 286 Education in Porto Rico EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS USED AFTER 1893. (Moreno, op. cit., p. 664). BOYS’ ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Programas oficiales aprobados por el Gobierno General de las Escuelas ptiblicas de esta provincia. Doctrina CristiANA E Historta SaGRaDA. 1. Fin del hombre sobre la tierra, y modo de conseguirlo. Qué se entiende por doctrina cristiana y catecismo? Cuantas partes contine y cuales son? 2. Virtudes teologales. Qué es fé? Su necesidad y objeto. 14. Bautismo. Su definicién, institucién. Necesidad y ministro de este sacra- mento. Que efecto causa en el alma? GErOGRAFIA. 1. Geografia: Su definicién y divisiones, Ciencias auxiliares. de la geografia. Sistemas astronémicos. 2. Cuerpos celestes: su division. Constelaciones: Cudles son las mas notables. Estrella polar. El Sol: sus propiedades. Volumen y distancia a que se encuentra de nosotros, 6. La Tierra: su figura y sus dimensiones. Polos terrestres. Eje de la tierra. Circulos que se consideran trazados en la tierra. Longitud y Latitud. Mapas: sus clases. 17. América: Descripciédn general del Nuevo Mundo. Mares, golfos, estrechos, islas, peninsulas, cabos, montes, lagos y rios de América. Estados que comprende la septentrional, la central y la meridional. Razas, idiomas y religiones de América. ; 18. Oceania. Questions 19 to 28 are all on Spain. CALIGRAFiA. 1. Qué se entiende por caligrafia? Cudl es su objeto? Partes en que se divide el arte caligrafico. Ciencias auxiliares de la caligrafia. 8. Cémo se determina la posicién de la pluma para escribir la letra espafiola segun Iturzaeta. Caracter de la letra que debe ensefiarse en las escuelas y porqué. 12. Clasificacién de las curvas. Cémo se traza el tercer ejercicio preliminar. del Sr. Iturzaeta? OrTOLOGiA. 1. Ortologia. Etimologia de esta voz. Importancia de su estudio. Partes que comprende el arte de la lectura. Objeto de cada una de ellas. 3. Leer: De cudntas maneras es la lectura? Lectura mental. Lectura oral- Reglas que deben tenerse presente para la lectura oral, o Jectura en alta voz. 14. Defectos o vicios de pronunciacién que hay que extirpar en la lectura. Tar- tamudez, balbucencia, ceceo, seseo y acento provincial. Modo de corregir estos defectos o vicios. 23. Forma en que pueden presentarse los escritos. Cualidades que pide la buena lectura del didlogo. 28. Del estilo. Su importancia en la lectura. Diferentes clases de estilo. Secondary School Enrollment Total —— ef | | SS | LN 24120 Expenses Person- | Mate- nel rial 35542 1535 90834 aa 88133 a 103078 26378 142454 48704 186334 70621 191424 71245 287 Total (pesos) 36857 90834 88133 129456 191158 256955 262669 APPENDIX IV PERIODS OF PUBLIC PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PORTO RICO! Public Schools Pupils For For Boys | Girls | Total | Boys | Girls December 1864....... 74 48 122 2396] 1092 une: LOG fascists eee 240 56 296 7543| 1929 aflvsl SEG cr sarc 246 67 313 6192} 1937 October 1878. ......:. 238 91 329 7523) 3474 une 1880s acne 328 104 432 | 10736] 4482 Mune 188i less caer 3t2 112 484 | 18025] 6095 After July 1, 1881.....] 384 ily 501 | 18025] 6095 Porto Rico, July 3, 1881. The Secretary of the Government, Francisco Fontanals y Martinez. Note: Expenses are in pesos, Moreno: OP, cit. p. 308. APPENDIX V SECONDARY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT, 1883-1899 Year se; of 4) 9 Wye ole 2 oe. ow) seer 4 of, 6) ase SiN UG) is) 61/me: (ee: a) ie) ed 1e).e) (61/6) le) Ol 4 savie! eh .@ © (6) 9) 6 w Oe ‘of @.6) oe ela) 6) @) 61 6 6. 8 Cale © @ CG Se 016, Cle ere oe 8 4) 010 a 0 6,60) 6 016 ee) ©) Ole! 610 ).0) wel 'e) 0 ale 6) 60 6. 4&8) 6 6 6 el ay e & be S156) 8) ae 6).8t ei w Nels 6) \0)'s! v) ole 8) a6. 6 eee veer er ere eee secre resere @ [50 oe) 6).6)s 8) 0, ew © se 65.46 vywic ©: a0) 6 re 6) ele 6's 10 1 0 0 @ 9 6s) 8) a 9 e010) C6 Bie, 6 Gere ce atececevev ere neve eeeves @Telh a! !.0) (6u\6 Lelie) 6) (0) '6 | @ aie, 018" .6 @ 6 ke 66) 6 6° 9 4 .6.,a* 6) (6) 86, 0) e: ge a) 5) se) p)e\-6: 6 01 eee 616 Ce ee) See. 20 8 '@ @ 0) 4 6) 4 0 « ele 4) 0) eo 4) 616 1416, 9. cece ere es eee eee reese eesese Students in Private Resident . Schools Students allied with the Institute Be U7 170 Prat 153 163 Ake 134 235 ae 196 190 tree 195 224 Reid 168 134 ee 145 99 oak 121 103 ARE 103 92 A Vs 84 85 mak 101 118 hee 105 131 Aste 91 151 Fhe 91 208 ABS 78 216 site 32 25 Steve 1,969 2,349 Home Stu- dents not in Residence at any School er 465 Total 419 371 422 436 441 319 259 243 214 196 253 261 270 310 312 57 4,793 Number of diplomas granted from the establishment of the institute until its suppression, conferring bachelor’s degree, 315.1 156th Cong, S. D. 363, p. 142. 288 Education in Porto Rico APPENDIX VI DIAGRAM OF ADMINISTRATION PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF PORTO RICO The People of Porto Rico Fresident of United States Governor of Porto Rico Commissioner Board of Trustees of the University of Education AssistantCommissioner University of of Education Porto Rico pxonicip Supervisors 6 pf Education Home Economics =a Pupils Expenditures for Educational Purposes APPENDIX VII TABLE I 289 EXPENDITURES FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES YEAR ENDING, JUNE 1889 TO 1920 Popula- School Enroll- Insular tion of Popula- ment Revenues Year Porto tion Rico 1899 953,243 322,393 29,172 ————— 1900 964,746 325,002 24,392 1,831,094 1901 976,841 328,194 38,000 2,074,894 1902 988 ,007 332,497 61,869 2282, Lor 1903 1,000,907 336,228 70,216 2,305,935 1904 150127202 340,926 61,270 2,263,216 1905 TO2Z3 eld 345,805 63,413 PA PAD) OA [Ps 1906 1,035,429 SOU werd 68,828 2,554,554 1907 1,047,699 354,721 72,052 3,538,241 1908 1,060,477 360,551 80,167 3,371,541 1909 105,126 3,180,111 1910 1,118,012 390,640 121,453 3.451 ,267 1911 145,525 3,986,746 1912 160,657 4,369,164 1913 161,785 4,382 544 1914 207,010 4°753,9038 1915 1,200,000 419,282 168,319 BR UPATO RS INK) 1916 = - 151,562 4,133,15& 1917 1.223.981 427 ,666 152,063 4,957,684 1918 1,223,981 427 668 141,598 4,741,716 1919 1,263,474 434,381 160,794 5,456,406 1920 129 Tee 453 446 184,991 — Expendi- Expendi- | Expendi- tures for tures for tures for Education Education |Education by Insular | by School Government! Boards $288,098.00] $288,098.00; ——-——— 377,111.00 294 048.00] $83,063.00 530,662.00 418,125.00} 112,537.00 (poor o-GU: 635,335.00) 118,210.00 803,879.00 643 ,906.C0| 159,973.00 873,603.00 691,020.00] 182,583.00 878,868.00 674,510.00} 204,358.00 905,929.00 659,658.00) 246,271.00 918,516.00 660,657.00} 257,859.00 1,093 311.00 750,537.00} 340,774.00 1,427 ,451.00 989 965.00) 437,486.00 1,371,490.00 952,329.00! 419,161.00 1,394 ,380.00 990,689.00} 403,691.00 1,518,779.00| 1,132,344.00) 386,435.00 1,814,829.00| 1,235,485.00| 579,344.00 2,698 263.00} 1,970,098.00| 728,165.00 2,070,496.00] 1,477,816.00| 592;680.00 1,840,016.00} 1,348,306.00} 491,710.00 2 106,389.00} 1,518,322.00} 588,067.00 2 325,802.00] 1,594,855.00) 730,947.00 2 467,703.29] 1,788,271.79| 679,431.50 3,150,761.25| 2,464,318.10| 686,443.15 Education in Porto Rico 290 ae LRES8 880 Sa a ee a SG'SOT'SLT 9E°9E6 C1T'Ss¢'OL OO'OTS'FIE'T | FL'FOS'EIT OC GEC GOL a 00°90€'8ZT| 61°E06'220'% |GT6T 00°00¢ — Cea t OO'LS9'SZE aia cee €9'°6F6 SOL Co"90E"SOT'T | 00°E96'80T OO'SLO StL. par — 00°LEF'9IT} 00°€0Z'S6E'T |ST6T 00°008'€ io pes aa 00° SFS'SET = 00°00¢"69 00'E9S"OLT'T | 00°096'Z6 OO LLG LP Ts ase OO'ELE'SIT| OO'FOE'ELL'T |LIGT OO FIDL or ort 00'STE*OST = 00°Z89'9F OO TLE E86 00°802'68 DOCSOE TCL OO'FST'E6 | 0O'ZOS'9SE'T |9161 OP Glee |) See 00'T9€'86I OO'LED LL 00°SG3' FOL OO'S6F'SLO'T | 00°ELS' FS 0O0'L8T'8L ; a 00°808°SZ | OO'ISF'GFS'T |SI6I 00°Z9E'8 OO'8SF'ST 00° F6F 68z 00° OST FE 00°862' 631 OO'C9T'LFE'T | OO FFO'ED OO'SIT'Z6T OO SLE FF 00°9F0'2Z8 | 00°699'282'% | FIGI 00° 6SF'8 O00°C6L'ST 00° 69F Sal 00°O82°LT OO'FIG'92 00°009'008 00°666'9F OO SLO: 266s te OO'SZL'GE | OO'OLF'ESF'T |ET6L 00°L62'8 OO'SLFE'ST 00°618°SE 00°LEF'9S 00°068°99 00'¢¢0'8LZ 00°SLF' FF DO696 (Sl == 00°0S'TE | 00°E90'L9G'T |ZIG6I 00'S1F'8 00°F39'9T 00'SFF'TS OO'FIL'FI 00°00F' ES OO'SFL'STL | 00'6FE'SF 00°000'SOT |———— | 00°9Z9°LZ | 00°L98'FEI'T |TT6I 00°296'6 00° FES 0G 00°L00'F9 0O'SFL'SE 00°LE8' LF 00°CF6'SLY 00°EES' EF 00°0FL'06 oe 00'LE8'TZ | OO'F9T'SST'T |OTEL 00°6€9'OT 00° FEO'0% 00° TOL 16 00°L82'00T 00°899'SF 00°0Z9' 249 O0O'STS'EF 00°F26°S6 == 09'FE8'TZ | OO'SEF'SES'T |606I 0O'FSE' FI VO'TSF'S 00°F89' LOT$ 00°86L'Sh 0)°S90'TE 00°S0¢"80¢ 00°61 L'TL 00°L0¢'0Z aero 00°O¢E'9F | OO'O96'TEG | 806T 00°009' FT 00 2 ete eee 00°9GL'9Z 00° L82°SE 00° LES FSF 00°928'°¢9 00°E82'61 00°SFS' 61 00°902'EF |. OO'TED'OSL {L061 0O'SLL'F1 00°E61'S ae as oye a 00°¢96'¢¢ 00°Z06'SG 00°298'968 00°E¢9'89 00°00G'€% 00°961'9% 00°L26'CE | OO FEE'TEL |906T 00° L6E°F1 00°626'6I I ss = oO 00°L96'8F 0O'TT6'TE 00°Z69'68E OO'T9T'OL 09°000'0% 00°SF9'SE 00°09¢'8E | OO'SZT'Z89 = | GO61 0O'OLO' FI 00'8sz9'F $ | ———-—— 00°ZE8'0L 00°LLE'SE OO'OLE'LZ6E | O0'8ES'SL OO'SZF'ST |OO'ELS'SZ | OO'ELS™'EE | OO'SET'SOL =| FOG 00°C98' FT 00°662'29 00°9€9'OF 00°G61'68E 00°SES'F9 00°EL6'E1 00°266'9T OO'L9E'FS | OO'ITZ6'699 = |S06T 00°000'¢T$ as 00° 6FS'9ST 00°F FO'OF 00°LE806E 00°SEL'TS 00°969'0T ax = 00'ZS0'SL | OD'SFO'FND =| Z06T 00°98" LT 00°€F8'OF 00°010'99% 00°890'TF 00°0¢8'F a es 00°008'TT$} OO'FFE'GLZE | LOGT ee ae = 00'FOS'F $ 00°661'ES 00° LOL'F0G 00°06'6Z <= wae ae = = LOO TCS LOE SINE ae 00°960'0¢$ 00'SEL'SOS$ | OO'SEF'ETS 00°268 $ ———— | 00°€0Z'¥Zz $ |6681 $341 OOTY spleog JUIUIUIIAOL) sTOOYyos ‘dxo snooury OORT peyuyQ ut 04I0g UT yooyos Ag Iepnsuy Ag sotjddng AreyUIUIV]9 | -[aosTUI puL 0410g jo sjooyag sjooyos s[ooyos —————— SS == yooyss pure Ul SI9YOVI4 |yuouTyiedepjo} AyzIsIaAluy | [vliysnpuy ys AleyusWa[y j1v9 x ssuIpIng SYOOd-4X9T jo Saltv[eg |sasuedxe pjey sdtysie[oyos Jooyos Io}; papuodxy , pue aWO O0Z6I OL 6681 ANOL ONIGNG SUVAA SUSOdUNd IVNOILVONGH WOd SAANLIGNAdXaA GaUIWISSVTO Il WIaVve Expenditures for Educational Purposes 291 TABLE III EXPENDITURES CLASSIFIED PER CAPITA COST, YEARS ENDING JUNE 1889 TO 1919 Caeee Elementary Education per Pupil Books and | Total for Cost of Cost of Year © Supplies Education Total Instruc- | Buildings | Secondary | Education per Pupil | per Pupil Cost tion and | and Sites | Education| per Inhabi- Enrolled Mainten- per Pupil tant ance 1899 $1.71 $ 9.88 $ 9.40 $ 9.40 a ——— $0.302 1900 1.44 15.46 14.26 , 14.06 $ 0.20 ——— 91 1901 1.07 13.61 12.45 11.98 AT aS .043 1902 .65 12.18 - 11.34 8.59 2.65 —> .763 1903 .08 11.45 10.28 9.24 1.04 ————— 797 1904 533) 14.26 12.00 10.79 2a a .863 1905 te 13.86 eS 2 10.70 82° oo - .850 1906 colt, 13.16 11.90 10.99 91 ——————— .875 1907 .00 PATS ibiore 5 11.06 41 <= 877 1908 .39 13.64 12.58 10.51 2.07 SSS 1.031 1909 41 13.58 eal 10.74 1.97 68.94 isd ees 1910 .39 11.29 10.63 9.74 .89 42.11 Vi277 1911 ltl 9.58 9.30 8.79 ail 45.97 e247 1912 41 9.45 8.96 8.52 44 34.62 1.358 1913 47 112 10.20 9.22 .98 25.62 1.623 1914 .63 13.03 12.67 10.77 cet 10) 64.67 1.762 1915 04 13.68 TAR 10.00 WAS) 45.31 1.725 1916 .30 12.14 10.07 0.98 - 99 54.11 1.533: 1917 215} 13.85 12.07 11.07 1.00 34.10 1.720 1918 athe 15.39 14.16 11.81 2.35 34.80 1.930 1919 .020 15% 13.40 11.43 1.97 37.02 1.940 TABLE IV COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL OPERATION OF SCHOOL BOARDS FOR THE YEARS OF WHICH DATE IS AVAILABLE Total income Indebtedness Year Balance on including Total from Former hand June 30 Balance Disbursements years 1903-4 $ 8,831.93 See ne $51,368.65 1904-5 25,396.27 $ 245,760.53 $220,364.26 27,342.14 1905-6 43,878.24 304,963.94 260,815.70 9,215.27 1906-7 88,592.75 346,451.79 257,859.04 1,911.75 1907-8 116,438.16 504,481.26 388,043.10 = 1908-9 127,213.59 564,699.57 437,485.98 inal 1909-10 143,074.26 562,236.15 419,161.89 SSS 1910-11 181,622.07 585,613.64 403,691.57 1911-12 269,881.17 700,862.38 430,981.21 1912-13 265,920.43 845,264.38 579,343.95 1913-14 273,566.18 1,001,731.48 728,165.30 —_— 1914-15 319,475.18 912,154.72 592,679.54 SSS 1915-16 160,069.21 812,422.89 552,353.68 SS 1916-17 554,742.40 1,211,018.45 656,276.05 1917-18 367,028.98 1,205,103.55 838,074.57 1918-19 320,236.09 1,075,159.91 (1) 754,923.82 ——— 1Includes $75,492.32 retained by the treasurer of Porto Rico to pay installments of principal The total expenditures for the year are $679,431.50 due on loans. 292 Education in Porto Rico APPENDIX VIII ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS A RURAL SCHOOL AT THE TIME OF THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION Pry Illustrations of School Buildings A TYPICAL RURAL SCHOOL AT THE TIME OF THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION. PoRTO RICO. 293 294 Education in Porto Rico Wooprow WILSON CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL, AGUIRRE. SALINAS. The new type of rural schools now being introduced. Dr. J. C. BARBOSA CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL, VIEQUES, P. R. ng ; ld f School Bui Illustrations o LONGFELLOW GRADED SCHOOL, SAN GERMAN, P. R. Built by the Department of Education of Porto Rico, Completed October 19, 1901. The type of school buildings for urban schools first built after the American occupation. 296 Education in Porto Rico PONCE DE LEON GRADED SCHOOL, HuMACAO, P. R. Old four-room tvpe remodeled and enlarged RAEEAL M. LABRA GRADED SCHOOL, SANTURCE, P. R. t Ne) ~) Illustration: of School Balding: RoMAN BALDORIOTY DE CASTRO GRADED AND SAN JUAN, P. R. MAYAGUEz HicH ScHooL, MAYAGUEzZ, P. R. 298 Education in Porto Rico APPENDIX IX COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN 1898-1899 AND 1918-1919 ; 1898-1899 1918-1919 Number | Attend-| Barrios | Number] Enroll- | Barrios | In- ine of ance Without] ofTeach-| ment | Without] crease crease Teach- Schools ers? Schools in in ers Teachers| Pupils Adjuntaseao-7 ae 6 130 12 41 2,351 0 35 2221 Aguadaie- oye: 7 232 14 25 1,568 il 18 1,336 Aguadilla........ 8 542 13 57 3,237 0 49 2,695 Aguas Buenas..... i) 175 6 19 1,090 1 14 915 Aibonitocoeen eee 6 222 5 27 1,464 0 21 1,242 Atlas0ouce et oe: 7 315 19 38 2,102 2 31 1,787 Arécibos ou: ceo ee os i 683 = 108 5,457 0 97 4,774 Arcovasneee eines 3 201 6 22 1,070 0 19 869 Barceloneta ...... 6 230 a5 25 1322 @) 19 1,092 Barranquitas...... 3 143 5 24 1,299 0) 20 1,156 Barres cae eee 5 181 13 51 3,504 0 46 3,323 Bayam6n.ic. 25s 10 468 15 TKS 3,474 0 67 3,006 Cabo Rojo....... 7 325 3 51 2,617 0 44 2,292 Caguas va... eee 9 417 5 81 4,162 ) 72 3,745 Carouyeas eee 5 206 9 34 1,795 1 29 1°589 Carolina... a... 6 218 9 41 2,637 0 35 2,419 Cavevad: . tray ke 8 573 16 45 1,951 3 37 1,378 Ceiba included in! Bajardoumscet aaa ass if 15 675 0 15 675 CGiales =. eataae. jer 7 245 =a 40 2,411 0 33 2,166 Cidra 85 ste ee 5 184 9 a7 1,133 1 22 949 Codimorceeue. ao 9 484 3 49 2,847 0 40 2,363 Comeério 2. grace 7 331 = 29 1,621 ) 22 1,290 Corozals> Meea.sae 5 211 8 29 1,643 0 24 1,432 Dorado. .:s.s.:-4 4 119 4 18 858 0 14 739 Pajardoauem 13 597 12 49 1,863 0 36 1,266 Guainabo! Included in : Bayamon ea. .4-r re — ae 24 1,078 0) 24 1,078 Guanica included’ holy VANE OOM oo oc — — = 26 15203 0) 26 1,203 Guayama..* i060. 9 391 5 57 2,593 0 48 2,202 Guayanilla.: a. ote 5 57 12 34 1,637 0 29 1,480 Gurabor Leases 5 258 6 25 1,482 0) 20 1,224 Hatillo..“ ae 6 191 3 26 1,539 0 20 1,348 Hormigueros...... 4 68 3 14 582 0) 10 514 Humacao......... 11 All 2 55 a lg 0 44 2,306 Teabelar.ci. oe er 8 225 a 38 2,151 0 30 1,926 Jayuya included! how UMASS), ha ac = — — 25 1,587 6) 25 1,587 Juana Diaz....... 13 475 12 45 2,289 4 32 1,814 Juricoes 2a wea he 6 215 5 31 1,707 0 25 1,492 (aja eee 6 99 6 33 1,692 0 a7, 1,520 Lares te eee 10 253 4 51 3,236 if 41 2,983 Las Marias....... 8 125 6 30 1,645 0 29 1,520 Vas Piedras ios.hi- SU ie e105 6 20 1,088 ) 17 938 Comparative Study of Educational Conditions 299 APPENDIX TX CONTINUED WeOIZar oe ee fe 219 4 36 1,880 (9) 29 1,661 Luquillo included . in Fajardo’..... — — — 15 883 Q 15 883 Manat. aie ut wee 8 408 3 42 2,312 0) 34 1,904 Maricao meni ae 4 119 4 27 1,432 0 ee 1,313 Maunadbo renee = 150 — 19 918 0 15 768 Mayagtiez........ 33 1178 4 102 4,740 0 69 3,562 WL OCA Ione rue 6 146 7 44 1,631 0 18 1,485 IMGLOVISHE ee eee 7 259 9 28 1,612 0) Dall iL. Biss! Nialeua born. seine 5 212 6 33 1,591 0 28 1,319 INaraniitoe os. ae. 5 152 4 20 1,141 ) 15 989 LRA UNC, 6 bio ns 5 6 Zoe 2) 30 1,401 (8) 24 1,169 Penuelase ae. 405% 8 263 8 32 1,485 C 24 1,222 Ponce + bers eee 38 1748 — 192 9,554 0 154 7,806 Quebradillas...... 4 274 5 il 1,292 0) 23 1,018 IREECOM Gon Abou babe 3 74 5 We 978 O ie 904 Rio Grande....... 7 356 Z 34 1,863 1 D7 1,507 Rio Piedras....:.. 5 294 8 50 2,897 0 45 2,603 Sabana Grande i) 210 4 32 iL aul 1 ii 1,207 Salina Sew erie 3 118 5 32 1,665 (6) 29 1,547 San German...... 12 590 10 60 3,334 0 48 2,744 Sarin ater eters 15 as — 174 8,030 (0) 159 6,917 San Lorenzon asso: 5 230 7 32 1,856 0) 27 1,626 San Sebastian..... 8 326 19 39 2,518 2 31 2,192 Santa Isabel)... - 6 228 4 ae 898 9) 15 670 ‘MoawA lta awe e 4 167 5 24 1,335 (0) 20 1,168 ANGYEY BEEN. 6. gle cee 4 184 2 24 1,119 8) 20 935 EErajtlloeaAltonar 4 103 4 19 1,006 (8) 15 903 WWARUIEKEKOL. 6b obo 60 ee 9 262 — 68 4,306 0 59 4,044 Wega Alta fsa. i) 192 4 21 1,049 9) 16 857 Vegacbajac. one 8 303 9 35 2,011 0 27 1,708 WAGES Sa entlae 6 166 5 25 1,226 0 19 1,060 Villalba included in Juana Diaz’ ae —_ — 24 1,195 2 24 1,195 Via U CORREA Loire 7 450 5 48 2,485 0 4l 2,035 Wat COntete cr aeicee ke 15 672 —— 70 3,608 6) 55 2,926 Culebran secre —— — — 3 1438 (8) 3 143 Ota eae etteeets: 525 21,873 426 3,035 159,125 20 2,510 A252 1Not a separate municipality in 1898-1899. Reported as barrio of town written opposite. "Included 83 night school teachers. 300 Education in Porto Rico APPENDIX X BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES I. SpanisH DocUMENTS Anuario Estadistico de Espafia. Published yearly by the Government. Im- prenta National. Madrid. Anuario Legislativo de Instruccién Ptblica. Being a compilation of all Royal Decrees, Royal Orders and laws relating to Education. Published yearly by the Government. Imprenta National. Madrid. Coleccidn de Documentos Inéditos Relativos al Descubrimiento, Conquista y OrganizaciOn de las Antiguas Poseciones Espafidlas de América y Oceania, sacados de los Archivos del Reino y muy especialmente del de las Indias. Tomos XXXI, XXXII. _ Biblioteca Nacional. Madrid. Fomento, Ministro de. Reglamento de las Universidades del Reino. Aprobado por S.M. en 22 de Mayo de 1859. Imprenta Nacional. Madrid. 1859. Fomento, Ministro de. Reglamento General para la Administracién y régimen de la instruccién ptiblica. Aprobado por S. 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Reglamento Para la Instruccién de la Mujer. San Juan, P.R. 1886. Bobadilla y Rivas, José R. Inspeccion de Escuelas de Primera Ensefianza. Memoria con los cuadros estadisticos correspondientes, que sobre el estado de Ja instruccién primaria en el distrito norte de esta provincia, presenta al Gobierno General de la misma, el inspector de primera ensefianza D. José R. Bobadilla y Rivas. Tip. El Comercio. San Juan, P. R. 1886. Infiesta, Alejandro. La Exposicion de Puerto Rico. Boletin Mercantil. San Juan, P.R. 1895. Bibliography 301 Infiesta, Alejandro. Inspector de Primera Ensefianza del Distrito Sud. Memoria con los cuadros de ensefianza y estadisticos correspondientes, que sobre el estado de la instruccién primaria en el distrito sud de esta provincia, pre- senta al Gobierno General de la misma, el inspector de la ensefianza D. Alejandro Infiesta. Tip. El Comercio. San Juan, P. R. 1886. Instituto Civil Provincial. Proyecto de Reglamento del Instituto Civil Pro- vincial y Colegios Privados de Segunda Ensefianza de la isla de Puerto Rico. San Juan, P.R. 1882. Instituto de Segunda Ensefianza. Memoria correspondiente al curso acadé- mico 1894-1895. San Juan, P.R. 1896. Macho Moreno, Juan. Compilacién Legislativa de Primera Ensefianza de la Isla de Puerto Rico y Formularios para toda clase de servicios relacionados con la instruccién primaria. Viuda de Hernando y Compafiia. Madrid. 1895. Reglamentos de Escuela publicados por el periddico “‘La Instruccién Publica.” Tip. Gonzalez y Cia. San Juan, P.R. 1882. III. Porro Rico: Epucationan Documents AND LITERATURE SINCE THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION Brown, Agnes E., Nin, Manuel G. El buen Castellano. Bureau of Supplies’ San Juan, P:R. T1918. Bureau of Educatiédn. Education in the Territories and Dependencies. De- partment of the Interior. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1919, No. 12. Government Printing Office. Washington. 1919. Clark, Victor. Education in Porto Rico. 56th Cong. Ist Session. Senate Document, No. 363. Government Printing Office. Washington. 1900. PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EpUCATION OF Porto Rico Course of Study. Public Schools of Porto Rico. Course of Study and Duties of Teachers. 1901-1902. Department of Education. San Juan, P.R. 1901. ; Course of Study. The Course in Nature Study for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Pub. by the Department of Education of Porto Rico. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation. San Juan, P.R. 1913. Course in Physical Training for the Public Schools of Porto Rico. Prepared by B. E. Wiggins. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation. San Juan, PR. 1913. The Course of Study in English for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation. San Juan, P.R. 1913. The Course of Study in Music for the Public Schools of Porto Rico. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation, San Juan, P.R. 1913. The Course of Study for the First Year in Home Economics, to be used by the Teachers in the Elementary Schools of the Island of Porto Rico. Pre- pared by Miss Grace J. Ferguson. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Trans- portation. San Juan, P.R. 1914. The Course of Study in Arithmetic for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation. 1915. 302 Education in Porto Rico The Course of Study in Drawing for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Pre- pared by Miss Floy Campbell. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Trans- portation. 1914. The Course of Study in Manual Training for the Public Schools of Porto Rico. Prepared by Hermann Hyorth. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Trans- portation. San Juan, P.R.. 1914. The Course of Study for the Rural Schools of Porto Rico. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation. San Juan, P.R. 1914. The Course of Study in Spanish for the Graded Schools of Porto Rico. Bureau of Supplies, Printing and Transportation. 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