= vtat ale ae Eesorrsals Ty % . + yaaa te phe 4 ets eves bass eis] Bah ai S225 afar) phphtess : Prksk eae ets pits oe et, UAIVERSITY Or iLiivuis 118 o mee ee AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGH | OHRRICELIIM BALL EATIN See wee Fe ews PROPERTY OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS * aad MIcH. | (Bod . CONDITION DATE NAME When 1. cn | Loaned Returned The Board of Education loans text-books to pupils on the follow- ing conditions: lst—-They are to be carefully used and not be marked, defaced or otherwise damaged beyond a natural and reasonable wear and tear. 2nd—They are not to be taken from the schoolroom without con- sent of the teacher. 3rd—If lost or injured, such loss or injury must he paid for by the pupil. 4th—-Any wastefulness, wilful or careless damage done by the pupil shall be paid for by him. ' The amount of damage for loss or injury or the price of book, will be fixed by the Prineipal, and is payable on demand. 15M 8-27 UAWOP, WOU ONIGVAY VW vulspey-vuTy Aq Suryureg 04} WoT THE NEW REED AND KELLOGG LESSONS IN ENGLISH BY ARTHUR LEE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLINTON, MISSOURI BASED ON THE TEXTS BY ALONZO REED AND BRAINERD KELLOGG BOOK TWO ENLARGED EDITION &- CHARLES E. MERRILL COMPANY NEW YORK AND CHICAGO ee ee ai? Frances M G3 . S >. ; Fs , = ene * 4 ipee *, ' oie ' a hi : Sor aay ” ; +4 “ iy % n =< e ' nt t Me * i ‘ - * { " P c o { w a , A 2 A * é * ' / i be ~ — ‘. = ) . y 7 x A F - ’ . * T * + ¥ i - : « PREFACE Tur vogue of the Reed and Kellogg Grapzp LEssons in EncuisH and Higurer Lessons In ENGLISH, extending over more than a generation, is one of the remarkable facts in the history of American school texts. The continuing popularity of the series and its immense sales prove that the books have an amazing vitality and adaptability. Teachers and pupils pay them the high tribute of satisfac- tion and confidence. With the rearrangement and enrichment of the elementary course in English, there came a time when many teachers felt that the essential soundness of the Reed and Kellogg series and its power of interesting and enlightening should be systematicaily adapted to present practices and needs. New methods and new programs of education required some eliminations and the additions of whatever of value has been established by the enthusiastic attention to English teach- ing in the last two decades. At the same time, it was ob- viously desirable to retain all those merits of the books which have helped tens of thousands of classes to a better grasp of our language. The standing of ‘‘Reed and Kellogg”’ ‘has been due in large measure to the scholarly thoroughness with which the series was made. To determine what good usage is respect- ing many points in debate by purists and grammarians, the authors went to the original source of linguistic authority, the writers of highest repute in recent generations. Fifty authors were selected, and 300 pages of each—15,000 pages 4 PREFACE in all—were carefully read. The usage of these authors, minutely noted and recorded, formed the basis of the ‘‘ Reed and Kellogg” judgments as to what good English is. In a few particulars, usage has changed in recent years. Wherever this was the case, statements have been changed in the present book so as to accord with the best modern authority. In the treatment of composition, the series has been thoroughly revised and enlarged in accordance with the spirit and the method of a changed language curriculum. In grammar, the principal changes have been in the direction of simplification and abridgment. It is in the teaching of composition that the greatest ad- vances in elementary English instruction have been made in recent years. Consequently, some portions of the earlier ‘Reed and Kellogg”’ have been eliminated, and a great deal of new material has been added. ‘The increasing use of literature, both prose and poetry, not only as models but as a means of stirring the imagination and freeing tongue and pen, is reflected in this revision. The use of pictures, the relation of expression work to life, the harmonizing of the book problems with the child’s world, are here emphasized. It has not been forgotten, however, that every good text in this field must be in large measure a drill book. Much talking and much writing on subjects which occupy the pupil’s mind—to which he gives attention in his other studies or in which he can easily be led to take an inter- est—have been provided for. A noteworthy excellence of ‘‘Reed and Kellogg” has always been its clear and thorough exposition of the sen- tence. No pupil of average ability could faithfully work through the old Reed and Kellogg books without getting a grasp upon sentence structure. which made him a clearer thinker and added largely to his power of expression. It was the undeniable gain in ability to thm aright and to PREFACE 5 embody the thought in felicitous discourse—the product of sentence analysis—that led James A. Garfield to make this statement: “T have taught, more or less, almost every subject embraced in the ordinary school or college course, and the most fruitful discipline of all for young pupils I consider to be grammatical analysis.” Had President Garfield been trained in our present philosophy of education, he would probably have avoided the word discipline; but he need not have changed his conviction as to the value of a thorough understanding of sentence struc- ture to those who are learning to talk and to write. The paramount excellence of the old books, the illumination of the sentence, has been studiously retained in the new. A part of the success of “‘ Reed and Kellogg”’ in elucidating sentence structure is due to its system of diagrams—a system which in its unrivalled clearness, simplicity, and convenience ameunts to a stroke of genius. For some years a storm of criticism beat upon the sentence diagram, a storm raised not by those who taught grammar to children, but by mature scholars who had long passed the stage when they needed the assistance of such a device. With the refusal of teachers and pupils to be swerved from their adherence to this practical means of saving labor, and with the in- creasing emphasis upon graphical representation in educa- tion, there has been a strong recurrence to the use of the diagram. Only the abuse of diagraming led to whatever opposition arose against its use. Teachers should, of course, employ this aid with judgment. The diagram was never a vital part of ‘Reed and Kellogg,” and it is not in this re- vision; it is only a help. The terminology of the Joint Committee on Nomenclature of the National Education Association has been very largely used in these books. It has not seemed wise to introduce, all 6 PREFACE at once, the new nomenclature in all of its details, for schools and teachers must grow into the new terminology after some points have been satisfactorily worked out by. further study. The revision has had the advantage of the codperation of Dr. Brainerd Kellogg, one of the original authors. Dr. Kellogg, whose success and ripe experience in textbook- making give him a high place in American education, fur- nished a large collection of notes for the new series, and has worked with the reviser in the production of “The New Reed and Kellogg.” The composition lessons in Part Two should be taught along with the grammar of Part Onn. ‘The days of the school week may be apportioned between the two divisions of the subject as the teacher sees fit, or the lessons may be alternated by weeks. A Study Outline arranged to combine Parts One and Two may be found on page 313. Acknowledgment of permission to use selections in this book is due to Houghton Mifflin Company for the extract from Lincoln, Master of Men by Alonzo Rothschild and for “Opportunity”? by Edward Rowland Sill; to Charles Scribner’s Sons for the selection from Fisherman’s Luck by Henry van Dyke; to D. C. Heath and Company for the selection from Education for Efficiency by Eugene Daven- port; to The Macmillan Company for the extract from The Making of an American by Jacob Riis; and to Doubleday, Page and Company for the letter from Recol- lections and Letters of General Lee by Captain R. E. Lee. — CONTENTS PART ONE: GRAMMAR THE SENTENCE - LESSON . Parts of the Sentence _ Sentences Classified ee oraink to Use? Nouns . Verbs . Pronouns Modifiers; rabyale Ai eee Diagrams. . Adjectives . : . Predicate Modifiers : . Other Modifiers . . Adverbs . . Analysis of Petancts _ A Phrase Introduced by a Pcie . Prepositions : . Compound Subject oad Ceamoate Pesdicnte : . Conjunctions and Interjections . eens : Complements; The Direct Obiect . . Predicate Adjective and Predicate Noun . Analysis and Parsing . Objective Complements , Analysis and Parsing . Review PAGBD 15 16 18 19 21 21 23 24. 25 27 28 . 30 30 53) 36 oo 41 43 45 46 48 49 8 CONTENTS LESSON 20: 24. 20. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. oly oO. Oo; 34. OO; 36. Bilis 38. 39. AO. Al. 42. 43. 44, Ad. A6. A7. ‘48. 49, 50. ol. 52. 53. Participles . : Functions of Purticipen Infinitives Functions of (aenitres Functions of Infinitives; Infinitive Clauses . Review of Participles and Infinitives . Gerunds . Nouns as Rioditeas De ea ae Words and Phrases aed Tadependentiee Nouns as Adverbial Modifiers Review E é Complex Bea tintee : Complex Sentences; Moines Cheeta Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses Complex Se Adverbial Clauses Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses . Complex Sentences; Substantive Clauses Complex Sentences; Substantive Clauses Review of Complex and Simple Sentences Review of Complex Sentences Compound Sentences Complex and Compound lgunes Review of Sentences Review of Sentences Review of Analysis . THE: PAR YS -OF SPEC Classes of Nouns . Classes of Pronouns . nits Nouns and Pronouns: Number . Nouns and Pronouns: Gender Nouns and Pronouns: Person Nouns and Pronouns: Case CONTENTS LESSON 5A. 55. 56. 57. «58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. Ta 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. rive 78. 79. 80. mm Wh Re Nouns and Pronouns: Person and Case . The Declension of Nouns and Pronouns . Possessive Forms Forms of the Pronoun . Analysis and Parsing Classes of Verbs . Verbs: Voice Verbs: Mood and Tense Conjugation of Verbs Conjugation of the Verb Be Conjugation of See in the Simple Form Special Forms of the Verb Agreement of the Verb The Use of Shall and hee Review of Verbs . The Proper Use of the Ver ae a ee Sit, Set Errors of Speech . Analysis; Parsing Verbs Classes of Adjectives Comparison of Adjectives . Classes cf Adverbs Comparison of Adverbs The Correct Use of Adjectives er Advetos: Conjunctions BEC i, oo Prepositions Interjections ae Words Used as eto Parts mE Siaeae PART TWO: COMPOSITION . A Stock of Words . Word Study . The Use of Capital Lees . Writing Sentences is 10 CONTENTS LESSON 26. . Three Little Masterpieces . .. .. .« . Punctuation 3 . Variety in the Sirnetirs ite Sentenee i . Variety in the Structure of Sentences . . Variety in the Structure of Sentences . . Study of a Poem . . Paragraphs; Outlines . Oral Composition; A Taik . Dictation; Paragraphs . . Description : . Punctuation : . Picture Study and Desnceen . Narration i nae ae . Some Common Errors . . Reasoning from Observation . Telling the News from the Paper . Letter Paper and Envelopes . . Letters of Friendship . Writing Quotations . . Picture Study and Dasenonon . Punctuation; The Comma ; Dictation; Acree of Bhyan Vena . The Bares of a Letter . Study of a Speech . The Use of Adjectives . . study of a Poem . : . Punctuation of Compound cL apenets . The Heading of a Letter ; . Oral Composition; Reports on Raat : . Picture Study and Description 5. Exposition. . . A School Paper : . The Preparation of Adan neeripee 3. Exposition . PAGE 181 183 185 188 190 192 194 196 anise 198 200 200 201 203 205 206 207 209 211 214 215 217 217 219 220 223 225 227 229 231 231 233 234 237 CONTENTS LESSON 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54, 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. vitae Dictation; Correct Speech Oral Composition; A Talk Essential and Non-Essential Clauses Description of a Paintnmg . . . . Address and Salutation of Letters . The Order of Modifiers Description: of a Building . Various Uses of the Comma . Dictation; Letter Writing The Body of the Letter and the Clare Wetters bf Introduction 4, ae ene A Conversation on Gira Frente Exposition . Narration : : Narration: Biaeane : Narration: Autobiography Punctuation: Colon, Dash, Parenthesis Business Letters . Letter Writing: The Signature Aah the hee scription ior Composition: een A a ation Petre Exposition . Letter Writing Folding the Letter Birla! EON he Synonyms and Antonyms; Use of the Dictionary Argument : Description of a Benene : Argument Debating Letter Writing Dictation Notes and Peeiceuione Argument Debating 11 PAGE 236 237 238 241 241 243 246 247 249 250 252 253 254 207 258 .~ 258 261 263 265 266 267 267 269 271 272 273 275 279 280 280 284 285 12 CONTENTS LESSONS - : PAGE 7b Pelesranis +.0. *7% wo 6 Vel RS eee 72. Writing ieeenticoribane oo, LSS er 73. Letters of Application... = a 74, Study of a Speech '.0°. .> ic). 4) rr 75. The Minutes of a Meeting . > . 5 eee SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS IN WORD STUDY AND COMPOSITION Worp Strupy 1. Finding Words in the Eeatanaey 4 et eee 2. The Treasure House of Words ... . ... 298 3. What the Dictionary Tells; Spelling and Syllabication of Words . . . . . 4 + = 302 4. What the Dictionary Tells; Pronunciation . . 304 5. What the Dictionary Tells; Meaning. . . 306 6. A Better English Club Meeting; New Words 09 PARAGRAPH STUDY 7. Amplification of Paragraphs. . . =|.) 5a 311 8. Condensation of Paragraphs ... . ..- - 316 CoRRECTIVE WORK IN SENTENCES 9. Combining Several Ideas into One Sentence. . 321 10. Changing One Kind of Sentence into Another . 323 ERRORS OF SPEECH’ « . + © o's) See Wrrrtren’ ERRORS 2 Nios. <3 SoG) 5) 329 GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR. . - - + + + > 330 Topics FOR ORAL AND WRITTEN COMPOSITION. . . 304 ABBREVIATIONS «-.0 0) 2 SE) 6) Ny 338 ContTEeNTs ARRANGED TO COMBINE PARTS ONE AND Two. 8 oa oe eee re INDEX 2 ov dL oe Bt Se) rrr PART ONE GRAMMAR Ne P J ser > lbs: avs 5 beng, et ee ee PART ONE: GRAMMAR THE SENTENCE LESSON 1 PARTS OF THE SENTENCE Whenever we talk or write, we express thoughts. When we say, ‘‘ Water freezes,” the words express to others the thought we have in mind. We call these words a sentence. The first word, water, names what we are thinking and talking about. The second word, freezes, tells what we think about water—that it freezes. The first word is the subject of the sentence; the second word is the predicate. Sentences differ in many ways; some are long and contain many words; but every sentence is the expres- sion of a thought, and every sentence has a subject and a predicate. A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought. The subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought. | The predicate of a sentence tells what is thought about the subject. EXERCISE 1 I. Make sentences by expressing thoughts about the things that are here named. The words given will then be subjects 16 PART ONE: GRAMMAR. ~ and what you say about them will be predicates. eG predicate may be only one word, or it may be. two or mc words. <7 1. Horses 4. Diamonds 7. Sailoyet . 2. Stars 5. Robins 8. Banners 3. Lions 6. Frogs 9: Rain ys II. Name the subject and the predicate in each of these ser tences: , . Leaves are falling. . Planets revolve. . Cornwallis surrendered. . Flags were flying. . Columbus was imprisoned. Summer has gone. . Air may be weighed. . André was captured. . Treason should have been punished. . Louisiana was purchased. SOON DaA KR ww He f— i LESSON 2 SENTEN CES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE Sentences are used in different ways. If I say, ‘The train is late,” I make a statement. If I inquire, ‘Is the train late?” I use the sentence tc ask a question. I may be annoyed because the train is late and say with feeling, ‘‘How late the train is!’ This sentence is an exclamation. e, IT SENTENCES CLASSIFIED 17 If I say, “Wait till the train comes,’ I express a command and use an imperative sentence. | A declarative sentence makes a statement. An interrogative sentence asks a question. An exclamatory sentence expresses sudden thousht or strong feeling. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a re- quest. | Nore. Sentences that contain a negative word (as not, never) are sometimes described as negative sentences.. All other sentences are affirmative. | Negative sentence: I am not going. Affirmative sentence: Am I going? I may go. Begin every sentence with a capital letter. Place a period at the end of a declarative or an im- perative sentence. Place a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence. , Place an exclamation point at the end of an exclam- atory sentence. EXERCISE 2 lA I. Tell what kind of sentence each of these vs: 1. The sun that brief December day Rose cheerless over hills of gray. . I have given you streams to fish in. . Stand by the flag. . Who killed Cock Robin? . What is the capital of Japan? or fe W bo 18 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 6. Give me of your bark, O Birch Tree. 7. The judge rode slowly down the lane, Smoothing his horse’s chestnut mane. 8. How short our happy days appear! 9. What is left when honor is lost? 10. What a piece of work is man! 11. What is man that Thou art mindful of him? 12. A friend should bear a friend’s infirmities. II. Write five declarative, five interrogative, three imperative, and two exclamatory sentences. s 2 LESSON 3 e NOUNS When we consider the words we use, we see that many of them are names; as, desk, pencil, father, Mary, Mr. Baldwin, heat, industry. These we call nouns. You will find that every subject of a sentence is a noun, or some word or words used as a noun. Some nouns name classes of things; as, boy, girl, country. ‘These are called common nouns. Others are individual, or proper, names; as, James, Mary, America. A ncun is a word used as the name of anything. A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class. | A proper noun is the individual name of a particular per- son, place, or thing. , Every proper noun begins with a capital letter. VERBS 19 EXERCISE 3 I. Select the nouns in the following passage. Tell which are individual, or proper, names. Now, to tell the truth, from the very first mention of Long John in Squire Trelawney’s letter, I had taken a fear in my mind that he might prove to be the very one-legged — sailor whom I had watched for so long at the old Benbow. But one look at the man before me was enough. I had seen the captain and Black Dog and the blind man Pew, and I thought that I knew what a buccaneer was like—a very different creature, according to me, from this clean and pleasant-tempered landlord. I plucked up courage at once, crossed the threshold, and walked right up to the man where he stood, propped on his crutch, talking to a customer. . , “Mr. Silver, sir?” I asked, holding out the note. Rozert Louts STEVENSON, from Treasure Island Il. Write twenty common nouns. Ten proper nouns. LESSON 4 oe VERBS You have learned that one large class of words con- sists of names of things. There is another class of words which are used to tell what things do or to ex- press existence. When we say, “Dogs bark,” bark is not used to name anything; it tells what dogs do. It asserts action. When we say, “God is,” 2s simply expresses exist- ence, or being. _ 20 PART ONE: GRAMMAR In the sentence “Grandfather sleeps,” sleeps tells the condition, or state, in which Grandfather i is; that is, it expresses the state of being. All the words that assert action, being, or state of being we call verbs. A verb may consist of two, three, or four words; as, 1S singing, will be sung, might have been sung. As verbs are the only words that assert, every predi- cate must contain a verb. A verb is a word that asserts action, being, or svate of being. ) EXERCISE 4 ‘ I. Select the verbs in these sentences: . Come into the garden, Maud. Where is my book? The old man told his story. . I will. write. “Oh!” I cried, ‘stop him.” 6. The man who was nearest the door leaped up and started in pursuit. 7. Home land and far land and half the world around, Old Glory hears the ae salute and ripples to the sound. 8. This work could have been finished in a day. Pa eee bee 9. Silence never betrays you. 10. The sky is dark and the hills are white, As the storm-king speeds from the north to-night. Il. Write ten achitences and underline the verbs. MODIFIERS; ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 21 LESSON 5 PRONOUNS it is often convenient to use a word in place of a noun. John, in speaking of himself, does not say, . “John forgot John’s book,” but “T forgot my book.” In addressing Mary, we say, “Vou forgot the book,” not ‘‘Mary forgot the book.” T, you, he, she, vt, we, and they are some of the words that are used instead of names, or nouns. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. The pronoun I is written as a capital letter. It is convenient to have a term that applies to both nouns and pronouns, and to other words that do the work of a noun. Such words are called substantives. EXERCISE 5 I. Select all the pronouns in Exercise 3. VIL. Write twenty sentences containing pronouns and under- line the pronouns. Si 3 iY LESSON 6 MODiFIERS; ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES You have seen that a noun, or a pronoun, and a verb sometimes make a complete sentence; as, I walk, Planets revolve. More often such words are used as the foundation of a sentence, which 1s completed by adding other parts. ‘‘Owls are hooting’’ is a sentence. 22 PART ONE: GRAMMAR We may also say, Oe ous are hooting,’ or ‘‘Those owls are hooting,”’ or ‘‘Those big, gray one are hoot- ing.”” The words ie those, big, gray, we call modifiers of the subject. owls. A modifier is a word, or a group of words, joined to some part of a sentence to qualify or limit the meaning. The subject with its modifiers is the complete subject. The subject without its modifiers is the simple subject or the subject substantive. The analysis of a sentence consists in Separating it into its parts. MoprE.t ror ANnatysis. The cool October days have come. This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is the cool October days. The subiect substantive is the noun days. The predicate is have come. Days is modified by the, cool, and October. EXERCISE 6 Analyze the following sentences, according to the model above: . The cock is crowing. — . The small birds twitter. The cattle are grazing. . The snow has retreated. . Small clouds are sailing. . The ragged continental troops had advanced. . The searchlight flashed. . Radium was discovered. . The milk soured. OWI A MP wD DIAGRAMS 25° 10. The mighty oak was uprooted. 11. Big bonfires were lighted. 12. The vivid lightning flashes. LESSON 7 DIAGRAMS Instead of writing out the analysis of a sentence, we may make a diagram. ‘his saves us the labor of writing, and has the advantage of enabling us to see at a glance the relations of the different parts of the sentence. We draw a line and divide it in the middle, thus: ——— To the left of the dividing line we write the subject; and to the right of the dividing line, the predicate, thus: Louisiana | was purchased When the subject has modifiers, we place them upon slanting lines drawn from the line upon which the subject is written. The sentence “The cool October days have come” is diagramed thus: days have come 24 PART ONE: GRAMMAR EXERCISE 7 According to the model given on page 28, you may diagram the sentences in Exercise 6. LESSON 8 ADJECTIVES The words added to the subject substantive to modify its meaning, like the, cool, and October in the sentence “The cool October days have come,” are~ called adjectives. | 7 Adjectives may be joined to substantives that are used otherwise than as subjects of sentences. 4. separate class may be made of the adjectives the, a, and an. They are called articles. An adjective is a word used to modify a substantive. Parsing is describing the grammatical form of a word and telling its use in the sentence. & MODEL FOR ORAL Parsine. The daily newspapers were distributed. : . The and daily are adjectives because they modify the noun newspapers; newspapers is a noun because it is the name of something; were distributed is a verb because it asserts. Moperu ror WRITTEN PARSING Nouns Pronouns Adjectives Verbs The ; were distributed daily newspapers PREDICATE MODIFIERS Bes EXERCISE 8 J. Analyze and diagram these sentences: _ The midnight signal was given. _ Brave Paul Revere was riding. _ The farmers were awakened. _ The British Regulars fled. Both positions can be defended. _ All such discussion should be avoided. aT, OL me CO NM - LT alone have escaped. _ That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen. _ The great Lincoln Highway was built. Cc OO 10. Many marvelous engineering feats have been per- formed. | 7 . Il. Parse all the words in the above sentences. LESSON 9 PREDICATE MODIFIERS “The ship sails gracefully.” Here gracefully tells the manner of sailing. “The ship sails immediately.’ Immediately tells the time of sailing. “The ship sails homeward.” What word tells the direction of sailing? | The words gracefully, immediately, and homeward are modifiers of the predicate. In the first sentence, sails gracefully is the complete predicate. In each of the three sentences, sails is the simple predicate or the predicate verb. | 26 PART ONE: GRAMMAR The predicate with its modifiers is called the complete predicate. | The predicate without its modifiers is called the predicate verb. : ANALYSIS. The parrots were talking noisily. This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is the parrots; the complete predicate is were talking noisily. The subject substantive is the noun parrots; the predicate verb is were talking. The subject substantive is modified by the adjective the; the predicate verb is modified by noisily. WritrEN Parstnc. Parse the nouns, adjectives, and verbs in this sentence, using the form given in Lesson 8. Diacramine. Write noisily on a slanting line drawn from the line upon which the predicate is written. EXERCISE 9 Analyze and diagram. the following sentences. Parse the nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the even-numbered sentences. 1. A great victory was finally won. 2. These questions may be settled peaceably. 3. The tired child slept soundly. 4. Times will surely change. . 5. A blue butterfly fluttered lightly down. 6. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 7. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 8. The precious morning hours should not, be idly wasted. _ 9. You will undoubtedly be cordially welcomed. 10. A furious wintry gale has been blowing. 7 OTHER MODLFIERS 27 LESSON 10 OTHER MODIFIERS Modifiers are themselves often modified, as in the following sentence, where more modifies plainly, and still modifies more. Diagram. The whole class must speak still more plainly. The modifier more is written on a line parallel with plainly, with a short connecting line. Sézll, in a similar way, is writ- ten on a line parallel with more, which it modifies. Awatysts. This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is the whole class; the complete predicate is must speak still more plainly. The subject substantive is the noun class; the predicate verb is must speak. Class is modi- fied by the adjectives the and whole. Must speak is modified by the words still more plainly. Plainly is modified by more, and more is modified by sézll. Ve EXERCISE 10 Y Analyze or diagram the following sentences: 1. The graceful aéroplane mounted still higher. 2. Our touring car has traveled very far, 28 PART ONE: GRAMMAR . The boy scouts are marching daily. . Perhaps he will return. . We laughed very heartily. . A torn jacket is soon mended. . Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. CON Hi ct B Oo . The visitor will soon be here. 9. An absolutely innocent man was very cruelly perse- - cuted. 2 10. A very enjoyable entertainment was provided. 11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unexpectedly. - 12. Why will people exaggerate so much? LESSON 11 ADVERBS You have learned that the predicate may be qualitied or limited by modifiers, and that one modifier may limit another. Words used to limit the predicate of a sentence and those used to limit modifiers belong to one class, or one part of speech. They are called adverbs. | “She spoke too harshly.”’ What word tells how she spoke? What word tells how harshly? What do we eall the words too and harshly? . “Too much time has been wasted.” What word modifies much, by telling how much? What part of speech is much? Since too modifies much, which is ADVERBS | 29 itself a modifier, too is an adverb. Adverbs, then, may modify adjectives. Why is éoo in the first sentence an adverb? Why is too in the second sentence an adverb? Why is harshly an adverb? ‘An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. ORAL PARSING. She spoke too harshly. She is a pronoun because it is used instead of a noun. Spoke is a verb because it asserts. Too is an adverb because it modifies an adverb. Harshly is an adverb because it modifies the verb spoke. Written Parsinc. Use the model in Lesson 8, adding a column for adverbs. EXERCISE i1 Analyze or diagram the following sentences. Parse the words. ye _ My bicycle tire was punctured yesterday. . _ The kite’ soared very high. _ The water gushed forth. _ The ninepins were knocked down. - You should listen more attentively. That class was especially interested to-day. . An especially interesting visitor called. An extravagantly high price was paid. _ That lady dresses extravagantly. SeLMmMONOaRrWN HE _ Softly the snow was falling. 30 | put COND A Kh ww ok (SB) PART ONE: GRAMMAR LESSON 12 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES EXERCISE 12 Analyze or diagram the following sentences. Parse the words. . You must diagram neatly. . The ball teams were called together. . The teams are evenly matched. © . The reckless adventurer has returned. . John swims very rapidly. White, fleecy clouds are floating above. . Those severe laws have been repealed. . A republican government was established. . The holiday never comes too soon. . An unusually large crop had just been harvested. 11. A season so extremely warm had never before been known. 12. So brave a deed cannot be too warmly commended. Can be commended is the verb, and not is an adverb. To the Teacher. After the pupils understand the method of diagraming, the sentences in the exercises may be diagramed or not, at the discretion of the teacher. V LESSON 13 A PHRASE INTRODUCED BY A PREPOSITION You have seen that several words may be grouped». together and used as one modifier. In the examples PHRASES 31 given, the principal word is joined directly to the sub- ject substantive or to the predicate verb and is modified by another word. In this lesson, groups of words are used as modifiers; but these words are not united with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, as in the preceding lessons. | “De Soto marched) into Florida.” What words tell where De Soto marched? What is the principal word of the group which tells where he marched? —s, Groups of related words, like into Florida, are called phrases. They are diagramed in this way: De Soto marched eG nee = © Florida A phrase modifying the subject of a sentence is equivalent to an adjective and frequently may be changed into one. It is, therefore, called an adjec- tive phrase. ‘‘The colors of the sunset) are fad- ing.” What word may be used for the phrase of the sunset? ; : A phrase modifying the predicate verb 1s equivalent to an adverb and frequently may be changed into one. Such a phrase is called an adverbial phrase. “‘We shall go to that place.’”’ What word may be used for the phrase to that place? A phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought. X 39 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Dracram. The finest trout. in the lake are generally caught in the deepest water. trout are caught Notice that the diagram of the phrase is made up of 2. slanting line for the introductory and connecting word, and a horizontal line for the principal word. Under the prin- cipal word are placed the slanting lines for its modifiers. Here and elsewhere, all modifiers are joined to the principal words by slanting lines. ANALYSIS. This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is the finest trout in the lake; the complete predicate is are generally caught in the deepest water. The subject substantive is the noun trout; the predicate verb is are caught. Trout is modified by the adjectives the and finest, and by the phrase in the lake. In introduces the phrase, : and lake is the principal word; the modifies lake. Are caught is modified by the adverb generally and by the phrase an the deepest water. In introduces the phrase, and water is the principal word; the adjectives the and deepest modily water. EXERCISE 13 I. 1. Change the words in these phrases to adjectives or adverbs: The nations of America should be friendly. We walked toward home. | The cities of the West grew rapidly. You must diagram with care. PREPOSITIONS 30 2. To each of the following words add one or more words ‘0 complete a phrase. Use each phrase in @ sentence. to by. at in from with on : over Il. Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nouns, pro- nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 1. Parkman traveled among the Western Indians. 9. The history of his trip tells about their interesting customs. | 3/Large herds of buffaloes once roamed on the great plains. A. The Indians on horseback raced on the vast prairies. - _ The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. - _ The gloom of winter settled down on everything: “I aa ON A gentle breeze blows from the south. 8 The top of the mountain 1s covered with snow. 9. The second Continental Congress met at Phila- delphia. 10. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 11. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 12. The wet grass sparkled in the sunlight. LESSON 14 PREPOSITIONS “The boy jumped into the brook.” Notice that into is placed before a noun, and with it forms a phrase. It belongs to a class of words called prepositions. These 34 PART ONE: GRAMMAR words introduce phrases. The preposition shows the relation of one thing to another, as expressed: by the princioal word of the phrase (brook) and the word which the phrase modifies (jumped). The preposition serves also to connect these words. In the sentence ‘“‘The squirrel ran up a tree,’ what word.shows the relation between the act of running and the tree? ; Repeat the above sentence about the squirrel, and in each repetition substitute for wp one of these prep- ositions: over, through, to, under, from, round, behind, down, into. A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a prepositional phrase. The substantive following a preposition is called the object of the preposition. A preposition is a word that introduces a phrase and Shows the relation of its object to the word modified by the phrase. WRITTEN Parsinc. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate. Nouns | Pron. | Adjectives | Verbs Adverbs | Prepositions subject — The |is placed | generally of sentence a before predicate ine PREPOSITIONS 35 OraL Parsine. The is an adjective because it modifies the noun subject; subject is a noun because it is the name of something; of is a preposition because it shows the relation between subject and sentence; a is an adjective because it modifies the noun sentence; sentence is a noun because it 1s the name of something. Is placed is a verb because it asserts ; generally is an adverb because it modifies the verb is.placed. ° Before is a preposition because it shows the relation between is placed and predicate; the is an adjective because it modifies the noun predicate; predicate is a noun because it is the name of something. | | EXERCISE 14 According to the models above, parse the words wn these sentences: 1. The frugal snail retreats to his small domicile. 2. A smiling landscape lay before us. 3. Columbus was born at Genoa. : 4. The mouth of the Mississippi was discovered by La Salle. : 5. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters. 6. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. 7. The ground squirrel gayly chirps by his den. 8. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. ; | 9, The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the water. ” x : In the first phrase, shores is modified by another phrase, of the United States. Similarly, the principal word of the phrase by the blueness is modified by another phrase. 36 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 10. In 1607 Hudson sailed within six hundred miles of the North Pole. The date i607 may be treated here as a noun, and six hundred as one adjective. S afternoons 11. The library is open only on Satur- day afternoons. The adverb only modifies the whole phrase. 12. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara River just below the falls. Just modifies the preposition below. 13. In Mother Goose, the cow jumps clear over the moon. 14. The long-lost explorers have been brought back from the Arctic regions to Canada. LESSON 15 COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE “Frank, Helen, and Elizabeth played tennis.” ‘The three words Frank, Helen, and Elizabeth have the same predicate—the same act being asserted of the boy and the two girls. Frank, Helen, and Elizabeth are connected by and—another and being understood between the first two names. Connected subjects having the same predicate form a compound subject. . “We rode, tramped, and swam almost every day last summer.’ The three predicates, rode, tramped, and swam, have the same subject——the three acts being asserted of the same group of people. Connected predicates having the same subject form a compound predicate. | COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 37 A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as, Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. Two or more connected subjects having the same predi- cate form a compound subject. ; Two or more connected predicates having the same sub- — ject form a compound predicate. Diacram. Ceesar came, saw, and conquered. came - Caesar The short line following the subject represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents a part of the com- pound predicate. ‘These horizontal lines are united by a dotted line, which stands for the connecting words. ‘The x denotes that an and is understood. In a similar way, a compound subject is diagramed on horizontal lines connected with the main line. For an illustration, see the diagram of Sentence 8, Exercise 15. Orat Anatysis. This is a declarative sentence. Cesar is the subject; came, saw, and conquered form the compound predicate, and connects saw and conquered. EXERCISE 15 Analyze these sentences: 1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. 2. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house. 38 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 3. Glass, china, and reputation are easily cracked and are never well mended. 4. Time and tide wait for no man. 5. Arizona and New Mexico were admitted to the Union in 1912. 6. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back — of the eyeball and there spreads out. 7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds ot hinges are found in the human body. 8. Both man and horse were saved. The word both is used to 0am strengthen the real connective and. In a similar way, either strengthens or in the evther- or combination, and nether strengthens nor. 9, The strange rumbling sound neither increased nor diminished. WW. Either John or Henry must go. ‘11. The Norman kings of England came from a foreign land and of a for- elgn race. 12. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. For the method of diagraming sentence 12, see the diagram on page 37. The slanting lines of the modifiers mental, moral, and muscular are connected by dotted lines, upon which are placed the and and the symbol xX. 13. Through the Suez Canal, scores of ships, British and German and French, pass yearly to India. 14. A kind of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other parts of Asia. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 39 LESSON 16 CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS Such words as and and or, used to connect words and phrases, belong to a class of words called conjunctions. They connect modifiers; as, A daring but foolish feat was performed. They connect phrases; as, We shall travel by railway and by automobile. They connect clauses—that is, expressions which, standing alone, would be sentences; as, Men may come and men may go. A conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. The interjection is the eighth and last part of speech. Interjections are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to other words in the sentence. You will recognize them in the words expressing sud- den or strong feeling in these sentences: Hurrah! the field is won. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. Alas! what have they done? An interjection is a word used to express strong or sud- den feeling. a \ 40 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Wrrrren Parsinc. Hurrah! that cool and fearless fire- man has rushed into the house and up to the burning stairs. ee ————————— Nouns | Pron. | Adjec. | Adv.| Verbs | Prep.| Cong. Int. es a al ES, jaa a fireman that into and | Hurrah house cool has up | and rushed | to stairs fearless the the burning In a diagram, the interjection is written on’ a short line placed above the rest of the diagram and unconnected with it. EXERCISE 16 Analyze these sentences and parse each word: i. Ah! I am surprised at the news. 2. Pshaw! you have been fooled. 3. Alas! all hope is fled. M. Ah! happy men, women, and children cheer joyfully | at the news. ‘ —5. Tush! tush! ’t will not appear. -6. The small but dauntless band of explorers were finally rescued from the ice-floe. +7. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. +8. ‘The Revolutionary War began at Lexington and ended ‘at Yorktown. . COMPLEMENTS; THE DIRECT OBJECT 41 9. This courageous reformer fought against ignorance and prejudice, greed and oppression, treachery and falsehood. A0. Few honest, industrious men fail of success in life. 11. Why! Where did you come from? 12. The frozen but valuable territory of Alaska was pur- chased in 1867 by the United States. 13. The wealth of gold, fish, and coal, in Alaska was soon discovered. 14. Down the rivers, o’er the prairies, Came the warriors of the nations. -——~{5. I wind about, and in and out. LESSON 17 L io COMPLEMENTS; THE DIRECT OBJECT In saying ‘‘ Washington captured,” we do not fully express the act performed by Washington. If we adda noun and say, ‘‘Washington captured Cornwallis,” we — complete the predicate by naming that which receives the act. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a complement. Cornwallis, therefore, is the complement of the predi- cate. As Cornwallis completes the predicate by naming the object directly acted upon, we call it the object complement or the direct object. Connected objects that complete the same verb form a compound object complement; as, Washington captured Cornwailis and his army. The direct object completes the predicate and names that which receives the act. 42 PART ONE: GRAMMAR DiacraM. Liars should have good memories. Liars , should have , memories OraL Anazysts. Memories is the direct object; memories is modified by the adjective good. EXERCISE 17 Analyze these sentences: 1. Morse invented the telegraph. | 2. Phrases form a large portion of almost every sentence: 8. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 4. By the beginning of the twentieth century, machinery had entered and revolutionized nearly every branch of manv- facturing. had entered machinery p branch . _x_ revolutionized The x denotes that a word ‘is understood; in this case, had. 5. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. | revolves Notice that the perpendicular line before the direct object touches, but does not cut, the main line. 6. Through vales of grass and meads of flowers, Our plows their furrows made. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN } 43 7. The history of the Trojan War rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of an- tiquity. 8 James and Jobn study and recite grammar and erithmetic. LESSON 18 PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND PREDICATE NOUN A complete predicate expresses something that is asserted. In the sentence ‘‘Soldiers march,” march is a complete predicate, for it expresses what is asserted. In the phrase soldiers marching, the word marching expresses an act, but it asserts nothing. In the sen- tence ‘Steel is hard,” zs asserts, but it does not express what is asserted. We do not wish to assert merely that steel is, or exists; we wish to assert of steel the quality described by the adjective hard. As hard ex- presses a quality, or attribute, of the subject, we may call it an attribute complement. “The maple leaves become.’ The verb become does not make a complete predicate; it does not fully ex- press the idea to be asserted. The idea may be com- pletely expressed by adding the adjective red, denoting the quality by which we wish to describe the leaves. ‘The maple leaves become red.” Here the adjective red is the attribute complement. An adjective used as attribute complement is called a predicate adjective. | “Lizards are. reptiles.”” The noun repivles completes the predicate by naming the class to which lizards be- long. 44 PART ONE: GRAMMAR “Rolfe’s wife was Pocahontas.” Pocahontas com- pletes the predicate by presenting a second idea, which was asserts to be identical with the subject. A noun used as attribute complement is called a predicate noun. The attribute complement of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. Diracram. Glass is brittle. Glass | as \ brittle The line standing for the attribute complement is—like the line for an object—a continuation of the predicate line; but notice that the line separating the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward the subject, to show that the complement is an attribute of the subject. EXERCISE 18 Analyze these sentences: 1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile. 3. Necessity is the mother of invention. 4. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 5. Commerce and industry are the best roines of a nation. ? “6 The ear is the ever open gateway of the soul, 7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 8 Snowflakes and hailstones are frozen raindrops. 9g. A little learning is a dangerous thing. ANALYSIS AND PARSING , 45 10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 11. The one serviceable, safe, certain quality in every study and in every pursuit is the quality of attention. 12. The north wind is full of courage; and puts the stamina of endurance into a man. 13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and ad- venture in it. 14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grumbling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and suggestions of luxurious ease. LESSON 19 ~ ANALYSIS AND PARSING EXERCISE 19 Analyze these sentences and parse the words: ) 1. The ‘“Boston News-Letter” was the first newspaper in the United States. 2. Bunyan wrote his famous book in prison. 3. The first vice president of the United States was John Adams. 4. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 5. Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 6. The first wireless message was sent across the English Channel in 1899. 46 PART“ONE: GRAMMAR 7. March came in as a lion and went out as a lamb. — Lion, like lamb, is a pred- icate noun. The diagram shows that as simply intro- ‘duces lion. and lamb, —as being a conjunction. But some authorities classify as as a preposition, thus mak- ing as a lion a prepositional phrase modifying came, and as a lamb a prepositional phrase modifying went. 8 Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 9. He came a foe and returned a friend. 10. The bark of the cork tree is used as stoppers for bottles. 11. With time and patience, the mulberry becomes satin. | 12. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. 13. I am present. 14. 1 am ‘here. The function, or work, of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into that of an adjective and is not easily distinguished from it. Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am, and like an adverb, to modify it. From their form and usual function, here in sentence 14 is classed as an adverb, and present in sentence 13 is classed as an adjective. LESSON 20 OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS ‘He made the wall white.’’ Here made does not fully express the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, ‘He made the white wall,” but “He OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS 47 made-white (whitened) the wall.” White helps made to express the act, and at the same: time it denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the act. _ “They made David king.”” Here made does not fully express the act. They did not make David, but made- king (crowned) David. King helps made to express the act, and at the same time denotes the office tu which the act raised David. | | A word that, like the adjective white or the noun king, helps to complete the predicate and belongs to the object is called an objective complement. It differs from an attribute complement by belonging, not to the subject, but to the object. : DIAGRAM. They made David king. They | made / king David EXERCISE 20 . Analyze or diagram these sentences: 1. Some one has called the eye the window of the sou]. 2. Longfellow once called the stars the forget-me-nots of the angels. ie 3. Pharaoh made J oseph governor in Egypt. 4. We should consider time as a sacred trust, ' As is used simply to introduce an objective complement. o. Men called Washington “The Father of his Country.” 6. The Indian warriors painted their faces many colors. 7. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin, 8. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 9. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 48 - PART ONE: GRAMMAR LESSON 21 ANALYSIS AND PARSING 6: eee Silver is mined in Alaska, Mexico, and the United States. Silver , is mined In this diagram the line representing the principal words of the phrase is continued as three separate lines. This shows that the phrase is compound. Alaska, Mexico, and United States are all introduced by the same preposition 7n, and have the same relation to is mined. In the above sentence the preposition in has a compound object. ‘oe EXERCISE 21 Analyze these sentences and parse. the words: 1. The mills of England use much cotton from India. 2. The aéroplane brought mail from France, Switzerland, and Italy. 2 Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 4. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 5. The Panama Canal shortens the water route from New York to Manila. 6. The life of the bee is short but busy. REVIEW 49 7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different S1zes. 8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 9. The first. permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown in 1607. | 10. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. 11. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 12. The bamboo furnishes, to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, weapons, and clothing. — Notice that in sentence 8 were introduced is modified by the two phrases into England and from China. The whole phrase into England from China is a compound phrase. . Notice that in sentence 12 natives, the principal word of the phrase to the natives, is modified by another phrase, of China. The whole phrase to the natives of China is a complex phrase. LESSON 22 REVIEW EXERCISE ,22 Make sentences which contain the following: . A compound subject. . A compound predicate. . An attribute complement. . A direct object. . An objective complement. . A predicate noun. aS oP FO De 50 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 7. A predicate adjective. g A noun used as objective complement. 9, An adjective used as objective complement. 10. A phrase modifying the subject. 11. A phrase modifying the predicate. 12. A preposition with a compound object. : 13. An adverb modifying a phrase. (See Exercise 14, sentence 11.) LESSON 238 PARTICIPLES A quality may be assumed as belonging to a thing (as, brittle glass), or that it may be asserted of it (as, Glass is brittle): An action, also, may be assumed as belong- ing to something (as, Peter turning), or it may be as- serted (as, Peter turned). In the expression ‘‘ Peter, turning, said,’ which word assumes an action, and which asserts an action? Think of other examples of an action asserted and an action assumed; as, horses gallop, horses galloping; corn grows, corn growing. ? This form of the verb which merely assumes the act, being, or state 1s called a participle. In the expression ‘Peter, turning, said,” the word turning modifies the noun Peter. It therefore has the function of an adjective. | A participle is a form of the verb which has also the na- ture of an adjective; it expresses the action or being as assumed. PARTICIPLES dl A phrase introduced by a participle is called a parti- cipial phrase.. When the words growing and-galloping are placed before the nouns (as, growing corn, galloping horses), they simply tell the kind of corn and the kind of horses, and are therefore adjectives. They are not classed as verbs. When the or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a preposition after them (as, the growing of the corn, the galloping of the horses), they are simply the names of actions, and are therefore nouns. ‘They are not classed as verbs. DracraMm. ‘Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. Truth will rise In this diagram, the line standing for the principal word of the participial phrase 1s broken; one part slants, and the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle crushed is used like an adjective to modify truth, and yet retains the nature of a verb, expressing an action received by truth. Orat Anatysis. This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is truth crushed to earth; the subject sub- stantive is truth. The complete predicate is will rise again; the predicate verb is will rise. ‘Truth is modified by the phrase crushed to earth. The participle crushed is modified by the prepositional phrase to earth; to is the preposition, 52 PART ONE: GRAMMAR and earth is its object. Will rise is modified by the adverb again. . Parsing. Crushed is the form of the verb called parti- ciple. The action expressed by it is merely assumed. EXERCISE 23 | Analyze and parse: 1. A cobweb spread over a blossom protects it from the chill of the night. 2. Your mother, beholding you, will shed tears of joy. 3. The general,-riding to the front, led the attack. 4. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. 5. Wealth acquired. dishonestly will prove a curse. 6. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 7. The giant, perceiving | Hercules, roared in a voice resembling thunder. 7 8. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. 9. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 10. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New - Netherlands. 3 11. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed at Trenton. 12. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or more words, as in sentence. 8 above. The participle, like the adjective, may modify a noun used as complement, as in sentence 9 above. L FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES 53 LESSON 24 FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES EXERCISE 24 Analyze the numbered sentences and parse the words: The participle may be used as an attribute comple- ment. 1. The boys came racing along. Racing here completes the predicate verb came, and belongs to the subject boys. The boys are tepresented as performing the act of coming and the accompanying act of racing. 2. The city lies sleeping. 3. They stood terrified. 4. The student sat buried in thought. 5. The cross-legged tailor kept stitching and snipping and piecing. The participle may be used as an objective comple- ment. 6. He kept me waiting. Waiting completes kept and relates to the object me. Kepft- waiting expresses the complete act performed upon me. He kept- waiting me=He detained me. 54 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 7. He found his burden growing heavy. The diagram representing the phrase growing heavy is drawn above the main line, on which it rests by means of a support. All that stands on this support is the objective complement. Notice that the little mark be- fore the support slants toward the direct object. The adjective heavy completes growing and belongs to burden, the object of found. « . 8. He owned himself defeated. 9. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. The participle may be used in an independent or absolute phrase; that is, a phrase consisting of a sub- stantive used independently with a participle. 10. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. The diagram of the absolute phrase stands by itself. 11. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens’s ‘‘constitutionals.” 12. Breakfast finished, they started for the woods. Being is understood, making the absolute phrase, Breakfast being finished. LESSON 25 iNFINITIVES There is another form of the verb which, like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence. for it INFINITIVES 59 does not assert; as, He comes to msit us; To lie is a disgrace. As this form of the verb expresses the action or being in a general way, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an infinitive, which means without limit. An infinitive may be used in several ways. ‘“T have a duty to perform.’’ What does the infinitive modify? What is its function? “He wishes to speak.’ What does the infinitive modify? What is its function? ‘“To lie is base.’”’ Whatis base? ‘‘He tried to sing.” What did he try? To lie is a subject, and to sing is an object. The infinitive is used as an adjective, an abverb, and a noun. ‘ ia Infinitives may be completed by objects and com- plements; as, I tried to cross the stormy lake. The phrase introduced by the infinitive is called an infini- _ tive phrase. Norn. In the sentence ‘I tried fo cross the stormy lake,” the - infinitive phrase, being used as a noun, is called a substantive phrase. The infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without making an asser- ° ¢ tion. , Do not place an adverb or any other word after to of the infinitive. It is better to say, ‘‘I try to learn the lesson thoroughly’”’; not ‘“‘I try to thoroughly learn the lesson.” ‘This incorrect form is sometimes called the split infinitive. 56 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Diacram. Noah hastened to build an ark. Noah , hastened 3 Anatysts. Hastened is modified by the infinitive to dud, having ark as its object; an modifies ark. : Parsinc. To build is an infinitive; it modifies the verb hastened. EXERCISE 25 {. Make twelve sentences, each containing an infinite. Il. Analyze and parse: 1. I come not here to talk. 2. I hope to find it. | 3. Books are spectacles to read nature. . 4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to seek aid for the colonies. 5. To-err is human. The diagram indicates that to merely introduces the word err.. This phrase subject cannot be written on the subject line because two lines are needed to express it properly. It is placed, therefore, above the subject line, upon which it rests by means of a support. A phrase used as a complement is diagramed in a similar way and rests on the complement line. 6. The hands refuse to labor. 7. To be silent is the best answer to calumny. 8. The Puritans desired te obtain religious freedom. ence CS FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 57 9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were un- able to conquer themselves. 10. Columbus sailed from Spain to discover a new route to India. 11. Bismarck, attempting to unite the German States, worked hard and brilliantly. LESSON 26 FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES EXERCISE 26 _ Analyze and parse: The infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier. _ 1. Every individual has a place to. fill in this world. 2. Every one should acquire the power to write a good letter. Fe } 3. Once to every man and nation comes the moment te decide. | The infinitive may be used as an adverbial modifier. 4. We will strive to please you. ‘5. Lincoln never turned from his course to gain favor. 6. This trait in Lincoln helped to make him great. 7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. The infinitive here modifies the adjective hard. To heal=to be healed. 8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders 58 PART ONE: GRAMMAR away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. The infinitive here modifies the adverb enough. To eat=to be eaten. a The infinitive may be used as subject or as attribute complement. 10. To be simple is to be great. To, in each of these phrases, shows no relation—it serves merely to introduce. The complements simple and great are adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to modify. 11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To climb steep hills requires slow pace at first. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent. The infinitive phrase here has the function of an adjective. To be innocent=innocent. 15. Suddenly the distant pate pes to shoot Sow. ard. ee "The infinitive may be used as the direct object. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves. 17. No one can sincerely try to help another without helps ing himself. The infinitive may be used after a preposition as the principal term of a phrase. FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 59 18. The storm seemed about to overtake us. The preposition about in- troduces the phrase used as attribute complement. The principal term is the infini- tive phrase to overtake us. o* overtake 19. The reapers were now about to bind the grain in sheaves. 20. No way remains but to go on. But is here a preposition. LESSON 27 FUNCTIONS OF INFINITIVES ; INFINITIVE CLAUSES In general, an infinitive, although a form ef the verb, has no subject; but there is a special case where it may have one; as, I believe him to be qualified. Him to be qualified is the object of believe. Him is. regarded as the subject of the infinitive to be. Such a construction as him to be qualified is called an infinitive clause, because it has a subject and a predicate. Instead of using the term infinitive clause, some authori- ties would say that the infinitive phrase to be qualified is the objective complement and him the direct object of believe. Notice that him, not he, is used as the subject of an infinitive. An infinitive clause may be used as the object of the preposition for. The entire clause, introduced by fer, 60 PART ONE: GRAMMAR may be the subject of the verb, an attribute comple- ment, a modifier, or the object of a prepositivn. Examputes. No course remained but for the general to surrender. (Object of the preposition but) For me to tell you that would be unfair. (Subject) EXERCISE 27 Analyze these sentences: The infinitive may be used as an explanatory modifier or appositive. 1. It is well to be attentive. ee o) The infinitive phrase to be attentive explains the subject it. Read the sen- tence without zt, and you will see the real nature of the phrase. attentive well The use of zt as a substitute for the real subject is a common idiom! of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb. The word 2, used in this way, is called an expletive, which means a word added to fill a vacancy. There is an expletive in the nee writing about it. 3. It is natural to: man to indulge in the illusions of hope. The infinitive may be used independently. In the diagram, the independent element must stand by itself, 4. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 1 Expressions which are peculiar to any language we call its idioms. The English language has a great many idioms, or idiomatic expres- sions. Such expressions cannot be translated word for word into an- other language, and many of them cannot be satisfactorily analyzed. Exampies. It is they. We had better go. How do you do? PARTICIPLES ‘AND INFINITIVES 61 5. To be brief, the Indian tribes were Fea driven across the Mississippi. The infinitive clause may be used as direct object. 6. We believed him to be our friend. Sriend belaeved 7. He made me wait. Wait is an infinitive without to. The verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see are followed by the infinitive without to. 8. He declared the accusationto_be false, 9. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. 10. I saw the leaves stir. oe The infinitive clause may be the object of the preposi- tion for. il. For man to forgive an injury is noble. Diagram for like about in sentence 18, page 09 (but resting on - the subject line), and the infinitive clause as in sentence 6 above, 12. It is hard for an empty bag to stand reetane The infinitive clause is an appositive of ¢f. 13. My plan is for you to visit us. The infinitive clause is an attribute complement. LESSON 28 REVIEW OF PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES EXERCISE 28 Make sentences giving examples of the following: 1. A participle. 62 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 2. A participle used as attribute complement. 3. A participle used as objective complement. 4. A noun and a participle used absolutely, or inde- pendently. 5. An infinitive. 6. An infinitive used as subject of a verb. 7. An infinitive used as adjective modifier. 8. An infinitive used as adverbial modifier. 9. An infinitive used as attribute complement. 10. An infinitive used as direct object. 11. An infinitive used as object of a preposition. 12. An infinitive used as appositive modifier. 13. An infinitive used independently. ‘ 14. An infinitive clause used as direct object. 15. An infinitive clause used as object of for. LESSON 29 GERUNDS The gerund, or verbal noun, is a form of the verb end- ing in ing, which has also the nature of a noun. Exampies. You will find difficulty in solving this problem. Reading good books is profitable. Just being happy is good work and true. When the word denoting the action no longer retains — any of its verbal nature, it is a mere noun. Examptes. Walking and riding are healthful exercises. In Paris he studied painting. The cackling of geese saved Rome. Give your brains a racking. GERUNDS 63 EXERCISE 29 Analyze the numbered sentences and parse the words vn them: The gerund may be used as the principal word in a prepositional phrase. _ 1. We are harmed in doing harm. The line representing the gerund We, are harmed is broken; the first part represents the gerund as a, noun and the other 3S dorng yen as a verb. Anatysis. Are harmed is modified by the phrase in doing harm; in is a preposition and doing harm is its object. Harm is the object of the gerund doing. 2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without pie ducing any pain. 3, Next to being a great poet is the power of under- standing one. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffermg without having suffered. ‘Suffering here is a noun. The gerund may be the principal word in a phrase used as subject or as object. manageng 1 sailboat 6. His managing the sail- boat so skillfully saved him from shipwreck. The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the sub- ject line. All that rests on the subject lme is regarded as the subject. 64 /PART ONE: GRAMMAR 7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 8. Hunting the Arctic bear is an exciting and dangerous sport. | | 9. Catching the dog was not an easy matter. - 10. Repairing steeples is a dangerous profession. The form of the verb ending in ing may be a mere noun. 11. The crowing of the rooster announced the dawn. 12. There was a rustling that seemed like a bustling of merry crowds. 13. Swimming and skating are my favorite sports. 14. All the little boys and girls, With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls, Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. In sentence 14, what words ending in ing are nouns, and what words are not? LESSON 30:7. . ' 3 e NOUNS AS MODIFIERS; A; POSITIVES In the sentence ‘‘The robin’s eggs are blue,” what word names the things owned or possessed? What word names the owner or possessor? : The noun robin’s is here used as a. modifier. You see that it is the word robin with an apostrophe (’) and the letter s added to denote possession. In the sentence “Longfellow, the poet, is loved by the children,” the noun poel modifies the subject Longfellow, by explaining what Longfellow 1s meant. _ NOUN MODIFIERS; APPOSITIVES 65 Both words name the same person. The word poet is in apposition with Longfellow; it is called an ap- positive. _A word in apposition with another word explains it by referring to the same thing. An appositive is usually set off from the rest of the sentence by the comma. Dracram. The good ship Trifler was wrecked off Cape Cod. ship (Trifler) ile wrecked Trifler is written on the subject line because Trifler and ship both name the same thing, but Trifler is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that ship is the proper subject. Anatysis. Ship is modified by the article the and the adjective good, and by the noun Trifler in apposition with ship. EXERCISE 30 Analyze these sentences: 1. The South Pole was discovered by a SN or rerian explorer, Amundsen. 2. The planet Jupiter has nine moons. 3. Peter’s wife’s mother lay sick of a fever. 4, An ostrich outruns an Arab’s horse. 5. Mary, the unfortunate queen of Scots, was imprisoned by her cousin, Elizabeth. 6. Milton, the great English ss became blind. 66 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 7. David swore eternal friendship with Jonathan, Saul’s son. 8. Alexander’s horse, Bucephalus, is one of the famous horses in history. 9. Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the Ishmaelites. 1¢. Alexander the Great was educated under the cele- brated philosopher, Aristotle. Alexander the Great is treated as one name. 11. Friends tie their purses with a spider’s thread. 12. Robin Hood lived and hunted in Sherwood, a famous forest of Old England. 13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. 14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword. LESSON 31 WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY A sentence sometimes contains words and phrases which have no a connection with the rest of the sentence. 1. ‘Good name in man or woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls.” Dear my lord serves only to arrest attention, oe: is | ee by address. “Clever dog! he found his way home across a whole shine Clever dog is independent by exclamation. 3. “Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me.” Rod and staff simply call attention to the objects before INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES 67 anything is said of them and are independent by pleonasm — a construction that is out of place in ordi- nary speech. The word pleonasm means more than. enough. In grammar, it indicates that more words are used than are needed to express the thought. 4. “His master being absent, the business was neg- lected.” His master being absent logically modifies the verb was neglected, by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore independent. This is called the absolute phrase. An absolute vhrase consists of a substantive used inde- pendently with a modifying participle. 5. ‘His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable.” Speaking is a participle without connection, and with the adverb generally forms an independent phrase. “To confess the truth, I was wrong.” The infinitive phrase is independent. 6. The adverbs well, now, why, there are sometimes independent. | Exampues. Well, that is finished at last. Now, isn’t that a.good story? Why, it is already noon. There are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. 7. Interjections are without grammatical connection, and hence are independent. 68 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 8. Whatever is inclosed within marks of parenthesis is independent of the rest of the sentence; as, I staked my fame (and I had fame), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast. EXERCISE 31 Analyze these sentences: 1. The most beautiful moths, children, were once but caterpillars. Children is independent by address. But=only, and is an adjec- tive modifying caterpillars. 2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story intellects with skylights. | There is used idiomatically to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded out of the word. The word there used merely to introduce the sentence is an expletive. ‘To express place, another there may follow the verb; as, There is gold there. 3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. . Hope lost, all is lost. . The smith, a mighty man is he. . Well, this is the forest of Arden. 4 5 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep market, a pool. | | 9. To tell the truth, we never thought of stopping. 10. Gentlemen of the jury, a man’s dog stands by him in prosperity and in poverty, in sickness and in health. 11. Properly speaking, there can be no change in our affairs. NOUNS AS ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 69 LESSON 32 NOUNS AS ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS “‘T gave her arose.” Here we have a construction that is sometimes called a double object. Rose, naming the thing acted upon, is called the direct object; and her, naming the person toward whom the act is directed, is called the indirect object. These indirect objects, which generally denote the person to or for whom something is done, are, in fact; equivalent to adverbial phrase modifiers. If we change the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied; as, I gave her a rose; I gave a rose to her. I bought her a rose; I bought a rose for her. He asked me a question; He asked a question of me. When the indirect object precedes the direct object, po preposition is expressed or understood. Teach, tell, send, promise, permit, and lend are ex- amples of verbs that take indirect objects.. Besides these indirect objects, nouns denoting meas- ure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direc- tion, are often used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers. Exampues. We rode thirty miles an hour. It weighs one pound. It is worth a dollar a yard. They drove home that way. The gate is ten feet six inches high. : 70 PART ONE: GRAMMAR The idiom of the language does not often allow the use of a preposition before nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. In analysis, you need not supply one. Diagram. They awarded Roosevelt the Nobel Peace Prize several years ago. They , awarded , Nobel Peace Prize OraL Anatysts. Roosevelt and years are nouns used ad- verbially, modifying the predicate verb awarded. EXERCISE 32 Analyze these sentences: 1. We pay the President of the United States $75, 000 a year. 2, 3. Give me neither poverty nor es 4. We went to New Haven the day of the races. 5. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, ‘and ten eents a pound for his sugar. 6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 7. Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers | * forth on this continent a new nation. 8. On the fatal field of Zutphen, September 22, 1586, his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold_water. 9. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. . REVIEW 71 10. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. 11. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 12. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. LESSON 33 REVIEW EXERCISE 33 Write sentences containing 1. A participle. 2. A gerund. 3. A noun derived from a verb and ending in ing. 4. A gerund used as the object of a preposition. 5. A gerund used as subject. 6. A noun showing possession ‘used ‘as _ adjective modifier. ‘7. A noun modifying another noun by apposition. 8. A noun independent by address. 9. A participial phrase used independently. 10. An infinitive phrase used independentiy. . 11. Now used independently. 12. Now used as an adverb. | 13. There used independently. 14. There used as an adverb. 15. A noun used as indirect object 16. An absolute phrase. 72 PART ONE: GRAMMAR LESSON 34 COMPLEX SENTENCES The sentences given for analysis in the preceding lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called simple sentences. “4 wealthy man can do much good.” You can ex- pand the adjective wealthy into a phrase, and say, “A man of wealth can do much good.” You can also ex- pand it into an expression that asserts, and say, “A man who is wealthy can do much good.” The two parts of the sentence, who is wealthy and a man can do much good, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call clauses. The clause who is wealthy, which is used like an ad _ jective, we call a subordinate clause. The clause a man ~can do much good, which makes good sense by itself, we call the principal clause. £ The whole sentence, composed of a principal and a subordinate clause, we call a complex sentence. Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called adjective clauses. A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate. A subordinate clause is one used as an adjective, an ad- verb, or a noun. A principal clause is one that is not dependent on another clause. COMPLEX SENTENCES ray ses A simple sentence is one that contains only one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be com- pound. | A complex sentence is one composed of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Diagram. A man who speaks the truth stabs false- hood. The line standing for the ”@”_ stabs | falsehood - subject and predicate of the \7 \ principal clause is heavier \ than that of the subordinate who Ne speaks| truth clause. This pictures to you \e the relative importance of e the two clauses. The pronoun who is written on the subject line of the sub- ordinate clause. But this word performs the function of a conjunction also, and this function is expressed in the diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, we have indicated in this diagram that who speaks the truth is a modifier of man. Anatysts. This is a complex sentence because it consists of a principal and a subordinate clause. A man stabs false- hood is the principal clause; who speaks the truth is the subordinate clause. A man who speaks the truth is the com- plete subject of the sentence; the subject substantive is man. Man is modified by the adjective a and by the adjec- tive clause who speaks the truth. Stabs falsehood is the predi- cate of the sentence. Stabs is the verb. Falsehood is its direct object. Who is the subject of the subordinate clause; speaks the truth is the predicate; speaks is the verb, and truth is its direct obiect.. Truth is modified by the adjective the. 74 PART ONE: GRAMMAR EXERCISE 34 Analyze and parse: 1. He that runs may read. 2. God helps them that help themselves. 3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. 4. That country is richest which nourishes the greatest number of happy human beings. 5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole. | 6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock. 7. An aéroplane that has only one plane is called a monoplane. 8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. §. The winter sports which the Norwegian most enjoys are skiing and tobogganing. 10. The ski that is used by the Norwegian is a long, narrow piece of wood, curved at one end. 11. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults and help us to mend them. LESSON 35 * COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADJECTIVE CLAUSES EXERCISE 35 Analyze and yarse: 1. We followed the path to which we came. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 75 9. Islands are the tops of mountains whose bases are in the bed of the ocean. We , followed , path ea mountains aa STAM Ca \ We _ 3. It was the same book to which I referred. 4. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 5. He did not know whom he could trust. The adjective clause modifies him understood, to which whom refers. Supply him. 6. He took what was left. og He : took im: = Z 7. AY LY what nN 1 was left There are two ways of explaining the clause what was left. What is equivalent to that which. Substituting that which for what, we have that as the object of took, modified by the adjective clause, which was left. The diagram illustrates this construction. We may, however, regard the clause what was left as the object of took. To diagram this construction, we represent the clause awhat was left by a line that rests, by means of a support, on the object line. 7. Whatever is begun in anger ends in shame. 8. What men he had were true. Analyze as if arranged men what (that or whom) he had were true. Or what men he had may be taken as a clause, subject of were. 76 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 9. A granary is a place where grain is stored. granary, 7s , place \ \2 ‘ee =, 10. This is the house where Mark Twain was born. 11. The lion sprang from where he had crouched. Supply the place before where. 12. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 13. Do you:know the Beye a we should not say ain’t? Se cece EE LESSON 36 i COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADVERBIAL CLAUSES A clause that does the work of an” adverb is an adverbial clause. Exampies. He arrived when the clock struck twelve. He stood where I am. This exercise is as profitable as zt is pleasant.’ I will buy the coat zf he will wear it. EXERCISE 36 Analyze these sentences: The adverbial clause may express time. 1. When water boils, steam is generated. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 77 When modifies both is generated steam , 1s generated and boils, denoting that the two aE eT ee acts take place at the same time. i It also connects water boils, as AS oo ALTE an ‘adverbial modifier, with 7s STN generated. The function of when may be better understood by expanding it. into two phrases, thus: Steam is generated at the time at which, water boils. At the time modifies 7s generated, at which modifies dotls, and which connects. The line representing when is made up of three parts to picture’ these three functions. 2. While there is life, there’s hope. 3. Water expands when it freezes. 4. The diver puts on a complicated diving ie before he goes down into the water. : 5. Many a year is in its grave Sinee I crossed this restless wave. 6. The canoe reached the shelter of a cove, ie as the first stormy gust hit the lake. In a diagram of this sentence, the line representing as joins the two verbs and is made up of three parts. See the diagram of * gentence 1. Just modifies as. The adverbial clause may express place. 7. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 8. The Red Cross may be found wherever the tide of battle rages. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. The adverbial clause may express degree or result. 10. Washington was as good as he was great. The adverbial clause as he was great modifies the first as, which is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the adverbial 78 PART ONE: GRAMMAR clause, answers the question, “Good to what extent or degree?” The second as modifies great and has the function of a conjunction, as well as of an adverb. | Transposing, and expanding as... as into two phrases, we have, Washington was good in the degree in which he was great. - ‘1). The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. The words the .. . the are similar in function to as... as; He be- came humbler in that degree in which he became wiser. The is an adverb here. The first the is equivalent to by how much; the second the is equivalent to by so much and modifies humbler. ¥12. Wisdom is better than rubies. Betier good beyond the degree, and than=in which. The sen- tence—Wisdom is good beyond the degree in which rubies are good. Are and good are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after than. and as. Than modifies good (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree with beiter. 13. To be right is better than to be President. To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be Presix dent (would be good). 14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverbial clause that the mercury froze, answers the question, ‘Cold to what degree?”’ The sentence —It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze. That, as you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses. 5. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require). 16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. | ; 17. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him. 7 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 79 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 19) The oftener he visits us, the better we like him. “LESSON 37 COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADVERBIAL CLAUSES EXERCISE 37 Analyze these sentences: The adverbial clause may express manner. 1. He died as he lived. He died in the manner in which he lived. For diagram, see sen- cence 1 in Exercise 36. 2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3 Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. The subject of the first do is you understood. Them do is an - infinitive clause with the fo of the infinitive omitted. See page 61. 4. Just as the twig is bent, the tree is inclined. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore. The adverbial clause may express real cause. 6. The sea is rough because it stormed last night. | In diagraming, because, a mere conjunction, stands on a line wholly dotted. - 7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 80 - PART ONE: GRAMMAR 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off impurities. 9. Since the breath contains poisonous gas, wise people ventilate their bedrooms. 10. Gasoline is a valuable fuel because so many engines are now run by its power. 11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour. The adverbial clause may express evidence or proof. 12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for He overthrew them in the wilderness. | 2 | 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. y The adverbial clause may express condition. 15. If the air is quickly compressed, it becomes heated. 16. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. 17. If ever you saw ’a crow with a kingbird after him, you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 18. The earth, were it stopped in its orbit to-morrow, would rush toward the sun. The position of the subject and the verb renders the 1f unneces- sary. This omission of 7f is a common idiom. 19. Should the sun’s rays be shut off from the earth, all life would die. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 81 LESSON 38 COMPLEX SENTENCES; ADVERBIAL CLAUSES EXERCISE 38 I. Analyze these sentences: The adverbial clause may express purpose. | 1, Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other. ; That, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction. 2. In several large cities, underground and overhead railways have been built in order that street traffic may not become congested. The phrases in order that, so that=that. 8 The canal across the Isthmus of Panama was dug so that vessels need not sail around Cape Horn to reach the Pacific Ocean. 4. In sending packages by parcel post, it is well to have them insured so that they may receive special care. The adverbial clause may express concession. 5. Although the brain is only one fortieth of the body, about one sixth of the blood is sent to it. 6. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, we do not feel its weight. 7. Although potatoes grow underground, yet they are a part of the plant’s stalk. 82 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 8. If the forest ranger cannot prevent all forest fires, he ean often check and extinguish them. ‘ If here=though. 9. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient to make up the loss caused by evapo- ration. | Il. Select the adverbial clauses in the following sentences and tell what each expresses: 7 {. Birds will desert their nests if they are much dis- turbed. 2. Where law ends, tyranny begins. | 3. In large cities, snow is a great nuisance, for it costs many thousands of dollars to remove it from the streets. 4. Although the snow does much damage, we would be badly off without it. 5. It is valuable to man because it protects plants and crops, and prevents them from being winter-killed. 6. The train was so late that we missed our connection at the junction. ay 4 LESSON 39 v COMPLEX SENTENCES; SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES Wisdom is better than rubies= To be wise is better than rubies— That men should be wise is better than rubies. The subordinate clause that men should be wise is equivalent to a noun and is the subject of Gane “Few people always remember that haste makes waste.” The subordinate clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is the object of remember. . SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 83 “A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words.” The clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is an attribute complement relating to peculiarity. “The fact that the earth is a sphere was not widely believed in the time of Columbus.’”’ The clause intro- duced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is explana- tory of fact; it is an appositive. “Much depends on when and where you read a book.” The clause when and where you read a book 1s equivalent to a noun, and is the principal term of a phrase intro- duced by the preposition on. A clause that does the work of a noun is called a substantive clause. EXERCISE 39 Analyze these sentences: The substantive clause may be used as a subject. 1. That books are friends has been often proved. books ,are! . friends has been proved The clause that books are friends is used like a noun as the subject of has been proved. The conjunction that introduces the substantive clause. This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence in which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause. A substantive clause used as a complement is diagramed in a similar way and rests on the complement line. 84 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 2. That the same word, spirit, is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is singular. 3. “I forgot” is a threadbare excuse. 4. Where Captain Kidd hid his treasure has never been discovered. The subject clause is here an indirect question. (See page 212 for an explanation of indirect questions.) | 5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 6. “Where is Abel, thy brother?” smote the ears of the guilty Cain. 7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is 4 problem never solved by some. The substantive clause may be used as an object. 8. James Watt showed that steam is powerful. The clause introduced by that is used like a noun as the direct object of showed. 9. “Will you walk into my parlor?” Said a spider to a fly. 7 10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 11. It will ask of you, ‘‘What can you do?” 12. The horseman stopped, and in a cheery voice asked what the trouble was. 13. In “Life on the Mississippi,’ Mark Twain tells how he learned to be a steamboat pilot. 14. He shows us that piloting was a very difficult but a very interesting business. 15. The peacock struts about, saying, ‘What a fine - tail I havel’’ SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES | 85 LESSON 40 COMPLEX SENTENCES; SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES EXERCISE 40 Analyze these sentences: The substantive clause may be used as an attribute complement. 1. One beauty of the English language is that it 1s so rich in words. 2. Nelson’s message was, ‘England expects every man to do his duty.” 3. The question before the committee is, “How shall ve raise the money?” 4. Hamlet’s exclamation was, “What a piece of work is man!” : 5. The saying concerning Achilles was that he was in- vulnerable in every part except the heel. The substantive clause may be used as an appositive. 6. It has often been proved that books are friends. It is an expletive. See sentence 1, page 60, for a diagram and explanation of this construction. ”. It is believed that sleep 1s caused by a diminution in the supply of blood to the brain. | 8 The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. | 86 PART ONE: GRAMMAR CA 9. Shakespeare’s metaphor, ‘“‘Night’s candles are burnt out,” is one of the finest in literature. 10. The advice in regard to conformity to local custom was in substance this: ‘‘When in Rome, do as the Ro- mans do.” 11. This we know, that our future depends on our present. 12. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends. The substantive clause may be used as the principal term of a prepositional phrase. 13. The sailor had no knowledge of where he was drifting. Where he was drifting is an indirect question used as the prin- cipal term of a prepositional phrase. In diagraming, the support for the substantive clause rests upon. the line for the object of the preposition of. 14. There has been some dispute about who wrote — Shakespeare’s plays. 15. Before Franklin’s experiment, people were not cer- tain that lightning is a form of electricity. By supposing of to stand before that, we may regard the substan- tive clause as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modi- fying the adjective certain. If we supply of the fact, the substantive clause becomes explanatory. 16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph. 17. She was sure that the dog could find his way home from any place within fifty miles of the farm. A COMFLEX SENTENCES 87 LESSON 41 REVIEW OF COMPLEX AND SIMPLE SENTENCES EXERCISE 41 Write: f 1. Three simple sentences. . 2. Three complex sentences. 3. Two complex sentences containing adjective clauses. Write a complex sentence containing 4. An adverbial clause of time. _ An adverbial clause of place. _ An adverbial clause of degree. . An adverbial clause of manner. . An adverbial clause of.condition, co CON & Ol . An adverbial clause of purpose. 10. An adverbial clause of concession. “. LESSON 42 ~ REVIEW OF COMPLEX SENTENCES EXERCISE 42 I. Write complex sentences containing 1. A substantive clause used as subject. 2. A substantive clause used as direct object. 23 A substantive clause used as an appositive. 4. A substantive clause used as the object of a prepo- sition. IL. Analyze each of the sentences you have written. 3g PART ONE: GRAMMAR LESSON 43 COMPOUND SENTENCES A compound sentence is one composed of two or more principal clauses. Each principal clause of a compound sentence states a fact independently of the other clause. | Dracram. The fire is out and the crowd has scattered. fire , ws . out The lines of these two clause eee diagrams are shaded alike to show e — tand: that the two clauses are of the crowd | Ll antec ete rank. The connecting line —— is not slanting, for one clause 1s % not a modifier of the other. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predi- cate verbs, since they are the important words. OraL Anatysis. This is a compound sentence, because it is made up of two principal clauses. EXERCISE 43 Analyze these sentences: Principal clauses in the same line of thought: 1. The north wind doth blow, And we shall have snow. 2. Leaves breathe for the roots, and the roots suck in food for the leaves. 3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. COMPOUND SENTENCES 89 Principal clauses expressing thoughts in contrast: 4. Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard are sweeter. 5. Speech is great, but silence is ereater. 6. Put not your trust in money, but put, your money in trust. - Principal clauses expressing thoughts in alternation: 7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be ab- stinent in old age. 8. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness ad- mirably. Principal clauses expressing thoughts one of which is an inference from the other. 9. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. 10. He was proud; therefore he He eee proud had few friends. Hawes had friends In such constructions, and may be supplied, or the adverb may be regard- ed as the connective. The diagram il- lustrates therefore as connective. Principal clauses joined in the sentence without a conjunction. * 41. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the rein- deer is the camel of the desert of snow. 12. Truth is the work of God; falsehoods are the work of man. ; ; 13. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. As it were is a principal clause used parenthetically and inde- pendently. As simply introduces it. 90 rpAKL ONE: GRAMMAR 14. Washington (so Lincoln once said) is the — name on earth. LESSON 44 - Paige COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES The clauses of complex and compound sentences may themselves be complex or compound clauses. Corn grows well and potatoes flourish, where alfalfa has been grown for several years. Corn , grows - \ finraved lean a potatoes », flowris s ay « i ee alfalfa Ke has been grown The diagram shows that the clause where alfalfa has been grown modifies both predicates of the principal clauses. ‘Where modifies grows, flourish, and has been grown, as illus- trated by the short lines under the first two verbs and the line over has been grown. The function of where as con- nective is shown by the dotted lines. EXERCISE 44 . \ Analyze these sentences: 1. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handie which fits them all. Ccue Still the wonder grew That one small head could carry all he knew. REVIEW OF SENTENCES 91 3. Industry pays debts, while despair increases them. 4. When a man becomes overheated by working, run- ning, rowing, or making furious speeches, six or seven mil- lions of perspiration tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 5. In Holland the stcrk is protected by law because it Pais the frogs and worms that injure the dikes. “6. No man is born into the world whose work is not born with him. 7. I suppose he did not know; how the words shocked old Colonel Morgan, who was holding court. 8. They called him “Plain-Buttons” because, while he always chose to wear a regulation army uniform, he was not _ permitted to wear the army button. 9. There is a story that Nolan once met Burr, on one of our vessels, when a party of Americans came on board in the Mediterranean. 10. Speak clearly if you speak at all; \1/ Carve every word before you let it fall. LESSON 45 REVIEW OF SENTENCES EXERCISE 45 Classify the following sentences according to their use and their form. Name the principal and the subordinate clauses in the complex sentences. 1. The problem of securing an adequate income to the farmer’s family 3s partly a problem of securing an adequate supply of land and capital for them. 92 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 2. What is so rare as a day in June” ww) . | am not bound to win, but I am bound to be true. 4. Take your bow, O Hiawatha, Take your arrows, jasper-headed. 5. Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world. 6. When Freedom from her mountain height Unfurled her staudard in the air, She tore the azure robe of night, And set the stars of glory there. 7.Oh, what a tangled web we weave, F When first we practice to deceive. 8. Alas! in winter dead and dark, Where can poor Robin go? 9. Is life so dear or peace so sweet as,to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? 10. Come unto these yellow sands, ; And then take hands. 11. “You are old, Father William,” the young man said. 12. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, - and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ‘13. The soldier stepped from the trenches into the fur- row; horses that had charged federal guns marched before the plow; fields that ran red with human blood in April were green with harvest in ‘June; ; and there was little bit- terness in all this. 14. Far to the south, Mr. President, lies the fairest and richest domain of this earth. REVIEW OF ANALYSIS 93 LESSON 46 REVIEW OF SENTENCES EXERCISE 46 Write or give orally: 1. A simple sentence. 2. A complex sentence. 3. Four compound sentences. 4. A compound sentence having two Poritipal fades one of which contains a subordinate clause. 5. A compound sentence of two members, both of which contain subordinate clauses. 6. One example of each of the four kinds of sentences classified with regard to use. ; 7. Sentences illustrating the different uses of the sub- stantive clause. LESSON 47 REVIEW OF ANALYSIS _ EXERCISE 47 Analyze these sentences: 1. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. 2. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of _ the night. 3. We think in words; and when we lack fit words, we lack fit thoughts. oF. y4 FART ONE: GRAMMAR 4. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, To soften rocks, or bend a knotted oak. 5. Reason’s whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, «Lie in three words—health, peace, and competence. 6. A wind came up out of the sea And said, ‘‘O mists, make room for me.” 7. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discon- tent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul | in perpetual calm. 8. And when you stick on conversation’s burrs, Don’t strew your pathway with those dreadful wur’s. 9. Kind hearts are more than coronets; And simple faith than Norman blood. 10. There is a class of people among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs. “41. The nearest star is so far from the earth that its light takes more than four years to come to the earth. 12. Rip Van Winkle, however, was one of those happy mortals, of well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easily. 13. Van Twiller’s full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth, were curi- ously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a spitzen- burg apple. 14. He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God, who loveth us, He made and loveth all. THE PARTS OF SPEECH LESSON 48 CLASSES OF NOUNS You have learned that nouns are names; as, girl, Gertrude. The name girl is held in common by all girls, and hence does not distinguish one girl from ~ another. The name Gerirude is not thus held m com- mon; it distinguishes one girl from other girls. A name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a common noun. Any particular name of an individual, distinguishing this individual from others of its class, we call a proper noun. Such a word as wheat, music, or architecture does not distinguish one thing from another of its class. There is only one thing in the class denoted by each—that is, each thing forms a class by itself; so we call these words common nouns. ; A noun is a word used as the name of anything. A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class. A proper noun is the individual name of a particular person, place, or thing. | There are two special classes of commen nouns, collective and abstract. 96 PART ONE: GRAMMAR A collective noun is the name of a number of things taken together; as, army, flock, mob, Jury. | An abstract noun is the name of a quality, an Bint a : being, or a state; as, whiteness, beauty, wisdom, sing- ing, existence, sleep. A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of; but when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should be singular. ExamMpues. A number of our tourists. were inclined to. turn back. The number present was not ascertained. EXERCISE 48 Point out the nouns and tell the class to which each belongs: 1. We are such stuff as dreams are made on, And our little life is rounded with a sleep. 2. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, But in ourselves, that we are underlings. 3. Like the swell of some sweet tune, Morning rises into noon, May glides onward into June. 4. The appearance of the island, when I came on deck the next morning, was altogether changed. 5. London is the clearing-house of the world. 6. A thing of beauty is a joy forever; Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness; but still will keep A bower quiet for us, and a sleep Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing. . 4 CLASSES OF PRONOUNS Segoe EXERCISE 49 I. Name and classify the pronouns in these sentences: 1. Lift up your heads, O ye gates, 2. I did send to you for gold to pay my legions, Which you denied me. . | 3. I denied you not; he was but a fool that brought my answer. back. 4. Then none was for the party, And all were for the state. “4 5. “Why did you call him Tortoise, if he wasn’t one?” Alice asked. 6. ‘We called him oeNe because he taught us,’ said the Mock Turtle angrily; ‘“‘really you are very dull!” 7. A child asked, ‘What is the grass?” fetching it to me with full hands. 8 Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak, for-him have I offended. 9: In ourselves, In our own honest hearts and chainless hands, Will be our safeguard. 10. That which is everybody’s business | is nobody’ S pusiness. ¥ fh. That is but the owl and owlet, Talking in their native language, Talking, scolding at each other. 12. Teach me to feel another’s woe. 13. I saw the different things you did, But always you yourself you hid. 14. Such a‘life is very fine, But it’s not so nice as mine. 100 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Il. Insert the proper pronoun in the blanks and tell the antecedent of the pronoun that you have used. 1. The poor woman could not conceal —— grief. 2. If Tom has borrowed my racket, I wish that — would return 3. The school expects every member of the team to do the best that can. 4. We expect all students to do best. 5. The man dined with us yesterday has been to South America. 6. This goal, for us. 7. But the seafowl is gone to The beast is laid down in was made by Harrison, won the game nest, lair. is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 9. O Solitude, where are the charms sages have seen in —— face? 10. If you wish me to follow you, I will do LESSON 50 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: NUMBER Number is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one. The singular number denotes a single thing. The plural number denotes two or more things. EXERCISE 50 1. The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular. 7 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: NUMBER 101 Write the plural of the following nouns: canoe debt tree stomach flock bouquet wing meadow mouth wren island roof pasture crow chair 2. When the singular ‘N. in the sound of s, x, z, sh, or ch, it is not agreeable to add the sound of s, so es is added and makes another syllable. Write the plural of the following nouns: box fox branch bench witch birch dish waltz dress brush 3. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding es without ace tee the number of syllables. Write the plural of the following nouns: hero negro. echo mosquito cargo potato volcano motto _ 4, Common nouns ending in y preceded by a con- sonant form the plural by changing y to i and adding es without increasing the number of syllables. Write the plural of the following nouns: family lady country fairy penny bakery city jury reply sky 5. Some nouns ending in f and fe form the plural by changing f or fe to ves without increasing the num- ber of syllables. 102 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Write the plural of the following nouns: sheaf beef half self knife loaf thief elf wolf wife whart calf shelf lites ay leaf 6. From the following list of nouns, select and write in separate columns (1) those that have no plural; (2) those that have no singular; (8) those that are alike in both numbers: tactics,. pride, shears, news, trousers, cider, victuals, measles, riches, flax, sheep, deer, flour, politics, alms, thanks, elk, scissors, swine, heathen, bellows. "2 The following nouns have irregular plurals—six changing the internal vowel, and two adding en. 5 Singular Plural Singular Plural man men foot feet woman ‘women Ox oxen child children tooth teeth mouse mice goose geese 8. Learn the following plurals. Compare them with the other groups in this lesson. tomatoes stories monkeys _ solos leaves flies berries cuckoos — gulfs proofs chimneys _ lilies pianos chiefs scarfs valleys princesses vetoes beliefs benches 9. Note the following plurals of titles: Mr. Hunt—Messrs. Hunt or the Messrs. Hunt. (Pré- nounced mes’ yerz.) Miss Clark—the Misses Clark, or the Miss Clarks. Mrs. Harman—the Mrs. Harmans. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: GENDER 103 10. When two or more words are united to make a single noun, we have a’compound noun; as, flagstaff. The plurals of compound nouns are generally formed by adding s to the principal word, but compounds end- ing in ful generally add s to the last syllable. EXAMPLES. sons-in-law - commanders-in-chief goose-quills hangers-on spoonfuls pailfuls 11. In writing the plural of figures, letters, and other sharacters, we add the apostrophe and s. EXAMPLES. a's 2's ree Make your m’s and n’s more carefully. LESSON 51 Kes NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: GENDER Gender is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which denotes sex. The masculine gender denotes the male sex. The feminine gender denotes the female sex. The neuter gender denotes that a thing is neither male nor female. The feminine is distinguished from the masculine in these three ways: ; (1) By a difference in the ending of the nouns; as, lion, lioness. : (2) By different words in the compound names; as, mother-in-law, father-in-law. (3) By words wholly or radically different; as, uncle, aunt. “ 104 PART ONE: GRAMMAR EXERCISE 51 Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with refer- ence to the three ways of distinguishing feminine from mascu- line: brother, sister czar, czarina host, hostess abbott, abbess sir, madam man-servant, maid- son, daughter boy, girl servant actor, actress drake, duck wizard, witch Francis, Frances Henry, Henrietta widower, widow bachelor, maid lord, lady heir, heiress monk, nun nephew, niece Augustus, Augusta gander, goose landlord, landlady administrator, bull, cow father, mother administratrix baron, baroness duke, duchess gentleman, earl, countess hero, herome. = =— gentlewoman LESSON 52 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: PERSON Person is that modification of a noun or a pronoun by which we denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. A * The first person denotes the one speaking. The second person denotes the one spoken to. The third person denotes the one spgken of. , The form of the noun does not change to denote person. Examptes. I, John, saw these things. (First person) John, bring me the paper. (Second person) I saw John yesterday. (Third person) Things, paper, and yesterday are of the third person. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: CASE 105 EXERCISE 52 Give the person, the number, and the gender of each of these nouns and pronouns: /1. Ye crags and peaks, V’m with you once again. 2. Columbus is one of the marvels of history. 3. The moon above the eastern wood Shone at its full. 4. Listen, my children, and you shall hear i Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 5. I, the sole survivor, have written down the story. ‘6. Wildly he shouted and loud: “John Alden! you have betrayed me!’’ ‘7. Beneath her torn hat glowed the inte Of simple beauty and rustic health. 8. We dropped the seed o’er the hill and ys Beneath the sun of May. LESSON 53 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: CASE Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun by which we denote its function in the sentence. The nominative case of a noun or a pronoun denotes its function as subject, attribute complement, or indepen- dent element. Nore. When a noun or.a pronoun is independent by address, it is called the nominative of address. It is also said to be in the vocative case, but this term is not widely used in English grammar. The noun or the pronoun in an absolute phrase is called a nomi- native absolute. - A noun or a pronoun independent by exclamation is called a nominative of exclamation. = 106 PART ONE: GRAMMAR The possessive case of a noun or pronoun denotes its function as possessive modifier. The objective case of a noun or a pronoun denotes its function as direct object, objective complement, in- | direct object, or as principal’ word’ in a prepositional phrase. | Norn. The possessive case may be called the genitive ‘case. The objective case may be called the accusative, except in de- noting the function of an indirect object. The term datiwe case may be used for an indirect object. EXAMPLES. 1. The doctor never so much as moved. (Nominative) . But what is the black spot, Captain? (Nominative) - _ Lizards are reptiles. (Nominative) — 3 . The bear’s grease was made into hair oil. (Possessive) . The man killed the bear. (Objective) — | . The squirrel leaps among the boughs. (Objective) oO ore KW WN A noun that completes the predicate and belongs to the object is an objective complement and is in the objective case; as, They made Victoria queen. A noun that completes the predicate and belongs to the subject is a predicate noun and is in the same casé as the subject. In the sentence ‘‘ Lizards are reptiles,” the noun reptiles is in the nominative case. The subject of an infinitive clause is in the objec- tive case; as, It is necessary for us to go, They proved him to be a thief. In the sentence “I proved it to be him,” the infini- tive clause it to be him is the object of the verb proved. In this clause, the subject of the infinitive to be NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: CASH 107 is it, and him is the attribute complement. The subject of an infinitive clause is in the objective case; therefore him is in the objective case to agree with the subject. In the sentence ‘‘I proved that it was he,” the clause it was he, introduced by that, is the object of the verb proved. It is the subject of the verb was, and is therefore in the nominative case; hence the attribute complement ke must be in the nominative—the same case as the subject to which he refers. In the sentence ‘‘Whom did you suppose it to be?” whom is the attribute complement of the infinitive to be, and consequently is in the objective case to agree with it, the subject of the infinitive. In “Who did you suppose it was?” who is nominative for the same reason that he is nominative in ‘‘I proved that it was he.” “He gave John a book; he bought me a book.” As _ here used, John and me are indirect objects in the | objective case. 7 Nouns denoting medsure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without prepositions, and are in the objective case. See page 70 for the diagraming of sentences containing nouns used adverbially. EXERCISE 53 _ Tell the case of each of the nouns and pronouns in the fol- lowing sentences: 1. A sparkling morning followed a showery night, and all the little red and white and yellow flowers were lifting glaa faces to the sun as we took the high road to Bethlehem. 108 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 2. As I was going to Banbury Upon a summer’s day, My dame had butter, eggs, and cheese. And I had corn and hay. 3. Smith, smith, beat them fine, Can you shoe this horse of mine? 4, A camel’s load never looks so large as a donkey’s, but no doubt he often finds it heavy, and he always looks dis- pleased with it. ~ 5. Shun the habit of “putting off” as you would a tempta- tion to crime. 6. Wherefore let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. Take is an infinitive without to. 7. Jealousy is cruel as the grave. LESSON 54 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS: PERSON AND CASE EXERCISE 54 Remember that a substantive used as an appositive is in the same case as the word it explains, and that a substantive used independently is in the nominative case. I. Tell the person and the case of each noun and pronoun: ° 1. Across the narrow beach we flit, One little sandpiper and I. 2. We Americans do things in a hurry. 3. O cuckoo! shall I call thee bird, Or but a wandering voice? DECLENSION OF NOUNS 109 4. I, your friend, ask you to do this. 5. You, Henry, are attentive. 6. He read us the story of Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans. ; AL 1. Write simple sentences, using each of these nouns in the three persons and in the three cases: George Washington Franklin Filipinos 2. Write sentences containing a noun in the nominative case: Used as a complement. Used as an appositive. Used independently. \ 3. Write sentences containing a noun in the objectwe case: ¥ Used to complete two predicate verbs. Used to complete a participle. Used to complete an infinitive. \ Used with a preposition to make a phrase. \ Used as an appositive. LESSON 55 ‘THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS Declension is the arrangement of the case forms of nouns and pronouns in the singular and plural numbers. Declension of Nouns .“ Cdse Singular Plural —- Singular Plural Nominative lady ladies child children PossessivE _ lady’s ladies’ child’s children’s OBJECTIVE lady ladies child children 110 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Declension of Personal Pronouns FIRST PERSON ’ Singular Plural Nom. I we Pos. my or mine our or ours | Ops. me us a SECOND PERSON Singular _ Plural Nom. you you . Pos. your or yours your or yours © OBs. you } you THIRD PERSON Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders Nom. he - she ae they Pos. his her or hers its their or theirs Oss. him her it them The old forms of the pronouns of the second person, which are now used chiefly in poetry and in solemn language, are as follows: ' Singular Plural Nom. thou ye or you Pos. thy or thine your or yours Oss. thee you Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted. ‘This. rose is yours’’ is equivalent to ‘‘This rose is your rose.” Remember that the apostrophe is never used in the ». POSSESSIVE FORMS 113 I will take the gun which you do not want. I will take the gun that you do not want. The gun, which to me was useless, was to him a treasure. I hear what you are saying. | Ever and soever are added to who, which, and what to _ form the compound relative pronouns. These pronouns refer indefinitely to persons or things, as if the ante- cedent were any one, anything, or some other vague expression. Exampures. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth » doing well. Man can make himself whatsoever he will. EXERCISE 55 I. Learn and recite all of the declensions given in Lesson 55. Il. How many different forms does each of the following . nouns and pronouns take when declined? 1. man ar cir sao, A 7. who 9. James 2.woman 4. boy 6. you 8. child 10. she : V LESSON 56 POSSESSIVE FORMS The possessive case of nouns is formed in the singular by adding the apostrophe and the letter s (’s); in the plural, by adding the apostrophe (’) only. If the plural does not end in s, both the apostrophe and s are added. EXAMPLES. boy’s boys’ John’s men’s Charles’s 114 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Possession may be expressed also by the preposition of and the objective case; as, the mosquito’s bill, or the bill of the mosquito. | The possessive sign (’s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons and animals. We do not say the chair’s legs, but the legs of the chatr. In using the possessive form, we must consider the sound of the words. ‘‘Henry’s uncle’s partner’s house”’ does not sound so well as ‘‘the house of the partner of Henry’s uncle.” To avoid the unpleasant sound of several s’s, we sometimes use only the apostrophe in the possessive singular; as, for conscience’ sake. When there are several possessive nouns which indi- — cate joint ownership, the possessive sign is added to the last noun only. If they indicate separate ownership, the sign is added to each. ‘‘ Butcher and Lang’s trans- lation of the Odyssey”? means the translation made by Butcher and Lang working together, “‘Pope’s and — Bryant’s translations of the Odyssey” refers to two translations, one by Pope and the other by Bryant. When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is added to the last only; as, Wilitam the Conqueror’s fleet; Brown the plumber’s house. | A compound noun, or a group of words that make one name or title, forms the possessive by adding the sign to the last word; as, my sister-in-law’s automobile, the King of Spain’s crown. Sse In the sentence ‘“‘This news of father’s is exciting,” a double possessive form is used, the ’s and also the of phrase. FORMS OF THE PRONOUN 115 EXERCISE 56 I. Correct the following errors: . That house is our’s. Do you like it’s appearance? . I consulted Webster and Worcester’s dictionary. Did you notice the sky’s color yesterday evening? . I called at Tom’s the tinker’s. . We should purchase Shakespeare and Milton’s works. . Do you like Longfellows’ poems? . He sat upon the porch’s edge and told his story. 7. We visited George’s father’s friend’s farm. OD om FP Wp wIl. Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of these words, and place an appropriate noun after each pos- sessive: robin: OX child mosquito cuckoo — farmer hero bee ‘shepherd fiance thief mouse friend man neighbor wolf - fox woman cow fairy LESSON 57 af FORMS OF THE PRONOUN Remember that J, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are nominative forms and must not be used in the ob- jective case. It is incorrect to say, ‘‘ Who did you see?” Who is the nominative form and should not be used as the object of the verb did see. The sentence should read, ‘“‘ Whom did you see?” 116 PART ONE: GRAMMAR It is incorrect to say, ‘‘That is a secret between you and I,’’ because the objective form of the pronoun should be used. The correct form is, ‘‘That is a secret between you and me.” Remember that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom are objective forms and must not be used as nominatives. Her is a possessive form also. It is incorrect to say, ‘‘Him and me are good friends,” because the objective form of these pronouns is here used as subject of the verb. The sentence should read, ‘‘He and I are good friends.” The eight nominative forms and the seven obiecue forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the English language. You should become thoroughly familiar with them and form the habit of using them correctly. Remember that pronouns must agree with their ante- cedents in number, gender, and person. It is incorrect to say, ‘‘Every boy must read their own sentences.” What is the antecedent of their? Why is their the wrong word to use here? Give the correct form for the sentence. Remember that the relative pronoun who represents persons; which, animals and things; and that, persons, — ’ animals, and things. Wrone. The boy which I met was very tired. Wrona. I own the dog who runs to meet me. Give the correct form for these two sentences. FORMS OF THE PRONOUN 117 _ The possessive pronoun his is used when its ante- cedent is both masculine and feminine; as, Each pupil may bring his paper to the desk. It is not necessary to say ‘‘his or her paper.” EXERCISE 57 I. Fill each blank with the correct form of the relative or personal pronoun, in each case giving the reason for your choice: 1. Father and —— usually play checkers in the evening. and ——. 2. The only ones at dinner were 3. girls have formed a basket-ball team. 4. Tf were , What would dol 5; can answer this question? ean. 6 . The high school team has challenged boys to a game of football. 7. Will you please indicate you wish to see? 8. —— weighs more than 9. has been elected president? 10. do not know was nominated. 11 do not know either; but it was not 12. Every one must think for —— self. i. have asked and to visit 14. did not ask shall we choose for this 7 15. The captain said, “ dangerous errand?” and the young soldier answered, ‘‘——. II. Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns an _ Exercise 30, according to the model on page 118. 118 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Written Parsinc: Nouns. Blackmore’s novel, “Lorna Doone,”’ is a masterpiece of fiction. CLASSIFICATION MopIFICATIONS SYNTAX Nouns °\ Kind | Person | Number | Gender | Case Blackmore’s} Prop.}| 3d. | Sing. Mas, Pos. |Pos. mod. of novel novel Com. fe “ Neuter |Nom.} Subj. of is Lorna Doone! Prop.! “ 4d g ‘‘ | Appositive of novel masterpiece | Com. ie . : “« | Pred. noun with is fiction ve os ii “ - | Obj. | Prin. word after of The syntax of a word is its use in the sentence. LESSON 58 ANALYSIS AND PARSING EXERCISE 58 Analyze these sentences and parse the nouns and pronouns: 1. The friendship between you and me I will not com- Pe to a chain. . In the best ode ks, great men give us their most precious eueme @. The right honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory for his jests and to his imagination for his facts. 4. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 5. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. ~ cuandl OF VERBS . 119 6. The music in my heart I bore ~ Long after it was heard no more. 7. We may live without friends, we may live without books, But civilized man cannot live without cooks. 8. Adam Smith’s “Wealth of Nations” is one of the most important books that were ever written. 9. I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air; I only know I cannot drift Beyond His love and care. 10. A great interpreter of life ought not himself to need interpretation. 11. He serves his party best who serves his country best 12. What men have done can still be done, And shall be done to-day. LESSON 59 i ae ae OF VERBS “The man Ae ie makes no complete assertion and is not a sentence. . If we add the object fish, we com- plete the assertion and form a sentence—‘The man caught fish.’ The action expressed by caught passes over from the man to the fish. The word transitive means passing over. Hence all verbs which express an action that passes over from the doer to something which receives it are called transitive verbs. “‘Fish swim.” The verb swim does not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. Verbs which express action that _ 120 PART ONE: GRAMMAR does not pass over to a receiver, and verbs which ex- press only being, are called intransitive verbs. A verb that is transitive in cne sentence may be in- transitive in another; as, Helen reads well. Helen reads the magazine. An intransitive verb may be a complete verb or a linking | verb. | . In the sentence “‘Fish swim,” the verb itself makes the complete predicate. Swim is therefore a complete verb. In the sentence “‘Ice feels cold,’’ a complement is needed to describe the subject. Feels therefore serves to link ice and cold, and is called a linking verb. When I say, ‘‘I open the door,” I express an action that is going on in present time. ‘‘I opened the door,” expresses an action that took place in past time. As the word tense means time, we call the form open the _ present tense of the verb, and opened the past tense. } In the sentence ‘‘The door, opened to the south, lets in the sunlight,” opened, expressing the action as assumed, is a participle; and as the action is completed, we call opened a past participle. Now notice that ed was added to open, the verb in the present tense, to form the past tense and the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding ed; we call them regular verbs. Notice the verbs in these sentences: { see the man. I saw the man.. The man seen by me ran away. CLASSES OF VERBS 121 I catch fish in the brook. I caught fish in the brook. The fish caught in the brook tasted good. The verbs see and catch do not form their past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present; we _ call them irregular verbs. . 4K verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being. | 3 A transitive verb is one that requires an object. An intransitive verb is one that does not require an object. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense and past ‘participle by adding ed to the present tense. An irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present tense. EXERCISE 59 I. Write ten regular verbs; ten wrregular verbs. IL. Select the transitive and the intransitive verbs, the regular and the irregular verbs in these sentences: /1, The man broke the seals with great care. 2. You can fancy the excitement into which that letter put me. 3. We will sit here and talk. 4, We ran on deck. | 5. By good fortune, Hunter pulled a good oar. 6. ‘Mr. Hands,” he said, ‘“‘here are two of us with a brace of pistols each.” 7. The sun had just set; the sea breeze was rustling and tumbling in the woods, and ruffling the gray surface of the anchorage. ; 122 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 8. Suddenly, with a loud huzza, a little cloud of pirates leaped from the woods on the north side and ran straight on to the stockade. 9. “Gray,” resumed Mr. Smollett, ““I am leaving this ship, and I order you to follow your captain.” 10. It was broad day when I awoke and found myself tossing at the southwest end of Treasure Island. LESSON 60 VERBS: VOICE I fed the horse. The horse was fed by me. The first verb, fed, shows that the subject represents the actor; and the second form, was fed, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form and the use of the verb is called voice. The first form is called the active voice; and the second, the passive voice. The passive voice is a convenient form to use when we wish to assert an action without naming the actor. ‘““Money ts coined’ is better than ‘Somebody coins money.” The active voice is usually a more forcible form of statement than the passive. - Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which ‘shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. The active voice shows that the subject names the actor. The passive voice shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. a VERBS : VOICE 123 When a verb is changed from the active to the passive voice, that which was its object becomes its subject; as, I caught him; He was caught by me. When a verb has both a direct object and an objective complement, the objective complement becomes a predicate noun when the verb is made passive; as, They made David king; David was made king. In the latter sentence, king is a predicate noun. ’ A verb having both a direct and an indirect object may retain the direct object in the passive form when the indirect object has become the subject; as, Sev- eral friends offered me assistance; I was offered as- sistance by several friends. When the direct object is retained in the passive voice, it is called the retained object. A verb may keep its indirect object in the passive voice; as, Assistance was offered me by several friends. In this case, me continues to be the indirect object; it is not called the retained object. EXERCISE 60 Ti Change the voice of the verb without changing the mean- ing of the sentence, and make the other changes that are needed: 1. The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers. | 2. The storm drove the vessel against the rock. 3. Our words should be carefully chosen. . 4. Exercise strengthens the muscles and keeps the body in good condition. 5. True valor protects the feeble and huntbles the op- pressor. 6. Mareoni invented the wireless telegraph. 124 PART ONE: GRAMMAR 7. Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. 8. Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. 9. Who discovered the circulation of the blood? 10. Mary Lyon believed that opportunities for higher education should be open to women. II. Name all the transitive verbs in Exercises 30 and 34 and tell the voice of each. LESSON 61 VERBS: MOOD AND TENSE (1) When I say, ‘‘James walks,” I assert the walking as a fact. (2) When I say, ‘‘If I were you, I would go to col- lege,” I assert the condition (that I am you) as one contrary to fact. If I say, “Long live the king!’ I ex- press a wish, not a fact. (3) When I say to James, ‘Walk faster,” I do not — assert that James actually does the act; I assert the > action as a command. The action or being expressed by the ven in these sentences is expressed in three different ways, or moods. The first way is called the indicative mood; the second, the subjunctive mood; the third, the im- perative mood. Nots. The word mode is sometimes used (instead of mood) to indicate these forms of the verb. The three forms of the verb called the infinitive, the participle, and the gerund, have already been studied, in Lessons 23-29. Review these lessons thoroughly. VERBS: MOOD AND TENSE 125 (1) I walk. (2) I walked. (3) I shall walk. In each of these sentences, the manner of asserting the action is the same. “I walk” expresses the action as present. “‘I walked’ expresses the action as past. “T shall walk” expresses the action as future. As the word tense means time, the first form is called the present tense; the second, the past tense; and the third, the future tense. We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as completed in the present, the past, or the future. (1) I have walked a mile to-day. (2) I had walked a mile before luncheon. (3) I shall have walked three miles by noon to-morrow. The form have walked, expressing the action as com- pleted in the present, is called the present perfect tense. Lhe form had walked, expressing the action as com- pleted in the past, is called the past perfect tense. Lhe form shall have walked, expressing an action to be completed in the future, is called the future perfect tense. A group of words used as a single verb is sometimes called a verb phrase; as, shall have walked, must be done. I walk. He walks. Thou walkest. : They walk. In the second sentence, the verb walk was changed by adding est; and in the third, it was changed by adding s. These changes make the verb agree with the 126 PART ONE: GRAMMAR person of the subject. The verb ending in est agrees with the subject thou in the second person, and the verb ending in s agrees with he in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third per- son; but as it is plural, the verb drops the s to agree with the plural they. | Verbs are said to agree in person and number with their subjects. The person and number forms may be found in Lessons 63 and 64. In the sentence ‘‘It is raining,” the subject 7 does not denote any definite person or thing. The verb is raining is therefore called an impersonal verb. Nots. The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms of the verb are sometimes called finite verbs. The word finite means limited. As these forms of the verb vary according to the time expressed, and the number and person of the subject, they are considered as limited or finite: The infinite (not finite) or unlimited forms of the verb are the infinitive, the gerund, and the participle. ~ Mood is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being. The indicative mood asserts the action or being? as & fact. The subjunctive mood asserts the tees or being as & wish, a supposition, or a condition contrary to fact. The imperative mood asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty. __The infinitive is a form of the verb which names the. action or being in a general way, without making an assertion... * 7 ? y VERBS: MOOD AND TENSE SD b+ The participle is a form of the verb which has also the nature of an adjective; it expresses the action or being as assumed. : | The present participle denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate. The past participle denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predi- cate. The past perfect participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. | The gerund is a form of the verb ending in ing which has also the nature of a noun, Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being. The present tense expresses action or being as oc- curring in present time. The past tense expresses action or being as occurring in past time. The future tense expresses action or being as yet to come. ord bays present perfect tense expresses action or being as completed at the present time. The past perfect tense expresses action or being as completed at some past time. The future perfect tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time. The number and person of a verb are the modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its-subject. 128 PART ONE: GRAMMAR - EXERCISE 61- Classify the verbs and tell the mood and tense of each: ff. 1. Sometimes I surprised shaggy old bulls grazing alone, or sleeping behind the ridges I ascended. 2. They usually leaped up at my approach, stared stupidly at me through their tangled manes, and then galloped heavily away. 98 As the Indian approached, we stopped to wait for him, when suddenly he vanished, sinking, as it were, into the earth. 4. A tall Indian, gliding in, shook us by the hand, grunted his salutation, and sat down on the floor. 5. As I descended the hill, the howling of wolves and the barking of foxes came up out of the dim woods. 6. When we had galloped a mile or more, a large rab- bit, by ill luck, sprang up just under the feet of the mule. 7. I was flung forcibly to the ground, and my rifle, falling close to my head, went off with a shock. | 8 Just before reaching the fort, they had met a large party of Indians. 9. Suddenly their bridles were violently seized, and they were ordered to dismount. : 10. Instead of complying, they struck their horses with full force and broke away from the Indians. LESSON 62 © CONJUGATION OF VERBS Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb. Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the moods and tenses. :_. + CONJUGATION OF VERBS 129. The principal parts of a verb are the first person, singular number, of the present indicative, and of the past indicative, and the past participle. These are called principal parts because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them. Auxiliary verbs are those that help other verbs to make assertions. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must. May, can, will, shall, must, and their past forms are called modal auxiliaries. The verbs which follow them are really infinitives with to omitted. The tense forms of these modal auxiliaries are: PRESENT . Past may might can ; could will would shall should must _ In parsing and analysis, verb phrases made with these auxiliaries may be regarded as one verb. It is important to learn the principal parts of the common irregular verbs, as given below. Nore. These irregular verbs form their past tense and past participle by a change of the vowel; they are sometimes called strong verbs. Verbs that form their past tense by adding ed (or d or t) are called weak verbs. A; IRREGULAR VERBS Present Past Past Participle am was been begin began begun blow blew blown break broke broken 130 Present choose come do draw drink drive eat fall fly freeze go get give grow | know lie (to rest) ride ring rise run see sit shake sing slay speak steal swim take tear throw wear write PART ONE: Past chose came did drew drank drove ate fell flew froze went got gave grew knew lay rode rang rose ran saw sat shook sang slew spoke stole swam took tore threw wore wrote GRAMMAR Past Participle chosen come done drawn drunk driven eaten fallen flown frozen gone got or gotten given grown known lain ridden rung risen run seen sat shaken sung slain spoken stolen swum taken torn thrown work written. CONJUGATION OF VERBS 131 The perfect: tense and the passive voice are formed by combining the proper form of the verb be with the past participle, not with the past tense. We say, ‘‘I have gone,” not ‘“‘T have went.” Carelessness in this matter is the source of many common errors in speech. Fre- quently the past participle is incorrectly used where the past tense is needed. We must be careful to use the proper form until its use becomes habitual. EXERCISE 62 Fill the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs of which the present tense is given in parenthesis. Consult the list of principal parts on page 130. ve | him when he —— the work. (see, begin) 2. Do you think that spring has 3. We 4,-Will has 5. The birds will have ( fly, freeze) 6. Has the bell ——? Yes, it theme. (ring, write) 7. John nearly all the way, but the man had before John arrived. (run, go) 8. We have that horse, but I have never behind this one. (drive, ride) my book and —— it. (take, tear) | ? (come) our leave after we had supper. (take, eat) off the shéd. (fall) south before the lake has before I —— my ‘9. Some one has 10. The poor fellow’s shoes were out, so he them away. (wear, throw) 132 PART ONE: GRAMMAR LESSON 63 7 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE Principal Parts PRESENT TENSE Past TENSE Past PARTICIPLE am was been Indicative Mood PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural : 1. Tam Weare ~~ 2. You are You are 3. He is They are Past TENSE 1. I was We were 2. You were You were 3. He was They were \ FuTuRE TENSE © | 1. I shall be We shall be 2. You will be | You will be 3. He will be They will be © PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 1. I have been We have been 2. You have been You have been ~ 3. He has been They have been Past PrerRFect TENSE 1. I had been We had been 2. You had been You had been 3. He had been. They had been CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 133 Future Perrect TEensE Singular Plural 1. I shall have been We shall have been 2. You will have been You will have been 3. He will have been They will have been Notice that shall is used in the first person and will in the second and third persons. Subjunctive Mood These forms are usually preceded by af, though, or lest. PRESENT TENSE ful be We be 2. You be You be 3. He be They be Past TENSE 1. I were We were 2. You were You were 3. He were They were - The present perfect and past perfect tenses of the sub- junctive are the same as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, except that the form for the third person, singular number, of the present perfect tense is he have been. Imperative Mood PRESENT TENSE 2. Be (you) Be (you) Infinitives PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT To be To have been ~ 134 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Participles PRESENT Pasr Past PERFECT Being Been Having been Gerunds - | PRESENT Past Being Having been The old forms of the second person singular with thou are found chiefly in poetry and in solemn language, They are: Indicative PRESENT Thou art Past Thou wast or wert Future Thou wilt (or shalt) be PRESENT Perrect Thou hast been Past PERFECT Thou hadst been Furure Pserrect Thou wilt (or shalt) have been EXERCISE 63 Learn and recite the complete conjugation of the verb be. sai aye ‘64 CONJUGATION OF SEE IN THE SIMPLE FORM Principal Parts PRESENT Past Past PARTICIPLE see saw seen COON = Singular Plural 1. I see We see 2. You see You see 3. He sees They see Past TENSE 1. I saw We saw 2. You saw, You saw 3. He saw They saw Future TENSE 1. I shall see We shall see 2. You will see You will see 3. He will see They will see PRESENT PERFECT TENSE . I have seen. We have seen . You have seen You have seen . He has seen They have seen - Past Perrect TENSE 1. I had seen We had seen 2. You had seen You had seen 3. He had seen They had seen Future Perrect TENSE 1. I shall have seen We shall have seen: 2. You will have seen You will have seen . He will have seen CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE ACTIVE VOICE Indicative Mood PRESENT TENSE They will have seen 135 136 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Subjunctive Mood PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural 1. I see We see 2. You see You see 3.. He see They see The past, present perfect, and past perfect tenses of the _ subjunctive are the same as the corresponding tenses of the © indicative, except that the form for the third person, singular number, of the present perfect tense is he have seen. Imperative Mood PRESENT TENSE 2. See (you) See (you) Infinitives PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT To see To have seen Participles PRESENT Past Past PERFECT seeing - seen having seen Gerunds PRESENT Past seeing having seen wh = Whe NO & CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE 137 PASSIVE VOICE Indicative Mood PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural . Iam seen We are seen . You are seen You are seen . He is seen They are seen Past TENSE . I was seen We were seen . You were seen You were seen . He was seen ' ‘They were seen FutTurRE. TENSE . I shall be seen We shall be seen . You will be seen You will be seen . He will be seen They will be seen PRESENT PERFECT TENSE . I have been seen We have been seen . You have been seen You have been seen . He has been seen They have been seen Past Prerrect TENSE . I had been seen We had been seen . You had been seen You had been seen . He had been seen They had been seen Future Prerrect TENSE . I shall have been seen We shall have been seen. . You will have been seen You will have been seen . He will have been seen They will have been seen 138 PART ONE: GRAMMAR Subjunctive Mood PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural 1. I be seen We be seen 2. You be seen You be seen 3. He be seen They be seen Past TENSE 1. I were seen We were seen 2. You were seen You were seen 3. He were seen They were seen The present perfect and past perfect tenses of the sub- junctive are the same as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, except that the form for the third person, singular number, of the present perfect tense is he have been seen. Imperative Mood 2. Be (you) seen Be (you) seen Participles PRESENT | PERFECT Being seen Seen, having been seen Infinitives PRESENT PERFECT To be seen ~ To have been seen Nore. The participial form having been seen is sometimes called the phrasal past participle. EXERCISE 64 Learn and recite the complete conjugation of the verb see. Aa SPECIAL FORMS OF THE VERB 139 LESSON 65 SPECIAL FORMS OF THE VERB The emphatic form of the verb asserts more strongly than the ordinary, or simple, form. It is made by pre- fixing do or did to the present infinitive without the to; as, I do see, I did see. The emphatic form is used only in the present and past tenses, indicative mood, and in the imperative. _ The progressive form of the verb represents the action as going on at the time referred to by the tense. It is made by using forms of the verb be with the present participle; as, I am seeing, He was seeing, You have been seeing. In asking questions, we change the verb to the inter- rogative form. For example, the future form, J shail write, in a question becomes, Shall I write? The past form, He walked, in a question becomes Did he wall? In negative sentences, the auxiliaries do and did are used in the present and past tenses; as, He did not walk. In speaking and writing informally, we use certain contractions of the verbs; as, can’t for can not, you’re for you are. The apostrophe indicates that letters have been omitted. _ 140 PART ONE: GRAMMAR It is important to remember that 1. Doesn’t stands for does not and should always be used with*pronouns of the third person singular. RIGHT WRONG He doesn’t speak distinctly. He don’t speak distinctly. 2. Contractions that end in n’é express a negative idea. It is incorrect to use another negative in the's sen- tence, for that gives a double negative. RIGHT ‘ WRONG He hasn’t said anything. He hasn’t said nothing. He has said nothing. 3. The contractions for you are and they are are you're and they’re. Do not omit the apostrophe or write your, when you intend to use a verb form EXERCISE 65 i 1.) Give the principal parts of these verbs: go come do eat take write begin! fell ring run speak ) Use in a sentence each of the verb forms in Ex. 1. . 43 Givethe present tense, indicative mood, active voice of the verb love. 4. Give the present tense, subjunctive mood, active voice of walk. 5. Write a synopsis in the first person of the indicative mood, passive voice of choose. 6. Give the past tense, indicative mood, active voice, progressive form of see. 7. Give the present tense, indicative mood, active voice, emphatic form of see. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB 141 LESSON 66 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB 1. The verb must agree with its subject in person and number. : Ricu? WRONG You were there, Alice. You was there. (Person wrong) Mary and George have gone. Mary and George has gone. y (Number wrong) 2. When a verb has two or more subjects connected by and, it must have the plural form to agree with them. A pronoun must have the plural form to agree with two or more antecedents connected by and. RIGHT WRoNG Poverty and obscurity op- Poverty and obscurity op- press him who thinks that presses him who thinks that they are oppressive. it is oppressive. 3. When several singular subjects are preceded by each, every, or no, they are taken Separately, and the verb is singular. RIGHT WrRonG Every green leaf and every Every green leaf and every blade of grass seems grateful. blade of grass seem grateful. 4. When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor, it must have the singular 142 PART ONE form to agree with them. pronouns. RIGHT Either the president or his secretary was responsible. : GRAMMAR A similar rule applies to WRONG Either the president or his secretary were responsible. EXERCISE 66 Supply the correct verb form in each blank space, and tell which of the above rules applies: 1. None of the girls 2. Health, living. 3. Time and tide verb wait.) strength, and happiness for no man. at home. from right (Use a form of the 4. The work of Sir Walter Scott and his nokle-character 5. Each act and each word of ours thought. * 6. 1 said to my friend, “You __ tense) 7. Each man of all those soldiers _ his country. (Past tense) 8. Neither the lion nor the mouse (For the second blank, use the. compound personal endeared him to every one. worth our too hasty.” (Past - elad to fight for able to help pronoun.) , LESSON 67 v W. THE USE OF SHALL AND WILL To express simple future time, the auxiliary shall is used in the first person and will in the second and the third; but when the person speaking determines or + _ THE USE OF SHALL AND WILL 143 - promises, he uses will in the first person and shail in the second and third. SIMPLE FururE DETERMINATION OR PRoMISE Singular —_ Plural Singular Plural I shall We shall I will We will You will You will You shall You shall He will They will - He shall They shall Exampies. I ghall be twelve next March. (Simple futurity; no determination expressed. ) it requires, (Determination is expressed. ) You shall have a fountain pen on your birthday. (A promise is made.) : You shall do that work even if it is disagreeable. (The determination of the Speaker is expressed. ) He shall pay you every penny. (Determination.) The meek shall inherit the earth. (A promise is made.) In a question, we use the auxiliary that is expected in the answer. EXaMpuies. Shall you go? (Answer: I shall go. Simple futurity.) Will he be able to come? (Answer: He wil] be able to come. Simple futurity.) ~ Will you go next? (Answer: I will go next. A promise is made.) Will I recognize him when I see him? (Answer: You will. Simple futurity.) , Should and would, the past tenses of shall and will, are used in the same way as shall and will. 144 PART ONE: GRAMMAR EXERCISE 67 I. Write three sentences using ow fF wWN KF Ho . Shall in the first person. . Will in the first person. . Shall in the second person. . Shall in the third person. . Will in the second person. . Will in the third person. Use the correct form of the verb (shall or will) i the blanks of these sentences: Bs arrive on the two-o’clock train. 2. The captain says that we probably be in port to-morrow. SPOR not accept such an excuse. 4, You do as I have commanded. 5. You not be disappointed again. 6. He —— be brought to justice, if I live long enough. bin | have a large bill to pay, if I am not careful. eae be very grateful to you if you do me this favor. 3 9, We have finished by noon. 10. You help us very much by remaining. — 11. He says he thinks he not go. 12. Saturday be the last day that you can register. 18. you come at one o’clock, please? 14. ——I tell him to come at the same time? 15. ——— the men be able to finish to-day? THE VERBS LAY, LIE, SIT, SET 145 es oy LESSON 68 REVIEW OF VERBS © EXERCISE 68 Give the voice, mood, tense, person, and number of the verbs wm the following sentences: 1. It was the schooner Hesperus _ That sailed the wintry sea; And the skipper had taken his little daughter To bear him company. 2. Scrooge took his melancholy dinner in his usual melancholy tavern. “3. “You'll want all day to-morrow, I suppose,’ said Scrooge. 4. If this be treason, make the most of it. 5. Iam going, O my people, On a long and distant journey. 6. At the end of this week, I shall have been in school Sour years. 7. If I were you, I would try that. 8. After the meeting, my grandfather and I took a walk, 9. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining; Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. 10. Then we shall have done al! that can be done. y, LESSON 69 THE PROPER USE OF THE VERBS LAY, LIE, SIT, SET We may speak of luying or setting something down, or may say that something is lazd or is set; but we can 146 PART ONE: GRAMMAR not speak of lying or sitting something, or of something being lain or sat. Set is generally transitive; sit always intransitive. Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an ob- ject; as, The sun set; He set out on a journey. Lay is transitive; lve, intransitive. Lay, the present of the first verb, and lay, the past of lve, are easily distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed. Read carefully these sentences in which different forms of these verbs are used correctly: 1. Lay aside your work. . Ine down and rest. . I laid aside my work. . I lay down and rested. . I have laid.aside my work. . I have lain down. . Set the watch. . Sit down a while. . I set the watch. . I sat down. . I have set the watch. . I have sat down a while. Oo CON SD oO KP WL WH ee ee wonwnore © . The work was laid aside. . I was lying down, resting. ao ov . The watch was set by the town clock. — (=P) . She was sztting on the stile. fk ~J . The hen szts on her eggs. . She lay down each day for a nap. . The land of dreams lies between sleeping and waking. — he © oO - THE VERBS LAY, LIE, SIT, SE'r 14? EXERCISE 69 Remember that the use of correct or incorrect lan- guage is a habit. You must form the habit of using the right expression, and you will have to watch yourself closely until the habit is formed. Have you used any of the following verbs incorrectly in your speech? Write these sentences, filling each blank with the correct form of the verb. Then read the sentences aloud. ee te heat [calc (do) 2. When I home, I found the fire out. (come) 3. My father has — to California. (go) 4. The hen an egg in tho haylort. (lay or lie ?). 5. My aunt —— down and “Sfretched in his last-found home, and knew the old no more. v “Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, Child of the wandering sea, 4 Cast from her lap, forlorn! From thy dead lips a clearer note is born Than ever Triton blew frora wreathéd horn! While on mine ear it rings, Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings :— Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, ° As the swift seasons roll! Leave thy low-vaulted past! Let each new temple, nobler than the last, Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, Till thou at length art free, Leaving thine outgrown shell by life’s unresting sea! OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES EXERCISE 30 The nautilus is a small marine animal which floats upon the water. As it grows, it moves out of the old part of its shell into the new and larger part, and seals up the compart- ment it has vacated. This process it repeats from time to time. Siren. A sea-nymph who, by her sweet singing, lures sailors to destruction. Irised: Colored like the rainbow. | PUNCTUATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES = 225 Crypt: SSN 1. Billmgs, Missouri, May 11, 1917. ~~2. The La Salle Hotel, Chicago, Illinois, January 2, 1918. —>3. A friend’s farm near Reinbeck, Iowa; the farm is on Route 4. 4. Your own home, to-day. a0 LESSON 33 ORAL COMPOSITION; REPORTS ON READING You know that there is much material of great in- terest that cannot be put into textbooks of history, geography, and other subjects because of lack of space. For this reason we have books of supplementary read- ing and the fine collections of books in libraries. In your supplementary readers, in your school library, in books or magazines that you may have at home or can obtain from a public library, there are many valu- able and interesting facts about the topics you study in history, geography, hygiene, agriculture, civil goy- ernment, and literature. In many schools pupils are asked to read supplementary material and to report on their reading in class. These reports are a valuable form of oral composi- don. In preparing them, remember all the directions for making a talk, given on page 196. Read with care chapters or pages assigned to you. Make a careful 4 230 PART TWO: COMPOSITION outline of the most interesting and important facts. Rehearse your report at home. EXERCISE 33 Below are subjects from various school studies which may be used for oral reports on reading. Study this list and see if you have access to books in which you might learn about any of these subjects. If you are sure that you can find material on one of these topics, select it for an oral re- port. Your teacher may prefer to assign other topics, or you may yourself think of interesting and appropriate topics which you have the means of investigating. 1. Some Interesting Events in the History of Our State. 2. Plantation Life in the South. 3. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. 4. Life in New England in Colonial Times. 5. Braddock’s Defeat. ; 6. Franklin’s Boyhood. 7. Daniel Boone. 8. The Mound Builders. 9. The Louisiana Purchase. 10. Yellowstone Park. 11. The Nile. 12. The Discovery of the Poles. 13. How to Get Rid of the House Fly. 14. Care of the Teeth. 15. Why Boys Should Not Use Tobacco. 16. The Army Worm. 17. Spraying Fruit Trees. 18. The Rotation of Crops. 19. A Model Kitchen. 20. Good Methods of Canning and Preserving. NOISSNOSI(] GH, ZIG ‘kq Surjuieg oy} Woy EXPOSITION 231 LESSON 34 PICTURE STUDY AND DESCRIPTION The picture reproduced on the opposite page was - painted by Anton Seitz, a German artist. The original is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. EXERCISE 34 Study the picture and discuss it in class. If you could examine the painting itself, you would see a horse in the background. What news do you think the speaker is telling? Write a description of the picture, telling who you imagine these people are and whav the scene suggests to you. LESSON 35 EXPOSITION How Franguin LEARNED TO WRITE Goop ENGLISH About this time I met with an odd volume of the Spec- fator—I think that it was the third. I had never before seen any of them. I bought it, read it over and over, and was much delighted with it. I thought the writing excellent, and wished, if possible, to imitate it. With this view, I took some of the papers, and making short hints of the sentiment in each sentence, laid them by a few days, and then without looking at the book, tried to complete the papers again, by expressing each hinted senti- ment at length, and as fully as it had been expressed before, in any suitable words that should come to hand. Then I 232 PART TWO: COMPOSITION compared my Spectator with the original, discovered some of my faults, and corrected them. But I found that I wanted a stock of words or a readiness in using them, which I thought I should have acquired before that time if I had gone on making verses; since the continual occasion for words of the same import but of dif- ferent length, to suit the measure, or of different sound for the rhyme, would have laid me under a constant necessity of searching for variety, and also have tended to fix that variety in my mind and make me master of it. Therefore, I took some of the tales and turned them into verse; and after a time, when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, turned them back again. I also sometimes jumbled my collection of hints into con- fusion, and after some weeks endeavored to reduce them to the best order, before I began to form the full sentences and complete the paper. This was to teach me method in the arrangement of thoughts. By comparing my work afterwards with the original, I discovered many faults and amended them; but I sometimes had the pleasure of fancying that, in certain matters of small import, I had been lucky enough to improve the method or the language, and this encouraged me to think that 1 might possibly in time come to be a tolerable English writer, of which I was extremely ambitious. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, from his Autoboganne This is an explanation, or exposition, of the way in which Franklin learned to write prose. EXERCISE 35 I. The Spectator was a paper that appeared daily for about two years in England in the early part of the eighteentr , century. Its principal authors were Addison and Steele. A SCHOOL PAPER 233 Before he began to imitate the Spectator, Franklin had written several poems. ~ What is the meaning of sentiment? What word means a stock of words? How, according to Franklin, would the continued writing of verse have improved his knowledge and use of words? The word import is used twice. What is its meaning in each sentence? II. You may apply Franklin’s method to this exposition of how he learned to write; that is, you may imitate Franklin as he imitated Addison. Read the exposition carefully and write down the different steps in it, making a topic for each paragraph. Close your book, and in the best words that occur to you rewrite Franklin’s account of his method of learning to write. Use the outline that you have made. Compare your work with the original. LESSON 36 A SCHOOL PAPER The preparation of a school paper is interesting and profitable. Into it may be put some of the best com- positions of the class, little items of news about the school or the students, and brief articles of general news. These should all be written in the clearest form. The manuscript should be as nearly perfect as you can make it. You might use a colored paper cover, writing on it only the name and the date. The first page should give the contents. In some cases the school or some of the pupils may have typewriters on which the paper can be copied. 234 PART TWO: COMPOSITION With a typewriter, three or four copies can be made by the use of carbon sheets. Some schools have hecto- eraphs or mimeographs, and on these many copies can be made. Other schools have small printing outfits with which a large number of copies can be printed. Only two or three issues of the paper should be at- tempted during the year, and these should be carefully planned and executed. EXERCISE 36 Make preparation for talks on some of the following subjects. Make an outline for each talk. : 1. Why We Should Have a School Paper. 2. An Argument against a School Paper. 3, Some Plans for a School Paper. 4. The Difficulties of Issuing a School Paper. 5. What We Might Learn from Issuing a Paper. 6. Names for the Paper and Why They Are Appropriate. LESSON 37 THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPT Every composition that you write should be the best you can produce. ‘The handwriting should be neat and legible, and the letters should be well-formed and regu- lar. One important means of securing legibility is to leave plenty of space between the words and between the lines. If the words are crowded, the writing will be hard to read. If the lines are too close together, or if the loops of the letters are so long that the lines over- | lap, the writing will be illegible. EXPOSITION 235 Leave a straight, even margin on the left side of the _ page. ‘This margin should be an inch wide on paper eight by ten inches or larger, but may be slightly nar- rower on paper not so large. The heading should be written in the middle of the page. Every important word in it should begin with a capital letter. I you are writing on ruled paper, leave a vacant line between the heading and the be- ginning of your composition. If the paper is unruled, leave a space of about an inch. | Indent the first word of each paragraph about half an inch. | EXERCISE 37 In your own words, write what you learned about angle- worms in Lesson 19. Make this the best-looking manuscript that you can produce. LESSON 38 EXPOSITION EXERCISE 38 Write an exposition on one of the following topics: 1. How to Make Sponge Cake (or some other kind of cake). . . How to Make Bread. . How to Make Biscuits. . How to Make Money in Raising Chickens. . The Best Methods of Raising Corn. . How to Play Tennis. . The Game of Baseball. “ID Ore W WN 236 VAKT TWO: COMPOSITIUN 8. How Checkers is Played. 9. How Alcohol Injures the Body. 10. How to Care for the Teeth. Ask yourself the following questions about your essay: a. Is the handwriting neat and legible? b. Have I kept an even margin of the proper width on the left? c. Is the first word of every paragraph indented? qd. Have I in any case left a blank space at the end of a line when I do not intend to begin a paragraph on the next line? e. Have I begun every sentence with a capital and put the proper mark at the end of every sentence? f. Have I punctuated as a sentence any group of words that is not a sentence? g. Have I joined together by and’s sentences that-ought to ‘be separated? LESSON 39 DICTATION; CORRECT SPEECH EXERCISE 39 Write from dictation, filling the blanks with the proper form: go to town? (J, me) . May Mary and . Will you let George and clean the erasers? (I, me) . Charles take music lessons now. (don’t, doesn’t) . John stands (bad, badly) . The milk tasted (sour, sourly) —— we bring in this theme to-morrow? (may, can) || Noarpvwnwe you the first to arrive? (was, were) ORAL COMPOSITION ;s A TALK 237 (she, her) to drink the water. (began, begun) 8. Mary is taller than 9. The ox 10. Analyze or diagram this sentence if you are in doubt. LH Lo 12. Do you know 13. Each of the boys well. (write, writes) 14. Read it I read it. (like, as) 15. Walk —— me. (like, as) 16. Every one worked 17. Either of the sisters 18. The speaker 19. There 20. Willis me part of his lunch. (give, gave) 21. The little birds sing ——. (sweet, sweetly) 22. 23. He will divide it between you and ——. (I, me) 24. Glen 25. Henry always did his work did you say won? (who, whom) shall the prize be given? (who, whom) it is? (who, whom) problems. (his, their) the car. (drive, drives) know when to stop. (don’t, doesn’t) four men in the field. (7s, are) the chair in the dining room. (sit, set) me to row a boat. (learned, taught) (good, well) LESSON 40 ORAL COMPOSITION; A TALK EXERCISE 40 1. Prepare, and give before the class, a talk on “‘How the Use of Good English Helps a Young Person in Business.” 2. Prepare, and give before the class, a talk on ‘‘How to Write Letters of Friendship.” 3. Prepare, and give before the class, a talk on ‘How Franklin Learned to Write Good English.”’ 238 PART TWO; COMPOSITION In making your talk, remember that you shoud a. Stand erect. b. Look at your audience. c. Let your voice fall at the end of sentences, except those that ask questions. Speak clearly; pronounce the final g in words ending, in ing. LESSON 41 ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSES The adjective clause, wees not essential, is set off by the comma. A clause is restrictive, or essential, when it limits the meaning of the word it modifies. If a clause is not es- sential, it simply adds a detail to our knowledge of the word modified. An essential clause cannot be spared from the sentence, for the meaning would be very different if it were absent. A non-essential clause could be dropped out of the sentence, and there would be no great or essential change in meaning. For example, ‘n the sentence ‘‘The boy who entered - school yesterday will please come to the desk,” we see that the clause who entered school yesterday is essential because it restricts the meaning of boy to just one in- dividual. | ‘The stranger came close to the fire, which was now burning cheerfully:’”—in this sentence the adjective - clause is added as a descriptive detail, but it is not ab-. . solutely essential to the sentence. ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSES 239 An adverbial clause is set off by the comma unless it follows closely and restricts the word it modifies. I will not call him villain, because it would be unparlia- mentary. Paper was invented in China, if the Chinese tell the truth. In the above sentences the adverbial clauses are sup- plementary and are added almost as afterthoughts. Glass bends easily when itt ts red-hot. Leaves do not turn red because the frost colors them. It will break of you touch tt. The adverbial clauses in the above sentences are es- sential; each is very closely related in thought to the principal clause, and may be said to be a necessary part of the sentence. Note that when the adverbial clause precedes the word it modifies, even if it is essential, it is set off by a comma; as, When it is red-hot, glass bends easily. EXERCISE 41 Tell which of these clauses are essential and which are non- essential, and punctuate accordingly: 1. The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain. 2. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. 3. There is a sumptuous variety about the New England weather that compels the stranger’s admiration—and regret. A, See! Antony that revels long o’ nights Is notwithstanding up. 240 PART TWO: COMPOSITION V 5. This was the first time I ever heard of the plan which atterwards proved to be so important to me. v6. One who is interested in laying hold on wisdom is likely to pees a scholar. . 4k). He was introduced to Johnson who was then considered the wie of living English writers. 8. The novel which was thus ushered into the world, was “The Vicar of Wakefield.”’ 0) He committed some strange blunders for he knew nothing of accuracy. C0? He came of a Protestant ae Saxon family 1 which had long been settled in Ireland, : 1. By this time the schoolmncker whom he had eh 1) 4or a morsel of food and the third part of a bed,was no more. 12. He had inherited from his ancestors a scrofulous taint which it was beyond the power of medicine to remove, 13. While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his family was sinking into poverty. 14. I cannot leave_ until the proprietor returns. _ 15. He never roreok the generosity with which Hervey who was now residing in London relieved his wants during this time of trial. c( 16. If you call a dog Hervey I shall love him: - ¢ 17) Bring me the brown book, that stands on the highest shelf. . 18. The book pwhich was covered with dust, had been a — favorite with his uncle. 19. Among them was Sir Thomas Randolph whose mother was a sister of King Robert. 720) He will pay the note when he sells his wheat. 72). I had often passed his house when I was taking my, - morning ride. GUVMVIA(: AHL ONISSOUD) NOLONIHSV AA ezyneT Aq Suyuleg oy} WoT ADDRESS AND SALUTATION OF LETTERS 241 22. By following this plan we shall reach the ore if there is any ore. 23. Though I am no judge of such matters I’m sure he’s a talented man. 24. The visitor has killed all kinds of big game if we may believe his stories. 25. It is best not to swap horses while crossing a, river. | Pid 1 Sts CA LESSON 42 DESCRIPTION OF A PAINTING EXERCISE 42 On the opposite page is a reproduction of the well- known picture by Leutze, ‘‘Washington Crossing the Dela- ware.” Read in your history, or in other reference books, the account of how Washington crossed the ice-filled river and surprised the enemy at Trenton. Write a description of the picture. LESSON 43 ADDRESS AND SALUTATION OF LETTERS The inside address consists of the name of the person or firm to whom the letter is written and the names of the state and town or city to which the letter is sent. In addition to the name of the place, there should be a street address, rural route, or post-office box. The proper title should be given the person addressed, as in the following illustrations. ee ee 242 PART TWO: COMPOSITION Notice the commas and periods in these addresses: 1 2 Mr. Frank R. Swan, Miss Elizabeth Woods, Reynoldsville, 256 Hitt Street, Pennsylvania. | Douglas, Arizona. 3) Longmans, Green, and Co., 443 Fourth Avenue, New York, | New York. The inside address may also be written without punc- tuation at the ends o’ lines. In letters of friendship, the inside address may be omitted, but it should always be written in business letters; and there is a good reason for writing it in all — letters. If through accident the envelope should be destroyed or the direction on it rendered illegible, the address on the inside would make it possible for the post-office department to forward the letter to its des- tination. The form of salutation depends upon the relations existing between the writer and his correspondent. In letters of friendship or family letters there is little difh- culty about the salutation. In business letters, ‘‘ Dear Sir” is the form usually employed in addressing a man. ““Dear Madam”’ is the salutation for a woman, whether married or unmarried. ‘‘My dear Sir” and ‘‘ My dear -Madam” are more formal salutations than those which omit my. ‘‘Gentlemen” or ‘‘Dear Sirs” is the form used in addressing a firm or a body of men. THE ORDER OF MODIFIERS 243 Here are some appropriate salutations for friendly letters: Dear Mother, Dear Friend, Dear Mr. Parton, Dear Lucy, ‘Kind Sir,” ‘‘Kind Friend,” and ‘‘Friend Brown” are not in good use. ‘‘ Dear Friend”’ should not be used in a business letter. It is customary to use, after the salutation, a colon in a formal business letter and a comma in a friendly letter. EXERCISE 43 1. Write a letter, ordering some book that you would like to have. 2. Write a letter to a relative, thanking him for a birthday present. | 3. Suppose that you have moved to another town and are required to have a copy of your grades, or record, at your former school before you can be classified in the new school. Write a letter to your former teacher, asking for the necessary information. Mention the fact that you inclose a stamp for her reply. LESSON 44 THE ORDER OF MODIFIERS Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to the words you intend them to modify. WRONG I only bring forward a few things. We merely speak of numbers. The Chinese chiefly live upon rice. 244 ~~+~PART TWO: COMPOSITION RicHtT I bring forward only a few things. We speak merely of numbers. The Chinese live chiefly upon rice. In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify. WRONG A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. RIGHT A poor child suffering from cold and hunger was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman. Place phrase modifiers where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. WRONG That small man is speaking with red whiskers. Ricut That small man with red whiskers is speaking. The adjective clause should be placed as near as pos- sible to the word it modifies. WRONG Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. RIGHT Solomon, who built the Temple, was the son of David. The order of words, phrases, and clauses is very im- portant in English. Always place modifiers in such a THE ORDER OF MODIFIERS 245 way that the meaning will be clear. Also, arrange modi- fiers so that the sentence will sound smooth. EXERCISE 44 Change the order in the following sentences where it is nec- essary to make the meaning clear or to wmprove the sound. Punctuate your sentences. 1. Hath the Lord only spoken by Moses? 2. He must have certainly been sick. 3. The honorable member was reproved for being BOT, cated by the president. 4, A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 5. With his gun towards the woods he started in the morning. 6. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. “7. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 8. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick. ant. 9. On Monday evening a lecture by Governor Hanly rvas delivered at the old brick church on prohibition. 10. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and ney at a bargain are offered cheap. 11. My brother caught ihe fish on a small hook baited with a minnow which we had for breakfast. 12. The speaker was addressing the crowd as I came in with great eloquence. 246 PART TWO: COMPOSITION DR bat) LTH i Mit ei THE CRAIGIE HOUSE LESSON 45 DESCRIPTION OF A BUILDING Study carefully this picture of a fine old colonial mansion. It is the Craigie House at Cambridge, Massachusetts. During the Revolution it was for a time the headquarters of General Washington. Afterwards it became the residence of Henry Wads- worth Longfellow. | EXERCISE 45 From the picture, write a description of the Craigie House and its grounds. ' VARIOUS USES OF THE COMMA 247 LESSON 46 VARIOUS USES OF THE COMMA An explanatory or appositive modifier, when it does not restrict the term modified or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma. Jacob’s favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Rachel’s children. William the Conqueror was an able ruler. My brother Henry belongs to a boat club. In the last two sentences, the connection between the appositive and the word it modifies is too close to admit of commas. } . Words and phrases that modify the whole sentence are set off by the comma. No, we could not find the piace. Certainly, the direction given us is wrong. We shall, however, try again. Nouns or pronouns used independently in address or pleonasm are set off by the comma. (For an explana- tion of pleonasm, see page 67.) The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. The smith, a mighty man was he. Phrases in absolute construction are set off by the comma. The officers being absent, the men were thrown. into con: fusion. 248 PART TWO: COMPOSITION EXERCISE 46 I. Tell why the commas are used in the following sentences: 1. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of Montezuma. 2. Yes, you may remain here. 3. Gentlemen, there is a sublime and friendly Destiny by which the human race is guided. 4. Why, then, do we hesitate to swell our words to meet our needs? 5, Obviously, good English is exact English. 6. The cell being empty, he ran out into the yard. 7. Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowl- edge easy and pleasant. 8. He wrote ‘“‘The Good-natured Man,” a piece which had a fate worse than it deserved. 9. The fable is, indeed, one of the worst that was ever eonstructed. 10. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Il. Place commas where they are needed in the following sentences: 1. Build thee more stately mansions ;O,my soul. 2. Come dear old comrade, you and I Will steal an hour from days gone by. 3. There are a good many gestures,even that are more expressive than words. 4. I shall defer my visit to Faneuil Hall the cradle of American liberty. 5. The almighty doilar that great Shad of devotion DICTATION ; LETTER WRITING 249 throughout our land seems to have no genuine devotees in these villages. 6. I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs , A palace and a prison on each hand. . Roll on thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! . He was a good-natured mana humorist and a punster. oon . Heavy nets it is stated are let down into the water. ‘10. Upon. making up his statement however he found that the man was right. 11. I am indeed sir a surgeon to old shoes. 12. I saw Henry the secretary on my way here. 13. He was at. liberty after thirty years of anxiety and drudgery to indulge his constitutional indolence. 14. Lay thy soft hand upon my brow and cheek peaceful Sleep. 15. It is a penny-wise and pound-foolish policy so to speak. LESSON 47 \ DICTATION; LETTER WRITING EXERCISE 47 Study carefully the following note to Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War, and write it from dictation: ~ Washington, - March 1, 1864. aL, dear Sir, A poor widow, by the name of Baird, has a son in the army, that for some offence has been sentenced to serve a long time without pay, or at most with very little pay. I do not like this punishment of withholding pay—it falls so very hard upon poor families. After he had been serving 250 PART TWO: COMPOSITION inthis way for several months, at the tearful appeal of the poor mother I made a direction that he be allowed to enlist for a new term on the same condition as others. She now comes, and says she cannot get it acted upon. Please do it. ABRAHAM LINCOLN LESSON 48 THE BODY OF THE LETTER AND THE CLOSE; LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION The salutation stands on a line by itself, and the body of the letter begins on the next line. It should begin just below the point where the salutation ends, thus: Dear Mr. Walton, : It was kind of you to write us when you heard of Fred’s accident. The letter closes with one of the customary courteous expressions. ‘This complimentary close begins about the middle of the page; it is followed by a comma. Only the first word begins with a capital. Do not use ab- breviations in the complimentary close. Here are some of the phrases used in the conclusion, the one employed depending upon the character of the letter and the intimacy of the writer with the person addressed : Yours truly, Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, Your triend, Yours respectfully, Yours affectionately, A ridiculous blunder, sometimes made, is the use of ‘‘ Yours respectivelu”’ for “‘ Yours respectfully.”’ \ LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION 251 Letters of introduction are given unsealed to the per- son introduced. On the envelope is the name of the bearer of the letter as well as that of the one to whom it is directed. This at once explains the purpose of the letter to the person receiving it, and enables him to call his visitor by name as soon as the letter is delivered. A Letter oF INTRODUCTION Medford, Oregon, March 15, 1918. ‘Mr. Mittford Pitt, Anadarko, Oklahoma. Dear Mr. Pitt: This will introduce Mr. James C. Cooper, a friend of mine, who has occasion to spend some time in your town, looking after a matter of business. I shall regard as a personal favor any courtesy that you may be able to show Mr. Cooper. . Yours faithfully, ANDREW J. LINDSAY Tue ENVELOPE Mr. Mittford Pitt Introducing Mr. James C. Coop2r 252 PART TWO: COMPOSITION — EXERCISE 48 1. Write a letter of introduction for a schoolmate who is going to visit friends in a town where your cousin lives, 2. Write a brief letter from your cousin, in which he in- forms you that your letter of introduction has been.-delivered, and promises to show your schoolmate any courtesies that he can. LESSON 49 A CONVERSATION ON CURRENT EVENTS Much of the conversation of well-informed people is about the important events that are happening in the world. Such talk is profitable, and is far more inter- esting than mere chatter about trivial things. To participate in it, we must read intelligently the best magazines and newspapers. With the purpose of taking part in a conversation on current events, read for several days the best daily, weekly, or monthly publications that you can procure. Each pupil should select one event or one subject and read about that. In choosing your topic and the facts to be told about it, ask yourself, ‘‘Is this subject im- portant and appropriate, and will it interest the other pupils?’ It is suggested that you sit in your seat and give your contribution to the conversation much as if you were telling it to a group of companions outside the schoolroom or to your family at home. EXERCISE 49 Following the directions given above, prepare to take part EXPOSITION 253 in a conversation on current events. As only a few minutes can be given to each topic, plan what you have to say so that it will not take too much time. Be prepared to answer any questions that your classmates or your teacher may ask. To the Teacher. It will be well to repeat this exercise several times during the year. LESSON 50 EXPOSITION Tue LirrLe FRIENDSHIP FIRE This form of fire does less work than any other in the world. Yet it is far from being useless; and I, for one, should be sorry to live without it. Its only use is to make a visible center of interest where there are two or three anglers eating their lunch together, or to supply a kind of companionship to a lone fisherman. It is kindled and burned for no other pur- pose than to give you the sense of being at home and at ease. Why the fire should do this, I cannot tell, but it does. You may build your friendship fire in almost any way that _ pleases you; but this is the way in which you shall build it best. You have no axe, of course, so you must look for the driest sticks that you can find. Do not seek them close be- side the stream, for there they are likely to be water-soaked; but go back into the woods a bit and gather a good armful of fuel. Then break it, if you can, into lengths of about two feet, and construct your fire in the following fashion. Lay two sticks parallel, and put between them a pile of dried grass, dead leaves, small twigs, and the paper in which your lunch was wrapped. - Then lay two.other sticks cross- wise on top of your first pair. Strike your match and touch your kindlings. As the fire catches, lay on other pairs of 254 PART TWO: COMPOSITION sticks, each pair crosswise to the pair that is below it, until you have a pyramid of flame. This is “a Micmac fire” such as the Indians make in the woods. Henry van Dykk, from Fisherman’s Luck EXERCISE 50 Explain one or more of the following processes. Choose one which is already familiar to you or one of which you can learn through reading, observation, or experiment. 1. How to make a certain kind of ice cream or ice. 2. How to make a certain kind of candy. 3. One way of making good coffee. : 4. How to play some game that is a favorite with your schoolmates. 5. Some important play in baseball. 6. How to select seed corn. 7. How to catch a certain kind of fish. ™8. How to make a kite. 9. How to analyze a sentence. 10. It may be that you have built a successful fire in the woods. Your method may have differed in some ways from that which Dr. van Dyke recommends for the little friend- ship fire. Explain fully how you built your fire. LESSON 51 NARRATION An AUTOBIOGRAPHY ~ I was born February 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Ken- ~tucky. My parents were both born in Virginia, of undis- | NARRATION 255 tinguished families—second families, perhaps I should say. ' My mother, who died in my tenth year, was of a family of the name of Hanks, some of whom now reside in Adams, and others in Macon County, Illinois. My paternal grand- father, Abraham Lincoln, emigrated from Rockingham County, Virginia, to Kentucky about 1781 or 1782, where a year or two later he was killed by the Indians, not in battle, but by stealth, when he was laboring to open a farm in the. forest. His ancestors, who were Quakers, went to Virginia from Berks County, Pennsylvania. An effort to identify them with the New England family of the same name ended in nothing more definite than a similarity of Christian names in both families, such as Enoch, Levi, Mordecai, Solomon, Abraham, and the like. My father, at the death of his father, was but six years of age, and he grew up literally without education. He removed from Kentucky to what is now Spencer County, Indiana, in _ my eighth year. We reached our new home about the time the State came into the Union. It was a wild region, with many bears and other wild animals still in the woods. There I grew up. There were some schools, so called, but no quali- fication was ever required of a teacher beyond ‘readin’, writin’, and cipherin’” to the rule of three. If a straggler supposed to understand Latin happened to sojourn in the neighborhood, he was looked upon as a wizard. There was absolutely nothing to excite ambition for education. Of course, when I came of age I did not know much. Still, somehow, I could read, write, and cipher to the rule of three, but that was all. I have not been to school since. The little advance I now have upon this store of education I have picked up from time to time under the pressure of necessity. 3 ogee I was raised to farm work, which I continued till I was twenty-two. At twenty-one I came to Illinois, Macon County. Then I got to New Salem, at that time in Sanga- 256 PART TWO: COMPOSITION mon County, now in Menard County, where I remained a year as a sort of clerk in a store. Then came the Black Hawk War; and I was elected a captain of volunteers, a success which gave me more pleasure than any I have had since. I went through the campaign; ran for the legislature the same year (1832), and was beaten —the only time I ever have been beaten by the people. The next and three succeeding biennial elections I was elected to the legislature. I was not a candidate afterward. During this legislative period I had studied law, and re- moved to Springfield to practise it. In 1846 I was once elected to the lower House of Congress. I was not a candi- date for reélection. From 1849 to 1854, both inclusive, I practised law more assiduously than ever before. I was always a Whig in politics; and was generally on the Whig electoral tickets, making active canvasses. I was losing interest in politics when the repeal of the Missouri Com- promise aroused me again. What I have done since then . is pretty well known. : If any personal description of me is thought desirable, it may be said I am, in height, six feet four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing on an average one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair and gray eyes. No other marks or brands recollected. » ABRAHAM LINCOLN, from a letter — This brief and modest story of his own life, up to 1859, is taken from a letter which Lincoln wrote to Mr. J. W. Fell in that year. Notice how clearly Lincoln tells the facts about himself which one would wish to know. A careful study of this narrative will - show you what Lincoln thinks it important to tell, and how he makes his story clear. NARRATION : BIOGRAPHY 257 EXERCISE 51 1. Make an outline of Lincoln’s story of his life up to 1859. 2. Close your book and write the story of Lincoln’s life from the outline which you have made. 3. Retell orally, in the first person, the story of Lincoln’s life as he has told it. 4. Retell orally the narrative of Lincoln’s career, using the third person. LESSON 52 NARRATION: BIOGRAPHY EXERCISE 52 Using Lincoln’s sketch of his life as a model, write a similar sketch of the career of some famous man or woman whom you admire. Use the third person in telling the story. Washing- ton, Benjamin Franklin, Daniel Boone, Robert E. Lee, Theodore Roosevelt, Susan B. Anthony, and Helen Keller are characters about whom you may wish w write. However, your choice is not limited to these. You will need to consult your histories and some of the books in your school library. Make a careful outline before beginning to write. Tell the events in the life of your subject in the order in which ‘they happened. Select the occurrences that are interesting and important. Write your composition as well as you can; then go over it carefully and improve it wherever you can. Be sure that your paragraphing follows the directions for paragraphs on page 195. Some of your sentences may not sound well. Reconstruct them until thev are perfectly clear and read 258 PART TWO: COMPOSITION smoothly. Finally, when all your corrections are completed, - make the neatest and best copy of which you are capable. LESSON 53 NARRATION: AUTOBIOGRAPHY EXERCISE 53 Using Lincoln’s autobiography as a model, write your own autobiography up to the present. A little thought will furnish you with sufficient material. Tell something of your parents and more remote ancestors, and of the different places where you have lived. Narrate the different steps in your education. Tell of any adventures that have happened to you. What have you done besides going to school? Have you earned money? Are you es- pecially interested in any one subject, as electricity, farming, cooking, or fishing and hunting? What books have you en- joyed most? What trips have youtaken? Perhaps you kave taken some part in games or athletics which will furnish material for your autobiography. LESSON 54 PUNCTUATION: COLON, DASH, PARENTHESIS The Colon: 1. The colon is used before a statement that is formally introduced. To Lentulus and Gellius bear this message: ‘Their graves _ are measured.”’ : PUNCTUATION 259 2. The colon is used after the salutation in a business or formal letter. Gentlemen: We have not received the goods. The Dash: j 1. Use the dash where such words as namely, that 1s, - as, or equivalent expressions are omitted. There are two certain things in this world—taxes and death. 2. Use the dash where the sentence breaks off abruptly. I said—I know not what I said. 3. The dash is frequently used, instead of marks of parenthesis, to set off expressions which have a very slight connection with the rest of the sentence. . For the first time in weeks—years, it seemed to me— something of the old cheerfulness mingled with our conver- sation around the evening lamp. Commas and dashes together are sometimes used to set off these parenthetical expressions. The too frequent use of the dash is a common fault. Do not use the dash needlessly. Marks of ‘Parenithesis : Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose words that have no essential connection with the rest of the sen- tence. I fastened one end of the rope (it was a few yards cut from Kitty Collins’s sean play to the bedpost nearest the window. 260 PART TWO: COMPOSITION Use marks of parenthesis sparingly. The need of them often indicates that the sentence should be recast to avoid the expression inclosed within the marks of parenthesis. EXERCISE 54 Study the punctuation of the following sentences and write them from dictation: 1. Toward the end of her life,—she lived to be ninety- nine,—she grew very fretful and capricious about her food. 2. The Oldest Inhabitant (what would become of a New England town or village without its oldest inhabitant?) overhauled his almanacs and pronounced it the deepest snow we had had for twenty years. 3. Her proper sphere in life—and the one to which she ~ afterwards attained—was the sawdust arena of a traveling circus. 4. ‘To speak critically, I never received more than one or two letters in my life—I wrote this some years ago—that were worth the postage. 5. All I could say, then, with respect to farming on a large scale (I have always cultivated a garden), was that I had my seeds ready. 6. On the last morning of his life, he wrote these words: “T have named none to their disadvantage.” 97. A Persian’s heaven is eas’ly made: Tis but black eyes and lemonade. 8. If you choose to represent the various parts in life by holes upon a table, of different shapes,—some circular, some triangular, some square, some oblong,—and the persons act- ing these parts by bits of wood of similar shapes, we shall generally find that the triangular person has got into the BUSINESS LETTERS 261 square hole, the oblong into the triangular, and a square person has squeezed himself into a round hole. 9. No one'minds what Jeffrey says—it is not more than a week ago that I heard him speak disrespectfully of the equator. “i 10. Perhaps it was right to dissemble your love, But—why did you kick me downstairs? ; LESSON 55 é J’ BUSINESS LETTERS Since much of the world’s business is done by cor- respondence, the ability to write good, effective business letters is in great demand. Business letters should be absolutely clear. Be careful to say what you mean in such a way that it will be impossible to misunderstand it. The letter should be short and to the point, but it should always be courteous. Special attention should be given to legibility. If you write for information or to ask some other favor, inclose a stamp for reply. Inclose the stamp loose; do not stick it to the letter. Frequently it is necessary to send money in letters. It is unsafe to send bills or coins by mail, although small silver pieces in a coin card, having openings cut to fit the money, may be sent safely. Postage stamps may be sent for small sums, say for fifty cents or less. The safe ways of sending money by mail are (1) post- office or express money order, (2) bank draft, (3) per- sonal check. The check should be made out to the order of the person or firm to whom it is sent, not left 262 PART TWO: COMPOSITION so that it is payable to bearer. The objections to send- ing personal checks are that some firms will not accept them, and that sometimes the recipient of the check, if he lives in a distant city, must pay exchange when he cashes it. EXERCISE 55 Study the following letter ordering goods, and then copy tt accurately: 115 South Detroit Street, Warsaw, Indiana, September 12, 1917. Williams & Conover, 432 Wells Street, Chicago, Illinois. Gentlemen: Please send me by prepaid American Express the following articles selected from your Catalogue No. 17: Expert 64 foot Steel Bait Casting Rod......... $1.90 Kentucky Pattern Jeweled Satin Finished Reel. 2.50 Kewell Stewart’s Famous Spoon, 44 inches... .. 65 Beaver Silk Casting Line, No. 5.'........ 7 1.00 2 Phantom Minnows, 3 inches long, 30¢ each.... .60 Roti 6 Pe umea 200. haa ee $6. 65 I inclose a post-office money order for the amount of this purchase. Yours truly, HAWKINS UNDERWOOD © ne LETTER WRITING 263 LESSON 56 LETTER WRITING: THE SIGNATURE AND THE SUPERSCRIPTION The signature consists of the full name, though in case the letter 1s written to a near relative or friend, only the Christian name need be used. In writing to a stranger, a woman prefixes Miss or Mrs. in parenthesis, so.that the person receiving the letter may know how to address the reply. A married woman sometimes signs her name twice, using her Christian name and then, inclosed in parenthesis, her name as wife, thus: Clara Young (Mrs. George T. Young) The signature should be written plainly so that your correspondent will not have to puzzle over the name of the person to whom his reply should be addressed. The signature is begun somewhat farther to the right than the complimentary close. No period is necessary after the signature. The superscription, or direction on the envelope, be- gins slightly above the middle of the envelope and not far from the left edge. The different lines should be the same distance apart, and the beginning of each line should be at a uniform distance from the beginning of the preceding line, so that there will be a slant, as in No. 1 below. On the first line stand the name and the title, if one is used; on the second, the door number and the street, or the number of the rural route or post- 264 PART TWO: COMPOSITION office box; on the third, the name of the city or town; on the fourth, the name of the state. Special directions, like ‘‘To be forwarded” or “In care of Mr. Henry Woods,” may be placed in the lower left-hand corner. It is best not to abbreviate the name of the state or the words street and avenue. Commas may be placed after each line except the last, but it is also good form to omit them. It is allowable to use the ‘“‘block” form of address, illustrated in No. 2 below. 1 2 Miss Edith Rumford, Mr. J. F. Cartt 241 Main Street, Box 91 Winsted, Siloam Springs Connecticut. Arkansas 3 After 5 days return to Harland J. Lupton, Attorney, Columbia, South Carolina. Most business men have a return direction printed in the upper left-hand corner of their envelopes, as in No. 3 above. If the letter cannot be delivered, this direction insures that it will be sent back promptly to the writer. Thousands of letters are mailed with in- correct or incomplete superscription, and with no direc- tions for returning to the sender. For this reason, it is always well to write on the envelope the full address of the sender. Mistakes may be made through care- lessness even in a familiar address; a return direction is very quickly added and may save the postal clerk some trouble and you much inconvenience. DESCRIPTION OF A MOTION PICTURE 265 EXERCISE 56 1. Your mother is away on a visit. Write her a letter, telling her what has happened. at home in her absence. Think of the things she wants to know about. 2. One of your schoolmates has gone away for a week. Write to this schoolmate, relating the news of the school. 3. A friend of yours has had an accident that will confine him to the house for several days. Write to him, expressing regret for his misfortune. Tell him that you are sending him by mail a copy of Kipling’s “First Jungle Book” (or some other book) to read while he is shut in. LESSON 57 COMPOSITION: DESCRIPTION OF A MOTION PICTURE EXERCISE 57 “A few days ago I saw a motion picture that was worth while.” Let this be the first sentence of a composition about a good motion picture which you have seen. If more than a few days have passed since you saw the picture, change the sentence to fit the facts. Select a picture that deals with commerce, manufacture, travel, current events, or something else that is both educational and interesting. Describe the picture just as you would describe it to some friend who had not seen it. If you have not lately seen a motion picture that you wish to write about, describe an entertainment or a series of pic- tures from your geography or some other book. Ve Pe | | i 266 PART TWO: COMPOSITION ‘LESSON 58 EXPOSITION NATURALIZATION | y ~ Naturalization is the process by which a person born in a foreign country may become a citizen of the United States. The United States law requires that a person who wishes to become a citizen must have lived in the United States for five years, and he must declare his intention to become a citizen at least two years before he may become naturalized. This is done before a United States or a state court. The — applicant is then given his first papers, showing that he has applied for naturalization. Two years or more after re- ceiving these first papers, he must again go before the court and swear that he gives up his citizenship in his own country, and accepts citizenship in the United States. He is then viven a certificate showing that he is a citizen of the United States and entitled to all the privileges of a citizen. This is an explanatory, or expository, paragraph. Read it carefully and see if it gives you a clear idea of the process of naturalization. Try to sum up the thought of the paragraph in a single sentence. EXERCISE 58 Using the paragraph on naturalization as a model, select one of the topics below and explain what it is. Be sure that you know exactly what your subject is before you begin to write. Make your exposition so clear that a pupil in your grade who knows nothing of your subject will understand it after hearing your explanation. Some of the topics are treated in the textbooks which you use in school. The necessary in- FOLDING THE LETTER 267 formation on other topics you will probably find in some book in the school library. . — . A Tourniquet. . Microbes. . A Vacuum Cleaner. . A Fireless Cooker. The Merit System in the Civil Service. The Initiative. . The Referendum. The Sun in Relation to the Change of Seasons. . The Electoral College. . Protective Tariff and Revenue Tariff. . A Machine Gun. CONOaAR Wh a mee =, LESSON 59 a LETTER WRITING EXERCISE 59 Write a business letter, complete and correct in all of its parts, including the direction on the envelope. LESSON 60 FOLDING THE LETTER An awkwardly folded letter makes a bad impression; but correct folding is a simple matter. The important thing is to use an envelope which will fit the sheet of paper when it has been properly folded. A sheet of business stationery, about 84 by 11 inches, fits nicely 268 PART TWO: COMPOSITION a No. 6% envelope, which is about 62 inches long and o¢ inches wide. Such a sheet is folded in this manner: No. 1. With the sheet lying before you, fold the lower half over the upper half. No. 2. Now fold the right-hand third of this sheet over the middle third. No. 3. Then fold the left-hand third over the middle. No. 4. Insert the folded letter into the envelope with the folded part toward the bottom of the envelope, so that the open edges will be near the flap. If you use a sheet as wide as the envelope is long, it will not require the first fold that is given the full- size sheet, but will be folded twice, as in Nos. 2 and 8. SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 269 The four-page sheet, upon which social letters are often written, is folded by turning “the lower part over the upper. EXERCISE 60 There should be in the classroom, supplied either by the school or by the pupils, samples of various kinds of stationery, both paper and envelopes. ! 1. Take a sheet of paper approximately 84 inches by 11 inches; fold it to fit an Coy ope 6? inches jong by 32 inches wide. 2. Take a sheet about 84 by 64; fold it for a No. 64 envelope (an envelope 64 inches long). 3. Fold a sheet 8} by 11 to’go into a No. 10 envelope. 4. Fold a sheet of social stationery, about 5¢ by 64, to fit an envelope about 54 by 34. 5. Fold a sheet of business paper, memo size, 84 by 5%, to fit a No. 62 envelope. 6. Fold a sheet 84 by 7% to fit a No. 62 envelope. (Fold about two inches of the lower part of the sheet over the upper part. Then proceed as with a regular letter sheet.) LESSON 61 SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS; USE OF THE DICTIONARY In reading what you have written, you will often find that you have used some word which does not exactly express your meaning. You must search your memory for the right word. If you cannot think of the word you want, consult the dictionary. 270 PART TWO : COMPOSITION Sometimes you will find that you have repeated a word two or three times within the space of a few lines. Although this repetition may sound awk- ward, you should let the word stand if it is necessary for clearness or for the exact expression of your mean- ing. Frequently you will find that you can substitute a word of similar meaning without sacrificing clear- ness, and that the substitution will improve the sound of your sentence. Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning; as, courage, bravery; loving, af- fectionate. Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning; as, good, bad; ignorant, educated. Good dictionaries will give you all the information you need about synonyms and antonyms. The larger diction- aries give the synonyms of a word, and explain the different shades of meaning of these synonyms when it is desirable to make a distinction among them. EXERCISE 61 . L. Write ten pairs of synonyms. “Il. Write ten parrs of antonyms. . III. Look up the meanings of these words in Webster’s Secondary School Dictionary or some other good dictionary of similar scope. Learn all the synonyms you can for each of these words, and be able to tell the difference in meaning between the word here given and its synonyms: rch contemptible examination powerful contemptuous spite honest booty cross (adjective) honesty animated awkward frank (adjective) massacre allow * ARGUMENT 271 IV. By the help of the dictionary, distinguish in meaning between the words in the following pairs and use each word an a sentence: house, home healthy, wholesome famous, notorious knowledge, wisdom character, reputation continuous, continual LESSON 62 ARGUMENT THe PRACTICAL VALUE OF STUDYING SANITATION The boy who learns to kill mosquitoes and to spare the ladybirds will probably not be richer for it when he comes to make his will; but the community that learns to kill it¢ mosquitoes and spare its ladybirds will surely have an in. calculable balance in its favor. The occasional individual who learns to avoid spitting is still exposed to infection from the spitting of others; but the community that first elimi- nates spitting and pencil-licking will probably be the first to eliminate the white plague. If an understanding of the relations of bacteria and ven- tilation and diet and work to people’s health will lead a gen-— eration of citizens to oppose with all their might the building of unsanitary dwellings, the operation of ill-ventilated fac- tories, the marketing of unwholesome foods and quack remedies, and the overworking of men, women, and children, —such an understanding is worth all it can cost. No other knowledge given to all the children of a nation will do so much for the general welfare as an appreciation of the rela- tions between man and the organic factors of his environ- ment. BENJAMIN GRUENBERG 272 PART TWO: COMPOSITION In the above paragraphs, the writer is giving reasons, or arguments, why boys and girls should study sani-. tation. He argues that if the children are taught the need of killing mosquitoes, for example, the community in which they grow up will in time kill its mosquitoes. He wishes to convince the reader that an understand- ing of the principles of sanitation is of the greatest importance for the welfare of the nation. EXERCISE 62 1. State several good reasons for the study of geography. 2. Give some good reasons for the study of history. 3. What are the best reasons you can think of why one should acquire a good handwriting? 4, Give reasons why a girl should learn to cook. 5. Give reasons why a boy should learn something of carpentry. . 6. What are Mr. Gruenberg’s illustrations of the value of studying sanitation and hygiene? LESSON 63 DESCRIPTION OF A PAINTING The frontispiece of this book is a reproduction of a painting entitled ‘‘A Reading from Homer” by Law- rence Alma-Tadema, who was distinguished especially for his pictures on Greek and Roman subjects. He was a native of the Netherlands, but spent a large part of his life in England. Turn to the frontispiece and study it. The picture ARGUMENT 273 shows a group of young people listening to one of the famous stories of Greek heroes that had been told in ancient times by the bind poet Homer. The man at the right is reading the story from a scroll, such as was used long before the days of book-making. Notice the Greek costumes, the harp, and the view of the sea in the background. What stories of Homer do you recall—about Achilles, the Trojan War, or the adventures of Ulysses during his wanderings after the war? Choose the story which you imagine the people in the picture are listening to. EXERCISE 63 Write a description of Alma-Tadema’s ‘‘A Reading from Homer.” LESSON 64 ARGUMENT THe Stupy or AGRICULTURE 18 MorE VALUABLE THAN NATURE STUDY When the pupil is sent to study the tree or the insect, the most that he can do is to observe and record. This is all good in its way, but the tree, the bird, and the insect are sufficient unto themselves, or, at least, are in no sense dependent upon the boy, nor are they of much consequence to him or his. When, however, the boy is set to studying the pig, the matter of utility at once enters in as a factor of the problem. The pig is worth something and the boy can see it. He can see how the bare existence of the pig is dependent upon regular feeding which he himself may give; and how the 274 PART TWO: COMPOSITION pig, when he is brought to a finish, is not only capable of con- tributing to the support of the body, but can be sold for money with which the boy may possess himself of something dear to. his heart. He sees, in other words, how he himself may influence the production of pigs; and if he has even a fair share of the creative activity which most boys possess, it will be stimulated into action by the prospect. If he is set to studying the cow and her milk, especially if he learns how to compare one kind of milk with another, or if his attention is even directed to the conditions under which different kinds may be produced, he sees in concrete ways how Nature behaves in her workshop, what it is that Nature is doing day by day, and how it is that these activities are connected with the affairs of men. He can~ not help seeing how the family that owns good cows has an advantage in the world over those whose cows are poor or © ill-fed. If he is set to studying corn, he knows at once that he is dealing with a crop whose management is in the hands of man; with something that does not exist for itself alone and would not and could not exist except for man’s at- tention. All this helps to stimulate activity and productive energy on the part of the child, which is one of the things we need to nourish when we take children out of real life for a con- siderable length of time and put them into the school- room. EUGENE DAVENPORT Professor Davenport is here trying to prove that the study of agriculture is of more value than nature study. A complete outline of his argument would be somewhat like the following: DEBATING 275 The study of agriculture is more valuable than nature study I. Because agriculture stimulates activity that is of value in connection with actual life. _1. In studying trees, birds, and insects, the pupil merely observes and makes records. 2. In studying pigs, the pupil sees that he can help in raising pigs and can profit by the sale. 3. In studying cows, he sees that he can learn how to get the best kind of milk. 4. In studying corn, he sees that the farmer can help to secure a successful crop. You will see that this selection from Professor Daven- port makes one main argument for the proposition which he is trying to prove. He gives one illustration of the lack of practical value in nature study, and three illustrations of the connection between agri- culture and life which gives to agriculture its interest. EXERCISE 64 1. Give three or four statements to show that summer is a more pleasant season than winter. 2. Give three or four illustrations to show that winter is preferable to summer. ‘ te LESSON 65 _— DEBATING A debate is the discussion of a subject bout which there is a difference of opinion. In conducting an organized discussion, or debate, certain rules are generally followed. First, a statement 276 PART TWO: COMPOSITION of the subject to be debated is made; as, ‘‘ Resolved, that. we should establish a school paper.” Arguments which aim to prove that the statement is true are on the affirmative side; those tending to prove that the statement is not true are on the negative side. Speakers are chosen for each side, to give the arguments for that side. Each speaker, at the end of his talk, sums up what he has said. Sometimes each debater is allowed — to speak twice—once to give the arguments for his side and once to answer those of his opponents. Let us suppose that a debate is to take place in the eighth grade of the small town of Floralhurst. The question for debate is: Resolved, that the school distri of Floralthurst should vote bonds for the erection of a new school building. Although each person taking part in the debate argues on only one side of the question, he studies the arguments for both sides. He gets as many facts bearing on the proposition as he can. He is careful to verify every assertion he intends to make. Let us consider how a speaker for the affirmative side prepares himself. After he has consulted the superintendent, the teachers, perhaps some members of the Board of Education, and others who are well- informed on the educational situation in his town, he reviews carefully all that he has learned. He selects the strongest arguments presented by those who favor building a new school. It is possible that he may think of some good reason that no one else has advanced. Then he arranges his arguments in the best form that he can. He is careful not to run two arguments to- gether and not to put under two headings the state- . ments that really belong under one. DEBATING 277 He writes a clear brief statement of each of his argu- ments, which may appear like this: Floralhurst should have a new school building 1. Because the number of children going to school has increased so much that the present building is badly over- crowded. 2. The school playground is not large enough to allow all the pupils necessary exercise. 3. The present building is located in the east part of town, making too long a walk for pupils living in the west part. 4. Our building has no gymnasium and no assembly room. 5. Floralhurst can afford to erect a new building as it has no school debt. From this outline, or brief, the speaker would build a speech somewhat like that which follows. He might write out his speech in full, being careful to use simple language and to make every statement so clear that it cannot easily be misunderstood. After writing the speech, correcting it, and making a clean copy, he might commit it to memory. But instead of writing the arguments in the exact words in which he meant to give them, the speaker might stand with his outline in hand and practice his speech many times. He would probably not use exactly the same words each time, but he would become familiar with his arguments. They would be clear in his mind, and on the day of the debate he would be prepared to speak from brief notes. 278 PART TWO: COMPOSITION AN ARGUMENT FOR A NEw Scuoout BuILpING IN FLORALHURST The School District of Floralhurst should vote bonds for the erection of a new school building because the present building is badly overcrowded. We have twelve rooms and an enrollment of 606. This makes an average of about fifty pupils to each room. This is far too many for good work, for comfort, or for health. A room so crowded cannot be ‘well ventilated. A new building would enable the district to put the proper number of pupils in each room. We would then have room for more teachers, and each teacher would have only as many pupils as she could properly teach. The playground of our present building is much too small for the number of pupils. This makes it impossible to play many games we would like to play. The crowded condition of the playground is also the cause of accidents. If we build a new school, it will have a good playground; ana there will then be plenty of room on our playground for the pupils who remain at this building. Our present building is in the east part of town. ‘The pupils who live in the west part of town have too long a walk to school; many of them have to walk fifteen blocks, or even more. The new building could be built in the west part of town. We should then have schools located con- veniently for all. Our present building has no gymnasium and no assembly room. ‘These could be provided in a new school building. With the pupils living in the west part of town in the new building, there would be vacant rooms here. The superin- tendent and the president of the school board say that it would then be possible to take down a partition between two of the rooms of this building and make a very good assembly room. By a similar change, a room could be . made for gymnastic exercises. LETTER WRITING 279 Floralhurst can well afford to erect another school. It is as wealthy as the average town of its size. Our school district is out of debt. The last of the bonds which we owed on this building were paid off two years ago. Therefore, because our school building is overcrowded; because the playground is not large enough; because the children from the west part of town have too far to come; because we have no gymnasium and no assembly room; because Floralhurst is wealthy and has no school debt, we believe that the school district should vote bonds for a new building. EXERCISE 65 1. How would you gather material on the question for debate in this lesson? 2. What are other ways of gathering material on a different kind of question? 3. For a young speaker, what are the advantages of writing the speech in full and committing it to memory? 4, What are the advantages of fixing the arguments firmly in your mind without trying to memorize the exact words to be used when you rise to speak? LESSON 66 LETTER WRITING EXERCISE 66 Write a letter of friendship, observing all the forms. Keep in mind the aim of a friendly letter—to interest the person addressed and to give him pleasure. It will be all the better if the letter written for this exercise is a real letter which you intend to mail after it has been corrected and copied. 280 PART TWO: COMPOSITION LESSON 67 DICTATION Lexington, Virginia, December 14, 1869. General J. B. Gordon, President, Southern Life Insurance Company, Atlanta, Georgia. © My dear General: I have received your letter of the 3d inst., and am duly sensible of the kind feelings which prompted your proposal. It would be a great pleasure to me to be associated with you, Hampton, B. H. Hill, and the other good men whose names I see on your list of directors, but I feel that I ought not to abandon the position I hold at Washing~ ton College at this time, or as long as I can be of service to it. Thanking you for your kind consideration, to which I know T am alone indebted for your proposition to become president of the Southern Life Insurance Company, and with kindest regards to Mrs. Gordon and my best wishes for yourself, I am Very truly yours, R. E. Lee EXERCISE 67 Study General Lee’s letter carefully and write it from dic- tation. LESSON 68 NOTES AND INVITATIONS NotTEs There are many occasions when, instead of writing a letter, we write a brief, informal message, or note. — NOTES AND INVITATIONS 281 These notes are used when a person wishes to communi- cate with some one in the same office building or fac- tory, and on many other occasions. We sometimes have occasion to write a brief note to a neighbor and send it by a messenger. The written excuses brought by pupils who have been absent are sometimes notes rather than letters. A note should be written with attention to neatness, legibility, spelling, grammar, and -good form. It dis- penses with some of the parts of a letter. The following specimens illustrate the shortened form in which notes are written. 1 March 8 Dear Miss Kincaid, George was ill yesterday and was not able. to be at school. Please excuse his absence. Yours respectfully, Mary H. Lockhart 2 May 11 Ben: | Hal and I have gone to Steen s Lake on our bicycles. We expect you to come on the afternoon train. We will meet you at the station. Everett 3 Dear Mrs. Colby, Will you kindty send me by Mary your recipe for orange cake? I will copy it and return it to you at once. I shall be greatly obliged. Kate Palmer 282 PART TWO: COMPOSITION INFORMAL INVITATIONS Informal invitations are simply notes. The place and the date are usually written in the lower left- hand corner. The year need not be given, and the day of the month is sometimes spelled out instead of being written in figures. 1 Dear Martin, Mother wants you to come to see us again be- fore you leave town. We should be glad to have you take dinner with us and spend the evening next Tuesday, the fourth. ie Wilson King Montrose, September the first. 2 Dear Wilson, I thank you and your mother for your kind in- vitation. I shall be glad to take dinner with you next Tuesday evening. | : Martin R. Adams Montrose, | September the second. FoRMAL INVITATIONS Formal invitations and replies are written in the third person. They have no heading, salutation, or signature. The date, written in words instead cf fgures, is placed in the lower left-hand corner. Be careful not to use the first or second person in these notes. The reply to a note of invitation should always be NOTES AND INVITATIONS 283 written in the same form as the invitation. Use the formal style only when the invitation is in that form. 1 Mr. and Mrs. Vernon Reed request the pleasure of Miss Black’s presence at dinney Monday evening, October the twelfth, at seven o’clock. Hillcrest October the sixth 2 Miss Black accepts with pleasure the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Vernon Reed for Monday evening, October the twelfth, at seven o’clock. 11 Jefferson Street October the seventh EXERCISE 68 1. You have arranged to spend Saturday fishing with a friend, but are called away in haste on Friday evening. Write a note to your friend, explaining why you cannot keer the engagement. 2. Write an informal invitation. 3. Write an informal acceptance. 4, Write an informal note expressing regret because you are unable to accept an invitation. 5. Your elass at school is to give a special program for Thanksgiving or some other occasion. Your teacher and your principal permit you to invite the grade just below yours to be present at the program. In the name of the teacher and pupils of your class, write a formal invitation to be read to the pupils of the grade below. 284 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 6. Write a formal acceptance in the name of the teacher and pupils of the grade below yours, replying to the invita- tion. 7. Your rural school is to have a school fair. The parents — of each pupil are to be invited. In the name of the school, write a formal invitation to your parents. 8. The pupils in your room have decided to have a picnic and to invite your teacher. Decide whether you prefer to send her a formal or an informal invitation; then write the invitation. LESSON 69 ARGUMENT EXERCISE 69 1. Make an outline giving three or four good arguments on each side of the first statement, or proposition, on page 285. State each argument in a clear and complete sentence. Be sure that you do not put down.as a separate argument something included in another heading though stated in dif- ferent words. 2. Make outlines giving a few arguments on each side of five other propositions selected from the list on page 285. — 3. Select the proposition that you have found most inter- esting. Think over your outline carefully and write a para- graph on each heading, or argument. In expanding your arguments, you must prove the statement that you have made. You may give examples or instances, and may quote figures or facts to support the statement. In Professor Davenport’s argument for the’ teaching of agriculture rather than nature study (page 273), he gives four illustrations of his statement that agriculture is more practical than nature . study. DEBATING 285 4. Prepare a talk to the class on the proposition selected. With your outline in hand, make your speech. If you have studied the question thoroughly, you will have little trouble in finding something to say in developing your points. LESSON 70 DEBATING EXERCISE 70 Some of the following subjects may be used for oral debates. These debates may be conducted in different ways. If two or three represent each side, it must be arranged that each speaker will devote his time to a special point so that the speeches will not repeat or overlap. If the debate is open to all in the room, everybody must be prepared to give a brief talk on the side of his choice, when called upon. PROPOSITIONS FOR ARGUMENT 1. Resolved, that we should establish a school paper. 2. Resolved, that military drill should be given in grammar schools. 3. Resolved, that women should be given the right to vote. 4. Resolved, that our school should form a baseball team. 5. Resolved, that football should be played in this school. 6. Resolved, that the army and the navy of the United States should be increased. 7. Resolved, that the opportunities for young men at the present time are greater than they were a half century ago. &. Resolved, that all the men of the United States, unless 286 PART TWO: COMPOSITION physically disqualified, should be required to serve for two years in the army. 9. Resolved, that the President of the United States shouid be elected for six years and should not be eligible to succeed himself. LESSON 71 TELEGRAMS * Form 1206 |_CLASS OF SERVICE DESIRED —— a Fast Day Message Day Letter Night Message Night Letter X oppo- desieed; ~~ = should mark an je class of s ores Sia dtarene WILL FAST DAY MESSAGE. INEWCOMB CARLTON, PRESIDENT Send the ng owin, or telegram, subjectto the terms _ on bac f, rvhich are hereby agreed to Medora, Illinois, May 8, 1917. Charles S. Dean, 1415 Harrison Boulevard, Kansas City, Missouri. Meet me at Union Station at ten o'clock Thursday morning. Raymond Oliver Brevity and clearness are the qualities a telegram should have. A fixed rate is charged for ten words, and each additional word costs extra. Night letters may be sent by telegraph for delivery the next morning, fifty words or less being transmitted at the rate charged for ten words by day. Day letters, which are taken with TELEGRAMS ; 287 the understanding that their transmission is subordi- nated to that of regular telegrams, may be sent for one and one-half times the night letter rate. EXERCISE 71 1. Flowers ordered as decoration for a school entertain- ment have not been received at the expected time. Write a telegram to the florist, asking if they may be expected in time to be used. 2. Coming home from a visit, you have missed connections and will not arrive at the time when your parents expect you. Write a telegram to your father explaining the situation. 3. A friend has written that he is to pass through your city and asks you to meet him at the station. Send him a night letter, asking him to arrange to stop over for a day’s visit. 4, You receive a telegram making an offer of a position at a certain salary and are asked to reply by telegram. Write the telegram in which the offer is made. ®. The salary offered is less than you can accept. Write a telegram in reply to the cfier. 6. There has been a windstorm in which property was de- stroyed and people were injured. Send a telegram to your mother, who is away from home, telling her that the family are all safe and that your property is not damaged. _ 7. In the absence of your father, Mr. J. C. Newell wants to buy a certain horse on the farm. Write a telegram to your father, asking if he will sell the horse and at what price. 8. A bookseller finds that he must have at once twenty copies of Kipling’s “Just So Stories.’’ Send his telegram to Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, New York, or- dering the books. 288 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 9. You find, on arriving at a town where you are to enter — a new school, that you have left behind the record of your previous grades. Telegraph home asking to have the record sent you, and telling where the papers are to be found. 10. A speaker who was to make an address at the grad- uating exercises of your school has been taken ill two days before the date of the graduation. Send a night letter to another man, explaining the circumstances, and asking him if he can speak and what his terms for the service will be. LESSON 72 WRITING ADVERTISEMENTS You know how attractive are many of the advertise- ments that appear in newspapers and magazines. A great many of these advertisements are the work of highly trained specialists and combine the arts of the writer, the illustrator, and the printer with the judg- ment of the business man. The simpler kinds of adver- tisements, however, can be written by any one after a little study and practice. Many of you will have need to employ the adver- tising columns of the papers to greater or less extent. The writing of brief advertisements is valuable train- ing in the selection of essential facts and in compactness of expression. | Study the advertisements that appear in this lesson. As a further preparation for the exercise which follows, every member of the class should bring to school a few ' good short advertisements cut from newspapers or. magazines. WRITING ADVERTISEMENTS 289 YOUNG MAN attending business college needs employ- ment outside school hours to save expenses; can do ‘housework and tend furnace. Bell Grand 624, Home Main 1073. LOST: a Necklace—At the Lyric Theater or Sedgwick Courthouse, coral necklace, two strands graduated coral beads; liberal reward. Return to 793 Lombard St., Wichita, Kans. Phone Home West 127 FOR RENT, WITH BOARD—One large, light room with adjoining dressing room. Southeastern exposure. Conve- nient to trains and trolley. Every convenience, including telephone. Reasonable rates. Mrs. Steen, Morse Road, Hillsdale. FOR SALE: 40 ACRES, 2 miles northeast of Pleasant Hill on Skaggs and Tuttle Roads; all smooth land; no waste or breaks; all in grass and meadow; new hay barn, no other improvements; best location in county; price $137.50 per acre; will carry $3,000 or more on terms. Frank K. Elkins, Pleasant Hill, Mo. EXERCISE 72 1. You have lost a purse. Write an advertisement of your loss. 2. You have found a purse. Advertise it. 3 Write an advertisement for a pin, a watch, or some other article that has been lost. Describe the lost article accurately. 4. Suppose that you desire to purchase a secondhand type- writer. Write a want advertisement, naming the make or makes that you prefer. 290 PART TWO: COMPOSITION 5. Write an advertisement for some position that you would like to secure. Wa / 6. You have a large hotbed and have raised more tomato, sweet potato, pepper, and cabbage plants than you need for your own use. You decide to try to sell your surplus by means of an advertisement in the local paper. Write the ad- vertisement, giving prices. 7. Write an advertisement for a house to let. Describe the house truthfully and in such a way as to show its ad- vantages. 8. Suppose that your school is to give a play. Write a _ short advertisement of the play. The advertisement should not only give the reader all the information he needs about the play, but should also help him to decide to attend. LESSON 73> LETTERS OF APPLICATION 1224 North Twelfth Street, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 9, 1918. Mr. Willard French, 216 Lumber Exchange, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Dear Sir: I read in to-day’s “‘Tribune” your advertisement for an office boy. I should like to be considered an applicant for the place. I am fourteen years old and have just completed the eighth grade of the Whittier School of this city. For infor- | mation about my character and qualifications, I refer you to LETTERS OF APPLICATION 291 Principal John D. Sullivan of the Whittier School and to Mr. Ross Foster, 2234 Channing Street, for whom I have worked. If you care to have me do so, I will call on you at any time that is convenient for you. | Yours respectfully, Robert Spore EXERCISE 73 Study the letter given above, and using it as a model, apply for these positions: 1. A boy who lives in the country will attend high school in town this fall. He hears that Mr. Charles 8. Bankhead, a grocer, needs a boy to work in his store after school in the afternoon and on Saturdays. Write a letter of application for this place. 2: Y, BOY— Wanted, bright office boy; prefer one who can use the typewriter; permanent position. Address G, 154, Star. 3. MAN—Wanted a bright young man, 18 to 25 years, who can operate typewriter and do clerical work in a wholesale house; good opportunity for the right person; $9 to start; give references or schooling. Lemmon & Vanburg, 750 Kellar St., Los Angeles, California. 4. | WANTED—a clerk, 16 or 17, who knows a little type- writing; address with pen, giving references. A. B. Jaeger- sen, 802 Fidelity Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y. ~ OFFICE BOY—Wanted; one who has had experience in filing and mailing letters; answer in own handwriting, stating & 292 PART TWO: COMPOSITION age, experience, reference, and salary wanted. Address G, 276, Star. 6. CLERK—Young lady wanted for accounting department of manufacturing company. Must be good penman, rapid and accurate at figures. Give age and reference. Address Box 148, Herald. LESSON 74 STUDY OF A SPEECH WASHINGTON America has furnished to the world the character of Wash- ington! If our American institutions had done nothing else, that alone would have entitled them to the respect of man- kind. Washington! ‘‘First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen!’ Washington is all our own! The enthusiastic veneration and regard in which the people of the United States hold him, prove them to be worthy of such a countryman, while his reputation abroad reflects the , highest honor on his country. I would cheerfully put the. question to-day to the intelligence of Europe and the world: What character of the century, upon the whole, stands out in the relief of history, most pure, most respectable, most sublime? And I doubt not that, by a suffrage approaching to unanimity, the answer would be, ‘‘ Washington!” To him who denies or doubts whether our fervid liberty can be combined with law, with order, with the security of property, with the pursuits and advancement of happiness; to him who denies that our forms of government are capable of producing exaltation of soul and the passion of true glory: — THE MINUTES OF A MEETING 293 to him who denies that we have contributed anything to the stock of great lessons and great examples—to all these I reply by pointing to Washington. DANIEL WEBSTER The above speech is a part of the oration delivered by Daniel Webster at the dedication of the Bunker Hill Monument at Boston, June 17, 1843. Eighteen years earlier he had delivered another masterly oration at the laying of the cornerstone of the monument. His speeches had strength and dignity, and were remark- able for clearness of statement. EXERCISE 74 I. Find in the dictionary the meaning of any words in this speech you cannot define, and be able to give these definitions in class. ; II. Commit the speech to memory and repeat it standing before the class. LESSON 75 THE MINUTES OF A MEETING Every club, society, corporation, or other organiza- tion keeps a record of each of its meetings. This record, written by the secretary, is called the minutes; it shows everything of importance that took place at each meeting. The minutes are referred to for the purpose of settling any disputed point as to what was done or agreed to by the society. They should, therefore, be accurate and should be written fully, simply, clearly. At each meeting, the minutes of the previous meeting 294 rART TWO: COMPOSITION are read by the secretary, and the president inquires if there is any objection to them. If there is no objection, the president says, ‘There being no objection to the minutes, they stand approved as read.”’ If any member thinks that there is a mistake or an omission in the minutes, he rises, addresses the president, and calls attention to it. If the correction suggested ought to be made, the president orders the secretary to change the minutes accordingly. ‘The minutes are then signed by the president and the secretary. | Here are the minutes of a meeting of the Audubon Society in a public school: The Audubon Society of the Hawthorne School met in Room 12, Thursday afternoon, May 1, at-three o’clock. The roll call showed twenty-five members present. After a song was sung, Charles Sedgwick gave a talk on “The Baltimore Oriole.’”’ Mary Harwood read a paper on “The Value of Birds to the Farmer.” On motion of George Hamilton, a committee of three was appointed to report the number of bird houses put up this spring in the neighborhood of the school and the names of the persons who put them up. The President appointed as this committee George Hamilton, Edith Sayre, and Doro- thy Hemphill. The Treasurer, Carl Jacobi, made a report Pee that there was $2.40 in the treasury and that there were unpaid dues amounting to 50 cents. There being no further business, the society adjourned to meet Thursday afternoon, May 15. William Parmalee, President Frances Cook, Secretary - THE MINUTES OF A MEETING 295 EXERCISE 75 _ 1. Write the minutes of a real or supposed meeting of a society organized in your school. 2. Write the minutes of a meeting of a debating society organized in the Franklin Rural School. Give the question for debate, the names of the debaters, the names hl the judges, and the winning side. 3. Suppose that there is an athletic association i your school. Write the minutes of a meeting at which new officers were elected for the next term of three months. Give the names of the officers elected and the positions to which they were chosen. SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS IN WORD STUDY AND COMPOSITION WORD STUDY LESSON 1 FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY How are the words in the dictionary arranged? Divide your copy of the dictionary into approximately three equal parts, by putting slips of paper in where the words beginning with. H and Q appear. List the initial letters of words in your three sections as follows: AB CDi HIJKLMNOP Q BST UWewW X Yee EXERCISE 1 In which third of the book will you look for each of the following words? synonyms derivation reed enunciation principle capital wring legible wholly frieze berth hoarse gilt strait kernel Hold a contest to find out which member of the class can | turn in the shortest time to each of the above words. 296 ' FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY 297 There are so many words with the same initial letter that you will lose time in locating words in the dictionary unless you understand that they are ar- ranged according to the letters following the first letter. Suppose you wish to arrange in alphabetical order, a group of words beginning with de, du, da, dr, di, dw, do. You will write them according to the alphabetical order of the second letter in each word, thus: day delightful digestion doleful drew dubious dwarf In arranging, or finding in the dictionary, several words beginning with the same group of letters, you can locate them according to the alphabetical order of the first letter not common to all the words. Thus, if you are looking up words beginning with den, deb, des, and dew, you will find them in this order: deb, del, den, des, dew. By looking at the two guide words at the top of the dictionary pages, you can tell whether a word you are looking up comes on that page. These guide words indicate the first and last words on a given page. EXERCISE 2 I. Arrange the following words in alphabetical order. First note that all the words begin with det, dev, des, or dew. List the words that fall within each of these groups, and 298 _.. SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS then alphabetize one group of words at a time. Finally determine the order for the different groups. ’ detective detest determine Deuteronomy desire destination destruction determination detain devilfish detour develop devastate devil destroy / II. Think of words beginning with F, J, D, T, N, ete., and time yourself in finding each in the dictionary. Try to estimate the location of a word so as to open at once to it. Practice until you feel prepared to locate easily any one of a list of words which your teacher may dictate to the class. LESSON 2 THE TREASURE HOUSE OF WORDS Did you ever stop to consider the number and variety of words in the English language? We have simple words and bookish words for the same thing, as building, edifice; sweet-sounding, mellifluous. We have familiar words and dignified words: dad, father ; blubber, weep. : We have many words made from one main word by the use of prefixes, as noble, nobly, nobility, ignoble ; and we have words which may be used as a part of compound words. Thus butter may be used with other words to form the compounds butterfly, butter- knife, butterball, butterscotch, butterfingers. We have general words, as things, do, bird, that may apply to many kinds of ideas, and very exact words that apply to one particular thing, as tongue, to telephone, orvole. THE TREASURE HOUSE OF WORDS - 299 There are hosts of words to choose from when we want to convey a certain idea. Sometimes we will choose the word most pleasing to the ear; we may choose hushed or quiet rather than a word containing many s sounds as noiseless. We may choose a picture word in preference to another, as to tower instead of to stand high. We may choose a vigorous, expressive word, as gaunt, gay, instead of the words thin and happy that have been used so often as to lose life and freshness. From the many words that give an idea of a slight sound, we may choose the one carrying the shade of meaning we have in mind, as tinkle, click, swish, murmur. This bountiful store of English words is in direct contrast to the slender store that less civilized people — have. They have to make one word serve many uses and do not try to express shades of meaning. The president of a certain university is quoted as saying, “The greatest possession a boy or girl can have is the English language.” We know that an unabridged dictionary contains about 500,000 words, which make up the English language, but we have taken only the first step in possessing the language when we buy a dictionary. How did the early settlers in the West lay claim to a free tract of land, to make it legally theirs? They had actually to live on it for a certain length of time. So if you want to possess the language, you must live in close touch with it — with those who write or speak it well —‘and on every opportunity you must use the words and expressions you want to make yours. If no one cared about increasing his vocabulary and 300 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS using correct expressions, our mother tongue would in time shrink to a few garbled, overworked words. Only while a language is in use, is it alive. There are many advantages in adding to your vocabulary. To increase your knowledge of words means to increase your circle of friends, in books, magazines, and daily living. It means the discovery of new interests and means of livelihood, since every fresh pleasure and bit of reliable information makes a person more interesting and more valuable to others. It means, furthermore, that you can express yourself with power, charm, accuracy, or conviction — whatever you desire. The following exercises will show you something of the treasures of words already at your command, and the possibilities of adding to them. EXERCISE 3 I. To test your present store of words, write all the words you can think of belonging to each group mentioned below. Allow five minutes for each group. 1. Exact words. Adjectives describing sound. Short words and long words expressing the same idea. Words that bring pictures to your mind. Verbs indicating quick action of different sorts. Pleasant-sounding words. Compound words made from book. _ Words made from polite by adding prefixes or suffixes. CONIA oT wh II. Here are some words meaning to cut: hew — chop sever pare amputate gash carve pierce THE TREASURE HOUSE OF WORDS 301 prune slash reap bore mow cleave peel shear What is the shade of meaning conveyed by each and to what can you apply each? Ill. Think of five different ways in which you might, during a day, discover a word to add to your vocabulary. For instance, perhaps you bring in the newspaper every morning from the door and notice unfamiliar words in the headlines as you carry it, or perhaps you hear your mother ordering from the grocer something new to you. Bring in five words, each discovered in a different way, and tell the class how you found each word and what it means. You can find out how to use the word by asking some one at home or by looking it up in the dictionary. IV. Decide which word in each group below is more expressive or definite or pleasant sounding and use it in a sentence. Be able to tell the class why you chose the.word. hurried threw to shimmer dashed hurled to shine a plant afraid a tune a geranium timid a melody queer pleasant active shabby neighborly spry hungry said seat starved demanded bench the rain funny snowy the shower comical white B02. SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS LESSON 3 WHAT THE DICTIONARY TELLS; SPELLING AND SYLLABICATION OF WORDS A new word cannot be useful to us until we can write it, say it, and know when to apply it. ‘There are three things, therefore, to be learned at once about a new word: its spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. We can find out by asking some one who knows or by consulting the dictionary. The surer guide is the dictionary. Spelling. Often you are perplexed about the spelling of some special form of a word that is not given in the small dictionaries. Large dictionaries, however, give the plural ending of a noun, and the past and ing forms of a verb. Thus, after ferry we find plu. -ries. Hence, we know that the complete plural is ferries. After drop we find dropped or dropt; dropping. ‘There are two correct forms for the past tense of drop, and, since dropped is given first, we can assume that it is the more common form. Syllabication. In writing a word, you frequently need to know how to divide it into syllables. The dictionary uses a small hyphen to indicate the syllabication of the words. It is considered poor form to divide short words of two syllables, as bucket, taxes, especially when the final syllable consists of only two or three letters. - SPELLING AND SYLLABICATION OF WORDS 303 EXERCISE (4/ I. Prepare for the following exercises by consulting the dictionary or some other reference book. 1. Spell the name of five religious denominations. 2. Write the names of five states you find hard to spell. 3. Give the plural of ally | alley witch circus tax cargo half mosquito thief 4. Complete these words correctly by adding er, ar, or or: plumb- mot- elevat- gramm- eoll-. schol- bungl- edit- seni- col- 5. Supply the missing letter in each of these words: differ-nce bull-t superintend-nt sep-rate cemet-ry machin-ry 6. Supply the missing diphthong in each of these words : fr-ght h-ght bes-ge l-gue S-ze | g-lty 7. Spell the past and ing forms of these verbs: swim dine win drawn attack drink he. dig travel Il. Which of the following words could not be divided? Which words would it be better form not to divide? Where could you divide the remaining words, if it was impossible to write the whole word at the end of a line? 304 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS fudge asparagus sieve wishes saucer doesn’t baggage plowed towel elevator interesting capture beautiful knitting afraid disappoint taught Massachusetts naughty attempt purple LESSON 4 WHAT THE DICTIONARY TELLS ;, PRONUNCIATION To know the pronunciation of a word, you must know where the accent falls, how the vowels and consonants are sounded, and what letters are not sounded. The marks indicating sounds are called diacritical marks. Study their names given below. _/macron ~ tilde a circumflex — bar - breve ee dat + cedilla If you know how to read these signs, you can under- stand the pronouncing guide given in parenthesis after words in the dictionary. Suppose you are looking up epaulet (sometimes spelled epaulette), the name given to shoulder badges on officers’ uniforms. Fol- lowing the word appears @’p6-let. The accented mark indicates that you give emphasis to the first syllable. To understand the sound of the e’s and o look at the key to diacritical marks at the foot of the page in a large dictionary. There you will find five common words to illustrate the five pronunciations of e and six words to illustrate the six pronunciations of o. The e in énd is marked like the e’s in epaulet; the o in érb is marked like the o which stands for au in the pronounc- PRONUNCIATION 305 ing guide for epaulet. By supplying the sounds we know to correspond to the e in énd and the o in érb, we can pronounce epaulet correctly. Study carefully the key for vowel sounds to be found at the bottom of any page in a large dictionary. say over the words in class until you are sure you can distinguish the difference between sounds for the same letter or letters, and until the sounds indicated by the diacritical markings become familiar to you. In the front of a large dictionary you will find a chart for consonant sounds. Study it carefully. EXERCISE 5 I. Bring to class a list of words not used in the dictionary key to illustrate each sound of a, @, 2, 0, U, ¢, Chip oe II. Where should the accent mark be placed over each of the following words? After you have looked the matter up, say each word over until the correct accent becomes natural for you. exquisite advertisement interesting illustrate hospitable idea theater mischievous pianist faucet III. Look up the pronunciation of each word below, noting the number of syllables and letters to be sounded. What vowels or consonants in these words are you apt to glide over, or to mispronounce? ya / pumpkin rinse Y licorice’ perhaps Colorado column athlete poem attacked - guardian wrestle chocolate temperature usually governor history 306 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS LESSON 5 WHAT THE DICTIONARY TELLS; MEANING | In looking up some words in the dictionary you will find different meanings, according to their use as various parts of speech. For instance, the word like as a verb means something quite different from like as an adjective. The large dictionary indicates the part of speech of each word by abbreviations following it. Thus, a. = adverb, v.t. = verb transitive. Look up in the front of a large Webster’s dictionary the meaning of the following abbreviations for parts of speech and be able to write the explanation of each from memory : adv. n. Webs sing. inter. pron. con]. plu. Knowing these abbreviations will help you to get the right meaning for a word. ‘Thus, if you want to define the word bluff, which is used as a noun in a certain sentence, you will look up the meaning that follows the abbreviation n.,-and will not waste time reading the meanings of bluff as an adjective or verb. Often in the explanation of a word as one part of speech you will find four or five different meanings. In most large dictionaries the different meanings are ~ numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., and the variations of meaning under any one of these general meanings are indicated by letters; as, 1. (a) —, (b) —, etc. It is one of the interesting facts about our language that a word such as head can be applied in many ways. It can apply to a part of the body, a certain place at the table, a MEANING OF WORDS 307 vegetable growth (head of lettuce), a leader of a pro- cession, the person in power over others nk of the firm), ete. If you are asked to give briefly the meaning of a word without regard to some particular use of it, you will choose the more common meaning, which is usually given first in the dictionary. But if the word you are looking up is in a sentence, you must choose the meaning that best fits its particular use there. Certain words, or uses of a word, apply only to cer- tain professions or sciences. This is indicated in the _ dictionary by abbreviations. Thus: Chem. means a term used in chemistry. Med. means a term used in medicine. Certain meanings or words have now gone out of use and are, therefore, followed by the abbreviation, obs., meaning obsolete. Do not use an obsolete word in your own speech or writing nor one marked slang. Words followed by the abbreviation collog. (colloquial) or dial. (dialect) are limited as to use to certain localities or to informal speech. | After the explanation of a word, you will often find a list of synonyms which may be used in place of the word explained, or for particular uses of it. . For in- stance, gifted is a synonym for great. EXERCISE 6 Wy I. As what parts of speech may the following words be used? What is the difference in accent and meaning be- tween the different uses of each word? conduct attribute desert ally essay record contest address present perfect 308 , SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS "II. Look up the meaning of each of these words and be able to explain the difference in meaning between the pairs often confused. Use each correctly in a sentence. have stay accept affect get stop except effect learn let emigrant capital teach leave immigrant capitol been plane fix pier bin plain fasten peer formerly loose canvas lend formally lose canvass loan III. Find two synonyms which might be used for each italicized word in these sentences. 1. The result of the game was a disappointment. 2. “That was an amusing incident,” said he. 3. Harry runs very fast. 4. We were-frightened by the funny sound so we called for mother. 5. It took a large amount of courage to crawl up the ladder. | } 6. Will you let me tell what a fine time I had? IV. Find four meanings for each of the following words. Also, bring to class sentences illustrating the different mean- ings of any two of the words. crisp (@.) good (a.) nice (a.) cunning (a.) scale (n.) ° y simple (a.) tool (n.) depend (v.2.) fast (@.) goose (n.) V. Turn to the list of words given in the first exercise on page 296. Look up the meaning of each word there. With what word of similar pronunciation but different spelling, are you apt to confuse each of those words? A BETTER ENGLISH CLUB MEETING 309 LESSON 6 A BETTER ENGLISH CLUB MEETING; NEW WORDS In many schools, the pupils have organized “ Better English Clubs,” with an appropriate constitution and by-laws. The meetings are held either after school or in the regular language period. In these clubs, many original programs are arranged for the rooting out of incorrect speech and the appreciation of good English. Such a club might make one of the month!y programs a campaign for new words. Announce Ww advance a list of perhaps ten words prepared by th program committee as worth adding to the vocabular x of the members. Or the list might consist of teri overworked words, with the synonyms which the club is to try to acquire. One row at the meeting is to give quotations from literature showing an effective use of each new word. Another row is to give charades illustrating some of the words. Another group in the class may prepare short talks relating personal experiences, humorous or otherwise, with the new words. An answer to roll call may consist of reports as to how many times each member has used the new words since they were announced. Those members of the club who can draw well may prepare cartoons or posters for the wall, illustrating the use of the words under discussion. Other members, clever at rhymes or imaginary dialogues, may read their jingles or dramatizations or scenes based on the 310 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS words. Here are some suggestions for words to illustrate their use. I. Words to add to your vocabulary. frantic ‘enthusiastic \ courteous inquire leisurely \superfluous permit gracious stupid legible miserable ~ ~capable awkward good breeding ‘artificial retort eager perform . demand \\mimic identical diminish snobbish frantic resemble culture ‘occasionally ‘extensive congested \hardship interrupt abundance \hesitate II. To illustrate the meaning of muserable sod courteous, you might have a dialogue between the two in which they complain of abuse or neglect. Give instances when Tom or Mary might have used them and didn’t, or when Tom or Mary used them without regard to their meaning. III. Certain members of the class might act out such words as snobbish, eager, or mimic in pantomime and ask the class to guess what word from the list they are illustrating. IV. A poster for hardship might show a sketch of a man living in a trench or in the polar regions without any comforts. The legend underneath might read, “How would you like to endure such hardships?”’ To demonstrate the words identical and similar, a pupil might place two history books exactly alike on the desk and two that are slightly different, and ex-. plain which adjective applies to each and why. AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 311 A eartoon for frantic might show pupils making a mad dash to get into school before the last bell rings. The legend might read, ‘‘Why be one of the franti< crowd at 9 a.M.?”’ | PARAGRAPH STUDY LESSON 7 AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS TAKING THE WRONG SUIT-CASE Last summer my brother and I exchanged suit-cases. We had started off together, but Dick, who was going on a camping trip, left the train before I did. I was on my way to a house party at my cousin’s. Our suit-cases are very much alike, and Dick left the train in a great hurry. I «hought my suit-case felt very heavy but it was not. until I started to unpack that I realized that I had a boy’s camping clothes instead of my own pretty dresses. TAKING THE WroNG Sutt-CasE (amplified) My last summer’s vacation was almost spoiled by a capes accident. I had been invited to a house-party at my cousin’s, and Mother and I had spent two weeks getting my clothes ready. I had three new dresses, a blue gingham, a pink linen, and best of all, my first real party dress, of white net with pink rosebuds. It was the prettiest thing I had ever seen, and I could hardly wait for a chance to wear it. My brother Dick and I started on our vacations together. Dick was going on a camping trip with some school friends. He was to meet them at Greenford, two or three stations before mine. The train was badly crowded that morning. Dick found me a seat, but the woman who sat with me had 312 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS so much baggage that Dick took my suit-case with his own to the rear of the car. The suit-cases are very much alike, although Dick’s is a little larger. When we reached Greenford, Dick came rushing down the aisle, ‘‘Here’s your suit-case, Anne,” he said, ‘Can you manage it? Have a good time. Give my love to Aunt Ethel and the girls. Say —there are the fellows on the platform now! Isn’t that great? Good-by, Anne!”’ and Dick was gone with a rush. I reached my own station an hour later. My cousin Dorothy met me. ‘Goodness, Anne,” she said, “your suit- case weighs a ton. What can you have in it?”’ | ‘Clothes — new clothes,’ I laughed, “‘Oh, Dorothy, wait until you see my party dress.” The suit-case was heavy. Dorothy and I together carried it from the trolley car to the house and up to my room. There Aunt Ethel, Dorothy, and Elizabeth, all crowded around to watch me unpack. | Imagine my horror when I opened the suit-case and saw a boy’s camping outfit— heavy shoes, sweaters, rubber boots, and fishing tackle. I could have cried. The only things that restrained my tears were Dorothy’s promise to lend me her prettiest party dress and the thought of Dick’s face when he pulled out my white net and rosebuds. These two stories tell of the same incident. The first paragraph tells the story in the briefest form possible. The second story supplies details. | We say that this story is amplzfied or enlarged. Which do you think is more interesting? Notice just what details are. given in the second story. All the material for amplification is given in the first story, but it is emphasized and enlarged upon in the second. . For example, the phrase ‘‘my own pretty dresses ”’ AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 313 in the first paragraph furnishes material for the first paragraph of the second story and brings out the contrast in the concluding paragraph. The clause “Dick left the train in a great hurry” is expanded to a paragraph of conversation as Dick arrived at his station. The explanation of the way the suit-cases came to be exchanged is also added in the second para- graph, and the heavy suit-case furnishes a subject for conversation between Anne and her cousin. _ De- scription, explanation, and conversation, then, are three ways of supplying detail to amplify a paragraph. Description is one of the easiest ways of amplifying. Ifa sentence reads, ‘‘The crowd cheered as the smallest racer dashed in ahead of the others,” there is material here for a good descriptive paragraph adding interesting details. For example : Cheer after cheer burst from the huge throngs of people pressed closely against the ropes around the race-course. It sounded like the roar of the ocean, or the beat of drums. Louder and louder grew the sound of triumph as the slender figure made its way, swiftly, lightly, and steadily, towards the goal. Past the heavy panting figure “of the champion ; past the swinging form of ‘“‘the giant’; ahead of them ‘all he dashed. His brown hair waved in the breeze, his slim figure gleamed in the sunlight, his eyes shone with a steady purpose. Like an arrow straight from the bow, the smallest racer crossed the line. In this paragraph, notice the words or phrases that are amplified by description: The crowd cheered, the smallest racer, dashed, the others. Explanation is another useful means of amplifying. For example, in the sentence, “ Mother was obliged 314 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS to leave us alone to finish the preserving of her prize peaches,”’ an opportunity for amplification is given by the words was obliged. An explanation is called for at the first reading of the sentence. A short paragraph telling the reason why Mother should leave the pre- serving to inexperienced hands may amplify the story. It might be the serious illness of a relative; it might be a sudden accident; it might be an unexpected and important visitor. At any rate, material enough for amplification can easily be ene Conversation is one of the most interesting means of amplifying a paragraph. You remember that in the beginning of ‘‘ Alice in Wonderland” Alice picks up her sister’s book and tries to read it, but throws it down because there are no conversations in it, — ‘‘And what is the use of a book without pictures or | conversation?’’ Many of us feel much the same way. Conversations add to the interest of any story. We like to hear people talk, and we learn a great deal about people from their conversation. Note these sentences : The man refused to sell his dog because he was fond of him. ‘“‘Sell Rover?” he said, ‘“‘Rover’s been my only friend through many long weary years. We’ve tramped city streets and country roads together, and I couldn’t sell him now when we’re both old and worn out.” The first sentence above states a simple fact. The man’s. conversation in the other sentences gives a chance to tell something about the friendship between the man and his dog, the reasons for it, and a littl?, of the man’s character in his loyalty to his friend. AMPLIFICATION OF PARAGRAPHS 315 EXERCISE 7 Amplify the following short paragraphs into longer storves, using description, explanation, or conversation. Be very careful to keep to the point of your story when you are amplifying it. Don’t let your descriptions lead you too far astray, nor your explanations take you back too far into the past. Be sure your conversations have some point. They should be interesting and sound like the talk of real people, and they should always have some connection with the story. Don’t let a character talk about his experiences in Australia when the story is about a wreck off the coast of New England. Outp Tom AND His MASTER A captain in the American army, noted for his bravery in action, had been very seriously wounded. As he lay in the hospital he asked the nurse if he might see his horse, old Tom, before he died. The two had been great friends. The surgeons consented, and old Tom was brought to the window. The captain was so glad to see his friend that he felt much more cheerful. After that the horse visited his master every day until the captain was better. Tue TEN TRAILS Two Indians once went hunting together. One, Hapeda, was fleet and strong. The other, Chatun, was weaker but very patient. They came upon the fresh track of a small deer. Chatun decided to follow it, but Hapeda scorned it. He sought bigger game. At night they met again. Hapeda had spent the whole day following many trails and had nothing. Chatun had stuck to the one trail and returned with the small deer across his shoulder. Cito SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS THE LESSON OF THE SPIDER Robert Bruce, the king of Scotland, had been defeated many times by his enemies. At last, in discouragement he fled for refuge to the woods. As he lay in his small cabin, he watched a spider spinning a web on the rafters. Six times the spider tried to reach a rafter and failed. But it persevered until the web was finished. Bruce realized that he too must try once more. | THe Curistmas I Recervep Srx Copies or “IvANHOER”’ I had wanted to read “Ivanhoe” ever since I heard my older brother and sister talk about the book. I told every one I hoped I would get the book for Christmas. On Christmas morning my packages looked very much alike. There were presents from my family and the ones that had come from my relatives and friends. The rest of the family stood around and watched me open my presents. Each of them was anxious to hear me exclaim at the present he had given me. They were as much surprised as I when I found six copies of the book. Tue Fare Soe Dipn’r Pay My older sister almost quarreled with the conductor on the trolley car last night. She told him she knew she had paid her fare. She even demanded a transfer at the end of the'line. He protested and said he knew she hadn’t given him a nickel. Finally he gave her the transfer. When she reached home, she found that her nickel had fallen into her umbrella instead of into the conductor’s hand. LESSON 8 CONDENSATION OF PARAGRAPHS If you are asked to put into shorter form or condense . a story, the first thing to do is to read the story through CONDENSATION OF PARAGRAPHS 317 very carefully. Decide on the point of the story, the time, the place, and the characters. Then write the story in the briefest possible form. After you have finished, read the original story again to be sure you have omitted none of the essential parts of the story. In the following selections, the story has been con- densed from over two hundred words to about seventy words. Read both versions of the story carefully. THE HuMBUG Professor Louis Agassiz was a great scientist who taught natural history at Harvard University. His skill in classify- ing birds, fish, or insects was remarkable. If he were given a single bone of a bird, he could tell instantly the kind of bird to which it belonged. He could do the same with fish and insects. The students in his classes delighted to test his knowledge and used to search everywhere for rare specimens of birds and insects for him to classify. His skill never failed. At last, however, they planned a joke on their teacher, whose sense of humor was as great as his wisdom. For weeks they worked in the laboratory, manufacturing a large and curious insect. On the morning of April first, it was finished and they placed it on his desk and waited to see what he would say. Agassiz walked in and gave a curious glance at the strange insect. : ; . “What kind of bug is it, sir?’’ asked one of the boys. The others crowded close to watch the professor as he examined the specimen. The eyes of the great teacher twinkled merrily as he looked into their eager faces. . “What kind of bug?” he asked. ‘Nothing uncommon or strange. Itis only a humbug, gentlemen. Common enough and quite harmless.” 318 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS Ture Humsue (Condensed) The pupils of Professor Louis Agassiz, the famous teacher of natural history, delighted to search for curious specimens to test his remarkable skill in classifying birds, fish, or in- sects. For a joke, on April first, they placed on his desk a large strange insect that they had made. When they asked their good-natured teacher to classify it, his eyes twinkled as he said, ‘“‘It is only a humbug, gentlemen.” In the first of the stories, what takes the place of the phrase remarkable skill in classifying birds, fish, or insects, in the condensed version? The clause that they had made? The word good-natured? What parts of the original story are omitted in the second version? Are these parts necessary to understand the story? | You will find condensation a very useful thing in much of your work. In fact, you condense paragraphs every day. When you recite a history lesson, you do not repeat to the teacher every word and phrase and - sentence in a paragraph describing a campaign. If you have learned your lesson so that you understand it, you condense a paragraph in answer to her questions and tell her only the important facts about a subject. When you tell a story to the class, you do not tell them every word you have read. You pick out the most important parts of the story and tell it to them in a brief form. You may even condense the story of a whole book into two or three paragraphs and still make the story so interesting that your classmates will want to read the book. This is a most useful kind of condensation. | CONDENSATION OF PARAGRAPHS 319 EXERCISE 8 Read the following story carefully. Then tell tt to the class as briefly as you can without leaving out any of the important parts. A MatTTer or TUNE Things had been happening. Divisions were moving. There had been, or there was going to be, a stunt. A battalion marched over the hill and sat down by the road. They had left the trenches three days’ march to the north and had come to a new country. The officers pulled their maps out ; a mild breeze fluttered them ; yesterday had been winter and to-day was spring, but spring in a desola- tion so complete and far-reaching that you only knew of it by that little wind. It-was early March by the calendar, but the wind was _ blowing out of the gates of April. A platoon commander, feeling that mild wind blowing, forgot his map and began to whistle a tune that suddenly came to him out of the past with the wind. Out of the past it blew, and out of the South, _& merry spring tune of Southern people. Perhaps only one of those that noticed the tune had ever heard it before. An officer sitting near had heard it sung; it reminded him of a holiday long ago in the South. “Where did you hear that tune?” he asked the platoon commander. “Oh, a long way from here,” the platoon commander said. He did not remember quite where it was he had heard it, but he remembered a sunny day in France and a hill all dark with pine woods and a man coming down at evening out af - the woods, down the slope to the village singing this song. Between the village and the slope there were orchards all in blossom, so that he came with his song for hundreds of yards through orchards. 320 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS ‘A long way from here,”’ he replied. For a long while then they sat silent. “Tt mightn’t have been so very far from here,” said the platoon commander. “Tt was in France. But it was a lovely part of France, all woods and orchards. Nothing like this, thank God.” And he glanced with a tired look at the unutterable desolation. ‘“Where was it?’’ asked the other. “Tn Picardy,” he said. “ Ayven’t we in Picardy now?”’ asked his friend. ‘Are we?” he replied. “T don’t know. The maps call it Picardy.” “Tt was a fine place, anyway,” the platoon commander said. ‘There seemed always to be a wonderful light on the hills. A kind of short grass grew Qn them and it shone in the sun at evening. There were black woods above it. A man used to come out of them singing at evening.” He looked wearily round at the brown desolation of weeds. As far as the two officers could see, there was nothing but brown weeds and bits of brown barbed wire. He turned from the desolate scene back to his reminiscences. “He came singing through the orchards into the village,” he said. “A quaint old place with queer gables, called Ville-en-Bois.” “Do you know where we are?’’ asked the other. “No,” said the platoon commander. “T thought not,” he said. ‘‘Hadn’t you better take a look at the map?”’ “T suppose so,” said the platoon commander, and he smoothed out his map and wearily got to the business of | finding out where he was. “Can it be possible?” he said. ‘¢Ville-en-Bois !”’ Lorp DUNSANY. COMBINING IDEAS IN SENTENCES 321 CORRECTIVE WORK IN SENTENCES LESSON 9 COMBINING SEVERAL IDEAS INTO ONE SENTENCE EXERCISE 9 I. Combine the following groups of short sentences into simple, compound, or complex sentences. In each ease, try to decide whether there is one main thought in the sentence or more than one. If there are two or more main thoughts or ideas to be expressed, your sentence will, of course, have to be compound. If there is only one main idea, your sentence should be simple or complex, in order to subordinate all the more unimportant ideas to the one main idea. The dependent ideas should be expressed as modifiers — either words, phrases, or clauses. Note these examples: The grocery store is on the corner. It was robbed last night. It is owned by Mr. Jackson. It was robbed after midnight. In the above group of sentences, there is one principal idea, the robbing of the grocery store. All the other ideas in the sentence should be made subordinate to it. The sen- tence will, therefore, read: The grocery store on the corner, which is owned by Mr. Jackson, was robbed after midnight last night. John is a good baseball player. He is also a good student. He stands first in his class. In the above group, there are two main thoughts; one, the fact that John is good at a game; the other, that he is a. 322 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS good student.. Neither of the two is dependent on the other, and they should, therefore, be made into independent clauses. The sentence will be compound: John is a good baseball player and he is also a good student, standing first in his class. The bands were playing. The soldiers were marching. The parade had started. Johnny reached the corner. They are going on the three o’clock train. They are going to visit their uncle. Their uncle lives in New York. I do not like arithmetic. It is very hard. I have to study it. My uncle has a new automobile. _ My uncle traveled from California to Chicago. — He drove his automobile. It was a long hard trip. He enjoyed it. very much. The postman brings the mail every morning. The milkman delivers the milk. The paper boy leaves the paper. A great many people stop at our house. Little Margaret quarrels with her brother. | Her brother teases her. Her brother wants to take her toys. . The man is on his way home. The man missed his car. He will be late for dinner. I haveost a book. It was small. It was red. I do not know where I lost it. My cousin gave it to me for Christmas. SENTENCE MANIPULATION 323 9. I like the autumn. It is sometimes-cold and rainy. I like to see the red leaves. I like to gather chestnuts. 10. Roy has lost his dog. His dog was a fox-terrier. It was very clever. It knew many tricks. Roy feels very badly. I. Supply beginnings for each of the following ends of sentences. Explain whether the sentence you have made is simple, complex, or compound. 1, —_——_—____~ J found her weeping bitterly. 2 Dut thiswas impossible. 3. ————___— where my mother told me to go.. 4, —————_——— and we had to leave before the train started. . ‘5. ————————_ before the telephone bell rang. 6. ———————- and as a result nobody was allowed to take the examination. ib as easily as her own sister. 8. ————————— or wants to do housework. 9. ————————_ when everyone expected something different. 10. ———————— who was my father’s oldest friend. LESSON 10 CHANGING ONE KIND OF SENTENCE INTO ANOTHER 1. Although the train is usually on time, it was an hour late to-day. The train is usually on time, but it was an hour late to-day. 324 SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 2. The road, which was slippery, was hard for us to climb. The road was slippery, and consequently, it was hard for us to climb. Notice how in the above sentences a subordinate clause was changed to a principal clause without alter- ing the meaning of the sentence. The thought of a | sentence is sometimes clearer when the sentence is thus recast. On looking over your compositions, you will sometimes see that you have made a compound sentence out of two related thoughts when one of them is really dependent on the other and should be recast to make a dependent clause. For example, Compounp SENTENCE: He wanted to win and he tried hard. IMPROVED AS A Complex SENTENCE: He tried hard be- cause he wanted to win. ; Compounp SENTENCE: He turned and the bear started towards him. IMPROVED AS A Complex SENTENCE: As he turned, the bear started towards him. EXERCISE 10 Change the following compound sentences to complex sen- tences and give the syntax of the dependent clauses in the new Bees “1. His friends knew his weakness and thee said he couldn’t stand the hardships of a lumber camp. 2. You disobeyed and I shall punish you. 3. The captain spoke to me and I couldn’t remember his name. 4. You might try the new rules and then you might like. the game better. SENTENCE MANIPULATION 325 5. The boys were deafened by the noise, but the guide went on his way without paying any attention. 6. A great silence fell upon the crowd, and Abraham Lincoln stepped forward. 7. He did not know his lesson and all the rest knew theirs perfectly and the teacher scolded him. 8. There was a terrible fire in our town and Tommy cut his finger the same night. 9. The soldiers came home and we had no school and \ there Was a parade and we marched in it. 10. ERRORS OF SPEECH RULE . Subject of verb should be in nominative case. (pp. 105, 116) . Attribute complement should be in nominative case. (p. 105) . Object of verb should be in 106, objective case. (pp. 115) . Object of preposition should be in objective case. (pp. 106, 116) . A pronoun should agree with its antecedent in num- ber, gender, and person. (p. 116) . Avoid the wrong formation of noun or pronoun. (pp. 114, 205) . A pronoun in the first person should not stand first in a series. (p. 149) . A split infinitive should not be used. (p. 55) . A verb should agree with its subject in number and per- son. (pp. 96, 141, 149) Present tense should not be used for past tense. (p. 149) CORRECT FORM John and he are good friends. Who do you think is coming? The first ones there were he and if Whom do you think I saw? Will you excuse Mary and me? They divided it between her and me. Whom are you looking for? Each boy picked up his books. (not their) The man whom I saw was lame. (not which) He saw it himself. (not hisself) You and I have been chosen captains. (not I and you) He told me to fill the basket quickly. (not to quickly fill) You were there. (not was) Mary and Jim have gone now. (not has) He gave us some nuts. (noi give)’ 11, 12. 13. 14, 15. ii. 18. Ey 20. 21. 22. ERRORS OF SPEECH RULE Past participle should not be used for past tense. (p. 131) Past tense should not be used for past participle. (p. 131) Avoid the wrong formation of tense. (p. 205) Avoid using unnecessary words. (pp. 148, 205) Don’t should not be used as the contraction of does not. (p. 140) . Aiv’t is an incorrect form. (p. 149) Indicative should not be used for subjunctive mood. (p. 149) Avoid the use of the wrong verb. (pp. 143, 145, 146, 236, 237) Double negative should not be used. (pp. 140, 162) Personal pronoun them should not be used for pro- nominal adjective those. (pp. 161, 221) Avoid the wrong form for the comparative or superla- tive of adjectives. (pp. 154, 161) Comparative should not be used for superlative (p. 160) ‘Bob lost a skate. S2¢ CORRECT FORM I saw him do it. (not I seen) I have gone swimming. (not I have went) The rain has driven us in. (not drived er druv) You ought to answer him. (not you had ought) He has red hair. (not has got) (not Bob, he lost) He doesn’t play fairly. It isn’t here. Am I not right? If I were you, I would go. was) (not See sentences for shall and will; lie and lay; sit and set; ete. He hasn’t said anything. (not he hasn’t said nothing) Those people are in a hurry. It was the most beautiful flower there. (not beautifulest) Who is tallest, Mary or John or Frank? (not taller) 328 RULE 23. Superlative should not be used for comparative. (p. 160) 24. Avoid extravagant use of adjectives or adverbs. (p. 161) 25. Avoid the use of an adjec- tive for an adverb. (p. 161) 26. Do not use here or there as an adjective. (p. 161) 27. Place modifiers where there can be no doubt as to the words they are intended to modify. (pp. 243-245) 28. Do not use like as a con- junction. (p. 164) 29. Do not use a wrong part of speech because it sounds like the right one. ERRORS OF SPEECH CORRECT FORM Who is the taller, you or I? (not tallest) The game was interesting. (not awfully interesting) He writes well. (not good) I am very warm. (not real warm) Hand me that pole. (not that there pole) : He came back only yesterday. (not he only came) I did as he did. It seemed as if he would never come. You should have been there. (not should of) There was a dog in the road. (not they was) oo Fe W ND 6. WRITTEN ERRORS . Do not punctuate part of a sentence as if it were a whole sentence. (p. 180) — . Do not run two or more sentences together. (p. 180) . Do not use and, then, and but too frequently. (p. 181) . Avoid a succession of short, choppy sentences. (p. 181) . Put the correct mark—period, exclamation point, or question mark—at the end of a sentence. (pp. 17, 183, 184) Place a period after abbreviations. (p. 183) Avoid errors in ae . The use of the apostrophe. (p. 184) . The use of the comma. (pp. 215, 238, 247) . The use of the colon. (p. 258) . The use of the dash. (p. 259) . The use of marks of parenthesis. (p. 259) The use of capital letlers. (p. 176) . The punctuation of compound sentences. (p. 225) . Writing quotations. (p. 211) . The division of a word at the end of a line. (p. 184) PARTS GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR (The numbers refer to Lessons) THE SENTENCE Noun or Pronoun (1, 3, 5) Phrase (26, 29) Clause (39) Predicate’...%.... Verb (1, 4) Direct Object Spjectyik sey. Noun or Pronoun (17) © Phrase (26, 29) Clause (39) Adjective (18) Cenmplements ‘bute | Noun or Pronoun (18) p Attribute Phrase (24, 26) Clause (39, 40) Adjective (20) Objective ; Noun or Pronoun (20) Phrase (24) Adjectives (6, 8) Adverbs (9, 10, 11) Participles (23) Modifiers........ Infinitives (26) Nouns and Pronouns (80, 32) Phrases (18, 27, 29) Clauses (34-38) { Conjunctions (16, 77) Connectives...... Pronouns (49, 77) Adverbs (74, 77) Independent Parts (16, 24, 27, 31, 43, 79) Meaning — Declarative, Interrogative, Imper= ative, Exclamatory (2) Form — Simple, Complex, Compound (34, 43) Classes GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 331 THE NOUN Subject (3) Direct Object (17) Predicate Noun (18) ' TEES Objective Complement (20) oa eras Adjective Modifier (30) Adverbial Modifier (32) Object of Preposition (14) Independent (31) { Common (8, 48) Proper (3, 48) Classes.......... Collective (48) Abstract (48) ( Singular (50) Number. { Plural (50) NOUN Masculine Gender.. ; Feminine +; (51) Neuter First Second ; (52) Third Nominative Case.... 1 Possessive (53, 54, Objective Modifications..... Person.. . THE PRONOUN NISOG Fa bee scwis eo Same as those of the noun, and as connective (49, 77) Personal (49, 55) Compound Personal (55) Relative (49, 55) CIASSOS |... fae 22 Compound Relative (55) Interrogative (49, 55) Demonstrative (49) Indefinite (49) | Modifications..... Same as those of the noun PRONOUN 332 GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR THE VERB To assert action, aH Predicate ing, or. state (4) Participles Uses si ee (23) To assume action, be- | Infinitives ing, or state (25) | Gerunds (29) Regular (59) | Form..... Irregular (59, 62) Classes.:..5.... +o Meanix See (59) 4 8. - | Intransitive (59) . Active (60) Voice..... ees (60) Indicative Mood... .4 Subjunctive } (61-64) aa { Imperative = Present > Past : ; Future Modifications ...; Tense. ... Present Bae (61-64) Past Perfect Future Perfect Singular N ie = Plural (61, 63, 64, 66) First | Person. ... Second ; (61, 63, 64, 66) , Third Present Participles ...... Tenses....+ Past (61, 63, 64) Past Perfect | Mes Present (61, 63 Infinitives....... Tenses... . Tec ae 64) ’ Gerunds........ Tenses... eee (63, 64) GENERAL REVIEW OF GRAMMAR 3033 THE ADJECTIVE Modifier (6, 8) Predicate Adjective (18) Objective Complement (20) | Descriptive (72) Limiting (72) core e ee eo ee Positive Comparative | (73) Superlative ADJECTIVE Q wn oO n Modification........ Comparison THE ADVERB Modifiers (9, 10, 11) Re edieletars sie ccs Connectives (74, 77) Independent (31) Time Place Degree 2 Saree Manner (74) Cause Relative | Interrogative ADVERB Q fs) a a Positive Comparative Superlative Modification........ Comparison (75) THE CONJUNCTION, THE PREPOSITION, AND THE INTERJECTION CONJUNCTION Uses (16) Sie Ciaceds | Coordinating (77) Subordinating No Modifications PREPOSITION. Uses..... (14, 78) No Classes No Modifications INTERJECTION Uses..... (16, 31, 79) No Classes No Modifications TOPICS FOR ORAL AND WRITTEN 21. 22. COMPOSITION NARRATION S. O. S. (The wireless call for help used by a ship at sea.) . A heroic act by a fireman. . The treasure I didia’t find. . A Hallowe’en scare. . The history of our house. A Boy-scout expedition. . An adventure of a Camp-fire girl. . Getting a job for the summer. . The old trapper’s story. . When some one played a joke on me. . My unlucky day. . The play that won the game. . Lost in the forest. . My best fish story. . The package I found. . An anecdote about Washington (or some other famous person). . An amusing mishap. . My narrow escape. . A day at the fair. . Following the blazed trail. DESCRIPTION A corner in a museum. My neighbor’s back yard. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34, 30. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42, 43. 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. ol. 52. 53. TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION A description of a fire. The swimming hole: The most attractive schoolroom I know. The ice storm. An old-fashioned garden. An interesting home. Our neighbor’s hens. Habits of my dog. Queer pets I have had. Treasures of our attic. A gypsy camp. The picture that I like best. Tramps I have met. An interesting family. The person I liked best in the circus. The toy-shop window. Our playground. A journey in a train. EXPOSITION How to tie knots. How to make a fire without matches. How to build a fire in the stove. How to care for the furnace. How to set a table. How to cut and store ice. How to send in a fire alarm. How to make out a money order. 335 What every pupil can do to make home pleasanter. | How to help keep the streets clean. The duties of an umpire. The habits of the honey. bee. A cream separator. 336 54. 5d. 56. 57. o8. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. ioe 73. 74. 75. 76. (te 78. TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION A cotton-gin. An aéroplane. A thermometer. A glacier. A volcano. Some piece of machinery. A modern invention. ARGUMENT Why every one should keep a tash account. Why is my favorite sport. Why history (or any other study) is the most useful school study. Why I would rather live in the country than in the city. Does it pay to stay in school until graduation? What I consider the greatest inte Moa Canoeing versus sailing. What I wish to do when I am grown, and why. Should a boy, or girl, have an allowance? | A comparison of two books (or characters, animals, etc.) with reasons for the preference. Should children be told the truth about Santa Claus? Persuade a boy who is unfair in school games to play according to the rules. Persuade a friend to join the Audubon Society. Resolved: that the schools should close on = Day. Resolved: that pupils should buy their own books. Resolved: that a park is needed in our neighborhood. Resolved: that our grade needs more supplementary reading books. Resolved: that every boy or girl should have a high- school education. 81. 82. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. rea 90. TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION 337 - Resolved: that our school needs a gymnasium. - Resolved: that Congress should prohibit the manu- facture and sale of alcoholic liquor. LETTERS Write a letter to a friend, telling him about some books you think he will enjoy. You have sent a baseball to your aunt and a sewing bag to a grammar-school boy. Write to them both, explaining the mistake. . A family has moved into town, next door to you. Write to a friend in another town and describe the new neighbors, their phonograph, and their pets. You have been asked to be on a committee, but do not wish to accept. Write a note to the chairman. You have just been to an unusual and jolly party. Write to your cousin who is to give a party soon and has asked for suggestions. Write to a boy who is interested in collecting stamps and tell him how you made your collection. A friend, who is going to live in another state, must take a long journey on the train. Write g, letter to amuse him on the trip. [Illustrate it. You want your cousin in Duluth to become acquainted with your best friend, who is going there to live. Write so that your cousin will really wish to meet your friend. You are planning to buy a bicycle. Write a letter to a company that manufactures bicycles, desciibing the kind of bicycle that you want and asking for informa- tion as to styles and prices. Write a letter ordering a bicycle. Include in your order several extra parts, such as a bicycle lamp, a carrier for books, and a pump. ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations, with a few exceptions, are not allowable in or- dinary ccmposition, including letters. They are convenient, how- ever, in making lists, in literary references, and in certain technical — writing where a term occurs frequently. Titles preceding names, with the few exceptions found in the fol- lowing list, should not be abbreviated. A title standing alone should always be spelled in full; as, Dr. Brown came, The doctor came. , Words expressing quantity should be abbreviated only when they follow a numeral; as, The tile 1s 2 in. by 3 in., They advanced by inches. Ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc. are not followed by the p viod. Their principal use is in the writing of dates. The abbreviations for states, territories, and pczsessions of the United States are those authorized by the government. The abbreviations for measures are used for both singular and plural, unless otherwise stated. For example, A. stands for acre and for acres, in. for inch and for inches. STATES, TERRITORIES, AND POSSESSIONS OF THE | UNITED STATES Ala., Alabama. Del., Delaware. Ariz., Arizona. Fla., Florida. Ark., Arkansas. Ga., Georgia. Cal., California. Til., Llinois. Colo., Colorado. Ind., Indiana. Conn., Connecticut. Kans., Kansas. D. C., Dictrict of Columbia. Ky., Kentucky. ! at ABBREVIATIONS 339 La., Louisiana. Mass., Massachusetts. Md., Maryland. Me., Maine. Mich., Michigan. Minn., Minnesota. Miss., Mississippi. Mo., Missouri. Mont., Montana. N. C., North Carolina. N. Dak., North Dakota. Nebr., Nebraska. Nev., Nevada. N. H., New Hampshire. N. J., New Jersey. N. Mex., New Mexico. N. Y., New York. Okla., Oklahoma. Oreg., Oregon. Pa., Pennsylvania. P. I., Philippine Islands. P.R., Porto Rico. R.I., Rhode Island. S. C., South Carolina. S. Dak., South Dakota. Tenn., Tennessee. Tex., Texas. Va., Virginia. Vt., Vermont. Wash., Washington. Wis., Wisconsin. W. Va., West Virginia. Wyo., Wyoming. Alaska, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Ohio, Samoa, and Utah should not be abbreviated. MONTHS OF THE YEAR - Jan., January. Feb., February. Mar., March. Apr., April. Aug., August. Sept., September. Oct., October. Nov., November. Dec., December. ‘M ay, J une, and July should not be AUSSIE DAYS OF THE WEEK Sun., Sunday. Mon., Monday. Tues., Tuesday. ~ Wed., Wednesday. Thurs., Thursday. Fri., Friday. sat., Saturday. 340 ABBREVIATIONS GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS A., acre. @, at. acct. or a/c, account. A.D., (Anno Domini) in the year of our Lord. a.m., (ante meridiem) before noon. amt., amount. anon., anonymous. ans., answer. art., article. Ave., Avenue. B.A., Bachelor of Arts. bbl., barrel. B.C., before Christ. B.S., Bachelor of Science. bu., bushel. d., penny, pence. D.D., Doctor of Divinity. doz., dozen. Dr., Doctor, Debit, Debtor. e.g., (evempli gratia) for ex- ample. Esq., Esquire. etc., (et cetera) and so forth. ex., example. ore Tere F., Fahrenheit (thermometer). ff., following. f.o.b., free on board. fr., franc. ft., foot. g. or gm., gram. _gal., gallon. C., centigrade (thermometer). c., (circa) about. ¢ or ct., cent. C.E., Civil Engineer. cf., (confer) compare. ch., chapter. cm., centimeter. Co., Company, County. * c/o, in care of. C.O.D., cash on delivery. Cr., Credit, Creditor. cu., cubic. : cwt., hundredweight. hdkf., handkerchief. hhd., hogshead. Hon., Honorable. h.p., horse power. H. R., House of Represen- tatives. hr., hour. ib. or ibid., (cbidem) in the same place. id., (dem) the same. _--i. e., (id est) that is. ABBREVIATIONS 341 —in., Inch. “Mrs., (pronounced Mis‘is or —~Inc., Incorporated. Mis’iz). inst., instant, the present —MS., manuscript; MSS., month. manuscripts. | Mt., Mount or Mountain. J.P., Justice of the Peace. Jr., Junior. N.B., (nota bene) note well. no., number. kg., kilogram. | _km., kilometer. Op. cit., (opere citato) in the “work quoted. £, pound sterling. ~..0Z., ounce. Ib., pound. | ~~ LL.D., Doctor of Laws. p., page; pp., pages. ) Ltd., Limited. -per cent or %, by the hun- dred. M., Monsieur. Ph.D., Doctor of Philosophy. m., meter, noon, mark. _- pk., peck. ~~M.A., Master of Arts. _/p.m., (post meridiem) after- M.C., Member of Congress. | noon. ~M.D., Doctor of Medicine. “P. O., Post Office. - ~mdse., merchandise. pro tem., (pro tempore) for ‘M.E., Mechanical Engineer. _ the time being. Messrs., Messieurs. prox., (proximo) the next ——.mfg., manufacturing. month. mfr., manufacturer. ~ PS., Postscript. Megr., Manager. pt., pint. mi., mile. min., minute. qt., quart. Mile., Mademoiselle. q.v., (quod vide) which see. mim., millimeter. qy-, query. Mme., Madame. ~mo., month. Rev., Reverend. __Mr., Mister. R.R., Railroad. 342 ABBREVIATIONS R.S.V.P., (Répondez s’il vous ult., (ultimo) last month. plait) Answer, if you please. U.S.A., United States of Ry., Railway. America; United States Army. s., shilling. U.S.N., United States Navy. sec., second, secretary. Sen., Senator. viz., (videlicet) to wit, name- sp.gr., specific gravity. ly. Sq., square. vol., volume. Sr., Senior. vs., (versus) against. St., Street, Saint. Supt., Superintendent. yd., yard. yr., year. ibs) FOR: CONTENTS OF LEE’S LESSONS IN ENGLISH, BOOK TWO ARRANGED TO COMBINE PARTS ONE AND TWO It frequently happens that the teacher wishes to combine the lessons in Grammar and in Composition in such a way as to divide the work of the days of the school week between the two subjects. To meet this requirement, a combined Table of Contents is here given, arranging the lessons in Part One and Part Two in the form of a complete and unified outline for the year’s study. ' LESSON : PAGE Perec Oley OFS 1). eee Oe ee 6 eo AL dd Ze W Ord Dtudy, en. St Ee SE: 3. The Use of Capital are Ee oes Sieg aay varie WA 4. Parts of the Sentence . . . Mecedt teeing iy cae 85, 5. Sentences Classified According fa tite Gui ctat: ree err WhO Re W teen Cmbes se ee Me ce LS Se it, MS ee es cet 18 Ty ese ke gs ees es ee ID 9. Pronouns . . S| ih are Lees E nycaoe aoa | 10. Three Little Mast POM ceik ie tgs eer Leek 11. Punctuation . . . atte act Miaka tied ba" 12. Modifiers; Analysis of Bedtarices AS whl = ak ee 13. Diagrams ori ae it ay ae-5 14. Variety in the Structure Psi Gearenres Soaps gene a beta PM CCUN CS e 5. edit i ie Me ts ey esto eves af ae 16. Predicate Modifiers . ry res ee Pe ea O 344 CONTENTS LESSON 17. Other Modifiers . ck Care 18. Variety in the Structure of Sentences 19. Variety in the Structure of Sentences Pea Adverbs i520. spe Siarevels 21. Analysis of Benteneds BASE Aut Bo OMY.” OF2 ay OOM Lip euawine es ce 23. Paragraphs; Outlines . . 24. A Phrase Introduced by a Preposition . 25. Prepositions 26. Oral Composition; A Talk 27. Compound Subject and Compound Predige he 28. Dictation; Paragraphs . : 29. Gon ahonene and Interjections . 30," Description 7. Pa. 6) a eee St. Punctuation “4%. >. 32. Complements; The Diet Ghee 33. Predicate Adjective and Predicate Noun 34. Picture Study and Description 35. Analysis and Parsing . . . ob. Narration: fin. 48 > teens 37. Some Common Hye Pe, orto 38. Objective Complements .. . - 39. Analysis and Parsing . ... 40. Review .. . ones 41. Reasoning from Gifscreataon ‘gg 42, Participles *s . Y.. Bo a aaa 43. Functions of Bar nie Shir aes 44. Telling the News from the Paper 45. Infinitives Biss ow wate 46. Functions of Tan niciae : e 47. Functions of infinitives; Infinitive Clauses. 48. Letter-paper and Envelopes . 49. Letters of Friendship ee 50. Review of Participles and Tnferieeree: CONTENTS LESSON 5d. . Gerunds . . Picture Study Jaf Deverntiene . Punctuation; The Comma . Nouns as Moidifiers; Appositives ; . Dictation; Arrangement of Rhyming es : . The Barts of aLetter ... . Words and Phrases Used Independently . Study of a Speech . . The Use of Adjectives .. . . Nouns as Adverbial Modifiers . . Review . . itso tat gNaee Te . Study of a Be ; . Punctuation of Compound ee nee . Complex Sentences . - Complex Sentences; hi cetios pauses . The Heading of a Deties fe : . Complex Sentences; Adverbial i ; . Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses . . Oral Composition; Reports on Reading . Complex Sentences; Adverbial Clauses . . Picture Study and Description . Complex Sentences; Substantive ree . Complex Seen: Substantive Clauses . Exposition . : ; . Review of Complex and Spot Sentences . A School Paper . . The Preparation of Rieu ari, . Review of Complex Sentences . . Exposition . . Dictation; Carcet Backs ; eecund Sentences MA oh ci ka eas peowauComposition:, Av Talk “gs. soy le . Complex and Compound Clauses . Writing Quotations . . .... 346 LESSON 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. . Various Uses of the Comma . Classes of Nouns . Classes of Pronouns . Dictation; Letter-writing . . The Body of the Letter and Fs ‘Cle settee CONTENTS Essential and Non-essential Clauses Review of Sentences . Review of Sentences . Description of a Painting Address and Salutation of Letters The Order of Modifiers . Review of Analysis Description of a Building of Introduction . Nouns and Pronouns: nignber . Nouns and Pronouns: Gender . A Conversation on Current Events . Exposition ate . Nouns and Pronceee persen : . Nouns and Pronouns: Case . Nouns and Pronouns: Person and Case . Narration . . The Declension of Nowtag mae Prono . Narration: Biography ; . Narration: Autobiography . . Possessive Forms . Forms of the Pronoun . Punctuation: Colon, Dash, Parenthesa . Analysis and Parsing . . Business Letters . Letter-writing: The Rretares sad “the Super SCriptlon cis, ash) ee « Classes: of “Verbs'.) 4.4 Ves es ee ee eee ./ Verbs:: Voices. Ox) oh Pe ee CONTENTS LESSON 117. Verbs: Mood and Tense ; 118. Composition: Description of a Motion Miche d 119. Conjugation of Verbs 120. Conjugation of the verb Be 121. Exposition : 122. Conjugation of ee in ite Simple Ort : 1238. Special Forms of the Verb 124. Agreement of the Verb . 125. Letter-writing 126. Folding the Letter 127. The Use of Shall and Will 128. Review of Verbs 129. Synonyms and Antonyms; ae of ae Tone 130. Argument . ; 131. The Proper Use é ive foie Lay, De Sit, Set : 132. Errors of Speech Sie ah 133. Description of a Painting 134. Analysis; Parsing Verbs . 135. Argument . ae 136. Debating . : 137. Classes of Met ectives : 138. Comparison of Adjectives 139. Letter-writing 140. Dictation .. 141. Classes of Raweee : 142. Comparison of Adverbs . 143. Notes and Invitations 3 144. The Correct Use of abeaves nae Phare 145. Argument . ina a Fi tl he ee ase eae P 146. Debating 147. Conjunctions 148. Prepositions . Ra LAR. Ge Nah Bee any ae 149. Interjections . . . : 150. Words aie as ae Parts a Seccl™ 347 PAGE 124 265 128 132 266 134 139 141 267 267 142 145 269 271 145 148 272 150 273 275 151 154 279 280 156 159 289 160 . 284 285 163 165 167 167 348 CONTENTS LESSON PAGE 151. Telegrams .. PEM 152. Writing A duesuteernenes i