a ar ant eh en Smee ee 4 oe sae oe THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY _ 7eg.l a. Ret aly ARCHITECT URAS LIBRARY: Vout an sere A SAR SE EEN | Wa Mae EM a tea 7 7” A ae , i iN ? . # t * | & ROInOrosTTHOAA saree ht ma, iia boa) v 2) Ghia sre a . ; ’ i t to. ; a) sepoadnathan aqglobsd.. ya BbooW no) abitiee vaih CES AtLH ; mira ey O2TA 6G waedolS bwowLH .1 vd betalpoarT Me is = a “q “ARCHITECTONICS of By Rudolph Redtenbacher _ a ay oo With 895 Engravings on Wood Berlin . 1883 / ja Pe Ga ‘ Translated by Ne Clifford Ricker. De aren. HM a Ns Avchitecearm University of Illinois ai, ‘Urbana. Ill. 1884 Ser * y y i Ri os , 4 of ~ wt +% ¥ \ NE a a. i TP il nv ‘ : Ny ’ * ‘ i> : \ “ re tf 4 ; pe } : 1 ae of og Ce wat ek. mit jag VY * hy rity, Phone oh e "4 ae vy pee.) BOA ey oA DATERY . bans emsa odd Iga, béonenion “siton 10: t6 deal, sas Wt Tit if ‘otidet eds od ednsee1g 1odtaA sdt .bstelqmoo yllaoitsnst / ret U/7), bf bone [avestbey to ybots dycot0dt a no beesd ek soide f Kancoesrtoxe edt stsbionle ot bebastoi er bas .etntfoetinow Pat {selpotitseq bas L[etensg ni ysb tacsetg sdd to ameliorg (eottents®) eotaotoe? to esfytontrg edt atiw Ne¢tw sonebse daew feutoslletnt eat to actisensiaos « yitlsest ar er ¢ Ut tact oF «Bningiaad [eretoetidors (is af snoh 9d sean Bm S10 eASvViz 918 maldorg sdf to noitelos & 19T Bnortrbnos . fitom to mot antbnoyeetioo sat ont? yi@rtep bus yisess Sonsiawucito ao abasgeh svitcm etd? yd Seauese yileatt mi0t i 36 2k dood ed? .soedidosk edd Yo Atow offeisas ent ef bos ae bas m10t feistostidors to [eanem gs Sak) suse wt Pyibetesanos of Jostidsae aft 10% sfdiacoy sham ar FI P.yltositb esidoig-etd doinw of ,¢s8bi Tnasioger si6M sad fe to Pasasee1d oftetirs sot oF [attnsee9 yaninton tend o8 iS aviten Jadw. sbiseb of ylno eed 3d pbsitiro od yam ngie | i jntbeal edt ylaren nada ,mefdotq sit oF ebnoqest109 mie i uae a | gnevrg ef mtot eth ‘sosiqetott? ett soidouttenos of Sitees I. sornosool um ar ek Mearisentane bas [eistostiaowA to dnomtsers oivertwe sna at M | wltni od yem atoll oftaigis odd es wet 08 .esteiSoxds Ainq evitoottancc no tf eged of Tdgnoe Svsd | no Ltonttewoo Enosos] to gelgionizg sdf yd Hshio3 er odw ,oaC .eateio fteu ardt to divest oat .msldoig gneve svloa yltoettoo elqionitg At wrabom ,elyde somsekisnea 8 ek etebesexg cea teneh usilatl sdt bos” ‘selyta tastons odd ot aelince aeel “eeisd noces? S15H .stntosiinotsa [sevesibell of aa [len ge ertes. reddiestest [enottibey to feorrosesth yna to seats 261 yests *8BRD sefpotdus7 wae mi toga ei tadw eshioot Ral satgobne fo tdgit etk ao etetne yons? bas cir entat i © met. rsqo1g eth dtiw bavot ybasale 1 oad ‘to eelua sit ‘be tieaym betoiatee: sved I yaseeo ynen cl 6 SA eonseatenss azeboM dotdw aft tent sigur es ,[oodoe ashse2d Bt to sonsbsoz edt tebno ,betse1t yilutetan) teom et stotoess “teloolys iweH toRestor? ote! eft .notouttant saoffsoxs Fee arb fn i9@edine moxed to gnotebase henisth-enlt oat [feme ee ebsn o16 enorensmib edd sonst! stoped nk gadblind 20% B 01210 18As0 at nomao9 e76 Be ce ee hye ‘. ‘| :. F ; 7 4 a e hs ia a ang on | he renames vente .olditeeog ae i. ae ie fl f , a ‘ .. a) ae 4 ey td on hs ” 4 ey a, oe & y | a | “Bi aT; - fi \ . he | ra" ’ ‘ ” PREFACE. in the last of four works commenced at the same time and sys- tematically completed, the Author presents to the Public a work, which is based on a thoroushn study of Mediaeval and Renaissance architecture, and is intended to elucidate the architecural problems of the present day in Seneral and particular, in acc- ordance with with the principles of Tectonics (Esthetics). It is in reality a condensation of the intellectual work, that must be done in all architectural designing, so that if the conditions for a solution of the problem are given, one may easily and quickly find the correspondins form or motive.The form finally assumed by this motive depends on circumstances, and is the artistic work of the Architect. The book is at the same time a manual of architectural form and composition. It is made possible for the architect to conncetedly review the more important ideas, to which his problem directly leads, so that nothing essential to the artistic treatment of his de- sign may be omitted; he has only to decide what motive best corresponds to the problem, when merely the leading idea of i its form is given. As in my Tectonics,I assign to construction the first+place in the artistic treatment of Architectural and engineering structures. So far as the artistic form may be influenced by construction, I have sought to base it on constructive prin- Ciples. One, who is guided by the principles of Tectonics, will correctly solve every problem. The result of this methodical procedure is a&@ Renaissance style, modern in principle, more or less similar to the ancient styles and the Italian Renaissance, as well as to Mediaeval architecture. Here reason takes the rlace of any historical or traditional restraints; reflection decides what. is right in any particular case; after reason at- tains its end, fancy enters on its right of endowing the motive already found with its proper form ~ In many cases, I have restricted myself to the rules of the Dresden school, as being that in which Modern Renaissance arch- itecture is most carefully treated, under the guidance of its excellent instructor, the late Professor Hermapn Nicolai. Tne fine-grained sandstone of Saxon Switzerland is employed for building in Dresden. Hence the dimensions are made as small as possible. Larger dimensions are common in other cities, xk ) Bean cebliveaiatss ids ot e%@ asnode. nobusd Sisde , re eneifatl\ od? sted? dome te1sen ewobnin ond to eoxa edt ; pergyy sath ast: to enolensmkb eit .tt eteatneonoo of see 30 svieran ood teddie eyente stoteteds ers egnibl tad | an d ,evieasm oot :dtxo edt of berreteneit yltoersd te me .. oot :aetbiiod edt to slsoe reg9el 8 of kakbdbaoyesi109 mr ~e9ee0 ynss nl .ddatl aeznoit]e s 10% bebnstai sagas spo od bedtios .slut contains dtiw bedataupos 9d of ete {ftw yosm .evideusdxe basot sd tom {fiw Xan 9a? q {itn eroe ,sonstsegnt tee1g to 9d oF tebtenon sat -Mietdieo batt yem etsdto sey e{tdnu ,eletretem fenortr -ad {Liw todtuA od? .ylfut oo¢ ro yiteiad ood betaend bedaent ote dae .s{dsep boot 916 ssebi anibse! fata ti bm. t43008 seve evel ony ,anoateq secdT .eesalnt tootortive fiw .seiv to tntoq istene3 8 mont eletisdem sasiauds yobleaes ; , Mio) boe s6bees y12ve znivteitese to ytfooittib edt ostlees > xl oritemiys od [lade enotixog Jnorsttth seodn Aton A gar -agfesronoo cot ton vibaosd cof rwsstien ,bsqoleveb Reser .it0w sdd 10% betinpess etgoboox to 1ede0m sae1h snl —* at foods edd 94 stnomtasat Yo ebow deelqmie ond bedat j rsdd. Hgnotdd beeesg eves odn ,ad0ed shO78 to gan sat 40% a xt no bloode aedodede edt tedt rsqgorg at #& ,ybute to bo ens. as dove deol ,booteiebos ylisalo ed o¢ suciottine “aleate ett sen of knivieseb eaons to thtened sdt i097 {edt ,2oinosos? yu dtrw befatespos ete. 10m eesn20q) 19 ibetostlos . yltetid, ste Atow tdadt to afotewlonoo tnaete hn ry ere “ eeonetrogmi) bebtosh lo esshr snidasl o18 ! etodtgA ont | £68 ens niles Rares oe terte es Ble, jaa Lal r iia » SAK Ry a e : PA. MN gs EA f ‘af Povo? sobiee sts sonepeisasy aetiet] sdv to enokeacitty),! 4 fetes alogmoo doide ,dtsoW bedagil ylsaetfiind seel xe, , ttle akedieo @ od tagel edd. nestor of beifequoo— ‘90 svieeen oot tedtie eyexfe stotetaddy sie egnibirod .« snoyet® ddin bisodiosld sit no nofoutsant add ae a 5 ae Te | ee WP a’ un hy hy / 3 where harder stones are to be obtained. The usually massive dimensions of the Italian Renaissance are seldom found in our less brilliantly lighted North, which compels us to place the axes of the windows nearer each other. The Italians were compelled to soften the light to a certain degree, while we seek to concentrate it. The dimensions of Italian Renaissance buildings are therefore always either too massive or too weak, bulldings are therefore always either too massive or too weak, if directly transferred to the North; too massive, because corresponding to a larger scale of the building; too weak, be- cause intended for a stronger light. In many cases, it is best to be acquainted with a minimum rule, suited to our conditions. The work will not be found exhaustive; many will miss what the consider to be of great importance, some will possess add- itional materials, while yet others may find certain portions treated too briefly or too fully. The Author will be contented, if theileadinsg ideas are found usable, and are treated with sufficient fulness. Those persons, who have ever sought to consider abundant materials from a general point of view, will realize the difficulty of satisfying every reader and of writ- ing a work, whose different portions shall be symmetrically d developed, neither too broadly nor too concisely. fhe great number of woodcuts required for the work, necessi- tated the simplest mode of treatment. As the book is intended for the use of architects, who have passed through their peri- od of study, it is proper that the sketches should only be sufficient to be clearly understood, just such as are drawn bg the instructor on the blackboard with crayon. For the benefit of those desiring to use the work, who neith- er possess nor are acquainted with my Tectonics, the most imp- ortant conclusions of that work are briefly collected; they are leading ideas of decided importance. Berlin. Jan. 1883. The Author. ee “nee lee [oe ee en . . iO nied ; ne = na yy) mT ie et ee ‘ Peat the : Lari co Py ; NR ot 3 Yo enas taszr0;ai « STO" iol to" eae poh gummed ’ ee gi SHARAN TR my” a vubrudstiar | ee he Ve leihiets mitedted stinotdver 3) ¢, {ih y Moats ‘at er icsinet ek i yah yileotiedies sd}. abe eb eee by -ynem Yo bagoqmoo yine { 1edtie tena wees ade $e foitosnnos to sbhoa edt .§ oon beatae aye’ -benivib yileas ed to F tne ¢: | DE unasaussss ef eran wort mofteiveb A .£ a ha) Be, pad Pate vk Pe enoegsat Ins. * & aeosbors Db issinsk eidd .noese% ‘Qastortiue & deiw ob ot: to. ‘gninatyed eat ak di sonia ¢ysinn asad ITT Ae} 19 pate neh ashen ni aneieey to ax0t teefgute od? .¢ "On ‘eYtdoanye ai ,eanidt it “enseensos hight atk orn to daiog t9dard & mont ae -seonsidsestae nt yxd “Bata 7 esbulozs (ee ent To mofvooanoo antytiaw ed? .{ hi in fe »Gnidmotath # ae ,sldateqnoons To slistuensmmoons cay 2 ottozeo gatyting afd .éntoq~busse redyid « mot? 2.8 met: Saceseiua edd yd boteoyguaysebé aa mtiw Ote008 teum yoem ha teda mektaloes $d teem dotdw .dnsustinpay eof ? ott’ wad dah edt atin esinomised Seow slode sat .t9dtieh Le bre eoviead ne #i snogtag odv dtiw 10 ,eineaerge, tf <8) ‘to er ‘edgy al erat Moitastiess gir to sneeu | Adora et ipdoxcignees eds atin alia sesnsidsest26@ sat .OL Lo a .-¢Utotuevy to ytinnw to somatasqgs edt féin batosanoo 4 .etotost eviteioores eesdt dtiw yoorted nt ed) denn yo9q yiséasmelymoo to etesisa0d ebremeb ytelisV .il Bi: sezaidt eldetsqmo2 nsewtsd «wooe vino yam edeantao® stance: to aquoi) .nottaloa 10 tnententbs .mottetagssy o1sopo7 ®t Brtonedne audt .vedtayot bentdwoo ed ysm atostte anrtes & So atlonet of]. .nolicoannom Satyting bas yietisvy to tostts | & .anigrevtbd 0 oaratsvmo0o ni tet@nod givette sniveart stangath. 10 etsesely to nottoatmfh wo sasetont .biqe. 10 Dad Geum hae edt ,gotnotoss bas y18 ab ce etwtan mt 2h SI be (10% Yo ynomied steiguoo ent .ysw deolgmte sit ni beniasis og tused, [fa to tmewerinpes slisenmeqathatadt ef scoqiry Isntedxe oft ee ytinng stoloeis ant abnsweb bas ,2o%n0r qe 4 Recapitulation of the more important laws of general Tectonics. Section 1. Esthetic Principles. 1. The esthetically agreeable is only unity in itself, or a unity composed of many. 2. The mode of connection of the many must either be evident of be easily divined. 3. A deviation from unity is disturbing, if without suffici- ent reason. 4. With a sufficient reason, this deviation produces a great-— er pleasure than unity, since it is the beginning of variety. 5. The simplest form of variety in unity, for all visible things, is Symmetry. 6. From a higher point of view, equilibrium surpasses symme- try in agreeableness. 7- The unifying connection of the many excludes everything incommensurable or incomparable, as a disturbing element. 8. From a higher stand-point, the unifying connection of the many must accord with an idea,sugsested by the whole, we term this requirement, which must be satisfied, that of internal trath. 9. Further, the whole must harmonize with the subject, which it represents, or with the purpose it subserves, and with the means of its realization. This is the requirement of external truth. 10. The agreeableness changes with the component factors, connected with the appearance of unity or variety. The whole must be in harmony with these associative factors. 11. Variety demands contrasts of complementary peculiarities. Contrasts may only occur between comparable things. Contrasts require preparation, adjustment or solution. Croups of contr- asting effects may be combined together, thus enhancing the effect of variety and unifying connection. The results of con- trasting effects consist in converging or diverging, gradual | or rapid, increase or diminution of pleasure or disgust. 12. As in nature, so in art and tectonics, the end must be attained in the simplest way. The complete harmony of form and purpose is the indispensable requirement of all beauty in tec- tonics, and demands the absolute purity of the external appear- say so gede Vhocetinas: ee hacae: end: to’ soneresy ge. 4 ass ae wc ae detite sdt no ,bned eno oot 6) te o” ‘ Oe a -9209%0q edt dttw mtot ent Yo ytt, | , if oilat ated fantedxs bas Isntetat to efgioniig aT cL. f \,e8.t ,ottetretosiedo eft to tnemetkupss ens asertanod Tigh to eoidekwedostsdo svitonidarbh eds to sonentmorg : oo egntdt saodt to gntosi{g edt saispey emts beebi pagriat t sabe) to enoeses no ~bneoraiosd sary of sonsdiogmr yrabano @tot to ce epee tedt) .noidesitianottnevn0. to qterraond . | So yeeograq edt yd bertupss J tons biden to noltatnsestgey sit 10 ,morfesilodwya .al > ,enare Ientetzs to ensem yi betnewoiges yisoe1sh abaaietes: to .gnoktgsonoo [etens: to noiseoittnoeieg a ccen 10 ,batm edt of eldttqeoteq ylno ef yrilssr eeoun 5 pete to ,sfodw a ea asee od of tee72 oof 10 Sldreiv oO base eetnonssso .etosn [notfodays .medod elgaie & yo qi edd tot noiessigxe to ensem ete ,BTnsmynom bas | ty? ’ : . ) ZGan to SD ieabiciesn nget! act tasneli. acshabes ad? .IT mottos? B odd he hie qoanerai 2 Se to fodmya ent ef tutog eA? .t as ; ~kottouttenoo Leottiemos® des ry to poh} oad Serb onm00 ei etntoqg to tisq 6 ativ 6S aos in o8 of noktsier steds of Aatbioco« ,myindtitops bas Bie scree ats baa) svods .dtel one InztT TeAtonN, ,ensig )OSnk bebivih et sent ass Rp suit oft aedtedw baa ,#i bacied : Baars. ; (iy > vettso Laupent a0 Laupe sen pesael hae 10 sfbbta waainnihed ge safog’ sdT .f sian B ee eodentmotg [siosae se1rope: ,edivers to ettaeo Bi bas -stot bra seoqisay to anofttalsh .F tone ne to) dosmnistte edt evedata ¢add wxot yisvil. .d ‘sd of ak eno redto yievs ;eotneftosl ak bebtovs od | ,9207%9g 8 to mottostertas eft redd1st yee do dneatse1d w10t ead to mottipnos Jnadsogwt ead 2% , ite & to etaemele edt to noitenidmco to yiilidagad ‘4 ve metsoursende 8 to noidetages toB yiilidagso sd? .3 bi | etosateett atot eté sate Bind ot eeu sdt yd bentmreteh ed yam wtot ant .€ bet sNaviy oh wetsef edt eealay .bcv0t sd tomnean dé Lete 7 togiey sit to tnehneqedat ylortine 9d yeaomtot sat .OL wd Bentereted ed ret eudd yew wict a ta nottosfes oA? tL gts 6d teed yao bas edd eneem sti yd teat ,esogisq oft | gest sé yeu. Lotetead feo yilsorseroeddy aro? edt Sf of 3ntwo wedtone asd een nkstie> s [itfet of ‘4 .bS0nstancoris | eds d3oondd pielvatwosd ei trot to aotfaottrbom A .EL Shines 4) aé to $y & enw edt to senein eat to yilid é 4 . -8R0TIeY tTeHAIO 2 aesaun edt uh bontupen so yen enzo? to notteortrbol ob! aa ‘ sMosteot(qqs to asbor 6 onoztez edt 2 neve .Jnaden09 nieme yen amiot eat .cL teol =, ee F i , : ae 7 Without the forn. 2 The more completely the peculiarities of the ground forms are presented to the actual perception, the more favorably they appear to the esthetic sense. 3. The more the characteristic relations of pure perception are changed to actual perception, the more useful will these be in esthetic respects. 4. Crystalline forms are actually perceived by means of the prominence of their angles, edges and surfaces, and this is made possible by the optical peculiarities of the material. To make the axes visible, mark the angles, central points of edges and surfaces, and planes of cleavage, which assists the actual perception. 9° Round bodies only appear in relief through optical pecul- larities, and this appearance is heightened by meridians, by | drawing generatrices, and by the actual prominence of axes, centres,and foci, as well as of tangential surfaces. B. Relations of purpose and form. 6. very form that hinders the attainment of an end is to be avoided in Tectonics; every other one is to be sought, whi- ch may further the satisfaction of a purpose. 7+ One important condition of the form treatment lies in the capability of combination of the elements of a structure. S. The capability 6or separation of a construction may deter- mine its form treatment. 9. The form may be determined by the purpose, in that in sen- eral it cannot be found, unless the latter is given. 10. The form may be entirely independent of the purpose. 11, The selection of a form may thus far be determined by the purpose, that by its means the end may best be attained. 12. The form,theoretically most tasteful may be less adapted to fulfil a certain purpose than another, owing to accidental circumstances. 13. A modification of form is permissible, through the possi- bility of the misuse of the peculiarities of an object for an- other purpose. 14. Modification of forms may be required by the number of modes of application. 15. The forms may remain constant, even if the purpose be ial . mead io ; i ’ "i wie le bib od iv raha er it hfs 0 BY t ly Pe 8 | ox seas ot ip pounced wemtot to gottsoitibom sal dt ct | guibrocos bas ,dotdw Tob sescgisg eds to noteeeo i, ‘way bmg e b. .5 > sbexodqas ed yam elorsas Wich aeaaet ata totixdioacas ad? .f. fi: ed tam aotdogrtendo ven! 1) Neefhgobsbe: rae pS 0 tnebnejeh ed yeo wroF wot tiomte od dostdb me to eeivineifuceg [sievee tI .OS 6 at tnentsersMitot edi ,soaogtey lersvse ot barljas of br iyay (4h i onogid ati base eeltizsiivosy ati to By amore? ib sot bevittome a settiasifwoeq sesit YI. .IS > yan m1ot end emis to elavietnt elderebtenoo sexe . ° sbestkestloosy bas saogiuy 3d¢ divin eonshto208 dose ot betantbiodwe eis sesogtsq to eelise @ TI .SS es © otaemteets mot ead 2enimreds5 corassoous treat Tasasse7d ‘mot @ stivoss esrogina stanibicod .¢S etnveoDa os aL dtod pea bas [strate to nortelea .0 yoonetedoy to moldelofh .s ope Tot Sayolqne eis sonetatac: siotinn to amiol -bS leant sit ;f20o to to .J1cw hae Letretam ,taator t Stevixongge to sorsiste gd e443 eenuAD send Anttourd tess edyforis to emrod .tost109 yifes{senoent esos . Od doetdue eevutowite [le 10t aldatstertg yino gor sot saci ated? sontea .kntess{a Jaom esa dud ,2en } ae eTNSIBGIR Gf oreate Yeo eno? toaxa to bsaesent etemizoiwg¢s to ean eat cS + } Snitemine bas zaiytev rot tmoibegxs ns ef sonsdereet 4 »mtot artqgolevne smee Sa49 antotater elidw .aqrl Lenrarxs Iisme dod) pt tootdve eerbod to saso nT .3S 6 esom bas .bebiove adot 918 sonaveiast dicting to awiot. 4 ands -betinpet 618 noitose eao19 To. eskaeno bs goo fas moitenegerg eth ,Isivetaé edT so 0 ea 2 ety ee antbhlied .1 | rib oota,) scelersotell Roiblivd ‘wil pntbitns. 40 tneatssxs m7o0t od tot ewel Letened {a > + te Wifsop ¢df atin aynsdo yedt ;bodetidsdies sd tonne ° yedd go8 sbetiqges ek If doidn of ss0q1Ng eat bow Lasiot a a ce ee ec geaso [stooge ni bilsv ore ant “a bonseb 06 biaone te al Nihese Otin tagcor7 cade b1sh bi dS 8 16. The modification of forms depends on the number and suc- céssion of the purposes for which, and according to which, the article may be employed. 17. The capacity for uSe* lessens: gi tb aneth=. autrer ene ee -48._The*constructionsmay be destroyed: by a: singte. sases Tse 19. Form may be defendent on an entire series of purposes. 20. If several peculiarities of no be simultaneously applied to several purposes, its form*treatment is a function of its peculiarities and its purpose. | 21. If these peculiarities be empléyed for different purpos- esat considerable intervals of time, the form may chanse in accordance with the purpose and peculiarities. 22. If a series of purposes are subordinated to each other, their succession determines the form treatment. 23. Coordinate purposes require a form treatment which takes both into account. C. Relation of Material and Form. a. Relation of coherence. 24. Forms of uniform resistance are employed for economy of weight, material and work, or of cost; the difficulty of cons- tructing these causes the preference of approximate forms to those theoretically correct. Forms of absolute resistance are not only preferable for all structures subject to intense for- ces, but are most pleasing, since their capacity for resisting Strain is apparent. 25. The use of approximate instead of exact forms of uniform resistance is an expedient for varying and animating the out- line, while retaining the same enveloping form. 26. In case of bodies subject to but small external forces, forms of uniform resistance are to be avoided, and more decid- ed changes of cross section are required. b, ce The Material, its preparation and combination. I. Building gonstruction. A. Building Materials. 27. General laws for the form treatment of buildings materials cannot be established; they change with the quality of the ma- terial and the purpose to ahich it is applied. But the follow- ing are valid in special cases. Hard stones, wrought with difficulty, should be dressed as 2) q~ “_— ‘@ la desiaten wage 8 i vlante'ed bas efdreeoa ee slsail - ' Rnoite ,eatot [fame 10% sideistety sis esitavi0: | | bas en ovet caripousinglanie +2300 Sytal 10% F =i 84 pi “yo * ebsaigt sd ea Ilex as at xb is Siainte 2ehotn bash .as veidstine yiler Besos asotroy bas senose deniers oe enecenind th eintostidors ai esea (sostoaxte seont ai: "Sesotot lenistxe sievse of fosidua sea ie sesnosss Seekaton? ot Saogee17109 asnote beeimpoonl .eS Barb in4 a ys edtonenode betsope oF asnote be a bao: seyaoaze 6 ntetdo bas d10n eves of Of o HW ,' «Sidrearoy 8s eatel as od Elo > edisq ont Sateen: bate to-miooldolbsginoles loxey ute Bot anttnio, to ebow sidetiog & stiupes e1wtoure 6 lhedotined od seven Olnode ednrol sft sisow bas [att yd betkepses sie adnio;, on s7edw tnsibsyxs eviseroost yd bebivitb ed yew Sorbitec saz to atis9 .n0ftous edd Heeoxs teven olvode eredmem 245 to tagted sat her bed yIsaNp Yo aidieeog: td2 to aaa ent bae sie1) edd to easasntt ed? .S¢ B Sdt to aSys edd sort soostaih oat ee {fon ea . ba ybigae ed? 20% beyolqas Satstuo tc sbom 30% senisreteh .12 "eeiowse 9dg To aoiToe1td sdv Soe emote Ss Yo sostape eur. e18¢6n Sat to wolt bisRKaKOb sdt of, barope eri aR ef senotvs Asad to ytased sit .ff Brig Vitdarte tug eenote sadar{ to wens at to nee ot waltwie sd yen eaortgad to entot sat’ .dé ebenzed ti ,senot] bred to eectt eirl :to4sdny Ti Veen yd bebnasod ed SInode exolid bseeety to ewtot sAT .cé ‘binom # yd beesesqai ed tc ,esostine Leotrbarlyo 0 betiat{ eis yealo benwsd bae bsisbos Yo ewrot sal .oé bee ebsiaizde' edd yd {moitostoma buns tsiles .eookens J mot as Yo yefnoitiib edt yd) es Ifen es ,yalo sat to ia » .fetseteam ent Yo ytifidixelt sis yd bos . gai gnoiensaib sat snimteted xoind & to enotensarh ent oN? tno to sdoold to bas ,adoold sttoo s11s3 L[stnsneanro [fe > bas oxta sit timtl base ,soitouatenod smae 20d ni beso | Bee. avasareosb aeiinoey 2 to siwbe sud ,softose Yo astot to | aetivosg ee doftdn ,tneatesss evitootseno eUinossn 49110 td i Cee wid , i be ee | ie a 4 bi ts oe ae ‘al a ’ . , ‘ 3 little as possible and be simply treated+if polished;slight c curvatures are preferable for small forgs, strong curvatures for large ones. Softer stones, like serpentine and marble, may be turned. sg 28. Hard stones wrought with diffiénity, as well as coarse Srained stones and portous stones, are generally suitable for those structural uses in architecture and engineering, which are subject to severe external forces. 29. Uncoursed stones correspond to Cyclopeéan masonry, cours- ed stones to squared stonework. 30. To save work and obtain a stronger bond, the stones sho- uld be as large as possible. 31. Parallelopipedic blocks of stone composing the parts of a structure require a suitable mode of jointing to save mate- rial and work; the joints should never be employed as a purely decorative expedient where no joints are required by the cons- truction. Parts of the building may be divided by joints, but the height of its members should never exceed the maximum hei- ght possible of quarry bed. 32. The fineness of the grain and the magnitude of the forms employed, as well as the distance from the eyes of the obsery- er, determines the mode of cutting employed for the external | surface of the stone, and the direction of the strokes must be suited to the downward flow of the water. 33. The beauty of dark stones is much enhanced by poe that of light stones but slightly. . 34. The forms of bricks may be similar to those of soft sto- nes, if unburnt; like those of hard stones, if burned. 35. The forms of pressed bricks should be bounded by plane or cylindrical surfaces, or be impressed by a mould. . 26. The forms of modeled and burned clay are limited in dim- ensions, relief and projection, by the shrinkage and cracking of the clay, as well as by the difficulty of an amiform burn- ing, and by the flexibility of the material. 37. The dimensions of a brick determine the dimensions of all ornamental terra cotta blocks, and of blocks of cut stone used in the same construction, and limit the size and choice of forms of section, but admit of a peculiar decorative and constructive treatment, which gives a peculiar character to brick masonry. Te ee eee ‘da. "ae ae) ie ie) ¢ wbiletnesen puibetbud 9 ge bees etei9nes dnsweD .6e Davao tr 10 .efefieten Jess t9dto we exsl emse sas oa ena tuo 88 Yew Smee Sie mt betasit od oF @F -aninebied fy © fine otbeqtqolsllarsq ssoubo1g boow to Barkow sAT 06 ¢ yp eesntzey eens at etetier bas ,amtot bentws ,enr0t oinb ‘bose gaibned yd BVP od abo enopt Yel .geivied yd benies ! e, . -Lattesan ent yokesenta “9 ” reas oF NRRL EY boow To ddunewte tdgtie ed? .Ob J a ‘gO hadi ae oftsil es juo od wetgkt Sot Jedt gertypSt Par gud \satog aids of sosqeet ni Setiwil ef Jnemtssas #101 : bas jemvtadort qseb ,betoslzen od yeu aind .eboow sensh baa ee ) bevamine as bas ,199000 yeu eerdrt ed? to esoitqorvisent | Nel “— \ ,betteps? ei esiuteviso 2oomte bas toile to aotse “edd so | yloritas ¢18 not Jeso Yo ansot en? stb t Le $iw oft bas yniteso to eesoorg eft .Wietdeq bivor MOIL Jeaso Jedd ,[aisens2 ok bise sd yan FI .bivow sat foftixe belfer-ntat to asteig ,adosido aids tot olde eeriups: sostive L[entesdxe esti antdtow to ysivortIIb ead meige Jeet; edi teds .,efdtusog 8 dsoome 28 Sd oF Ratieas ‘to eiteq bebeol yinnorwts tot bstqeba ylisitivoess #t esxem ed of eis ASgnerd2 wiotine to ewret dotew sot .etadowade fW es {lew as .fetretem to yson0es to tauo008 no bebnsumd jo” ont .ssostie beantotas bas ,eaoktexotisy .edis gnineds : ~2908i19 moo mi emict tsbnele bes elquie eeitees nor ddyvo1% .Sb tosh 1. m1 ofd ,eldieeog as anotenewib erisl ee to nortous tonturh baa enottienert [awhess .sslame antiosiorg ‘to 1 to) eu odd of nofsorateey # eatutosiss Buktesaigne at -2n70t bas enoitoee ebsid fansy ect foes none’ bas eotuteviso eltnes ebneush A10w dez10% ofS \ Beno ara? nt vdelsev .ssdely doiny gal eeendsit ,anosd to costise L[enretxs. sdt no At0OW yiwioewelg qo ohh oYITSAs9090 qletuloeds seolnn ,besbkovaled of et sori ) eeddm eeloidta ant beyolgms ed no1rt daavorww tl .ce arenes ed yeu yeds doidw of anisite eat ehesore eet ak yeLdfea tube ar. anro?. Vol eteinay test ef bas tas to eei¢rfenp 5003 ent sentdmoo feat2 db. w enolls ti stotoredt bone ,sotg5b deedgt ‘sda ni note YIsv 10 abit yI9v to sen odd ae IfLow'as ,wict to egasr ry J cpp 7 : ad zi a i eu TE : 10 38. Cement concrete used as a building material is subject to the same laws as other cast materials, or if wrought after hardening, is to be treated in the same way as cut stone. 39. The working of wood produces parallelopipedic and cylin- dric forms, turned forms, and reliefs in endless variety, obt- ained by carving. Many @orms can be produced by bending and by pressing the material. 40. The slight strength of wood perpendicular to the fibres requires that the fisres be cut as little as possible, and the form treatment is limited in respect to this point; but in hard and dense woods, this may be neglected, deep incisions and fre- interruptions of the fibres may occur, and an animated altern- ation of slight and strong curvatures is required. 41. The forms of cast iron are entirely dependen% on the mould, pattern, the process of casting and the withdrawal from the mould. It may be said in general, that cast iron is prefer- able for thin objects, plates or thin-walled articles, that t the difficulty of working its external surface requires the casting to be as smooth as possible, that its great strength makes it peculiarly adapted for strongly loaded parts of a structure, for which forms of uniform strength are to be rec— ommended on account of economy of material, as well as strens- thening ribs, perforations, and thickared surfaces, in proper places. 42. Wrought iron requires simple and slender forms in const- ruction of as large dimensions as possible, the rounding-off of projecting angles, gradual transitions and diminutions, and in engineering structures a restriction to the use of bars of the usual trade sections and forms. 43. Forged work demands gentle curvatures and smooth transi- tions, flatness im. thick plates, variety in thin ones. 44, Supplementary work on the external surface of wrought iron is to be avoided, unless absolutely necessary. 45. If wrought iron be employed for articles whose strength far exceeds the strains to which they may be exposed, the grea- test varietw of forms is admissible. 46. Steel combines the good qualities of cast and of wrought iron in the highest degree, and therefore it allows a wider range of foru, as well as the use of very thin or very massive bata joes wey: Sipideaal hectebseaey et bas ,ediag efletfoq Bnivisoet rot yiosgeo # fag otisd7sb. lobeviaty atetetos weqqoo te eomel{soxe sat .{b 09 Intktoned bas detfoy eakt ati ddim .f10w bevemmed [le ‘wenotisbtxo att to ytilidewb bar toloo satt edt oals bas ‘aot ytilidetive Istosge s ettno.agaiy ber bas eesig .38 | steqgqoo Yo estdited[uosq edt to deom dtiw agar w boas teso tot bayolame ad yam onts bs bas .Cd a -2etalg of drow baserottsg tot es [flow ae bas sites! tdyisd ,s0foo Stidn yrovile adi dttw nt? .0¢ a8 eanivers oni? tot oldetine et .mortabixo of sonedel eharanit tol es secottourtedo? gotbiliod .8 “ gomdounte betntolL ets enoitoutianoo smote .I¢ hy ake TE: 8 eetoamsveg bas exniliso .etioqgue ) \antaods gael ead opitqmoD anotiousitaaco neboow. .$c e velien atot of patedmtt ‘to wsdjex0¢ Aattniot bas Aninediv | bat {Ie to a aaa .2700[% ,egnilren .stio ae Lt -s92ntonIte2 ASsdto ae to anes. af befoennos es enotiouttanco [ete .é¢ > bas mio tot antisenrzne at beyolqme ,aysx Sas adlod : Ieotaeddem mt yiletosqes bas ,5oow to eevodd od aeliate te Bae sotol dtod of toeidea ,zenidosm antvow rot anits | vo | o(ads0w fatel}) Aton atdtrmeiood :yrsarol .IT to ezat{snace bas ebisod ayolgne yileses yYIsarol be 2 «arco! .egaklieo sistf venottitisg aids sot saotenenib jor yltasl Sas .asoittel bas epntiier ,ewobmiw bas e100b es Mot exodw .estotontte tdaif ous yrecro, aL exo ses g10g Teds no nedt beew [streten to ymonoos no 180.58 fimeit .2tntot ofseom ,ezntisnsg yd Satosanoo ata yods Rar by \ sebntd {Le to-sgntotdsal PD Sento, edt to second eitf .dttmexool ed% Yo sdaow saT «cc DRE e1etou7de 2 to eaotd10g Ieqtonizy ois ,to)seods wort a8tixb . tied ‘Yo ¢add add snentworg vest et tdxiew to dnowels od? Jens p20! ssotata base sisd to besogmo> sxe yeds etentol edni sndgne ‘he ‘ebin 8 aseeeod satwedil ysdd baa .2gnkautit brs eyslisvo Ue best! pine mort Atin ,bequete bre tned+,dgcor" .eam0t to . sesnlov ofat belfor-nedely bar aied ,atxe Isnthutrgool 2 suede cedibaered aks: oe: eaedt .,089 ,aetelq betsrotieg .eanitye one a! ia ee 4 mt i1 parts, and is especially remarkable for its tempering colors, and a capacity for receiving polish. 47, The excellence of copper consists in its adaptation to all hammered work, with its fine polish and beautiful color, and also the fine color and durability of its oxidations. 48. Brass and red brass unite a special suitability for cast- ‘ings with most of the peculiarities of copper. | 49. ;ead and zinc may be employed for cast and wrought work, as well as for perforated work in plates. 50. Tin with its silvery white color, bright lustre and res- istance to oxidation, is suitable for fine castings as well as for tinnins. B. Building Constructions. 51. Stone constructions are jointed structures, forming walls, supports, ceilings and pavements. 52. Wooden constructions comprise the lengthening, deepening, widening and jointing together of timbers,to form walls, supp- orts, ceilings, floors, panelings of all kinds, frameworks and other structures. | 53. Metal constructions are connected by means of rivets, b bolts and keys, employed in engineering for form and structure Similar to those of wood, and especially in mechanical engine- ering for moving machines, subject to both force and vibration. TI. Joinery; Locksmith’s work. (fetal work). 54. Joinery usually employs boards and scantlings of small dimensions for thin partitions, light ceilings, floors, stairs, doors and windows, railings and lattices, and lastly for furn- iture.Works in joinery are light structures, whose forms depend pather on economy of material used than on their purposes, and they are connected by panelings, mosaic joints, framings and latticings of all kinds. . 55. The works of the locksmith, like those of the joiner, ad differ from those of,the principal portions of a structure in that the element of weight is less prominent than that of str- ength; like joinery they are composed of bars and plates, of overlays and trimmings, and they likewise possess a wide range of forms. Wrought, bent and stamped, with iron parts turned about a longitudinal axis, bars and plates rolled into volutes and springs, perforated plates, etc., these are the elementary os a ae ne er nad ni Mey fe bse : ee ae eres ia : as presen | etson efdtiwedool of 1silsoeg paki’ val ees We Abmaherrgh Hi ckergh, ee Oth elkixel, .IIr: 7 ‘a “ xet ,elaiiesam evowdt? bas dyuod ,eldixelt mor? .3¢ jdtmi ~roktebiordas: ,por1dat evox gitortexosin asoubosg _ Shimane ao ,2tie? ,plrow aiedo ,ettonten bsdsen Of Bs8 © .IT tebas meviz esostiue to noier | at ae at bari 4 e@0feeo .VI. ot Rudiesne & o- ebneged. ddgasate seotw ebotaiol .(& Mel sonny ofesom edt no bessd S18 emtot seodw ioe secoindsetolis¢s\ .V tow d%8 Cfase eeeriqaoo ylistoeqes einT .8¢ Betotannstey Je to eyoll{e tentt set bos aletom ‘eldon aeeo071g i, seteitetam Roibliad es beaseto elasem snd bo $nteedo .gaideifog .ayoils to antidote sai qmase .baitelg ,3ntievite Sue antblis .aidote Baty fitea sdt bas ana ee7mselit .Atvow olfain ,noitatac ean -8enotse avoio : eadinotosel IV e ws & at i AN eames besiail #@ af eoigotoeT wc ay a | ebkitow bisIng bas Sonand be Res eantiesend. .-IIV, nqmoo aoe neal yifeqtonizg ek drow e'relemen® 0d eafa a4 [lex aletastan beeee1g bas teso to tnomtae ts sat 1. to fe edd bas .Atow sovgrirt tas bodaslt .aminels eee seoime1s) sIIIV : ot bas sRIsttog to aninotdest edt yltetdo at adimexsds3 $ doetdee ei tr ,yslo Zatyolgms eeiatawiat Lesimoes reado fegi yd .baed eno ed? noveisiisrflyosa atk yd Lortnoo-edt OF £ oF Bninied ati bas aasnoviaedds Ons ystortasla side fo8g suolinini ett yi todto edt a0 ,sasm yesel’y 10 ytsitt fe goo ined 10 nsdotd ylirees Rated tc ,sasiariis to asrdi a per tana eh dttw bead yloicting gated to bas .93 | Es oe | -m10% to STA SdT LTT nt sett ERE er tetles sq at mot to d18 sat «Sd: es fimit ntediso nidtin betolitest ynied ylao ,w1ot to soiedo ei | -beyolque [etistam edd yd eebede bas tapi to enottsisd .5. taom mot edt at totfer to m#gneidse endl .€d evbenebancan soels ott et? to ytienetat egerevs 9nd ice: pA OO. ers _ i ” | R ah i ie oe 12 forms peculiar to locksmith’s work. TII. Textile Art. 56. From flexible, tough and fibrous materials, textile art produces wickerwork, woven fabrics, embroideries, knitted and netted networks, chain works, felts, on the basis of the div— ision of surfaces given under II, 9 and 10. IV. Mosaics. $7. Joinings whose strength depends on a cementing material and whose forms are based on the mosaic system. Ve. Metallotechnics. 58. This especially comprises small art works,;employing the noble:: metals and the finer alloys of copper, in addition to the metals classed as building materials. The processes are t the etching of alloys, polishing, chasing, damascening, engsa- ving, etching, gilding and silvering, plating, stamping, incr- ustation, niello work, filjgree work, and the setting of pre- cious stones. VI. Tectonics. 59. Tectonics in a limited sense produces in a hard material turned and inlaid works. VII. Hnamelins. 60. Enameler’s work is principally glass making and comprises the treatment of cast and pressed materials, as well as glass blowing, flashed anf filigree work, and the art of enameling. VIII. Ceramics. 61Ceramics is chiefly the fashioning of pottery, and like all other technical industries employing clay, it is subject tot _ the control by its peculiaritieson the one hand, by its remark- able plasticity and adhesiveness and its burning to a porous, fritty or glassy mass, on the other by its injurious peculiar- ities of shrinkage, of being easily broken or bent out of sha- pe, and of being uniformly burned with difficulty. IX. The Art of Form. 62. The art of form in pure relief is entirely free in the choice of form, only being restricted within certain limits by the material employed. a. Relations of light and shade. 63. The strength of relief in the form must harmonize with the average intensity of sunlight in the place considered, kee Bi ic > adc Ro: shontdyind to senaeb ent dtiw a8 0 seead en efaenevar tere to sesetont cele teva bas bic’ i Dek Mary ker ree Balmakyy + ¢ Ma -enoia u sxcm eons: neds: colby tail acania Desai seTK9% .bd ned? t97890 taAsage. ee or. -“lseisvaco bar te. D> Ba, eM Lee #8S"0 adi To, seye edt aor Sevlians at pike edt aA «Cd > ent, ,teol ots sbede bas Iinil to anoctisbe12 eatt sat te rb: i .yfeatevnos ;anidetosy ti ae bas Joniteibat ers]egis = IOY ent bas ,Joniveth Tk nsat Inatath atom we8qqe atoeido tk te | agers hs hy aisido of ,edtl fotede od tenn edn) eTavisedo efit sort tnateib mre. to nottstsyzaxs na, snuso ys notsezbartt dd mento: ot eonerete? atin ,toetdo aft to solteool sad od c ; cic eatostdo dated %0 at end to: enoigeler sid to sachin Iscitago saT .Xd ehortetebienc®s sitinpst noitoe1£ 1fedd. bre ano -neswted eslotixe 1sddo Yo 1sdmyn edt T8de81g eal .8d - geeqge sf [Lin toatetb Sion, oat ,fosido end bane iawise ae on998 ti [lin teresa edt ,18net h ia to dégeb sa¢ enseeel L[atvtetan eat to yonersqensat 22 : ad-ond 2a eotetniniS dorin ,tostie tesler edt baa exo fait edt etnseetiet yonetedenesT .doet19q stom esm09ed yO Won 916 alettotam tneragansis etotereds .slraertt bar sean iq evitstooeb 10% ylno tod ,etiseg [anntonits tot bayolg a toute betndtaterh ylsbiw tims aeostive AaisvoalteA .OF ) botattneoneo bas qiede to ,beviwo yitdgris to anely BE aii-soints Sas bedetfog gntved elaitetad. .bevies ygnoise m y m bedetoynideth y{qiade didioxe yllersnet esostape deen to) efatrotem elidw ,acottoestes bas ,sbede bos-tagel eae bas enotiisnait #toe node e1enog svidoottes t edd of cotntevive teltaey fae reotede to eisiagotg ead jtem08 bas sno esuidenoe Sinteg sw (e1SHOY anisgoeltan Asow ; ‘ Ree eotanimobesg of redio saz a | eamto® Iaoktlodmee .0 re nee atria of 193 10. Gadesines ‘eat oi hueebnhe base .« ty Be dcsihdnes nee soteeofone bas euoloam ‘to cottelemedt svat une tatee encanal # Sateemeonast «8 ~tete emrot lagia x3 and with the degree of brightness of the colored materials, and must also increase or diminish inversely as these condi- tions. 64. Nearer objects appear brighter than those more distant, and conversely, brighter objects appear nearer than darker ones. 65. As the object is removed from the eyes of the observer, the fine gradations of light and shade are lost, the object — appears indistinct and as if vanishing; conversely, indistinct objects appear more distant than if distinct, and the form must be sketch like, to obtain greater distinctness, if it be distant from the observer. 66." Irradiation may cause an exaggeration of form, according to the location of the object, with reference to other bright or dark objects. Mi 67. The optical deceptions of the relations of the dimensi- ons and their direction require consideration. 68. The greater the number of other articles between the ob- server and the object, the more distant will 1t appear, the fewer, the nearer will it seem. 69. Transparency of the material lessens the depth of shad- ows and the releef effect, which diminishes as the transparen- cy. becomes more perfect. Transparency represents the light, weak and fragile, therefore transparent materials are not em- ployed for structural parts, but only for decorative purposes. 70. Reflecting surfaces emit widely distributed likht rays, if plane or slightly curved, or sharp and concentrated rays if strongly curved. Materials having polished and mirror-like surfaces generally exhibit sharply distinguished masses of light and shade, and reflections, while materials of weak reflective powers show soft transitions and reflections, hence the propriety of sharper and gentler curvatures in the form of weak reflecting powers; we permit sometimes one and sometimes the other to predominate. D. Symbolical Forms. a. Relative Yorms. I. Limiting Forms. 71. Limiting forms indicate the beginning or termination, or have the relation of nucleus and enclosure. Beginning and ter- minal forms are:- a, disconnected at top or on both sides; 6, ‘ i a 4 or “i sai 3 : yp aenoe rere | , 4 jet | a A ‘ae | ; ; at pate {a¢cost fi Yo" ebne’ bosoonneo. D> imottod ts betoonnooett : x edn eiaeckaiae' peeks istnostion to abne begoenmoo .b 09 bn ‘edooanooeid qeborsia to abge betoonnoo .t :edsoqque edt sel gente exengxe ayewles tenn erokteniaist fetoon fe jataaneson: Ot of Boviennsit bewiot sved yodt , aa iasgheype’ ‘edt tantsye qlevoensinoqe eeot smiot 1198) weit bas seFt Tot sdetrqorqgs et foive1008) Yo mot Lex y bas .etotte bas efioggue tot eeqrite [antbudtanol one sine mee Jo saoas of a8ltete enottonnl svad anottentmws bs ‘in “bns 3niaoqqo S18 eeeds gonte ,dned das soot . beer = esd - ent tad .bemrot o8 ‘ye oF 918 Naditian to edfmid .Si r tto ahade to .pegbe etf no betiaristien iasqqa yan Le i yd besofons od to ,againeqo to etefass edd edrawod (th etivpet geostise to anoteivid .abstd if to aamot 8 edt eee tes .atieg tneost bs Yo bas atsbiod to exit Ae’ ' ,enottr0q owt sat to noiden ‘i Ng ar ety 835 prt semto® [anortiena1T .S a 90 nottoae Bs010 sno miotasers antot steibewraial fl) Pee | ‘ | etedtons ‘otnt noid 4 tey icsalie's edeotbnt em71ot Yo etoemeakaes7d .bf 0 sie to Adzne1te edd ytinoaisg ysu baa ,atraq be Bg sno to ,1sito dose oF etieq: divod to enortteles wan eft fbn ‘meo yous of M{tw anotervih sat .at | ob ett host eanse edt at eseschaa Rattosnnod ts Ifsn se é LR Oe eRBOP) aeand en% to 6a S16 4tedien to egpotk to enorervib’etategs2 .tT Ba Wome ee somyeeseg Ifeme Baavebation .esvoo ', ets lit al eAaToT evitetoost ww ious ane Barto? {adnemenio Yo noktactiqqe Yaedgin ex? .Sv i‘ Pebete Tb as [atretam ett soseer499 OF .pur0t evitelsr to “ea snore edt of abnoqeeito> ato? [entetxs sft node ,.9.7 ies view & tebaet of ek Raabe tesfgaie sat -baw m\ oe a yi op ae ae “ge Ai 4 i 14 disconnected at bottom; c, connected ends of horizontal struts; d, connected ends of horizontal ties; e, connected ends of supports; f, connected ends of tierods=- Disconnected and con- nected terminations must always express that by their own str- ength, they have formed themselves so to terminate, or as a&f tleir forms rose spontaneously against the resistance. A spi- ral form of decoration is appropriate for ties and tierods, and longitudinal stripes for supports and struts, and connect- ed terminations have functions similar to those of the human head, foot and hand, since these are opposing and fixing mem- bers. | 72. Limits of surfaces are to be so formed, that the materi- al may appear self-limited on its edges, or shade off freely towards the centers of openings, or be enclosed by bounding forms of all kinds. Divisions of surfaces require different forms of borders and of adjacent parts, expressing the alter- nation of the two portions. 2. Transitional Forms. | 73. Intermediate forms transform one cross section or direc- tion into another. ' 74. Arrangements of forms indicate separated yet re-connect- ed parts, and may personify the strength of the connection, the new relations of both parts to each other, of one part to the other, or of neither part to the other; they can indicate preliminary or terminal, completing or free terminal forms, or direction in general. 75. With convexity and concavity are associated the repres- entation of repulsion, aversion and exclusion, on the one hand, on the other, those of admission and reception; the first ser- ve well as bearing, the latter for changing and terminal forms. 76. The divisions will be conceived to be necking and footing, as well as connecting members, in the sense of the decoration of the human body. 77. Separate divisions of groups of members are separated by fillets, coves, rounds and small mouldings. b. Decorative Forms. 78. The highest application of ornamental forms is, like that of relative forms, to represent the material as if animated, i.e., when the external form corresponds to the purpose subser- ved. The simplest application is to render a unity or a single en er nofdsotigae lil A .tnenimo1g s10m Jniog rodue sms toldw Gevukeg bepubrse {I feoravoueys Yo noise rc Lees Se oS gatoy eftate » of . otrtmso & of bafbaogse1169 ensot {stnemeni0 .Ct e selbity: Bhatt .psoe!ioen .edtee ™ to wr0t sit sist “ edt bnoqeer109 snemegnetis OitIaeOxS ott oF (eve! 18 yi isolassaaye eeecen bas etswolt to aedonaid in qi 1% gbetneoos Rated enottostib niet1e9 .auoot © igo /9%s emtot [atnemanto Io go073 Potd? & .O8 pening werent nisd1s9 & anfsiisiosiedo tot -tasatmomg shaq eis eno -enortroyors .VI soitose te bua sizow nanwd [fe to efeoe To tinny edt of ne Lapa 0 ehoeqgeb eaam sit tod ,tisantd nee ei ecinosos}T 10. ) edt Th edu edt #8 gatessiont .letisdem odd to ‘ “p : sanortoetib ssidt sk sece1 y eotnotoe’? ar enotenemid to etiutl oldieeimieg oat .S | fee oo i cr disehatal 63 wort tostdo edt to sonateéd sad no at 24) enotgeroloD .V nolioed nti xin sit segtd ,noifey 585 ete erofoo elgure edt of : ) eve shaeto bane wolley, bet ;telotv ,Sineto .ne9aTs ote | stnemslqmod setofoo evisesy ots tefotv bua enld .neesh anette TOlOD .avesisnoo bedase Jeon s4% eovhborg eto Meonentnodety sit of Ratbyoo0e weulav olveiies Jaaretiib )dotde dsiw anoktstnsee1ge: edt of ,s10foo evieseq 19 evi? bas ytiensint ,seensdgiand eds Des bevetoorss ste [tot yRnorte yes zoinososT ni snoitstaseerges .somaszoy te eStod besorisest ston sw of eo 3niifegaoo .noiteroloc de Nai sia iy —e —— od gniviise cetsetaoe -Stolcdpased? tI0 ‘Fesitnol btbabiite \bIOR bas tevire ,e¢itx bas ioafG .S -pesnd drag to sevpeab odd yirbom edinw fas doeid set0loo dnt atoleo neented booelg Tete ,cotsathsr1t yt eroloo - bast sostise sid isyo beldatyges t4 fue atesidn0o sesas [oo Gat seezerggos tod .nottszoloo edt of i9d0e1K8d0 Syit x8 sd ylno as5 aids Jey ,eomershbmogery asi yd Jostits ' -@9aete anoftoétg Sat to yalq bna mast out ~ ‘ 15 point more prominent. A second application is the characteriz-— ation of symmetrically arranged points, which are subo:1dinate to a single point. 79. Ornamental forms corresponding to a centric arrangement take the form of wreaths, necklaces, rings, girdles and brace- lets; to the excentric arrangement correspond the palm orname- nt, branches of flowers and masses symmetrically arranged ab-— out a focus, certain directions being accented. 80. A third group or ornamental forms are continuous motives for characterizing a certain direction, whereby other directi- ons are made prominent. | Section IV. Proportions. 1. The unit of scale of all human works and structures in Tectonics is man himself, but the mass depends on the weight of the material, increasing as the cube if the dimensions inc- rease in three directions. 2. The permissible limits of dimensions in Tectonics depend on the dgstance of the object from the observer. Section V. Coloration. 1. The simple colors are red, yellow, blue; the mixed colors are green, orange, violet; red,yellow and orange are active, green, blue and violet are passive colors. Complementary col- ors produce the most marked contrasts. Color arrangements have different esthetic values according to the predominance of ac- tive or passive colors, to the representations with which they are associated and the brightness, intensity and specific im- portance. Representations in Tectonics may strongly influence coloration, compelling us to a more restricted choite of pig- mentsthen striving to attain harmony, preferably by shading off theseycolors. 2. Black and white, silver and gold, strongly contrast with colors; black and white modify the degree of brightness of colors by irradiation; metal placed between colors intensifies these contrasts, and if sprinkled over the surface lends a fes- tive character to the coloration, but suppresses the color effect by its preponderance, yet this can only be excelled by the gleam and play of the precious stones. en a8 / MOTPOUIOATUT 1 oat to sonsioe sid jnaes at a ES 5 ce eastern, ont atin somsbr0o98 af antot fergdosdinons : _ e(gottensel petiggA) eosaod “th aa gn ahh Opa we neldory eds at gothlind eat 7 L otfdog 10% ,moitetidsy & to aogoq79g seievib team sit ah) -Jidetow ewolgtie: sot as [lox aa ,aoildmonaa bre, #f 19b30 ak Ler9ne% 9d9 of Istoega sid nox} azey ow eonts id > Se nit [Lede on tostdue edt to gntbastessbas as oiaddo ‘ uB, tion: t gniblied edt txen ~anibitud edt io ef78q edd wav aati to to uatonelg edd bas egatbhirad to gmiquory edt ylsael ~ ‘poentt of eysnls ai aenzeq 3ntnolfot edt nt aziaab w0 18 ; hacen dotdw-,mefdorg [stoaqa & at svidom edt -tasudeort oldest ed¢ esiay0081 of eatfiiw een 9” od beta Tequen 28 ,Jeeq odd to aelyte Ietatasdidors ieilises aa sd bluow tt tedt soosbive on esdetmwi eid? .avorg gni¢rets odd es mottouttenoo eat ekat of Tdanoad 94a (947 dtin esonemmo> etsdoedriorsA woot L[ewwtowtte ott ‘ oe ‘ee ,oomeH .bitod of antewet Batddon nedw agole das moss * % iu shed i 1 editors siz sviteh of Jqmetta bas sers0o Wado Ssdi soaring mitenog atifuret 160 tI .mottouwisanod eat mort sviton {ar dnesno0o mao on ,YIOSdt 1edto adt to sont Adie Jor Dinos ne yroed? miot sds of Sastenhse odd tadt .,siat atin aevia Gas ;enoterugaibh a0 nt eolsv hegbelmomios to Raidtemoa batt yigemoo to afqioning edd bemoses visasopeting ton IESE ti smid ddim br0o08 ret of [isde ow ,datog 2nitiess a se cot _feotnaoet edt mort Joetdue ao bagget ayant Iiede ex ee i 16 INTRODUCTION. By Architectonics is meant the science of the treatment of architectural forms in accordance with the principles of Tec- tonics (Applied Esthetics). The building is the problem in architecture, and it serves the most diverse purposes of a habitation, for public life and assemblies, as well as for religious worship. Since we pass from the special to the general in order to obtain an understanding of the subject, we shall first dis- cuss the parts of the building, next the building itself,and lastly the grouping of buildings and the planning of cities. Our design in the following pages is always to trace out the motive in a special problem, which offerssitself for art- istic treatment. If with Semper, we were willing to recognize the problem of Tectonics in the external coverins, we might envelop an object in any decorative covering whatever, which seemed suitable for the puspose on external grounds, but having no real connection with the internal nature of the object. A wall would then be merely the enclosure of a portion of space, like a suspended curtain or mat, and in accordance with the external covering system, the wall might be constructed in any manner ahatever, only requiring merely to be covered by any kind of protective coating, on which might be painted, carved or stamped ang des- ired tapestry patterns. Granting that the covering principle predominates in the earlier architectural styles of the past, as Semper tried to prove, this furnishes no evidence that it would be an inartis- tic thought to take the construction as the starting point for the structural form. Architecture commences with the construc- tion and stops when nothing remains to build. Hence, we shall pursue the other course and attempt to derive the architectu- ral motive from the construction. If our results sometimes conflict with those of the other theory, we can content ours- elves with this, that the adherent to the form theory may also find something of acknowledged value in our discussions; and if Semper not infrequently assumed the principle of construct- ion as a starting point, we shall so far accord with hin. We shall always regard our subject from the technical, hist- : : Teper es Jeoke: vs subdeuloeeses: eal dideveoete | edd wterit os beiset? 64 of sorqost {stooge eat 2 atten gnissed bas anteclone-soaze .Ratblisd 5 to edaeq three opp ats bedoateh rtent bes ern x a ve Go" OS° Seeer bas .astiote to ‘,eioin capreray fatinsed 818 eeisdonise feiwtostinosA tip ee ee 8°!) Senoktenkdmoo atest bas .isten — eye. find %6 antquotD ,eeeoqswy avotter tot egatbl ied Snibfind eeentaed tot enel .ytio a to etsisanp 10 etoold cel salevizee? bas ereeeereee isin Bazbas ,pattoessods a ' | enolfot sa ek samatkord 100 e@{iian Satsolone-soage “ - \eEtmOsem emote «I eetnogam FOI .S eaniveteslg sasms0 [aaistxg .f eatiaw neboowW ob -silew betedait-tieh .¢ eGnnkite> .2 -amsed snote 20 .f 88890 ‘“eboow TO .S satan tt kee notk {[afaoztaioh .& -fott 10 hoor to geseutt sfitery 5 | eatioey S & | eat10ga08 .9 ich Se ee véndmnfod st} AG WER ‘° ,erelitq so e19f7 VS ehOotk 0 hoon ,snota to seinteldatai .£ oHORhInd enote jasheodd yb sWoatersiu? gntglt bis sseasttsgs 22° | elfen mF euyretnegd od. Ww , Pee 4 Pa iv sewobnre si - Sencbaty Isedy .¢' N aBIOod | See” ) v' PRS pedeted iB | ane. r; “setenaut Yo ites 109 32" ce. Se dtoort a ; boon 10 ledtes Me labcdcctae ‘She ds Sa 2) fetare oaesetoretoett 4" TE 8 Lo gett 20 axoted tetesdont: er wy a OR ee a 17 historical and esthetic point of vier. The special topics to be treated are first, the essential p parts of a building, space-enclosing and bearing walls, ceili- ngs and their detached supports, floors, openings, sconnection of stories, and roofs. Architectural structures are executed in stone, bricks, Beso metal, and their combinations. Buildings for warious purposes, Crouping of buildings in bl blocks or quarters of a city, Plans for business buildings and accessories, ending with Becorations for festivals. Our programme is as follows. A. Space-enclosing walls. 1. Stone masonry. 2. Brick masonry. 3, Bxternal cement plastering. 4. Wooden walls. 5. Half-timbered walls. B. Ceilings. 1. Of stone beams. 2. Of wooden beams. 3. Horizontal iron ceilings. A. Visible trusses of wood or iron. 5. Vaults. C. Supports. 1. Columns. 2, Piers or pillars. 3, Entablatures of stone, wood or iron. 4, Arcades; stone bridges. 5. Buttresses and flying buttresses. D. Openings in walls. 1. Windows. 2. Wheel windows. 3. Doors. 4, Gates. 5. Portals of tunnels. Ee Floors. 1. Pawements of stone or wood. 2. Floors of stone slabs. 3. Floors of bricks or tiles. itil yee oe aaa tienen \ Ae -eatool? ofseo off , i 1 pared, 4) etaamen to erool? 6c) a Baio ‘ Sebtbisuckirsibsapti ‘boa. toRrek .. =“, ¥ “ypeotavos: bre eeemv00 yaitte ened sve " Bite bi | spettote faseves ag Ir ofl Z jataty ) Iatnostsod yd betersgse ton aetrose 0£ By |, pwobatw ysd ,esincolad. ,egetrslis> .b ad “ag ont mo tedqadd eis oi adimotoel of betsdrenco, ~daerle 8 92 dtin atnesels rwslisie to bseogmoo bas ,soaqe to ile mon ‘eifen to @neatoage ond odt aniaexe ow YI ~bnod. Akyir peid? ted? tnebive at if .eunmadd te aknedT to efgqaet : | pons | fotdw .etelwottisy sretsodai ows af elést yinosen bas M2 setinps? stoteieds bos ,etall(rq bencated of slisoslg ag em to bath ssdione yo bensdtgneste af oF aliew eds to — pito erst lig sese2o blrow esetvoo fadnosivod to dos! eat | $ abast YInoesm sit aa dns .Rathile xd etetaqee of ytmoKAs a a aa ba Ge ebed dbentioni acs no edon sannid fstnosirod @ .bIleix A 2 , Ro nemtoege aatesely 4 ~atasmtuds mvt yd betetees od ntod Utes ~eiditeeog as yisitav taetz an wode seum. yIcoRsa b ont od Hetqebs er efdd ;etnewele eaf to motan bapioed se vib oof too .atnemele eis to mot to ysiexevid eldieaog ie f£ ont aidtin anotememih ated’ Yo notteasinil sds eddin a: ie {ettetem sit to sinden edt yd bextt gaisa istast2 : ton ffede yinoeem Lenogylog edt tadd woitibacs sat yi tee é Hol{it slavieint dtin exoofd egtel To beraquon sd of toeidce ying Joa e186 eioold sdeteges edt sonte .senc 8 edibin atedd .noteesigmoo of es [fen 6s niette seteyv +o a 2 ae E. a o> Cees! 21 Similar polygonal masonry of basalt from Vogelssgebirge is to be found in the castle of Minzenburs in Wetterau province. Polygonal masonry of small blocks with dimensions not exceed- ing 2 ft. are uncut and chenked with spalls, and are found in the road buildings of Saxony using the diorite from near Plan. All these kinds of polygonal masonry are in form based on t the mosaic system composed of irregular elements, and they pro- duce & very pleasing effect if properly executed, by their un- ity of idea with great variety. The Romans always employed masonry composed of wholly irreg- ular small stones bedded in excellent mortar, from which resul- ted the extraordinary strensth of this kind of masonry, the “opus incertum.” The angles and edges of the masonry were usu- ally strengthened by brickwork or by blocks of cut stone. A very perfect polygonal masonry might be composed of right rhombodecahedrons. (Baumeister. Architectural forms for Engin- eering). These might be of different sizes and also distorted, if so arranged to fit closely,with no interspaces feft between them. But the ideal type of polygonal masonry would be the one already considered in Tectonics in the Chapter on the division of space, and composed of similar elements with an absolutely rigid bond. If we examine the two specimens of walls from the temple of Themis at Rhamnus, it is evident that this polygonal masonry fails in two important particulars, which make it inap- plicable to detached pillars, and therefore requires the angles of the walls to be strengthened by another kind of masonry. The lack of horizontal courses would cause pillars of polygonal masonry to separate by sliding, and as the masonry tends to yield, a horizontal thrust acts on the inclined beds and must be resisted by firm abutments. A pleasing specimen of polygonal masonry must show as great variety as possible, still retaining a decided union of the elements; this is adapted to the richest possible diversity of form of the elements, not too diverse, with the limitation of their dimensions within two limits, the greater being fixed by the nature of the material, and the les- ser by the condition that the polygonal masonry shall not seem to be composed of large blocks with intervals filled by small ones. Since the separate blocks are not only subject to trans- verse strain as well as to compression, their widths should not bics " ee sii i {fatens3 ak hea Jebagied. ntedd. mort doow-ood ett coe haa ,s8cote anol no gelgne tnetinse: mtot ot ston i kebtons edt biova oele ot sobleg dud: eeleae stoo8 to a an OF: qolop sommoo # ts eintol semdt neds etoW 40 ene .eio0fd Iabtoxsqatt 10 usfoinaiat to sen eden ‘bas amxolt saedt ,edniot Lsotstev bas [sdnosiczon ) eves er od tebro of wid eh cca ed gon bluode ae Sootte att Majin | arivpen ot si en of etasags JL t#ad emoe snived aflen at Seyolqme sd vino bloode ut goo ilat shore ondte signte s tatit treet gon yem ono “Moors ‘ebiyinoess [agoayfoq sonte ,{fsw eat to sos? ie: Ie | sTas100. 10 Insweo To san sds Toons ahaveidxe ae ai ginoasa, [enonylog to sost edt too of # dd iw sot tose Yo niztas ses bavows feo 9d yam Sterd i fF esexb of easleteeds ai ft tod .{seiio ySaenibio ae to ns > ‘Tetoitasque teom sat at madt setwrsdto sostiue et else Inteiso a of bavowsd ed bloode tosel siitns be YT wxedsea03 ylateareooa aedt haoisset of baa esnode efontt. atiw bsyolaus ullenofsqeoxs et Snod Ler ad at er. note bedetfoq to ssoaetige bua elteteh Sersdoad of spb sd digtm eta) .gonwadt sa armed? to alqnad ‘eae Yo agostios Honetiol .smoase1 [sotlodmye to ye bas dsgnette eviessm to ietosisi2 end of besogqo sie oat od eidasotlqqs sis enotéatebtenos tedd0 .esens am at bns sonstol®.to efesite osebom edd extt atesita ‘oveg: © eat sonte ,ytnosem nesgoloy of nett ,em08 Yo etesrte ia a): » 80tseon efgmis sta ind ,eerstostte ton sta: ataen ) ea" YIMoase to hati 4 ewsoetidow asfoset) al mearevuyentens eiddot Dae sseqofor) neented eferboris 1 al ~fatnosriod ylai1eq bas [scokyloq vitxeq ate ato Lien” 29% e1sito ond bos ssatsoe’s mort elgmexe ms avi dtmt mobise dyrodd ,Qnttesistat yiev' eis dokds . Sed mixowqqs diiw teers snove to ebnid wel .amtt erga | fefiereq oved stedto ;{) -8t4 at es eafans nattaess talon Seedt Seu of 199079 Hew Jt 22 .BIT nt as admo saptito due abed me doette betiev & Aniatstdo tod etatot bas bas abed fewmden Soe a erebeaeapapeaate oot tuodtiw sonsiseqye silt seeenesennions tere! 6 20 Atow of bemod noo: at bbareaatsiahichs 3 was Ve pe a A Y, APG oe i fal 3 my whe be ‘ a oii my Dt ca | a. ee - .. ; A On, i 51. . ez ¥ 7). ‘ 4 1 es oe ‘i> : ae Yi AC Von 22 differ too much from their heights. If it is generally correct not to form reentrant angles on long stones, and to use right or acute angles but seldom, to also avoid the meeting of less or more than three joints at a common point; to make but mode- rate use of triangular or trapezoidal blocks, excluding all horizontal and vertical joints, these forms and arrangements should not be neglected, in order to enhance the variety in its effect. It appears to us superfluous to require that polygonal mason ry should only be employed in walls having some batter, so that one may not fear that a single stone might fall out of the sur- face of the wall, since polygonal masonry is scarcely used wi- thout the use of cement or mortar. To cut the face of polygonal masonry is an extravagance, a draft may be cut around the margin of each face with the width of an ordinarty chisel, but it is tasteless to dress the enti- re surface otherwise than in the most superficial manner. The entire labor should be devoted to a careful selection of the stones and to fitting them accurately together. If the polygo- nal bond is exceptionally employed with finely wrought archi- tectural details and surfaces of polished stone, as in the temple of Themis at Rhamnus, this might be due to traditional or symbolical reasons. Polished surfaces of Cyclopean masonry are opposed to the character of massive strength and primitiv- eness. Other considerations are applicable to the pavements of streets like the modern streets of Florence and the ancient streets of Rome, than to Cyclopean masonry, Since these pave- ments are not structures, but are simple mosaics. Tn Grecian architecture a kind of masonry was employed int- ernediate between Cyclopean and rupble masonry, since the joi- nts are partly polygonal and partly horizontal. In Fig. 6 we give an example from Mantinaa anc two others after Viollet-le- Duc, which are very interesting, though seldom imitated at this time. Mant: kinds of stone break with approximately rect- angular reentran angles as in Fig. 7; others have parallel beds and oblique ends as in Pig. 8; it was proper to use these natural beds and end joints for obtaining a varied effect in the appearance without too much preparation. Engineering con- struction is accustomed to work on a large scale and must take yu * j ree Ryd iy Toe: rere We weet ies | | dvdove: to sen sis partied on .4n00008 otak ymoncoe ; iy ee.) ¥ ed tre Be ! a ‘ +3380 H8vb8 ' hl me 4 ay oN duenetw asbekaiee to -yamaesn ‘eldégd so. 7 BBW bedisoesd ‘sacl yiscesa ‘el{ddp1 to bnitd sat afiai jesm ofddns beiaiasp ,mrot wloyet1k yllodw te esnose to. 49 28 texi, gesipoo ni biel bes ebed tin aeaote to tftud _ynottareze7g ‘ebot yisv tstis to .yttenD ent mort ssioo ie no abaeqeb esfofa aslugem1t to yineass Yo ytriid son 1c 3 bie elleqe onote diiw seoitetstar tila Yo ynil lit 4 /medssgot anrstit tosxs sdzv no ytaoeeam Jaenctyl[oa to i$ m0 taebnsaeb ef yrnoeam Slddur beintsen to vont cedoo!d eit ,ebed to noitieog [admosiiod sat .bn0d Yo ytiralyxer ee eetsbsed gnof to sen edd bas .etniol, Leottiev to ani -enotebasa beititerte mot eseiigoxggs ai yrnorsn to Rakes ‘a sed00% Okasofov bas ytasnsmibss yisla act ,eno an atatot edt :ti ai bavot ets atatot sapilso 10 eegbe x0 an edd? baa astion atte Hallkt ylreqoug #6 stoteredt betiesd sd sostiues m1otiag bas atoouea a-ti (tk yd bere 8 10 Aowlotsd dtiw benedtaneate 94 seam esybe bas sel ee wasqqs o¢ sis yadd Yh .2 -227% mi es ,yincass gh at. tnersioo ylanoite sd of bas dont o84 edd .yiaonsa beatsco st ole bnalenosylog nt eA (@k ekds saccns .gntden19 od soaiioe yino ote ean [fe tin yinesan sxoensgoues ylertiae to ylno swsd a dtzqel) eft.,saote s to sintoert 1 ees tnsveg of sLstao iad A ahaae hie) -tdzied edi eentt 2 ot £€ bseoxs gon t yetebliod [evesiben eit medt sedis bas ,enewod oa7 ‘edd sot mutsotge eag0 40 bod emodantired end gnfen to ae lal halal bapis0o yisnibro to dLiodyellew to ssostise Moi gts #q .ehed sevt1 mort ylsisy eenose to beeoquoo at (OL dal- wort beyolgwe aaw Ji bos ,edotad 10 eenote bsit EN) ; | .ewtneo ds AL edt nt Lttnw boiisq news - enodgniarsed to ebatd tneretttb ent sotnexes [fin al tom ai baod edt Yo ysilidete eat some .d10wioiad to TREN 8 a tefivast ¢s besely exis edortd to esetwoo [etmositod 1 alien edt to Zatost edt mi bowot et IL .BtH mk ofgaexs edT a, etaeo At edt ni sndreY Yo oitpbosd? yd betoess annevsl to . @d2 go1t sedst aonots to tited ef yimoeam eds 7.0.4 Ye | edt paired saiotid to aeasooo détw bexia ,syibA asvis oct : sods Aid. (es on 1m, batt 23 economy into account, may perhaps make use of such bonds with advantage. c. Rubble masonry of quarried stones. While the kind of rubble masonry just described was composed of stones of wholly irregular form, quarried rubble masonry is built of stones with beds and laid in courses just as they come from the quarry, or after very rude preparation. The sta- bility of masonry of irregular stones depends on the careful filling of all interstices with stone spalls and good mortar; of polygonal masonry on the exact fitting together of many blocks; that of quarried rubble masonry is dependent on the regularity of bond, the horizontal position of beds, the break- ing of vertical joints, and the use of long headers. This kind of masonry is appropriate for stratified sandstone and limest- one, for slaty sedimentary and volcanic rocks. No acute angles or edges or oblique joints are found in it; the joints must therefore be properly filled with mortar and the wall be cov- ered by it, if-a smootn and uniform surface be desired; the an- gles and edges must be strengthened with brickwork or ashlar masonry, aS in Fis. 9, if they are to appear sharp and dist- inct and to be strongly coherent. As in polygonaland also in coursed masonry, the separate sto- nes are only subject to crushing, though this is absolutely t true only of entirely homogeneous masonry with all beds horiz- ontal. To prevent the:fracture of a stone, its length should not exceed 3 to 5 times its height. The Romans, and after them the mediaeval builders, were fond of using the herringbone bond or opus spicatum for the external surfaces of walls,built of ordinary coursed masonry. This (Fig. 10) is composed of stones partly from river beds, partly of q quarried stones or bricks, and it was employed from the late Roman period until in the 14 th century. we will examine the different kinds of herringbone masonry of brickwork. Since the stability of the bond is not great, horizontal courses of bricks are placed at regular heights. The example in Fig. 11 is found in the facing of the walls of Ravenna erected by Theoderic of Verona in the 6 th cent- ury A.D.; the masonry is built of stones taken from the bed of the river Adige, mixed with courses of bricks. During the med- ae | ae ayy, sca Meh etch Eiaptlvenets at nomnoo Baw nay aris. boinsq Isveaiber iF oh ceodedeto. at benot ylismoiascoo ef $k Dae .atdaiod 9, ni sidtarnedoH to sléeso ead az olgnaxe ne i eb been et snote befataup yloo doidw of , (Si st. edt of dt Of edt mort Havot ere eelguexs 19430 ie cs tited sbivt to ytto sdt to eflew ead ak aeirto r on ,esidto tedjo ai 2s [few aa grade 188 bas gyodeneze8 gntused aidt .yawtneo dt SI sat madd tatel ste doide eid of ee notfowsisengo dota afk bsyolgqws yool ser Boel ts sso dm +B mort ef Gf .afT -moteoiga anyjo ted aelia i eat to. atnemzett ,edpisVY sort ei dL BAK > ; -tattel edd at bherrsps1 Maury ytsorem to mrot aidt oi selane saT fet od. dd iw sanioup dormd t0, etelies. yi bensdshneise De tase tee13 to moteesigat edt tedten seopbow IT mee | efdamneste tee1g to tedd nadd agatbsle yabed felisisq déiy essota bsiviesp to ean ant ye yliseatbr0 esods of aokditbds nt aidteaey ete abaad to Nga Sas gexe albbin ed? gaineh been een dotdy bae youd Rokasetoal to eunsen siquie 6 3nied es Sebesmnoo dius betaasep of iste on ,yrmoase ode to aonstasggs joeem stad ends siif setagied tnemwstirh to eszwoo adie SP eng0fo). te moors) .2 to dorsdo ett to enokti0g ssoda tedos og3 at ee [iow ee ,ytmtaso dt If sat ania ape @f .ahiT) .BYAL ak oozed seegeie” to elteso eat 2 ot ,aaottibseo Ieool of Ssikue ots ytmoeem to abata ons yeas Motdw of astoqinyg edt oc Sas .eidanietdo elai bs yolgus ytaossen siddet bsinrsep koitsett Yo ebom-s a, 2938 ofbbim yltee edt at batestict bas soriog oagonr fepemti diin senose to 220 eds to etstanco Ji psted sotdcen mii euooostut exif sintet Smee anté teyodtin brea sbed est "ee of 38 of tHttom diiw bell{it ten etoiot Aoiad mk bee sc fetal gated staitot bas wsloxes .ddoone bas nave shan ak yrnosem to nix. aiaT (fl .Bit) redxom sioe ¢ Ons sereerts0t cof yletenotroton esitifeno .Asen das tsfoatens In ply ons ot revecene bas toetidows nishbom edt yo bereterq eh ) sanoite Soe Letsten .eopest ; “ - ,eenots [feaa to ytnoass tefiea ob BE asontvory emod Ife at tommoo nottonztanoo to sbom A Yo bermogmoo eller no mottetantome to batd 2 ATW ty toe Bracpe eotont VY of 8 ylotst 10} of £ esnote [Abin Petes oR) aetioa to taco Astds yrev & at atntot nextord Ape ‘yd elevistns te betgortetat at dion sib etal eC matt aioeqde st yinoesm sid? .[fen odt af bebmod ylyssh edo 6 fle’ ode bevivena bool tf tod ,agntbitud namof-ol{s> at som | +h © ‘nwonk yino sit :sonax% [axtneo nt strqns memos ent : it Sdt bas omgolo? ts menos ene!) edd ote yeom1s9 m1 31 9d at srote. ea? .261%090 xiedd bisnod asabs [Hiedt yt ia oT wie 26 palace at Treves. ‘The Roman network or opus reticulatum is allied to this die work and is composed of pyramidal blocks of tufa, 3.5 to 5 insw square (Fig. 20), a specimen of which from Pompeii is given in Fig. 21. The network and the die workare specially ornamental bonds for facing concrete masonry. They are seldom used in re- cent times excepting for paving streets. A kind of masonry composed of small and regular, but rudely cut oblong stones with thick joints, was in general use by the Romans in France and Germany; this so-called paving mas- onry was also much used in mediaeval structures and is still preferred in countries furnishing easily wrought materials, like the Brohlthal tufa and the variegated sandstone of the middle and upper Rhine provinces. e. Ashlar masonry composed of large stones. Ashlar masonry proper will next be mentioned, and it requi- res to be considered in three ways; mode of preparation of the stones, the bond, and the means of fixind and clamping the ashlars together. a. Mode of dressings. If the blocks of stone are quarried with powder, fire, or a ron of wedges, they are wrought to form dimension stones,i.é., blocks of prescribed dimensions with approximately rectangul- ar surfaces, still rough and uneven, leaving about an inch to be cut off on each Sade to obtain a true and even surface, the so-called “working inch.” The first dressing is done at the quarry, where the block is laid on a low bunker and the larger projections are knocked off with a sledge “ (Pig. 22). The surf- aces are then dressed with a steel pick showing parallel stro- kes. The axe or point c is then used. The axe has a long hand- le and is used with both hands. The point is struch with the wooden malleé d, or with the hammer in cutting sranite. When the pointing is completed, the surface should be toler- ably true in all directions. The top is then laid off in rect- angular shape with red chalk, and projections of the edges be- yond these lines are knocked off with the sledge. The four ed- ges perpendicular to the wrought surface are then cut and tri- ed with the square, the other surfaces being then dressed from theif’ edges toward their centres. The stone is then called a i Lal at Ware 3) eae orsides betatoq 10 ddvo% t Rntseetb at eneties galttnd si ves00%q baooee ont 08 6 Safed ,fellay baa Ieetd> sit attx eost ext to . t edt weekotte. leffeteg enkt agin eehbs edt anole tte “bstntog Ylstea af? .soat edt to mfgrem edt yetwtot oar ator of d [febmero soit ittw beeaetbh ef soat ent: > ylieuas ese @isltes to eeoet sdt yin .eone1seqae # to seseo nt .betniog ttef 3nted efnitot baa ebed 203 + Been ef > t9mMAd Weed edt ,.o%e ,stineye ,etineta oF 0 ii ifin Isete to qlerttns’ ster anted ,sosbasis eit eetatog lebt Pe vein at enotea bateesth ni aottersqo btidt aoT ns tntog Sad eitl baed ttef sds at bfed ,b Ieatdo shit Sects enrt eeouhorg etd? .teflem od? avin dontte bse en dete eta efiethb sit ylno samttene? .apetice | 2 tent? yd snob at waltiag to satdtoons estitemy oat iis sbederfoq (fen onla et enots sat yflanit ote tuo brs ateldes aatsegesq to eshom sit stotsisaT “bee ants tab ~ehivatog ,inittemmed dz001 eis [atedsd exniddet baa sintisetdo gail ered bentalixe enote “nteseth to bonten edt sort x4 \ ereldee tp Unedereis aie nt etalog tntdvates edt »6 fmaot, Sos bus ebed oft Sant tnebtve st tI .ssont xteds to Is qlataiobom aif os antt wihtnetort toe bstatoy sj tapgm ; ad 10m ista cot to san sat uni’tove aot? ,sedto wore e teolynts edt ef seidte sit to miyvem betterb & od sus Fessl edt wet bone ,tostte [enmtescs mitatdo of gar OY Sidatine tnomtaot sot sevisoe1 neds fenaq sat .batyeoos aT to ted yed5 Sat nt amie? Le1sn93 at etata eh .enote $02 onemtests etdt ,iartstem gethltod & ee ehates tuo ao aot iE .bot wo Iskietan sts to serdiretinosy okttoeqe and no sbne en P1oTORTT yisentiqga to ytele ,[ebfomonoo att ,sivtxst fed? os \sonevseqie L[aniedre ar soreretttrb antiioeet ido edt eont® .ynteeetb to show teyotd att ead [airs gi etdt baa dtbeetd bexit 2 sed 2ttaib [entotan tot pektibor dibiw tnafanco eid? \eenote Ifsne Sag egzel worten oved OY wose edoofd egrsl gatiem .taldes 909 to » sar to BBbsoet ony sd? .seno ebtw Sved eonose [lame siiae * a A enote '¥o snotenamtb eat of jatbtoods astrsy feneq ies ii Wii? etn ny oe a (oa Nees eb fue + 10 tet aT rouch or pointed ashlar. : The second process in cutting ashlars is dressing the edges of the face with the chisel and Mallet, making a so-called dr- aft along the edges with fine parallel strokes, the four drafts forming the margin of the face, The merely pointed surface of the face is dressed with the crandall b to produce a pointed appearance. Only the faces of ashlars are usually crandalled, beds and joints being left pointed. In case of hard stone, granite, syenite, etc., the bush hammer c is used instead of the crandacc, being made entirely of steel with 16 to 40 pyran- idal points. The third operation in dressing stone is droving with the w wide chisel d, held in the left hand like the point and chisel and struck with the mallet. This produces fine lines on the s surface. Sometimes only the drafts are chiselled. The farther smoothing of ashlar is done by finer chiseling; finally the stone is also well polished. Therefore the modes of preparing ashlars and cut stone in general are; rough hammering, pointins, drafting and chandal- ling, chiseling and rubbins. Trom the method of dressing stone explained here are deriy- ed the starting points in the treatment of ashlars, especially of their faces. It is evident that the beds and end joints mu must be pointed sufficiently fine to lie moderately close on each other, thus avoifing the use of too much mortar. A drafted margin of the arhtar is the simplest mode of cutt- ing to obtain external effect, and is the least that can be a accepted; The panel then receives the treatment suitable for ent stone. As stated in general terms in the Chapter of Tecton- ics on cut stone as a building material, this treatment dep- ends on the specific peculiarities of the material used, its texture, its conchoidal, slaty or splinsery fracture, and the resulting difference in external appearance, so that each mat- erial has its proper mode of dressing. Since the chisel used for marginal drafts has a fixed breadth and this is used on 1. large and small stones, this constant width modifies the effect of the ashlar, making large blocks seem to have narrow drafts while small stones have wide ones. The projection of the cent- ral panel varies according to the dimensions of the stone and Tee), 6 dee ee eee oY fy ¢ mo vise Wes ’ oe » ‘ : ai Af a 4 a 5 $ ‘TT Ay ‘ad ; 6S m ahd 20 nokdastort nteat sbetiggs af +t Kotde of seoqtey ,teetg o8 ste sonetol® nt soefeg IfftT eviessm ent to a i | . test eeened nies mort wedfede dart yee itese od eeenta: {fin anteseth to shom reefante eto? ofoottedoe mk ee ,beatepet at sodal to grorooe near PseokTitroS .eit0% aniseentins ,eetntogtia osizatifiteo “to ebon breoes sdf at. sgoattne to Battarog saT eetiscon’ seons dtim teattaco eisifdas no alensg dsiaieg 28 ) Qt betiteeh ef antttoo to ebom dmessttrb a stefs Ulatoeres ek es? weumozem to Qatlwap teatt bne taeret ‘ea3 II .e%rtocita & To eps ont to tasatesat sad as ddoetorq yignoite bas dgvo1 atin tefdes to ei gorhirud t yom betiniog to Satonttenco ed yen ytote t9K0l ear ,ge to noktosjo1q te220ef to iwstsety edt oF anibto004 ' Rattntog eat} etef so stom atedd das arsliee to ie betatog dted ol .ofdiesou ets yincesm to sone1s9qas wi Ww yaseecoen e146 entatan better .ee2esod dtiw seodt one evi of baad eno oct so -ets{dee- to etnfot, ods Aten si Eat eit bevisos7 tezel te gnived to sonstsegqs Lateney «@ 4 at ge ed aathiss fettetb eft tI .ofdteetareg notversge7y Beonets ottetisepatsio sisdt seol aralites sat ,bedtiwo enest & tod si tsiner ont to eoetine sat gotli ene ab sankvoth bas aniteiog meentod avarbentetnk as 10 aa ag seuaded Aton letesoatidors soit hebwloxs ylersiiae | Ife et teod sid tr beleario sto Sinode snose sad rsddis 108 jubetnio; antt to favor titel sd nent binode ti .ton ti 40 os re ont noitingte senotes brad ytev to sead ot gninemmad ao qilerosqes ,eldisatuseg yllsusy seeadtoous Yo finil Pet antleetio ,yliant® .enoitecitksiot has exiow anries teth-enit no slsiaeog noitetsq91q Yo ttati taodyrd ent sti sn enthzsn bertash eff ;enots Jud Jasd edt bas ese ; e edt «yews too sxe sodotta leatdo sad aa tasqdeash ‘Astisten bentaty-entt to saso ni ylno ,beddun mobfoe yx alan efetio} book 8 Rnivieoet Yo sidsqso ,1010° pdortde at flan edt gnteogaeo atsldea sat of tee1sa00 rl | ea Sad, esiretoetad> ot tasutse1s to eshom satevith tom sat ad? snote f0> Letnsmanto 16 Ssbfn0m 10? teat [awdten at tt “Bae ebatbhiuon tvo teed edt ;bebrove 9d of ets Boeeod |nivoal Bipiasiesen ere wort ngeedt anted edoold {s¢nameni0 28 purpose to which it is applied. Their projection on the ashlars of the massive Pitti palace in Florence are so great, than one may find shelter from rain beneath them. This simplest mode of dressings will always be satisfactory when economy of labor is required, as in substructure walls, - utilitarian structures, engineering works, fortifications, etc. The pointing of surfaces is the second mode of treatnent; vointed panels on ashlars contrast with those roughly dressed, ‘where a different mode of cutting is desired to express a dif- ferent and finer quality of masonry. This is especially common in the treatment of the mass of a structure. If the base of a building is of ashlar with rough and strongly projecting boss- es, the lower story may be constructed of pointed ashlars. According to the greater or lesser projection of the bosses, of ashlars and their more or less fine pointing, several grades in appearance of masonry are possible. In both pointed ashlars and those with bosses, drafted margins are necessary to clearly mark the joints of ashlars, on the one hand to give the ashlars a general appearance of having at least received the minimum preparation permissible. If the drafted margiss be entirely omitted, the ashlars lose their charaeteristic element of forn. Grandalling the surface of the ashlar is tut a transition or an intermediate between pointing and droving; it should be entirely excluded from architectural work because not beautiful. Hither the stone should be chiseled if the cost is allowable; or if not, it should then be left rough or fine pointed. Bush hammering in case of very hard stones signifies the extreme limit of smoothness usually permissible, especially on ensin- eering works and fortifications. Finally, chiseling is usually : the highest limit of preparation possible on fine-grained sto- : nes and the best cut stone; The drafted margins almost entirely : disappear as the chisel strokes are cut away. The stone is ve- ) ry seldom rubbed, only in case of fine-grained material of good | color, capable of receiving a good folish. | Tn contrast to the ashlars composing the wall in which we use : | | the most diverse modes of treatment to characterize the masonry, it is natural that for moulded or ornamental cut stone the pro- jecting bosses are to be avoided; the best cut mouldings and ornamental blocks being wrought from. fine-grained materials as pieiialioe ei Dhanush ta sont? re motte s0% eter £ resis: etieq Inatioynt stom sat ot [fide okteitas bas TaKOg _taetone [fe 102 seao ott cals aew aint {Stetoorde eto reyes & sostq of ai aid? Jertt oft .se1psontse redto — ty ee 1 rion = re iia 29 a rule, for which a finer treatment is suitable; if considera- ble work can be saved on similar ashlars, this economy entire- ly disappears in the best cut stone work, since these are sel- dom duplicated, or one may seex a saving on the ashlars to have more for the ornamental blocks. It is tasteless to form bosses on architectural details. The Greeks and Romans set stones cup, a rough dressed and p partly with bosses» after completion of the structure, these bosses were wrought into members and ornaments. Hence many an- cient buildings were never finished; for example the temple at Segeste in Sicily, parts of the Coliseum in Rome and the Porta Nigra at Treves. This mode of building was in part tradibionally retained in Romanesque architecture of the 10 th to 13 th centuries. The ashlars and most architectural details were set finished as supplied by the masons’ lodges, and only special parts like bases and capitals of columns with many of the more elaborate ornaments of cornices were cut after being set in place. Consequently many portions of buildings in Romanesque have likewise remained incomplete until the present time. Examples are in the cathedral at Maintz. During the Gothic period from 13 th to 16 th centuries, the cut stone was always entirely finished in the sheds of the ma- sons, and it was therefore set in a perfect form, The Renaiss- ance masters after the middle of the 15 th century followed t the ancient method in a peculiar way in accordance with their views; since they did not possess a thorough knowledge of clas- sic antiquity, which we owe to many scientific investigations in modern times, and therefore they were unable to correctly explain all appearances, they accepted everything in good fai- th as found in ancient structures, and employed it in the same way, assuming incomplete work to be perfect and imitations it... In this is the explanation of many peculiarities of the Renais- gance. In future we shall learn to regognize this. If one desires to build economically and to quickly attain a certain end, he employs for the substructure of a buildings gmall or only the most necessary care, so as to devote all his power and artistic skill to the more important parts of the structure; this was also the case for all ancient temples and other structures. The first thing is to place a layer of stones of ab ato find ais dotdn 20 cpbekhasan toot # ac oe aera neve erotenemibh Atiw afoold ottnsyid may Yoveoan @ ot beditoes etasmunom 9aote ostoOs eis ‘$8 9081193 slqnat eft To ase1g05 edt at bial efiees ef st ‘hsep gated dara .tt bf bas nol .tt 8d ikeise oft has beaseth dguot ted esew ebsd edt feds be a ‘eteta soit wt sod Qaitoe) og edt gotveel .bettert CrP, 7 tt Af ae Lay Otetd taaq mort sgadiied sit mo bevetas ensod sa7 | @ weoe7 anigehesq [fe to sbodism edd anttgobs abot 19d ‘ee telnt tiedt aebeo estttnwoo [fs at gadt aio namod {[s ni beyolque yinoven bedaorsans sind sivas sat to ettey toecetts edt bar evo isk od 3 eLotg aitiw yineasm ald aexs efbbin edt antawd - stheenneae bas anortaciti¢rot at been yleven ear 1 pe femtt $1 .emtt atdt at Sasisteng sew yinoeas ato ees ® St ~eonstol® Yo neoeing edt nt yrotmed ot 2f ont aT.2 Wie StosceIneansosn1sg edt wd hesnevat need eved of yyoses owen 8 ebem sen snols fnorsen tent rot tre , eases | a ot sham sey Sqeotte cA .oomeaseranss csoent sn2 49 edt dtkw snote oft Bakttus to esbhom esetevtb taon a a ~ core ong $ ernoesn relses to eneom yo seatgxe of BA of8 ,BaTOloo ad frre aeetee edi to inentecis eds of erabt6 sat Yo Tedos we etaT eretenliy 10 enaalod thoddin nedn mevg jazath 1 -beaderntt nd: to nottattat af tadt ,saY os betr.285 al nedoer To Bewoqgaos neve stex aistealty bas anmuloo Pdens tome ne .esaeod sosttwe dtin ets{des [aortbail | iri <0 ae ine of sysh eidt da betatint ad «ayen wees . sBninses toodsin ex tote, weaeed atiw yisoesa asf{diex sidd to wiot Inioeqe A age edi fet ywwinso dt af edd to bas edt te enotteottisrot mt Hel-telforv wiellisie to san edt yd Hetesdgue \eacd Lect bs ANIS .q 8 sfo¥ (ptudoeridoia'h srtennoitord ats mt iv to. vito edt to aller edt to tevod Steg sat sort slqmsxe - - URL bow @rel asewted I atonss? x9bag betoexs ib bellso-oe ed% betnevat efoetivotes sonaactensh act | TIn@ atjrvam bertte1ib 8 cede ..8.t ,ereldee belsned e7 sta sXoofd sat TI -Hiweryq wo! a to miot odd atin ot fan's oxansa tt ,femsq bnometh's beiled ef aidt selatq tastesi1g edt Enivomet ylorss .yitanp sd¢ ttel: 30 on a rocky foundation on which the building is to be erected. Gigantic blocks with dimensions even surpassing those of pre- historic stone monuments ascribed to a race of giants, were laid in the courses of the temple terrace at Raalbek, blocks 68 ft. long and 14 ft. high being used; it is easily conceiv- ed that the beds were but rough dressed and the margins were . drafted, leaving the projecting boss in the state in which it ‘left the quarry, merely removing the greatest projections.” The Romans entered on the heritage from past historical per- iods, adopting the methods of all predesging races and introdu- cing theg in all countries under their rule; we therefore find this rusticated masonry employed in all Roman structures in BHurope and the adjacent parts of the earth. During the middle ages this masonry with projecting bosses was merely used in fortifications and is generally rare; smo- oth masonry was preferred in this time. I: first reappeared in the 15 th century in the palaces of Florence; it was assumed to have been invented by the Etruscans, ancestors of the Tus- cans, and for that reason alone was made a special feature of the Tuscan Renaissance. An attempt was made to harmonize the most diverse modes of cutting the stone with the orders of columns, so as to express by means of ashlar masonry the char- acter of the orders in the treatment of the masses of the buil- dings, even when without columns or pilasters. This was finally carried so far, that in imitation of unfinished Roman buildings, columns and pilasters were even composed of rectangular or cy- lindrical ashlars with surface bosses, an error that should n never be imitated at this day. To artificially imitate the im- perfect is withont meaning. A special form of this ashlar masonry with bosses appearing in fortifications at the end of the 15 th century is the spher- ical boss, suggested by the use of artillery; Viollet-le-Duc, in his Dictionnaire d’Architecture, Vol. 2, p. 217, gives an example from the gate tower of the walls of the city of Vezelay, erected under Francis I between 1515 and 1547. The Renaissance architects invented the so-called diamond p paneled ashlars, i.e., when a drafted margin surrounds a toss with the form of a low pyramid. If the blocks are rectangular this is called a diamond panel, if szuare a nail-head panel. yates ard? to Beate! oe AS WRIT ak eves of brooes & tin .eelqee at sonevs @ wort yrncean ‘brometb dtiw eisfdae Yotienieti(a to beeoqaoo. ¢f . ‘ te tnsevorD .2 trod tlo es? mort easzod [eorredge A: ,metdes befensq etd to-evitow sit to solvaiiav ‘2 | d ent tot ee [len es estetourte s98i5t1 sot bexrtspes bed tesoo ,.o¢9 ,senois bedati{oq to ean snd dtin ertnomn ME nolvsonuis ods of Onis be (OS .er%) smtgrem oft anid opie oft eXtf sioold nistien .esecod Labimeryg ‘4,088 ,do1s of To enoseyei sdt ,#nemunon & Yo Sead 9 Od Fepr sno neds god ,bsblwom bua bsteest yldoty etom be Rsrontot Yo agrct edt ylescfs ook dosorgza oF Jon em to U[sert sostame ads to Inemisevd eviteroosh & “@t db antti0 to sebow benitet tevo Ife za Lfew oe Segoiqsi os oi aneon to ovntrbaeqre ne gnted es old S suesanio of tdhvoe er Fr doriw ts Jeoo snae ons tO feds Yovelyve tis sat ui setteorn to ebatd Ila adin gipfostidows edt deta? ylioks stom yam en ,5okn ou i yen on to ,teomanio beretginoa 16 evs a7 yietnq of teddy nastogx01l ed fon binote t£ JeY meides to not#arcosh & done ,.ote ,atnemunon .alsinog edt! eeeo Lenoktqsoxs oi sidiesimssy od yam entstieg Istnensare al eteftek Yo ascetrge eit to eakyrem edt bieos of S Odd ,NOktGibastnoo & Bf mIOT dgnot Theat nt. esacod p fostte Slod-siedt dtoy yd beltitent yileotsedses onied 8 8d4 dotd loon tot sottive aneem edt th tay zymonoos 1h fensq bnometh ogat asecod odt shasno ot eldansterq et ti | snottstoette ext{ aseqys bloow aottibertmoo & ‘do edt to wtatol, edt 2ntaveo rot ansow Jeelquta oat 198 9ft Roizoso ai eddie etetenco toatte blod # syed. an Iiax edd to edat oft boxed toelomg of areings sot peels floss to soatipe sat anieoloms efatot teloanatost emg 8 etaiot edt eviy of 10 .(b,o.d,8 .{S o(s (XS saz?) Ifew ens to sost ef at Aorbes ‘eas yd bewrot ef tntot: feratouide Lantoa saT Yo esoetiwe gattoetonwg odt tadt o8 ,eeso sextt edd at Serres edd mort tntot [amweoette ont atostorg sel yd) eoetine gnisoojorq eit to e9abs odt soalfass oT Veenenoat elsaact bioow ,egnibluom to eevoo) ,.ebnoss 1ec¢teup ee - Zz Te a Oe 7 an 4s ig : ae I a wre + >» aaa 31 We give in Fig. 24 an example of this diamond paneled ashlar masonry from a church in Naples, with a second example in Fig. 25 composed of alternating ashlars with diamond panels and with spherical bosses from the olf fort S. Giovanni at Florence. A variation of the motive of this paneled ashlar, which may be required for richer structures as well as for the bases of mon- uments with the use of polished stones, etc., consists in moul- ding the margins (Fig. 26) and also in the truncation of the pyramidal bosses. certain blocks like the corner stones of the base of a monument, the keystone of an arch, etc., should be more richly treated and moulded, but then one must be careful not to approach too closely the forms of joinery.:. A decorative treatment of the surface itself of the ashtar, as well as all over refined modes of cutting it is objectiona- ble, as being an expenditure of means in an improper manner; for the same cost at which it is sought to ornament ashlars with all kinds of niceties in the art style of the Barocco pe- riod, we may more richly furnish the architecture with decora- tive or sculptured ornament, or we may employ nobler materials. Yet it should not be forgotten that in purely decorative works like portals, monuments, etc., such a decoration of ashlars by ornamental patterns may be permissible in exceptional cases. To mould the margins of the surfaces of ashlars leaving the bosses in their rough form is a contradittion, the rough bosses being esthetically justified by poth their bold effect and th- eir economy; yet if the means suffice for moulding the ashlars, it is preferable to change the bosses into diamond panels. Su- ch a contradition would appear like affectation. | The simplest means for causing the joints of the stones to | have a bold effect consists either in causing the surfaces of | the ashlars to project beyond the face of the wall and form . rectangular joints enclosing the surface of each block (Fig. | 27, a,b,c,d), or to give the joints a triangular section,sunk | in the face of the wall (Fig. 27, e). | The actual structural joint is formed by the bed of the stone in the first case, so that the projecting surfaces of the ash- : | | lar protects the structural joint from the penetration of rain. To replace the edges of the projecting surface py chanfers, quarter rounds, coves or mouldings, would greatly incresse the ee en ‘ end ‘easotoat ols blook df dnd .yimoeem edd to 409° dot stoteredt ak sae .ptntol edt to soastesyzs to 9 nt sesetoat ae dotdw af ,ehetbl ted to et1aq seond to mottegdnsoos .aeietomitsdne nt as bettesh et qaldes edt fotin sort [fen iedt to soatiwe ead tA xt sit besoxs ton Sluods eovfesmods etnsot hitfe ood ei doetts sis Tk ptasderoo o¢ saum Sk baw iy ,ebtantvo tobin shen ed mao etaiot, edt .exo0ld eres bh 8 (me ES oak) Labroseqsid anied pigdea Dalgas~tdsix « svad yllawan atntol wslagaaini @ e107 ai-fostie ated? ;alettetem [even edt nt bedvoexs . Av mento "03 to sfane me odem esoetyon weeds th MB yedt .°0R thesoxs olyne Lasbsth iar node vlogd.@ US 1 94 jah centers hext? .tostte dsows svad oals bane beord estes } goume .m9vih sd gonnso etatot waltes to enottre mA asd doidw ot seoagtog sit. ditty ssivom1ed syawla teon be) gtesd 8 #8 [eaido 6 To Adbastd sad SotdalT .beil / me Sselleme edt ,(b,8,VS .3f£9) safol beblpow ylioin dys ee enotendath dove svat tenn eyaibluon daa ets? tis beiaey Syd fas (ebsde bas sahil to sootte sat wW wy yer seehbotioxsm to.ensottiogo17 to fa mio yiereq Znted es atmtol wider {fs teers of antstel ton bre berinpss at tatol, Latatourse on Bswoited eveitedisd teetess: sit to sno at ,te0eygs datoeticoet satoesidote mishom yd eiudosiivote opooy bas ,1ed¢o sa3 eorkepsa eno smokfootsvanco dtiw ets t ods Yo otatan ods yolsveb of wod Baetarsbas son poeat abteed teem eosta taven neo ,19stel sat fseq sonaesetenef taei sit to seodt shtead tay 20 a9 | e8toTogiTeanon book Ifa to tert saan t of at seats nisbom to watitediad ta#e13 baoosa 9AT Of asd Rnttesesiy Inoue jsJasmeo nt stato, taliex moo of ak yllapea dotdw ,snote tus odti anctenen iin wines od yamosnoleneath efi tnd , Agra wedoat SS nemrh seed? zatvetest(y tngweo 4nthbivib at sroterehs ‘ee ylabtw es wsttrb dotdy -880 9d Blvoda anotsoetor1g 1.083 od egnoled ooont? sy ts0esm 1s{ies to seodt ott stz00 bivods sneméserxt seody ,alatresan batnsdisad bae iat edT .et0t tf gnivia nt beyolque anesem ond Ber 32 cost of the masonry, but it would also increase the richness of appearance of the joints, and is therefore to be limited to those parts of buildings, in which an increase in expedients is desired as in substructures, accentnation of angles, etc. At the surface of the wall from which the ashlar projects, the joints themselves should not exceed the width of the chisel a and it must be constant; if the effect is too slight for large blocks, the joints can be made wider outwards, their sections being trapezoidal (Fig. 27 a). : Triangular joints usually have a right-angled section when executed in the usual materials; their effect is more marked if their surfaces make an angle of 60° with each other (Fis. 27, a,bgc); when this diedral angle exceedr 90°, they seem broad and also have a weak effect. Fixed rules for the prop- ortions of ashlar joints cannot be given, suince their effect must always harmonize with the purpose to which then are app- lied. Taking the breadth of a chisel as a basis,in case of a richly moulded joint (Fig. 27,a,4a), the smaller fillets, chan- fers and mouldings must have such dimensions as may be required by the effect of light and shade, and by a varied alternation of proportions of magnitudes. : To treat all ashlar joints as being purely ornamental, where no structural joint is required and not letting the real joint appear, is one of the greatest barbarisms borrowed from the Ba- rocco architecture by modern architects. Architecture disappe- ars with construction; one requires the other, and whoever’ does not understand how to develop the nature of the former from t the latter, can never place himself beside the mediaeval mast- ers nor yet beside those of the best Renaissance period, who were first of all good monstructors. The second great barbarism of modern times is to imitate ashlar joints in cement; cement plastering has no limiting di- mensions like cut stone, which usually is in courses of 18 to 24 inches high, but its dimensions may be arranged at pleasure; therefore in dividing cement plastering those dimensions and projections should be use, which differ as widely as possible from those of ashlar masonry. Stucco belongs to the plastic and hardening materials, whose treatment should correspond to the means employed in giving it form. The imitation of: ashlars a ee ees eee py sad ee A at ll ll alli hal i ila vent estiielat bake sy@itesb yltoexs ooowse ai aegaol om emiot doce ot hawotavooe asmooed isvs0iy a szensneinio? edd ti of estetens1? bas snote tuo van a ae eidienog aevensdn aot teat beredwemax ot blvods ti .noiewlonos al | | om ni eteides to taemeznet ye edt ,fee07I1e7 sviter ptoib)elied no ,bsboloxs ton at avnemels tneotRZN0 asin pea teldee dove bavot 2d of et esmsoiY ta sotitesd od ite, & 0 bitte entetteg eitf-slaoe ai sid ae . ‘ “(69 26%) bhi 5.5 eebaod refdek 2¢ d asides to batd bentattesoonn bas L[eisdan Jsom eAT me’ $ doidn at dadd 6f ,oupeetwioly deom bas taed AJod at ose eX21ssp eft nt bentetio es deat tee bas tuo a1 J ‘fm oF 10 B8aI1009 chup-te ni meds siasine of 2oft7 Veer etdxied. wtotian bbA bas yinoean Ase} to memtosqa & { LT ai evry oF of to sso al ».eS .8f9 of yvinosaa namof to slqmaxe telt a ga eeosiq goof ni dno tud abed S003 diin dbsiaesp {) qeo, etataqotqqs yiev ai baod asises mobnes isd ead ni sen ict cele ,ymonooe 2afouborwg go easem sno ak £rs102 .ebaty [le tefadton snidioqqes setatourtedas kaiten nt atetenos bnod asides 1sfv391 of noistenatt & te .git) t$dgied Isnpe to to (OF .2f%) fenpenn Yo aserg0o peont? «(If Of .eatg) edtgnel dnetettrh to secota nian ie deur exoold sevol edt ,atetde satevenstt of tosidaa eis ; ed yam 1edhid edt.bos ,etutostt brovs of teatsoge Sifaqne es od bisods exzol{d ed% to adtynel sdt yilatece 5 sonsertsaei yitae base [eveatbem ,nswof sal .yrteop eat + .ytmosen tslies [ersten atdt derzetesq evewle stood a supeeiatiolg bas evienegxrent ae dtod aniniastda mdin somabtocce af i1t0w eysuls oF ef slatonitag toe. eat tot beec ed yer yodt tent o# bas ,bsbivoty alist 7 ,wrot Aoied famton sat to seso nt as ,asaoqioy ee | Math ent pyiwtaeo dt Of edt Lidnw axe nsmok edt sort > Yo tdkted edt at yatmrotiog beonboitat tart sor _ ebelgmet negoe1D mi [even een dotdu ,eenote to dtyasl ot “to. seldmetet yiisienes atsl(dee rslimta to baod salt @ baoet Baeteee to enotenenkh Isacitzoqo1g 9n3 ‘ytnosee 49 25 in stucco exactly destréys and falsifies the structural meaning; Whoever becomes accustomed to such forms no longer knows bow to use cut stone and transfers to it the formlessness of stucco whenever possible. In conclusion, it should be remembered that for purely deco- rative purposes, the arrangement of ashlars in mosaic pattemns with congruent elements is not excluded, on Palladio’s famous basilica at Vicenza is to be found such ashlar masonry of mar- ble in scale-like patterns employed on a wall beneath stairs. (Fig. 28). y. Ashlar bonds. | , The most natural and unconstrained kind of ashlar bond, which is both best and most picturesque, is that in which the stones are cut and set just as obtained in the quarry, without attem- pting to anrange them in regular courses or to make them of u uniform height. We sive in Fig. 7 a specimen of creek masonry and add a sim- ilar example of Roman masonry in Fig. 29. In case of stones quarried with good beds but ont in long pieces as in porphyry, this random ashlar bond is very appropriate , especially as it is one means op producing economy, also for use in bases and substructures supporting worksaof all kinds, fortifications, etc. A transition to regular ashlar bond consists in making the courses of unequal (Fig. 30) or of equal height (Fig. 31) but using stones of different lengths (pigs. 30, 31). Since ashlars are subject to transverse strain, the lower blocks must also be ‘shortest to avoid fracture, and the higher may be longer, but generally the lengths of the blocks should be as supplied by . the quarry. The Roman, mediaeval and early Renaissance archi- tects always preferred this natural ashlar masonry, thereby obtaining both an inexpensive and picturesque masonry. The cor- rect principle is to always work in accordance with the mater- ials provided, and so that they may be used for the most diver- se purposes, as in case of the normal brick form, predominant from the Roman era until the 16 th century; the High Renaissa- nce first introduced uniformity in the height of courses and in length of stones, which was usual in Crec®an temples. The bond of similar ashlars generally resembles that of bri- ck masonry’ the proportional dimensions of ashlars depend on sda klauiiali a aida ell aaladiial q is ’ 4 : : Ropar ne a sted Ad yeenth0o to tz ten sat bus beyolgme eletisdam ods “gdgked bne, asjnease: edd of aoktsoqorg sosarb ot ytav yer . te *notfomiteno® to astaye.tee{gutea eiT .eisldes edt itt mods 4{faw edt cguordt ylevttne bnetxe esnote etd y yan sonote to diynef odd .S jddgied at yiev yam ese © .aL%) saottentinoo efdieeoy yatwolfot sat gntonbor b yatisanel [eops to eenote atin fdgien Laups to aseiuoo \D iedtenel [enoens to esnote a3twy dated Iaupe to ee qb iedtaae! (anpe to aenode atte etdgied [aopens to. .entanel Iscpene to escote dtiw addated [sepenu asl fist seods Has efoold esenpe to etetanoo flew 2 YI fetned gainolfot edt ,sisupe sit to sbie sas sotns to ‘dtin eda@ated [supe to eeeawoo .9 (SF wore elder sien dtiw etdaten [supenn to seeim0o .Y 3(FE 2387) ] ithsebeer bh semote bas etdyted (supe to‘eeeip0o ,) | satis zenote an sifhted Isopsaw to seateoo .f it ha ie 03 he ; eae bebe vig WO 5S ben Af u ‘eal “4 34 the materials employed and the height of courses; their length may vary in direct proportion to the strength and height of t the ashlars. The simplest system of construction is that where the stones extend entirely through the wall; then, 1, the cour- ses may vary in height; 2, the length of stones may vary, thus producing the following possible combinations (Fig. 32); a, ¢ courses of equal height with stones of equal lengths; b, cours- es of equal height with stones of unequal lengths; c, courses of unequal heights with stones of equal lengths; d, courses of unequal heights with stones of unequal lengths. Tf a wall consists of square blocks and those with lengths of twice the side of the square, the following bonds are poss- ible ’Fig. 32); e, courses of equal heights with square stones, (Fig. 33); f, courses of unequal heights with square stones; ¢g, courses of equal heights and stones alternately square and oblong; h, courses of unequal heights with stones alternately square and oblons. Tf these eight different arrangements are examined, assuming the low courses to have half the height of the high ones, the relative cost of labor on bed and end joints per unit of super- ficial area of the masonry will be as follows:- a, 48; sg, 52; vb, 56; c, 63; d, 63; a, 64; h, 73.5; f, 84. For economic reas- ons then a, b and ¢ are preferable; c, d and e are mort expen- sive, but equally so; f and h are the most costly of all these bonds. The bonds b and ¢ are most pleasing of those least cost- ly; d is the most pleasing of the more expensive, and 6 is the most uniform of all the bonds; f and H are dearer and are ugly, but h is that mast full of variety though appearing too fanci- ful to excel the others in producing a pleasing effect by its diversity. These bonds with stones extending through the wall are nearly similar to those composed of separate bond stones, which extend through the entire thickness, and other blocks o only occupying a part of its thickness, usually composed oft two stretchers (Fig. 34, i, k), or a space is left between them and afterwards filled with ordinary masonry (Fig. 34,1). Preference should be given to F 34 k instead of F 34 i, since the wall is entirely built of stones of equal size, and the length of a bond stone is determined by the thickness of the wall, one half this being iti: side. . ' » ulnomm09 teom eft to Het at tats e9e@ of yess si I1 edt heas eyobeed to asdapn edt istee1h edt .baod pcosesss at {law edd aguoad .yiseesoen 214 eeneqxe doe te bedieant Anied rebsed s ,bses yl intisge e1e yeaa s atecoterte owt ,S27909 3atbsed edit af-asdedeste Sridt a ott Yo siins> of stta99 mo1t ee1p0o aoidoterte afd ok gi QI .yteinev bas eesndois to foette as oviy of a8 oF Sere? a,.04 Litw a ~tnebive bse tnontmong sbem od of e148 gate o1g tin eredoderse sdt detent? of ynonoos to ssa pen exsbesd Yo sbas edt aattiwo .ssost tisAt no Batt otinem etsd ebnod {fs to teedota eat .eleneg boom 1 Isyor 8 10% been yleteixqoxgga #t ,eviensqxe taom ad laisesean rebted & th boa ,anthlind asl[imie yore BSSTR od Yeu 91904 .redaid Seodd Tot nett esAtHOD t9KO! gniseerd to eshom edd ot oals dod aiot edt at ylno Jon se taal edt of tnotetanoo sd of astiesh eno tk ,nen0 anitsida istse12 edt oF tosidoe eXoold anol dus nol pont afensq baomath saitoelorg yleno1te dtiw dedaraori yletsvee seel base [lame od? sbenteatte.yletevee seon lea eiqmexs 101 ,ysw yar ai betet00s> od Jagim erehsso m 10 ,tt3u07% yitess [stisten 2 to e172 yedt ti aedttoao Snote btad & to benogmoo tk asmote enotoeng exif 309 aif fartnes saT (o .m Cf e3h%) dakfoq book s.to eid + bas ~eleneq boomerd wollede svad tezin isines satal be 20d [soiiedqeined déin bedetntt ed bleoo etshaad ay elas _ beznece1 eatilaseyz1o diin asnote esotoeiq eal bedssi2 ‘ae doodsin betouitenoo ed yimomem done tI «cS BLT ak. ae ep apuosad sd ot tasage exoold srsgpe saisl sat davoddle Laas. Blaode yods .sedsezo% yinoeam $42 Slod wiiess yon? bas E begede 2d yom dotdn .etevit to eftan edil absed 2asdoetorg xe sidt oq edd 10 snote od3 to seenbied odd diiw sonabi0coce oN eesnesbe at at bevoramt od oss yen eishsed.to amzot sat st08T nf sosleq fined edt ot oll{panse seilol.yd beyol . ve ' elp .d .O& oBLT) tloemtd yI besiaeserges ee serqnt olgute sey sidon & sien of at yimossm sid iI Ltn fakietem boo} to eteldes bedailog bne beeseib yladoo ei soisogisenco to ebom teed edt tf bas .dead 1s987ge eye | extdne edd dgvowdt bastxe bivode ersines edd ,bstqobe de ye 9078 ie | » » fyi Ay’ 35 It is easy to see that in case of the most commonly employed bond, the greater the number of headers used the more labor a and expense are necessary, though the wall is stronger, hence they are sparinily used, a header being inserted after each t third stretmher in the heading course, two stretchers extending in the stretching course from centre to centre of the headers, so as to give an effect of richness and variety. If the headers are to be made prominent and evident, it will be preferable for sake of sconomy to finish the stretchers with projecting bosses on their faces, cutting the ends of headers smooth or with dia- mond panels. The richest of all bonds here mentioned, h, also most expensive, is appropriately used for a royal palace or a any Similar building, and if a harder material be used;for the lower courses than for those higher, there may be great variety, not only in the form but also in the modes of dressing the st- ones, if one desires to be consistent to the last degree, the low and long blocks subject to the greater strains should be | finished with strongly projecting diamond panels in places most severely strained; the small and less severely compressed headers might be decorated in any way, for example with sunk rosettes if they are of a material easily wrought, or may be cut like precious stones if composed of a hard stone suscepti- ble of a good polish (Fig. 35, n, 0). The central lightly load- ed large ashlar might have shallow diamond panels, and the lar- ge headers could be finished with hemispherical bosses or be treated like precious stones with crystalline recessed angles as in Fig. 25. If such masonry be constructed without headers although the large square blocks appear to be through stones , and they really hold the masonry together, they should have projecting neads like nails or rivets, which may be shaped in accordance with the hardness of the stone or the possible exp- edients. | The forms of headers may also be improved in the manner emp- loyed by Julian Sangallo in the Condi palace in Fforence and as represented by himself (Fig. 36, p, q)- If the masonry is to make a noble yet simple impression, sm- oothly dressed and polished ashlars of good material will alw- ays appear best, and if the best mode of construction is also adopted, the ashlars should extend through the entire thickness Oe ee —_— oct ; } ¥ 7. hie ere a ae A eT i> |) AT ee SET tre ne ite it ono Lantos sit eax traoese to Saft era? .{fan ‘eat to ean baw eae bne ry ne to esiqmaxe tsar a z eMomoboe rf 4 at anibae Saletes to aesadtocone ‘grtesetont edt dtiy Idtesoq teseolo edt of saey satvextti sin .sostuse be Uertane seeds teat of ,etntet bae bas abed to isddexzot f.do80 no beddua yllnteiso giay sta efoold sdt tk 1094 omed ylfootzeq swid owes edt ¢e od [aireden add IT os 4 anoave Yo yimtotian 8a .wrotine (ae ve ad toloo. ett + 88 eviade Jon bib sieetD ste nofaw tot ,beonshors ‘evan ton blaow yedt to ,yrmoses Yo L[eebi toadgin 1d to aqisés wor1ss yd seat Setzen evad to ednto, aft beb °. Mf oidestendsne Jnerattib fh anes yino Hotty ,borreq favestbes ait to enoties oneeatensl $d2' to ttyen 6 @aw tr bn eiqioniay gat es{qfontiq [erntontte s ofmk ein? beqolsayat Diab iais Baigquasio base Zotnetaet 10t ednetherz?.y yas ,n6s708 to andsem xd, t9dfob 0% benefast eta esnods fin bib Bnemiceqe seid? ,sencte edt to enotiostor yd Yo alewob yd to ,asfq at nwode ea Ob art mi ae ne De tet RET) t9dt0 dors! ofnt eloold edt gattnsdai 3 iP befseonco xitstens3 sia ejatastest seon? *agvato yd oo sat no seSqyqe ob egaatd tr -esmote odt neswted ate foe one Lenistxs ex beteott sents O18 yeds ,sostr0e rm Pie’ momt o (Sb .ore edt fl 10 .e . Sb 684 of ae desl ral me } moon. de s08lsq e*godatd eat to sberd meg *," eTayvens2 nt tinoeen welded .2 ) egatss smoe bevrerso ylraelo sonasetans® staf sat haa bane baa bed -olqmaxe rot .betoefhen masd sonre ‘Raidento OF tootdne ste abod eltdw .ettaq tnets? { \ateite yas Oot toettoa tom oe etriot bas . si OF Someta BD carina vrese 9d Hbivode abed say teat awolfot Yr fot ,Jor[Inoo blotows 2 dsiv esteem sno bone ,etmtot bae evad teqd .sbiea Jeao od teow ealytea [srstosdtdore Hi .S Geonshatens® teed Say nt wa ednio’ to ebnit ado 2 ibioiue ed atntol bre has tnentso3q teon sham sd teur ybe y ebnid dtod evasl ot tnetelencont 3d nodd bivor wbes0e, 84 od nodt bioow eioroetifow Levesisem bas tnsions busiesjgs edt ead yinossan sat ,hetneoce sre shed yino a ae vee et dotdw ,snote to steyel eyounttaoo to bseoamns J div noitonatence 8 es yinoeen S43 Tebienoo on tf je Ot fi walls ot reqo7g OF bloow SE LAOoR ew 89798 # bison Gintot bas eid ered ,atieq to besoqu0o stnsoowWs p Od YAr Stusdorte etdt ‘zebod ont an [Tew ee trsq vrows bas efmtot aediom (sroten ont yd ylauta teok Soeite | edt sonbory oF r9bx0 ni atifonom # 88 149948 OF deen pietevib 19v0 heed To iendg sat tod .sfqdm & to vo ¥Fiao wis eres 4 ~“WMestt ompsopits sat at saobtye 94 ingl At at Lie ie ” re va Ty ie rt & =A hie 4 ) ; : “t |) a ; ed " ia ; j 7 a ' i; rw f! ® = - \ f ON GE ee eS ee cr 37 veneering of walls with elements of different forms is to be considered a fancy, which may be seen on many Renaissance bui- ldings of central France, that are covered by mosaic work of different colors. To this is related the Italian marble incrus- tations of the mediaeval period, which only comprise the cover- ing principle, and it was a merit of the Renaissance to have developed this into a structural principle. y.Hxpedients for fastening and clanmping together ashlars. Stones are fastened together by means of mortar, as well as by projections of the stones, three specimens of which are giv- en in Fig. 40 as shown in plan, or by dowels of stone or metal, by indenting the blocks into each other (Fig. 41), and finally by cramps. These fastenings are generally concealed in the joi- nts between the stones: if cramps do appear on the external s surface, they are either treated as external anchors set in 1 lead as in Fig. 42, a, or like Fig. 42, b from the stair balus- trade of the bishop’s palace at Lucca. §. Ashlar masonry in general. The late Renaissance clearly observed some things that have since been neglected. For example, bed and end joints play dif- ferent parts; while beds are subject to crushing and offer res- istance to it, end joints are not subject to any strain; hence if follows that the beds should be made prominent but not the end joints, and one meets with a twofold conflict, for:- 1, all architectural styles must be cast aside, that have accented b voth kinds of joints as in the best Renaissance; 2, the beds must be made most prominent and end joints be subordinated, it would then be inconsistent to leave both kinds unmarked, since ancient and medieeval architecture would then be rejected. If only beds are accented, the masonry has the appearance of being composed of continuous layers of stone, ahich is not at all so. If we consider the masonry as a construction with a right to appear as such, it would be proper to allow it to appear as a structure composed of parts, where the end joints would take their part as well as the beds; this structure may be charact- erized most simply by the natural mortar joints and does not need to appear as a monolith in order to produce the effect of unity or of a whole, but the power of unity over diversity must be evident in the structure itself. iad 4 betnen08 od blade etntot att mogeet edn sd 10% er dr tt bas sbsdtiogeb -yoeer1ls atasibeqxs ent to ment ve ai dotdw .ehed mott efatot bas detogntseib : imtot, Leigdowise onit est {fe aiem ot elderkesb at ar intenoo teortu edd atin ~gnibiind ettias edt ot ina th od bas shed ett aadt tewotten od yam etatot bas be Bi eberagit © ystinaloger gedd ,w9qmee to wielo add Inds sn TIT Binemstinpes essique sot 612 taamteott to ysiraliate ey abosd wo boed eno no .ytnosem to fostts oidetsw a dened ent to eoatutogorte: eentt snr tedte 963 no baa bata: azea2 20 dt8g Book & Sno dotdw .ebhres dean sd oF Bi 9 a8 8 edt .dasiteor? Hae mot of: ys tretpget1t of yYtuesd S eagdoottadue efit yino Jad? ,tnematiepes a‘tequee Lo | tito to sboa odd wode bleode ,sead Attias edd of Boi i 3 2 notteni0% [sintgonuite sad oltdw ,etarot, to daemszo87 ren ee oh .tne1sggs of 9d Jon been sivtouttereg [feow8 baa ftss01d2 ,i¢dit edt obtee nowdt of rentis d soten yidias to yrosdt & gnivietidetes to to .ar0o719 28 ha seidattites(, betebfrenoo 9d yas asinyourte > ybsorls Barttio> to sebom suoriey edt to enser xo ene .ebaod to shbakiv ent? bas sislies sd3 to eatot edd 1s @ bofiey & yinoesm att gniviy wot sidallevs sis atoosh o1 odd bos sesidiot sit to Atynsitts svieses add nox qe ylesatig bas soe7) sdatl add of BafbLind Lead ond Sat aldtesoq oie etoetis bsiasy trom ont .soaleo eat to enciensath sinioeda eAT .yincean tweldee to sone Pot toette Lenbivibni ifemt bbs enottsogozg rLeat dae Bialies Se0a3. stenpd. .zinoean edd to sonetasggs [87 (Sf aebhbfod cele ots senote (Lean .anoldo ti. nsat 19h )egaoldo ti Oe S38 agnods egial ,yratta0o ent no :e7st . to sonersegas lenisetxe ay aL geondois beesstoal 6 ebon edt yd aedtio)\;even Mead at beoubory sd yen yir0 Yd eeesed edd gokartet yo to ,Snod eat goiyiev yd ants ®@ 1933ed to een edd ,gatMetlog bas goiddyt saat ) .Btatol to mottasoosb yd ,elstem 10 snote tenil to eye Bess [em70% doe betoette [fs .anidiuo to show edt not 22, ik ~8a0ldeno Sstinsze tex esnotg edt ti ss araloes Yo saan dancksoetdo ylbebiroeb ak ,oc007ad ed¢ yd bedanikiro Jedd . ole ate 38 | For the same reason the joints should be accented by means of the expedients already described, and if it is desired to distinguish end joints from beds, which is only proper when it is desirable to make all the fine structural joints evid- ent in the entire building, with the utmost consistency the e end joints may be narrower than the beds and be differently treated. If we admi the claim of Semper, that regularity of form and similarity of treatment are the supreme requirements for the artistic effect of masonry, on one hand our hands are tied, and on the other the fines structures of the Renaissance are to be cast aside, which owe a good part of their characteristic beauty to irregularity in form and treatment. The same is true of Semper’s requirement, that only the substructure as belong- ing to the earth base, should show the mode of cutting and ar- rangement of joints, while the structural formation of the su- perstructure need not be so apparent. We merely have a choice, either to throw aside the Pitti, Strozzi and Rucellai palaces as errors, or of establishing a theory of artby which these s structures may be considered justifiable. By means of the various modes of cutting already described, the forms of the ashlars and the kinds of bonds, numerous expe- dients are available for siving the masonry a varied character. From the massive strength of the fortress and the roughness of the rural building to the light grace and princely splendor of the palace, the most varied effects are possible in the appear-— ance of ashlar masonry. The absolute dimensions of the blocks and their proportions add their individual effect to the gene- ral appearance of the masonry. Square faced ashlars appear bol- der than if oblong, small stones are also bolder if nearly sq- uare; on the contrary, large stones are so if oblong. Increased richness in the external appearance of ashlar mas—- onry may be produced in kany® ways; either by the mode of cut- ting, by varying the bond, or by refining the bosses by mould- ings, rubbing and polishing, the uee of better materials, inl- ays of finer stone or metals, by decoration of joints, etc. As for the mode of cutting, all affected and formal treat- ment of ashlars as if the stones were stuffed cushions, like that originated by the Barocco, is decidedly objectionable. No rn ale eal ane ee : doratoostiors edt dokine ot shaw od aleode sqnedss ot Derieeh ton st et ‘2g brs .28W wae ot todsl, ead . odd evig ot sidareteny ei ti ,toded dekval od and ee TRE ( ‘ne aners al md ‘‘srediom tiedqes dd. ‘gnesm ya sdtowlorid begofeveb tertt ensmos sat ylbiger yeds inowes bre tation totssape bax yeto ide hiiéxons to bas siaiomos to yinorses Sexitm to sbhafd ffs “9 “eda 0% BntoeY 8 ¢e bead ylteid> stew axotrd anenw nulla q bas splpansist yitisq beyofime vedt seogisy eri oO” not fF 30% eslfF Ynoldo Rian ylisrenes .2eltt Yaluine rent WGntset ott tot eelid wafusnatrt ‘Gne wisbesa to ese >y009 sistono> to eean 2 wesw [few add dotdw barced "2 pre tect eeifeqe snore ‘vo ssfit Yo etaembet? bra Jn faq siedu Yinoser Yo Deri @& aa (fon ae wntsotge suzo Psofoo to wonet fatnos trod ‘yd Beombong stew ebatd {fe le ae anktentedie to Gntsere PWihas oF fnoqasTtoo don b&b sored sas Yo engunel 3a? | Boies svaotat Ban wanrot to antiserd ‘Yeiuger «i ‘fend 08 gy eS ee Ieeapeo. baooae | to besogmoo yllawen xt {fsw sd? to norraog edbhie eat k B to asemoo stenistis yal of et Ynontsor2 shine eat a: ie . iy “aE 40 ashlars. Sunk panels, entirely inappropriate for stones under compression, more richly profiled enclosing mouldings, etc., are not only allowable for structures of materials other than stone, but on the contrary are to be preferred... Divisions into ashlars on painted or plastered walls must be treated in a purely decorative manner to appear like tapestries sewed together. Hach division should be enclosed within a deco- ratvive border, its centre being accented by flowers, rosettes and other ornaments. 2. Brick Masonry. Brick walls were found in the earliest times among the Assy- rians and Chaldeans; they used unburnt bricks general laid wi- th asphalt mortar. The Romans first developed brickwork; by means of excellent clay and superior mortar and cement they rapidly constructed all kinds of mixed masonry of concrete and of backed rubble, where bricks were chiefly used as a facing for the wall; for this purpose they employed partly triangular and partly rect- angular tiles, generally using oblong tiles for through cour- ses of headers and triangular tiles for the facing stretchers, benind which the wall was a mass of concrete composed of cem- ent and fragments of tiles or stone spalls. They preferred opus spicatum as well as a kind of masonry where patterns of all kinds were produced ty horizontal bands of color or of colored stones. During the middle ages brick construction was developed in different ways in various parts of Europe, especially in Italy, southern France, bavaria, the low plains of north Cermany and in Holland. Only north Italy and North Germany created a true brick construction, the other countries having almost exclusi- vely employed a mixture of cut stone and bricks. A bond was used in Holland during the entire middle ages con- sisting of alternating courses of stretchers and headers, but the lengths of the bricks did not correspond to their widths, so that a regular breaking of joints was impossible in each second course. The middée portion of the wall is usually composed of rubble. The natural treatment is to lay alternate courses of stretchers ne rm 3. rol 1 5 yradsanot {fet etait baad add nesdw bas ,eisbeed to ons prdT .tuo yldstinue et 19 betosise ei Xoriw astiode to 19 Boa tL | 3syo aasaqesno to sietnavbe beblosh ef3 ean yInossu to a : les fe a8 bebaemmooes od of g10tetedd ei ti baw .ebaod tele xfgge7 nent Buotsaes 973 pest bas eupeetutota etssags ST .dtide Br ren! Ba fates ggmmosea bebnod ulxe ewe ae A wt esbha0% [sitatoottea edT .a th neue efbbts sit aniwsb been ceodt tedtie ote ebnod atsbols "80 dovmd beliso~o8 oft bus deilod 10 oidsoD belleo-o2 dd sit! oe WA \Sonssatsned sd? ni beoubortnt seoft ers 10 ,abnod detwel® _ ce)<° eebaod Aoold bae aacts ond p _ fenpe to van to besogmos 2fk yinoses Aoktd trishom ytsanrb10 d dtywel bose dtbaeid ,eeendotds saodn anne iy "we? sant 0a ,tatot wdt0om edt to aviecfont .8 » 8 v ft to eno ated dott # to da@anef edt [aups etntot, serdt bee eaacndndaa a Mfad <8) spit afes siotid efonn as [few as dea0 asattenon ete a lente {V eretiacp .1 dignefl edt gatdem owt .H edorad dots ‘@ to dibiw sat Srtier owe . edotad trige yifenrt baa 0 patina: Gnimio? sioitd edd tead of Esgnsite ef Bnod Aor doad (bas) erebsed 10 stefoteite ce bial ors {few edt Yo sost (ante 2 tanenes eetwoo M¢8n sdt ni atnio, sat tevoo ayenls edotrd 19940 = bin ont to s{qittiom s ayenia ot ellew Aotad Yo seaniotds sal ' Bly e768 tens .sec ni sie snols elisw toiad gedt of ,dotiwd s Yo at Deeds Yo atatot bane ent wAotdt efotad S\E S$ .S S\P DML S\l ay to") ‘e(s (2D .yf7) (Lew off davordt bnetxe yfnommos aoat [lar |) ,Stebsed to esatanco yletttne [fsx edt to totvedat ooT .(2 .U ot - sdotdd eit II .(og tov) .eoet sat no vino bees gated wisdotedte - oo eas ,2d0i1d Med to s9edmnn neve ae afenps [len edt to seer q ae Qi tod {4 .@d wert) doed bane tnort mo wslinie sis seeww rf 3 ‘more@isbeed Yo ea1so9 & ,otantotl[s dosd bas s98t no esatwoo ed? i: vy etedto ‘edd ao ersdoteits to see1sos © of anibmoqesitoo saoet 2 qqoesm Aottd at bsan sis senote tuo to axoold attos set fea pad & Yo Jdgted edt Yo selqitlon od eysnle tanm etdgied ire8dt oe ese @tatog tastiogmi teow sd? e1s seed? .tarot tati0m att atin A Se -Lavene3 ai mottouitencs doied of anidtal Bat ‘9a .alfex to eymioet to sbaod sat asbfemoo txsn Elade sit Ps “tl asvigom svitetoosh edt xsen [Itw bas ,ealygne edd. te seont a eebaod [sigtontge sesdtd mort gnstly OD .4iT .baod xo0l2 .p @ ta A 41 and of headers, and when the (end joints fall together, a long- er or shorter brick is selected or ‘is suitably cut. This kind of masonry has the decided advantage of cheapness over all re- gular bonds, and it is therefore to be recommended as a make- shift. It appears picturesque and less pretentious than regul- arly bonded masonry. ae The structural Bonds. Modern bonds are either those used during the middle ages, like the so-called Gothic or Polish and the So-called Dutch or Flemish bonds, or are those introduced in the Renaissance, as the cross and block bonds. Ordinary moder brick masonry is composed of bricks of equal dimensions, whose thickness, breadth and length haye proporti- ons of 1°: 2°: 4, inclusive of the mortar joint, so that four thicknesses and three joints equal the lengbhh of a brick. Bats are sometimes used as well as whole bricks as in Fig. 44; half bricks H, two making the length L, quarters V, three-quarters D, and finally split bricks K, two making the width of a brick. Fach brick bond is arranged to that the bricks forming the ex- ternal face of the wall are laid as stretchers or headers, and upper bricks always cover the joints in the next course beneath. The thickness of brick walls’is always a multiple of the wid- th of a brick, so that brick walls alone are in use, that are 1/2, 1, 11/2, 2, 2 1/2 bricks thick. The end joints of the wall face commonly extend through the wall (Fig. 45, a). (Not in U. 8). The interior of the wall entirely consists of headers, stretchers being used only on the face. (Not so). If the thick- ness of the wall equals an even number of half bricks, the co- urses are similar on front and back (Fig. 45, b}; but if uneven, the courses on face and back alternate, a course of headers on one face corresponding to a course of stretchers on the other. If terra cotta blocks or cut stones are used in brick masonry, their heights must always be multiples of the height of a brick with its mortar joint. These are the most important points re- lating to brick construction in general. We shall next consider the bonds of facings of walls, then those at the angles, and will seek the decorative motives res- ulting from these structural bonds. a. Block Bond. 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Luan wear © SS € z Ks Ss Hee nan on 2 ae BODIB E heaS | Aa oli wr esse Sif s S$sseé bass | SEN SbhSadS ae SAS S'S S&S ene peo Db BD hbaeé hb 8 Ob bentsl{qxus yltese ai smedoa otmatyda eid? to yskisrinosg eat + sat mort bovome1 yl[no ton ste stedtsHup sat tadt Jost eds yd mom edatol has ont dneverg of aoist od teow 9189 tod ,esiine i yee ih ssea7g0o Sasosi bs ar weshtezot Anisor ae yond TI) .ytsamoteno er b oventi no tsd# qlno sbnod sesdt tc a =e {ftw baod sda Yo séqtont1q edt ,esdgan sagie te niot eller asefo abnetxs syents [fen sno .7 bas A sencoo hose ai teds 22 0A’ .(F (A VG -B£T) St tentays etode doidw ,redto sit agnor ‘edt ,ebnod sat gattaniniss to esbom aatbheossq 943 of Batbi0s -ymem ae sd events yam stedt tedt o1 Oetneti1e 94 oF ors asians eeednoidd edd nie adoicd tied es ségne edt te etsd astisup sends been s19% t9d1H0p seTdt eno tod Yi tot . (Te .3iT) [Lew eas Yo 44 hence each course commences at the angle with at least halves, ‘quarters and split bricks being ‘placed at some distance ‘from the angle. The bonds in cases I and II are arranged by ‘cours- es as follows, according to the lines ab, cd and e f:- I. ab ome | ef 1 2422 2.272: 72 £12422 4444 1444 2444 112u2a2 2 HQZH2 des212 22 4444 1444 2444 TI. R222 22 32 2 dow? w2.t2 1444 3444 2444 2.212 72 a2 222 dir 2e2 3444 1444 4444 Removing the quarters and split bricks from the angles, ‘or replacing them bg three quarter bats, the bond will be arranged according to the following scheme:- BD ab od e f 3:12 02°2 212212 3222 4444 3444 2444 3°22 2 222 32 3:22:22 4444 3 414 4 2444 II. : 3222 2 e202 2 3 25 4444 2244 4244 3222 282-208 32:22 4244 3444 — 4444 The peculiarity of this rhythmic scheme “is easily explained by the fact that the quarters are not only removed ‘from the angles, but care must be taken to prevent two end joints from coming together ‘in adjacent courses. Of these bonds only that on line c d is customary. If two walls join at right angtes, the ‘principée of the bond will al- be that in each course A and B, one wall always extends clear through the other, which abuts against it (Fig. 57, A, B). Ac- cording to the preceding ‘modes of terminating the bonds, the angles are to be arranged ro that there may always be as many three quarter bats at the angte as half bricks ‘in the thicnkess of the wall (Fig. 57), for if but one three quarter were used ae) Veer a ee oe pot? ae hd A te POY en. eae Pee ae eee ee Oey ‘ae ae, ' ad ? | qs a , en Pye “yeetn0 t8beed edt nt atotid slodw ont yd benoffot efgns edd 12 erent dedt ,betelotv ed bluow ebnod act efor L[eqronintg odd oF Pipes [few edt nguotas ws8lo bnetxe bloode etatot 1808p" ‘eondd to bsetant beew stew edotid tilqe bas eietiasp t1 | -tocoe nsec entwolfot ef% ot sgaedo SIvow Snod sat ,adad 98 Oe? a @:% 9 eatf edt of anrh oe Sie brod asoth bnod xoolg Ota es 2a Sars ® SBS bo ¢ bh Me ry: Bo Ext" Sv@.aes gunn: iy ea Ce bb ga ss ggoto nT 282 .kiY vi ee bnod Aoold nt stentet{s seetn0o ant ss wksd eiedio oft .02 .2f7 nt mwone as ef eetp00 Adig0t sad baod ere 2, ebnod Asold ak ea Yn ‘edn of Bnibiooos [[ew eft to torredat edt nt 2etisv bod sal 8 to efodw s to afqitinn 6 er [few edd to exoendorat edd a9M % besaktnoo ri se1g09 dose tent ofqtonizg say boa ,don1d Bled at yg eit yvletenistis [few sat to seamdoing stiine edd aguords ebtod esoto mk bentatey yltoiate “90% yino been ylisqgotq ets doide sobnod detmsf[%- One ofdtod sl .18s8io baod sdt to mdtyds edt sien of Seorttrd fon ai 3k .agrtost qdoted - ferbash otdto> F Seiiew Gs SD Chagan Sas agers S&S SE bSebS € BS DE wee daesee SB Shea SubsS@ Peedtey S82 € BSbhaSsE BS De | ~IS0D ee1it ddix eolnas sdt te consamoo of beitsteag ek dr tI atdt eiam of tlwortteb ton ef tk ,eovied Yo bastent ated as2 i esbnod detmslt bnspokstod nf aknedo eviteroosh sit of soneistey ai btse aeed vbserf[s sed tent " ‘samdotsd of oldsoifqqs t1sq af ei ytnoaem relies to dasutsert | seven aso etdt etnousfe att to avenifers edt mo1t tad ,yis08 _ ten s stil tedés1 105 ,dégastse sender to nokeaengm£ edt svity | a epee yi ylilidertenequt to eebr ont ateszaua Aron _ e@intot sbiw yllanottioqo1g ett bas atoold [lems ati to aortosn _ -beesd ers abnod [arstovise sit Yo etnsibsgxe svisetoosb sal teeta sd% .S getolooetaststiib to siorad Yo aa0 adt ,f ~:noge base notioeto7q sat ,€ seefyne ont ts bnod adt to sonentmorty +12 _- %o eeendtordt oft pentetied bas aioti stateqes to notessaged eeelane ett ta baod sat yd beteotbar od yam Ilew oat 45 at the angle followed by two whole bricks in the header ‘course, the ‘principal rule for bonds would be violated, that the end ‘joints should extend clear through the wall. If quarters and split bricks were used instead of three quar- ter bats, the bond would ichange to the followins' rhythm, accor- ding to the line e f:e Block ‘bond ross bond 22 2:14:22 A244 4244 SiZeene eikiaee 4244 4444 The courses alternate in block bond as ir Fig. 58. In cross bond the fourth course is as shown in Fig. 59, the others bei- ng as in block bond. | The bond varies in the interior of the wall according to whe- ther the thickness of the wall-is a multiple of a whole or a half brick, and the principle that each course ‘i1) ‘continued t through the entire thickness of the wall alternately is not strictly retained in cross bond. In Cothic and Flemish bonds shich are ‘properly used only for facings, it is not difficult to make the rhythm of the bond clear. Gothic Wendish Dutch 4242 442442 4242 3424 224424 3222 4242 442442 4242 32424 324424 32222 If it is preferred to commence at the angles with three quar- ter bats instead of halves, it is not difficult to make this ‘change ‘in Cothicsand Flemish bonds. What has already been said ‘in reference to the decorative treatment of ashlar masonry is in part applicable to brick ma- sonry, but from the smallness of its elements this can never give the impression of robust strength, bat rather like a net- aork suggests the idea of impenetrability by the intimate,.con- nection of its small blocks and its proportionally wide joints. The decorative expedients of the structural bonds are based upon:- 1, the use of bricks of different colors; 2, the great- er prominence of the bond at the angles; 3, the projection and depression of separate bricks and patterns; the thickness of the wall may be indicated by the bond at its angles. | ab nt eomet, 2.2 momt & .2tU ak mwode [law snote ond slit | mo efensq boatar dtin betowatenos sd yer elfen xotad 3207 di edt Ot Detice antettaq ni tedso eft no elsneqg anue bas shie Prentectons: dora S\r foot S\l akoyflekosges. .(00).2L7) ebnod “gorwd edt to tueq s .yllsntt .avoiad edd gnitioo suodtiw alize a! atsq oi es nego stef sd yeu antedteq af betuoexe allen | ebro ofa tigit bnatis to nokesinbs tot sesaiit ,ef{len nebrea ane ea{lew midd dttw egntbiied yeast ey sehn08 sviteioos .d Bi rékerntcas Scubiehwa tty ylertine efqtoniaq {esetonite sad ned _— svtestoosb hbeivay teow ect .eifen to euntort bas elansg suvoitev ive et dose act egntoet as bean sd yam yort joldteeog emooad sbnod OO sepgd eavind jetednetp! to bie edt ctiw beod evitourseaoo edt. dnodsiw io dsin betooezs ed: ysm yods ylisnrt bas ,atoire Be obi | estotid bsreloo 160 duo to bra wong to efdeqso ,baod {stnemento yleimd to xret sasfqata sal Seeddtde nt (23 .3t7) esdt et entetiey beitev teom on? gatoub [ante syfno tadt oe aevisd ond ys besalqes ef tesoterte dose ey .ffex sdf to sost odt no e1s9eqga bed to bard - amsdaye qow eutt miot ebrod evidaiovsh to s2tise eittne nA Las PEGS 2829) tone 10° tao e716 adottd edt t9dsadn ot antoroDD8 — (snr 8X\e of S\f) beord os qileasnes ots Atowdoitd nt adntol | flew eds Yo sonetesyqae [antetxe edt no sononlinkg tkadt test nataton om yond? eflaw to ebnti wstied sdt mI .bebkosh yrev ai ) =04q taorettib. yateu ,tnemso 10 1st1om antnsbisd yynowwe Adin tonne aren od? .(23 .gf7) sgonstemsosio of yntbioocs sol it yeiptad: [fena ytev to oan sad yd bestietosiedo ef baalfok to dont: 8\I asat s10om ton etnies [eottrev yatved yw as [Low es aeds ot bebrow qiinterse yiev sie sino, bad ead eliaw coeds \ 9) Sevtdiw ttel evyewls ots dna ,xotdt dont 3\@ ess .b Slttorg matron edt toloo of ynsae? oi yrssoteno need ylfeuen asd sl & ed yam 10f69 to enot betiesd yne teat o8 .Sf Qnien stoted P ‘baa adoind edt to woloo edt to exsen yt [eveneg nt [fawn and of 7 _ tofoornedors & to yifenen ete siorid eat .tedt0om sid to sats i | gefoty 10 nesta dtin .ettdw wollsy ,bot .dosld ,nnotd Xiah | .°$gatasqwoo tor ysinetioggo ne ead teva0dh .yniselg yd benteddo a -\efftw eeritleool sneiettib ta yrmoesm betnosxe ylintets ent _ —-- PatsegIs etntol to Aousen ot tae ylissa 10 Stine s Jedd sore * tine ets efntol datad .tofoo isveb 8 Yo exe edottd sat neae teod Bh 46 Like the stone wall shown in Fig. 43 from S. James in Regens- burg, brick walls may be constructed nith raised panels on one side and sunk panels on the other in patterns suited to the b bonds (Fig. 60), especially in 1/2 to 1 1/2 brick enclosing w walls without ‘cutting the bricks. finally, a part of the brick walls executed in patterns may be left open as in parapets, ¢ garden walls, friezes for admission of air and light ‘into ord- ‘inary buildings with thin walls. | b. Decorative Bonds. When the structural principle entirely disappears as in the various panels and ficings of walls, the most ‘varied decorative bonds become possible; they may be used as facings for each constructive bond with the aid of quarters, halves and split bricks, and finally they may be executed with or without the aid of cat or colored bricks. The simplest form of purely ornamental bond, capable of :pro- ducing the most varied patterns, ‘is that (Fig. 61) in which e each stretcher is replaced by two halves so that only a single kind of bed appears on the face of the wall. An entire series of decorative bonds form true wep systems according to whether the ‘bricks are cut or uncut (Fig. 63). Joints ‘in brickwork are generally so broad (1/8 to 5/8 in.) that their influence on the external appearance of the wall is very decided. In the better kinds of walls they are pointed with strongly hardening mortar or cement, using different pro- files according to circumstances (Fig. 64). The modern masonry of Holland is characterized by the use of very small bricks, as well as by having vertical joints not more than 1/8 inch thick while the bed joints are very carefully worded to the p profile d, are 5/8 inch thick, and are always left white. It has usually been customary in Fermany to color the mortar before using it, so that any desired tone of color may be given to the wall in general by means of the color of the bricks and thai of the mortar. The bricks are usually of a broken color, dark brown, ‘black, red, yellow, white, with green or violet obtained by glazing. Whoever has an opportunity of comparing the carefully executed masonry nf different localities witl agree that a white or nearly white network of joints appears best when the bricks are of a dark:color. Dark joints are suit- i ee ow! Wa Ss ee yee eee St 1 Ree ‘ee ; A ie 7 er eal ie VS ss mabretems to esenod isblo ed? .edotad tdarl ytev aot sidstiue | \-eflakbbet gosb [feo on a8 ,nword-teeq 10 dosld to tlrud eto» ) Sgk-dI -ottdy diel eayents o19n atnio, ent tod ,edoiad mos as ebsm ek seapod waools dowe Yo tosges sat tadd oldetnedau Mews’ 1 eatntot edt yd eldtesog ed yaa es gniesaly -noisqeoxs Be ,Atonsoiid YI yincesn asides to nolistiang sat -Yo miset off at agnoled ,sonseetsned narfadl oa3 nt enob elie HP a A S898 C0) : Aho -(ooonut2) -efIaW to anisetesiy L[antetad .€ -it 9 1Ot Raiweveo Zaitostoig @ ef Qniretesly L[eniatxea sonrZ -09 8 as betes1t ed ot ef TE ,yTMOASem Horrid tot 10 siddwa yisn get Yo ehnet ati baa .btow sdd Yo sense sams saz nk aniisv ~Lisdint {fh .ytnosss to tnebnegebar yleiisne Tdguoa sd oF ek eas .tsties nk 10 betnkeq tedtedw.dtoniorw Sane aslidea to eno " enoesest erat tot ealdenottoetio y{bebioad as moiter009b sit tot dbeyolqme sd yan ted? etnsrbeqxs salt 9082 eBntInieqg dae stetginor Yo seodd 918 Bniretastq. [antetxa oo) baa ttoa & gnied ,hbedste yoeetls es tua-nr0t of egnofsad oo ae e250 oxsteata “xe. pebeananeh to ameem wsdotg sdt ak ATOHn OODutA srotetedl ~$o gnteofone edt .aleaneg ofni soietvirs « yt gaftetealy Iennet ',setesiq 10 tnemeo ni’ etnemanio betteant ,2anibloom yd eloney =988 edt tant moktitbnoo edt dtiw ylno Jud .eldseermbe ara Lie boos Yo to enotea Yo seodt steading wsdtien yam earct Yo esr of betive [few at apan tiog odd wi 3atatonk 16 Bntqmete (1A ‘Yo sotesstyqrr to) nofktgiisenr ead ‘ieristen sd¢ to saaten edt yd to agnidoted yi sostioe sdt to Iasasesi1s 8b0% & ,atnomagio pbasory blak .gattnteq suxt yd 10 of ftYetge WW .gainedguor aedgeaig odt ot betqabs ste [le .etrsg avokiey Yo gnip{re poe | »\eidereteotq af cuptootinors feotlodmye ons betatag A .sostise », hipaa tonnes miot to yelq eert © tod notteating om ak fords Te stoctar00eb stetes{[y to nismob sad mort bebe | hecoas :{arens: ak seogisg [etneaueom on savise Bnrietesls 70 boft19q edt to etesd sit sot yslq sett # absolts Sr stot q -noeset aids wot tod ,foatdpe edt of eub taadt to Leubtviont " -Sidtearog 28 18st se estotouate Istnarenom wort beboeloxs ed sawn ~ireq"{tatgiq bas yintweg” sdt to ematisdisd yosm edd to and oat af eboassqqserh Jey Jon send softer Dne hetgobs sx taad bo et eaeiaT .axoloo a aviv Atowiokid bas enote too Yo antsnseag i aa brs! Me 47 suitable for very light bricks. The older houses of Amsterdam were built of black or peat-brown, as we call deep reddish- brown bricks, but the joints were always left white. It is. undeniable that the aspect of such gloomw houses is made as pleasing as may be possible by the joints. The imitation of ashlar masonry by brickwork, as exception- ally done in the Italian Renaissance, belongs ‘in the realm of Nonsense. 3. External plastering of Walls. (Stucco). Since external plastering ‘is a protecting ‘covering for ordi- nary rubble or for brick masonry, it is to be treated as a co- vering in the true sense of the word, and its range of form ‘is to be sought entirely independent of masonry. All -imitati- ons of ashlar and brickwork,whether painted or in relief, are decidedly objectionable for this reason. The expedients that may be employed for the decoration of external plastering are those of sculpture and painting. Stuc- co belongs to form-art as already stated, being a soft and plastic mass. Therefore stucco work:is the proper means of decorating ex- ternal plastering by a division into panels, the enclosing of panels by mouldings, inserted ornaments ‘in cement or plaster, all ara admissible, but only with the condition that the ser- ‘ies of forms may neither imitate those of stone or of wood. . All stamping or ‘incising in the soft :mass is well suited to the nature of the material: the ‘inscription or impression of ornaments, a rude treatment of the sarface by hatching or by roughening, by sgraffito or by true painting, gold grounds and gilding of various parts, all are adapted to the plaster surface. A painted and symbolical architecture is preferable, ahich “ig no imitation but a free play of form:cannot be excl- uded from the domain of plaster decoration. | Plastering serves no monumental purpose ‘in general; there- fore it affords a free play for the taste of the period or ‘individual or that due to the subject, but for this reason must be excluded from monumental structures as far as possible. One of the many barbarisms of the “periwig and pigtail” peri- od, that we adopted and shich has not yet disappeared, is the painting of cut stone and brickwork with oil colors. This is Oe ee ri , 7 i i f d ' | 0 34 taun moi LINES tesl sat to eeitibiqtenr sat to eno leases ‘si? tedt tegzot ton bivote sx tud ,enssm [fs yd bseoq — nt a8 ,dnemyolevsh to ezete teonol att at sense - t89 ‘om eeennselo edt ni tas stom nese ,oifing iarens) ead | 2 “ hoadite sotted at tasersy atebom ad? peepee ry antges tas ,tee710% teontt edt yi nant aselgog to snnsva 1s m3 tf batinem tot se aid rot sesnteon bas tabdi08 Ativ ba #0033 ent tad? ,dntoy gatnargsd erat ge commie ad dedT ! Dt leseens! daom sno ekds broysd anaq wsven mao .e19hnel Loe ace fo evol atdt rwebienco fenm oe tito sat no tad baad ano tooddtw ,oktedtae anted yiles1 ae siaosq ak easntasa bane 19 a NS that ann ‘oldiesogms ellarsmeR si tre oF nortetiaxe yas soit ‘on sis eletreten sniblicd eldslievs edt et9de esitio yaam al hh carcumeree ei{dternog ylooreoe metto ai ti ,enosnszomod ylsorsce eae ‘$4 to tofoo [stoten sid tedd ,2noatey bstsoube neve sontv _ ytofoo: ynool2 yidteasog bos welogemt ati Yo#etiqe ai ,{aineten eset 9a? eheoneidseetge ni -aoloo [to to jaoo mtoting 8s alsoxe —p Be eaentese bas ashto to moidingooss edt af toat erat vo0Ot neo hud RLS | -enos1eg saodt yd ytueed to nonad & -2em Yo enottstoosh [stern vierrttes Sas tnetrogmgr tated eA :, es Ifer as etodones [fan moti nortasm of aved ylisntt an ,yine mo, Bagot gnisd wemtot 949 ,.o%s .antetnel ,eteaned tot erablod osotenees edt no astdel edt? ,beelfor ar senon Slo preva dsonle eee edtine anoeuT bas siotod .enere bas somsyol® to and aie dotdx .Sntt afdt to sitow [utedeet 3ntagiasbd nt rwsito eiaden to tnaatsstt bentte1 2 to alsbom sutt es bedgsoosn od Seg Rah we -alfeW mebaow 2 4 - affen gaits) edéyanm elfew meboow ,nortooitancs od Ratbtooos | Yo 10 atedntd {s0tt10v 10 fatnositod to betouttenco seott siti Sq .eifew bisod to enoititrsy ylewsa od yem yedt 10 ,eirel easoitial to esinsq ,seteeolone Jsiofy yo 245 mM ba eetadmit [atnostied to csroqgoo allah.» ae ‘1 oeredmrt wslpynetoes to agof Savor to tLicd sis eflaw dowd om -gsoiveto Gin wsdtis ,as{ana edd fa tedto 1989 Banto of biel ats edt bo abede bas entad yea sdt nk es med? nseuted stof -abas saT .tootqg 19Mteew Soe baie ete teat allen. arot of tc er yo eelgne sit te alfiex sat bnoysd tosiowg siedmit ead Yo ey i ae ave 2 - a oe i —- = ia 48 one of the insipidities of the last century, which must be op- posed by all means, but we should not forget that the esthetic sense ‘in its lowest stage of development, as in the case of t the general public, sees more art in the cleanness of appear- ance and in regular and symmetrical arrangement, than in the picturesque; the modern peasant is better pleased by a regul- ar avenue of poplars than by the finest forest, art begins | “ith order and neatness for him as for mankind in general. That he remains at this beginning point, that the great pub- lic of cities as well as of entire nations, like the modern Hollanders, can never pass beyond this, one must lament on one hand, but on the other we must consider this love of ord- er and neatness in people as really being esthetic, without . mhich any exaltation to art is generally impossible. In many cities where the available building materials are scarcely homogeneous, it is often scarcely possible to con- vince even educated persons, that the natural color of the material, in spiteiiof its irregular and possibly gloony color, excels a uniform coat of oil color in agreeableness. The reas- on for this fact is the recognition of order and neatness as a canon of beauty by those persons. 4s being ‘important and entirely useful decorations of mas- onry, we finally have to mention iron wall anchors as well as holders for banners, lanterns, etc., the former being found on almost every old house in Holland, the latter on the palaces of Florence and Siena. Dutch and Tuscan smiths vied with each other in designing tasteful works of this kind, which are to be accepted as true models of a refined treatment of metal. 4, Wooden Walls. According to construction, wooden walls may be bearing walls like those constructed of horizontal or vertical timbers or of planks, or they may be merely partitions or board walls, pali- ngs or picket enclosures, panles or lattices. Os -Walls coppose? of horizontal timbers. Such walls are built of round logs or rectangular timbers laid to cross each other at the angles, either with crevices left between them as in the hay barns and sheds od the Alps, or to form walls that are wind and weather proof. The ends of the timbers project beyond the walls at the angles or may ae Pee, etre : Ch ee es{znes sit te sldietv Snod edd Qatiem ,dawlt Tio tuo sd gaedt Yo tnentsert ofteddes edt 1tot sxtnstbheqxs svidsioosb anal ‘Yo esostine to atntot sag teddies gaivise ot tatenoo eflaw gol oo. ~eredmis adt to ebas anitosio1wg- ens oale -etedmsd eft Naeem nedn ,yifent? ;ebns to 283be .eelkns gable "oO amotiod ee neve. ebeatnemeanto tleati ak bnod efans sdt tostorg ton ob ebue a faenottqeoxs nt Snuot af allen done to tasateats sasdoi7t 6 Ir wfnem to yitiow eyanta ois atnstheqxs L[etnemento srets 29880 ' esdowdo neteend bone nstyswrol .ezettoo eared sutd od? .nos =f100 to betouitanoo sis doin ,esenod ‘adnaessy 26 [lew ee 5 Ne asitmte to sexsdoorte Ievestbsa yilenit das ,aredart [stnos | $99) \-boow nt agniviss to antot beizav seom sat yolqms ebart | way ak snob sd yeu atedmts sit to selgne ant to antvias sat | gedoton ni 19 ~8.CO e2£% at ge egntb{vow es 19d3ie .eyaw Boot ) - SOTSmEN to anitedisg ankonbotd enottirseqe: ar entot ifs to bas agnizod asakigmoo seostie sit antvis> o(d .€d 2824) -ebatx bae bisod=tsd0e09 ,abaomsth ,eltdmsh .abait [fs to ancttevaoxe fofdw dtix ,etnonento to ettos sldatemunni bas anisstey basgis -s(0,28 37) .bodotins 918 eiedmit to selgns bas esostiwe end im duis to eeostige gnitnemsnto rot etnerbeqxs teed eft to snd modt egg yd to ,.ote ,edtevo1g ,etettel beaiont yd ef ess | -bavots Amwe # m0 iiieeredutt edt to edniog bed edt sds tnshive tiee ai tl es .(00 .bf%) t9dto dose odnt beuzn0t sd oF 28 Of balitorg ad 4 —pet ste zifen seodn ,eanrbltod mefeaod Ons astgenicy ar Savot an @ eredmis oft to ebne odd -tdgirt-1rs yletufords ed oF Soils _ @ Bhkbne cert me ebns sredT .tnio, bed to mot sat none neat tiedd Anivisa yi eyaw setevib teom sat of beqsde sd yen one -emtot weil[noeq at msdt Aniviao yd to , {7d 2287) abns bas asbse beatetetq od of ai nottetnemsnzo to eehbom szedt to eno dotay oom ,morsaicosb sat to sesndort ent ,esonateamso1ro no edneget sitf gnthiiod yisrodmes taszele ns sd of ei stwdomtte ods 9803 -nsmunon 6 sd of ef 10 ,nottidtdxe Isitteobat ne to notliveg ¢@ ylgnoise Jeias2 of betinp|1 evoteten? ar dns ,eldtesoq ea isd -gmrot to sotodo sat eeso teal sit nt ;tedtasn To etostis ont -st10q90 biotts eagatviss xelqmoo sonts ,bsdintl stiap ed dam add Yo yeoob sneepsenoo baa.astsx stat to sottosf{loo wot yarn eisdmrt eyolqas semtiemoe sisdostinors meboow asieeah .bcow -(83 .3£9) nottoee gnoldo to Jon baa Lanoksxsa to er a9 be cut off flush, making the bond visible at the angle. Tne decorative expedients for the esthetic treatment of these log walls consist in carving either the joints or surfaces of the timbers. also the projecting ends of the timbers, their bottoms or sides, angles, edses or ends; finally, when the ends do not project the angle bond is itself ornamented. Even ‘if a richer treatment of such walls is found in exceptional cases, these ornamental expedients are always worthy of ment- ion. The true Swiss cottage, Norwegian and Russian churches . as well as peasants’ houses, which are constructed of hori- zontal timbers, and finally mediaeval structures of similar kinds employ the most varied forms of carvings in wood. The carving of the angles of the timbers may be done in var- ‘ious ways, either as mouldings as in Fig. 65,a, or-in notches | of all forms in repetitions producing patterns of numerous kinds (Fig. 65, b). Carving the surfaces ‘comprises ‘borings and excavations of all kinds, dentils, diamonds, checker-board and zigzag patterns and innumerable sorts of ornaments, with which the surfaces and angles of timbers are enriched. (Fig. 65,c). One of the best expedients for ornamenting surfaces of timb- ers is by incised letters, proverbs, etc., or by raising them on a sunk ground. It is self evident tha the bed joints of the timbers can be profiled so as to be tongued into each other (Fig. 66), as found in Norwegian and Russian buildings, whose walls are req- uired to be absolutely air-tight. the ends of the timbers t then show the form of bed joint. These ends am free ending a and may be shaped in the most diverse ways by carving their sides and ends (Fig. 67), or by carving them in peculiar forms. Which one of these modes of ornamentation is to be preferred depends on circumstances, the richness of the decoration, whe- ther the structure is to be an elegant temporary building like a pavilion of an industrial exhibition, or is to be as monumen- tal as possible, and is therefore required to resist strongly the effects of weather; in the last case the choice of forms must be quite limited, since complex carvings afford opportu- nity for collection of rain mater and consequent decay of the wood. Russian wooden architecture sometimes employs timbers of hexagonal and not of oblong section (Fig. 68). Kay O¢ _ roto wits seredait feokdiev to bseoqgnoo elias. Rteetioe:2 eas aznibliod ni been ylowtins teomls ois allen dood et Yo setencs qodT .sonssioqat to seodt act moblee ,ee20qmy Y1 oe ih ys tedtezot Hentol yissolo bas y{laottisy Jee sisdais _ st9few to noteainds tnevety of yllawen ,(25 .3f7) .9%9 ,eengnot ie iaigend ebme tied? to .bav012 edt otnt neviah ata eisdintd saeaT \ gidt gnitetoceb' to sebt en? .setsiq bas eliza otmt benonet ted a te Yh toI senoyns of t0999 19ve0 Hiloow [lan & to basx -babsuom yd betsveo ed yeu arsduts edd nsonted etntoi, adt .bev -Redsen of tedtien tod ,ekatviso yd sidtetv sham sd ,anstiad nen Wi) «19daw to sonettas timteq of to aiedmis ond neented etnenento beste: yJ bednemento od bilvyoda areduis saT benomed emesd [etnoxtiod si% 10 sefely ent bas ,enstied edd. “band antere? entestag sven biloode etsoqg sdt to abms edd nsseteod aed pte ity | ~ellen brsod .y of yamottitse3 ntdd sot bees yisritns teaonls e168 aliaw brsod =sneq betsoent sie dotdw at xtowsmertt & to tatenoo isitie yodt etnos TO Miyi1 te gntavoio ebtscd to seeesmioids ont to 16 ,al eats & to Sencqmoo sts 10 ,(O% .2f%) tentegod belisa baa eelgne _vqelievo 0 wsitfezot hewinot . attitude esinely to aéeniotad of pees [etnostiocd base ateog [acitisv to bie sas Asin eBOLg : ~ taom ek tk asdtejot baften abtsod to asegemiorat owt 0% ie eae et-aoeto on ew .(IT 22%) stato, eat qel of [nteteet oe fdtwe efatot, edt antbivom bas ,boow sdt Yo sgeickide yd bee e082 mo sonenlini bsbioeh 2 ned abeod [ran te Antosga telyyer a0 beyolams ei nottouttencs to shom ekdt tT etoatts [a1en93 -ed 40 fetem t500e to eqiate yo beish10d ad bleode year ,et00b ©) Yoretooh od) yderedt ysm bas. ankvaso to tnetbeqxe yreve yol — Sih wets pieqo1q gniviso hoor at tetiet wol to extow of - taet beqxe emea odd yd yeu ednust Istuten yI benetnist escery eboow nk setstqivoe snd ofnt Dowtotensss 9d Bniviso to eee: — es90tssal bane gnif{sneald .3 dt dste Xr0nsus7t eeketne & to bseogmoo exyants ak antlenst efensq od3 bos Asowten to Sati s emtot ema? sdt jelensqg 1s8 Sa (ed ys 10 .gaintl s es. no benstest at bevooy sd yeu ti _,boow yllevan et efoned ett Yo [atretem oat .bettino eeo 20 beverans Yo eetsly ,edele oldram yd beoslqes sd | fod znibiosos. ,.ote ,dtloo 10 tmemco1sg .2eel3 to eteade Bi ioeascee ot svani won eH .3nifoensq sdt yd bevise aeogtg © moitowitanos bas Atonomast off Bntutot to esbom ont List ) trea geett ,alenaq to elstistem .aflensg siqmrs ,eleneg ont bne ,ne0tstel to sbnti enottav edt ..ot9 .ezmtoloom .etarol woneaag seottiel bas yntiensy dotdw wt essoguag edt yisesl toaig: yd boow to seoery [femme to betouttenco ef gnifaned ite | geetisom yi) recto edt to gost edt fteateha ease exo 2 8 Som yas aniteege yisotste ;.o¢e ,esvoory bas esagmos ,ero ip : “aging yidaistetg tod ,gnitfeneg r0t beyolgae sd yem aos B vetesd 2 shem sts emeteya sokttel 10 ofeeom smog .mateye ae Daten to ssoskq sat sot tnemettopet [eitnaees od? wanilen — ameade ot 28 of ,wortsn Sd teum yadd tadd ef AroONemadt eno as = ey 5 - ie Ae be aw ah a: ) ‘pane We) ¢ ta bd i] J “ts pes. ch » ebiwnedy wourse isdter sd blnode yedt sreteisd? .olssel gud Sc taasde: ‘dotdu .elensq nsdhoow [fe to suxt serwoditl at amee sas a... tokeivib « eatineast eidd wore ste yodt rewomsan sit sees! i jabaaen? edt asdn ;afoenels benidmoo yeau otnt Atonement oat bas beagaot bifoe .afeneg wotten Adin baowd yisy shea ad of | ott i“ exert sft msewted beosly sd teum syatblvonm bavoorg Eee ae «(08 °,Q0 .e3k%) aloneg {: dete brooos seuw Yfoeti Avowsmes* edt Yo motdeiooed sat 5 \ + ts ies 198 to eetoeolons to Anitsbied eas 10% bedakidetes sslyroniag 10 bisini yd betercosh bas bebluon yliscav at II 29082 efq edomi off{fatem yo betmemente offs at bos .etnomanto bs okiletem yd to Ba0etq msboor eat to enoitoegiednat sat gs -B3aimn > bra ivenuen edt ar Davot sd of si Bntfeney teodory saT esoaseatensd eas to teddy at dna, edetd edt Yo Atow Jon 54 From a higher point of view the forms of the strips may emp- loy every expedient of carving, and ‘may thereby be changed ‘in- to works of low relief in wood ‘carving proper; also the ‘round pieces furnished by natural trunks may by the same expedient of carving be transformed into trae sculptures in wood. ¢. Paneling and lattices. Paneling is always composed of a thicker framework with thin- ner panels; the frame forms a kind of network and the ‘panels may be grooved in, fastened on as @ lining, or may be entirely omitted. The material of the panels is usually wood, which may be replaced by marble slabs, plates of engraved or cast metal, sheets of glass, parchment or colth, etc., according to the p purpose served by the paneling. We now have to consider ‘in de- tail the modes of forming the framework and ‘construction of the panels, simple panels, materials of panels, treatment of joints, mouldings, etc., the various kinds of lattices, and lastly the purposes for which paneling and lattices are used. Paneling is constructed of small pieces of wood by placing one series against the face of the other, by mortises and ten- ons, tongues and grooves, etc.; strictly speaking any net sys- tem may be employed for paneling, but preferably only a web git system, some mosaic or lattice systems are made 4 basis of :pa- neling. The essential requirement for the pieces of wood used in the framework is that they must be narrow, so as to shrink but little. Therefore they should be rather narrow than wide; the same is likewise true of all wooden panels, which shrink least the nagrower they are. From this results a division of the framesork into many combined elements; when the frame is to be made very broad with narrow panels, solid tongued and grooved mouldings must be placed between the frame and the panels (Figs. 79, 80). The decoration of the framework itself must accord with the principles established for the pordering or enclosures of sur- faces. It is usually moulded and decorated by inlaid or carv- ed ornaments, and is also ornamented ‘by metallic knobs placed at the intersections of the wooden pieces or by metallic trim- mings. The richest paneling is to be found in the joinery and cabi- net work of the Arabs,and in that of the Renaissance. yedd? .ed¢sq [svevea to tetanoo dose aleneq odd tI y eglt) moseys ofeeom oldeting yas ddiw sonsbrov0s mt benid bnooss s yd hensdtgnetta od oF sttupet yfiatenes cedt yest yom fansq sdT .fensq edt of nelgns td3i1 te ebis0d Yo seenios rt ni seeds sinensis to eeeasniotdt owt To dsrogsoo sd oels 8% ea (88 .gf8) as91 at eaodt to etntot eat ynitevoo aq od, yeu afonsg ont ,yileni® .ttow leveatbea ak svis a Istosqe 10 .at bevoo1y eantbisom yd baoelqe1 yletisns { egatbinon ak=bevoot® edd ,fSeiisent od yem antinom bas aaa i$ B100b mehoow |adt (£8 .RiT) meds neented bacots aside visom sasit beyolqas sonses tan netiet] edt to eantiiso soqe bone egntbivon ni-devoota to sau edt Layan beivev yisv a ‘if tent? tedt <83etaevbe efds adaotts anitncn bas elie DA *(anoteneath szael to Jon ets doitdu .5een ed aso edoon aedto sdt no ;hnorse Ona tots Atod eatasque aniisnsy edt ae sbesestont eta saoo baa todal dgod Sdgim st nsdt aeel eyolams emtt taene1g sat to yrenitot boot santieneg at elensg tot boow ment tsato alsinedsm to eis sasit nedw .elensg rot bean yliisazsoen eyeule ataow wliake bas fooantew ,2100b nt ae aieita soetib ah oe si me ones B foStth sat seestont oT wot hoasetg 10 medord od yam yous | eerie .benedtgnsite ed bluode nottiog sfbbrm ett 92 ; “de beqqoda ,afansa beetet bad bebinow ylisoit¢iev L[evertion ble ,eutot ytew to ekeivies yd shoe rewol bas asqq0 ike [eng bnomsth seodt to emtot odd beet ot s{diteeog es Ipteis9 : i - ols enote ak beyolqnus ssodt mort sldieroy es tonttearb ee | * bebbe sd yen elensq 10t sboow yrsmibto edt Yo sep stds of ia Sebati ([e bas estewstni to .2boow enotosty odd tolseds 9x6 ton elsasq oat tot eleiteten teed ent to end .xXt0W brs tess .ferfoq bas 10lo> sakt to saote dtoone ef ytoint oF ‘ehatd tnerettib sat yfno tov .asktitiaool yaem at bsaso .enitnegaea sass Yo-ehalY esofsev edt onl tad oid te Bae efetayis eeely offs ,.oo8 ,18ga towlt bae rlosel te bevetane to edsfes attw ,afensy as Ssyolqne sd nao ,seels o fequten slisitive tedvo yrs 10 ,2enote otdgstsoddil bedots eS36 wsterien eoantgfoos eott .ealersnts [atortiize ),taeo Yo tetfer at eotely alensq rot seu t9dd10t yen oi edt ,.0%8 ,eeopsl[y belemens .{ston hetteogsd orsoels To beiem team eno-tod ,atsidase befensa xnometh beats: soasesteces ae 7 55 If the panels each consist of several parts, they may be com- bined in accordance with any suitable mosaic system (Fig. 81); they then generally require to be strengthened by a second th- ickness of boards at right angles to the panel. The panel may algo be composed of two thicknesses of elements, these in front covering the joints of those in rear (Fig. 82), a favorite mo- tive in mediaeval work. Finally, the panels may, be partly or entirely replaced by mouldings grooved in, or special rails a and muntins may be inserted, the grooved-in mouldings being broken around between them (Fig. 83). The wooden doors and ceilings of the Italian Renaissance employed these ‘motives in very varied ways. the use of grooved-in mouldings and special rails and muntins affords this advantage, that finer kinds of woods can be used, which are not of large diwensions, and that the paneling appears both rich and strong; on the other hand both labor and :cost are increased. Joinery of the present time employs less than it might, kinds of materials other than wood for ‘panels in paneling. Wood is always necessarily used for panels, when these are subject to direct strain as in doors, wainscot and similar works, where they may be broken or pressed in. To increase the direct stren- gth, its middle portion should be strengthened, either by the mediaeval vertically moulded and raised panels, stopped at th- eir upper and lowe:r ends by carvings of many forms, or by the Renaissance raised diamong paneled ashlars, but one must be as careful as possible to keed the forms of these diamond panels as distinct as possible from those employed in stone work. fo this use of the ordinary woods for panels may be added thatoof the ‘precious woods, of intarsias and all kinds of inl- aid work. One of the best materials for the panels not exposed to injury is smooth stone of fine color and polish, easily pro- cured in many localities. Not only the different kinds of mar- ble, but also the various kinds of quartz, serpentine, lapis | lazuli and fluor spar, etc., also glass crystals and stained élass, can be employed as panels, with slabs of engraved slate, etched lithographic stones, or any other suitable natural or artificial minerals, true sculptures, reliefs, etc. We may further use for panels plates in relief of cast, ham- mered or electro deposited metal, enameled plaques, etc., the .sotfotam dns sonsts? ,setateudat sie bas [stem to atoubory josd Aviv .snotsqanert gated rsstel sad ,pealz bans ntelsor0q ote eanty) onpero no bebfts .beneta ,dedot%s to baverins enoit ite ,tedtsel bequsse .Jaamdorsg oale serorrim to m1of! eat f tedto bas: yrsbtoidse ,ebsood blog .scel ,ddolo ,teviev : to 10° gevneo no detwoexs agatisisg ylteel .alstrstes of ey ay Bot a ealaiis? ; ‘Se, etatot, yd hefosanos e168 saeitt ett to sdisg ent stotnt To eeodW,eTEMI0D ete dae .ssisaa sentto to ody 9 of slut edt xen ti eoRe elbdbin oft antiub bak ,asoeig P .(28 .3t) yew emon ak stniot beattaom das etoanr ent s even Hokdw ,e100ob neboow noaroo to suid yllatosyes -adnowsmatt bas efensq nsented etatol to ansurtss1s sat ise! ed gon [fade [oneqgadt tadt tnomsiiupss sdt sort foertnoo baz basgxs ylse1t of ee of od ,animart ent of 0 oben ets efensg sid Ti ;gatqtaw To Batkorto to tssmab Jue yvltbse: tedt bas ,seso sit ylisuea es Seow ytansb10 A ekabihbon oat teat ,bedetidedes sts enoisioaoco ons LBivow roles taststtib s to tatot snif « sonta ,betncea 94 aehvees ded? dns .[oneq eat Yo szeintide sat yd eidkerv ago Be ‘edt Yo not#oertnom bas notégasqxe tedt of bsisves ed sapum i, ievabegal end jntb{vom yd snob od yer ein? .eldtaiv ad fon yen to :fonsy edt ?xen baeot #& baiosly base Asowemert ont nat Yo apbe edt ot [stom ao boow to gathivon to bawot & yar — fewten adi ot steal yierem ak boow sdt IT .(d8 .3f7) x10nemert — P yilekmiey tne tsqansas dtin betsoo to belito anied yiao .toloo p Bynthbivow tae shavor sat hos ,oldtetw sd ton [fin etniol eds | aie boow edt gatsq of bevtesd ed i TT .ytsaz900en od ton lin pet bas egnibi{som betnteqgnau sot sometstetqt 8 duie .betnisq ors sleney bas Atowemert sit Yo esoxtawe ed ek e! eboow sat to tofoo ([santen sat oi exnthivom oat d bentmtesteS sis elsneq bas dAtowsmett edt to agarbilsom sal sneqg osd% Yt -oldrerog audd anied euro? To yisitav test | -etoteiids at bas .kathited s to toiistai sat at beyolgmue ane edd. gt tneusvom ynowse s .sSdarl beenttibh yo bedagil yl leyso piotiséxs rot esctttve sno ste1sbom s siinw ,berispet ei eslitorg b iv ee hs » ’ A : oa a t ote as dose ,aintol Detsi0osb seent yyer teefqgute sat at t aide de oan to yittow ste seauod eaiwe bore Laveatben ar ~ e .ensiy 8 dtin dooiwte ete yodt -anoiteisbierico baitwollot sat a? - ey ’ y i 56 products of metal and art industries, faience and majolica, p porcelain and glass, the latter being transparent, with decora- tions engraved or etched, staned, gilded or opaque glass in t , the forn of mirrors: also parchment, stamped leather, silk, v velvet, cloth, lace, gold brocade, embroidery and other texti- le materials, lastly paintings executed on canvas or other ma- terials. [The parts of the frame are connected by joints at right, ac- ute or obtuse angles, and are cornerg,across or intersecting i pieces, and during the middle ages it was the rule to ornament the insets and mogtised joints in some way (Fig. 85). This is especially true of common wooden doors, which were ornamented ‘in the simplest way; these decorated joints, such as are found ‘in mediaeval and Swiss houses are worthy of use at this time. The treatment of joints between panels and framework results from the requirement that thevpanel shall not be loosely set in the framing, bu so as to freely expand and contract with- out danger of cracking or warping; if the panels are made of ordinary wood as usually the case, and that readily shrinks, two conditions are established, that the woodword must not be painted, since a line joint of a different color would bec- ome visible by the shrinkage of the panel, and that the joint must be covered so that expangion and contraction of the panel may not be visible. This may be done by moulding the edge of the framework and placing a round next the panel; or by fasten- ing a round or moulding of wood or metal to the edge of the framework (Fig. 86). If the wood is merely left in its natural color, only being oiled or coated with transparent varnish, t the joints will not be visible, and the rounds anf mouldings will not be necessary. If it be desired to paint the woodwork, with a fpreference for unpainted mouldings and joints, only t the surfaces of the framework and panels are painted, leaving the mouldings in the natural color of the wood. The mouldings of the framework and panels are determined by the following considerations. they are struck with a plane, a great variety of forms being thus possible; if the paneling is employed in the interior of a building, and is thrrefore prin- Cipally lighted by diffused light, a strong movement in the profiles is required, while a moderate one suffices for exteriors. e Rey | $ mont at d£ tusterh siom edt bas Ayoxboow ods neiteb eit eifoq jeslitory sit to dnemevon ot od tenm reR;n01se sit exe _ogai | een kg bas detnisy ,dnteg hnintde bas aboow bed Pe etaamsyom teoisen odd yd ‘=2118 9d of af Atowomert sit dotdn din wotv 843 of 3ntbioco4 eft bavote tnentmotg stow tesqgs yeu [etiedam ead tedd ,begne ay, eaypntyeet .enafoun & sort ebacet to sostise sft to araies peteatea,§2Ql .q ,20Lnosos? sisqnoo) tnentmotg east sibbin > tent netv wadto edt atin ,(aov0? gatdiors! sntntson09 ma mottoeitte Yo nottstnoassqe1 sit dtin betosnnoo ef qr Yo eslitorg sat ontaistsh .noteluget to tect dtin si _ aelgtonitq edt dtin mottosmnoo nt .fxowemett sdf animiot ea oy apenee wpiitns i gedanore: 042 lewsiy narheoerq odt ditw sonabtoooe ni dud .er gurot sfgnte to bsaoqnoo o¢ yee egnthlIvom bas Atowemsat oad te oncogene [fe sasbas nem yd bsyolgus ed seem dofiw ,norsoss To ‘egiT) ois enottoss efqmin exedT .bs0sfq ets yeds sottw oi rt ~ yanoflon ~€ ;nefgne tYo anthbavom .S -ael3ne oat 3aitetmado ,! ian baa exnoliod benidmoo .¢ ;awelfos bas eadbnuot benidmoo ,} Te) © «pevoo bas abnnor bentimoo .8 ;eevoo13 ,) jabnoom ,d we (8 {RyeW eetdd ai ws990 yen amtot [seed saeds to anortariey | Saao nt .d ;olttorqg edt to etatevivo Bnoite seel 10 stom 6 yd . vitkmorg geom ak asdtien to 18dt0 ent 19 eno ,amict bentdmeo to | )@ed betoennoo. s es bedests ylno ton ai miot eat nedn ,o {dae peat: etpdevina & to saeo nk e8 ,mict [enoftiranesd #& es cals Bot vise sawolfod [feme bre esvooig ,eteli{ry .eforto #& mont —- ebnad gated omit amaa ent ta ,atadwem fnetettib edt stereqee f Se iasecs anintot bse gooetiwe telt atelq edt ymedd toannoo of q i granes | omaned edt of taettnoo & es svise sand 61 Towans edt ,etedmem babiake sesat atbeies ylileusoa . 0 emtot bawoty es modt tnevet ton bluaoo ysdd Jad? enc! : “anes ons mort medt steareqgse ton bluoo bane ,anoktysonon [eoiite eine yodt avi? .betoennoo s1e amtot seodt fordn atin anctsstoo + 2e 10 eosiy sno no am10% drvoTg sd¢é Z3nidtimo to eotodo # bed a “seer itome: oteselo tnotonme mt ee .1sdtons ao medt 4nttertasoneo : or mi se 10 ,bee0 mobl{ee stan dnvod bas offeves edt o1sde saad " -samrot ont easdt to besogmoo ste" eisdase taom sisdn oLaso® 57 The darker the woodwork and the more distant it is from the e eye, the stronger must be the movement of the profiles; ‘polis- hed woods and shining paint, varnish and gilding, are suited | by the weakest movement. According to the view with which the framework is to be arr- anged, that the material may appear more prominent around the margin of the surface or recede from a nucleus, leaving the middle less prominent (compare Tectonics, p. 195,;state ments concerning lititing forms), with the other view that ‘concavity ‘is connected with the representation of attraction and ‘convex- ‘ity with that of repulsion, determine the profiles of the pie- ces forming the framework, in connection with the principles previously stated. | Not taking any special style or the ancient orders as a bas- is, but in accordance with the preceding views, the profiles of the framework and mouldings may be composed of simple forms of section, which must be employed by men under all conditions in which they are placed. These simple sections are (Fig. 37):- 1, chamfering the angles, 2, rounding off angles; 3, hollons; 4, combined rounds and hollows; 5, combined hollows and rounds; 6, rounds; 7, grooves; 8, combined rounds and ‘coves. Variations of these basal forms may occur in three ways; 4, by a more or less strong curvature of the .protile; b, in case of combined forms, one or the other or neither is most promin- ent; c, when the form is not only treated as a connected but also as a transitional form, as in case of a curvature varying frow a circle. Fillets, grooves and small hollows, serve to s separate the different members, at the same time being bands to connect them; the plain flat surfaces adjoining these mem- bers serve as a contrast to the mouldings. tf it is asked how the historical styles of architecture have actually treated these moulded members, the answer readily fol- lows, that they could not invent them as ground forms or geon- etrical conceptions, and could not separate them from the ass- ociations a#ith which those forms are connected. Thus they only had a choice of omitting the ground gorms on one place or of concentrating them on another, as in ancient classic architec- ture where the cavetto and hound were seldom used, or 4s in Cothic where most members were composed of these two forms. | ge etom xadt gnrdsm yd emrot bavoty seed? yirav blroo yedT @ ybestis ayax servis sat to emo dtitn sonebtooos ni ane @ ,seoneupse Inetettib nk amtot sit same tse Idytm yeds it to ,eabsed bae etollirt yd yiqaede eeal io s10m wens “pltootkh ot emtot sat wol!s bas enofeivib saadt sSiszo hoa ysm emiot bavotk sgedd ,yllankd .1stto doee yd sated afostdo [sisten sort Seviish axtot [atnens neers edf bantot t18 aatoss™ eodd ,sevieruedd aaio? “dttw savas! Yo stasaviss L[etefen sat stiw sonatto boots: of betine amtot otfesf[e ston dftiv .brevnnod bevie a tisds Stetesm Sonaneie¢ned sat Sane evanod edt seldren ; “has bavot tetisep edt otni east bentotensat ,at0 B ean di eeuncsd bavot tet1e6p edt san of Antilives ed oT Mo) ,ofdto> at beyolqms mobise sew bea 315 netoe1D of J .amtot soinioo beliso~og casts seu ssven oF bred TeAso y yasosly tisds af otdsveo hae Sap01 edt Seyolyms ointo? me wottenys sds ,noiteaesp Jnontsttw anmtot xos315 Iqyeooer miitg s ef ,exaetD edt yd oben of st9en yedt sansoed ylsien tix tee of ei ti ~eenseron of yltfoerth teom ebael tede /?8om etos 120 .ayrot on bed siesy) edt senaned erezait bob ew yin Stegifvasvnt geum sx ,t9qeeh anintanoa no be ‘sd teow 05 su dada ylsarsvnoo On& .1SsdJons brova bone asdtedw wsttem on zeae bra’ taon edt to Sugaods 8 yi tnemteots dd nf ben etsnen edt .anson seslquie edt yd tostts tastse13 edt nist apm teom nieol {fata aw :antisneg haqoieveb ¢ifst teom ath a -nwo 10 to tnom#eetd eat of -mottales ot ©1 Jk tasisnes to tostte ef% to tasmorfopet edt mO1e wtis on stenin ;betsntedia od Seum autot elttory tads fquh d3in esorsmmoo fordn ,bsopbotq sr Sathsolisvo bauct tdgnons Yo yfteveq bas yrotonom to foette edd esoubotd fae ) betebtanco od blyote anorteotfynh cone .eeendott to baste Yo anoeest tot acne [enorttqeoxs nt sldarresh sie yedt aedw “sien enogest seeds amntdivom neboow 10% .yonoos eee ab teoo sit ,su9 et bauer oe & IO SvOo 6 ‘Isddedx 58 They could vary these ground forms by making them more promin- ent in accordance with one of the three says already mentioned, they might arrange the forms in different sequences, separating them more or less sharply by fillets and bands, or they could omit these divisions and allow the forms to directly adjoin each other. Finally, these ground forms may represent the orn- amental forms derived from natural objects borne by the ground forms themselves; thus frecian art formed the cymatium “in abe- ordance with the natural curvature of leaves with ‘points rec- urved downward, with more elastic forms suited to. the delicate marble; the Romans and the Renaissance masters, their success- ors, transformed these into the quarter round and cornice forms. To be unwilling to use the quarter round because it was unknown to Crecian art and was seldom employed in Cothic, or on the o other hand to never use these so-called cornice forms, because Cothic employed the round and cavetto in their places, or to accept Greek forms without question, the 'cymatium and ‘cornice, merely because they were so made by the Greeks, is a principle that leads most directly to nonsense, it is to eat with the fingers because the Greeks had no forks. Our acts must te bas- ed on something deeper, we must investigate why we do one thing and avoid another, and conversely what we do must be done with full knowledge and for good reasons, no matter whether these were authoratative in past times or not. One of the most decisive reasons existing at the present time, which compels us this way or that, to do one thing and avoid another, is the question of ‘cost. We are always restrai- ned‘in th treatment by a thought of the»cost, and seek to ob- tain the greatest effect by the simplest means. The Renaissance most fully developed paneling; we shall learn most from that in relation to the treatment of our own. From the requirement of the effect of contrast it results, that profile forms must be alternated; where no alternation is found overloading ‘is produced, which commences with duplication and produces the effect of monotony and poverty of thought, in- stead of richness. Such duplications should be considered only when they are desirable in exceptional cases for reasons of e economy. For wooden mouldinms these reasons entirely disappear; ahether a cove or a quarter round is cut, the cost is approxi- 3 L) f ¥ _) : i ni i’ iD , ’ ij i 7 Aff owe ' 7 TT pk Lie uy a Ware, < ‘(es or , ’ m . : . ¥ a ; PT nate: Seer, 4 ; vy A) ae, = . Ait , ‘iw . oo @ 4 i A i” 2% ‘ a i aaa : ican © at spd ve a one ) ae oe om < Aa re - 6 ee 4 ¢é i : s af ne R pes 7 ao eclelhass bad Binoy Se08! Ph woman set Ueteuixorgys | i 0 bebfovs ed of stoteisds ers bat rodel evom situper woffod beyolgms elute ordtoD eAT .eseeo Isnoidqeoxs of ansttib bolism y1ev sbem bas .tedto pre edt stom ebngor ished oa ano? bevisD seodt to enoftoes baa frhex eat ot mer’ seteertros avitos Sao 18 yieitevy bas testinoo to etnemetiopet sal ak stotesiedT .ee1evet edt to basot ¢ ewollod wollad denies aetisup & ,auttamyo add ,nokdose to ento% xevaco Bin tn Jon tod ,ottseveo edt wollo?t yam bavor q [iste efter to miot dotdw tebtenco yedtant tenn sii ot fete “gaedt to foidw bas .x8vm0o fo esveonto tentedn .sdenk ss axtts to notaseigat 910 yevnoo vino ton emsot sveono? .neeodo Brottians1? sts yedd sonte ,eknad> to gedt osls tud noid sy Bi eriisccsern: v: nA Bas1gxs emiot xevnoo ytattaoos edd no nest ‘ba atbomistnt ote ,mektemyo dd atl ,xevaoo-oveoneo sal bensttoe yared yiixevnoo to fesiiaes grade 6d% ont oat I bez ¥tbo» ed {ftw sagit09 sa% to noreserqxe enT .10% beteg wy eYiizxevnoo to sonsaimobaty oft Atrw sonabroooe 2ofons sonsagtanes: metfeatI sat? to eitowement teentt eat GO Sis oO Sno zemHess Notte .kniblnom tebt60d & yd Aton atitne yoga geosty ent sesonstemmorts of Ankbrscson atot 19 Ss Ai 347) Snooty mednwa & wt0t 10 tal? niewor X1OWeMET? “wee ete) esnementio ae, sdapshnetioeginte 7 bete1c0eb ete | ” Shasitcs 918 wntalg tte{ wdtis see eleneg sat .ebned ) Lotttuess vd bentobs 978 yifentt xo .efeneq bnomerh beei eBGSIsee1 Deigt tiv —— adt beaofons nemitemoe sonseaisned vesel oa? gy ns antesso ,2anitbi[pom to emtot Bartosiorg ylaaore , as ie fansq sd¢ mot ware tisett weth feitestem ant ti ee Vege s80707 E ‘8 yw betstoosh ase sofmtoo ent cientot to eiton tadoit at - fegertes ody ,eupkins sit retts sevasl bavieo ddtw seitenys bedmemenio asx otdeveo ett ors beed [1meg 6 of bezneno ase Bs ae stein iis bendainnsientc icon 992) .amofeion’ noinwe 59 approximately the same. At most round and deeply sunk forms r require more labor and are therefore to be avoided or limited to exceptional cases. The Cothic style employed hollows and rounds more than any other, and made very marked differences ‘in the radii and sections of those curved forms to obtain eff- ective ‘contrasts. The requirements of contrast and variety are fulfilled if a hollow follows a round or the reverse. Therefore in concavo- convex forms of section, the cymatium, a quarter round or round may follow the cavetto, but not another ‘cavetto. we must further consider which form of profile shall predon- inate, whether concave or convex, and which of these shall be chosen. Concave forms not only convey the impression of attrac- tion but also that of change, since they are transitional forms; on the contrary convex forms express an energetic repulsion. The concavo-convex, like the cymatinn, are intermediate between the two, the sharp contrast of convexity being softened or pre- pared for. The expression of the corana will be modified in a accordance with the predominance of convexity. The finest frameworks of the Italian Renaissance enclose the entire work by a border moulding, which assumes one or the oth- er form according to circumstances; the pieces composing the framework remain flat or form a sunken ground (Fig. 88), or are decorated by intarsias, sculptured ornaments or designs 1 like bands. The richest decoration is concentrated on the space between the bodder and the panel; this member -is often ‘composed of pieces and bordered on both sides by mouldings, is finished as diamond panels (Fig. 89) or are decorated by ornaments “in bands. The panels are either left plain, are finished with ra- ised diamond panels, or finally are adorned by beautiful sculp- tured resettes. The later Renaissance sometimes enclosed the panels with very strongly projecting forms of mouldings, ‘causing an appearance as if the material drew itself away from the panel with great force. In richer works of joinery the cornice was decorated by ac cymatium with carved leaves after the antique, the astragal was changed to a pearl bead and the cavetto was ornamented by sunken incisions. (See Redtenbacher’s Joinery). There exists 03 9g) bas egnidison tsel Saptins essed? Bnisttao 10% noRset on ak bes " -8iT0%" I90 mort ahead e inde akan ~8100b 10% beas yidereterg ef satlensd ee saga pene midt Boe ognifieo neboou .ststinis? .tooanisn pew ; easotttel 62 te ae aoe 818 alonien: edd If soitsel s aanoced sntlened ; ie : «betata ybeer - 2 antoslq yi betoutteanco tediie ss4 esottial yiantbha0 oot If 10 ,ted¢9R30¢% sedt anidoton 10 1SdIo dose 3asvoO 2 -8LT) mivowtetni os yond sidixelt baa mids wrev ere tt } sas aqitts sid to enottosatetnt edt esago teri? ont end So taal odd ni: ytseesoenny ai oninstest tod .elisn yd ed tO ,9mart a wh bagolone ylsialqmoo sc yam sotsial Ssev bas L[atnosiiod ed yeu eqtitea edt .sext bao of as | eotssal as hebiske1 od of ote gael sat. pbeantfont to (Ie , 4. 10 qedso. dose, sao10e bial agkite to betourtenco esorsésl a. 8 Yh ,eatol to yetisv tae1g 10% yinus10qqo Svty zsAtexor nokeved msenif oft of noitelo1 ni avinotoeT ym ni bantaly “G09 tuo sezbes afeds sved agiite steteqes ent ,esostane eer on | e(e SC .3f%) wsteye aesMtl yne atin sonsbto 7) nwode svsd Stutoetrdota asiletl yliss bas serrtool! e({S2 ,€2 .e829) seotttal seedt rot sonsrsterg ) ees mi HSesantario esoistel antterooeh to shom bnooes 4 te 2qinte sd2 to eakbs sat anittoo to eteianoo bas sede ve 1) enottarotrsg stsiquoo mot yam atuo.eaedl .snofs agains ates egatheqo sat of Arivesl baviso od yino yam yest ro (ae aes t ania beau doom ean svidon vist 5(30 .327) sqede staccer S19n, esoeqe odd dofdw ai ,e1005 tot eeks slbbin oxidase Siensq dtin gnifensy sot neve bos ,ebtsod to ininil 8 yd. : . beldsy to alien ont rot cals ,aslit bane secpslg sotfojar “} svitom emae odt bentate: soneseatansh ed? .etsvosead ts 26 oe ; apa nt domudo £ eitl atoob tq nottooitencs 91% x01 B® 44 Senclone fon ti sext bas, eqinte edt tads tnadtve ties . of bamtotanend ed ysm encktoserstai sdd te alten edt bar . ene a peda ems asvis, ybastle asiat saT .sattenot bne edond Later Bice «neme1t 943 oF sf yanokgan cAsemiad yi betnevar een sottiel Yo mic? astinced 4 . | escittel seeds jamete oodmad bsyolqus odw seanidd oad yt terst NVQ -234%) t9dtepot denonet ateduem baoot steteqes to terecoo odd bis tent etntol,, 1f9dd te erniffena ystond mint yeas < (80 + Ba et 60 no reason for omitting these antique leaf mouldings and pearl beads from our works. Paneling is preferably used for doors, windows, shutters, aainscot, furniture, uooden ceilingu and thir partitions. e. Lattices. | Paneling becomes a lattice if the panels are omitted, as al- ready stated. | Ordinary lattices are either constructed by placing strips over each other or notching them together, or if the strips are verw: thin and flexible they are interwovin (Fig. 90). In the two first cases the intersections of the strips are fixed by nails, but fastening is unnecessary in the last case. The lattice may be completely enclosed iin a frame, or be suspended as to end free, the strips may be horizontal and vertical (Pig. 91) or-inclined; the last are to be regarded as lattice girders. Lattices constructed of strips laid across each other or halved together give opportunity for great variety of forms, if as ex- plained in my Tectonics in relation to the linear division of surfaces, the separate strips have their edges cut out in acc- ordance with any linear system (Fig. 92 a). Moorish and early Italian architecture have shown a special preference for these lattices (Figs. 93, 94). A second mode of decorating lattices originated in the middle ages and consists of cutting the edges of the strips at the op- enings alone. These cuts may form complete perforations (Fig. 95) or they may only be carved leaving to the openings their square shape (Fig. 96); this motive was much used during the. entire middle ages for doors, in which the spaces were closed by a linince of boards, and even for paneling with panels of majolica plaques and tiles, also for the walls of gabled hous- es as at Beauvais. The Renaissance retained the same motive f for the construction of doors like a church in peventer. It is self evident that the strips end free if not enclosed by a fr- ame, and the nails at the intersections may be transformed to metal knobs and rosettes. The rules already given are applica- ble to the frames. A peculiar form of lattice was invented by oriental nations, first by the Chinese who employed bamboo stems; these lattices consist of separate round members tenoned together (Figs. 97, 98); they form knotty swellings at their joints that aid the : red 4 a mai! 14 q Tee “A 2 oe = or! The ae Ae pe Ji fi 7s ® s yf “4 , i" 2 ha . a fe i sy . a tedt of sotstel aiid Yo sstanetd A .tostts ottetsre tk bas ,enorten [etnstio déin stisovel « oafs een aginte tel 8 | 6 emtot beitav jeom sdt ar etnersznette2 OF Sait ESV IZ . of bas .(02 .2i7) eqttte sit Yo nottoeateint to shbom sit od _ Sviao yJ deoelger o18 codasd sit Yo toni edt dotdn at yan edt ' ad of seoittel aotist#l yites bas devA at es ,amtol Ifs towbar . ‘tae se y: «mo08 bedrrogel rotten detA yd sbaa asw asottis! to taemgoleveb teddiwt A | boo to ssostq sisupa wort beviso to bea? seoerq: Baten yd : _2fo9 st9% dotdn bas ,eqitta meboor to awete codmsd ‘to bastent eat -(tayat “azeda o=§) ~(OOL 3%) antag baa ealod yd bstoan — mqadip edt nt betsers amtot to agqeoty teenil anttosanoo te esbor ~agolbns e716 fotdw ,emesieye sotttel of nefowsh 20rnofosT to Tel “yem \austeya ofseon fae ytebtowdws cms brs dew MF .daitay yf fe ss fokdx ,bati etait to seottial 10% staed s ee beyofgns od atetat dtitw dtowten dtin mort dsoubo1q od yeu benoktnen ybeot +8 0 beesd sie xeotitsl dsth gnem dso1g A .amiot ented ‘nesow pe eb it zemeteye isito bane sotttal djtw antedo to noftantdwoo gtemob eitine sdt yovine of sidiesoymt at tr dent tnebive tise _hesog satine efi diin asotttel Yo aottowisenoo to shon eLds to fesrstet od {fe yam yods tent 2nitestetnt et 2k tud >. eottilic wie ae esolgionrig alyate. wet 6 at antag atipiniien yd ebem od neo esortial rot anoidentdgose ws, Sepbet anied neat seosqa sat ,diowboow Yo Stontens asntd Lsyto ~@noLta1oo9b 10 notre tdasom etin to atoomento yt eatea nk beo een Ff “i eiatom teso To Gas enottiiae, tAat{ 103 yfdaristesg sts peonttel to sees sal yedT setehttz soitsal ext ettoqque as sviee of 10° es1s20l9n° Sé{poq .esteeolone bas enot{iveq nebis3 10t tnellooxsroala ste De Dei - ,segoging weitate bone ebtay yt a eAMOW todaiT+t1sh .¢ : gguod? ,allaw gattouwenod to sbom s si drow betedasd tied ; ae “fd? etoten etc wott toy ,yntfensg datiw tr seaefo Sileow mod ais gnewettih ati sacacsd ,nottouttenco boow of agnoied ylxsgorg seedtT .notsoottenco ni tieq tne1sttib ylerktns os yely etnomols ened se es (SOF .f0l .ebt®) [fre s mo ~:enolfot as sis atnanols omett eta? .4 eoala s yd botosamoo anied seedt ,9 edaog tea ox -yete ste d bre & eisdmrt eft eesiny mrot efdess ® ad ton bbpow grfosid tiedd netiise 9 et1ig oat 35 sooetd To avoids sat yd be 61 artistic effect. A transfer of this lattice to that formed of flat strips was also a favorite with oriental nations, and it sives rise to arrangements in the most varied forms according to the mode of intersection of the strips (Fig. 99), and to the way in which the knots of the bamboo are replaced by carv- ‘ings of all forms, as in Arab and early Italion lattices to be described soon. A further development of lattices was made by Arab nations by asing pieces turned or carved from square pieces of wood, instead of bamboo stems or wooden strips, and which were con- nected by holes and pins (Fig. 100). (See Ebers’ Egypt). The modes of connecting linear groups of forms treated in the Chap- ter of Tectonics devotem to lattice systems, which are endless- ly varied, the web and manr: emproidery and mosaic systems, may be employed as a basis for lattices of this kind, which as al- ready mentioned may be produced from with network with inter-_ woeen turned forms. A great many Arab lattices are based on a combination of chains with lattice and other systems; it is s self evident that it is impossible to survey the entire domain of this mode of construction of lattices with its entire possi- bilities, but it is interesting that they may all be referred to a few simple principles. New combinations for lattices can be made by makingiits prin- cipal lines a network of woodwork, the spaces then being redu- ced in size by ornaments of wire, wrought iron or decorations of cast metal. The uses of lattices are preferably for light partitions and enclosures or to serve as supports like lattice girders. They are also excellent for garden pavilions and enclosures, poult- ry yards and similar purposes. 5. Half-Timber Work. Half timbered work is a mode of constructing walls, though its Gorm would class it with paneling, yet from its nature it properly belongs to wood construction, because its different elements play an entirely different part in construction. These elements are as follows:- on a sill (Figs. 101, 102) as a base are set posts c, these being connected by a plate b. This frame woudd not be a stable form unless the timbers a and b are stay- ed by the struts or braces 4; the girts e stiffen their bracing $3 yg feneq asifene otek drow wedett-tled edd ebivis qedtapt bane ga drow ait edem of ytsmosewo af Ji vents mishom two Al bre evednit sdgterte yIno Bntau .sidiesog 96 m102 nx sAalegor - 28 ue toetts ni ytstisv to ezetnevbs sat grtottinosa yWearedd 2 nes ‘bane tostisq stom edt ni tnemevotqar yas yisorsoe anintesdo of [supe yleseamixotqas antemss ford ,coitouttenco is_Zn01te asters: yo ,fOI .2fF mt as begneris yirsluge1 d1t0w t9dar4 Me oo SOD .3i7 mf Ge noo edt 14 S187 tnstioqyat teom esi eyela son tOdmit-Tleii - tedatt to nortouitanco sit ni neds dns aeeentd to noksourte wis " see3brid to arebirp AoW sedmit~tled Yo tnsmteets otfettes sot 10% sevison oT adt aot oTS0 TET edt to inemeznerts Sas atot sas mort tlueet Iftt to bom eff mort es [fon es .mortosstetart areas to stom | ar oR9O87HISTNI OOF Bat -svad ew ees eyew sucitev nt begrsais ed yam exvedats~Tisd ent 90 seluge1 to (en edt yd eben 9d blvode sonsistich s bas ,mese Sax OF Bnibioo;s ,et1ty baa sensed ifed¢ bus aleneq telegeite ont aevik nizo% .[&tnemsnto 10 Istusonise 90 Seoqging sat 19dd _ smidt-tied to as[qmexs edt aeseuod ashooW tretone to elrased ets $e seenod ar aoitaixe ae -fOI 237 ar Hetnseetqges dtow 19d =ag edt to atnomegnatie tnetettrh to mottenisdie #4 .angaivod stew yedt ti aedd ,footte ntaeslq stom & sved syste Liew elo -ntd-tisd gnieesla teon sdT .ysn omse set yitosxs al betsers Ile -me base eszxeiliv tneessg sit mi baviseasig need svad asavod isd eed aoktouttanco nmsboow dofrdw of eakitmwoo seodt to seriro Iie -s98 svitovitent yrsv dididxe ylénsupett yods \beivetagg need eereblind ttedt nk gatlest fxs eott 8 to sonsbive ote for ,als to yeiiaveg niedtwor bona Snalyestind to eseucn sdt slgmexe at hi enidh oa% to ,sidave to asevod asboew sad , for? ena sot ,bnaland .yswiot to seods ,89ns1a to ,saesh to * ; poow nt arsdmit bavie> yiletostiaie to yllewten to sen eat ~ One yrev sd yen .emiot Sesviso ofnt tuo seen? 10 ,voftoutsenco ar dvow vedmrt-Tied most bebasoerh yltenutae aren sasdst ptoes #141 sid to siptostidors neboon sad ,ee3e ofdbtm sat .smod quc bertove? ,bneliestine to tedt es [fen se ,eiteved tsqqu bas fo atedt mi amtot uaieaslg haintstdo to enasa eidt to sen odd oATOK tednti-tled enortsiten({[t ss bebbe ored ote emtot dose to aelyraxe net & 62 and further divide the half-timber work into smaller panels. In our modern times it is customary to make this work as regular in form as possible, using only straight timbers and thereby sacrificing the advantage of variety in effect and obtaining scarcely any improvement in the more perfect and stronger construction, which remains approximately equal to timber work regularly arranged as in Fig. 101, or irregularly as in Fig. 102. Half-timber work plays its most important part ir the con- struction of trusses and then in the construction of timber girders of bridges. : The motives for the esthetic treatment of half-timber work result from the form and arrangement of the timbers, from the mode of their intersection, as well as from the mode of fill- ing the interspaces. The half-timbers may be arranged in various ways as we have seen, and a difference should be made by the us) of régular or irregular panels and their braces and girts, according to whe- ther the purpose be structural or ornamental. Pugin gives in his Details of ancient Wooden Houses the examples of half-tim- ber work represented in Fig. 103, as existing in houses at Boulogne. An alternation of different arrangements of the .pan- els will always have a more pleasin:: effect, than if they were all treated in exactly the same way. The most pleasing half-tin- ber houses have been preserved in the peasant villages and sm- all cities of those countries in which wooden construction has been preferred; they frequently exhibit very instructive deta- ‘ils, and are evidence of a true art feeling in their builders. for example the houses of Switzerland and southern pavaria, of the Tyrol, the wooden houses of Swabia, of the Rhine provinces, of Hesse, of Srance, those of Norway, England, etc. The use of naturally or artificially curved timbers in wood constructiou, or those cut into curved forms, may be very anc- ient; these were unjustly discarded from half-timber work in our tome. The middle ages, the wooden architecture of the Tyr- ol and upper Bavaria, as well as that of Switzerland, favored the use of this means of obtaining pleasing forms im their half-timber work. A fen examples of such forms are here added as illustrations fovea) kek bOE: sgt) etneasdg anteeet Yo xeevod oft mor’ fa edt ,bstsi099b ad of sce e1edat? edt. to sepet odd 2] qi betetoosh ed of ers noisessqmoo of toe dua yriad © 1iedd bas ,atiogqee sisl setedtanel neg iiteubesa fay. 20 » notenet at gnied et1tz eft tod .retolov af bac yeu aetas y's isnt ee De Peretti. | sebasd sitll ensetts, wi besiietoarado 9d “ft one A # mk bete1ooeb sd nso evedait edt Yo anortoesisént eal | feyestbom nit noanco esx dotdn bna ,untloneg tot bediaoesb rom, in bay ‘i hee »- » e(ddgia .d0L, .2i7) erstostiniors asboom aeine Dne os ae ey pellit tedéte eve Aton tedmid-tiad to aepsge sat. t sed m0 beoslg. ti gnieeslq taom at doftiw ,abisoed to gnt i a (2 dotdy sot ,atowdotid beretesiqnn yd to flaw sad to : an av visee! to ,eteiaqotqge yllatoeges ek baod Iadnemante as ‘Yo x Ri mk besaeaenso ed nedt yee gninetestg ara? .yscorsn betes gs down .sa0 att no rested) edt at benottnen ydserle syaw edd aieq y ao,tetier ni etnomsnto ,ofittsaiys ,esdododa bap iona ys Whit yd bellit ak eonegele Leioeqe to drow tedars-tlsll sean : eesopelg sigoo 27182 10 m to sautonttes eff Yo na@itetebianco # of mofi robe nd... estsle dtiw allan oat yaitevoo sottnaed of svad [Irae | rp Ode ppolaa Yo asbom seedt fife to eteead ent ef astays orseom ant “aeent{ edt mort bevitsbd od ysm esvitom blotiasw Sas ,alis», gn A auiiaaal mt as atnsnle Ineut3a00 isin sooeitue Yo noreiveh ; ae 2 ‘ eORIIIN. .g , ~e hohe “an | vaielities snote betissv-nolt .f a Yo. noston1Fen09 edt ean stndostifnowe Inerons Yo [esbi ent. tok and ti tod .enote Yo adale one emesd atin eyailiso snote 99 aed erode ed¢ ¢09 .satt svo tot salsv Leotstosig Ila yios are ; eosly on tI .a0 10% sulsv [sotlodnya & bantsde: eved gantiieo _ )foeatng00e7 bas ,tntoghaetea [etrseten yletwy # so sevieaice sw ety .e8o0qisg [atistan « sevise tein ylno avieoteg qilsinse - motauo: on wolle bas sonsoetninen [e2ottotart yieve yews gids : edd norst nedt blvoda ow ,toerz00 ed of semtd taaq to sgsee to | yam gm 10% ,soot tedmel Leottosetd odd odnk Batlreo msed snode pe ansom yd, ylqsedo stom bas testes bne Seriseb edt misais Po ing et ee , -coitoutianco, no1i yd to etd ee to tates [eneneh end no seviseiwo soalg ex tM tod Dede neseted detognizeth ot yitoemtoo non wond feun on Senn 4, rs are ee ee 63 from the houses of Hessian peasants (Fig. 104). | If the faces of the timbers are to be decorated, the struts being subject to compression are to be decorated by incised er.paintedcistripes lengthwise like supports, and their ornan- ents may end in volutes, but the girts being in tension are to be characterized by patterns like bands. The intersections of the timbers can be decorated in the man- ner described for paneling, and which was common in nediaeval and Swiss wooden architecture (Pig. 104, right). The spaces of half-timber work are either filled by a cover- ing of boards, which is most pleasing if placed on the inside of the wall, or by unplastered brickwork, for which a purely ornamental bond is especially appropriate, or lastly by plast- ered masonry. This plastering may then be ornamented in any of the ways already mentioned in the Chapter on its use, such as by incisad sketches, sgraffito, ornaments in relief,or painti- ngs.e Half-timber work of special elegance is filled by tiles ; or terra cotta plaques. In addition to a consideration of the structure of walls, we still have to mention covering the walls with seis shingles, tiles, etc. The mosaic system is the basis of all these modes of .coveri- ng walls, and markifold motives may be derived from the linear division of surfaces with congruent elements as in Fig. 10,6 Be CEILINGS. 1. Non-vaulted stone ceilings. The ideal of ancient architecture was the construction of stone ceilings with beams and slabs of stone, but it has lost nearly all practical value for our time. But the stone beam ceilingw have retained a symbolical value for us. If we place ourselves on a purely material standpoint, and recognize or mentally perceive only what serves a material purpose, if se strip away every wWistorical reminiscence and allow no custom or usage of past times to be correct, we should then throw the stone beam ceiling into the historical lumber room, for me may attain the desired end better and more cheaply by means of vau- kts or by iron construction. But if we place ourselves on the general point of mankind, ahere ae must know how correctly to distinguish between what i Sede bas nottenittteat [Aottoteta yratogms? «© tot ast ue ai tedt batt (fede ew .smit Ile tot selav tnertenrsy “ai bafinsm ,efqosq bas agsegnst ,s081 to Beoceistish o1 ylleaokfodnye ead tod ,tdzwodt to shom ati nt Fine « fges bane .an Onicsd wet Brkyf stil to ashom to esonatdmecs? B ol 70 esitnomeiso [eitomsen ak ae anctesooo [sisega no «weds qi! 4. mrot to enottaley ed¢ Snintelqxs at edinososT ‘at 28309 fr beteartacI([t bus tedt1s? tohoods atde betrteo Sw . 8207 notinstie [I[ao sted [iade 8 .eelqmexs trenttr1eg wat “ated? asdx ,[aotfodmya yle1sq sucosd etostdo teat soet baS teeasd sit to sesd odd nt ee .etetre tegno! om saogtsq Ie om: _ oni 8 BA bean qite & ,s9note tent02 Bntye!l af Leno 5 ft “ect{ {sotfodnye emoosd asen teds jtomod Yo I1fh Yo In weston Bas bred to ascety reisez0% Qniddss yd ert? Yo rotdoub -ebsu anol evan ted? ,anotten to eetnomeies eds nk door oe etebart bas feove (tart? got agai tees smote yolume of tdgit # sved [f[tfe etoteisds of : - ~ orm “Stom fas add nistis bipos sx Yk mavs ,eseo710e2 feebt amen rertce yi esis sd? wsvoo blooo Oae ,ensen tadto yd ylfe .{eauseon fis base sefotsdo ,erueloepam .a2dvos to seo me ylisis - efdteaca yino ei smssd snote to cap fovea tedttnebive tise at tt gq baodes & 3uf .83001 Sit to eaenvortan ht ys bedtinws node edd nt edtaofosT mi bestnzooes .evolfot tilsiuten sfaronia : $d fom teom eyntifeo mesd onote tats .biow edt Yo sanse suxt sed snote to 25 edt nedw ,istteier tonto 10 boon ni bedesioi go oalet 4 e808set yIsinnsey To stvate aot sldreesogar esnod | | Bas aasioe1D-col ead yd heonbortnt tend oAtl wetlodmye bec 7 =x8' Sid ni etatanco sf{qoeq bnoce yllaoisatsi1e ns yd bess revert sib agg eo metlodsys ent s tod .gntnd «© to mottetint Seni « Unslints e590 eneem tsitmte to ena besseqe1 eds most tive ‘ oa ® dfiw etinevs ea0 nao oe TI .amoks rbnod antticrl «SA Yee escom rsbiw ,eldiem to teds nsdt rstes7z sistont? of ao “ednemgnon ody at bavot seodt nett ,egnt{teo snote yd berevoo 90 gesely to setelg tdail soslg ow ti pyttapidine oteealo Yo ed [fede ew ,adale snove yvsed to beetent euaed seait no fasten _ sf0nttenoo si Saifteo e IT seneqe tebiw [{ite r9v0o of befdene @ Bloon gntiiso est to escsqe sit .auasd fork to msboon to be — yleomsse ‘edst nso ow Ylfsiqd .eldaem Yo edele yw bsllit od ton ,2m70T of Tennam sett bre Isnottet s ni en Satbacl eatwcs «ne — ‘4 64 has but a temporary historical justification and what has a p permanent value for all time, we shall find that in spite of differences of race, language and people, mankind is not only a unit in its mode of thought, but has symbolically retained remembrances of modes of life lying far behind us, and employs them on special occasions as ‘gn memorial ceremonies or monun- ents. In Tectonics in explaining the relations of form and pur- pose, we carried this thought farther and illustrated it by a | fen pertinent examples. We shall here call attention to the fact that objects become purely symbolical, when their origin- al purpose no longer exists, as in the case of the hammer and trowel in laying corner stones, a ship used as a table orname- nt or gift of honor; that uses become symbolical, like the pro- duction of fire by rubbing together pieces of hard and soft w #ood in the ceremonies of nations, that have long made use of flint, steel and tinder. We therefore still have a right to employ stone ceilings for ideal purposes, even if we could attain the end more economic- ally by other means, and could cover the area by vaults, espe- cially in case of tombs, mausoleums, churches and art museums; it is self evidentthat such use of stone beams is only possible ahen permitted by the narrowness of the roogs. But a second ip principle naturally follows, recognized in Tectonics in the true sense of the word, that stone beam ceilings must not be imitated in wood or other material, when the use of stone be- comes impossible for static or pecuniary reasons. A false or bad symbolism like that introduced by the Neo-CGrecians and never used by an artistically sound people consists ‘in the ex- ternal imitation of a thing, but a true symbolism can only re- sult from the repeated use of similar means under similarly limiting conditions. If we can use granite with a resistance to fracture greater than that of marble, wider rooms may be covered by stone ceilings, than those found in the monuments of classic antiquity; if we place light plates of glass or metal on these beams ‘instead of heavy stone slabs, we shall be enabled to cover still wider spans. If a ceiling is construct- ed of wooden or iron beams, the spaces of the ceiling would n not be filled by slabs of marble. Briefly we can take scarcely ane course leading us in a rational and free manner to forms, —— nt EE ———————— e3 4 boceney 3042 9 most tnetettibd eyntfieo smote 10% oldsdive op 1 etinsions oO cakindan yet 8 10 » aaglensn0 esosiq:son oe IL ni{tso sanots to notfowrsence sat si beyolqms evitom ed | eoega edd TI .tleett mefdorg edt, mort bevitab od ed2 ,bersvoo od of et allen ond 10 amead anose (QOL 2327) enote ofgnie a ftin th r9v0o oF at betesggua @ mot 10 ont brswot got stk entlont a tatew niet bede ab ddgisx edt nedw.noiord yiraas veel et If eonte bee iftso seogrsl eet .sostioa tebne esi tuo wollod yA. ow orrobosdT to dmot oat to isd? ak beyolgns isy seve math .t% §.SE dnote emoh wolf 2 to mot edd esd doide fpenote todtede ,atroyqes owt sat nesewted neqe oad TI ta of3ata 8 YW bersvoo sd of #8913 oof ef .fioo7 10. Rller HT) bia yd ebie eenota Isrevee sosfy of seslquia et ti 14 Isustoowte sfqmie ads to shew oan tesbnatg est o fais peenoy fotde ,entd> wt ansyol to eabiad.eod ns > edd nt ebin .3% 3D tuvods acted dose .anninego O0f€. yd_see 0% s9iq dose wort biel exe sidtem AssiId Yo amass, } it saesenos atinen beoslg e18 19tq foes Yo ebns ed3 ao bag aK saat eanotlt gatidreze: ebie.eno te SAn Of Bathiooos yen tsitone af bavlos ed (su welder. sd7-, ® sie ,e1e you? tI .ton 10 sidede ete atnontoda edt ve mINe OF 16 19to dose teniegs asnote ont eoelg of. ai ebos $ mottibnos edt ads ,(80r 28%) m1ot bedo1s as oe moat Bieeb yan ew [et8093 nI .advemtads sat no gile don teur rofqme egntites anitourtencs to esbon wsligie Das. sacds ) _anyonitiiht es ,eneisyeed bas ensoansss saneisa yal aie psi eou 918 atroqgue eaoin ,astatouisa ak eek bath feduap yeto1g of e808 bils ete enote Yo eneog otacrds 6. teiger is M neqa oat ,mtot lebimeryg Sedteval ae af, 19030. hose: Dao ania 6 yd betevoo sd meso god te gninsgo sd? Lida Deosbe. suas New te (QOL. -8t8). enote sf ow yeh dnsesig edt of sentt tesilise eat wort elgqioasiy eral. rot Bozseront ng etedn smote to sgutlies ifs of betosateet aex i: ‘edt mi bet 0990 tnemqoleveb tesdaid att. reldteetureg sew taps ~eelyte otdtoD bas supgsensnof eat to aetigea doso3s enoda ont omg efgaia 2 yd Seouborg at -aieiiainianaiine to. aot dse{gaie. sat 65 suitable for stone ceilings different from that pursued by the ancients. If we now place ourselves on a purely material standpoint, the motive employed in the construction of stone ceilings may be derived from the problem itself. If the space between two stone beams or two walls is to be covered, the method first suggested is to cover it with a single stone (Fig. 106). To shed rain water we incline its top toward two or four sides, and since it is less easily broken when its weight is reduced, ne may hollow out its under surface. The largest ceiling stone ever yet employed is that of the tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna, which has the forn) of a low dome about 32.8 ft. diameter. If the span between the two supports, whether stone beams, walls or rocks, ‘is too great. to be covered by a single stone, it is simplest to place several stones side by side (Fig. 107). The grandest use made of this simple structural principle is ‘in the bridge of Loyang ir China, which crosses an arm of the sea by 300 openings, each being about 46 ft. wide in the clear; 7 veams of black marble are laid from each pier to the next, and on the ends of each pier are placed marble monsters, those at one side resembling lions. The problem may be solved in another way according to wheth- er the abutments are stable or not. If they are, the simplest mode is to place two stones against each other or to arrange them in an arched form (Fig. 108), with the condition that they must not slip on the abutmeuts. In seneral we may designate t these and similar modes of constructing ceilings employed by Egyptians, Etruscans and Assyrians, as preclassical structural methods. To these is allied the widely employed principle of corbelling used in structures, whose supports are unable to resist a thrust. Beams of stone are alid so as to project bey- ond each other in an inverted pyramidal form, the span being thus reduced until the opening at top can be covered by a sin- gle stone (Fig. 109). . This principle from the earliest times to the present day w was restricted to all ceilirgs of stone where an increased he- ight was permissible; its highest development occurred im the the stone broach spires of the Romanesque and Cothic styles. The simplest form of corbelling is produced by a single pro- * (Off .97%) dale gattevoo es biel et dotdn noestw02 Saisosiorq Aniftes to tdyied tetse1 £ 10 ansye ishbin 2akrsvoo to seso oF ‘a “ade mi etom gnttostoig ,yieesecsn emoosd asetvoo fone Istevae | /ed yem alsdioo saT .ese80 brodee sid nit eael baa ters’ sega 10 yliaag yd wdtie .aysn to tsitsav tesTs & oF qoqqus as begedea od yam ysdt 10 ,OLL 28d ak 8 ment nfo 2 takes anys qd beterooeboed t0o,amtot sveonoo [snottienett i! “sfque enotten tmetettib to sistostidow eaT .(ff! .347%) ebstot ed efquia semtiemoe ,eanif{tso bhelleqroo eaeds nt bayo giasabteaos to ,m1ot slitowqg redto sdt 1 eno eeutteuoe ,aled er bas seogisg oct of 3antbtoo0A .ersdmem to acrdnsadaos - ge Binetbeqxe evitsiooeh sldmie seedt yolyns ofa yam eno mel sldatqsoos yilevens: ete smtot eat [fa tadt bebivetq ,sntt ‘eant Jd pores enon .tiseti waldotg sdt wort tiaee. es fone 985 one ot santsr of asslfeense ai tI .elyte [eiosqe yme of tattinoled _ beyolgue seq? siyte (sistostidows yas seusoed yfeism mands ced if, 90 reat beeu ylevirenstxs 10 stl Ltbos es beyolgme .sisised st#aieqee o8 (SIL 12k) efedrod adroqque en eshe sibbim sit nt to ,atwtoettdats otessio at ano shom & fous nedd eale anitdton ste ,ese0u1ng bsiisv deom sat 10? gniftes od? Ye tot catot tedfons a@ egatiiso zeitouttenno to , ebom att attw nostisqcom at estetsbnoge1g ylinyiia vino tert | antans+ [eqtontig: odd ,mtot yas aempses T£ Te ro ,JroQque te ed ae ean « Shee $a9 ~[teo masd snote edt to tiated edt sntoubst to bean edt ort By ie ? ant{rs. berstico oteeslo sat .antifsedioo yd Hedondiancs ant eft to tr0qque feqronisa edt at overtidows |aT woeit ati eonet —e5 .@nmuloo sat evode bos affew adt anole shastxs bre intizras setn0 sno .ebte yd sbte tea amsed qesbyowt to beeoquoo yflen «@f denite3s etuda dotdw .sfagne sat te Isdto adt Ynteasg mass edt .(ELL 24%) sr9dtsgos bettim ove amassed tenn owt edt slide -£ a0 e3ainego egies gntwotes gntisnsq tee13 8 mol agesd saote _» glesotvesy abodiem yne yi bersvoo ed yen seedd bow ,nafa ati edt sebivith (bff .3f%) Batlteo betsttoo ofseslo SAT .benotécsm _. yA A amacd to asrise 5s yd sono rsfleme osni eyninego S274! ‘se ‘ Paoose s yd elensg telleme f[itte te estise bnooee 6 ofni hae aeoege sft antievoo peds ,amsed asllewe [lite to & @ aeiaee ‘emsttoo to m193 edt ab betsveors ,adsie snota Yo tedman a ys 66 projecting courseon which is laid a covering slab (Fig. 110); in case of covering wider spans or a greater height of ceiling several such courses become necessary, projecting more in the first and less in the second case. The corbels may be formed in a great varietr: of ways, either by partly or entirely bevel- ing them at in Fig. 110, or they may be shaped as supporting parts with convex profile forms occupying more space, with transitional concave forms,or becdecorated by cymatiums and rounds (Fig. 111). The architecture of different nations empl- oyed in these corpelled ceilings, sometimes simple beveled cor- bels, sometimes one or the other profile form, or sometimes a combéantion of members. According to the purpose and the prab- lem, one may also employ these simple decorative expedients at this time, provided that all the forms are generally acceptable, and ase such as result from the problem itself, none merely b belonging to any special style. It. is senseless to refuse to use them merely because any architectural style first employed or extensively used them. Corpels (Fig. 112) as separate bearers, employed as modilli- ons in classic arwhitecture, or in the middle ages as supports for the most varied purposes, are nothing else than such a mode of constructing ceilings #n another form; for if the ceiling itself only slightly preponderates in womparison with its mode of support, or if it assumes any form, the principel remains the same. From the need of reducing the height of the stone beam ceil- ing consthucted by corbelling, the classic coffered ceiling t takes its rise. The architrave is the principal support of the ceiling and extends along the walls and above the columns, us- ually composed of twoi'deep beams set side by side, one outer beam passing the other at the angle, which abuts against it, ahile the two inner beams are mitred together (Fig. 113). The stone beams form a great paneling showing large openings on i ‘its plan, and these may be covered by any methods previously mentioned. The classic coffered ceiling (Fig. 114) divides the se large openings into smaller ones by a series of beams A A, and into a second series of still smaller panels by a second series B B of still smaller beams, they covering the spaces by a number of stone slabs, excavated in the €orm of coffers a , Ss) | > A Sved wsdsez0d FT bas A ameod sdT .tdzrew tisd? meses! of -8ie3 oft Yo ta3ted eft to deit of shnoqest109 feds otqeb ated ; am (Qt . Atl .232%) sotmt00 edt to d1aq anrtos{io1g to no oe osle bane’ 9 yd bettoqque et aftdt tady bekneriwe o# af eti9e & yd siyta ot10d ent mt en tedits .eveitidow ent -eleviotnat seotin adgylgiad bel{so-oe8 sft .edalitg wol ofmol edt ni 10 ,eegotem addi to edale snotea edt yd be I edt nl eossitt edd to ussd smote edt mo sisbt] matadai genttemon era ameed adt neented afevistnt ait ofyte Sbardd # .S base A emasd edt too znilfisdico yd bsosbet | saebtat medt eis doidw noqgs ,betiseni 3nied seaitemoe D axeat Th id eet a eetattoo a en abaeixs sictostidow tnastons to shelwond 1590 #8 tat oF ia nk baqefevsd esw edale snota to antiiso eat tedt disses Jonaso 19 ont to snottuloe sldteeoq [Ltda ots e1sdT .tnadxe [lot ati | omaxs on tesef ta 10 ,eslytea ofeesto edt ut bsyofyme ton meide “saebienoo od of text? si tI wen of bentemer svat wadt to aeld “}voo ed yam emasd snote edt noented asoaqetednt asyse! tedd be | prattos to bastent wsdto dose gantaye bis! adele enote yd bere ; oad yen elensy done yd dbettexe Sentat tdztle eaT 2( CLL 2229) sag %7 oft aedére% [stem to etotone yd besitlattean yiottias ty ‘madd yew bebnoters stom & nt beyolgus sd yer gnelladioo to al sism ot yrenesoen gon et tk yliant? doe ,esiyte ofenalo sad ot -xed ed [fon se tigtm yous tud ,sisepa eevieensdit atattoo ear -beosly ete miot s{dstine to esxotea asdw ,fanoyetoo 10 fenoge Jemerre ~ (Slt .BkT) meds troggue of -Opidanoo’ edi tedi ,fetnuoexe ylinetetenco ec sfytonitg sat t1 - =nt Dewetostidows dt 101 asebt yntbael ont ylqqas bleoda noid | ‘Sit de noisonitenoco assed ofeeslo sat ean asit yam eno ,tnomtes _ ffew-es essiat oinol edt ,ytinuyat sostys7 dtiw emit tnssox _)> jmomset oxen oft to? dud jnegotem bat edqylyitd ofr0] add as | stnemsn 0 yloisg gated es adqylyiat eat Stages gon Sivode gno —f87 Dae ,etovesm eonaeataned bos nemof end eXif etnsibeqxe [er 9dT sedoold anountinoo to bseoqmoo st sxeitt edt note msat oe yifentgizo aqedieq dgoodtie .mtrogqea niemar bas e168 shaylyindt Bad teitien Ons ,elsnsq ste segotem edt ,eanse taddone oi been fo Buidton :t1oqque Jf Tr. soneterze atk tot nottsortiteo: yne eOeqeisint on silt meqe jon asob Jf medw ,yrseasoenny svatéidots edt saa{oeh oT 67 to lessen their weight. The beams A and B together have a cer- tain depth that corresponds to that of the height of the geis- on or projecting part of the cornice (Figs. 114, 115), and it is so arranged that this is supported by B and also rests on the architrave, either as in the Doric style by a series of low pillars, the so-called triglyphs whose intervals are fill- ed ty the stone slabs of the metopes, or in the Ionic and for- inthian orders on the stone beam of the frieze. In the Ionic | style the intervals between the beams are sometimes materially reduced by corbelling out the beams A and B, a third series of beams C sometimes being inserted, upon which are then laid the coffers. So far as our knowledge of ancient architecture extends, we cannot assert that the ceiling of stone slabs was developed in its full extent. There are still possible solutions of the ipr- oblem not employed ir the classic styles, or at least no exam- ples of them have remained to us. It is first to be consider- ed that larger interspaces between the stone beams may be cov- ered by stone slabs laid against each other instead of coffers (Fig. 117); The slight thrust exerted by such panels may be e entirely neutralized by anchors of metal. Further the princip- le of corbelling may be employed in a more extended way than | ‘in the classic styles, and finally it is not necessary to make the coffers themselves square, but they might as well be hex- agonal or octagonal, when stones of suitable form are placed to support them (Fig. 118). If the principle be consistently executed, that the construc- tion should supply the leading ideas for the architectural tr- eatment, one may then use the classic beam construction at the present time with perfect impunity, the Tonic frieze as well as the Doric triglyphs and metopes; but for the same reason, one should not regard the triglyphs as being purely ornament- al expedients like the Roman and Renaissance masters, and ret- ain them when the frieze is composed of ‘continuous blocks. The triglyphs are and regain supports, although perhaps originally used-in another sense, the metopes are panels, and neither has any justification for its existence if it support: nothing or fills no interspace. | | To declare the architrave unnecessary, when it does not span t © efesr tod eaislfliqg 10 eneuloo to enctssinnylootesnt edt i adt Bae efatocise> edt to teow sdtl ellen evoenit | {noo Aotan ,otatatn e esel on af ante otnotoeT salat r0t pot et {fan odd tect seb esosnoiw1s edt tort hssso1g yl oqgue & ton tod .isdmem Satsofons sosqe s ee yletem babtets+ 8 )@enm dt ,troqqee 8 es etoe8 {fan edd vech -oels eno) anus ) hedwe neve ,yracRem oc? .isiliq bebnedxs to oatd # ee bebrsd : trogque of sers0o antfevel & esiivpss ,sostisq seor gL yrev ai svetsidowe sft boa «ti evoda sonemnoo Jedd ge0b Jivnedy sets00 anifevel 8 fone Be 3nitos es debisy Bedsiw edqylzirt ved bivoy eidt sonte tod .eantasqo: nege Sfodw .svertidors antanage ssat ens madd ytsttqord! 19 de tottal edt ,slditeaoq es hebsaol yltdntt ee ed bipode # gntoubes to sl{ytonisg edd atin sonsbicoos at betoutteces f 7) Sno te totete wetiqel to s{qret ent ai en ,étkeor moo to s{qionizg ott beyolqms eelyte oreasio ent teat | at egai{tes to amtot redot edt Yo notton1 endo sade nt “Yo evitos edT seesaly ta dmot oft ,efqmexe Intidnesd & yo envetie fori a otidtdxe (Sf ,OSI .ebrT) batiteo ards pe esi1sttoo has eneod snove to amiot Sneratiib | a to snsmtasrt oktedtes ead znimisomoo sttupnt wom sw tI ator dt fue qyns mietta yfeorsoe [fade aw ,enottourtenso seeds * pap ‘yd bedqeoon bas asivte otaeel ett yd bedosst tadt meds 19 ‘reer ‘Bysris o18 anveed oft tact basi eno eft nO ;soneeetened edt » © d@iw etrcager edd dosnnoo ysdt seat asdée sdd no. anstesd raaeate toetib tisdt sassiont of Ji few edt din bes tanto dose sete ‘enol thedT .tsbin tieds Hssoxe bluote dtqged 1tety , dd — shtariat bas antetteg brad yd betnemento yletetrgorigs ere 260 'Qnksiogqeue jmotsoennco anst7x9 $sadt asqor beterut. to eno bey, | mi es ackbe 1sqgo tiedt? 10% sf{dative ets) etedaen. tet 08h )faeeq dae enisdiaqg tesl ys bsteatoosb ois doidw ,bodvem ose ni “tof yntbro208 eslttow tnewsttib svad [fiw emntoluom arent + ansrdaonle ddpif ont ,yateintl to shom edt baa eletistean wsest = @ge01dt .egntires to seso nt Agsansd mer? gatnoo vfsasa ‘ “oo ioe en sit sess at soolt sit mott enokioelisy es bas ie % v -eeefs Yo shen ‘onan to paws edt _gatareoaeo enoksoniset gaiwollot ont es ebetsbienoco 49 of sae TT sisi sinks ein siznte 8 ano? maed bam 2athlwor sas tI 7 edd me sonel afO014; Manos edd mort yews doo sd yliever teow * 68 the intercolumniations of columns or pillars but rests on con- tinuous walls, like most of the Cothicists and the Rigorists | for false Tectonic aims is no less a mistake, which could on- ly proceed from the erroneous idea, that the wall is to be regarded merely as a space enclosing member, but not a suppor- ting one also. Wheu the wall acts as a support, it must be re- garded as a kind of extended pillar. The masonry, even when most perfect, requires a leveling course to support the parts that commence above its and the architrave is very ‘justly re- garded as acting as such a leveling course when it does ‘not Span openings. But since this would have triglyphs with great- er propriety than the free spanning architrave, ahose middle should be as lightly loaded as possible, the latter should be constructed in accordance with the principle of reducing the weight, as in the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome (Fig. 119). That the classic styles employed the principle of corbelling in the construction of the richer forms of ceilings is proved by a beautiful example, the tomb at Mylassa. The motive of this ceiling (Figs. 120, 121) exhibits a rich alternation of different forms of stone beams and coffers. If we now inquire concerning the esthetic treatment of all these constructions, we shall scarcely attain any result oth- er than that reached by the classic styles and accepted by the Renaissance; On the one band that the beams are always bearers, on the other that they connect the supports with each other and with the wall. To increase their direct streng- th, their depth should exceed their width. Their lower surfa- ces are appropriately ornamented by pand patterns and imitati- ons of twisted ropes that express connection; supporting ‘meul- ded members are suitable for their upper edges as in the iclas- sic method, which are decorated by leaf patterns and pearl beads. Their mouldinms will have different profiles according to t their materials and the mode of lighting, the light almost en- tirely coming from beneath in case of ceilings, through windows and as reflections from the floor in case the ‘coffers are not made of glass. The following distinctions concerning the forms of ‘ceilings are to be considered. If the moulding and beam form a single piece, much material must usually be cut away from the rough block. Hence in the le 23 8" beng attt ,e{soe saie! yiev 8 no agaritso to nottoutsence 1s eased oat nt as0etq otetsqse es egnth{non sad susunt of old (ot ‘ek gntiledzoo to sigtonitg edt YT a{SSP 2.27) a de | 7 gnrbiuor sdt tal ofpode ew ,e{dieexog ae foun sa best spaontive [eortrsvredt gnktanrbtotne , (SSL .2i%) ¢ ts es ode sy od tfsett [ftw ofttorg edd .bereqorg bee sit of Jntbr0008 ios edd 10 ,mzot xsvn0o otteytens sit Qnteooto 1sdtie.,beis sanottoutsanoo wssdRif Yo seeo nt mot Moitiens1d eveogoo if 10 .redteRz0t betodons ylieqo1g [fs ote ameod: enose- ene Wie sversidows edd nedw ,yinoesm dedsol ofat slind ete abue qt {fame at nage edt medw bse ,bedsol yitvees oot ed Jon fe So motsoeto1q 3norts & .beeu eis smote Bnoiwde To aevertsoote eft blnos-o¢ teed nedt at ti poldtaetnieq ek saniiledi0o edd _ “Yorasiiaes tied sonte ,amsed delfedtoo sid to soetise stidae ‘tsi as esost sisds soit Yosd asdtist Sevomet ness ote ys svEetg Yo motsoeto1g Odt .d tnemagnaris att dtin elidw .(ES2 232%) & of dt 103 sldtseoy tr eoten meed adit to dt#7 Ynt2nedrevo ead V8 bad st tadd Bool oe et (SSI .5f%) 8 maed edt TI .19v0 Gas | bsl{sdioo od yam ylenebive Ff .bno hose fe JIOgqoe HIT _ 98) steiqnoo fotdw .d amead stetbenietat edt tod yyidarebisaos TS oso0 (elstil stud) tno beflsd109 od resistive nedd tegmn ,AroWsReT? ensen yi 6 * amaed edt to ebne sad yd baduogque eo Jaum yond -» ‘98edt to sostice t9n0l [stnosivod efdT .etnto, bentfons te * (hohe) eebnad ottl enietiag yd betaao0eb od ols yao ansed B emasd eds to eslane sat ,egnif{ies ased snovs Isvesibsm al Yleonsoe .(€SI .3t%) abnor bne sever ys Sebfwom yllaisa9g 874 § a bitote eno toy ,sottoasg etdd tantsbs hstiw ed anidsdyne ceo & _ . Ipvestbom 51swot snorteantxoigge [fe fant efor ekdd of siad : ost bevome: si Aton edt todtist edt .bebiove sd birode anit =treiors; encoed emtot saent tod ,eedoisio Yo noitontsenos edd —A).Ba0qIHy tsdd eedoso1gys A10nK sat dotan no Ofser Sdt nt old [fe yrettee {Lin dotdn bas aw yd heteesd sant edit sonsseionse a0) stom fosorgqs ylrsqory yrev ye , salt 190 to ednomet taper “edd neve 10 .. yonebaes elyte rsdto. edt 10 eno of yleeolo sesl Cy ~aol foodtin .ebe0n ati ot Antbioo08 enoitan agteiot to eal qse # s{ytonttq s of asredbs ti ¢e gnol om yting Lenietai ett. ges gedd sd teu ofqtoning eidt tod ;efdsotlyges vilszene3 ai sede begoleveb ei sasmtasit mot edt tent tod ,betetiog ek Qatiion betoennoo ayawie sie 3atdt stdt tin Soe ,tfeesi garasd ott wort i 69 construction of ceilings on a very large scale, it is prefera- ble to insert the mouldings as separate pieces in the beams as at a (Fig. 122). If the principle of corbelling is to be util- ized as much as possible, we should let the moulding predomin- ate as at b (Fig. 122), Subordinating: thecvertical surfaces; according to the end propesed, the profile will itself be va- ried, either choosing the energetic convex form, or the softer concave transition form in case of lighter constructions. If the stone beams are all properly anchored together, or their ends are built into loaded masonry, when the architrave should not be too heavily loaded, and when the span is small and deep architraves of strong stone are used, a strong projection of the corbellings is permissible; it is then best to-monld the entire surface of the corbelled beams, since their centres of gravity are then removed farther back from their faces as at a (Fig. 123), while with the arrangement b, the projection of the overhanging part of the beam makes it possible for it to tip over. If the beam a (Fig. 124) is so long that it has 4 firm support at each end, it evidently may be ‘corbelled out considerably; but the intermediate beams b, which complete the framework, must then either be corbelled out jput little, or they must be supported by the ends of the beams a a by means of inclined joints. This horizontal lower surface of these beams may also be decorated by patterns like bands. In mediaeval stone beam ceilings, the angles of the beams a are generally moulded by coves and rounds (Fig. 125). Scarcely can anything be ur¥ed against this practice, yet one should ad- here to this rule, that all approximations toward mediaeval forms should be avoided, the further the work is removed from the construction of churches, but these forms become permissi- ble in the ratio on which the work approaches that purpose. A: Renaissance like that desired by us and which will satisfy all requirements of our time, may very properly approach more or less closely to one or the other style tendency , or even the styles of foreign nations according to its needs, without los- ing its internal unity so long as it adheres to a principle t that is generally applicable; but this principle must be that nothing is imitated, but that the form treatment is developed from the thing itself, and with this thing are always connected i . Sa a — —_— oo oY — Tanteaxs sad ,mottonrtenco 90% \[eineten edd bas sroqtng odd +) Ifete ew to2 .enoktibnoo {sool odt baw strl to etnomertopss eenetfstebtance [s19n93 saedt isitts mot to yroeds mHO OF qIwdet e ition ere aneod emote edt Yo esostase sbia L[sottrey oT)! sg% belfao-oe 2 yd betnemanto od tdztm yest sey ,hetetossh hem e°ys 10 ,taemento-basd nsiost neon [few ant ) -atnomen Piibotes tot benoliod adafe snota ats eevisensdd arsttos sal? a8 eefyte tozgslo ent nt betss1t sto» bas ,neentdgti astae73 anes ne9e2 ean yie yriste sdt tt ae tant ,dastsgenerd te eeprernenese nebfos yd betsio0osh stoteisds sex ysdt Sra ,msdt «gin etete edt efab 19tel & tA .bat to sald betolos bnvo7y a Se et9ifa1 ai aetteson of baknedo ~[reo: enote to tnemfasit sdét tot atnerhsqxe [sinsmanito sant ems egnifies ‘snote madw nteza beyofqus sd of misfo 8 svad azar ox abs fen ae otteatistoaisdo bone yniessiq dtod Bnisd yd , been wes snottibers yd Setaitosanco svitom mict elisienev Shietein feqevse yd aeosgetein’ add saofo of beakes® ai ti YL>. 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(OSL 232%) eaoneteath sfdasine as mk mwode se eteog [soitisv yi das emesd Doesnt yd badroqgse ets emeo4 bonagit to emrot smersttih [eveveer siedw ,OS!l .gLF to nottonttence eat nz beyolqus .etu3it elagnte 8 at bedoslios fElsagiT nl sysiniotv edi base nogyfdkT at agnii£eo [evesiben Yo asbon aslimte to aslgnexe asdtist awoda eas €€!L bone SEL 70 the purpose and the material, the construction, the external requirements of life and the local conditions. But we shall return to our theory of form after these general consideratiens. ~ Zhe vertical side surfaces of the stone beams are not usually decorated; yet they might be ornamented by 4 so-called fret, the well known Grecian band ornament, or by a band of palm or- naments. The coffers themselves are stone slabs hollowed for sake of greater lightness, and were treated in the classci styles as if transparent, just as if the starry sky was seen through them, ard they were therefore decorated by golden stars on a ground colored blue or red. At a later date the stars were ‘changed to rosettes in relief. These ornamental expedients for the treatment of stone ceil- ings have a claim to be employed again when stone ceilings are used, by being both pleasing and characteristic as well as a venerable form motive consecrated by tradition. : If it is Besired to close the *nterspaces by several slabs joined together, rather than by coffers (Fig. 126), they should be made lighter by being hollowed, the joints bein: concealed by rounds or pearl beads, the whole being crowned by a decora- ted keystone. The coffer might also be wrought from a thick block instead of a thin slab, and be lightened by being hollow- ed and by removal of the superfluous stone on its exterior, a | and decorated by a suspended flower (Fig. 127). 2. The ceiling of Wooden Beams. The simplest form of wooden beam ceiling is that composed of a series of beams on which is laid a covering of boards (Fig. 128), this floor may be for walking on or it may be loaded, a and in the last case the beams must be so strong and placed so near together, that they can support the load. If the span is too great for the beams to support the load without bending, they are supported by girders at their centres, or by several at suitable distances (Fig. 129). These girders may in turn be supported by trussed beams and by vertical posts as shown in Fig. 130, where several different forms of trussed bédms are collected in a single figure, employed in the construction of mediaeval ceilings in Tibingen and its vicinity. In Figs.131, 132 and 133 are shown further examples of similar modes of [oS PRE pe | ry sBtedtei= to ef{fsd anot ons mort asosty qeo yd ameed Snttroqqer _ @ffteo bsed ed? .y10dmeiwil te musacy oinenteD Ssdd bas ,neas isi BET) eased statbemistat avnd ot ee Satouttenoo of sd yen azn | Yo bsetent baldert to beldvob ed yew eeeed niam odd das, (ate a ‘aeasi0t ~bsol sit ttoqque of es of ,e1sbat3 yd Sedaogqua Qniss sagerosa: said (fteaned mort eidteiv 9d gon yeu t00Lt bisod eat Bad prio fs eabtaod to elansq etatsqse yt bellit antsd eso ii kehanics sedt Tsansgonzse oat mort syiteh of yess won er Jf uy enottatoosh sat asil(qque dots e8it ,et10qque stiedt dns emasd 944 rsbianoo of even Jaret sf =n09 tredt to desqa nedt [fede ow ;eo0atine sbhie das mottos vr Stetbemrotne sit .aimed bevents .eqso ,eisbish dtin anotiosn “,elensq bteod eft to yitesl .emsed belders bre boldsop ,emeed _ ,efeneq ni~bevooiz ent bne ,2gntbloom tebi0d dns edstot areds eid moi? bebnogace sts tod betrogqer ton o1e egatfres end tT] =—sg0td od¢ ,abor One aisdmem nofensqsue edt ,moisouttesoo Toor | end mor? .benotinem ed [Is biwode .mort yd easso sit to gat: ~amtot wilvosq beviash ed ysm zatliso bebnsqese edt to svriom mio? 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(2 CEL .gtT)»eotnt0o beLliedioo of1d & no his! 10 we él | »3£F) sotmico: ens hue euecd sat osanted bedusent ec ately Ilew & s(@ @€f .3fT). sotmioo'# to bestanr bees ore elsdioo so..fk fl © ymem nt otely [fen bre elediroo sat mesnted heosly eteaoy alin sfest etalq [fsx edt yli{sntt 10 ,stedonid doodtin to adit aseso «(few sat to notsosiorw «6 a0 -tto ne emtot meaed sat to t1oqqws bas Sad o1edw aseeo {le nl - edt bane tioqque edt meewted agatxe [avietnt nf tadd o@ .Jeaz yi to biaed [sottisy @ dtitw bel{it sd yem eras ,roolt brsod 71 Supporting beams by cap pieces from the town halls of Freiberg, Meissen, and the Gernanic yjuseum at Nuremburg. The bead ceili- ngs may be so constructed as to have intermediate beams (Fig.. £34),and the main beams may be doubled or trebled instead of being supported by girders, so as to support the load, further the board floor may not be visible from beneath, the interspa- ces being filled by separate panels of boards. It is now easy to derive from the structural idea the motive ahich supplies the decoration. | We first have to consider the beams and their supports, the- ir bottom and side surfeces; we shall then speak of their :con- nections with girders, caps, trussed bemjs, the entermediate beams, doubled and trebled beams, lastly of the board panels, their joints and border mouldings, and the grooved-in panels. If the ceilings are not supported but are suspended from the soof construction, the suspension members and rods, the trugss- “ing of the beams by iron, should all be mentioned. From the motive of the suspended ceiling may be derived peculiar forms, like those favorites during the middle ages and taking the form of vaults, although constructed of timbers. In all wooden str- uctures the supports of the ends of beams are of great import- ance, for if the ends of the beams decay, the ceiling falls. . These end supports of the beams vary according to the purp- ose of the timber work and its arrangement; either the ends of the beams form wood corbellings in wooden and half-timber walls, which support the upper stories (Fig. 135 a), or their ends are flush with the external surface (Fig. 135 b), or they rest on a wall plate or girt like the beams of a wooden roof (Fig. 135 c), their ends are built into the wall (Fig. 135 d), or t tenoned into a wall beam according to a French method (Fig. 1 135 e), or laid on a bric corbelled cornice (Fig. 135 f), or a wall plate is inserted between the beams and the cornice (Pig. 135 ¢), or corbels are used instead of a cornice (Fig. 135 h); with posts placed between the corbels and wall plate in many cases with or without brackets, or finally the #all plate rests on a projection of the wall. In all cases where the end support of the beam forms an off- set, 80 that in interval exists between the support and the board floor, this may be filled with a vertical board or by st J yam bisod atdt tt 7(t CEL .2tT) brswi0ot bemtlonr sno basod edt bas ti neented adnio, est fns ,anottetotisy yd bets ‘sd ysm eotely [[sn oaT .2qitde debfvom yd bebssoneo 9d T00lt $ mort bavizeb es atroqqen bas to eamtot gntesely teom aT . ‘910 dot 10 emote to esokat09 edt asda df bas y 2 eevison fota ysl .sled10> edt to sasmgolaveh eat yd to eso} dots beetysh sien aettoggue 5me erent Ynifouttenom to abort gootemun nt eonszgatened sdt gditsb boa esa albbin ‘ee bas el{sd mvot ,e2edowsdo doted to akarlieo raboor ed edé to anaqe sdt mseael of et slatonisg ttedt ;.080 ide ® efioggee (D6L .att) « Isdy0oo A .ageo knoll to anaed meed sat t1ogaqme dofdw .6 bas 5 eqao ows tee dotaw so ebfsl to0oft bisod 94% svisoe1 of sevisa med [law ards bre ) y@eloenos Ofaesio. sit! beqeds o1s eisd109 e4T .% amasd oid ior 8dt-.esrctqicoe ete3it 10 absaod .ebisida vd betsioosb sxe stufloy sat dotdw aot ,etedmem Anistoqqee bare zathbas sent idom sfdatios s aetlique [etiqso otnol edt most bevissb ese bas atedmts bedcors mott tao yl{srenss sis ature Die iekbeicn eis emeod bas etovtn edt .yffeatt caver euotiay ay oldedtos ot sheod hevieo dtin aniq svireeam -seiwieddo Ssdarodeh -8§ntiteo fous to sonstasgqs antnestq ant sessions enoftacal NED .QtT mi nevi at qgso beviso yl(ntituesd « to elymexe, nd SEP ee eirsvel mf ganttted tes9 neavedgwe? wor? | +S ddiwebel{rt ed yen 2 bane 6 amsed sit noswied elsvietat solr. Fi, aR | eabisod dfoome 10 beviad.) beterct194 betetooeb ylotsitqorqgs eve amesd aff to asosttwe r8Ko0l, eT aspetaoe ohie edt bne ,gaftntag to |nivieo to anistteg daed ogi nose mort hewot10d ..o%9 .mdinemaento nisq to ahmed .atert yo M -yne eds blvom of at show sldsting trom ent te .egnt{re0 weed as aznibluom seeds sont .emeed oct Yo ssostuve bane esl ow ented 10 dtynel stitas sit Ooeixe isitie yert easly a yd beow e@dnemento Seve [etoeqa tante3s efas bos elbbin edt te sdent Qatiteo meed beviss # nk mnode sk baiX efit Yo olgeaxs snit # na hay | : o(8EL .Bt7) Mots mi-aetr wol to yemasd beezot 107 .emesd edt sitl betset? od of ota srabar> got edt ,meynidBT dnwote brs mt sort neviy o7e aelgmaxs wok @ ttel sd 10 satwdigael seqrtta-yi Bbetaroseb .dbebivom gd edt yd mest [few & ,t 90a7d @ yo bstiogqea at o: 980 “anied es ,eyew berisv Jeon edt ni dextistoatsio sd yaw te) oe 72 one inclined forward (Fig. 135 i); if this board may be decor- ated by perforations, and the joints between it and the board floor be conceaded by moulded strips. The wall plates may be moulded, decorated by stripes lengthwise or be left smooth. The most pleasing forms of end supports are derived from the motives f, ¢ and h when the cornices of stone or brick are of rich forms or by the development of the corbels. Very rich me- thods of constructing these end supports were devised in the middle ages and during the Renaissance in numerous massive wooden ceilings of Dutch churches, town halls and castle halls, etc.e; their principle is to lessen the spans of the beams by beans of long caps. A corbel a (Fig. 136) supports a strut b on which rest two caps ¢ and d, which support the beam e. The cap c is supported by a brace i, a wall beam by the braces h,, and this wall beam serves to receive the board floor laid on the beams f. The corbels are shaped like classic consoles, or are decorated by shields, heads or figure sculptures, the caps may be characterized in the most varied ways, as being both free ending and supporting members, for wbich the volute curve derived from the Ionic capital supplies a suitable motive, the struts are generally cut from crooked timbers and are curved in various ways; finally, the struts and beams are moulded or decorated otherwise. massive pins with carved heads in suitable locations increase the pleasing appearance of such ceilings. An example of a beautifully carved cap is given in Fig. 137, from Burghausen near Cetting in Bavaria. The intervals between the beams e and f may be filled with perforated, carved or smooth boards. The lower surfaces of the beams are appropriately dacsenuae by band patterns of carving or painting, and the side surfaces by frets, bands of palm ornaments, etc., borrowed from stone beam ceilings. But the most suitable mode is to mould the ang- les and surfaces of the beams. Since these mouldings are prod- uced by a plane, they either extend the entire length or term- inate at the middle and ends against special carved ornaments. a fine example of this kind is shown in a curved beam ceiling of low rise in Zurich (Fig. 138). Girders are to be treated like the beams. For trussed beams, four examples are given from in and around Tibingen, the form aN aaa | age 88) .bebasmmooey yilesenss sd yeaa Bniage oftesl[o ne to Fe ) otnol sd% to mrot betele1 sft ni Dae wodgeoio bas sod eas edt of bnoyeer709 viist sottonet bas sissan seodn m1oi 6 ,fedi ei: etSb1E2 beasts std to 8 ad yi benievoz 918° 9" amsed steibemsetai sdf to seed nt ten edt nadt bebdsol ylfitvesd eeol ere seodt a6 feds ,tagu0 eantbeol eid? to 19f08 edo |sdt esergxs bloode yeas ame ito nism twsdtede .meed bebi[wom sd? to ssbft brvotg ma wsdtenosd banned eeoetq to elbaod e to tedt eswla ai B-stefftt ,esvoo .abagot ;masd edt to stgxeft eft ont : dott ni tedto dose dtiw stanistle ,atetmeno ee [law es ed efaiad 10 aiduob to exnthl(nog eft beonborg ots yew eidd ot gtaiaqes edd to anotioes tisd adt to moitentdmoo sdt yd ema enn evig .ObL Off .ekitt .aveyel tnexsttsh sdt to ameod enolltd af{teas mort emsad to enottoee baa eantiies maad te mont ab Edt sutt sneeatel to olteso edd mort ots SAL IDL .2giF -giksfootiedt mort ddl 367 jnebaeid neon yrodnsteedog slsess iin nied tesf owt ont ,nobeotd taso sbfawetbfogyid ar isqedo ‘ene’ .eftta sonseataned aad bisod sad of ylqas aseso arlinga tot nmevigeybeatls asfny sak fo ~bebsod Sas botsde1 10 bedotem od ysg Aino, sat. ,alecey -ebtsod eit to ezsdaiide mot etfuesr A tasisqqa om Jedd asiiinus ot banstast anstied yd Sbeievoo od ocle yas etasoy edt yestt yam breod Insoethe edt dedt oe ,yfne s3be sao ds-eb5 lee Pie rd etoatiaos bra maaeee yea Sas sherbt ses yd beeofone ed bivedea eleneq bettsanicoa] Ya tendoose of ysee ai tI sbetstotieq) 10 bewis> ,nieig steal 93 yem agniftes dove to tostt& sdt ,2afblty bas gnttnteq ferdraq y aniassiq © yifaseoen to sean at has ,benstagrsd ylisinesan 9d stise woiley wiosts ,stirdw etoloo sdt yd bentetdo 9d nao tostie ~~ Byntlieo nt tsdt horebience ed binode Jr Joe .ba7 ne cbal oases ,20fod emes sat svad seu etadmem telinta ,amaed bebl[yom agre =mem edd fads bes ,zent{ sntt 10% bees sd yfno bloote blog saat eesvooTs bos ats{{rt worten yo oOetetaqes giqrede od Slyote aisd -aebom ese tedt ssoaqe ao Ssen sd yew stoloo end tent on ,.ode edt to sys edt mort et ant{teso edt t9dt¢aat saT .betdgri ylete | wtdgtad sdf ,berazil et woot edt ylaaorte gael edt baa rsvisede (M0 .toette [e1ems3 boog & sved of 28 o8 ,et0f09' sad sd tenn 19 foo tagtid bare ys3 ni etooido to 3nttateg eat sbnootz mse edt ' y 73 of an elastic spring may be generally recommended, as seen in the bow and crossbow and in the related form of the Ionic cap- ital, a form whose nature and function fully correspond to that of the trussed girder. In case of the intermediate beams we are governed by the th- ought, that as these are less heavily loaded than the main be- ams, they should express the character of this loading. The ground idea of the moulded beam, whether main or intermediate, is alwas that of a bundle of pieces bound together and resist- ing the flexure of the beam; rounds, coves, fillets and grooves as well as chamfers, alternate with each other in rich variety. In this way are produced the mouldings of double or triple be- amg by the combination of the half sections of the separate beams of the different layers. Figs. 139, 140, sive examples of beam ceilings and sections of beams from ‘castle Chillon. F Figs. 141, 142 are from the castle of Meissen; fig. 143 is from castle Schaefenburg near Dresden; Fig. 144 from the Nicolai ic chapel in Dippoldiswalde near Dresden, the two last being in the Renaissance style. The rules already given for similar ‘cases apply to the board panels, the joints may be matched or rebated and beaded, so t that no apparent crack resutts from shrinkage of the boards. the joints may also be covered by battens fastened to the boa- rds at one edge only, so that the adjacent board may freely expand and contract. : The inserted panels should be enclosed by mouldings and may be left plain, carved or perforated. It is easy to see that by partial painting and gilding, the €ffect of such ceilings may be materially heightened, and in case of necessity a pleasing effect can be obtained by the colors white, black, yellow ochre and Tiidian red. But it should be ‘considered that in ceilings with moulded beams, similar members must have the same ‘color, that gold should only be used for fine lines, and that the mem- bers should be sharply separated by narrow fillets and grooves, etc., so that the colors may be used on spaces that are moder- ately lighted. The farther the ceiling is from the eye of the abserver and the less strongly the room is lighted, the bright- er must be the colors, so as to have a good general effect. On the same grounds the painting of objects in gay and bright \col- ae -_—— —_ ——s : io ¥) r i ; i ie Y, aya iN ee F sl ‘ PD a om SN | > to anstinie? edt to seao nk asbotmanes sd yas etoloo et to to1ye mp ae .soneaterbh [[sme 8 mort bowery ,.o88 v ous ppetreob atostidors yoem ddinw efdenoidest etinp smooed eas au r: -horieg Insole : Moktonrtenco ont =o t{uest amtot evitetoosh tnetsttsc { $ to nottosarstat o etatog edd stedx agniliso bsbaaqeue motenegaue sit bI .nottatebienco Intosqa etinpet exe oefq a18 atun dotde no abms netoe atin ebor mois om etd? .macd bane ton edt nested betysenr sd Jeum sed soaiqe2 ed ys 10 ,snemsat0 nowt doit s to mot sat sdat yd 10 ,19d¢o dose no beoslg [stem to adieth Isisvee peas i ekaelontess3 18 tettel ofT .etetfebhaedo sacl atnensaio rf ‘edt mort bebasqeus sd of sta aseiishasdo rede steitg , NO LJoOSeteI Nf bee ; od /yem anoitouisenoo bsntot dead? Sstate ybsetle sven si. ‘motaneqese edt canoti10g sfif-tinsy oft gntiteo edd sbhivib of =900" 9 yam Sniftes eft .adomi.10 agoth at stentmis? nent sbot fo ,g#ed071s ea2019 boe edits atin etiusv Senior; to beeo mo 81t6 s9xeqge sit bas .abtzed to anfieves sdt bsoséq wi8dto floss fosets#ni adit odt doitn ts asesod neboow bevrias yo. nits Yo aznifiso neboow [ntevata yiev ,boalfoH Sas nuts fed xl ab elqmexe sot ,botieq soneaatsesed edt [itne bejosis satex bard ‘edi tned abi205 to obsm ston egnitevoo sas (CdL .3i4) astrsk anoktouttanos betineaev ofdtoD etal tsedort sat base ,animacte 7 | re vitostieq nennem 8 at batsett tod ,betssint orse Lat, a fofifoutteneo neboow of gor | eahers fetnost10d ot betistansss siqioning Lssetousta eral gen dotdw .(a3f .327) egatf{teo betiusy [ennet of absol soeen Me fedtie e794 baa ,agnibiiad doted mi obeyolqae yitaenp set YiIev , “begegat sfq099 8 o¢ [aqden od ysm se tO .sbis0d Astin batevoo i edt nt agntitss Ssmatt-qine sift betes stew .aniblindatde me mm yldetioe ems atedmis edt [fe %4 boa ,edluav banto1y to nto i 189 yf19g079 S18 et804 antbhns-se1t bas ,se0a8sd .etacy Ssdivom " ae gused [efnostiod of? .ynteesiq ytev 278 egniliso enedd ,bev Ni | tntaq yd betatoosh stew noitouitence siidae sid Jaoqgque Jedd | yoeaesg e mot of, bsxtfito ylleteqsy eaten sedotedo nf baa ygnd ; Nee poole dovsdo ent to dignel sittne sat ALsn blyod ano dead oF ' vi -aniftso edt to g1eqg 19n0f sot Dradiie bos aeennsé e{dtetv to mianob edt ofat beysite eved sf etniog guidiete two of aiete1 won vie 4 ~~ 74 ‘colors may .be censuredas in case of the furniture of churches, etc., viewed from a small distance, as an error of taste, that has become quite fashionable with many architects during a very recent period. Different decorative forms result f@om the ‘construction of suspended ‘ceilings where the points of intersection of the be- ams require special consideration. Id the suspension members are iron rods with screw ends on which nuts are placed, a was- her must be inserted between the nut and beam. This washer may take the form of a rich iron ornament, or may be replaced by several disks of metal placed on each other, or by suspended ornaments like chandeliers. The latter are particularly appro- priate when chandeliers are to be suspended from the points of ‘intersection. We have already stated that turned constructions may be used to divide the ceiling into vault-like portions; the suspension rods then terminate in drops or knobs, the ceiling may be ‘com—- osed of groined vaults with ribs and cross arches, on whichis paaced the covering of boards, and the apexes are ornamented by carved wooden bosses at which the ribs intersect each other. In Belgium and Holland, very graceful wooden ceilings of this kind were erected until the Renaissance period, for example in Harlem (Fig. 145) the coverings were made of boards bent by steaming, and the richest late Gothic vaulted constructions were imitated, but treated in a manner perfectly correspond- ‘ing to wooden construction. This structural principle transferred to horizontal roof tr- usses leads to tunnel vaulted ceilings (Fig. 146), which were very frequently employed in Dutch buildings, and were either covered with boards, or as may be natural to a people éngaged in shipbuilding, were treated like ship-framed ceilings in the form of groined vaults, and if all the timbers are suitably m moulded posts, braces, and free-ending posts are properly ‘car- ved, these ceilings are very pleasing. The horizontal beams that support the entire constructiou were decorated by paint- ing, and in churches were generally utilized to form a passage, so that one could walk the entire length of the church along the lower part of the ceiling. We have strayed into the domain of visible trusses and will non return to our starting point. a ee ee ———< : | ey ; ‘edt sofw .st9ed benottren sd oefs bioode ezaiftso asec. ges ek I -2elit yd tod abisod yi betevoo ton 918 asceje No oftedtid jazatliso yattoutsance Yo ebom eits stadt nese ae eeter? ottedtes to sldagses et ,esidete tot heyols soi et omae edd -sse0qing tedto tot beea-sd oe! m lod jn aeonsed Yilenogets tee exsed seboow to Sse¢o0gmao wank e oiqus sd tdyim aslit Yo beetant .aedois tot beanies ove edt 0 “opsnengg .soto ,neely ,otele ,tneaeo ,snode to adele ' based .betourtsnoo ef antf{iso ed% tiofdu tot seegis7 Sisiebas edt no ebisod yd bstevo5 euniftes mesd neboow e128 pyatinteg to teiancs notte1oceb rzisdt rot einsibsqre edi wih s ,enstted bebisom yt efmto, aedd antievoo nt 7 yw Sseolons ear dordn to dowe ,afensg 9318 wet es fo betests qyiev ent 24 pbisod baviso yliieg bas beterct ae | eboaitestiwe sit anS te antiiso ; _ sagaiire) Ssienss .g sonete Sedtioeeh tent eyarliso masd neboow eft Yo yall i fgs0 belensa sott dod ;aantifes belensq beamed sd | “to anoftatiat se beonemnoo sonseniane edt yd beo tn Sttib stinp emrotrornt beyofeveh sod yagnitres: here? Io : nt to besoqmoo: eta ysdT .agnilieo masd To sendt mo1t [tes shisl to emesd edt [fe antved t9d3ie .amaed gar te oale ste fotdw ,erottoseistnr edt a5 deatexod be a en moit gnfinetxe amesd eat to emoa syed to adios yd = denteze gnitiods enesd ynintswer sdt ,xadto! ene fal madd ofni’ banogeds bextasin $d -yem dignelf tsetn to smeed maboon sonre E sagntttec Sersttoo tot efesd » es boyolqne sd yen. cedeve Mitosed # 26vth offise sotmto9d tdomk Jo e100 Svi@ee rn. -pentl to nofttosatetat sdt w beouborg atlise beret . ‘eI8AtO do8e OLE Rimonesoncn tedusnoe 1s9eqqg8 agnifres betsttoo 1s)1485 Iqge1 yd yaotonom atts Srova od Sdysoe ststasa. sonaeaten jp adyia efeneq casid ;feneq regal B yd arsttoo to qnoxy es Pigg eve | sheqein-seors' 10 3a0ldo. .s1sup8 ieee ose yntbivih yd beosborg sis. agnt{res,to¥ esvisom ni nts yd sedtaet ,ameed wsifame to angen yo seno tellame ofnt efsaey , tats tto aarttuo yd ,ealsnsq [enobetoo ofnk exaupe antgnedo | otat 10 jereMI00 SMt Bntnedsynotte ydeted? baa aslynaiat bolgne Wa 75 Beam ceilings should also be mentioned here, where the inter- spaces are not covered by boards but by tiles. I’ is easily s seen that this mode of constructing ceilings, hitherto only en- ployed for stables, is capable of esthetic development, and m may also be-used for other purposes: the same is true of ceil- ings composed of wooden beams set diagonally, between which are turned brick arches. Instead of tiles might be employed p slabs of stone, cement, slate, glass, etc., according to the purpose for which the ceiling is constracted. Board ceilings are wooden beam ceilings covered by boards on the underside. The expedients for their decoration consist of painting and in covering their joints by moulded battens, a division into a few large panels, each of which is enclosed by partly per- forated and partly carved boards, as in a very pleasing church ceiling at Zug in Switzerland. 8. Paneled Ceilings. Many of the wooden beam ceilings just described might also be termed paneled ceilings; but true paneled ceilings introdu- ced by the Renaissance commenced as imitations of the classie coffered ceilings, but developed into forms quite different from those of beam ceilings. They are composed of intersect- ing beams, either having all the beams of large ceilings halv- ed togetheh ab the intersections, which are also strengthened by bolts or keys, some of the beams extending from one side to the other, the remaining beams abutting against these or being tenoned into them. Since wooden beams of great length may be obtained, the web system may be employed as a basis for coffered ceilings. In his Five Books of Architecture, Serlio gives a beautiful cof- fered ceiling produced by the intersection of lines maging 60° with each other. Larger coffered ceilings appear somewhat monotonous, the Re- naisgance masters sought to avoid this monotony ty replacing a group of coffers by a larger panel; these panels might be square, oblong or cross-shaped. New motives for ceilings are produced by dividing the large panels into smaller ones by means of smaller beams, further by chansing square into octagonal panels, by cutting off right angled triangles and thereby strengthening the corners, or into at hae tdzia te leks emecd [fane yo aleneq beqeda~seo79 } bnoyed emsed t9olleme edd to ehas ent Batouborg YS ylte } _aeviton $42 stsqao) .anesd — edt dtiw enortosated Pe “eS iT mi partis 3 ynitours eno. 0 oben’ nts. sh Inemevoiqmé aeddiwt A 7 geet tea emsasd om p to enesm yd bentatdo sd cao edt oft amsed [fema to abe edt gnitnones yd (Edt 19 att loki to mottonbowtnr sdd yd base .d sflensg atetsyse f90 sasdt .18dta0% .esianteaviuo wsdio of Ind sRodt to 10 na dud dosetetat ton ob tedt emsed angen yd beves0osb ed yem m, i cottons sesdt atiy (Ont -3k7) tengszot benones ylor98m nemsgnsiis sidieeoy to yteitev elittevedxeni ns atstdo aso | pant too be1st tog alqute edt mont bevirsh [Is ,ngntftso to es betebranco 9d of Jon sis anoisoutfenc® edt To yaa sefq atedt ,foue yolqme of s{dsiiesb et tr tt panorte yrev sa X0 doa! keds to etiqe nt efdsitesh meds anitvam sonsiesyqe os ,aniires edt evods Sisl at ansed to esitee & .degne enn bfoote amsed to asttar aia? .adlod yd benetest ek ti beznsi1s sd nso anottosatetnt seodw ,metaye dew 6 ea be a ot at gatftes bef{ensq edt etniog esedt JA .ayaw auorr eae teom sqd9 af batetoosb sd yan ysat bie .emeed aad oF befen sass qo} eevidon saT of -O%8 ,29tTe20% ,adond YI ayer saat o1e youd dotdw of ansed to reys! asqq0 me dtiw abntires O89 .scitiesl .oissom ,yiebiorwdss .dewn yi bedeinrt o1s , bene fetenco ylevieuloxs asostiue to soteivib [fA .ameseye ton bas BA -aunifteo befensq tot bees od audt yeu em1ot devius to gar belsnsq nt ensed [fame bas eirsl sen nen Sw .agnities mead ri C&e eoale agnties L sniliso befensq to moktairooesbd sdt ak heyolque savitom saT ‘snote ,antfensg mi been saodd of rslimre Yllettneree eas fed? no tetysd) edd at bree vex dedw tl .eantlheo msod neboow OD eelqtonixg boxit datidetes yliess nso ew ,bel{s$e1 et obyod sot 9d gon taum tt sud ,eantfteo bsleneqg to nottsi00eb sit 16% G@ eeeds .exnif{tso msboow to amtot tedgo [le eikl tadt nstsor fe tist sn add oft Ankbnoqaett0o tetosisdo aaif{posg 2 essanos te 7 § tofoo fa anibliy ,gatviso hoor yd sortetasmsnto taad bre Bec -osetigotggs yilseioeges d yam esoistal [staositod tetdygif tedd daebive ties ec JI Gtin politi od yam asoagetsiagr saote .eznifies maed of atiod ie Oe 76 cross-shaped panels by small beams placed at right angles, la- stly by producing the ends of the smaller beams beyond the in- tersections with the larger beams. Compare the motives shown in Fig. 147. A further improvement in this mode of constructing ceilings can be obtained by means of sfiall beams set dingonally (Fig. 148), by tenoning the ends of small beams into the frames of separate panels b, and by the introduction of circular frames or of those cut to other curvatures. Further, these ceilings may be decorated by usang beams that do not intersect tut are merely tenoned together (Fig. 149). With these expedients we can obtain an inexhaustible variety of possible arrangements of ceilings, all derived from the simple @offered ceiling. Many of the constructions are not to be considered as being very strong; it it is desirable to employ such, their pleasing appearance making them desirable in spite of their lack of st- rength, a series of beams is laid above the ceiling, to abich it is fastened by bolts. This series of beams should be regard- ed as a web system, whose intersections can be arranged in va- rious ways. At these points the paneled ceiling is to be bolted to the beams, and they may be decorated in the most diverse w ways by knobs, rosettes, etc... The motives for these paneled ceilings with an upper layer of beams to which they are fast- ened, are finished by web, embroidery, mosaic, lattice, chain and net systems. All division of surfaces exclusively consist- ‘ing of curved forms may thus be used for paneled ceilings. As ‘in beam ceilings, we man use large and small beams in paneled ceilings also. The motives employed in the decoration of paneled ceilings are essentially similar to those used in paneling, stone and wooden beam ceilings. If what was said in the Chapter on that toptc is retalled, we can easily establish fixed principles for the decoration of paneled ceilings, but it must not be for- gotten that like all other forms of wooden ceilings, these mu- st possess a peculiar character corresponding to the material, and that ornamentation by wood carving, gilding and color are especially appropriate. It is self evident that lighter horizontal lattices may be bolte: to beam ceilings, whose interspaces may be filled with a Meat abatfteo beasties to bebised satowbo1g ,sbreos “egatitso Lotitused VIEV ferevs2 .eeonttal as sales suse ot svitom aint bentnt svsd esdotpdo gonere tans astletT iy ted a*neqmee at snoteT mort ekatle) 292) .tnnooor eagnilted NOIl € t utstes to tngooos ao been yltaeg ome egnitieso norl 1 teobtn edt [atietam atad Yo brs sit yd eensoed yldisy xe bas fatnetem to ysonole mgutxer atin barsvoo sd vat t 30% bsyolgms o18 Aotid bas enose ylno ,nork eeblasd me f sYoorsea fon seont ak been oale Anited boow ,skailiso £3 10 eased ao1t to badourteno> ste ezatiies mo1t [eis 2 8d of at jad .anege tobiw 10% aceant? yvsed yt dstrogqee 7 Inttesss ni neviz ed {fiw aiedtty Yo sottovisanco edd Yo agent =) ‘asdto atin notioenaes ne nottocttenoe mo1k to bne aneod as tase gadd , yew Ietencg 6 at bise od ylano ered [few JT ttel 6dt tedt bane ,emtot efymite etinpest arsbarg nowt sdgu . # r0aa70% syteiagotg fesel sat dértw emtot Istoeqe asmveae “40% beyolame yletemixorqgs ote dégnstte wiotinw Yo awiot . ef erofoo [io addin anttnisg T2035 eUllantt ;nertourtsenoo $42 a0 (od atid ftiw tedt Boe ,deu1 mort nowt sad sosto1y oF ber Visiter ed yem noftocttanos soit to tJostts gnteselg mt exntblind aot Sseo yidearstesg oe egnifiso noxl os ? oidetixs to moutnin #2 stotsted? .eseoqiog ytantbhto 10t “8 at tnemenner14 atrine eat ti ,tnetotttse yllesan er in | {qrte ead ditin eseestont sostte unreselq sad jsno Znies i sence no1t mt ted¢teS .nottouttenoo eft to eesnrasio bre tre o1qg ai [fama sts sys ant yd aese esbotingms sod noi > sometesags [entedxe eft :barsveo 318 test amoor shin edd vibat sat to emtot sit no easel ebaeqed noitonttanos sour bas fortoennes to sbom edd no nett .atosmels Lerotoorte re -Themshneiie on to asy2 od¢ mort bevowet wet ood tom agniftso aoit al Pibbthon tnagete yi betmemento od bluoda emaed mot ect ,reviee 9 no" w dud s:moxt teao Yo eher etnomanto betaiotieq yd to ear | eved neo isddexot betevin eetelg ballor to obem amasd mots it rot bertnpst yfetuloads tedd aedd tedvo mrot yas yloorsose e _ SBOgIL Bs | amas edt ,besinev exs amsed odd aeowssd asoegamssar sit tI be {rt Yi jetInsv ac tesqedd edt ak every e1s teadd ylqqe aslor oan ig i Ti boards, producing boarded or battened ceilings subject to the sane rules as lattices. Several very beautiful ceilings of the Italian Renaissance churches have turned this motive to good account. (See Celings from Verona in Semper’s Der Styl). 3. Iron Ceilings. Iron ceilings are partly used on account of safety from fire, partly because by the aid of this material the widest rooms may be covered with maximum elonomy of material and expense. Besides iron, only stone and brick are employed for fireproof ceilings, wood being also used in those not fireproof. In gen- eral iron ceilings age constructed of iron beams or girders, Supported by heavy trusses for wider spans. What is to be said of the construction of girders will be given in treating of b beams and of iron sonstruction an connection with other things. It well here only be said in a general way, that cast and wro- ught iron girders require simple forms, and that the lattice assumes special forms with the least propriety; further that forms of uniform strength are approximately employed for iron construction; finally, that painting with oil colors is requi- red to protect the iron from rust, and that with this help the pleasing effect of iron construction may be materially enhanced. [ron ceilings are preferably used for buildings intended only for ordinary purposes, therefore a minimum of artistic treatn- ent is usually sufficient, if the entire arrangement is a ple- asing one; the pleasing effect increases with the simplicity and clearness of the construction. Further in iron construct- ion, the amgnitudes seen by the eye are small in proportion to the wide rooms that are covered; the external appearance of iron construction depends less on the forms of the individual structural elements, than on the mode of connection and their arrangement. In iron ceilings not too far removed from the eyes of the ob- server, the iron beams should be ornamented by elegant mouldi- ngs or by perforated ornaments made of cast iron; but wrought ‘iron beams made of rolled plates riveted together can have scarcely any form other than that absolutely required for their purpose. - if the interspaces between the teams are vaulted, the same rules apply that are given in the Chapter on vaults; if filled oe a a ee sof ome ‘aleana: tisdt ,ebas0d seboor 10 eaotea to adala yd Sage I .agnifiso moboow 10 emote to seodt sitl badas 710 gaidote yd betatooeb sd neo ti ssoqing aint tot aainits ebevofgme ed yem zainiste easly sors 10 , .book bas norl to stood beaantd eldtaiV .b > 8 yd bedroqqua egailiso sta stoor beeauis sidierl gh eeredman befoennoo to medeys benterte yllautom bas o yitesl ,sboreit bas aeit [atnositon to [aiene3 ni tef oqque git YI .atnfot, bas sdt Rnidosnnoo amasdsit Ladcos 8 gesmooed eldt ,yntiies aft svode dsoslyg ets etsdmea e esfgtonta3 edt bas ,yniliso beleney 10 betsttoo weed os [desk tags ers eunifiteo to amtot esodt no 19tged) edd af eile Este et etoot meboon beasort sldtatv to Anrieveo Toot Ty. ts we Yftoe1th yen eesdt bas ,e19tler yd tod amasd yd hs Pak | toot sdt assented heaogietar ad yea enifasq to ,to07 rh wn ees ,tdaisite yllesen ste stetter edt j;eistis: L[eqroniag @ ef? .botieq oo001s9 edt to ze1tga ai as devine yleret _ sbeeentt heniet ef etadter to anoitanidmos to meteya ont iy -2toor beaanit mebooW .# Yat at aevitom ato? sft etoot seeit to ynitsvoo eds 107 av eeanifies to sasmtests ott tot mevty ybaetis essesbr odd @ .boow ,eotsle ,anelz ,eelid ,snote to leiseisn anirs They to asitss & of benstest ylisvan af ,.ote ,[stenm s0 agitate t9dt0 siil betetoseb 9d ylfsteney yam docds gem znirevoo edt tr ,ssoqteg bas sisden wfeds of aakbieo . poosqeesas mt efensq [fe eit ,fteensd eldiaitv enisamet pooos mo ,bavioo to Itdyrerte tented ~aIsttet Gnksroggue segse13 evad blvoda anthaed of sonsdeieet [fame ated? petssit 9d bluode dae ,emsed tedto [fs itl thin cedd ot bantmtss 9b ssigtonimg ed? ,etetto ytinntsoqgo asa’ .ansed ds -ito be eturte ,eborsit to amtot edt sntmieted emiot gnitcurl edt TI .(.psa to Gel og ,e20rnotost ssh) .ettag betosnanos 19 des ogmoc sie enifiog sat anttroqqua anasd atau edt to esatter . ant DIODE ajntviso ys betetoveb ed yam yedt ,es0erg beviso to oe etiey evorisy at batebrenoo srodt edit .ssonstemuoi1to of -e0inotoetidowA bae eoknotosT a0 * ,a%007 beeautd sidtetv nit ainerbeqxe svidei00sb yf[s100 eA : “Jexpsoorse edt neented esosqeistat ynir{ltt rot yolqas naw o% sBaivieo ols ,eontd [fe to afeneq bilos to betatotisy ,atsdaem “outs edt to etieq tnentmotg s{detioe no gntbirg bre anitnteg es “be it, 78 | by slabs of stone or wooden boards, their panels are to be tr- eated like those of stone or wooden ceilings. If Slass be used for this purpose it can be decorated by etching or engraving , or true glass staining may be employed. 4. Visible trussed Roofs of Iron and Wood. Visible trussed roofs are ceilings supported by a combined and mutually strained aystem of connected members. These cona- _ist in general of horizontal ties and tierods, lastly of hori- zontal tiebeams connecting the end joints. If the supporting members are placed above the ceiling, this becomes a suspended beam, coffered or paneled ceiling, and the principles stated in the Chapter on those forms of ceilings are applicable. The roof covering of visible trussed wooden roofs is not support- ed by beams but by rafters, and these may directly support the roof, or purlins may be interposed between the roof and the principal rafters; the rafters are usually straight, but are rarely curved as in spires of the Barocco period. The support- ing system of combinations of rafters is termed trusses. “%. Wooden trussed roofs. For the covering of these roofs the form motives result from the ideas already given for the treatment of ceilings. The coy- ering material of stone, tiles, glass, slates, wood, straw, m metal, etc., is usually fastened to a series of wooden battens, which may generally be decorated like other strips or bands ac- cording to their nature and purpose, if the covering material remains visible beneath, like all panels in interspaces. The Supporting rafters, whether straight or carved, on account of their small resistance to bending should have greater depth than width like all other beams, and should be treated like beams. When opportunity offers, the principles determined for limiting forms determine the forms of tierods, struts and oth- er connected parts. (See Tectonics, p. 195 et seq.). If the _ rafters or the main beams supporting the purlins are composed of curved pieces, they may be decorated by carvings according to circumstances, like those considered in various parts of our Tectonics and Architectonics. As purely decorative expedients in visible trussed roofs, ae man employ for filling interspaces between the structural members, perforated or solid panels of all kinds, also carving, painting and gilding on suitable prominent parts of the struc- 7 UL ere pe “hee ' caer oo See me Ste Letasmento offlesem .s1utoutte froan 1 Sdt aysnls at noitouitenos 1sel> bas sf{ymia 4 Piettacs to 1edtetn ,etooa beeeotd sldteiv ifs nk 3niad yeerotar tnststtib to aoktoeith edd ok anoidiensid sisids oe | nk esyruo notttsnsid ys bensitos sé yam ataaq Letasours: ihe iad baa Yoot sviessn ot badimil yferitns teonls ,aseeo Biot od ytseesosn nad ston ti ;zetelq belfor to enoisourse to mataya bIgi1 odt oF beeoggo .enorttnsvistnt dove aot fostts to yaienes bas noftourfeanoco sedw estutonutse 0 3ninedtog yas wolls ton eafepst isdtien anones fal ecen Yo aisttse1 to sess at ylnO .ealtixs yrttaq yd {netto Si ak ,astgne sopifdo te zattosaistnir asge edie p bfod ew bael dokdw ,sevipo notsianett og%0el tisang of a boas 918 esintonutte done nedw :anottoutsenco toot douse 9 to aelete obtw at 10 .anottata yanlte: to etoor yaem uferitns yadt ste ,.ote ,esenotio act ezniblisd .allad | em0%I to etoot beesort sldreiV .§ 1q nk aslimte 2k atoor dessert novi to tnemteort ant fede of snthbicooe .boow To*batontsencod ezoat To Isnt oF a edt to tnemfseit ni soneasttib edd ,betata noed ybser Pond eit to sonsrettrh Lattnsees sdt no1t atiseer asisy a3 M0 Snshasyed aesesso7y fsotadoed sat bas .elsinatean to 1et8e7) sat es [fow aa ,tdgten Yo bea [stietsam Yo yroncolt odd dttw bsieqmo9 ,moftose [supe Yo aisdmem nowt to atime F > tetdarl &-nofitourtenoo ao1k of aeviz ,f[eittetsen isdto yae fosq Sd? .enottonisanoo wiso to taht nedd Jvodycordt setos ‘20m ,.e918g tasisttrb edt ynktoannoo Yo nebos ant to aarsine son gent 8 atouttedo ,aysd base etlod .ewetoe ,atevia yo bantot aoe qsent 6 ,etoot besgenis noir to mot offertias sdi ot taeaev 40 be pqmoD ats sat of betotitass yloritns teoafs 3nted ysly Sait edd yd mot Yo esendory nt daoféar tovetadw t5¥ .nort tees ) sit yo es [Ion es .nottourtenos nort od? Yo eesanidt bne ywist 92 ft betsensynoo ed ned ,fsivetem edd antison to ysluorttibd -s 18H 10 betarot1sy no1t teso to sotalq to bis edt yd aatgsh Se6b fetnsmento yt ,fatom nidt at enottercosh yi .teifer at bed Yo watysd> edt nt barshbkeno® e118 dotdy ,sott togsomw ar aliat ‘lal gntintsy yt ylteal bas ,AtOW a“dtimatoo! so aoinatos4T eat sgnibliy ys bas ,tant wort nottoeto1g & es beriupet atolos ent sesesog of bsrispet even ef notfouttenod nowt sonie ,sed9 ote mt) ty iaease | ad i @ - 4 = i ‘Sh Sere a : be -* ft es is fh r; yey v hy [ 7 ne. 7 Ped toi | i) 79 structure, metallic ornaments, etc. A simple and clear construction is always the most important thing in all visible trussed roofs, whether of wood or of iron; abrupt transitions in the direction of different intersecting: structural parts may be softened by transition curves in rare cases, almost entirely limited to massive roof and pridge con- structions of rolled plates; it more than necessary to avoid such interventions, opposed to the rigid system of massive structures when construction and energy of effect for esthetic reasons neither require nor allow any softening or weakening by paltry trifles. Only in case of rafters of many truauses of wide span intersecting at oblique angles, is it often proper to insert large transition curves, which lend a bold sweep to such roof constructions; when such structures are used as in many roofs of railway stations, or in wide aisles of churches, halls, buildings for circuses, etc., are they entirely correct. 8. Visible trussed roofs of Iron. The treatment of iron trussed roofs is similar in principle to that of those constractediof wood: according to what has al- ready been stated, the difference in treatment of the separate parts results from the essential difference of the two kinds of materials, and the technical processes pbependent on these. Economy of material and of weight, as well as the greater str- ength of iron members of equal section, compared with those of any other material, gives to iron construction a lighter char- acter throughout than that of other constructions. The peculi- arities of the modes of connecting the different parts, mostly joined by rivets, screws, bolts and keys, obstructs a free mo- venent in the artistic form of iron trussed roofs, a freer play being almost entirely restricted to the parts composed of cast iron. Yet whatever is lost in richness of form by the rig- idity and thinness of the iron construction, as well as by the difficulty of working the material, can be compensated in some degree by the aid of plates of cast iron perforated or decora- ted in relief, by decorations in thin metal, by ornamental de- tails in wrought iron, which are considered in the Chapter of Tectonics on Locksmith”s Work, and lastly by painting in ot1 colors reguired as a protection from rust, and by gilding; fur- ther, since iron construction is never required to possess the cu a rh ot Sas A) Bait f ) dud asiutouite snote to aetosted9, [sdnanunom tnsnimoberg eo sterebom & ,xietogmss exel 10 Siom Sseogtny & BSsvise soxe 1sq I[sitistan yretlixas os = .>sbsloxrs Jon ek e879 TsO ‘ ee Te” ee: hh < : a am? fy 9 : : J el ' a" r i A ; | ae eatigsY .¢ ) od ysn exbssestiont st beyolqms ylide1sie1q etivav aaT ef mottatioe*sb tetad s dotdw to ,asaaeto seadt ar bez oreesfo: (es ~:enoeset ynsa tot eekeq gatwolfot eas ai eatiuay eonseaiened .o ;etloav Ievesibom .¢ Js bencitasa ed of S18 atiosvy dnetoma 10 Ofeasto 3nowh bog bax adit fvodtiw atfusv bentow, ,comoh ,etiusv . Isvesiben to omsn edt -ativav Isnnud to noitosarsiar -esf9 90% bevitish ativav beddia to nortowxtenod IIs of barlgge aay to ot ntsbom [fs etinay sonseetsned mist of .emyot ote | — tokd ; eonsaetensh sit to antantged edd sonte 3nigeixe atl ie s ea{bbim edt to tor19q ofeselo oft t9a¢i9 OF mwoning S19% — fennos yd enoitosetetni tuottin to dtin etlusv hbsaiors-delor a | bedenncs ylao ,snif{tao beviso to atiuev Lsokaoo sat ,etivav a ‘neil A, ote ,esa6 o{bbim edt gaitod atioev besddta agin oe aolsvsb [spinoteid sd¢ Yo 19d¢ten ev)ed tart [fade of a vi ‘to estt iret {ue fetotoutta sdt Ile edracesh ton .tinav sad gattsent @ ot yiseeeosr ed bloon doitde ,mofttouttenco hetiuav -rebI0 at sfoitouttenoco Rathlind 10 erodostidors Levesibes so ne mo yltdzite tod dovod aaotertsdt bas ,vedtem sdf baeteansbay of 7 88 eno feistoutte edt no bas ,stototensd es I[sotsotera sat ke _ {stnemento ait to notdavirteb edd tot yrssesoen ed yam ee wet pki , | etinsy sft to tasmssort 7 igh eetinueY supitnd fF ew Yo stad santts seed sved of awond [len ote etlusv asanod Big I 30 ,19dto dose at doute etog wolfod to 10 sitoasuoy snote ist mA _stetbemretnt yd betoennoo sedots leqionitag staisgee to yf » sedone to ebnid owt seont neented esosge stetbenteint ant ,ee Bey r odd to reostise edt essso taom sI .stotomes yd bellit anied | - wlotad tasfleoxe edt sonte ,gniteteasiq yd betson stem atlusv i. Ao uteneeoeans yisittas etinevy snota bedsoons sdsn Jnomeo bar #4 8) eeotusourde telisge ost ot asds vedrail “mm: -etlosV lenosl oo sasigate odd ebia yi ebre beoely eta eedore to seinse a tI . Yo sts eatftoeenov edt ti ;hsonborg ek tloev fonnes sat to a10t —- ' a : 80 ‘predominant monumental character of stone structures but always serves a purpose more or less temporary, a moderate use of zinc is not excluded, being an auxiliary material par excellence of our era. 5. Vaults. The vaults preferably employed in architecture may be arran- ged in three classes, of which a brief description is advisable in the following pages for many reasons:- a, classic vaults; b, mediaeval vaults; c, Renaissance vaults. Among classic or ancient vaults are to be mentioned tunnel vaults, domes, groined vaults without ribs and produced by the intersection of tunnel vaults. The name of mediaeval vault is applied to all construction of ribbed vaults derived from :clas- sic forms. We term Renaissance vaults all modern forms of van- lts existing since the beginning of the Renaissance era, which were unknown to either the classic perior or the middle ages, .welsh-groined vaults with or without intersections by. tannel vaults, the conical vaults of curved outline, only connected with ribbed vaults during the middle ages, etc. We shall treat here neither of the historical development of the vault, not describe all the structural peculiarities of vaulted construction, which would be necessary in a treatise on mediaeval architecture or building construction, in order to understand the matter, and therefore touch but slightly on the historical as heretofore, and on the structural only as far as may be necessary for the derivation of the ornamental treatment of the vault. a Antique Vaults. Roman vaults are well known to have been either built of stone voussoirs or of hollow pots stuck in each other, or last- ly of separate principal arches connected by intermediate arch es, the intermediate spaces between these two kinds of arches being filled by concrete. In most cases the surfaces of the v vaults were coated by plastering, since the excellent bricks and cement made uncoated stone vaults entirely unnecessary, or limited them to the smaller structures. 4%. Tunnel Vaults. If a series of arches are placed side by side the simplest form of the tunnel vault is produced; if the voussoirs are of I8 tame asnnt ites vo adiwollod to sviton sit ,snode 07 ae td3tf ee sd teum sonore edt Jed¢ tnonetrspe1 eAd woTt | fod ert? etinev edt Yo teurdd L[etnostiod edt mesasl ot .ofd mottamtot edt of notteler yreve af ebsoqeeti0o teed gai fe ,bnmotk msince oid wort beater ylgnotte stteeor . | adit at tivev edt yd beowboma sr anifteo bersttao Yo t feo snote [atnostiod sat mort tnsbaegebar yisiitns , yew 4 e0nc anted a1sttoo dtiw tinevy (sanot edt to esbi sat ‘bas ed? .sonsvbs tsdtect s of abssl motsetebtanos sdgife & ) mat eat a9 ystnentao1g oot tasqqs etiosesov sit Yo aint eds anttatoosb yi balasonoo. st# yent ;fiuev sdf to soat yeu tioev edt to9 .abesd Iaaeq qd 10 agnibloom meine ited dose .esdors bakticgque to betoutearos ylisteseet bie gathleiy wort esedowe sit Jnitnsveig ,tleetr to D9 10 esdots sit ext bebfyom ,enortoernoo Isenibatt2 Qo emsteyse ont sit noovtod eeosgetestar sav gnifiirt neds sig. sta aud? .soalg ni bots t ,edele snote stetsqse J ab betife bas sonerseqqe lanietxe ni aslimte ,etinev dersttoo eotay gatsroraue edt seusoed .eartites bersttoo of slgionizg _ Yo adsfa aids ying bas ,esvlesmeds yd meds ye stelqnos a wit he ‘eysiaed .esosqgetessni edt anifirt yO? betivpe1 sae snove a ye ekdt of antbioc0s Hefoutienos tivsy bersttoo LIutituesd seon and Yo Sait et ,wiot beqoleveb tadwemorn « ni dgeodd .slytonizg , tu Yo nemiosge sldon s ,sonex0lT nk of trig? .2 to ytetrose slog elqmexs anteselg yisv bnooea A .sonseetenss fotA’b sonnoeiss ettasnnottord to CSl 29. ,ood-el-tallory Leds bas sefore satevenatt edt to enottosntsdnt edT sem a - ypenoesyed beteioosh yd bsdetogatteid o1s etedmem Lantbut snecfov eitf [etteten stoe to bre ({fsma ete etforezov edd tI | gem yedd jetotud odif betege1g ylfsiottivw 918 to ,atod oF | Oresom 10 yrshbrowdme den ditw sonahtooos afr beqsde ed i y amo fesol0 feanottyeoxs nik snot nsed ylno asd bssbak dordw paoewse ,siguexs 10% .ssevoging sviteiooed 10% yIdareterg | ehgraa8S Yo eeluditasy Inteossy edt ni batd etdy to edfuav de )) Soetr0e tsbmc sit ,ysfo otdeelq 10% .nt{asd mi eqode entdoeNn ‘Mi Bntesetg yd Sstnemanio 9d yam ettorevov [etnomento dove to | fo meinue ,boviso oved ysm ated dil eiatresen toe jebivos r mee ne «euro? besises loans to #{tud asdw .ad{usv onset betnioy bas teluottotmed iy tig aa), ‘| 0p 81 stone, the motive of hollowing ou’ their inner surface results from the requirement that the stones must be as light as possi- bte, to lessen the horizontal thrust of the vault. This hollor- ing best corresponds in every relation to the formation of a rosette strongly raised from the sunken ground, and thus 4 sort of coffered ceiling is produced by the vault in the simplest way, entirely independent from the horizontal stone ceiling. The idea of the tunnel vault with coffers being once accepted, a slight consideration leads to a fusther advance, the end jo- ints of the voussoirs appear too prominentty on the inner sur- face of the vault; they are concealed by decorating them by s sunken mouldings or by pearl beads. But the vault may be more tastefully constructed of supporting arches, each being stable of itself, preventing the arches from yielding sidewise by lon- cgitudinal connections, moulded like the arches or otherwise, then filling the interspaces between the two systems of arches by separate stone slabs, fitted in place. Thus are produced coffered vaults, similar in external appearance and allied in principle to coffered ceilings, because the supporting parts form a complete system by themselves, and only thin slabs of stone are required for filling the interspaces. Perhaps the most beautiful coffered vault constructed according to this principle, though in a somewhat developed form, is that of the sacristy of S. Spirito in Florence, a noble specimen of early Renaissance. A second very pleasing example is represented by Viollet-le-Duc, p. 125 of Dictionnaire Raisonnee d’Architect- ure. The intersections of the transverse arches and the longi- tudinal members are distinguished by decorated keystones. If the voussoirs are small and of soft material like volcan- ic tufa, or are artificially prepared like bricks, they may be shaped in accordance with web embroidery or mosaic systems, which indeed has only been done in exceptional occasions, and preferably for decorative purposes. For example, Strack employ- ed vaults of this kind in the graceful vestibules of Bérsigés Machine Shops in Berlin. For plastic clay, the under surface of such ornamental voussoirs may be ornamented by pressing in moulds; soft materials like tufa may have carved, sunken or raised forms. Semicircular and pointed tunnel vaults, when built of brick, Gian ; se Lea — | } 7 Pyro on) : 7 tay ny 7) é eS Ny 6 he ee : ae? ip J j ‘ wee q ' saa a,'? : : i Ls . : j j 4 . ae i ‘ I A 6 %o beeogmo> ylortéas sie dotdt xotsd tad t4 b hobe ak bik pete er edt to aixe edt of Lelf bers?" -etivev. wsiot ! lan n'a pi tk anne ate atisey dowe > to ansem yi tnenimowg taom noktto7 t9eqqn aiedd gat abs05 to antetteq evitarooeb to ean edt yd cela .suot ‘om sts .seit wol to edluev Lennus at dsyolqms oJ yea sae eit efanoysib steit ot Lelfarsqg hetiosvy ti [ut stat sdt yd beivem sedt et tivev edt to elbbin oat yd nottonttenoo edt to notte 1008h #& hms ,axoiad odd 0 eagbe bane ofbbim edt of edetaqgomqge ei sioind berolos ea ! etiuay saedt pri fennet yd betevoo ete egoo1 Rano! TI 2 “Qntdostomq eetevensss vd ayad ota bebivib ors eile ,& mteddo of bas tivev edt to ynotonom ent Assad oF yldisg #dgtl Iinav oft elem ot yltreg bas .ystine ni yeitev tet dn ,bexsbienco od [lin asdo1s satevanstt sasdt to eto? ¢ jf tefto atin nortoennen mt etforv L[eveaibes to Jasna ite to eeirise A yd. ativey fandat Qangtouttanos to shom A . fanibetionol yi asdtegzot betoennod asdoiws xdoimg o bodtem # ,steroneo atiw belltt meds anied ssosgaiedai {qme yltnoupett maed svad of mwond atfnev anrsipoate ebeol ovdwsi-telloryY yd bantelaxs ylint ,eaanod edt (pee ts ce «d «XI .etaf .toid)d{nav berettoo edt a ~@tipev beatois memo .4 etd ad banahora metays nawofl edd to adiuev beator mgitom asfors Isnoxerd ont .atiosy fennut oft to nosd hi: + ed od sie .adia niow as esooastiwwe afedd dbnoyed vs 199 ond eonte ,enove to a18 atiosy od? TI .adicav [onant effe ere etivev fonnot [eupe islpottodmee to aoksosatssnt lot asiivosq avert teum alenogsth sat to eenota sieisgen edd pit tant oe vieteteqes bentateteb ed, Jenm anote doses dae sifosv [ennut odd eonke -bnod, boo; 8 mt etinn yam ad fusv, Lon he: idldesnobat edt to ensem yd sodote [snokerbh sasit no sean | ddgebh s eved rsdtis taom yedt ,uadd beol yliveed bas baod edd ohn & to betonrtenod ed 10 .tfuev 96d Yo tsdd nedd 1948074 De taanocné ot ton 26 o8 ,tinav edt to tad? nedd [eireten 19 2 asdore [snoxzetbh odt to Bntnedtznets3e eraT .baol sit asba0 | a | Yornsoetaae edd 19vo seeds to eonetroqms isdse13 Odd eoagoigxs y - i Boll ; & ‘< Q bs 82 if half brick thick are entirely composed of stretchers iparal- lel to the axis of the vault, while Dutch bond is used for th- itker vaults. Such vaults are most simply decorated by borders and by mak- ing their upper portion most prominent by means of colored br- icks, also by the use of decorative patterns of bonds, mhich may .be employed in tunnel vaults of low rise, are most taste- ful if vaulted parallel to their diagonals like Fig.-150 a, b. The middle of the vault is then marked by the intersections of the bricks, and a decoration of the construction by means of colored bricks is appropriate to the middle and edges of the vault. If long rooms are covered by tunnel vaults, these tunnel va- ults are divided into bays by transverse projecting arches, partly to break the monotony of the vault and to obtain a grea- ter variety in unity, and partly to make the vault lighter. The forms of these transverse arches will be considered, when we treat of mediaeval vaults in connection with other things. A mode of constructing tunnel vaults by a series of strong Brick arches connected together by longitudinal arches, the interspaces being then filled with concrete, a method of ‘con- structing vaults known to have been frequently employed ‘by the Romans, fully explained by Viollet-leeDuc leads again to the coffered vault.(Dict. Rais. IX, p. 485 et seq). 8. Roman groined vaults. Groined vaults of the Roman system iproduced by the intersec- tion of two tunnel vaults, the diagonal arches not projecting beyond their surfaces as groin ribs, are to be treated like tunnel vaults. If the vaults are of stone, since the icurves of intersection of semicircular equal tunnel vaults are elleptical, the separate stones of the diagonals must have peculiar forms, and each stone must be determined separately, so that the tun- nel vaults may unite in a good bond. Since the tunnel vaults rest on these diagonal arches by means of the indentations of the bond and heavily load them, they must either have a depth greater than that of the vault, or be constructed of a strong- er material than that of the vault, so as not to be crushed under the load. This strengthening of the diagonal arches then expresses the greater importance of these over the surfaces of &8 nerettib s to [stresem s yd t9dtts. eevisemods eflew eda n01y stse13 & ys 10 ,.notte100sb. to sbom [etosqe 6 yd ,10 Yt edt ak atinuev edt to nottoseatesat to eanrl sat To a¢s of sedors fencysih sdt to esnote sad no tauwor ‘Sseds gotdion bas Sntntmistsh to sonetmevnooni sat t of ebasl ylleinten stutot beteotiqnoo rredd dtivn sonote ‘eid Rntdoutsenoo yd elanocrerh ent Ynireddanerts to sedi bd? Qnittel nedt ,yltnebneqebat Satbnete ti ae adia ier sedia oft to Xoad ent svods Josnretat etinav edt to esc st grt br 6 fsathbusignol dtiw sfvuev fencut namol s to nelq sal 28 \gmrr0 eaw edtt anttoeto1g Istoeqe tuoitie vod #edo1k Se tev = " j 98 a8 adiy [anokerd dtin Sinav s to tedd -2 Icl .3f5 te J q ot neist nosd ylevotyerg bad steo tend? sero ng dd (Set syd tloav sdt to esdote sdt [fs rot Iroyque siafymoo « [ add ylno ton seao nit tof .nalg edd mr erstq Snttiogqgue dntot, Qatgntige ed? to Satttoo ed? tud .berrepes1 sis% imsq 6 ttkatdo ot es [fen as ,boitif{gqmie ed of esw aadot it ,tIuev sit to esiota ststeqse edt [fs to tnomgolsevabh aent a idineial @ to motttbbe eft boriwpea (Sel .5f%) o avetg a \ vet eefsnoyerd sit Yo moftsoetrh sdt at a9 noo sit mort beqoleveb esx sloav beddia sat eval t itnpst edy dérw sonebioo0e at Sipav bentors ssmon edt 3 $ bor bettino yleritns ed of 918 adta sad tr syonstbagxe nr e@ of ylevitels1 ef anitbesol ett to dirnd [lew oe et sie semoosd (I¢t .gft) 6 nedt .destind 9d nso yedd teat ; | sonsentens? ed? .ativey mto1y to tnemegnetts Lsmi0n od3 tot \ i yea Dassswiossidows nsmol hewolfot yletiins ovad oF nwonn ai $19v0 ~8df1 tuodtin t{usev stor, sds of sonststssq sdnfoeds re eadie dtiv tinev [evestben " Bued epi . -9m0b asmof sa? .y - A @nottose ({s ;esostiwe L{sottedqe ys Hsbavod ek snob sat Lat e218 xefrev edt dhooidt seteeag bas atxe f[sokdrev a agne Sgtifo ste sx ,2noaset svitetoosh bas [etytowise wort .aslorro Bd petedqsined to ,noded yfamte eemobh assuted deiogatterh oe foq. io batouttenoo semob y{feal ban .se1sige witeHp 10 Bamoh Ob Svitnsinsy bsllao-o8 sat enelg wloxasiat ro sisepe ,fea03 weds eeoqmoo of ef semob anitouitenoo to show tesalgmte sat P ‘bas Sne abed tredt [[s ,ettosesov to. sania [etnos fio to : a sioseuov doses) ;emob sd? to sites edd baswot betosith gnied ia)? a ae Ae a bs ete Az | Bh poe a — 2 ver. 83 the walls themselves, either by a material of a different col- or, by a special mode of decoration, or by a greater prominence | of the lines of intersection of the vaults in the form of ribs, | wrought on the stones of the diagonal arches to strengthen them. The inconvenience of determining and working these diagonal stones with their complicated joints naturally leads to the i idea of strengthening the diagonals by constructing the diago- nal ribs as if standing independently, then letting the surfa- ces of the vaults intersect above the back of the ribs. The plan of a Roman tunnel vault with longitudinal and trans- verse arches but without special projecting ribs was formed as) at Fig. 151 a. that of a vault with diagonal ribs as at Fig. 152, b, in case that care had previously been taken to provide a complete support for all the arches of the vault by arranging supporting piers in the plan. But in case not only the latter were required, but the cutting of the springing joints of the arches was to be simplified, as well as to obtain a perfectly free development of all the separate arches of the vault, the piers c (Fig. 152) required the addition of a projecting memb- er in the direction of the diagonals. | Thus the ribbed vault was developed from the construction of the Roman groined vault in accordance with the requirements of expediency; if the ribs are to be entirely omitted and the va- ult is so well built or its loading is relatively so small, + that they can be omitted, then a (Fig. 151) becomes the plan for the normal arrangement of groin vaults. The Renaissance is known to have entirely followed Roman architectureand gave absolute preference to the groin vault without ribs, over the mediaeval vault with ribs. y. The Roman dome. The dome is bounded by spherical surfaces; all sections thr-— ough a vertical axis and passing through the vertex are great é circles. From structural and decorative reasons, we are obliged to distinguish between domes simply taken, or hemispheres, half domes or quarter spheres, and lastly domes constructed on poly- . gonal, square or triangular plans, the so-called pendentive domes. The simplest mode of constructing domes is to compose them of horizontal rings of voussoirs, all their beds and end joints being directed toward the centre of the dome; each voussoir t ‘ mr: eee ns whe ; er’ oe we $8 Bidi tusie ter. ont bas ebed [ether ond aed siotatedt a ‘sobng ett .onoteyed feotmos é vd bem si xege duo to titod et emob w done TI .feotrsdge evacnoo ytie eolgtonitg sdt Rniviags yd smob wttoo s shen ad $ to titud od tr TI .enote to ativuav Lennet atavoz of arehallé to bseoqmoo ylstitms baod xoold seogieg fosde ‘anosast [sotmonoce buns [sxetoutte dtod 10% aeeono -vI ie {Iene mort bebolaxs 9d of ton ste ebnod [etnene Pas cos ebnod saedt yd bsonbowg sd yam tsdt sevitom sviterco " 1 ane edt to tnemdsett [atnemento sft to? anasm sneb # ni eviaufoncs ets selgtonri bavotg [arenex 919 *ea0b Yo send odd ts mtot s9b10d sit ,eotnotosT Ife ni ee dt ,egnts Latnositod nt eseigoo edt ,xsqs bedoadeb ett a fe ,bnod dofad eat to emottoetrh Lanokerb bas Les emottetooeh etitne edt wot atniog kntacte 5 inkeds gokbs benntdd zakved snote to aioold Ad} beats uene1 ed binode aottowitedoo to shom [soksoerins etnt ‘ete! edt at st#iinvst sJsexk a sew tod .[ntions? ylerer es9m05 [i[emea bas eedora rot .Saelfon to sone ns pie nofttourtencs Yo ea5om ont edt to noktentimos 4 sn 1 sat to siufoetidote edt at ~8emcbh asttos Yo san adt ‘at sisos8 ftastesi: eft no tuo batts. ,Ssonkeaiansy edt prod detninth adore Ieottisvy to acttse A .emof ni noedt “bas .ed0b sit to aeforio tse1y miot bar ateetto yd xstiev “geosqeteini edt ,eedo1s estavenest yd tedtezo0t Ssdosannos fe “-2ud~sf-t8! fot) ef1stion yd bellrtt ete exeedors sat noe . VeAe uaa -(.pee te CVS og XT 818 ab Lane tent? aeu Snementie1 s nositns? sat “to eaob add "nt - edt bel as ,eemit tefel ni tostts evototmiey s bsd doide _— bewolfod edt to seostiwe sbte sit ;107719 o¢nt sisteam sonssaia te iv ai tnicg [extnso 2 mort betetber sordqeoxs Juodsin arsttoo Beowbortnt 2s, ersttoo edt to beedant teat of ,smob ofd to aixe ays emoe ni bsissqqe ylno dotdw ,etsostidors svitosae1sq «& id tod -Smob eds to aixa sit ni gnigl safnso edt Zoxt tosx109 eidy $8 ptdate to tntog 19ifo yas mort tostts betioserb doe Vodeinay yiertine eisttoo edt to seostive sbie ead ord et it ‘bremoo ot 818 ATSbon 9 10% stsvieado edt to wety sar nas } a + 84 therefore has two radial beds and two vertical end joints. The apex is cormed by a conical keystone, its under surface being concave spherical. If such a dome is built of cut stone it can be made a coffer dome by applying the principles already found to govern tunnel vaults of stone. If it be built of brick, for «hich purpose block bond entirely composed of headers is usual- lw: chosen for both structural and economical reasons, but orn- amental bonds are not to be exmluded from small domes, the dec- orative motives that may be produced by these bonds give abun- dant means for the ornamental treatment of the surface of the dome’ the general ground principles are conclusive in this case, as in all Tectonics, the border form at the base of the dome, its detached apex, the courses in horizontal rings, the verti- cal and diagonal directions of the brick bond, all furnish st- arting points for the entire decoration. The dome may also be regarded as being divided into sections by meridians, which diminish toward the vertex, and may be com posed of blocks of stone having thinned edges toward the apex’ this unpractical mode of construction should be regarded as merely fanciful, but was a great favnrite in the late Renaiss- ance of Holland, for niches and small domes. . A combination of the two modes of ‘construction is found “in the use of coffer domes, in the architecture of the Romans and the Renaissance, carried out on the greatest scale in the Pan- theon in Rome. A series of vertical arches diminish toward the vertex by offsets and form great circles of the dome, and are connected together by transverse arches, the interspaces betr- een the arches are filled by coffers. (Viollet-le-Duc. Dict. Rais. IX. pe 475 et seq). In’ the dome of the Pantheon a refinement was first employed, abich had a pernicious effect in later times, and led the Ren- aissance masters into error; the side surfaces of the hollowed coffers without exception radiated from a central point in the axis of the dome, so that instead of the coffers was introduced a perspective architecture, which only appeared in some degree correct frog the centre lying in the axis of the dome, but had a distorted effect from any other point of sight: at this cen- tre the side surfaces of the coffers entirely vanished from t the view of the observer. For our modern era to commend this | yo a’ aes aay i yt 2. ‘ i" A eh a ov iJ ot 4 ‘| : a ; id yltneopett as sebt anotgeant ma 28 sostts Lsotateedt sbot to 1O11s mB neds esawisdto Hsmies! so yfeows9s oso rettoo sd to egaabs aswol od? .ytivost oftsdtes sat Yo seidtety emnosd [{s of es of ,brswowOb benifons od biuode e219d70 sit ton an gaitouttenos yd benisids af ‘emob to mot seff[uoeg A See } Rnidainiath enottose dtiw oele bas agnia L[etnosriod | bod enodgntiied st bedpoexe ar diusv edt tk ,xedt9v | aniesslg 8 asoubors efdT .{sibedtso soneiolT to smob pent t0 een edt yd even suotrev aft beterossh ‘ yan tadd dane - steno: od Ysa emob s olytontiq-betils. ae otf gat tooo, .eiotad } 1 10 selansintd [soitedqe eteisqee to bemtot gnied es bev fay Laipl dredge yltisghaa eslorto tse12 3ntmiot aebre 1feds es - yxetae edt ta stanimist dotdw «20100 sd¢ to sostise sad no ele ie sot betifs dinodt ,betyoexe gsy isven mottonisanoo to show. es eetivey iste ofdio) steal yasm Sadexe as{nz01 @ awaib sd yem smob yas to nelg oft a0 nos 304 eft anted as bebiege1 od of ots tedt ,eenil sdZi84 108 O07 10 aniyl eo1s tweivo1ts to geteye s to nottosiorg pivib, yreln39% @ dows to esosqe steraqes sdT .esmob sds to 4 .ermosem dota dttw bellit od ysm sostiga Leoimod ixe ‘yletsiaqes owt Hatt oh .nottoe1ib dbexit & ai beynerie itefleqe gs twetiqgel to slqmet edt af aemob Snort, yiev one kenoo semiot edt :emo8 ta sothell avtenil io slqmet sad of ont ~.19nto dose 1SVvO bentué gators to esitse [stnositod to to §nied todo edd ,stetonoo ddtw belitt anted escsqeres ‘ods ted? of .eedors neibitem asswted benwd atiusv dsvigo yf them edv ,gatiseqa yldotate .colemiena s eirl beqede ar snob eg tod 3nidton ere ebnid Ife to etlvev beddia Lev seats yd belitt ets elevistai gecdw ,adit to emeteye talygs2 _ is-[sotisdqe ylties ete doidn ,siudeviso sidwoh to ativey 4 %0 seodt ovtl esosttwe [ebroeqtii{s beqede-ni0ed yltieq feo fang: (ECL .R27) .tfusv solom = os ensacs edt yd ylno ton beyolyns etog to titsd eemob sat . tes atte emoor sbiw baisevoo tot atoetidois miabom ynsa yo oels Pp: yedd sonte ,mottershtenco eticpss ylbted ,tdatew momtnim sad moidouitanco eit tI .gankiedasly yd hetevoo aysuts teomia ote |. 8f0q oft to amostod ott ,eldtetv ntanes of ef eemoh dove to q sd atntol edt ,omob edt to e1tneo edt Hrswot beosly od bloor betntsg ed tdsim corny 1958819 10 sn9as0 .T8t10M fditw belli? ptt ie ne *y pe Wis * Lf 85 theatrical effect as an ingenious idea as frequently haprens, can scarcely be termed otherw&se than an error of judgement of the esthetic faculty. The lower edges of the coffersonly should be inclined downward, so as to all becnme visible, but not the others. A peculiar formoof dome is obtained by constructing it of h horizontal rings and also with sections diminishing toward the vertex, if the vault is executed in herringbone bond as in the dome of Florence cathedral. This produces a pleasing arrangem- ent that may Be decorated in various ways by the use of colored bricks. Accordinsgito an: allied principle a dome may be concei- ved as being formed of separate spherical triangles or rhombus- es, their sides forming great circles andpartly spherical spir- als on the surface of the dome, which terminate at the vertex, a mode of construction never yet executed, though allied to many late Cothic star vaults. On the plan of any dome may be drawn a regular system of st- raight lines, that are to be regarded as being the horizontal projection of a system of circular arcs lying on the surface of the dome. The separate spaces of such a regularly divided domical surface may be filled with brick masonry, regularly arranged in a fixed direction. We find two separately existing and very strong domes in the temple of Jupiter at Spalati, and in the temple of Minerva Medica at Rome; the former consists of horizontal series of arches turned over each other, the in- terspaces being filled with concrete, the other being of doub- ly curved vaults turned between meridian arches, so that the dome is shaped like a muskmelon. Strictly speaking, the mediae- val ribbed vaults of all kinds are nothing but combinations of regular systems of ribs, whose intervals are filled by similar vaults of double curvature, which are partly spherical-ellipti- cal, partly horn-shaped ellipsoidal surfaces like those of the melon vault. (Fig. 153). The domes built of pots employed not only by the Romans but also by many modern architects for covering wide rooms with the minimum weight, hardly require consideration, since they are almost always covered by plastering. If the construction of such domes is to remain visible, the bottoms of the pots would be placed toward the centre of the dome, the joints be filled with mortar, cement or plaster, which might be painted vw" Mondase ed bipo® etog edt to amottod edt slide ,bsbi rs 10 Badin: .Bonemento beaess9 gd hedetgzartetd afte rss ais esdotn to asnob tied anaT font edt yd tnamtsert svitercosh bne mottourtenoo tisds at 119% ao Intoq teks tod xeftev tkedt toa y[lerensd secs 91°sd ot ek rev1eedo edt ‘to sys edt moat tashtiret aghe d ek emob tfed edt to eixe edt tedt os ,efoq «ateds es 68 omob sittine ne tantezs tude of er anob ten add tT © nely edt Soivad egatbilted yues nt es ,tenids ads teresx | binote tr .tlurv Tennant 8 nt eetantaves 10 ,ano19 Ase077 b od Sere atxs feoktrey atin sob tied 6 ae dstourte eouob sitdw. alfsadon me ekff 10 elgatbroooe hetaanxt [ earot ni betaonrt Yilsuen s1a semtt Jnetiaes ent nowt as } 8 Syaonoo SdT .edonoo & beatet aodt One [fone sforun « eee ot sy9 ett abasl edotn edd to rstosisdo snidtunt dae as YO tatoq tact: 2@ es#9qq* bas ,sdonod 10 Smob tlei sas to sonedw mom? ,batoistess efest ays ods sit9dw notsouttanoo fod emese fofdw Sana .stéibar oF ete9qqe slodtw sit to ystsss fa teonie bef bed esebr telinte .tnitog teedtist sdv oF bsrkter meq Tk 26 ~BnN10t Bnttarher yd stones edt stferoosh oF encivar fotdx ,enottoorth [fe ni 9foq sit mort betetbsa tdyil to elt H inte sue sft nedw yle add to ssodt otiw betaqnos ed yom - wis pet sdotn sdt to sfLoq edd sadoteis mi sone .nosttod oad ee eeeeeesies anted saivib sdt to soxt edt yo bstnementc etost ions eoneestensA Snes asmol wernt ynitnees ges Lodmve s yd sedoin Hane to aatonoo sit eta1o0eb of bertstetg yilerenss | +) 9) (seebaoero bas entedtnuot ‘to eso aft ullsioeqes aliens ef) “=bE odtaovet & es Tk Soneeersned etal adt sniagbd baelfok al > entosasov gaitstbher Asin asfotn to aemoh edt tourtenoo of as _ $09 of es wet of baits. ean efdt .sfoq sat br anos anidetniaro own S{tdw ,ofog edt te enotsooetetar guedea mot of adotad hii dokid wstceacp e@ yfno s19n Saod Aorad sd¥% Yo asakl anides ' Shoin sat to ehbe setdoo ent te | “gs Bemret ed asdit yem eefotn 1evo semob base semob stitas IIA pene ,Sbetiesoos ste aexe L[sottisy tiedt Yi semobh alloxan epee 10 ,esfoito’ dse13 yd anctioes ark bebivrh yll{sadoe =tw belinitiqge ,asmob dowsdo af ea betactbat ylno 818 Bsnos Sak Eieanss seodt [f[s ;.0%9 ,elegne griaece yd betatoosb 16 atete dt _ © a2 dottiw at ,zemoh [fete beares sd ylteind yan esdotn teve wi itntoq Isgtontsy edt 2s betesit et eixe feqtoniiag edt to sfo3 as. a Pits 86 or gilded, while the bottoms of the pots could be ornamented by pressed ornaments. The half domes of niches are chiefly distinguished from domes in their construction and decorative treatment by the fact, t that generally not their vertex but that point on their lower edge farthest from the eye of the observer is to be regarded ag their pole, so that the axis of the half dome is horizontal. Tf the half dome is to abut against an entire dome so as to resist the thrust, as in many buildings having the plan of the Creek cross, or terminates in a tunnel vault, it should be con- structed as a half dome with vertical axis and be decoratively treated accordingly or like an umprella, while domes over nich- es from the earliest times are usually treated in forms like a muscle shell and thus termed a concha. The concave attracting and inviting character of the niche leads the eye to the pole of the half dome or concha, and appears as that point of the construction where the eye feels restricted, from whence the energy of the whole appears to radiate, and which seems to have retired to the farthest point. Similar ideas had led almost all nations to decorate the concha by radiating forms, as if penc- ils of light radiated from the pole in all directions, which | may be compared with those of the sky when the sun sinks below the horizon. Hence in churches the pole of the niche is usually ornamented by the face of the divine being represented, or by a symbol representing this. Roman and Renaissance architects Henerally preferred to decorate the conchas of small niches by shells, especially in case of fountains and cascades. In Holland during the late Renaissance it #as a favorite id- ea to construct the domes of niches with radiating voussoirs diminishing toward the pole, this was carried so far as to cut bricks to form sharp intersections at the pole, while the rad- iating lines of the brick bond were only a quarter brick apart at the outer edge of the niche. All entire domes and domes over niches may then be termed u umbrella domes if their vertical axes are accented, whether actually divided in sections by great circles, or meridians and zones are only indicated as in church domes, sprinkled #i- th stars or decorated by soaring angels, etc.; all those domes over niches may briefly be termed shell domes, in wmhich the pole of the principal axis is treated as the principal point; | andte eaca ea antics yd saob etitne me starooed of emee oft bas .senesnon od bluow eed & 2&6 ono Lsoid ft et9n Te9T bas got add dotdw ak saob edoin 8 to sett 902). ‘-tnenimotg shea eten gebie ttel bre tduit sdt sfide skepen 38) 18 +) {nottemistes bas 19bie ne ietqsd) ,eoknot oO noayloy & gnitourtanos yd bsouhotg e178 ssmob evidnebasg “aan to eforto s nit sil eelgns saode ,t9vetany mict pine Bidd omsostinow nl .[sottqifie 2d of et emob edd ti seat 7 ; vit , mot ,sords dd in yronylog safgnen s ylevem yllages . eit: ib dieq ni exe esmob svitnsbnag weteasa ITA weobin \b .o .d .8 atetg a4t yd olqmsxe rot ;e19hg ent yd bedse 8b bd .d 9,0 8 sedote sdt no Bnidass ashinlanes ) att to anther sitf smozaziog sat to aebie sit avods foq ont tuods bedtroemso1is sogyloy edt to eather od Yo I[esnozstbh astse18 94d to tled sad alanps stoteseqt jeeaq ed enelg s tI .sebta to aedmon nsve n& dsiw soog . ettgied Isape even dokdw,eedois edt to geottiev edt fe: ag ns ofni snob evitnebasg sit sefeteqes eidd ,anogylog (ged? \.66fans ead nogylog edt ea sovitnehnsg yas es Hae stto | ab isdivoent efortos eds dtin [eottnsdt ef sttolso sat 16 nel a -nogylog edt 622kb # mor? bets100sb sd aysw(s Sfuoda smod svitnsinsg sal aad ti xedsev odd aebieed ;emo0d odd asdd usiv to tntog ine. 189 sat ot 3ntbaogest109 ,etitoq oftatsstosisdo o bos taonol eat sonenimoyg oftedtes esaispe: doidw ,esdots sat Io e917 bas [atnosittod seetuoo edd Yntken YI betoutdenoo yliauen at Yo ened ant of qu eavitnebnsg sdt mi yflenogech tua bslie oo oH .5n0b\ 2 28 anole basouttenod nedt ef dordn ,sttolss atatoq igetretostado edd of sonsietet sed yilaisten nottsioo9b -n eq sat mort ylinesbnegeshat batourtanos ed sttol{so. sat ti 10 to tlind sie seodt nedw asqo1g yftostieg ef dokdw ,sevss ‘eatsotg sbsu ton eta etntog otdeatretostado sat yesats0o I[ndaos ft bas exabeod sdT .beteotbhat yleoxem ote tO ettoleo sdt ao tae ‘evietoeb od {ftw encteyet «© yd xettev edt to eonentaor. oat extt edt at nentl [snozsth Yo nokteotbai edt bas ,eeaeo aod oe eit nt aevitasbasq edt to daenqolevsh oot baa ,9aeo gt esastont yilaubace esvidasbhaog edT .oe ulfeops acd Liv - : eft vot aettinntioqqe brotta bas .etsiq edt mott disnge ro. yam yedt yenot{febem aelworto to Ismogyfog Yo nottoub brahim Ne As nif. ZA a , 4 . Pes 6 ry 87 to decorate an entire dome by taking any axis other than a ver- tical one as a base would be nonsense, and the same would be true of a niche dome in which the top and rear were ignored, ahile the right and left sides were made prominent. (See Tec- tonics, Chapter on order and estimation, p. 8, jet seq.). Pendentive domes are produced by constructing a polygon of ani} form whatever, whose angles lie in a circle or in an ell- ipse, if the dome is to be elliptical. In architecture this is usually merely a regular polygon'with three, four, five or six sides. All regular pendentive domes are in part directly supps- . etted by the piers; for example by the piers a, b, c, d, the | remainder resting on the arches ac, cb, bd, da, erected above the sides of the polygon. The radius of the dome equals the radius of the polygon circumscribed about the polygon, and therefore equals the half of the greater diagonal of all poly- sons with an even number of sides. If a plane be passed through the vertices of the arches,which have equal heights,for regular polygons, this separates the pendentive dome into an upper ical- otte and as mapy pendentives as the polygon has angles. The p plan of the calotte is identical with the circle inscribed in the polygon. The pendentive dome should always be decorated from a differ- ent point of view than the dome; besides the vertex it has n lowest and n characteristic poirts, corresponding to the cent- res of the arches, which require esthetic prominence, they are usually constructed by making the courese horizontal and corb-— elled out diagonally in the pendentives up to the base of the calotte, which is then constructed alone as a dome. Hence the decoration naturally has reference to the characteristic points, or if the calotte be constructed independently from the penden- tives, which is perfectly proper when those are built of hori- zontal courses, the characteristic points are not made promin- ent on the calotte or are merely indicated. The borders and t the prominence of the vertex by a keystone will be decisive in both cases, and the indication of diagonal lines in the first _ case, and the development of the pendentives in the second, will be equally so. The pendentives gradually increase in width upward from the piers, and afford opportunities for the intro- duction of polygonal or circular medallions; they may be so d aw 4 il YY =. wae of ay tietiae aiden ait . a cia ail ‘ ; » bapotent qilaghst3 et ‘tnemantio eft Jadd ,bederoosh 5 sd bluode ettoleo edt .sttofso ant to t12q tasnol i mee |: For ue e9oint0D 2 Yo wsbhtod @ yd asvitnebnes ed? id sottqiife ,rwfoottotmse .{etmemree tedsdedn .eeaod {fA | Beh. _ otfoev edt stsnimist of snoteyod a otinpst ,amiot isddo Beet sit et eeel sit ¢lusv & to oet1 edt t9if{ama sat bes .ytilidatea to enotsthnoo edi ys troqgue yistse yeu fo ne ,fots bstnicg 8 to Sas. ai e@ Sala atk a9te yisdeten 10 otfodetsq 6 . sixes tolsa L[eoktasv agin ,th no beosly od yam doidn baol sat si [ftw 1998073 1 od ot betieps? ef tadt ddgtew odd od [ftw t9se981h ont had eyta{ideate ati smgens of xedd9ev esi 20 qlisoiniocet ayanle ai smobs to noiteiymoo sat r9ddt0'l 99 at Rntnego me Ons .msge fse7g to eatinev ni dfuo 4 seat to noisetmbs add 10} yltuseq .xstiev edd de bert » ote .alatistem gnthiiod aatrtefod to seoqiteq sat 10% -eeneo [stosqea 10% sefn1 antwolf{[ot ent ,weiv to adniog . {fsue to aemob talnuotiotasa Sas [atasayee ;bev fieme yrsv si doidn ,Snoteyed s dtiw bedarnit? ylisqoxg Jouetd edt YT steotdt on tiexe of ge Dsgede of sd bluode Snote siefqmoo s .stunsom nietien s abesoxe smob ed’ . ‘ meqe Rainteme? eitaso add ,snoteyex # of sldarstoig oy ¢ ‘que fotdx bas ,elaiveteam zaib{tad gnitarod ,Adaef Sart stalt seal 10 stom smote 2 dtin oelirt ed ee! pated? zntbesoxs tdgied # atin gomob bseter ro betlisé “eviersm:ettapet stoteiedd bar ysw wsiloosg & ni bebdeol sd teum i o Seana nt astteron bebysgenes bfod sd ysm doin ,aenoteyox oy qesh brs dotdt ,yvsed to sforto # sd Sinode to ,asmoh > szoitd sit{ eemob ehisl prev al .gods edt te asqo eemob ni at edt ,sonetol to [sibsiteo sid .om08 te nosdtnel sii gartsvoo ait Biabievetvant’ «2 bo domed> sav emo ta t9et)eT .2 Io dowdo neds floes svode osfeag ote esmoh ssadt ~nobnol at [vst .2 to 20 8 .ert200 eft te Sofnsqo na Rnived enob eart to Jesnol edt $ odd efinn ,mietnel edt 3nitsoqqne bane seqysete Bnted bnooss dedd ditw tdaienw seodw ,saob aninevoo [sntetxe add at o1t dt to teurdt [stnosiiod edt dtin aonidmoo emoh Saooes edt Fr}! enn edt to antt 19qqu odT .e1meseetg [soitiev &. 28 smob 261 hs yd betoennoo od yem bra ytell[s3 & trogque asd yew snob - dotan «pack bnooee dt bo aks Qnkeod 1sqqe edt Adin shanao er mn , ‘ Py : 88 decorated, that the ornament is gradually developed from the lowest part of the calotte. The calotte should be divided from the pendentives by a border or a cornice. | All domes, whether segmental, semicircular, elliptical or of other forms, require a keystone to terminate the vault. The smaller the rise of a vault the less is the load that it mag safely support by its conditions of stability, and the gre- ater its rise as in case of a pointed arch, an elliptical arch with vertical major axis, a parabolic or catenary arch, the g greater will be the load which may be placed on it, and also - the greater will be the weight that is required to be placed on its vertex to ensure its stability. Farther the completion of adome is always technically diffa- cult in vaults of great span, and an opening is commonly requ- ired at the vertex, partly éor the admission of light, partly for the purpose of hoisting building materials, etc. From these points of view, the following rules for special cases are deri- ved; Segmental and semicircular domes of small span are not ) properly finished with a keystone, which in very small domes should be so shaped as to exert no thrust. If the diameter of the dome exceeds a certain measure, a complete stone ring is preferable to a keystone, the centre remaining open for admit- ting light, hoisting building materials, and which can at last be filled with a stone more or less flat. Stilted or raised domes with a height exceeding their radius must be loaded in a peculiar way and therefore require ‘massive keystones, which may be bold suspeyded rosettes in complete d. domes, or should be a circle of heavy, thick and deep voussoi- rs in domes open at the top. In very large domes like those c covering the Pantheon at Rome, the cathedral of Florence, the church of S. Peter at Rome, the church od S. finévieve in Paris or of &. Paul in london, three domes are palec above each other, the lowest or true dome having an opening at its centre, the second being steeper and supporting the lantern, mhile the th- ird is the external covering dome, whose weight with that of the second dome combines with the horizontal thrust of the fi- rst dome as a vertical pressure. The upper ring of the inner dome may then support a gallery and may be connected by a col- onnade with the upper cosing ring od the second dome, which i es . > ton bluode shanaofoo sidt tod jarstnal edt adrogque | dP bfhode tom .encb tewol edt no baol « tae1Z ‘denof of3 secs dtod at eonte ,emob buoves ead Yo nit gate ow 5 ee adt bane .bntifet omy ee af od biyor eaob ~ea9leau sd SAREE semob ds evactsnedll bas ezntt sateolo sat tiaptioqqgs svih asieq Lerstorcrse fnenimorg teor Sas 0 Beno hetonitenos ylsdytl ab ,tmemtsett dots ylueluol J 6! anob sd? Yo nno1o sot tadt tromexrtupes sit ,sert ca bewolfod to sev edt ebnsmeh sidtenoy as yltdytt es bet 749! ——— gael to ston aedd¢ fokdw (ants Yateolo sad at 131100 ous ‘ao s{idw .deth teft » to ee3he sat Yo wtot edd aod geo geeb ristt eved ot been gotbsol er tupes ted? esnoh aaoite tagoq @s snofteioosh to tibtew dowm ee déin bebsol ens dastmed to notsouttenoo sat tiaisq sewob avitnebdast » Bdt Svode ettof[ao e to eoalq at asnod batlize {fe /goitoottanoo to sbhbom a ,eevidaednsy eit eetentmied nt bentasas sew fotin .e1etoatidows entinasy= of variuosg BD Y pi sldeitivent: ei dotdw base efyta eupsenenod donet? ifede sw ,e1swot Yo Snemisers oot It" aoisoennoo al e Sos elfen eettrogqee ated? dtiw nottosanoo ak eemob Sdn \nozefoo silt of ersvpe ond wort enoitirenertd 3nimict , s {few es ,anoitoseieing yavo arewot [aveartbem xt bapot . se90o%0d9 to gemoh Ons atsu0od tento a a eetinev’ [avesibey .J riots eat mo beasd ers bas bsddta ems etivev [svesibsy B esostre staveqes 1f60¢ Sod ,emob sda baa edinayv fannue ant eradiy edt neewted eemob to enoistoy 88 betouttane> siete etisos? tedd etInev ret2atol[s exe seadd of | etfusv stows [evearbe! .» \ ent To sdanes feretioa1te sat bewolfot evad sf of sarinn gnimooed toodtin beqofeveh sen tr ee wet of Ficav notsosstetnt eit mo Seeed ayenlte et dotdw .1sdosiedo edt 986 ee ssnthats edt to mot Inortgti{[s edT .atisev [sannd a. foss tot gatrettib aatetuoenote ak seonstasvacont ‘Messi eert of Idguce sfuav ator, [evesthen saT .snote beatot bae .¢loav ators navof ead Yo esonetnevnoont [fe s yfno et tnomegaaiie edt nea? .ealotiotmen eve adian ([snogecbh ede tt yemoes(dnomt ees{ 10 stom esonenpesdoo dtiv beatadste b.~ 89 supports the lantern; but this colonnade should not ‘cause too great a load on the lower dome, nor should it support the iclo- sing ring of the second dome, since in both cases the lower dome would be in danger of falling, and the second dome would be useless. : The closing rings and keystones of domes being the highest ani most prominent stroictural parts give opportunity for part- icularly rich treatment, in lightly constructed domes of low rise, the requirement that the crown of the dome should be loa- ded as lightly as possible demands the use of hollowed sections in the closing ring, which then more or less closely approxima- tes the form of the edges of a flat dish, while on the contrary, strong domes that require loading need to have their deep cro- wns loaded with as much weight of decorations as possible. ) Pendentive domes permit the construction of hemispherical or stilted domes in place of a calotte above the cornice, which terminates the pendentives, a mode of construction especially peculia:: to Byzantine architectura, which was retained in the French Romanesque style and which is justifiable in many cases. In connection with the treatment of towers, we shall describe domes in connection with their supporting walls and arches, f forming transitions from the square to the octagon, which are found in mediaeval towers over intersections, as well as in other towers and domes of churches. be ediaeval Vaults. Mediaeval vaults are ribbed and are based on the groin and tunnel vaults and the dome, but their separate surfaces are constructed as portions of domes between the ribs. In addition to these are cloister vaults that require mention. a. Mediaeval groin vault. We have followed the structural principle of the Roman groin vault so far as it was developed without becoming untrue to i its character, which is always based on the intersection of two tunnel vaults. The elliptical form of the diagonal ribs ‘caused inconveniences in stonecutting differing for each separate st stone. The mediaeval groin vault sought to free itself from all inconveniences of the Roman groin vault, and formed the diagonal ribs as semicircles. Then this arrangement is only a attained with consequences more or less troublesome; if the 9 aerol ate. anKoto nkedd uiaetohone ete eelete sbie | > tied edt Yo soneiettid edt yt adty Lenogsib edt to fone abta odd mom? sett nedt teom tiuav edt jobie tied a godt to eaworo edt sates ot gatilin ef sao eeelnn .mKoto Aas ei miei ,tiosy edt to tedt en tdzted omen ont of 20 Lov & psoubory Aotde ~atdared tnavettib owt to atnamtuds ett nent snititte yi to ,elatiqao edt to Jnenteort brawl we eaniesely yrsv ton ek doide ,asno { telwgnedoon nsdw beaseton? sie seoneatnevnoonl sat . bane ebie dtod bas ,atinsv aio1; yd betsvoo od od ted gneiwsttib sven aedt daum on .relnors9insa od oF 918 So eabati dtoi tlite 10 ,ptasmtuds git Yo to anwoto edd co yIevs sintosdidore Levesibem no eetusoel oT .asdors ,bediaoseb af geonstnavnoonk sesdt Yo Iavome1 sat 10k af sie ew eastyta ofdtoD bne aotttegasT oad qd beyolgns ee of Intog bsate (siistsm edt mort seed? teeit yao % ee sbentesnoo od yes taemqoleveb evitsi1ooeb ie titen adin Isnoaeth tot dose [sottqi ff: edt to sen sat vl f-etdd tk one .$i tot betetitedun od coms [evo ne TE bab tic eter ylbred et tf .sidteeoq sa setinso yasm ae mort Aon dt ,weloortsiner ese sefois [anonerh edt tr yydtiLonitnoo asi ber stiedt S\f toons vi betlitea od of etisost escorts site getq edt to gnthbloom saogmt odd to anosds ad? sonra m skool dotdy ,sedoms sit to adage ssn0f sid I[seonoo satan pet tin maqe shiw to seott nf neds meqe [leme to gedots et gost eeis-of tluav ocd 10T tod ;2usede edt Yo noktoe org Len tom yao ton ei mnor> nwo sti of aedote ebia edd Yo ennor odd 798 Si (phawotg ottedtae so efdatetety neve ai dad ylae bined ob etivavy font .bstoelsen 9d nnoto edt to nottansmullt “ ae bre ,qeone sort « to tedd sod sigaesiq To ashi ond \ov i Citak me ot ahnoqast109 anwoto ated? to dyed end at Saget — to efdared ewer edt gnintete1 exoot wol a] .naqe to ed¢ gnioelg to tnetbegxe edd yolgms meo en ,asdo1w sble 199 ie 264 Yo s2odt wnoled aedors fponath eft to efmiot gat ae Wiens | been ed yam forse Iataemgse sdt 10 .29 ftkb seeds te etniog 3nigntzqge to sottombownsir sat 10% 8A a -eidd ,elec¢igeo beiusy ylantbnoqse 109 odd brs eddgiod tas %o antesefq deom bas festots edt eldadsednoont at tnomegne ou Hesoia teon sit ,yteiusy ati to tnoooon a0 shodssu oldtsaog 90 side aisles are semicircular, their crowns are lower than those of the diagonal ribs by the difference of the half diagonal and half side; the vault must then rise from the side arches to the crown, unless one is willing to raise the crowns of these arch- es to the same height as that of the vault, either by making | the abutments of two different heights, which produces a very ankward treatment of the capitals, or by stilting the side ar- ches, which is not very pleasing. ; The inconveniences are increased when sectangular bays are to be covered by groin vaults, and both side and groin arches are to be semicircular; we must then have different heights of the crowns or of the abutments, or stilt toth kinds of side arches. In lectures on mediaeval architecture every expedient for the removal of these inconveniences is described, that was employed by the Traksition and Cothic styles. We shall here only treat these from the material stand point so far as the decorative development may be concerned. The use of the ielliptical arch for diagonal ribs may be avoi- ded if an oval arch be substituted for it, and if this be str- uck from as many centres as possible, it is hardly inferior in its continuity; if the diagonal arches are semicircular, the. side arches require to be stilted by agout 1/8 their radius, since the abacus of the impost moulding of the pier would oth- erwise conceal the lower ends of the arches, which looks worse in arches of small span than in those of wide span with an eq- ual projection of the abacus; buat for the vault to rise from the crowns of the side arches to its own crown is not only not ugly but is even preferable on esthetic grounds, if the lesser illumination of the crown be neglected. Such vaults do not con- vey the idea of pressure but that of a free sweep, and an inc- rease in the height of their crowns corresponds to an increase of span. In low rooms retaining the same heights of crown and side arches, we can employ the expedient of placing the spring- ing joints of the diagon&l arches below those of the side arch- es, or the segmental arch may be used. As for the introduction of springing points at these differ- ent heights and the correspondingly varied capitals, this arr- angement is incontestably the richest and most pleasing of all possible methods on account of its variety, the most pleasing wie! eee ; , ory . ry uA yfteoo teom edt osla fod yleiwtontte dnetetenoo bas” fatnomanom mi aoesex afd tot sortitose of gnrilin es ,anaen isfgmie yd beniatys sd yea bne sat segsoed to beddos ad of ef .otdtod Joetreq e1om edd at enod yfore @igt tl .easbi Yo. ysseveq yd ainetbeqxs fis teenit adit to -limaaean ott agnso [snottqeoxe nt yolqme of boris ,fatvias amese [smton Ankdtyieve medin ,gae ni eld sn ef209 a8dgid edd tee 2 ton odd $0 anoid2oqo1g neem to nottowrtence Yo yItevo7 to eases AI eft to antt{ite eterehom s ,betinev ed of moot sat . tfusv edd to snot sft to aobetex eatarsbom Bp sea Ilor ~ emeitze sit sonborr of betyebe deed ansem ead al .ytetaqoig 19%e91% ya Sidanietis ,tostie antarolg | to ennot edt to edthted sad ativevy nto 2n0ldn gn actors [snozath sd¢ to enodd dae asbte asan0f edd no ba sad yiesn02 ent no tod ,se1geh emoe ni tefdo doses stent ai ct sbeditte y{iershienco od of eikspet esdots sbie eafiua bayolque sfyte otdvo2 yfise edd test nwond [low ef S¥Ld noo 8 ot betntog eedove shia sat shan bna atnetbeqxs eld shen @gnoo 30i9d toodsin enworo tiedt Yo extdyied edt Yo lost _— b eid sot hentete: yfno ess doidw ,do1s aslwotio edd een t [fs gnttountenos to sofodo end bed rast yed? .aodowe Le hg wr oe [snogets odd sot ea eutis: emse sat diin esdoiwr sbdie one “ettoetuov {fe senaoad sldetsterq ylleotados? ef dofda bas aye bane efsoqnt {atosqe ,etelynes smee ond yd Pdgu0 tw od neds 8 697dt ed? to eannow sdt ;hesiapst Snted ylno esnote 2 oth MH sidgied edt 10 jsdgied ouse sit ta Jon asda noqs5 eodove betatod edt antism ,oteaeslq te besnente betatog Ieretslinps shan sd neat ysa doide ,eeedt ebte to wor1en ond gedt on 10 ,betlide od of Baitt eonely sntgnizqgea sommoo 6 fain estore teonal autber elaniea 6 sen ct sootothst, teom eyanls ai J] ba of bas ,ylleubevz sett of anot> edt wolfe of ,eedoms edt ae totems tots edt oxen oT .tdgted aredt S\I tuods esdows odd Ee ‘Yiev jon sd tiuev aft saso at pee ylertine et betniog On | sbebeol tin iged . tors weluorto sd avo Sila lahe od of et dow betniog sal. | mort eometettib etarabom 4 dtiw sevsoed ,asdois sabia edt i0t al 2 ebeitingttS bae Satiiges ,dnsoptg stom ar 3 dois bases acd a 9 ‘and consistent structurally but also the most costly; to be w willing to sacrifice for this reason in monumental structures because the end may be attained: by simpler means, as unfortun- ately done in the more perfect Cothic, is to be robbed of one of the finest art expedients by poverty of ideas. If it is de- sired te employ in exceptional cases the extreme means allowa- ble in art, when everything normal seems trivial, one should . then not fear the higher cost. In case of poverty of construction or mean proportions of the room to be vaulted, a moderate stilting of the arches as well as a moderate raising of the crown of the vault forms the means best adapted to produce the extreme measure of a pleasing effect, attainable py sreater propriety. In quite’ oblong groin vaults the heights of the crowns of the arches on the longer sides and those of the diagonal arches approx— imate each other in some degree, but on the contrary the end side arches require to be considerably stilted. blgjt is well knewn that the early Cothic style employed suita- ble expedients and made the side arches pointed to obtain con- trol of the heights of their crowns without being compelled to use the circular arch, which was only retained for the diagon- al arches. They then had the choice of constructing all the side arches with the same radius as for the diagonal arches, and which is technically preferable because all voussoirs can then be wrought by the same template, special imposts and key- stones only being required; the crowns of the three arches are then not at the same height; or the heights ofthe arches are arranged at pleasure, making the pointed arches dependent on these, which may then be made equilateral pointed arches requ- iring to be stilted, or so that the narrow or side arches are lancet arches with a common springing plane. It is always most judicious to use a single radius for all the arches, to allow the crown to rise gradually, and to stilt the arches about 1/8 their height. To make the groin arches pointed is entirely useless, in case the vault be not very heavily loaded. The pointed arch is to be preferred over the circular arch for the side arches, because with a moderate difference from the round arch it is more piquant, aspiring and dignified. If SS eee a Fok dbedveeurexinyuben<¥ eel bemesenoos Smooad sono on be ‘th beaw 6d yeu dow besatoy sdf dotaw nt 280 y1eVve snedn beyolqae sd of {few es sonseetens® odt nt oldewolle [$tif es St bentebeth sonseatansh yliss sa? .etatrqorgys o # ddee to tiatys edt stows wsluotto ett betoeLes otdsoD are griddyne to9%9% of Jse102eib obs asx -ee[qgtonteq of nottoatdoa baild ate exon adit edt asevted efaemdreqmoo steseqea sat Hf teodyrd niedt odeu od 88 etiuavy [svoeibem of betavoo owT .esmob to st1sq smaoed stotetedt yedt baa ,bev o %sdtie dated efiuev sit .seu at 19 Bnidisav y atfnsv Lonnos yotbitod to bodtem ofersf[o sit 10. 76 ,dinsy fennot dt To side sat of eslans tagiet ie: edt tiad sno to dtanef edt tent of esmtt asda! fiw .fniog edt evs) dote [enozetd sat oF beratenerd qento edT .dows shie sdf Yo muoiw edt doin badosn 7” qaerr0o edt dtix betoanaco stew dors [snogelb edt Galway ods to taomtieqmo fadt to sntl Ssviw9 [sitneo edd to kb dt bebsol ylivesd ytev tinev eft Yo enottrog sietsqes odT et9tnt ¥: “Baooes ed? nit fod .eaex2o tertt oft ak eefiorws Lenoze y Isitekod Ratbnod ard’ tedd of ,edra odd evods hatose if elas te ‘tod bed teqorq. edit odd bas .kaode etiup tleete tadwemos of wyatvet nse sole es tentes bevree base 110] om < ~santtioer odd j selfema sat to dabtw Leaton ei ebeeoxs tisevy sd? tT g enetiosatssat ed? vevo ativey sav ot bensqgad ¢err? er nd S15w stot ,elerbedteo donsr” tektel sat to erewodt edd fdtsqmoo asifene otni tfusy mtowy ent Ratbivib to ashow Ifene dhwodt Ceupe 8 ote nelly ni babtvib redtie eax Ji sont edd petioev nto stittaqosoo stot ot etnemtisqaoo Teupent to .etdared [eupend to efmioy yntgninge to esonei fot tmevsttih to sen eat vo Battiite Yo ,anworo Yo stds ¢ (bef .2f7) db bas 6 #8 Tot ,beaseront o19n sadote a sity etnerhesp tneitii6 sie 5 6 Sas 9 @ baa .asforto ce ae adhe bdeaaiess eit been sis ysis tr tot ;hebtove sexs asitoww yeedote fetatog tied eas 6 9 bas 6 o .stnerhbegp e168 od (5D 8 ~hetntoy svitns sie 10 tefeoriotuse redsts ei Ad yh e aide tla To saa sat yw bevioe sf onfe yen weldorg add ,esdow “nah 20 weston feottosiqgnn yase oof Zntonbowtal IconIin esdow ‘ 92 we once become accustomed not to recognize the Gothic style in every case in which the pointed arch may be used, it becomes allowable in the Renaissance as well, to be employed whenever appropriate. The early Renaissance disdained it as little as Cothic rejected the circular arch; the spirit of each style #as too discreet to reject anything practically usable, from blind subjection to principles. The separate compartments between the ribs were always so covered in mediaeval vaults as to make their highest line cur- ved, and they therefore became parts of domes. Tao modes of vautting were in use, the vaults being either constructed aft- er the classic method of building tunnel vaults by courses at right angles to the akis of the tunnel vault, or diagonally in later times so that the length of one half the side arch being transferred to the diagonal arch gave the point, which was con- nected with the crown of the side arch. The other points of t the diagonal arch were connected with the corresponding points of the central curved line of that compartment of the vault. The separate portions of the vault very heavily loaded the di- agonal arches in the first case, but in the second they inter- sected above the ribs, so that this bonding together was of i itself quite strong, and the ribs proper had but little to swe port and served rather as stone centerings to somewhat relieve the vaulting. If the vault exceeds the normal width of the smaller bays, as first happened in the vaults over the intersections under the towers of the larger French cathedrals, there were two modes of dividing the groin vault into smaller compartments, it was either divided in plan into 8 equal though smaller compartments to form octopartite groin vaults; the inconven- dences of springing points of unequal heights, of unequal hei- ghts of crowns, of stilting or the use of different forms of arches were increased, for a d and db (Fig. 154) become semi- circles, and a c and dc are different quadrants if pointed arches are avoided: but if they are used the diagonal ribs ac, bc are quadrants, c d andc e are half pointed arches, while a @, b @ are either semicircular or are entire pointed arches, the problem may also be solved by the use of segmental arches without introducing too many unpractical results. Or the semsisqmoo aelfeme otmt bebivih sd ysn Jiusv akosy sd? .9e1dt ofat atnsasteqaoo [eniyiio edt to sose dt nsfq at s9¢8933 af (@@f .giY) 0b + 5 # ;ewollot. se o- m .tniog teedgid att ed of ef t{uav sit to awors sad th $ redgid seit yeu Sivav & sonte yiseesoen qletuloads son sedzifd ete esdows sbte sdt to amwoto sat asdw ,mworo att eit to eentl erinso edt Qateweo ,tloev edd to sacs of edt to aothes od¢ ,enotaysd edt bisnoy basoasb of » odd Yo akesd ent as medisd sd of at Ob + bb ae } aan fote erds esa albbtm sastel ont nt itivay end to ‘tiyied sit te et 9 snotayed sat *,dote L[egkontisa” odd 6 b tdyted ads esd 6 evoda snigi *b tnitog sdT 4.09 6 + fav att to o mwors edd [fade wok .moisostotg Leoisaev £6 tied sdt tl fe tniog gataatige edt dikn betosnngoo st not#ostiow [sottirey odt mk tto Hiel ed aely sit to 3 svods dts t{uav edt tadt sevo1g notts ebreanoo tsiad & potsant yisv garwettib dows betniog s sd deum aala edd oo 6 + b se sfortotase ip 2e8 bemnasea od ([snozsrbh ent th ,yistsa0o edt nO Wtoinee obsa od din [enogeth edt haa nofttoastanos odd 5 tert? ed¢ mi asdt isrol et tinevy sat to o mroto edt yey edt nt awath ed (S¢L .bf7) b se tI 29 6 Qnied tH4ie0 ai # Po: od & moist tto biel sd nalo odd to 9b bas .noktosiLorg La toag : Rest t0 ‘tedd ot I[anpes tdgted & svsad Jom 2905% evoda tniog m ett fersnsz nt etoteisd? .19n0l 2k tad stinsv adt to *s ae olftta asdtie tediet deom so .tiuest on of ebasl oe edt dtin o snoteyed edt of b tavo “b tntoq odd /b o shotingsm oft retenett to .(ScL- .kt8) dia Lanozerb > Dic cabasetien # anitoets ,s abrawod**b of o mot? sal )to tent neat at “*b tagred edT .“*b at dasthbanp sat suo eh won esa st .malq eft to b satog, sé¢ tevE Baiyl saiog = fenoiesib od? to enthbet edt dtiw s bisend? “*b mort dows ne i it 50) seodn entbsr emee ons ddtw dow Iadnomgee & wath 10 : Rb iaton ett tto gmittao ,beouborg “b**b ent{ eat no asi! ig wath od ys sfotto # yltes{ 10 ,tetog gntgninge sdt 1sv0 9 te nmetb feott1ev 8 of tnehnad 6 8 ankbat dtin “*b dgconds | =meznevnoons (yeu aw es teted One owt tedd taadive semoosd sI _ a ‘ae “stmpooos o¢nt neiet sd desu has. eyents dfueer iin eso fantos to enctteviesdo atin bstoennoo anokterabienoo. wet & bie i aes * We , i rr] eS = e. Daten | aE A: 93 groin vault may be divided into smaller compartments by cutting each of the original compartments into three. The results are as follows; ad + dc (Fig. 155) is greater in plan than a c; if the crown of the vault is to be its highest point, which is not absolutely necessary since a vault may rise higher than i its crown, when the crowns of the side arches are higher than that of the vault, causing the centre lines of the compartmenhs to descend toward the keystone, the radius of the longes arch, as ad +doc iis to be taken as the basis of the construction of the vault; in the later middle ages this arch was termed the “principal arch.” The keystone c is at the height of a d + dc. The point d’ lying above d has the height d d’in the vertical projection. How shall the crown c of the vault be connected with the springing point a? If the half diagonal ac of the plan be laid off in the vertical projection from a to c’,, a brief consideration proves that the vault rib above ac of the plan must be a pointed arch differing very little from the semicircle adt+dc. On the contrary, if the diagonal be assumed as a basis for the construction and the diagonal rib be made semicigcular, the crown c of the vault is lower than in the first case, its height being ac. If ad (Fig. 156) be drawn in the vertical projection, and dc of the plan be laid off from a to ce”, the point above c”does not have a height equal to that of the cronn c’ of the vault but is lower. Therefore in general this method leads to no result. One must rather either strike an arch from the point @” over d to the keystone c with the radius of the diagonal rib (Fig. 156), or transfer the magnitude c d of the plan from c to a”’ towards a, erecting a perpendicular d@” to cut the quadrant in @’”. The height d’” is then that of the point lying over tke point d of the plan. We may now strike an arch from a’” tnward a with the radius of the diagonal rib, or draw a segmental arch with the same radius whose centre z lies on the line a’”a” produced, cutting off the height a d”” over the springing point, or lastly a circle may be dram#n through a’” with radius a d tangent to a vertical drawn at a. It becomes evident that turn and twist as we may, inconvenien- ces will result always and must be taken into account. A few considerations connected with observations of actual rt, ne ae 7 op (otra Wien. ae hye : | weanta at sobeinogttib evorisy odd soslg [fiw sonutourte v mtova to notdow1tanoo edt mort tluser dofdw ,saQtl Yo anoltoss add YT .aelqiontsg [svesibomydtin sonsbr0008 2 oda to esods 10 ,selimie ors eedots shile Sne edia tlyusv wie bae dita eno to anoitoess edt to bseogmoo 8148 asdors 7 sfanta‘s yolque of sld@rsie1g 9d ayewia [ffw ti .adin gsso0mg eis ytifgnte of .sedots edie base edis Ils 207 saa le Yo sotods 6 ylag esd eno Seo Bidd ol .noidouie ‘Yo Hote telootioiwee oat of norsibds ar sedors bagntog 10 [st | ante: i160 jene2 ai dows [stnomgse ont to wrot ed? .dit Lenogeth odd nally Yletaloads eid to .1slv0se ent to sehr oat Ativ betstooges iy ‘att w sitds ,ms9m 94¢ to bas ysueed to ommegxrs edd se f[erinsa hy Mad? A taefooe sd? Yo aebk edt bentol ar dows beiniog ent moo etdT .en0 ysere of eldsserze fom ef doinw ,dstanon fe to mrot Wehto sd? 10 ene Yo sofond sat anintsonod Jaie } ton adit fagtonizg wsititen ets estore [atnomzen end TI qno ton exe yodt ,sdia etetbemisint ylao tud aedows piido ziedt sonta ‘b, 1¢ 38, dd, ee, f f of the vertical projections. "From cogceof the’ 4’, plan we obtain c g on Bhe vertical projection with the curve c’a”, or b g” with the curve b’a’”. The height ¢ e’ ean then be always taken at pleasure. If the half diagonal af be taken as the principal arch, lay off from f on the vertical project- ion (Fig. 158) the distances fc, f b, f e toward a, erecting perpendiculars at those points, whose intersections with the quadrant a f’. with radius a f’ give the heights b, c, e, &, f. all points then lie on the surface of a sphere, and the vault then becomes an ornamental vault, which we term a star vault. If the largest possible principal arch =agteé b ¢+.a b+ be+ed+di1 be taken ar the basis of the construction, the rise of the vault would be great (Fig. 159); if a low ellipse or a Tudor arch were taken instead of a circle, a favorite form in the late Cothic of the Netherlands and of England, the hei- ghts a, £”, b”, a”, a”, f” would be obtained, or the points a, etipadis, waVigeatis ae, of°Re If one does not follow the two previous modes of procedure, for determining the altitudes of the ornamental groin vault by a single radius, but first assumes the height of the crown 4, Ss | de moa eneds foannoo,(Od! .git) 2 bas # A essiors sbte on Beemerer or aees eit ot bnogset109 dofnn .“b*s sedorw edd mottoeto1g [soitisv edt of tetensss ,tinev arog oad ad te efaotirey 3attos1e .nefg odd- to bs .9 8 do 8 edd pees tite eredt ,*o*d ak “o‘a ewtuo odd fosavetai doide > od [fiw edin esodr {fa .#{sev ato13 [atnemento ne tenod to esbom terkt owt oT .kibea tneteti£h atinv hand at bediaoesb teu, tend bas ,nsmie> hearst ed edt antiod boalyad bane sonet® af Seqolgms ylterno > BoRed whe owoe eved yilersne3 nslg nem19. sf2 no atduey $9¢ Bpipane ten bas snonosonom & psoubo 7g sotdw ,teel sav | ‘aqso tefiies 189998 temtot eft yrseidnoo edt no sitive )benretana ed of sta yeds ebauors Ieortoasg nO .bsisev efonet® | -eiluev iantaok Isvestbev .9 p usnenst3is fhetourtanoo eis eomobh [evesibem efqmic f10 edT .betLL doum tom ean omob edt LIsteneg nt Jusnok ras on dotdw ,s93e8 afbbin steal edt to etinvey LIsotmod wie beyolqne yidsistetg 18 ,edivev tase es betabienco werk adit edt to ancttosstetnt [fs ;emoor Lenozgioy gat t edt to teat aleups eutbet seodn ,et9edqa & to sostise wees fsotredge es bersvoo sis etnemdxeqmoo eit .eforto -edka edt nsexted stutavino [lene 9 ators fitod nk nebootte sit o7e adnemtreqmoo edt sonse penne at bev ers yodt tefd stom std .ativev [sotrsige ‘ila sfante ye Yo ostt eft astsasts edd ..9.f nol -etlusv Rnoite ot .nage atk of sofsiogeig ai tnems189 paiatens jsit .bevino yfanowe of semifaroa ote eftnomdrag 'T) tisav edt to nnow sit svode yldetsbianco et tniog av [eottedqe bre ntorg “bedesesd (fut? helleo~o2 dowe ~“"bedaestd salt” sit aedd beitev One bsteming stom 189 nod. 1edoit A brotte efmoeusisqmoo bavina yianorte sit 7 ot ete “betaeand [fot edd stotersd? .ebede bow tayil tated tr “betaseid teaft” sat of .b9tntaq ton ti ,beatst * -atiusv [ennot Leveatben! .y “wnettib adit tooitinv tfusv lennut [evestbem efqate sat 6 sdt tod ,smob sigmta edt 28 mamod edt mont sliati Yo teadT .efniog [sitnenes yrov at tnonettih et Ifuszv Lonaut -wdo-yaw tasfgmte odd nt bemict ef aottoee georo ralootioinee 96 the side arches A B and BC (Fig. 160)sconnect these crowns by the arches a’d’, which correspond to the simple curvature of the groin vault, transfer to the vertical projection the leng- ths a b, ac, a dof the plan, erecting verticals at b and e, ahich intersect the curve a’d’ in b’c’, there will be obtained | an ornamental groin vault, all ahose ribs will be constructed with different radii. The two first modes of construction may : be termed German, and that just described is French; it was chiefly employed in France and England during the middle ages. Vautts on the German plan generally have some advantages over the last, which produces a monotonous and consistent effect, while on the contrary the former appear rather capriciously v varied. On practical grounds they are to be preferred to the French. 8. Mediaeval domical vaults. Simple mediaeval domes are constructed differently from the Romang in general the dome was not much liked. The ornamental domical vaults of the late middle ages, which we have already considered as star vaults, are preferably employed for cover- ing polygonal rooms; all intersections of the ribs lie in the surface of a sphere, whose radius equals that of the inscribed circle. The compartments are covered as spherical surfaces of small curvature between the ribs. Since the compartments are the stronger in both sroin and s spherical vaults, the more that they are curved in cross sect- ion, i.e., the greater the rise of any single arch of the com partment in proportion to its span, in strong vaults these con- | partments are sometimes s6 strongly curved, that their highest } point is considerably above the crown of the vault (Fig. 161). Such so-called “full breasted” groin and spherical vaults app- ear more animated and varied than the “flat breasted”, since | the strongly curved compartments afford a richer contrast of | light and shade. Therefore the “full breasted” are to be pre- 4 ferred, if not painted, to the “flat breasted” if painted. y. Mediaeval tunnel vaults. The simple mediaeval tunnel vault without ribs differs as little from the Roman as the simple dome, but the ornamental tunnel vault is different in very essential points. Thet of semicircular cross section is formed in the simplest way by Xe ieied'ous ot [supe (Sdr .3i%) o 8 nage tied edt xniden p conte . 9 to tedt eleups f tntoq edt to sbutidin ent ews bevaennos ete do .0 statog oat ylonsupeenong ie .noktostotq [sottasv add mo soeky m effuev [eottqalls rot slietiog et nottourtance sat & extoyes bas wol yrev sta enoot edt TI .auoor wol 10% PF feqtontay pene siet yaa soo ,neqe tiad edt nsdt eeol B bas datbnalivedtey add at es dows wobyT 10 Istnomygse '3ntfourtenco to sbom fersten Jaow sat teY .madeyez 2 do78 [snonsth edt exist of od [liw tinev [ennot Lad 298 & eben at dofde ,fors [aqtomivg sad we CSL .3a%) Tin base eather ems add déte ebam nedd 918 edit Ile rte fennot {sottqtife ae to soetiva sad mo oi! enot | o(SOL 23%) .fsotdvev ef aixa toler "seni af edis to esitiee boooee & emoot is ytel nt Sin ee 2 evs dotdw Sane ,(25r .3kT) moteye tevitt sit to ssodt i? of dourse ed neo edits ,tedtio® .eslgtontiqg emee odd no ? cae if ataiog gnigniaqge ditw sedors fataeazes 28 aller feddao* ed yet tinev fennod dé zeentl gntaaiace fatener fionrtendo esedt (fA .eyew bstaev teom edt nf beatae poném book yns ai betdesrd y[fot ynted snottstasv tLedd Seods ashtenoo of yf[no sted aved on .nottoutsanoo ofdd adiosy feteowento seedT .sottos1y ntehom nt trettoimit Jeon sifusy Pets¥too wewol sat of enottslen etamttnt sven abaid {fe t vino ws mort snisettib ¢ylfeatdneeas ,m9ea ed yfiess yaa ee yen ew GA earettoo to bastank efromtreqmos hedloav 2eived Whitt te snitinev to sbom edt nf yteesenenn ers pedis sat sgabieeqe qitotite ,etnentseqmoo edt to woxe edt of esf #6 ‘to estoege & aw1ct tnemdseymoo edt to bod xota sad ton eeob dadt ,aehbe gnifoeetetnt ond anole dit 3nf | -tfoav eft to sostroe edt baoyed tune [atnemenio bsyolque eantienmas otdtoD adtal ant 27%q moinne Yo atot sat svat etnemfraqmod seodw ,sdin Miusv wetetofo 18 batlvev uated aud? ,seoataua bevigo oat qlletoeges ,(8df .gfy) ascetine asmnk beviwo yftaysle ie noktoursenos dokid of gnoled ylleottioeye atfvev dow? ocbomabay vatatbliod fsotadoet ylesg at hetasint ad of syis ‘gate Jengdm ffnme div tootts foie s souborg of bertash at 4 4 “Gad faey beddts Lavertben to eevitow sviteross] .4 My Dyck 4 tina 97 making the half span ac (Fig. 162) equal to the height c c’}, the altitude of the point b equals that of c’, since a b = ac’. consequently the points b, ¢,,b are connected by a straight p piece on the vertical projection. The construction is suitable for elléptical vaults required for low rooms. If the rooms are very low and require a height less than the half span, one may take as a principal arch as segmental or Tudor arch as in the Netherlandish and English system. Yet the most natural mode of constructing the ornamen- tal tunnel vault will be to take the diagonal arch a be ba (Fig. 163 as the principal arch, which is made a semicircle; all ribs are then made with the same radius and all intersect- ions lie on the surface of an elliptical tunnel vault, whose | major axis is vertical. (Fig. 164). In larger rooms a second series of ribs is inserted between those of the first system (Fig. 165), and which are constructed on the same principles. Further, ribs can be struck to the side malls af segmental arches with springing points lying above the general springing lines; the tunnel vault ay be further orna- mented in the mest varied ways. All these constructions and t their variations being fully treated in any good manual of Co- thic construction, we have here only to consider those matters most important in modern practice. These ornamental vaults of all kinds have intimate relations to the Roman coffered vaults, as way easily be seen, essentially differing from them only in having vaulted compartments instead of coffers. As we have seen, the ribs are unnecessary ‘in the mode of vaulting at right ang- les to the axes of the compartments, strictly speaking, since the brick bond of the compartment forms a species of stiffen- ing rib along the intersecting edges, that does not project b_ beyond the surface of the vault. The late Gothic sometimes employed ornamental vaults without ribs, whose compartments have the form of sunken pyramids with curved surfaces, thus being vaulted ar cloister vaults with slightly curved inner surfaces (fig. 166), especially in Saxony. Such vaults specifically belong to brick construction and des- erve to be imitated in purely technical buildings, and when it is desired to produce a rich effect with small means. 5. Decorative motives of mediaeval ritbed vaults. ee remear a es ’ ae u 7 i : Ientetxe edt slttee tadt ataonelo svidiniteb aT etoted esvisemodd adia edt ore slusv Isvesibea ont to edt ,betebranco ybaetle snomejnatie [softtemos3; tiedd it atnentreqnos sit to saodt of anotanemth skedt to anot ana atedt syods efnemgolevebh .msnotsyex ,selkicrg e2tnensttaymoo edt to noktatooeh sdt ylteel at bewshbrenoo ed [[tw eteogut sat to tnemtsasxt saT Jiqso tied? to bne atioqgue edt to emiot edt déiw no J ot et tedx of esvfostpo tint! 19d etotersatd [fade ow efqxe ylinsioittve seed ead efdT stieeti tiney ett to “gniemer ylno si » edd Yo elfew edt anidroqqne eedoisdo to seodt olf! ebe teat ,.ofs ,atallseo,fesenoieise to seods 10 .yt0s, dd ,ebeol fenistxs tedto das nem ,stnemelgnt ,owtinrist ‘eelets [arsvoe sninistaos anol -bensdtunsite sd ise @tanol anowtea yiev sticpet ,sleies faitaso beeiet s gat “edt topandD of dthnette exel to xefore ,asdow 198i7 > 04s taogqoe oF adit ud ,sedots satevensit es sviee dus ot mokeIogoNq ylno ak Atgnstts seotn ,tiuaev ent to atnomdte gut id souboig of etinsv fous 10% poet ea? To Jdnteow odd Jourse stifne ett ted? of fae , ti gneite Ssstg to aie ‘etiovidows edt ,sotot bovieme1 bose tewod to tadd sve etnemtrayaos sit of motsiogo1g at sviessm resqqe teom at : Pod ancttou1itenco tetdsti tot yretta0o edt no -etivev ie ys: nm sis eedoqms shbte sat .socerk bas seantosil to tosltts wm be: det ed blwonta bas etinav bebsol yitdgil ni yrseesosn ‘ylusliwta Sus atebtry itl Joe asdows sbie bas edia sa? te shedt .se.t (Volt .grt) a10% devise to amesd badeol -dabin sdt aadd dtgeb edt dtiw ylbirqet stom esearai0cnt 1 edt wort tnetarkh taom gendkt eft tedto edd no ,dasd ‘wot atiaes1 atdd nore .beaserte y{gnorsds Jeom 918 sixe Yo mtot ated? of sottefes nt tnemttspet sda enoess1 Lage | ‘th teat .ftbiw att besoxe blnodea ctgqeb avi teat ,aci "Ode sonbet of sldewolle eat ti efidn .mottod bas got ts Rnowe | sBnitfvav to show reblo sdt xT .atimt! seodsd nested noisoee «ft aa ee, at a > 98 ‘ The definitive elements that settle the external appearance ' of the mediaeval vanlt are the ribs themselves before all else, their geometrical arrangement already considered, the proport- ions of their dimensions to those of the compartments, their | profiles, keystones, developments above their imposts, and lastly the decoration of the compartments. The treatment of the imposts will be considered in connecti- on with the forms of the supports and of their capitals, and ; we shall therefore her limit ourselves to what is to be said. of the vault itself. This has been sufficiently explained from esthetic and technical stand points» it only remains to state that the side arches, which in rooms containing free supports connect these together and wit: the walls, make strong archiv—- olts and smaller ribs necessary and gesirable for both techni- cal and esthetic reasons; if the side arches support heavy lo- ads like those of churches supporting the walls of the clears- ‘tory, or those of warehouses},cellars, etc., that support goods, furniture, implements, men and other external loads, they must again be strengthened. Rooms containing several aisles and hay- ing a raised central aisle, require very strong longitudinal pier arches, arches of less strength to connect the supports and serve as transverse arches, but ribs to support the comp- artments of the vault, whose strength is only proportional to the weight of the vault. For such vaults to produce the impres- sion of great strength, and so that the entire structure may have that of power and reserved force, the archivolts and ribs must appear massive in proportion to the compartments of the vaults; on the contrary for lighter constructions to have the effect of lightness and grace, the side arches are entirely un- necessary in lightly loaded vaults and should be replaced bry ribs. The ribs and side arches act like girders and similarly to loaded beams of curved form (Fig. 167); i.e., their strength increases more rapidly with the depth than the width on one hand, on the other the fibres most distant from the neutral axis are most strongly stressed. from this results for struct- ural reasons the requirment in relation to their form of sect- ion, that its depth should exceed its width, that it should be strong at top and bottom, while it is allowable to reduce the section between those limits. Iin the older mode of vaulting, ‘ ¥ ee edt of tslsotbasatsg ete esaswoo Stataqse odd meow Qnetta 2 sved asdowe bas adit edd ,snsasrag000 ate fotdu tentexe .(T3l .bf%) e6zbs teqqn atedd te ath edt of ytaeseoonnn et noittbbs edt tod pasner “ysvnoo esiors bas adita gnowte etoteieds ;onitivev to gicube1 to ytiiidteatmisg sat bone .,diyneite Yo sotere > to eeu edt exoll{s eobsttxe bas eobating aeented mort Beem @ ef nottonot ett efktint ecbattat edt sside egnshly eakedt jadi bebaol yftdptie 16 bebeolay to exe al .beuor skureteb od yam enotensmth ([snottroqotg ons amtot [anoid gre edt sone= .yntheol to enortibaoo edd mort ylénageb dit «2 tovedix odd atellit dtiw betdtcoeb sonsecis syne SintoD ot Rnkbrooos hetousdemoo ,(Car .2r7) ae fivadiz eaedT .insbivs Satbeol gdgtl sds este erat otegiatn mo esves{ to enot edd bees etedw dostie xntasely ii cote eeantbloom sidso .absed [fssg yd bstanooabd ere ~foms f them dotdw mi edt yntveed anode to enottose sit ain yrev niddts hetotitaet sey sie slitre? yey een sistoeti od 6 e fntasnoqg teom etesgqe sols sybe yeKol ant seating! wo £h 2 te <[feguod haintog 10 bavot 2 af batassd neds ‘64% nsdf dostis oftextens ston 2 ead Lfotwod betaios babe Tsqtade # 10 svOD «2 yd beosiqe: sd oale yem notdy Seod? yi amtot efqmie yrev seed? aoalget of wtqmedtie Oint Ifet of yeso of ef ti conte ,ticeer. tuodsin sxe xely dit otf to asfitor ont ak potseno asgs slbbta edT .enenels | yse [aantoetifote att ot sebtigosg eisdmsem yletem don ¥ Sntishes to base atlusy beqofsveb sat of ynthbnoqesti0s it jxe dottix .ebmad bas ebeed [189q atin eantihisoa tes! . “bus jaisduem gnizesd en atiuavy edt of edit sdt to anoitalor b seaT .editt sav to anoitoea edt dtiw [lew ss itnomiad iO Seueced mrot ed sean of sects of efdanoses1 ylonrsoe itec to svitom [evyeaitbem sat .eslyte oress{o sd? of terle : abavot ofe1eqea of sonote auctosig~-inee diiw Jee abnsd ‘to nottetocah edt af steizqorgge yrev osls et anollod © etedn ,ponatathS aldatebianoo £ neve te avitostts ef boa “g see yan etonttarbat emooed amo? — 8at yaa dient att of ssofo sd of bebsetnt atlaay nt ylnd: > aelleme ofnt bebivih ed bus bedotine 9d aknthlvor otarsgee Yenoisoee sit to tnomteerd blod # seed aids nt seve tey .et ie ~ «ieage a rg | . Sem 99 when the separate courses are perpendicular to the axis op the compartment, the ribs and arches have a strengthening. addition at their upper edges (Fig. 167), against which abut the compart- ments; but this addition is unnecessary in the diagonal mode of vaulting; therefore strong ribs and arches convey the impr- ession of strength, and the permissibility of reducing the sec- tion between intrados and extrados allows the use of coved mo- uldings, white the intrados fulfils its function as a massive round. In case of unloaded or slightly loaded ribs, their sec- tional forms and proportional dimensions may be determined in- depently from the conditions of loading. Hence the German Ren- aissance decorated with fillets the ribs of a ribbed vault, (Pig. 169), constructed according to Gothic principles, and this makes the light loading evident. These ribs have a very pleasing effect where used; the rows of leaves on both sides are decorated by peakl beads, cable mouldings, etc. The sections of strong bearing ribs in which mediaeval arch- itecture was very fertile are yet restricted within very narr- ow limits; the lower edge alone appears most powerful and bold, when treated as a round or pointed bowtell; at a distance the pointed bowtell has a more energetic effect than the round, w which may also be replaced by a cove or a sharper edge; all a attempts to replace these very simple forms by those more com plex are without result, since it is so easy to fall into lit- tleness. The middle ages created in tne profiles of the ribs, not merely members peculiar to its architectural styles, but corresponding to the developed vaults and of enduring value; leaf mouldings with pearl beads and bands, which express the relations of the ribs to the vaults as bearing members, and harmonize well with the sections of the ribs. Therefore it is scarcely reasonable to refuse to use the form because origin- aliar to the classic styles. The mediaeval motive of using bands set with semi-precious stones to separate rounds and hollows is also very appropriate in the decoration of the ribs, and is effective at even a considerable distance, where other forms become indistinct. Only in vaults intended to be close to the observer may the separate mouldings be enriched and be divided into smaller par- ts, yet even in this case a told treatment of the section of OOL | aved sfenit eflan sit Sroqqua Jedd venoms ehie adT attib [ettneees ne aetl etd? nl .dtpmerte ee [fon eben stedd beead ef at no. bne ,edityelfane edd mee eee | etnemtseny av rid: sehene. yi bentuisteh eft eedo1s sbhie edt to dthesid esT 3 to a 2 sit conta bns ,drogque yedd teadd ellew edd Yo 67 ows edd ,oatt atedd atiw eeesetont oals eadote abie tae yltnstottivs od [fiw dtaneite bas ddbaerds to ata 2b seoan 987009 to ehais [esaevee Yo Ilind sis yet op sdt nt aveysl edd? to eeendoids edt yd bentareideh hex > astdt 10 o#f to takenoo yianihtooos eadors sbis .amtbeo ol ett bas [fen edt to asemioidt edt ot gnthiooos estore es eqete tied to [Int of bokasiis sd yeo seedt bas By edt ted? notazesqat sat esonbotg dos shre snt teat of “aiedt sisi isl evad déynsite itedd bas noitom nwo tient to een aq to sbomu etettqo1gae teom One tesigqute edt .atoLrisins ent encitose snedt anigneris nt efetenoo eedots sbte sat gat tgvebeds brs tdgtf to nottsenvetis seodn ,“etebao" 19 agete moo aninshiwd sit of motdeles stedd iftostts teablod edd qllsotsesls edd yd tneobtve sham er etfesy edt to atuen eds YT (IVE .2tF) ete ll rt emoe attw eevee! to swor ‘yd bsoslqsn sd yam asizns add ,mtot tedoix « oven of "Yo nofeasiqni ed anitviz ,awolfod ysented base & to aquorg 4 mol oft nedtynetie of bertesh od ti th bos ,so10t ofsez1one 4 | nt en Ifew ae ytifsenr ai dows ebte beqqste edt to bons it mb esogiteq aidt (rtint {[[ftw [iletwod betniog a ,eone ie Of teltmte enr0t doser sudd sw stubs9otg Lenotter 1S «yer > feebastR ati at acis slbhie edd yd beoubéttnt saodt it Batynoled asittory [ebom saedt aviv eanesqard seven aso sn Jouq is{imke to esaso at ssttutaso dt EL baa dt SE edt on doidn ,ednemenitess Ss10die sat [fe yrerdnoo sat np quotds sd binods ,eek2 slbbtm steal sdt ot set trovet mii etni ylisorieteid dgo0dt”.eeelatrow yiisoitostg anied « fa tod ,et(vav edt Jxoggua yino fom sefo1ws sbie edd gonke ‘bas ,medd toontos emt? omse edt ta bos d18q8 eteiq sft qeex chiod ttedt ,redso done ddiw mottoennoo ot bsynetis ete xe dofdw enisiteg siif=basd svieoet yea esoative tSén0l Hdd beseenars sved enottean bos ehottsqg [fA .nottosanco aids eVEW mWO BIL nt doas ,aebi ee ie tan | sv ed - ae Ape a init st ees 0 deed ed eyanle [[tn dia edt ~ 100 the rib will always be best. The side arches that support the walls must have breadth as well as strength. In this lies an essential difference from the smaller ribs, and on it is based their different decorati- ve treatment. The breadth of the side arches is determined by the thickness of the walls that they support, and since the strength of the side arches also increases with their rise, the two requireme- nts of breadth and strength will be sufficiently satisfied if they are built of several rings of courses, whose depths are determined by the thickness of the layers in the quarry. The side arches accordingly consist of two or three courses of arches according to the thickness of the wall and the loading, and these may be arranged in full or half steps as required, so that the side arch produces the impression that the walls,. of their own motion and their strength have laid bare their interiors. The simplest and most appropriate mode of profil- ing the side arches consists in arranging these sections in s steps or “orders”, whose alternation of light and shade gives the boldest effect. their relation to the burdening compart- ments of the vaults is made evident by the elastically curved rows of leaves with some fillets (Fig. 171). If the profile is to have a richer form, the angles may be replaced by separate groups of a round betweey hollows, giving the impression of energetic force, and if it be desired to strengthen the lower end of the stepped side arch in reality as well as in appear- ance, a pointed bowtell will fulfil this purpose in the best way. By rational procedure we thus reach forms similar to those intraduced by the middle ages in its grandest churches; ; we can never dispense with these model profiles belonging to the 12 th and 13 th centuries in case of similar problems, but on the contrary all the albored refinements, which were such favorites in the late middle ages, should be thrown aside as being practically worthless, though historically interesting. Since the side arches not only support the vaults, but also keep the piers apart and at the same time connect them, and are arranged in connection with each other, their horizontal lower surfaces may receive band-like patterns which express \ this connection. All periods and nations have expressed this ° idea, each in its own way. eu bidseeaes ems etetq ssotw .emoor betinsv as[fame st ton ob vetiosy beddia yd beaevoo exe dokdin bae seo te dove ;absof [aveonn of heeoqxe enolan estos sbie sviaesm me to 9680 or adit websoid es detsert od [[on yrov yam esaors as ; -ylfeqtoniaq yodt sonte ,atinav bebeol yltdgil baa iis ey edt to atnanteaqmos edt tot asostise [law sdt no etiremtude fedt of ,fots obte s to enottiog od neodd [lin bnew edi{o sob ys din s to tedt wort bentstio sd ysm enoitosa x > yltoetieg madd et #T .(SUL .Bit)dtbiw etc ontvied EO Svitei009) to tseqeedo bas taslqutea efi to eno oela ef jor ySi asdors obie baer edit edt to aelzas edt sosiye1 of Biae : de bne fdatl te toette sft sesetoni of ,Bavoo 10 axel - ys ,~asdowe yd bstoennoo ote snmoloo th seeeo teom nt malo oft sit{ nedors sacdt heteott eved etostidors sonsartanch neve .nottoottenco msed esnote of antbnogqee1i1¢co evaeitidots ofe fore seed? to asortiva Yobno edt at ersttoo znrarot ) Sivst 6 bettinmoo rsitie sved aitetesm sonseaisned be samo obi 0 10 senote to amaed hevaso editf{ eedors sdf aniteserd af 2 ont ote tlovidors ed? to mtot sdt to Sninaen adt to ee itn ) | efoeTI09 sd deom yodt bre ) B Svoda masd snote sritiogque A as mI0OT sveidifota sol eeerersmtetett ati ,siutostidows msfos1) of rstivosq earn shan e081 -gebao eft to notteto095 add .esatuveo [adnosiinod L[ersvse 7 mite oo.eds tedt sebi od? bsersetgxs ,enrstieq siti~-bnad yd ae pg dotda so ,bned bedoterte ylidgit s yd betoannoo sd bine Nios: ea obned of Jib Gnitenso toodtin Biel ed tagia vet exot evaistdors atdt fevolqms eevisenent etesi1D add tug \ & 18 Se tr born neve bne .etc0d bas ewobntw seolons m semcosd stoteiedt ti bas ,ansdtA at foubeups sat te Mdiw Hetoennom sroced eved esehi to enotisiooses asfito 10 te erotesm sonenetsnef bas namod edd saeo eid? at ;amnod oe dvotstin eqedteq .siessD sive to amtot sat hetqesoss yf [qooq tad? yd amrot eaedd dtin Satetooees sashr edt gosh 5 aed eved gx dotdey ssodt mort betettrb evan of mace yout | esvertidore edt dtin fosmnoo of Senot ae [Ian 8 mt Snineqo as Sevreoncoe aslyte oreeato oat | aie tod s yd [Law eat to ytnoesm ent mort betsisqee .elod « ‘to y Batneqo wa Bt tr debrsast eohe efbdtm eds tod ,amer? 8 vers .8qgste bseasos1 19 manren efqmta ati qd. wonanenade ods ae , iA ’ A Am A a i a Ne —) Oa : : : wa Os Cte A Ny or ee ee ; 101 Smaller vaulted rooms, whose piers are connected by side ar- ches and which are coveeed by ribbed vaults, do not require 7 massive side arches unless exposed to unusual loads; such side arches may very well be treated as broader ribs in case of sm- all and lightly loaded vaults, since they principally act as abutmerts on the wall surfaces for the compartments of the va- ults and will then be portions of a side arch, so that the oth- er sections may be obtained from that of a rib by doubling or halving its width.(Fig. 172). It is then perfectly correct and ‘igs also one of the simplest and cheapest of decorative expedi- ents to replace the angles of the rits and side arches by chan- fers or coves, to increase the effect of light and shadow. In most cases if columns are connected by arches, Roman and Renaissance architects have treated these arches like the :clas- sic architrave corresponding to stone beam construction, even forming coffers in the under surfaces of these archivolts. The Roman and Renaissance masters have either committed a fault in treating the arches like curved beams of stone, or our ide- as of the meaning of the form of the archivolt are incorrect, and they must be correct. The architrave form as a supporting stone beam above a colon- nade was peculiar to Grecian architecture, its division into several horizontal courses, the decoration of its under surface by band-like patterns, expressed the idea that the columns sh- ould be connected by a tightly stretched band,.on which a load might be laid without causing it to bend. . But the Greeks themselves employed this architrave form to enclose windows and doors, and even used it as ar archivoite at the aqueduct in Athens, and it therefore becomes untrue, or othe associations of ideas have become connected with the- se forms; in this case the Roman and Renaissance masters simp- ly accepted the forms of the Creeks, perhaps without understan- ding the ideas associated with these forms by that people. But they seem to have differed from those which we have been accus- tomed to connect with the architrave. The classic styles conceived an opening in a wall as merely a hole, separated from the masonry of the wall by a bordering frame, but the middle ages regarded it is air opening producing the appearance by its simple splays or recessed steps, as if & i (= «Ove ih " *F, ov f yd, * van © yr 4 ie iy ot) ry rin cae ts Pi eae } bath ered antyel ,bro008 ake att Yo bensgo bed [isn odd 12% ton 918 eomatt sairsbied gadt Jnebive Ilea ak 3 qqne sdf dtsened beynet1e ste dod ,elfen favesibem neve fe [eintootts edt ,t%8q teftdo eft yelq soitw esdove sbte fi 973 adt to ton ef noktoursenoo odd tk seve Bnttentmobery ‘eqtontty tedto nt bre ewobatw feedu at es ,sonedtojmt ‘Ylno ton et svsetidote msmof-ooe1D edT .eitow svidet sat yfferensy stow at tod ,enmeloo edt Baitoennos gloo edt aeeuted esoeqetednt asqo sdf eetaiysges dordw ,ted . t {fer eat to yrnorem afd ,sotntoo bas seeitt edt mot em edd moat [lew sat nk 3ntnsqo eat One ,eointeo too7 7 Bi t bas ~aseoding tmersttib wt One eysw tasisttiS ak atoe oF no tionudesoo to wotaye edt no bneqsh sroteieds Ife aaiae yo 8d bipow avettoo otmt sostrne tebna edi ebivib of .bayol stups1 tivev fennet ait yfno: -somsoitingie ett of bee ROn syersidows edt yedtien Jud ,ersttoo yd banstagrl tdw \fmenento eet of betgebs ef soetine 19sheG ati tlove ® erstioo ent tud ,tioquwe to etntog sit ot Ti atoennco | Slovidore sdT .etlusv [ennvt [en358 x01 eiatrqorgge bent dttw flex yrev eetiny sfqtonitg memof-ooex) ead a0 pnt et sig sdf to tnenqoleveb sit es grol oe ,tlesv Lev astg edt tr ,.s.f ,olygtonfiq ofeesf{o sat dtiv soneb §O8 ,eBetove Sas To etacyat odd 10. etnemtods otaiegoe ‘edd Yr yrertnoo say a0 .beqofeved yfeeitt ed yam ote Pins Josetatat asdove ebia bas edia sdd tedd Hentot of ete eqoleveh ed tonnes tfovidois sdt ,ebas 1isdd ta stersensg1e o ent emooed atshg sdt ,dnstxe orttns ett tuotgnordt yitore oft dae ,bortsg [aveetben tesd edt ni as axsia ¢ of sldersterg ef tt bas ,eonsottingte ati teol seas eset q Isvesthsa ftin somabrooos nit esdow shite bae adits Iftw .sencts feoqnt Sne ,fetiqe> .tery ett to tnemtasrt AT fe sw bane ,etnroy esesit of navte. of Ytingt10990 nA en brotts . S nt beyolque sedone eviseem sat to taetd of sved [Li (fede ew [Lids rengiaeb [sotndost wefiete bas atSudaty stq to nottoaanoo sat anivsbireaco af enoitouttenco easss to ) edt no ,Susd sno no asiors bas eotsteldatns yd enaufoo bas ‘br. s .atlusy fennat to seso nt es seedt rot sutt et omen Bad 75 aft ‘ataptoeniate no & mobtagtsasvat taco to etiuest sdt yldusd Lv a eretgqet) seodt of wSster ated tepu of ag Jf es 4 Kas iri, ir er fas, alee ty it ere eS ape ee eS Sper ; ys A 4 ‘? : 5 : "v2 } 102 the wall had opened of its own accord, laying bare its interior. it is self evident that bordering frames are not wanting in e even mediaeval walls, but are arranged beneath the supporting side arches which play the chief part, the structural elements predominating even if the construction is not of the greatest importance, as in wheel windows and in other principally deco- rative works. The Greco-Roman architrave is not only the band connecting the columns, but is more generally the dividing men- ber, which separates the open interspaces between the columns from the frieze and cornice, the masonry of the wall from the roof cornice, and the opening in the wall from the masonry; it acts in different ways and for different purposes, and its me- aning will therefore depend on the system of construction emp- loyed. To divide its under surface into coffers would be oppo- sed to its significance. only the tunnel vault requires to be lightened by coffers, but neither the architrave nor the arch- ivolt; its under surface is adapted to free ornament, which c connects it to the points of support, but the coffers are only appropriate for actual tunnel vaults. The archivolt constructed on the Greco-Roman principle unites very well with the mediae- val vault, so long as the development of the pier is in accor- dance with the classic principle, i.e., if the pier affords separate abutments for the imposts of the arches, so that each arch may be freely developed. On the contrary if the imposts are so formed that the ribs and side arches intersect and int- erpenetrate at their ends, the archivolt cannot be developed throughout its entire extent, the piers become true clustered piers as in the best mediaeval period, and the archivolt has then lost its significance, and it is preferable to treat the ribs and side arches iir accordance with mediaeval principles. The treatment of the ‘pier, capital, and impost stones, will afford us an opportunity to return to these points, and we st- ill have to treat of the massive arches employed in bridges, viaducts and similar technical designs; still we shall speak of these constructions in considering the connection of piers and columns by entablatures and arches on one hand, on the oth- er the same is true for these as in case of tunnel vaults, and partly the results of our investigation s on openings in walls. We must here refer to those Chapters. " a I slates Ase hon) nomsboen én aaved Ivey Desdha.” an sadn fotdw aot bas jenouse [atatonite tot senoseysa ot oft to seostina edt to tnemtsert svttatoosb add wt as pe tet of vino modt wsbiesco of sved testt ow atneadze off .olfdteatv et nottonisenoo tisdt bas beistealy ton sie emia Ne tie ti a x 103 Ribbed vaults as well as domes and Roman groin vaults requi- re keystones for structural reasons, and for which what was p previously said is true; if the vaults are light, they need n ’ not be unnecessarily burdened by the keystones, but if the re- quire great strength, the diagonal ribs must be constructed as projecting arches, as a pointed arch may be erected that requi- res a special load at its apex. The keystone supported by the ; ribs is most appropriately and characteristically decorated by a suspended flower, a garland of leaves and flowers, by al- legorical representations, shields, heads, etc., and its width may correspond to the greatest breadth of the arches at the point where the ribs abut agains: it (Fig. 173). If the keystones serve to suspend chandeliers, or if bell or scaffold ropes pass through them, they must be perforated, and their decorations must be arranged around the central opening; if bells, building materials, etc., are to be hoisted through them, they must take the form of a circle of voussoirs, whose decoration must be treated in accordance with the principles established in treating of keystones of domes. Tr ornamental vaults are found several kinds of keystones, subordinated to each other according to rank. The principal keystones, of which each vault perhaps has but one, should possibly be decorated by sculptures, human heads, etc., the inferior keystones by sculptures, Shields, symbols, etc., wh- ile those of the third and fourth rank receive rosettes and leaf ornaments. Both the middle ages and the Renaissance sometimes treated keystones as massive suspended forms, the so-called pendants, that are especially appropriate id the walls must be heavily loaded, s#ken they must seem heavy to the eye, i.e., be massi- vely treated, or when intended to receive chandeliers, when they may have the form of graceful suspended chandeliers.Ex- aggerations in this direction, i.e., the use of pendants for purposes merely ornamentaland permit their use when without any meaning whatever, is one of the many errors of the later middle ages and must be considered objectionable. 7 As for the decorative treatment of the surfaces of the comp- artments, we first have to consider them only so far as then are not plastered and their construction is visible. The earlier ee ip. Sey i oa si = ia e oF ois ar) ay. bor . pv to SD uskgekenic! act: patonttenco events teonle ene olbbis ee enseents {ecesno dtiw samtdemoa ,snote tuo to etl £ edt tartaet of mavé nokttbaoo ak e1sn etluev eviacsn edd nda [pttowoq ylantbnogesri09 beatings: tod ,e1rt 8 to asi Dh eaten nioyttvitos tae, sft .2saseittod gatylt bee py Yo. hom bigest s bebneseb astintass at €f bee dt SI and qxe satel a antdmameh anti forv sat ,egntblind snitou edd of brag esn nortnetts on eoneh .ysnom bas sais to 6 Ber tI .atinev odd to adasmtisgmoo edt to tnemtse1t ovi pe etex dotdx ,aenote stersqgse edt e1agesg of 1odel some goneteth eldaisbienor s ts beosig yitsido sin bas syrel ‘eno! gen aaidion 10 olstil dedt on .1evisedo add to ays sad et tH to: sdnone ls stereqoe sit to tnemtsent oftetites Latooqe & to )® .~nottaoexs ofei000e bas asentes .t#09 tear te tluev Wit Yo gocetiwe sds no shade bas ti3rl to ysl teelo toy bak ‘4 edt bee tnemegnetze thedt mort dtod betives: tivev {lite Ohne ~- e9ne efbbim orttne sit 3niisb 3ninisae: ,nalg lostte antesoly s tot etnemstiupet Leqtont1q edd -- antamet ? bnod oft yd benetdhied retitant esw foidu ,ativav odd 8s. Sseuie edd bar sostuse e{iiaiv edt to etotxed eft gd tae By oat aiot — ytod esnote tuo ese acbiee nolttosaternes bstisuevy nebo a eft :aticav to atmendraqmoo edt aniflit 10% dowd yf bas teb20c & to nottamiot dé nt tetenoo eamotss1oceb Ler Br gate trey edt eifsteres stom sd? .,2ebnod svitaitooeb to ean ond pedine cation tostts sft sd [lin 3ateselq stom adt ,betooexe ei 90 gg@ ne sved yinogss doind to etnto,, sdtf-ofsesom oad + ons nt gzolsns me bone ,soiiwdst s{tixet to tant of beilis Ny t bos bododente of tslimte ,seatis endt atiosy to toon — onqe: Ife conta ,eotidst ofttxet of Ome ,estitasqet bsdasqeoe eti yd dtod ,2tod tnot edd elleoet yisosem antrolons egeue eis" dotde ,soataue [entetxzs ati yo fae Snod fe1 een bas Onitw . tage! wort moitostorg sot aselltq nsond Oe \? -28ys evitieinont bos esefmens [anietxe tente : r fet? eetinev Asteteiol> .3 | sbesate ywaetls ton hdeiee astdatofo to bise ed yea fosm tai > setavao2 edt ere yodd jatioav to noteauoeth gakbsoe1g edd nt bk 1) fotsoertedat 643 yd beoshorg dasodt sensosd ativev niorz to epee ers Jed? benteter oe t6 atusq ssodt [le ,etivav [annus lo et ~t Bi he 7 Bs Li . J 4 Penn” Da, & ao 104 middle ages almost always constructed the compartments of vau- lts of cut stone, sometimes with unasual dimensions, so that the massive vaults were in condition 6ven to resist the injur- ies of a fire, but required correspondingly powerful abutments and flying buttresses. The great activity in building during the 12 th and 13 th centuries demanded a rapid mode of :constr- ucting buildings, the vaulting demanding a large expenditure of time and money. Hence no attention was paid to the decorat-— ive treatment of the compartments of the vaults. It was a toil- smoe labor to prepare the separate stones, which were not very large and were chiefly placed at a considerable distance from the eye of the observer, so that little or nothing was done in a special esthetic treatment of the separate elements of the vault at great cost. Neatness and accorate execttion, a soft and yet clear play of light and shade on the surfaces of the vault resulted both from their arrangement and the general plan, remaining during the entire middle ages -- and still remains -- the principal requirements for a pleasing effect of the vaults, which was furttler heightened by the bond employed, and by the texture of the visible surface and the lines of its joints. Modern vaulted construction seldom uses cut stone but common- ly brick for filling the compartments of vaults; the most nat- ural decorations consist in the formation of a border and in the use of decorative bonds, the more carefully the vaulting is executed, the more pleasing will be the effect obtained; t the moasaic-like joints of brick masonry have an appearance allied to that of textile fabrics, and an analogy in the treat- ment of vautts thus arises, similar to stretched and freely s suspended tapestries, and to textile fabrics, since all space enclosing masonry recalls the tent roofs, both by its structu- ral bond and by its external surface, ahich were suspended be- tween pillars for protection from light, wind and weather, ag- ainst external enemies and inquisitive eyes. ¢. Cloistered vaults. Not much may be said of cloister vaults not already stated in the preceding discussion of vaults; they are the converse of groin vaults because though produced by the intersection of tunnel vaults, all those parts are retained that are omit4 ed it baod sdt notdoentstnt Yo satl edt tA .atfusv atots af snote sisiaqee tedt of ,edit antvedtuaeise Bnoite awi0t , aemod mi as Sertepe1 at snoteysd & ,yIssesosnne ere teexrt soee edt besa einsatiaegroo ead .etlyav mio =e chaatelees no ativev aeteiol{o ons ,atiosy tnemtisqu05 bh . ss1t svitetooab segoiw ,genod oF m10t ni ateaixorg | ‘ | -wolfol oale eating) sonaestene .o edit cotuen etinenth ton bib sonseaetsnal edt nant ee yi betmemanto yflsueu oedt aticaev [aveatbem t etfuev tasmtrsqmoo wol beyolyms yflexsas2 ti .d10% 0Bi3) tlosv bentow dels! beliso-oa edt atin noit istoosb Sne anitinie, 10% essostaine sytel betotto ouls bebednsy qitsom een dotdw .etinev tnsmtteqmoo dow? i to exon ets , (cL .2iT) eertaso atedt brswot eolgne anotdantdncs ni stf{uev astatolo dae seemed to snotteott Otedt yf Setsioosh ed yen bas etluev [enaus Yo anotsiaagg J x TO .attre0 add? to sonentuitg 1ste9%2 s ,ersbted to no a tons of SIuay to w1ot sno gort soldieneat oft anid ‘seeis ;abnotd avitsicosh to seq sdt dtinw sonabto tie esel eved dofdw .,edis nttoetosq yd beonhots “sd sebilaibaaa enotdosetefat ssotn ,ee0q1uq eviteioosbh. # ne f Yo etluev dnemsisquoo sat .ebnti [fe to asaoseyed. yd 1 yodt astisl!t sat ,abeol yvaed tot sldettue ees! sdt ove + bas nottapdtanco [nts1a> teow yd Seétttent ylno sie oe 8 90: i ,bersteslgno Satatemes mob{[se .1et vom tasd edt Yo sap qoyd nptéereceb ot wety #@ dtin begnette ylleqgionirg . | . eoooute atinayv nat hebbe ed yan atlony soneeeteneh edd of edt at beonbortat bis .edfosv mtory Istmemertos nos? | ‘om ste yedd nottonatanoo aft dkeodt ,slyta ofdtad sie! oD e'nimanyorS )setluev eonecetaned bne nemoh of fasl ie 8 as{oans Yo enottentdaoo yltoiite: ere godt .(sidélano (yeu enotioee seodn ,motistor to eetbot e1oteredt? one bre it esoeqetetar eft tsd? boynaiis ce ,setriedto to 1also1i9 etievnk yi bef{it tedtie eis esaed reqqo tksdd mesnted seize NTE gts) etivav hetntog yi vitesl 1 ,semob [sdnemzse’ ,2s00b fant ticev edt Yo avther edt ae noxed od IsnozRth Bed ead ti otfoss [anogath sit ,esioiqoe aesnded sonateth tea sd? Yo bee 105 in groin vaults. At the line of intersection the bond itself forms strong strengthening ribs, so that separate stone ribs are unnecessary, a keystone is required as in domes and ribbed groin vaults, the compartments need the sace treatment as in compartment vaults, and cloister vaults on polygonal plans ap- proximate in form te domes, whose decorative treatment they also follow. c. Renaissance Vaults. Nhen the Renaissance did not directly employ the Roman or mediaeval vaults then usually ornamented by painting.or stucco work, it generally employed low compartment vaults in combina- tion with the so-called Welsh groined vault (fig. 174), ahich also offered large surfaces for painting and decoration in relief. Such compartment vaults, which were mostly vaulted from their angles toward their centres (Fig. 175), are more or less modi- fications of domes and cloister vaults in combinations aithap- portions of tunnel vaults and may be decorated by the formati- on of borders, a greater priminence of the ceirtre, or by accen- ting the transition from one form of vault to another, in acc- ordance with the use of decorative bonds; these accentings*may be produced by projecting ribs, which have less structural th- an a decorative purpose, whose intersections may be enriched by keystones of all kinds. The compartment vaults of this kind are the less suitable for heavy loads, the flatter they are, and are only justifted by most careful consthaction and the use of the best mortar, seldom remaining unplastered, but are principally arranged with a view to decoration by painting and stucco. To the Renaissance vaults may be added fan vaults derived f from ornamental groin vaults, and introduced in the English late Cothic style, though in construction they are more nearly allied to Roman and Renaissance vaults. (Breymann’s Constructi- onsleéhre). They are strictly combinations of annular surfaces and are therefore bodies of rotation, whose sections may be circular or otherwise, so arranged that the interspaces that exist between their upper bases are either filled by inverted domes, segmental domes, or lastly by pointed vaults (Fig. 177); if the half diggonal be taken as the radius of the vault inst- ead of the half distance between supports, the diagonal sections dice oid bas. yes ionto ed fiir yes eat to 3 viieradeh als eas we sovol enwo1o dtiw asdota be Dick Aieiarits eeedt mott bre ,mege tiled bee Lenogerh at ates xevaoo to entf notfosatetat gntaesqqacib io 30 tnentisqmoo doses ;(SVL .af7) tiusv sdt to xeqe ent f motdiog sisuoe « nelg of at ttoqque sno Yd anted Ji “a ya Saedt bus ,nottose wslworko to sostie tAlonna a8 od aqek yns antvesl tuodsiw sedsb done niot yisscfs . bitjatretosiedo ytev Raidiomoe oved atfovev get sesanT atfot yosel sdt I[fsoer ylSiviv bas eorsiseqae [entsdxe it bas ,aebte [favno btanteo gatbhsetge yiototian ala nat © sen8l (ednosixod ett gnitneoce yd bedsiosed sd ayents teur mtanoo! snot] sit Yo seni [stnostiod odt Asin somabi0008 b edt nate batosnnom ste sevitom svitaroosh aniseasty yrelv is oo edt meantod aepsgetstat edd garllit tot been ,esoetise $ yah nests edt Snes (nelq nt relwotto ,atlusy odt to etaam ae yaifgosy 8 of abssl asanitoos fanoksth reluotiotase i ,atizev net at YISRAsOSnTOe 18 aenoth esnotayed ant to anos: based teite edt no 10% slieting bewet yer enmiloo teods yitasyss anifaix to soitosn7 shd dads estesio stostostidots nsftaqy3i sifine eat .motend tresone ‘Be bevteonod sew 2ntbitwd ertine sdt teadd notsesrgas pond @ doldwe ,aebrod sibemon sft to etnet sat to nossed i 2. ncion bre ,3qy2a hehoow [{sn nedt ond ni eooely agoiwev tisvoten’ edt dns ,fnee edt ni etna’ tied? to atioagee eSiwtos{ noo. sid etimisg 3attofoo sat Yo tnomdasit sdt >-Odt apotaxe bloods [atiqeo seotn ,Jaoqqua & Yo Bed! Yo tent ab dod .sno svitiotty s ton ef ,asbi0d & itis dnts: antes se ,bae teqgn ond Yntnwoto to Snea kridtesoe qo date nottentdmoo at net fervit ott af basta ,mwwloo |dd Yo s otto. edt ted? .en yd bootetshow ton esebs oilodaye y ed yleorsoe mao metédysi ad? atin sonetiia [envetni me sedd nf ylno exettrbh plilsitnerss ti 28 .Jeentes ne be edd? Qnivisost to sebi edt etede ,fatiqss sontdos oat . meotdans #2 sift ttoqqua [erosge 2 n@ sisdaidetas edt baa ' pevesl betntog yi beess1igxs mesd eved of yfiansaiio | eit ylleutos caw eitt redtedW .b1exqnob devise sisK etnieg | © s0,fytinon1sq of bebnetar ean [stiqeo oft00 sat doide sebi a fogde dtin bebtosh sd veven meso .2n of mroning sno tadsone | ) beviyoet! itiv esves{ to wor edt to eatot sat .ytaissiso. “iT 108 still, and will so remain for all future time. Still, they are modified in details according to the different nations, and the circuit of their lives, as well as in accordance with the prob- lem to #bich they were applied, and the combination of the sup- ports with other architectural details. The differentefunctions of the columns,w#hich restricted their forms within certain lin- its, are first to be carefully kept separate according to the principle. of subordination, if one desires to review the mult- itude of different forms of columns, that have arisen in all parts of the world. To discover all the ideas which influenced the different peoples in the formation of supports is first of all, entirely impossible. Why Egyptian columns have their definite form and no other, cannot be explained, but only this may be discerned, that the need clearly existed for characteristically distingutbing the upper from the lower end, that the leaves, stems and flowers of the lotus and papyrus, the symbols of the river Nile, were found suitable for covering the supports of a tent roof, and that the practice of winding tapestry about columns is a very ancient custom. The entire Egyptian architecture creates the impression that the entire building was conceived as an imi- tation of the tents of the nomadic hordes, which settled in v various places in the then well wooded Egypt, and stuck the supports of their tents in the sand, and the naturalism in the treatment of the coloring permits the conjecture, that the idea of a support, whose capital should express the conflict with a burden, is not a primitive one, but is that of holding up something and of crowning the upper end, as being the head of the column, stand in the first rank in combination with the symbolic ideas not understood by us. That the Doric column has an internal alliance with the Egyptian can scarcely be contest- ed in earnest, ar it essentially differs only in the form of the echinus capital, where the idea of receiving the load of the entablature on a special support like a cushion, appears originally to have been expressed by pointed leaves, «hose points were recurved downward. Whether this was actually the idea which the Doric capital was intended to personify) ,or another one unknown to us, can never be decided with absolute certainty. The forms of the row of leaves with recurved points, / ‘s boi sate Fok patorokene: s es beyolqae ylno ton aan fodder “0 mt bas ,stetoetidors astoet) [Is ai 1sduem gaidere dne of soonnoo ylemrot of ,stvtoesidors asmoH ak aids te pom 8 Ste orien atent noi? gatissqgs .etostdo gnstettsb af ee 28 four ,atnomels mot evitining to amtéeot 0 vefetiqss nettayal to mwoto ytesl add nt betasest ‘Yo eno baimes dotdx ,akbnT to bas ekersq te annaLloo Sento? erent mfatie1 otpontest ow biuode .etteade isege oq Sndffectuotetd ton et th ,seeoqtsg to tot abaed eb: ‘ed ([itw 1stostedo atest dotdw yd enoeset Isotniosd bne xevnoo oat ot bnogas 1109 amtot seedt es Bnibtooor / 90 gniffeqer .gnitoratts ttedt dtin ,atedmem bel iterg sd ee ,arsdmem gnidioggqee bas Rnigetsqee es asfosi1s6io net 8 bas ,nottositb to sonmentno1g Hebioeb « dtix« anieddeg : eanorstetooshd anie ‘st ett bawot stetel dotdw ,fetiqso to miot swarflpoeq A | gt beonwbortnt asw ,[etiqgeo otnol eat mr tnemgoleveh een ersson eit odd ot esieeqas nofdaso s&s to wtot sat jared y aptar of aniviee nottans etd? ,eletigqeo to antol dove gtk of Ratbaocos dotdw bas ,5nyo018 edd svode mict oe » Wr ? ates Fe pe to sebt! fanibizo eat YL .rtor # 10 efbbae « ,foote jesnoe qa gnthited to test déin Leortasb? yllantgixo } fooliesd bion edt ot bseeetgxs yhsotls asw erssqgs tt ety ence B ,pora] bas ,txogqea & .2iee® mort ai dokde 7 edt svods boeias ¥ anota sit no antbnete” gainsem stot | a ted? fase edt gniyolqms ylferenss to seb edt ,(hataevele ct prot Latudosd tifore entticqgne & @& ,noeTsq betovet edt batt 10° bas witist o2 tdkim eno base ,oiseitas yidgvot0ds ear Bids modx ys .znthin Yo tidad ods nt sigoeq & 2BK Ti add onw | son edt of Dsmotevoosnn eeont oftan ibseeastqaxs #aK Bedi y Sid to wedmem Anttsed f ae enosts no dale snote ect beyolg edd porev to enortatasaergs? edd ot ose coals yao sw ead? .fest -t»deas gew [etiges ot10d edd to mot od? es tant, ema tt a to | a 10 mieq ,etogit s droqqua of efmemonom yrerensl ak ) ,betentgixo sved yeu Latiqeo ginol sd# Yo atot sdi rsvewon ry sfedtqes d#n00 oft: to dedd es [fen es ,ntgito Yo sbom edi nm th brennwob bas Stewgu ett oc es [lew es noigoeiih © axot oft semuens eomttamoe , stotefdetns edd anitaogque: eft ee bevyolqus yltoerth eased beoiwd # dtin fatigqaso oinol — 109 which was not only employed as a supporting but also as a sep- arating member is all Crecian architectsre, and in imitation . of this in Roman architecture, to formally connect to entirely different objects, appearing from their derivation to be modif- icaticns of primitive form elements, such as are likewise rep-— resented in the leafy crown of Egyptian capitals, and in the columns of persia and of India, which remind one of fringed spear shafts. Should we desire:ito retain these forms of leaf bands for our purposes, it is not historical but practical and technical reasons by which their character will be determined, according as these forms correspond to the convex and concave profiled members, with their attracting, repelling or transit- inn character as separating and supporting members, as band p patterns with a decided prominence of direction, and as enclo- sing decorations. | A peculiar form of capital, which later found its fullest d development in the Ionic capital, was introduced in western A Asia; the form of a cushion appears to thi the motive for all such forms of capitals, this cushion serving to raise the hum— an form above the ground, and which according to its horizontal direction as “ell as to its upward and downward directions, s ‘Supporting the entablature , sometimes assumes the form of a stool, a saddle or a sofa. If the original idea of support was originally identical with that of building up something (hich it appears was already expressed in the word Basileos, king, which is from Basis, a support, and Laios, 4 stone slab, there- fore meaning “standing on the stone”}, raised above the others, elevated), the idea of generally employing the seat that supp- orted the favored person, as a supporting architectural form, wags thoroughly artistic, and one might go farther and conject- ure that it was a people in the habit of riding, by whom this idea was expressed! while those unaccustomed to the horse, em- ployed the stone slab or abacus as a bearing member of the cap- ital. Thus we may also see in the representations of vases the Tonic capital with a broad base directly employed as the seat of a figure, just as the form of the Doric capital was used in funerary monuments to support a figure, palm or acroteria. However the form of the Ionit capital may have originated, its mode of origin, as well as that of the Dor&e capital, has onl Nk A i da ie ere . Ort re igso ote] sad to tedt sa (few es .arartio Yo sbdom attr to efo1to edt sonte jetstostidorsa 10 tct somenrtingte on | atinif oft sbiatoo yllonwn eekf sersy tnaions sit to es elie yiletenss seods to stotetsdt? ,{stene3 ni asebi ne -aacot tnersttLb owt dtiw [etiqes sdf to evitom sal slatiqeo otnol odd af wtot ¢gedyid edt bedoast dotdx ) ond TSvensin ,toetidors edt of eldsensqeibat nismor ayer Cs stcod sat at tnentmota yfbebtosh sham ad of sie enortos ton 6th erptostidors [svesibem zezeo done ar janet banotane: ot aottesb eno ti tro .Istiqso bebte-~ont edt #109 déiw 3nibftnd s to maoloo slans edd en Latiqes gp Asean taum sa .S1pteanc adh dtiw sonmsdsooor oi ton af asltmte tot sisera edt ys bosot tant ned? ,noitaloe hy snoretcA sik to efymet edt to caso ot es sid »ern etastosqxe [ut{tienw dose sisngkeeb yino aso sf faved ensaod edt doidn sot seods ea Ilew ee ators side -yleeeltdguods oa nsed syed doidw bose ,bemald doom oF te1isds edt nedd 199190 yfeorsce sis dent ,219 atshom a0 at _obne S cbaned etal sat x bestinieg entot [anrntoetiforws mi anc oe mee sonseetensy stsl ett “nets Gesad¢ to eunidos ets .[stiqso naiiy Ri wsbloe ent ar eh petifs et ag-ditw :[fed beqolevebnu ae yistsm ei Ietiqso Bijens.s ot okt Ietiqso [Ied nsitqy3h ent es teuR Metdins103 ie feveb yilnt et eanaftqyah edt to fasiqeo [led sdt ylao a. 4 pe matdtatyod edt .enosds veqotq om aed Jf sonke ,eshie IIe Ne * yk atat of beti{f{s et bas eposda sft to m1ot ent et107 ett conte _({ancgyfog 10 1sfoknetat Tt ose) nslq ore 1B id to esigae 94% taoqqgee asvee! bane: ellowe begolaveb yl 8g dt bas ettseo1 sit .arewoll to euto? fegtontag ont -auo Ged alevistat odd {1tt ,ebod beqolsved tien att es Ifon es 0 atT8y anthivib bare Lfentmiet edt mi0t baa ,emste boa eoves! reqarb eve eedoissd aslfene end efidw ,esdonaid weano1da oft on ei f[etiqso natdininod edt .eentl to yaly sort as nik be “i sft sasfimte to astaolo 8 ,fattqso [fed meitqyad act exif .19 basota qu xo18 eamtot taal tod ,1redtexot bawod esvee! baa exe -4 to ybota dgootodd edt eysated fofdn ,1ennsm & nt [fed eda | se sidietv ylogisl et {fed sit tt jrotgqinow Xee1D sat yI e8 ) j betevos ylseofo et tt ,ebniti to tsxoT eft Yo Latiqso.and ak 90 ,ybod edd eaisvo> tiida 6 es tent) ,2evest deilqqe to wor 6 110 its mode of origin, as well as that of the Doric capital, has no significance for our architecture, since the circle of ide- as of the ancient vases lies wholly outside the limits of bun- an ideas in general, therefore of those generally valid. The motive of the capital with two different forms of sides, which reached its highest form in the Ionic capital, will al- ways remain indispensable to the architect, whenever two dir- ections are to be made decidedly prominent in the horizontal plane. in sach cases mediaeval architecture did not exclude t the two-sided capital. But if one desires to employ the Ionic capital as the angle column of a building with porticos, which is not in accordance with its nature, he must seek a happier solution, than that found by the greeks for similar buildings, as in case of the temple of Nike Apteros. We can only designate such unskilful expedients as objection- able errors, as well as those for which the Romans have been so much blamed, and which have been so thoughtlessly imitated in our modern era, that are scarcely better than the aberrati- ons in architectural forms permitted py the late fothic and the late Renaissance. As in the older Egyptian capital, the echinus of the Doric capital is merely en undeveloped bell; with it is allied the Corinthian, just as the Egyptian bell capital i:: to the latter; only the bell capital of the Egyptians is fully developed on all sides, since it has no proper abacus, the Corinthian sup- ports the form of the abacus and is allied to this by its squ- are plan (also if triangular or polygonal), since the most ful- ly developed scrolls and leaves support the angles of the aba- cus. Two principal forms of flowers, the rosette and the palm, as well as the half developed buds, fill the intervals between leaves and stems, and form the terminal and dividing parts of the stronger branches, while the smaller brarches are dispers- ed in a free play of lines. The Corinthian capital is no long- er, like the Egyptian bell capital, a cluster of similar flow- ers and leaves bound together, but plant forms grow up around the bell in a manner, which betrays the thorough study of nat- ure by the Greek uculptor; if the bell is largely visible as in the capital of the Tower of Winds, it is closely covered by a row of applied leaves, Just as a shirt covers the body, or oes: tre noo et Kor eno ti ptartt eft to abne tewol sit etevoo esvebl | Sit to wor t9nnt sdd stil aegbde dtodme dtin eevas! to beso to no1 eto edt 10 ,ebath Yo asw0f sdt to Letigao t to neveol adt esedt of tesitno> & 28 ,asteitoiagf Yo gn = to anotetont qseb svad Sas steitee ylqsed ese wot bac: o>) yake fo? tad endénsos of2 no-bavct yiao ton 218 e8 dows, oboe yqqoq .siteidt ed¢ efgmsxe tot ,(noboqionO) eet “edt ylfsisne, yrev et tI oto (maslostel ) east il yo maidtatioD sat ni botetink ek mot Inplq L[atoeqe 1 edd mor? esiaq oftetastosieio bre [siosge exom0d st » evel omae adt dtiw eonabtcooe at eesadt egofavsb bf . faa it Isebt ae estest> andd boe .atasla I[satos to seodd ee 082 3" p dotdn letiqso edt to etisq saods adese sherlot seodn ‘a saevasl seodw to abas sdt .tnetroqgmr teom ylfeoiaiem soca eft asban ga [for 10 ,Aswo73 sett af svinoe7 296 oft esa tevt toatl aot evirtta of tsegae siewolt saode toes betefquoo sds to atsez st#reqee odd [fA .etwtan Hoaadea: foss ot noktsfe1 deod edt at Omste L[atiqeo neida pom # ni teso ti ea,omaoed bane Seftiexso tert asn0t ent iba acdtm|acA) yth tey bas bellene ylleottatrnter “gnted etd? ,fetiqes msiost) edi mi boteors yifleasien thoage edt ton Sae [eotayt sit bSyofqme :ylnovode .sisand edd pmo entoml eudiaeos Inroten ylno ea? .tnemento nt etnslg to > ©. (atedenssee nt encteysd otdtod ylies ae nit bavol af at of emooed ead [stigeo aaiddatioD sat Yo aviton aot 8 “yino ton eeze ofhbin edt tadt ,sisdossidore ai elder stedd) .ti heqofseveb yilutituessd on neve oels stud ,genitence ftntzoD) .fstiqes vatost> ext afsupes ti esigqusxe Ssaoe V ryefessY mott ;OCh VI .esgendo® ;esltA mort ales | eedean> te entefobsy .2 wort ;€0C IL .etel Jord ,osl RarneKr. : s(DS: RET .T penettei9n® semen ont to mk rovesadn tadt .efatiqes oswod edt to yen teonls yam 9 boom ton at wea ai yeyeteinw bas .won tom si book ak ment fe -etex enesoh edt yd eisfostidois nefoet) nf sbsm eegnsdo ee .amrot edt to aninsen Ienigito sav of soneistss yns su0 | Maton yfteltdo {antetxze ylsitine sottqeonoo 6 te Hoksgeoxs odd eno ylno edt teonfs et [etiqso otto on? .ebasony Is0itoerg {of ,beanteceth et tnsmevotqni as noftsntotens1d seodw af 1% ast} ook pee Bea) (ins 0 KO pnooee A .onomate edt i fushuae sswolt 8 to assay antl 111 the corolla of a flower conceals the stamens. A second row of leaves covers the lower ends of the first; if one row is comp- osed of leaves with smboth edges like the inner row of the | capital of the Tower of Winds, or the outer row of the }onume- nt of iysicrates, as a contrast to these the leaves of the sec- Ond row are deeply serrate and have deep incisions or leaf eyes, such as are not only found on the acanthus but on many composi- tae (Onorpodon), for example the thistle, poppy and many umbel- liferae (Heracleum) etc. It is very generally the case that no special plant form is imitated in the Corinthian capital, but it borrows special and characteristic parts from the plant wor- ld, develops these in accordance with the same laws of growth, as those of actual plants, and thus creates an ideal flora, w whose foliage seeks those parts of the capital, which are geo- metrically most important, the ends of whose leaves and branch- es recurve in free growth, or roll up nnder the abacus, and w wnose flowers appear to strive for light just as flowers do in nature. All the separate parts of the completed Grecian Corin- thian capital stand in the best relation to each other, but the Roman first ossified and became as if cast in a mould , naturistically swelldd and yet dry (Acanthus leaves are never naturally treated in the Crecian capital, this being far from the Creeks, whovonlyremployed,the typical and not the specific of plants in ornament. The only natural acanthus known to. me is found in an early Cothic keystone in Regensburg). The motive of the Corinthian capital has become so indispen- sable in architecture, that the middle ages not only used it sometimes, but also even so beautifully developed it, that iu some examples it equals the Creciau capital. (Corinthian capi- tala from Arles; Schnaase, IV, 490; from Vezelay; Viollet-le- Duc, Dict. Rais. II, 503; from S. Hadelaine at Chateandun; the same; Entretiens, I, Fig. 24). | We may almost say of the Roman capitals, that whatever in t them is good is not new, and whatever is new is not good. The changes made in Grecian architecture by the Romans were hith- out any reference to the original meaning of the forms, with the exception of a conception entirely external, chiefly on practical grounds. The Doric capital is almost the only one in whose transformation an improvement is discerned, it has > oan ee ee er WED ae ha ir bas + anon eit qo1t soniteth aiptieaa eho smooed| hedhh p wereds .tattel edt to eoitiastivosy yasm tito Jee to be20qm09 egatbitod at yifetosqas. ytilidees Ja Hejaewte oie ansufeo to etabto tastetTiIb sdt stedn 2 me «19050 age olevab esx dotdn ,18bI0 stinogeey mamod belfeo~oe eal t efatiqes> naidtnivoD Sse ofnol soit astot gninidmos | dofime of bne asinote [assvee at exarbitod to sige a tks ozaia edt otk teso yltect ed yes jemret to nt0 ia elstiaso netditnkio? Sedercosh yl{eteos12 edt dae jedd ytsv ao tan apie BY nt -Seyolgme sd somenetened ed? emtot to eafa sort 8 dttw [ettqeo neidtariwd eat dt 3tobne dt @f ed% to esattneinl? edt dotde ssb10 i? sonia. ,anoftoelthe1g Isool sort yolqme of berretetg me sat ,ensoanT tasions odd Yo nottnsvel ms ad oF Jf (es [fon ee .soivertilY to etnonetste sit of Batbioooe soo tf ,w9hto teslynts edt se savacsdanocesss L[eote as trot iton: att ead ,etuddedidorse boteotteut dtin Ife yc taenc! eft nated as to ,28b10 ofsol berdilgmis to bait 99 aren yan on tk ,Sancg otaesio sit oi 1sb10 etefqmoo & to of {fe of bseoqgo dauodsle erat? soda laottqeia dguont a id. beysdo yllotiteb bus setversiY ys bedrimeansit atqso “ne 90: “eanaoed yletem sft yolqas fon blpor on bus ,eonsaetaced mo nate b amo Detiee Jf eeeo nt yfno ever ,on emod bed etneto “Bigia ed? -ytsitqgotg ottentse bas agsnetsingotqys. to ebasor3 | ntdons | pitas to auooqancod sfodn sdf dns entvoitiV to estos nares m2 oats tud ,adisq bn aefybom ylno ton ,emtot Lerstost #asb-bae-gae ,alttned bas eelotom ,ayotb das eaty .weqosem bas ise tb Msotrotsia edt ak ynoled ,.o88 ,auniteanyo Saspagntdioom nis $ ons ,s20ginq [ser yns [itInt regnof om yedt 28 noosa es bnog so tom ss0b to an ot awondnn yiteom st eance [engzito er ot sot0ot anthbatd on esd bane ,esebt to slorto 150 of . pent to tnetorttes bevse oved se Oned eno sdt no andl be (9 dae0 ot Sellsqmoo sd 10 usdt stongt ton of atebro tsanploo vat ‘ot tdznoe avad bred t9dto edt no dud .bisodisve yletidne Bar. -etniertanoo Isnoitibsid atedd wort eeviseise Y [en eit tcods sevise1is0 yntidgort tot ateixe sted basa of 8 odd to tneutestt sds to asien mot taetiogat wilsoisodeia .yfne ;af{stiqeo nebsmmstoy bas sattnssyS naitetnd) yl 490) Py” eae dH | 112 indeed become one entirely distinct fror the Crecian, and has cast off many peculiarities of the latter, thereby gaining,in usability, especially in buildings composed of several stories, ahere the different orders of columns are arranged above each other. . The so-called Roman qomposite order, which was developed by combining forms from Ionic and Corinthian capitals for the sake of buildings in several stories and to enrich the repert- orw of forms; may be justly cast into the historical discard | and the gracefully decorated Corinthian capitals of the early Renaissance be employed in itsnplace, which vary the motive of the Corinthian capital with a free play of form. The Tuscan order which the Florentines of the 15 th end'16)th centuries preferred to employ from local predilections, since they held it to be an invention of the ancient Tuscans, the Etruscans, according to the statements of Vitruvius, as well as for prac- tical reasonsbecause as the simplest order, it corresponded well with rusticated architetture, has its justification as a kind of simplified Doric order, or as being the lowest form of a complete order in the classic gense, if we may so speak, though skeptical abou. this, although opposed to all the pre- cepts transmitted by Vitruvias and dutifully obeyed by the Renaissance, and we would not employ it merely because the an- cients had done so, save only in case it suited our design on grounds of appropriateness and esthetic propriety. The rigid rules of Vitruvius and the whole hocuspocus of antique archi- tectural forms, not only modules and parts, tut also triglyphs and metopes, vise and drops, mutules and dentils, egg-and-dart mouldingss#and cymatiums, etc., belong in the historical discard, as soon as they no longer fulfil any real purpose, and their origanal sense is mostly unknown to us or does not correspond to our circle of ideas, and has no binding force for us. Thus on the one hand we have saved sufficient of the classic columnar orders to not ignore them or be compelled to cast them entirely overboard, but on the other hand have sought to free ourselves from their traditional constraints. No need here exists for troubling ourselves about the merely historically important form wares of the treatment of the ear- ly Christian, Byzantine and Mohammedan capitals; only mediaeval ge Veet al ert Perel e nottoorth aids at easebt wen woe mad’ eradsbdinone ri te tirenev? no v8tqed) edt nt bedste aA wae of eeefsulev 7 ane edd ne ,efatiqes sit trsoor of betistet eas 3f or yldersteny aatitaty? sft at ee [stiqao sdt to taom “adda gnikviao oi) .eanto? [fed to ekyntisvoo svisaiooep of ) fettqao notdano st. sitf emiot mottians7s xsva0o 30. t et trove? A ,Atod to nortentinod & at .olyte eupasnem t so" Stal of antwob yiteal .siyte eapesaaetod sit to eds Pion ehnedo edt dotdw at ,ebati [fe to antot noksis 40995 fon 4805 auosds [enozyfoy to e18up2 sdt of nmuloo fottoe2 Yo aeznado eoottsvy to ensen yd sod ,evewo taloget Han .patess!g bas tnseptq died emtot .3ntiledieo to esbon J sd taom esoqiny sdf nedw eidettisent yiistosyes ere «epee 10% hel eae nk ee ,enaom tesijmie sis yd : See . ote ,eirefosiidors moskr at {FoD qixse edt to nase eat mort benrssf ed yan dol! Bietiqs to tnomtsext dt rot ewlev Yo at fotin ,fediqeo Stemtxorgye oreklot sit wadtede of ylleape bn {erened ie 3 s10lt nieddton tno to esodt to Betot teef eodtmeoe _ fies taon | ,gosesm edt Ytornotetvih edt eete{qmoo terit aid “pectin yAtoold dguor edt mot? [sttqao edt tuo antigen tot efd bee: pee enet{ot sat nt esttirsitsoeg ynam to tnomgols eg 8as, io tnautseit ent .sisten: to noftevisedo [stereo yrsev e nts stm ‘noktosnnod eft tae .batiqqe et sastfot edt dordw of hadline 4s pbs yfedefqnoo teom et [atrqso [eveethem eT .ancade 10a: a edt bas ,etosqees yaam nt sottoustenoo betluav sa in to deat 19tq beretanlo sat of bsttna retted ak norsan ten: es Se beqolsveb of bertwpst si dotdw bas ,{strago to Bnogeert0o alstiqes to emtc? spptias eat oltdw mottos “Sstoten eti yi doftdw .gotds C[eobivtbat ne es nnsloo Swevensdy .antess[q 3d of se of Setetiagp to beviad od orm foo 16 elatiqes hetetiswp 10 bsviad sved etsteam sonseete B55 i to yttavog 10 seesnbiswiws to yonstatedco bshie~sno yd Yiso Sct .astositedne thedt yen omse odd nt betsert neve 10 fuset sved erotanom yino .sonseetened steal edt mt se .edt toot anon: yasm sat to sno Satmtot sesdt to aotsiating oat ns -o1ndoetidors atebom tuo to brmt: otiteo: yitee eas of awo sw tant ata> [eqtontty eT Hivgntes yierod? at atetenoo [atiqeo oft to tnemtaerds sat of Says | aes pw = oe to ayde: ie Ge architecture can show new ideas in this direction, which are valueless to us. As stated in the Chapter on Transition Forms, it has preferred to accent the capitals, and the entire treat— ment of the capital as in the Corinthian preferatly consists in decorative coverings of bell forms, in carving low reliefs on convex transition forms like the cushion capital of the Ro- manesque style, in a combination of both, a favorite feature — of the Romanesque style, lastly during the late Cothic in tran- sition forms of all kinds, in which the change from the round | column to the square or polygonal abacus does not occur by a regular curve, but by means of various changes of section and modes of corbelling, forms both piquant and pleasing, which ; are especially justifiable when the purpose must be fulfilled by the simplest means, as in buildings for ordinary purposes, in iron architecture, etc. Much may be learned from the study of the early Cothic bell capital, ahich is of valwe for the treatment of capitals in general, and equally so whether the foliage approximates the acanthus leaf forms or those of our northern flora. This first completes the division of the masses, most suita- ble for working out the capital from the rough block, the dey- elopment of many peculiarities in the foliage itself, based on a very careful observation of nature, the treatment of the bell, to which the foliage is applied, and its connection with the abacus. The mediaeval capital is most completely adapted to v vaulted construction in many respects, and the mode of its for- mation is better suited to the clustered pier that other forms of capital, and which is required to developed vaulted constr- uction, while the antique forms of capitals correspond to the column as an individual thing, which by its nature can never be halved or quartered so as to be pleasing. Whenever the Ren- aissance masters have halved or quartered capitals or columns, by one-sided consistency or awkwardness or poverty of ideas, or even treated in the same way their substitutes, the caryat- ids, as in the late Renaissance, only monsters have resulted, ; the imitation of these forming one of the many monstrosities of our modern architecture. The principal gain that we owe to the early Cothic in regard " to the treatment of the capital consists in thereby being taught — err ha vara foo Sit to Tatewetb sat to. Insbmaqebat yfertase we ms 19tq edt to wesm sit dtiw ynomtad mt adioav snd 39 med eaomufoo otesefs to eanoktioqorg sdT .ebsol isd iattasees ted? seretaldetas wtedt dtin yldoetrex misieb sd¢ of yintnt toodtin sldiaaogrt sxe mots i6ad »* ytsbto ettins eft to retostedo ™ tn edt Yo ynomied edt yd bextt ef tezted ent sradh | ona sai ot stsdbe ylmikt of sfdtaacg ton si tt .etutosst r te eeg1g0081 Bnived suodtiin erebio ofaesto sat to anc WSisuort zated to to .efataebsq no medt antoely to taethb Bote: end nkdtixn ylnO .batd yrsve Yo esonsinavooont fot betaseang stew dotdn ,emeldorw [eiptostidors sase bed eisbhbto ett to enotsroqgorwy sdt neo ,tostidorwe ofe O YIS8V Svad atetesm sonfeasiensd sdf boa ,bantater } ton .Bigtoetidorve dowd at dbsesetiedns sovissuedct pitns sdt Yo tnterienod sdf wo1t sevieenedt esrt of anatia sdt tine of nely sds esnen1r8 of belleqaoo sat 7 aseso fous nl .sete9n02 sit to beetent ,enunloo sai mod 94 dotde of ,etnfootidors [avestbex Ifpenon ylne i edd bentarsteb. dotdy tod .axoming ean mottibs13 to WHoksvloe z0t betmese?4 nefdorg eat dviw eonaehioooe at Te .eie01? ant to tedd e8 Onwoe es yank feet oftarsas oe Piiede edt bezitte ayents teomls eolyte otaeelo ont 3 to Hofaesiqmt edt Heoneine dotde ,eotult dttw mnvloo Mt BtSn astu!t easdf .amploo aft to sonstatest boe ytib xoldon BHF. %0 denoynoo enmufos to ease nt eeqtite bablta ys 10. Sant eds ni beoslq seodt 10 [atem to o20dd ,snote to absid ae HB ,a tt wetv to Inioq oitedtes 2s mort ;etnemtssi8 to Sapeeeeeeemontin esmofoo oviensm bas sgis! eves! of evosgedcev : E tysrnenso~ ed? no dg00dy ,yveed tesdiver tssqqe yadd sonie EBAIHICOOA .anmuloo. rebnefe Hue [femme of bative Ilew p cbren 0 bedeintmth ed of sttwpay eyseta fomufoo agebt sty?! s19d70 doses avin betosmncs nadw Ona sort sntdnete if bases ae ,aldertivesl et ttede ant to tassarsiae mA a) bone tatesh mroting to aw1c% eff ao eotnotosT to rstqeq? of ea of sonstetee1 aft Sue tdytow mero ett tr .sis2e2e es setemeth tswol eft sean terrt ent ot :bsiebtenoo ad f# Stow od Hl{oode tnemeirelos edt haonee eit nt :tretesrs 2 | ri At Y > oat to mottosio71q bas tized to anottroqorg ond! oxen, oy rf iii 114 to make the proportions of height and projection of the capital entirely independent of the diameter of the column, and to pla- ce the vaults in harmony with the mass of the pier and with t | their loads. The proportions of classic columns harmonize so perfectly with their entablatures, that essential variations therefrom are impossible without injury to the determinate character of the entire order. Where the height is fixed by the harmony of the entire arch- itecture, it is not possible to firmly adhere to the proporti- ons of the classic orders without having recourse to the expe- dient of placing them on pedestals, or of being troubled by inconveniences of every kind. Only within the limits of the same architectural problems, which were presented to the clas- sic architect, can the proportions of its orders be strictly retained, and the Renaissance masters have very often found themselves embarrassed in church architecture, not being able to free themselves from the constraint of the antique, but be- ing compelled to arrange the plan to suit the arrangement of | the columns, instead of the coneerse. In such cases oné can 0 only consult mediaeval architecture, to wbich the constraint of tradition was unknown, but which determined the propostions in accordance with the problem presented for solution, with an artistic feeling as sound as that of the Creeks. The classic styles almost always striped the shaft of the column with flutes, which enhanced the impression of the rigi- dity and resistance of the column. Phese flutes were replaced vy gilded stripes in case of columns composed of the nobler ; kinds of stone, those of metal or those placed in the interiors of apartments; from an esthetic point of view it is very disad- vantageous to leave large and massive columns without flutes, since they appear rather heavy, though on the contrary this is well suited to small and slender columns. According to classic ideas columns always require to be diminished upward, both when © standing free and when connected with each other. An enlargement of the shaft is justifiable, as stated in the Chapter of Tectonics on the Forms of uniform Resistance to Pr- essure, if its own weight and its resistance to crushing must be considered; in the first case its lower diameter shouldbe greatest; in the second the enlargement should be more nearly —— Di cei : wie, Mae 2252) ‘@ io?" 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Poeeeeogsh ods iti hbotagtont ti ze iseqqs yadsh ede x ‘Saf D GFiW Stentetta edoold evenpa Setactitews oO \kei7¢ bail eda Babteqesg at tnece need bad yonom sit ti an panorb Bat: | at meat to t{sd ,feottbar(yo [le ase samnb sad 10 aq of ianlod add Yo estult edt tqoetietnk of @8 og noitsotseus Sgeatoonn 0% .amuloo. ett brvors beoely ebned Agnot sit! 3nene La SSonsaeianel edt stadt yrsh [Liw kntiest ofsaters be " t nod Booders5a0 Ifew a d#ven edt ot @a [law ee dduoa ons Wd nSeodio ansen edd dttx tostts tnsortingag a spond fodm ani to bre alteteh to seottroqery hook aisido of 9n0 Slate tod ,auolleytam eo of Santinos eysnia [iby “saneenon eniemet dordwy genet] enogang wort me0q 6 qe soldi Beet Sratootidors Yo dinow ed) .as8 sdt of Qrieselg Sotodo ody. om ylntan coals tod ~tosttes anieael; oth me Br bas jessoyt0y esaninseted 10% nevidtow tousedesatoadiy . Sirdors Yo tyex stefanoo s Qnied we bersbiencs 54 ayewnie Peeewseritns esvison [stytoetidots snidmoo of .antnssr hae \ution s entans: eyawla neloo ant to steae oT t RAMSAY to notfosnncs bsttinu # yated es debrez01 9d 19 ae - ues ante hy al eu Un i Se ae } ia L Lé‘. eee nn . es < sd a, 115 at the middle of the shaft. | The massive Doric columns were formed according to the first principle as previously stated, but very tall Corinthian colu- mos usually accord with the second. If wery short and thick | columns are employed to support massive vaults, whose ribs ex- ert thrusts in many directions, a considerable enlargement of the column appears preferable to none at all. An enlargement is peculiarly justifiable and desirable in case of thin metal- lic columns exposed to crushing; on the other hand it is non-— sense to enlarge columns that do not stand free but are grouped, as done in the late Renaissance and sometimes imitated through modern poverty of ideas. Enlarged pilasters do not belong in the historical discard, but in the museum of human nonsense, that requires to be still more roomy than the former. To this museum we shall likewise have to relegate one of the most fav- orite blunders, that of rusticated columns, where separate dr drums are treated as rustacated blocks, while their capitals and bases are fully developed. This nonsense, a ifavorite idea in even the best era of the Renaissance, is modified in vario- us ways;either all the drums of the half columns are rusticated, ahen they appear as if incrusted with the deposits from a hot spring, or rusticated square blocks alternate with circular d drums, as if the money had been spent in preparing the former, or the drums are all cylindrical, half of them retaining their rustication so as to interrupt the flutes of the column, appe- aring like rough bands placed around the column. No uncorrupt— ed artistic feeling will deny that the Renaissance masters in the south as well as in the north well understood how to pro- duce a magnificent effect with the means chosen by them, and to obtain good proportions of details and of the whole, which will always continue to be marvellous; but since one may patch uP a poem from pompous phrases which remains nonsense, though pleasing to the ear, the worth of architecture lies not merely in its pleasing effect, but also mainly in the choice of means, azithothesuseyof motives for determinate purposes, and it must always be considered as peing a complete wayt of architectural meaning, to combine architectural motives entirely at pleasure. The shaft of the column always remains a unity, and can nev—- — er be regarded as being a unified connection of the manifold f ae | pti 10, ee ad Pontine Nae syisomhe oi tl . “aid? abu ybexsvon of emiwadal yen yasoeer aya Sifter 40 gritareg’ yd hosfod eft to BnsIBVOO ey af 8 odnt febivit sd binoss fwelog sat Xo Stade eas (eta rheatetat ne yi t¥eg t98q7o tatbid © baa hoOLITo7 oy ‘ea? of setveiae biove of 2 abantolco mt Be i90f pefy 990 et Sisde ade Ao Was, sol yodt com Io egeaeey iss Haoyed gnttosyorg boragtsiey gt bred talonna oe iS naploo sdi Yo bitdt: rewol oAt eXsm of ,ttede ada Ye ao i a bso misiq edt sfereges eiy-eds oF efteel io .s48aet ee Spend oF tu? .trss t9qqe betelt ent mort noitroy wer6! JO efelyznoo mt af eshte to #sqtn0> Yo beacgnos th eA. tanoo weyewle dotdn ,acitgeono> oftetise onmt 8 ot mn yond, ele! edna to, beeoquoy bosord.ytino a #6 emu va en oy yaebttan tovwnitentimes edt yd beoutory Jon det a6 yd ieee eit (Yo Bhoniatdd 609 sreotonr oF stkee> ow V1 8 ? Geliorgue erstsostorq asiworrsciase ro ral ygce ot it taessaotd ote bee ,ecnsasianehatal sds ar batquacte noe be wate yrove Lien sit to anttocttenes sai of Sneyer ba bas sad af benottese paths ihe & to tetoersio ost of bnoqeeit09 doidw ,lesqe of of .esnot | ot A : q Par , % a 7 € Bree) 14-4 4 i 5 = (rah) spe ) aie c ae - HY 7" . 7 i reer / A ws. iy Pra ee Shae 8 § at soon inee to bas “pnt sat bok aatnense bre 20872 te ; ete kddari0? va ac aque to nokéond odd eanod onedt d¢iw sonebhtoooe al na | 9 to abais dnetsttih mt denestgxe ylanotte eeel 10 siom fo enema Lenoney 204 to tnomtsert edt to t9tosed> odd Sedd ce ‘ot aedt bas [uteoets edt of svete edt mor? eseesq Bniblind & 91 9, $t0qque oF ot et naoloo edt sedt noitgesonoo sdT «dota sdt $ ofnt anthsce1 nedt gnissed to noktonst sit ,sostdo ns. sder otseslo sd¢ mt beesergxs y[gnoita teom ak ,bnnotgiced ost stoted beoaly engufoo to ewot edd ai bas anenloo seep een fotdy bas ,adoetidors sonsesiensA bas asmof t enmuloo saedt to yee [fen tdyim ono tant of ,pandade noeset tedd rot shies went Jaso ot Sod (Enidton siod + bar edt to teow Ifede si ‘Ye 19 etnenagcante oft gnieseposib asdqged) edd at alisved Leistoos earl Sv one dente fitin nofttentdmoo ni e19fg base anmuloo Sati oftefied af enmalod .d Loo to efteqg stsisqee of to tnemtesit Mt of Hiaye1 al amoned bas e¢tade to emvot bas elstgqeo to yllatosges 9 sad teat eiaeddogyd eff no ebem od ysm eboatd ynem Yo enor ne yd betetosanco gnidtence es betqsoos ton sie eish10 ote | ‘ ttn edt geqt tod . bib sono ew ef netotiiaa gvondin Ona noid ge [lon 28 ,botisy ofeasf[o edt goxte eietoesrnote to aeatz079 ge neist sd sonseatensd sid bos eons ofhbim oft of ond Jens a ssnottershtenco eeedt to eresd to tniog aAnitrsta edt ' a oe oo th spa ; 119 of grace and serenity in the Ionic, and of magnificence in the Corinthian. In accordance with these tones the function of support is more or less strongly expressed in different kinds of columns, so that the character of the treatment of the general mass of a building passes from the grave to the graceful and then to the rich. The conception that the column is to support or ele- rate an object, the function of bearing then receding into the background, is most strongly expressed in the classic memorial columns and in the rows of columns placed tefore facades bp the Roman and Renaissance architects, and which were crowned by s statues, so that one might well say of these columns that they bore nothing; but to cast them aside for that reason would be to overlook one of their most important functions, and to for- get that a large number of Crecian memorial columns would no ; less be condemned, than many works of Roman and Renaissance. Memorial columns would likewise have a freer range of form for the reason that being monuments, the function of bearing falls into the background, and since the possibility of ascen- ding to the top of the capital by a winding stairway becomes a principal aim, in a second degree a spiral arrangement of such a column would not only be sensible but indeed becomes requisite, as a ground motive of the manifold structural and decorative compositions that may be derived from it. The idea of a memorial column may thas be developed from the simple funereal monument to the formal tower through an inexhaustiple series of possible solutions. 7 We shall treat of the column in connection with other archi- tectural details in the Chapter discussing the arrangements of columns and piers in combination with entablatures and vaults. be Columns in detail. In regard to thi’ treatment of the separate parts of columns, especially of capitals and forms of shafts and bases, reflect- ions of many kinds may be made on the hypothesis that the clas- sic orders are not accepted as something consecrated by tradi- tion and without criticism as we once did, but that the entire progress of architecture since the classic period, as well as that due to the middle ages and the Renaissance te taken as the starting point or basis of these considerations. : (1 a a 7 >. oe a a6 di i Le eh ad "Pap a \ o\pll , L 6] aus ; na « 4 , j ' " 7 7% Vrs ti 4 heh - ro i: oF ee e— ¥ 4 yy s , ’ a Red P ; ei > & °) fa of Resa. ae uitig: : fasiqes: ent to m0} .» pepke ent to fat tq8o aft to tnemtse1t svitinizg teow aa? + cetueq cords o¢at [atiqss edd behivib ybeels selyie 4 xav 10> to sveonoo adit ferenes of bastetebnu. se dotdw yd edt to mot eit ni isdtecw .fettqes edt to nottaog legs onde edt bas Raidoen sat {led agidtaiioD sdt 10 ennidos ano *(O8f .af%) [stiqeo oi100 edt to mort1og Leqtoniag edt | bedetldstes {few dotdw ,gonidos &nitoeiorty ylgnotte sit to fos. ards bas ,zemys tedto wort motiontteth 6 ea nieter ev » Iatevee ys mauloo edd to ttsda edt mort hedetages es _,80ntdos edt no betnieg aevss! to Kot ot 19sddex 10 bne ,o19" Si 28. eetolt edt to motteuattnoo & mtot ylao eet Bainatzed eft ts eatelunns eexeds yd dsloxroas ylse $ of [aupe eeveasl oft Yo 19dmun odd sham een 190940082) eat to anttinteq saz to sottaio!eaet etd mi eotalt ett eat: fetitqas bavoyno> nattqy3h edt nit as teat o@ ,fasi tnsfq oteisqe2 to sibnnd & smoos¢ emuloo baa Ietrqeo # bas staupe ei anosds eat .(ab0d snd woled rside3zot baw I .gi?) or ntdtin beditoent at annidoe edd Yo sone tsiago o rezensib asag0 edt abssoxe evettidots edt to dibsatd eaT # to dahin edt madd eeol ei dud ,ateor si dotdw no mmelos ton dteq ni sis aunidos edt baa s9ttel sdt tedd of 8008 B ent no yltoetzd otf ton 290b evaitidnows sot .(SS8i .3it) : sas beste. yisttqeoreqnt me sonte .yftastegqqs yino Jud taal & edt tent os ,ssettidors edt svisoet ot Stef af noit eee el - (OE «3 ¢7) bebsol fon sta [atiqeo edd on 8 oved sotesed ta afqust edt to seods. oXrl elatiqes snoe /etntog ssodx ,ebard aoen edt dtsened eeves! to wor On + 0 qltos1tb bisl sien svatsidow sit IT ebovinost yisagt } bas bebsol yllaotattemyenc ad Sfuon Ietitqao edt .enoeds “908 nox 6lcown envoada sdt to selans nitsosiorg ylevfessoxe etto neato aunied to zein en aysdisq e198" doidw ,elsdiqeo of100 asmok ea] 3 % ylesit etom ,gnitetxs tegno! on eslqmaxe natos1D sial » fatiqao otsdors ot10T nsioes1) sd% to aebr Savo13 949 Ine F Dibaknechs. yisotaée tuodtiw dgvodt svidom betgohe sat yninie mn jeetensd ent .ayen bfotinem af emeddt dt qisv bos .mtot est ” tot (gaixim eonttanor .tnomtestt to shom aso aids bewolfot -oft00 sdt ddin aeiddntio) One otsol anrliemess Pan. 3 ge 120 “a. Form of the capital. The most primitive treatment of the capital of the oldest s styles already divided the capital into three parts, the bell, by which we understand in general the concave or convex princ- ipal portion of the capital, whether in the form of the Doric. echinus or the Corinthian bell, the necking and the abacus. The principal portion of the Doric capital (Fig. 180) consists of the strongly projecting echinus, which well established name we retain as a distinction from other cymas, and this echinus is separated from the shaft of the column by several annulets, or rather the row of leaves painted on the echinus, and which only form a continuation of the flutes as it were, and is clo- sely encircled by these annulets at its beginning like a collar. (BStticher has made the number of the leaves equal to that of the flutes in his restoration of the painting of the Doric cap- ital, so that as in the Esyptian compound capital the Doric Capital and column become a bundle of separate plant stems bo- und together below the buds). The abacus is square and the cir- cumference of the echinus is inscribed within it (Fig. 181). The breadth of the architrave exceeds the upper diameter of the column on which it rests, but is less than the width of the ab- acus, so that the latter and the echinus are in part not loaded. (Fig. 182). The architrave does not lie directly on the abacus but only apparently, since an imperceptibly raised central por- tion is left to receive the architrave, so that the angles of the capital are not loaded (Fig.183). Some capitals like those of the temple at Paestum have a sec- ond row of leaves beneath the neck bands, whose points are sl- ightly recurved. If the architrave were laid directly on the abacus, the capital would be unsymettrically loaded, and the excessively projecting angles of the abacus would run some risk of being broken off. The Roman Doric capitals, which were perhaps imitated from late Grecian examples no longer existing, more freely repres- ent the ground idea of the Grecian Doric archaic capital, ret- aining the adopted motive though without strictly adhering to its form, and vary the theme in manifold ways, the Renaissance followed this Roman mode of treatment, sometimes mixing forms resmebling Ionic and Corinthian with the Doric. ~~ aye - “7 (Mery RS ale | ame an | ret | qd fatitqeo ot100 edt to motterstia [nttnsees text? sov ow ° gntvis ,norfoetory att antnseael nt betarenos enenc? as 1 © 1stemett qsqqgu edt of [s0p9 “efno asSssid a evaertisore 8 t q9ffsme Yo emaved eantios edt yitneapsanos ‘nuploo bite Bas ,tosibeup & betswtxotqqs nottosa eti tedt of wi nt solssensquoo Seitspe: [etiqao ens to notioetory 0 Reet O49 ted? of .Qntdoen ett to tedt 10 taxied bee m Roksz0q074 ak doom oof bedetnmib ed ton bleone Iest easioo * Yo ftade sat mort betsisqges neds aew Xosn |AT oom Lannie eoenam ffame s dtiw (sgeqdes ns ,r9dmen tsblod eyd ‘anda Mg sim os ,entsq ,estisent yd Keddie eee Daa heed | Sf .emyo 8 Io esyeef To wor « yd betasmento eaw eco Pefetiqeo to amio? entt ytoev tedto ont .fetiqeo Lamon "ea? mott teddéo sdt boa tieqnoT mort eno .au of benten Pe ef tert? sit to antdoen ods ;(MSI .3iT) asttefootd vile sdif bomiot fon ef tedto edd to emyo ont slaw oy 10 to phntd [eteve® .eeves! feotiney to shy et ted ‘t b mot? gexat emtot to nottenidmos & to bemot sd yew ie rd ucedn ‘eaveel Yo awot ont Yo hte ont dtix stksies | tpt fst | teaee! 16 t9fseTy tiedtd of ameftorq setsvthb teom ant ot gs pederiveses eviton ett Yo efimi! edt nidtin sil dgtde ruc i | | e{stiqgeo otto aenod ond . Onebtocse af bsrotess (ASI .3fT) L[ettaes meoas? adT B asdf stom Sntdton et eutvatttY Yo etnemetate ont aiew et T8hto naderT stitne sit es tent ,wrxot oftod nanod qer nf teom sis of 1s6%o wennglos oteealo #2 to nolttogoes Teroh.yftes ont nt bseu dona een tabi0 etaT cwesvitor Isntdmo> nit bone ,ywnoesm besacttest dtiw ynisinonted tsdied @ bs 'exorteorttsot ot betyebs -yifstoeges et tr tact doin Petens3 nt buns ,edoaited ,eeter ytio B9I0I5SuIta Snitae F eeeeogIeg yisathbto tot asintostte avie ~an ethics eft ts atoetorg [etiqao toil sft to avsads 907 atv Benooed ebfetsbhaw efi tedt of ,euntdos ed? baoysd yldsasdi oy i Benesset yd contre t9wol aids betetooeb emanol ett ici iD Rahiserd to teuneb mt ybestf{s eslzns ed? bensiesn yoreds aeline eesdt Tenosstoo shew sisw acosde edt tl wbeol sat edad fre begnedo et Iadiqes edd Yo tetoansdo sat td 1899 to teoqnr ne svieost of betqyebs yIno ,bseestqmoo tesqge ef yd tdztn asus: edt to eslans sdT .mtot [anogyfor ares ee 47 rei 7 Tid Peat aT "aaa rare ao 121 The first essential alteration of the Doric capital by the Romans consisted in lessening its projection, giving to the architrave a breadth only equal to the upper diameter of the column; consequently the echinus became of smaller importance, so that its section approximated a quadrant, and the smaller projection of the capital required compensation in its increa- sed height or that of its necking, so that the mass of the cap- ital should not be dimnished too much in proportion to the col- umne The neck was then separated from the shaft of the colunm bya bolder member, an astragal with a small fillet or a pearl bead, and was decorated by rosettes, palms, etc., and the aba- Cus was ornamented by a row of leaves or a cyma. Besides the normal capital, two other very fine forms of capitals have re- mained to us, one from Pompeii and the other from the baths of Diocletian (Fig. 184); the necking of the first is a flat cur- ve, while the cyma of the other is not formed like an echinus, but is composed of vertical leaves. Several kinds of capitals may be formed of a combination of forms taken from different capitals with the aid of two rows of leaves, which are suited to the most diverse problems bu their greater or lesser height, but which lie within the limits of the motive established bp the Roman Doric capital. The Tuscan capital (Fig. 185) restored in accordance with t the statements of Vitruvius is nothing more than a simplified Roman Doric form, just as the entire Tuscan order is merely a reduction of a classic columnar order to the most indispensable motives. This order was much used in the early Renaissance as better harmonizing with rusticated masonry, and in combination with that it is especially adapted to fortifications and engin- eering structures, city gates, barracks, and in general to mas- sive structures for ordinary purposes. The abacus of the Dorci capital projects at its angles cons- iderably beyond the echinus, so that its underside becomes vis—- ible; the Romans decorated this lower surface by recesses but thereby weakened the angles already in danger of breaking under the load. If the abacus were made octagonal these angles disac pear, but the character of the capital is changed and it would appear compressed, only adapted to receive an impost of the s same polygonal form. The angles of the abacus might by lessened j i eT Ti) eae 7 ; » ii i Sst ea% of LIsnps: auntior sdt to neteme th gat Babian yd st to epbe edt gaifitot oa tad vauoeda edt to d2eq. 19990 id soemgotto od biuow sbtecrebn0 stenpe ati ted? eqor gai neat anoeds adT .2ogpdioe sat Yo soneistenogio 199 Yo tefaritedo edt esmuaee fae doold |Ynirsvoo & Bf jet. i mw edt <(882 .RI%) beol eft atest dotdn no sroggue Bt90 ett mort yateasq Innozstoo ed nedt teum troqqua sist We sdf to amzol seeds [fA .qot te atot stenpa & otnt ‘er Latiqes edd seso nt yilstoeqes.gninsenm tiedt [q at enem baotd #8 nedy .nedors 10 atluev evisos t to sot qilstosqes ak eidt :droqqee nidt yllsenotsiog ft “i » ,atinev gnttrogqea enmoloo mort to bas siotoods ‘enosd. vadt to sefajns sd? Baidtroqgue sot aneom oro yllenit t ae Sit ao avitom ovite1oosb emo aniyolqnms ni atetenco est [tt of ,sonseatened ont to tnsbeosxg edt waste : 199 edt -;ec0sde edt to eslane edt hae eunidos edt neon b nem bas efamtas to abeod [fama seoqivg sidd tot boas c [t*to abnsiteh ,eatqoounmoo to antdgfobh yd Istiqeo oat ‘edt Yo cen 90% of Bnibroose ,.9ts ,natolov edi ftgaelo Paper: « » -betarooeb yidot1 exsl 10 ston geuntosata at 019" eysnte taomf{[e eintostidors sonseatansd boa nanon beds effa> asdott+89) eevee! Ilse to wor s yd enogds “atte vn sttib nt betaay ar anpada edt to slitor. sat <(amyo i “dotdn .bortess mokdoeters edt of anthrooes,(V8l .3i7) ER {eotrtemes3 sav mort ylottini edfone1 saso abe as eettestecanns beditoempotto Sne beditoent dtiw efor ad ayed evosds ant to: nortoeio1g ¢ brovs of berresb et < r 10 ~seogisy fsioege a tot Latiqeo ent Yo ean Sdt .eunt Bpieezoc eit shioeh {fiw betuoexs ef tk potow at Leiret ain elttorg talsottreg yns sonie ,avosds sft tot slit etotosiedo tetinosg « Iatigeo Liao sd¢ mort ennidos edt statsqee tad? atelonne sal ai ade ni atostidoye sonseetanch yd beteeit asddis [feotel. Yo oitsedd, edt mort [etiqeo sit to tnebscety edd ate! it, Gtin Wespettes ,elegetten bebeed es so ,etellit ofqaie a bey ook $(BBE BET) tsxomap@ yd anyo nsides{ 8 sa nave ous fe 2a svaoned 10 tikreite ed ysm aneloo ent to doar eat eii{ sevsef Yo wor bnoose. 6. otni begnsdo ed qo ,betets ines tdginrte Stel ed gem ft yllentt to ,moteoe? mort Leti 122 by making the diameter of the echinus equal to the side of the upper part of the abacus, but so profiling the edge of the ab- acus that its square under:side would be circumscribed by the circumference of the echinus. The abacus then loses its mean- ing as a covering block and assumes the character of a peculiar support on which rests the load (Fig. 186); the underside of this support must then be octagonal passing from the octagon into a square form at top. All these forms of the abacus have their meaning, especially in case the capital is intended to receive vaults or arches, shen a broad mass is placed on apro- portionally thin support; this is especially true of iron arch- itecture and of iron columns supporting vaults. finally one means for supporting the angles of the abacus consists in employing some decorative motive on the capital a after the precedent of the Renaissance, to fill the space bet- ween the echinus and the angles of the abacus; the Renaissance used for this purpose small heads of animals and men, decorated the capital by dolphins or cornucopias, garlands of floners or clasp-like volutes, etc., according to the use of the capital in structures more or less richly decorated. Roman and Renaissance architecture almost always crowned the abacus by a row of small leaves (R8tticher calls this a lesbian cyma); tbe profile of the abacus is varied in different ways,, (Fig. 187),according to the ¢rogjectiion desired, which in this case results intirely from the geometrical construction of a circle with inscribed and circumscribed squares, in which it is desired to avoid a projection of the abacus beyond the ech- inus; thé use of the capital for a special purpose, or the ma- terial in which it is executed will decide the choice of a pro- file for the abacus, since any particular profile gives to the capital a peculiar character. The annulets that separate the echinus from the necking were either treated by Renaissance architects in accordance with t the precedent of the capital from the theatre of Marcellus as simple fillets, or as beaded astragals, astragals with fillets, and even as a lesbian cyma by Seamozzi (Pig. 188). The neck of the column may be straight or concave as already stated, op be changed into a second roa of leaves like the cap- ital from Paestum, or finally it may be left straight and dec- est | i bas memod nt isovesl misq 10 vetdencr yd betetoost | stag elie eqaule teonle et ti sintostinore bestent ,Jo(f{tt Bae [egaites ae ys TMeeti nawloo eat iain of Bntbtooos booubottat Sd yen egnibfiom tsite > (Q8f .52%) woge ofbhin edttmh eobt sttaovst nk beqoleveh ed yam Lettqas oktod sit to eebt sat Istsnok sat bas , dave event sw ae aye satevid f .notdareqeng bas fettetem ,seoqiaq bas mtot yntnreonos tt tbom ‘“tedt Snes ettot ssed% situps: .eote ,aberea baer b 8 S809 tot beeliveb sien atebi1o aenmuloo oLeeslo oat o betloay dtiw benidwo> eisw saedt nedw swoitsmmtenod ‘Bonstnevnoons smoasidnott yrov & ,eneamoh edt yd cor s one bas etoe: m& YI befosnnos stew anmolon sat YI .ydei68edt . 7 N ovatdidots edt .eidd svode saovor nwomdd e196" eetote ‘si ‘betsino wax si Fk pYrsRaedoMAD SmADSd of baa bebe! sad ,eé{sw od? no benteter tnd Qntbl fod & to toi ¢ nase senate thdtte s19w estore ect syieos1 of babast $ betinpse Work sdf 16 (OCI .2f7) ellaw sitt of badoed icing Qnteesiqnn bseeseaog efnsweknaite dtod sberlr | b yloitd © nO Ir etostitiows someeetenesh baa sanod pats evode autos ly Yo Jedd \tnatbeqxs aninssmng mawodst iistoe 10 vnatg at S%agpe svAirtidore edt to taeaanr & ‘Dns osekt? ett diiw esotveldetoe stsqmoo edt to tia Witows sit Yo toofd w dona tadd Joat eat sort sbies of oat ous tupfoo' sit sedn .gntnsem toodttw et ersteldstne } geen ati yllenozsib bewetv ete atluev sot to t1sq cia iavhaelnts eidd Sas ,g0fteeelgnn bare yvsen ,l[utsoare bteoets sat to et [atiqeo edd ti tnseeelane sion Iiite o tessf{ edt at Isttqac) towed aatoe > an? saqyt neta? esa asiogioe apntdoe Snowte bas sattfostow ysbrn esi bbto S100 matoenD oft to yttrsvee sds tod :easm baord edt nadt foold expteldatns edt of beeogge ylbebroeb ps m- Stgfostidows Aemok to antot tre y edt no ieiranest etinay bane gedote Yo etaoqat edt baol oT paphtaarne ban neiderady cites at snob asmttomce ae elets Saom atesqqe ,ewolle setwedt! siufoetiidorws sishsom ford a. ed? To esseew AT canmefoo sett to seeo nt yfdeto fottersy91q Ottearene ne attupss eteoqmt sit mot? basegn grt an em THAto on nomi eafyte Somanetansd bos oteesio edt dtod bre pce a ste wen a : aye A 123 | decorated by rosettes or palm leaves; in Roman and Renaissance architecture it is almost always separated from the shaft of the column itself by an astragal and fillet, instead of which other mouldings may be introduced according to circumstances, a favorite idea dn*the middle ages (Fig. 189). The idea of the Doric capital may be developed in the most diverse ways as we have proved, and the general ground laws concerning form and purpose, material and preparation, light and shade, etca, require these forms and their modifications. The classic columnar orders were devised for post and lintel tonstmictiou; when these were combined with vaulted construct- ion by the Romans, a very troublesome anconvenience #as caused thereby. If the columns were connected by an architrave and a arches were thrown across above this, the architrave was not loaded and so became unnecessary; it it was omitted in the in- terior of a building but retained on the walts, the columns in- tended to receive tre arches were either higher than those ate tached to the walls (Fig. 190), or the arch sequired. to be st- ilted; both arrangements possessed unpleasing peculiarities. | Roman and Renaissance architects hit on 4a truly consistent though unmeaning expedient, that of placing above the capital a fragment of the architrave square in plan, or sometimes a part of the compete entablature with its frieze and cornice. Aside from the fact that such a block of the architrave or entablature is without meaning, when the column and the lower part of the vaults are viewed diagonally its mass appears un- graceful, heavy and unpleasing, and this impression becomes still more unpleasant if the capital is of the graceful Corin- thian type. The Grecian Dorci capital is the least ungraceful, its widely projecting and strong echinus supports wery well a broad mass; but the severity of the Crecian Doric order is more decidedly opposed to the entablature block, than the more pli- ant forms of Roman architecture. To load the imposts of arches and vaults directly on the cap- itals as sometimes done in early Ghristian architecture , and abich modern architecture likewise allows, appears most unfav- orably in case of free columns. The masses of the vault widen- ing upward from the imposts require an energetic preparation, and both the classic and Renaissance styles know no other means er” SS | | - sioots stwitsldetns Siswins off yd asdt .erdt 3atntetdo to trae i ytinesosn Yo setity & sham siwiostisor saitnesys eb nei beifesh eft to Aimetyq stsup2 bedsevat as 3nt etwoiti ,tisav sit to J1sq sewol ent bas [etiqso sat seved doold ylgo aidd ot teY .m10t nk yvaed yi9v ti nbottnt esx svitom s ,noktaioceh tesdort edt yd {wise Rs ga e ef tk ;yew weadtone at beqoleveb Batted to eld we east mec dotda ,tfneav sd? Bas [atigeo sd? asonted be Hieoe1 yen bas ,evaitidow edt to amtot edt mort seat vlort ” sidong [atpege sat atin. sonebiocoe nt mot tnerettsb « nents ot Rarbi0ooA .beyofgqmetsas se0fg%s Bas sasnloo sat aos aad: | troqque seliemea to 19398! #& sentivpss tlesv to dow edt " detent Iftw troqqea sift .{etiges sat das motd10q sswol est ‘ota ac o98 to soome7sttib erodm .arsyel [sieves 10 sao™to se add to somstettib sdv adie sonebiocos nit beznetta 9d G Bntasely taom edt bos ,teoqui eat bne amuloo sid to ) a eReeesm edt to mo tten 8 0 aatant to wot & yd benwots od ysa troqqua sat cE Big #8 es betacis sé yam bas ,ytotiqoyq taetvse1g sat adiv “OO 670095 .sitnemanio ,asttenoi ditn ,svaonoo ,telt ed x00 Neh bas jnctdens bolfene 2 as betacit sd yliesl to ..ofs , acts 9% B® edd of omofoo fasoz git mort noltrensat 949 10% ago wat as Yo g1sq od? yalq yew Ft totad at ,do0ld teoqat plavestbel .(fCL .3ft).yan botiev Jeom edd ai trogqas ND ipwintas eitf~foote atdt bo sau tesdoty edt shan 5% ath fo seed oat jnteis to been edd détw somshiooos nt g30 eeaitonce sonseetensh nemte> bas donet? edt asvi .ansloo 10 stuteldetns oteaslo sft bseofaws 10 .t109qua aidt beonbosd eovyaitidots sdt .to noteeimo sdt yd beanado ,doo . sor ‘os to allen sat mo antemet evertidors to mict a tI *thon sds ted? faoebive ef ti -,asoaly vadto nt oats bae Shieyeuve ci ti tod iywseeeosans at t1ozgue to wr10t sid? iam 849 toennco of es of anmsloo sd3 no aedots sat soalg of ¥ edt sved of bes ,Letigso eat to tadt atin tecqat sat to tonto Trogqae edT .onots.to garneo nol efgnte 6 to tetezoo Bee ee bedonsss enmaloo tad ,eomuloo hefywoo to 9ano ni bets imo | ® to mot riedd ntetes of beeq [Lew ont mort gnitostorg ‘sk ered? tot betiimo ton 93 nmufog Segegne ent eaeo ni ov das as bas sotmi0o medoid & meonted sometsttib laitnsess = rae ¥ ed is 2 124 of obtaining this, than by the awkward entablature block. Byzantine architecture made a virtne of necessity by insert- ing an inverted square pyramid of the desired height between the capital and the lower part of the vault, likewise making it very heavy in form. Yet in this ugly tlock never made bean- tifal by the richest decoration, a motive was introduced capa- ble of being developed in another way; it is a support insert- ed between the capital and the vault, which can itself be ent- irely free from the forms of the architrave, and may receive a different form in accordance with the special problem in #h- ich the columns and arches°are employed. According to whether the arch or vault requires a larger or smaller support between its lower portion and the capital, this support will consist of’ one or several layers, whose differences of section are to be arranged in accordance with the difference of the sections of the column and the impost, and the most pleasing proportion of the masses. The support may be crowned by a row of leaves or a cymatium with the greatest propriety, and may be treated as a plain bl- ock, be flat, concave, with rosettes, ornaments, decorated nec- king, etc., or lastly be treated as a swelled cushion, and it can form the transition from the round column to the square impost block, in brief it may play the part of an intermediate support in the most varied way.(Fig. 191). Mediaeval architec- ure made the richest use od this stool-like intermediate supp- ort in accordance with the need of raising the base of the pier or column. Even the French and Cerman Renaissance sometimes in- troduced this support, or employed the classic entablature bl- ock, changed by the omission of the architrave. Tf a form of architrave remains on the walls of the interior, and also in other places, it is evident that the addition of this form of support is unnecessary; but it is avwaysidésirable to place the arches on the columns so as to connect the mass of the impost with that of the capital, and to have the support consist of a single low course of stone. The support cannot be omitted in case of coupled columns, but columns attached to and projecting from the wall need to retain their form of architra- ve in case the engased column re not omitted, for there is an essential difference between a broken cornice and an entablature ie a) EETOTT me ee eT a 1 ng Bale est $9 enstoo aii bereteulo ro% volute otevels end i fold | ee tqnn geol ,aeem 6 ef tootte ms 2en eyeule soimioo as soda ti aamoloo bedosteb tevo doold sintealdastns edt | ford & ditin .eflew sda mort a9xt yletiine ste eletiqso sth bexsty 129et vow Satess(qan teon edt at nsee gor 183 .seel sd {lite [ftw Lettaso edt no Qnttes1 acam sat jaebie tls no sent ylsiténs antbaste omoloo & to seen “qoetes- edt aniwoflfe ton yd bonseseel ed ylasqesg yen oeds et nett stom tostorq ot amyo' to gnthigom mwor s exsin? Sae ovettifow sit onedy esoelq sat teyisecs etis507 sj yan ee doom te ersdesels fosfiorg yen tt alide | eohtag eat tostorg of et saodipg teido ask tot ; (Sel ts) nottostorg ett bas ~Ptszeqwob gninnst TetaAw OER tide sans ees{no ,eliaw oft mort Sedoeseb nas Fos eB yi bevie Aad red Bipow dotdw ,sflerdeo me edtf sbte [Ie no etostorg 5 of mods yi betioqgne eseesr ont dtin enmp foo Sntwatb al Ze dno ‘edt mort Sostdo-sdt tnsestye1 ot yrseesosn yletaloe ry i th wetv [enozeth s we1b of 10 .nStv to Infoy sidatov “geam edt to enotetvib base anoitostory sat ao abioet B® ,bentetdo ed of enoticoqgory sit. to tostts antese y odnt aeansq nottose to miot eno dotaw nt etostdo {ie 8. Paninend sytioeqeisy siecle « otat slorto 2 slaaaxe tot bias 1O9O77 ea5a2 to sshi tejo7g 8 eviz ot taorottiva sacle Be $ to tostts ods yino ton sa80 ai S03 eifetoeqes af siat » Sat es ,bersbianoo si of ef aantl#no sdt to ted? osfs tod. "#i-Sonta ,.ofe ,atswot fotnds .gannloo Lettomsw adnan 6 Tanogeth ed7 of Is{lateag wetv 8 weth of yisessc9n asmoo £24 8 wetv tnort a es [fen 2a . (FOL 23tF) % 9 nojsioo ids eit mozt s1p950 noidtenets s aaa at .& > Sno facoy | . | +MOR8I90' Sit “entemet ntsizo to shom srodn ,fsttqso otnol bebir-ond ang stds [1a to eiiqe anit oftod asioe1) eat to fads ea sinoedo f $tqso Sftod memond efit mort slgfontag at eisttibh .asdorvese ‘ednlov ottatrstostens edt tend ax xine Bat fsere yftotite 3g aT .egntide eit bas enosdis sit msented hetieant ar nor ie ‘gi Ineteti£h yi[insbive ste atfreg taorsttib eat Yo eanoit font ent fos ,of100 memo sdt Yo seodd wort [etiqeo otnot set edt to snodt mont antrett is emtot syed sakwodil savisor eanixoriie vino anto? atte smes 6dt sta eeshl bawors ade sey on ‘ re ; ae “78 afer 125 block in the classic style. For clustered wall culmns the bro- en cornice always has an effect as a mass, less unpleasant than the entablature block over detached columns; if the columns and Capitals are entirely free from the walls, with a broken corn- ice seen in the most unpleasing way, i.e., viewed diagonally, the mass resting on the capital will still be less, than in case of a column standing entirely free on all sides; this mass may properly be lessened by not allowing the geison with its crown moulding or cyma to project more than is absolutely nec- essaryat the places where the architrave and frieze are broken, while it may project elsewhere as much as may be required (Fig. 192); for its chief purpose is to protect the building from the rain water running downward, and its protection cannot be rec- eived by a column detached from the walls, unless the geison } projects on all side like an umbrella, which would be very ugly. In drawing columns with the masses supported by them, it is ab- solutely necessary to represent the object from the most unfa- vorable point of view, or to draw a diagonal view in order to decide on the projections and divisions of the mass by the pl- easing effect of the proportions to te obtained, as well as in all objects in which one form of section passes into another, for example a circle into a skuare; perspective drawing is not alone sufficient to give a proper idea of these proportions. This is especially true in case not only the effect of the mass, but also that of the outlines is to be considered, as in monu- ments, memorial columns, church towers, etc., since it then be- comes necessary to draw a view parallel to the diagonal of the octagon e f (Fig. 193), as well as a front view a b and a dia- gonal one c 4, in case a transition occurs from the square to the octagon. The two-sided Tonic capital, whose mode of origin remains as obscure as that of the Grecian Doric in spite of all acute re- searches, differs in principle from the Roman Doric capital, strictly speaking, only in that the characteristic volute cush- ion is inserted between the abacus and the echinus. The propor- tions of the different parts are evidently different in the Tf Tonic capital from those of the Roman Doric, and the individual motives likewise have forms differing from those of the latter, yet the ground ideas are the same with forms only approximately ‘ 2 " j ‘ | a aaa sd of atesqge eletiqao dtod to eqytotoig ent .telinia psodn. .80me2, Yo Haslet ot, at gattsntzico mmeloo 8 of fitin god ,eoves! yd hefetoneh auntdos memos ont enone eke: Gexixd aeb .tit?d .teth .setgidh) .eetulov atnol Bes) 20: statenco, ylerem [atiqes. ofnol.sad tc. asoeds gat go. (gntbfuom t1sb-bas-g20 bemret ylegoenoi1s) auttenyp 5 at 1 bettino esi aneloo ett to anidoen ont ,6myo cet ; esl afsg dtiw [etiqeo ottod nemoe, ott bo tadt. siti qsq edt ee unidicoos ,amrot [etnaenaato selrnte bre steost et nottand ent td tag. r9etee73 10 T8280! & Be o waty Sao1t odd ot tankt beriete1 s1s sesds (aysn evo ‘oaT .ieitv obie edt.of nedt ,aey9.1fedt atin eetulov )eien of wod boogatsban yilse2 etoetidors sonseetansh © te eno dgoodtia ,Intitosed [etigso. ornol edt to . of tacel ts. ovien, yreve beaierse soneeetsnel odd banat Jo moeset efT walasigag Sinol aft bo enortrogo1g am ooreentsnos 43 ton hswoh edt sedtien Jedt tost odt | 2 otnol catosy2 toetieq stom edt tin betatespos szex ag¢. to eont elqmexs 102 ~efetiqso otnol. [ntrtdused from ons nt ® .Sibbta ati ts teadyia at notdano oft .atavel® ta waslyqors ib cestofoy eft to neye sft biswot aedetniath mottose edt bas + + etebtod Bnteolons ne dtin talt 2 soetine tactt 6 tie% odd etauel® ts seont ot ea elstiqao sedto ac i eds to alatiaso odd ao bas ,wollod s ce batsaw ef peoela losses omt, sitf beteetd ef moftdguo siftas oft enensaA te sats asqaee $nott. sit ao tuo Senolled bas .sehso dose risv0 ast B-32¢) suyd oinol edt bas notden> edd nesuted esisne + 5 ads nl -esves{ mieqg yd belfrt somiienos o%6 (zatbicom “tant qe. stefquoo. ont tod stem astulov oat alatiqes [otttuacd padddoead. od¢.to encidacs beldyob sit nt ysys sdf Savors enw ae stg Bf svitom edt to, atsot{[qch gntersig yisv jon 46 m0 de. 0! foqA to. ofquad edt mort Ietiqso sdT -sotdeno eldgob edd E 20k fend eed ti 10t ,earesn Sfotont «mi [emnonde ai seacet feo trev yi betqsoon gated settaso atedt ,esbta tot Ife . i opavest . ago dd bae sesod edd yi bexolfot. eten alatiqeo sigs s0T 87 BS e8 soideso oft teent bre ,atostidowe sonseaiened eds yd peat, te rolotn? on .pnols egbs tage sti no tebted e atin based es: eomooed) yiensdt [atiqeo odt. ;sebie edd 3a neat albbin Sdt tod ,pseeo ynea nt elderteeb si yam dotdw .elodw ae ee aT a4 ’ e Me yh (ted ON vy ; “fT He A ’ ) i 126 Similar. The prototype of both capitals appears to be traced to a column originating in the island of Samos, whose capital shows the Roman echinus decorated by leaves, but without the Ionic volutes. (fhipiez. Hist. Crit. des Ordres Crecs, p3266). The abacus of the Ionic capital merely consists of an Ionic cymatium (erroneously termed egg-and-dart moulding) or a lesb- ian cyma, the necking of the column is omitted or is decorated like that od the Roman Doric capital with palm leaves, rosettes and similar ornamental forms, according as the capital requir- es a lesser or greater Reight. The cushion is treated in vari- ous ways; these are referred first to the front view of the | volutes with their eyes, then to the side vie:r The Roman and ‘ Renaissance architects really understood how to make the form of the Ionic capital beautiful, although one must admit, that the Renaissance strained every nerve at least to perfect the proportions od its Ionic papitals. The reason of this lies in the fact that neither the Roman nor the Renaissance masters were acquainted with the more perfect Creciau Ionic capitals. In the most beautiful Ionic capitals, for example those of the Propyleum at Eleusis, the cushion is highest at its middle, a and its section diminishes: toward the eyes of the volutes; its front surface is flat with an enclosing border. On other capitals as in those at Fleusis, the falt surface is treated as a hollow, and on the capitals of the Erechtheum at Athens the entire cushion is treated like two bands placed over each other, and hollowed out on the front surface. The angles between the cushion and the Ionic cyma (egg-and-dart moulding) are sometimes filled by palm leaves. In the more beautiful capitals the volutes make but two complete spiral t turns around the eye; in the doubled cushions of the Erechthe- um a not very pleasing duplicate of the motive is produced by the double cushion. The capital from the temple of Apollo at Rassae is abnormal in a twofold sense, for it has cushions on all four sides, their centres being occupied by vertical palm leaves. The: later capitals were followed by the Roman and through by the Renaissance architects, and treat the cushion as &@ mere band with a border on its upper edge alone, no thicker at the middle than at the sides; the capital thereby becomes lower as a whole, which may be desirable in many cases, but the cush— : ie ¥ ty A re hi { ya we é a "s Pas) 4 ae et wee, cesee haa! Valen.) & ery tat | eer + atti AOC att peeol notiews aa 4 e{daob & BA noknena dy aniteeit yI yrertnoo |Add nO yes py etofov sd? .sqose ert antved otolov sit to anand edt 0 J Bnttoen a tedt of .fgin eemooed [etigeo stitns ont ef Se: af edt ates tisde edt mort ti otatsqee oF yIsA25098 ‘ena aemttomoe atoetidois sonstestensd edT .ensataA fe y ott aveay Ons atgonsand endinsos yd [stiqso edd to soet val soetniacs y{[no yfinebave ov betete sited etost sat ed threes ut ayarts taom elatiqso edt to tnemtsen1d bel reser bape sh10 tanmafoo ofeesdo eit to ybote [uterso © no fsasd _ -,eea5t wen to nottetsdtenco Inteiso feom sit eotrope7 Batt Ye as demr0l ayen{e at notdano oft to wetv ebte eaT 6 ylse1t ste aetofov edt tad baed # yo asdtezos banod it yneqmooon eanttenoe ebeed I[re9q [etsven .asbie dtoad ne edt ‘Ro sbfeced?,,.nusitioe:h oft to alaetiqes eft mo es, basd fie mo tsonsf sitf-sfeon yt fotsvoory!istenss ef oof (oer sRfT) .Anow footoe sort yt befetoosh neve ei 10 , ee bp wOT Siduob & dtiw efetiqes asidt¢ntio? tesblo sct Yo snd wi aupe s Rad neve ,ebaty edt to r9Kot ett to fads ,zoveo! s eteuDe ed? .affotoe 10 sevacl ys nooeds sot to eslnra edt ot [uteoary sit of nottxogo1g at tostts as yvsed cot esd eno Bw as0T beytoo ylsdgiie 2 stcteted? hae fetiqes sit to eyes safe Doe eutolti ta offoqA+to fq 1p! edt to tadd ot mevib yi0o! ett? yd heoubo tq size" esfrnae strpos yiev sonte sod Yedt of tito tio eten sasdd ,bec! sdt ys *to asdowd yireas m) gobie Sevitno dtin mefo biwory ar etsupe 2 bemrot anceds isfq mi toetorq tom ob asveel afsq te erenolt entnaso ent nr pltannapenns ot tom e& of .eteape edd to asfrne sit baoy aah Zentno eevino sabe att ,acoads sat yd hatevoo sd ot al 19 ot owt oaedT «(GCI .BrF) sitmeo odd base eolaaa sit dtod -sdt to slattqaoredt no bsyolqwe terrt sisw evoeda ont omg edT .eienelS mont [etiqeo etna as no has setersisy] to. Si ylgnoiwte to yltdatie « entamet suoeds netdtatzo? eat to ‘et bne Sindostido1 sonserisnsh fae nemoq ,naioes) at dele it modereqse tedt [apeates e472 ;mottemyo Ormol sid yd hemwors > edt atin solyte seedt [fe nt entanet ttade sdt mont fetiges Rea .2ettesot to mot ont sqqne ot td3moe hetste ybeotia es elstiqeo tete)el eds (eno. aide edt YT .Sextupet doofd' ed? to snotenemib edt seses: 127 ‘cushion loses its distinctive character. On the contrary by treating the cushion as a double band, the turns of the volute having free scope, the volute as well as the entire capital becomes high, so that a necking becomes necessary to separate it from the shaft as in the Hrechtheum at Athens. The Renaissance architects sometimes decorated the face of the capital by acanthus ornaments and gave the eyes +, the form of rosettes. The facts here stated are evédently only reminiscences. the detailed treatment of the capitals must always iu: reality be based on a careful study of the chassic columnar orders, and requires the most careful consideration of new idéas. The side view of the cushion is always formed as if firmly bound together by a band, but the volutes are freely developed on both sides. several pearl beads sometimes accompany this band,as on the capitals of the Erechtheum, thesside of the cush- ion is generallyscovered by scale-like lancet or acanthus lea- . ves, or is even decorated by free scrool work. (Fig. 194). One of the oldest Corinthian capitals with a double row of leaves, that of the tower of the winds, even has a square aba- cus; the later capitals as already stated sought to support ; the angles of the abacus by leaves or scrolls. The square aba- cus has too heavy an effect in proportion to the graceful fol- iage of the capital, and therefore a slightly curved form was” Siven to that of the tample of. Apollo at Miletus and elsewhere; but since very acute angles were produced by this curvature, easily troken off by the load, these were cut off so that the abacus formed a square in grourd plan with curved sides (Fig.195). The centre flowers of palm leaves do not project in plan be- yond the angles of the square, so as not to unneeessarily inc- rease the dimensions of the block required. If the centre flon- | er is to be covered by the abacus, its edge curves outward at both the angles and the centre (Fig. 196). These two forms of | the abacus were first employed on the capitals of the monument of Lysicrates and on an ante capital from FHleusis. The profile of the Corinthian abacus remains a slightly or strongly coved slab in Grecian, Roman and Renaissance architecture, and 1s croaned by the Ionic cymatium; the astragal that separates the capital from the shaft remains in all these styles with the ad Fi! P r ( pa eet a ae 1 aod af i ' : edt atin betoonnos Lezsitas bebsed to nisly s to 30k ee at soceds eid? .svoo to miot motdianat s bane sellit s minagt 5 YJ aefqmexe nasoh sedoty sdt at bats10ceb een 7 i; ebegiq bsiles~-oe edt ,anvesl Laokitiey etera: dae I 2. 4% 8 beoubowtnt somseaisned odd ,bstete yheorla eas stedd s8d3 otom nave dotdw ,natdtatio> sitl [atiaso to “bemsotenstt asx tedt bas .tetoatsdo svitsicosb ylarng Bn | bfotinsm teom sit dtin 10008 of sys barisv abi eat ‘ yew yas ab Antdton saob eed sintoetidors Lavoetis!! Wok goigtontss netddatrod eat no [atiqes sdt to tnsatecsd ~eoaed ynen ck [nttqeo edt mod anoeds odd Estarsgee mn and sew [stiqeo edt to [isd eft sonte .amoases Laoitoazy | Se -eodt to tedt enn agosds odd sf{ide ,totginoe edd to init een tioeti {[Ied edt yltnsupeanoo ;bete1099b ton node nt es yoveonoo 10 eisupe ,1alg°c1ro asw dordw .dale 6 ys pabiooos .henottnem ybsetls Istiqeos aekdtninod ea3 to BUDE Jedt evyods beoslg euo’da sd? .fatiqso edt to tnemegnetis edt feoqek edd of Setqshs 9d 10 stampa od nedt blaos Aoold Iled # Hipoo tt 20 .xeluotin. 10 [anoryioq eemitenoe ,dow adi fo asivzastoen bas ssicoito ,{sno3yfloq to beecgnoo #70% f baoose a bevyieoes oste [stigso nstdsntro) favsetben eat @asiat Yo ydtron et dotdn ,snorset [sotfosiq 10% noite Ey erste g, mort tdgv0 mw ton et ti eeso at -snoaer ynen “at owt sii Yo dora ,snote.to amsyel owt to heges ynog af ) {fed aswof adt tedt om .dsle giad qwo efi ead asveo!l tdanri0d regis! ynem not eA beredmemerh dowm of 185g q9¢ e@ietraso oF et: euoeds ont ‘Aeeetoreh yltnenoett etetostidows oidtod nid s es .gntbeosiq sat ni hetete elziontig edt Atiw soneds teeth edt batded tet o& toe ean sasd seotn ,troggua to feds Yo nottoetoig, yas biove of ss L[ettyqeo ect? to se6s¢ edt .nottouttan0o betivey [aweethem aI .fled sat baoyed motnsar0o eXif easel taeqqe [atiqes ed? to efud bas sevasl | nqQu S20dn to ,beol edt yd brewnnoh Sned Letrqso ant te t etsotbat dotdw atisq es sed} ,sooads edd? yd hesebata et aly dtqeo sit aieneve ,tivev edt to edi edt,to moltvosqth eas nee edt mort Racige eved ot msoa dotde ~eoneltsg ¢ogil es to isa ati to noteassgxo; y1eseo°en 8 ee seam [etmtooite osinegrc them ,enottos1tS owt etasoos [atiqyeo ofnol sit 22 taut vba oe 4 Oe rit de x etd hate ay ol are bere, Aas T @ Avil s 4 on el 7. lis » Gay ay! R _ Ae me bat \ Yu a ‘ y aes 1th Rieey ’ Fi ru > ] , Zz 4 ae De ; ‘yi a hon } 128 form of a plain or beaded astragal connected with the shaft by a fillet and a transition form or cove. This abacus is someti- mes decorated in the richer Roman examples by a running ornam- ent or by vertical leaves, the so-called pipes. "Ascalready stated, the Renaissance introduced a freer form of capital like Corinthian, which even more thar that bears a purely decorative character, and that was transformed in the most varied ways to accord with the most manifold problems. Yediaeval architecture has done nothing in any way for the treatment of the capital on the Corinthian principle; it first separated the abacus from the capital iit many cases, even for practical reasons, since the bell of the capital was the work of the sculptor, while the abacus was that of the stonecutter anen not. decorated; consequently the bell itself was finished by a slab, which was circular, square or concave, as in the ab- acus of the Corinthian capital already mentioned, according to the arrangement of the capital. The abacus placed above the bell block could then be square or be adapted to the impost of the arch, sometimes polygonal or circular, or it could take a form composed of polygonal, circular and rectangular elements. The mediaeval Corinthian capital also received a second innov- ation for practical reasons, which is worthy of imitation in many cases; in case it is not wrought from a single block, but is composed of two layers of stone, each of the two rows of leaves has its own bel. slab, so that the lower bell does not Appear so much dismembered as in many larger Corinthian class- ic capitals. 7 Gothic architecture frequently developed the abacus in acco- rdance with the principle stated in the preceding, as a kind of support, whose base was set so far behind the greatest diam- eter of the capital as to avoid any projection of the support beyond the bell. In mediaewal vaulted construction, the angle? leaves and buds of the capital appear less like organic parts of the capital bent downward by the load, or whose upward gro- wtb is hindered by the abacus, than as parts which indicate t the direction of the ribs of the vault, even in the capital, o or as light garlands, which seem to have sprung from the fully organized structural mass as a necessary expression of its nature. Just as the Ionic capital accents two directions, mediaeval Rien sn ; Las eal ah abe a ; : Ly a aria oe edaos baquot’l to. ovtvon sit beowbortat etptoed roots tegen 8 dSetioqies ets dothw bas .mottoorkh edt oie ne seed ms. ,troqqua eat mozt yltoetth geivqe 10 leti ton bre ,eadote favevse to foofd antantvae att do sant ee. nade wf be} oe ‘yqqad atdt qo doot abtswtett sonseatensa eaT .(8Or somebre: 08 nt yew Inteon1g teow edt at ti hetsort senttence - gowas. endtnsos .abseH .salgtonttq evitsi0esb ofeeato atin tfag ‘ed yam enoti{tbom oteeaelo wort bsworted enrol tsdJso ’ tooeteg yleviteroosh baa .etnewenio 88 emtot [edroo douse a | | BOTTI Ihe efteda sit to mrof .§ ateors belteteh oft ot braget nt thotf[gxe od aso si $nt eved events annuloo ot100 inmeloo edt to ttene ont of. fe betsninist .notiose nf exgtaviwo welt to aetelt ofnol Yo eetelt sdt sltdw ,yen ofdsetion yas nit mot ebivtd af nuofoo sft YI .eeveel bevisoces vitngil to wot wv nt ry baad baoid s yd snob isdtte et atdt ,btdds a0? eit tevetedw ;(OCL .Ri7) bebnetat mottetcosh eat bre Vs Vesenivast 10 eeenidgrit to tefosisio tc tdyted .el[rtorg nO rosie bne ,seonstempoiro [stooge no shnageb medt of neviz qeat sd yen fotdw ,noivetoosh edt to yitfenp bas tasoms odd at Sogo Savow eqors ,etenolt 10 esveel to not e yd besas “ w Sn8d 6 10 ,e9note auofoetg-inse dtiw tee fasd e» ,ameloo eaery of ,edne[1e2 gntoneysus tot edoeg to ebeed 6 yd betatoceb ed yew nmofoo ent baoote boon baad baord A ay qe ent nezael coals tod enottoetrh ent steorbnt ylrssio | tr Bovad bas etel{it yd betersqse eyants sis enmoloo ast Hipidte. eeutiemoe twetitel edt bane .enotiose [sottqii{s 10 20 129 architecture introduced the motivo of srouped corbels to empha- size the direction, and which are supported by a separate cap- ital or spring directly from the support, can bear an entabla- ture of the springing block of several arches, and not only } clearly indicate the directions but also lessen the spans (Fig. 198). The Renaissance fterwards took up this happy motive and sometimes treated it in the most graceful way in accordance with classic decorative principles. Heads, acanthus leaves and other forms borrowed from classic modillions may be applied to such corbel forms as ornaments, and decoratively personify th- eir purpose. 7 8. Form of the shaft. We can be explicit in regard to the detailed treatment of t the shaft of the column; Doric columns always have intersecting flutes of flat curvature in section, terminated at top and btot- tom in any suitable way, while the flutes of Ionic and Corinth- ian columns are always separated by fillets and have semicirc- or or elliptical sections, and the latter sometimes end at top in a row of lightly recurved leaves. If the column is divided in its lowest thard, this is either done by a broad band, that appears to be tonnected to the shaft by small mouldings on its edges,or by a bold annular moulding: in the first case the pro- jections of the small mouldings, whether astragals or pearl beads with fillets, should not extend beyond the lower diamet- er of the column, so as to be suited to the. uncut blocks. On | the other hand strongly projecting annular mouldings, faworite forms in mediaeval architecture, signify that the column is composed of three pieces, when they are wrought from separate blocks of stone. The profiles of such annular mouldings, which seem to personify a powerful swelling of the shaft by means of its own impulse and strength, may be formed in various ways, in accordance with the purpose, the material, the proportions and the decoration intended (Fig. 199); whatever the form of profile, height or character of lightness or heaviness, xk is given to them depends on special circumstances, and also on the amount and quality of the decoration, which may be repres- ented by a row of leaves or flowers, a rope wound around the column, a band set with semi-precious stones, or 4 band with heads or hboks for suspending garlands, etc. A broad band wound around the column may be decorated by any ie ial 40 a me aes va vi a 3 B ~mitow svistarooed dots ak Insmento ne ex atetteg Sned | ietnsmenio to sbnta [fe yi betevoo sd thaatt ttede Anowdss .ytteeqed wir! agniviso ,odtl-sf{eoe ,toilet | 29008 factfodays ons shnalyasy .anoddit bebnsqeve 10 0% Bnthios0& .mnaloo sds Yo ausfoun sat [seonoo dot eyeria teox ow ynottstaenenio dott bas sett edd to yous pnt feteront een fokdw,somsertansd sd¢ to bis edd senebt svitercoeh (ntitused teow eft to dtlasw.oldi Ye eonsentansh namie) Hee doted .fonet? .mtenston emmaloo ta attsis betemo29h Uiotitueed, to ansaro en” earmaloo. to 2eaed oot tedd ei Taare est to sead eft to atot Jaslante sal sie a0 autot « to dtatenoo yfetem fotdx ,nsbs0 neoauT itive s bae déntiq edt .svtos sdt to bsedent anth{uom OS .btv) Ptede odd oF noktrenent ond amiot fokdw ,svoo tabem sven eosad asidtmizop bae ofnol~orttA asdoin notte asfitory Lawton es sonsaataced odt nt sevice P .(tos “BeT) Beoefgakh yleorsoa ed wom bluos dna agyt edt ni nmuloo sat tot seed 6 es seogte atedt Lit Sidieth cabasunte fetnemento y heteroceb ylibees sie bie brs ~fottiacg ett at asoloo edd to esenbsxt? sdt suse of ofd nt ti dtaensd beoaslg) mordego edt Yo yirrtlsup aard aaa eeoyeel to exot Bae enoideno ,esetbivon [lene ‘oved 16nil’ ste’ mort eased okmol Yo eu1ot eatd sat j tkedt? nb swwdostidors miedtion tot conatrogqar yne #noret?th Soed stedto sat no ted ,emtot bas enottreg pitivean, Hae aoineom svsed eased sat to alktorg edd to ” S10 mottacttifqnte ated? yo ylt1sq beqolaveb sd yar WenottosiLo1q tredd antdetnioth x0 antesetoni yd. gt } Yovelrtor adit to enotteottrbom eced? «(SOS .2t7) av Seado sit to sya Sit to nottieoy edt no bneqsh hye sys sit svods fetd hsosf{y sasaloo fofidn o¢ antbtoo netrotastot evitoeqe1eq tied? to tnwooos no saad Ajia | ‘mort bersty oedw wol od yeu send sat ytaitnoo edt m0 | DP yltmetsttth stinp aeeqqs ofpow (E08 .otg)e mottosrth ona aa » et moktoatth edt ar wofed som? asee sedis iinet was otto sit to euceda ent to nafnns ent as tevt J:garsd atedt to tegneb sovborg of ae of .enatdoe eds anadt af ons seented entemen soaye tasosv es ,fsol Leupsmy ne yd tte i ee 130 band pattern as an ornament in rich decorative works, and the shaft itself be covered by all kinds of ornamentsin color or relief, scale-like, carvings like tapestry, network, scrolls or suspended ribbons, garlands and symbolical accessories, wh- ich conceal the nucleus of the column. According to the tend- ency of the free and rich ornamentation, we must always ask t the aid of the Renaissance, which was fruitful in an inexhaust- ‘ible wealth of the most beautiful decorative ideas. Even the northern, French, Dutch and Cerman Renaissance afford many spe- cimens of beautifully decorated shafts of columns. . y. Bases of columns. The simplest form of the base of the column is that of the Tuscan order, which merely consists of a torus or of a base moulding instead of the torus, the plinth and a fillet with a cove, which forms the transition to the shaft (Fig. 200). The richer Attic-ionic and Corinthian bases have maintained then- selves in the Renaissance as normal profiles after the Roman type and could now be scarcely displaced (Fig. 201). They ful- fil their purpose as a base for the column in the best way, and are readily decorated by ornamental elements, which repre- sent the fixedness of the column in its position, and the yiel- ding quality of the cushion placed beneath it in the form of small mouldings, ‘cushions and rows of leaves. The true forms of Ionic bases from Asia Minor have scarcely any importance for northern architecture in their peculiar pro- portions and forms, but on the other hand different variations of the profile of the base have meaning and justification and may be developed partly by their simplification or enrichment, partly by increasing or diminishing their projections and hei- ghts (Fig. 202). These modifications of the profile of the base chiefly depend on the position of the eye of the observer, ac- cording to which columns placed high above the eye require a high base on account of their perspective foreshortening, and on the contrary the base may be low when viewed from above in the direction a(pig. 203) woulc appear quite differently from that seen from below in the direction b. Just as the angles of the abacus of the Doric capital over- hang the echinus, so as to produce danger of their being broken off by an unequal load, a vacant space remains between the lo#- | 1 ees Pr) ee ae Ty etre ween | TRAD Bo ak 1 p may i Com Peo eA Pen Geo ror ke ee me : i Sees At y. Pi . ' ; J fe ; c ' ‘ae Micah layed, sy pene lot neron; eds nt dtoriy sds to eelans sot bre ented vein \ pefans aft to oatden{t sot test Iagrm eno seat of : Lewten yldgootodt a nt aqed seent bs{lit santoesrdow yeyer enorievy at meat sonbet of Sdyu0e to .seveel a9n100 hao .fantia sit to okebe 19qq0 odf tuo gniwollon yd 16 wee ond Yo teftensih edt anteasiont yi 10 ,selans ett Tto moor edt emeced sonetetanotig ett dedt ce ,por0d he anoftantdnes yd uiteet ao ;ftetiq espe edt to sfo. ta 0 Batvolfod yi es [fen es ,tnemegnetis to asbom tasistisb < lod ent Yo rotometh odd TI .(20k S08 .ngtT) -eelans edt Be p81 antot antanenirsvo eit ,dintig efit to tadd S5shesore — to. 12 to ([edtoo [fame 8s yd bedetatet asw doidn ,Jrogque deed: Yo entot sd? otnt heosboitnt sevitom [isted seaoat ILA o! b ffew yan ,tisg cit tesel te ,e1ntoetidow lIavesiban yx cong “Inentses. setiuosq & -oonesaiened sat to mmi0t eat yi be ps807T02 elattyso edt of Sntbnogesitco anaploo to esaad sod jo sen .stedte dtin nottentdmoo mt yffenogstb beos!q amo? m3 8 asy eyinebbes tod syifevber3s ino9oc fon of noitoer to e938 $10 bydeted? bne etetoetidows [svertben r9otel ni strtovstY 189 yet WIsv .seaeo ynem nt beyol{qme sd yer dotin ,aviton s bes ¥ #0 hoor bre sqetostiaots novi ,fatem anitesos tot of } eamploo edt to Isteebed .4 be $ied sonreniaced sft ti aniwollot bas ewtoetidorws nenod ait ttbba at estutset tsdto ynioubortar to ytiseeoen [eraten yolan 19q stomsd Slvote dotdw ,arshto ett te senso fenton edt ; yeeinota Ieteves mk agnthiicd to \qemteott sat of betqebs sborg dae72 edd ,teditona svoie isht0o sao soalq of hettasb sno -u Lon sit to aeaad edt belsaonoo etuteldatns ten0l eat to noid — aiew Jadd awobakn sat easdi99 .tf ao bsoaely an yedt fra mott ceonted [fen oft to tagted bexst 8 hestnp Ma sed biroo tt ,oldieiv ameloo edt Yo sasd ont eyes of ites wohntn edt se tdkted emse edt Yo [stacbeg stereqse & a od oat mesnted soot bait wed tesm qao ati adiwietdt tod .(d08 S efod edt ttin somehrooos ak sotatos ef% to got sdf bae. Wteo nidsin hotiav dotin ,atebio ett to anoktrogoxg Lfemton d st9% seis) tdgted sir .nmofoo edt to tetemath edt ,atinil | ytote t9qgn edd to efeon sat ,eonavbhs of hext? enoiansmib SK acitots wewol ent Yo seeds totdw ro ,etentmisdead ylotitae “nenol ete to sleoe eid? .etebie taiveed tient dtix tnebnegeb - ) ett ashno [etesbsy s to soidtsent sit yiseseoen sham yicte ff ee y v te oP We 131 torus and the angles of the plinth in the normal ‘classic base, go that one might fear the flushing of the angles. Mediaeval architecture filled these saps in a thoroughly natural way by corner leaves, or sought to reduce them-in various ways, eiths er by hollowing out the upper edego of the plinth, by cutting off its angles, or by increasing the diameter of the lowest torus, so that its circumference became the dircumscribed cir- cle of the square plinth; or lastly by combinations of these | different modes of arrangement, as well as by hollowing out the angles. (Figs. 204, 205). If the diameter of the torus exceeded that of the plinth, the overhanging torus required support, which was furnished by a small corbel or an ornament, All these detail motives introduced into the forms of the base by mediaeval architecture, at least in part, may well be cloth- ed by the forms of the Renaissance. A peculiar treatment of t the bases of columns corresponding to the capitals composed of forms placed diagonally in combination with others, whose :chan- ges of section do not occur gradually, but suddenly, was a sr eat favorite in later mediaeval architecture and thereby :crea- ted a motive, which may be employed in many cases, very suita- ble for casting metal, iron architecture and wood carving. 5. Pedestal of the ‘column. Roman architecture and following it the Renaissance felt a natural necessity of introducing other features in addition to the normal ones of the orders, which should. be more perfectly, adapted to the treatmen: of buildings in several stories; if one desired to place one order above another, the great projec- tion of the lower entablature concealed the bases of the ‘colu- mns placed on it. Perhaps the windows that were introduced re- quired a fixed height of the wall between them and the cornice; to make the base of the column visible, it could be placed on a separate pedestal of the same height as the window sill (Pig. 206). But this with its cap must mow find room between the base and the top of the cornice in accordance with the tolerably normal proportions of the orders, which varied within ‘certain limits, the diameter of the column, its height, etc., were the dimensions fixed in advance, the scale of the upper story was entirely determinate, on which those of the lower stories were dependent with their heavier orders. This scale of the lower story made necessary the insertion of a pedestal under its ' dekoll allt ee eT eee | . awe | 1 safet snaod oved setntedto bfaow dotdw .anaeloo at jofeveb yew aint nk o1en elateobeg Yo emtot tei fv0eF ated od? .fteteb ni notfatebtenoco sifopes dordw. eshte i Yo tent @\r of C\S eqedieq of atnwome alateacheq seo i et? dfinw nagloo sat to tads E\I teode x0 ,yrode evi prettoqqva astdu ,feteshsq sft Yo dtbse1d sdt ‘eeed bas veve Ro sedt neds aeef down ad ton bloone .nmnloo eat to ) ved “gon ee estwiedso teeqqge bloow eidd sonte ,sesd eds to tes rq. bas ge ~8tb #8 to etetenoo [atesbeq to mtot tasiqute sit #70497" pyd stb sdf dtin bstoenaoo 9d ysu qao edt jeefd antdos, dn ot seoyreg oft of anibrosos .abnibldon dkt tenaas’ ‘Sen set or ne @2iw sonsbtocoos ni bas ,beyolfynue ei [etesbeq sat dor to8! Hanic y sd eatwodt! yan sib edt S08 ,sintostidors edt to seer ah nit ahs “ti (TOS .art) shydadas as yd seed say odin “eielta Se Yltottts etebx0 tiedd tqed atoteaw sonseetensi anal foo 1 Ned? to wfstuobex sd? oF emtot elqnte seent sve bne a tte .ott07 od? of ses fae geo belttorq yidots sion ,enay 109 has Ofnol edt of Hs¢stoceh semttemos esno i9dDk" Bit : SM) eletesbeq Steaslo to stnsbeceqg sit dtin sonebiosoe nt i been ceuttsmoe oxls sew Saidoen steregee a <( e808 . 20S « to sedmen fegroniiq sdt ef based. edt slot 6 BA oblong r¥ ee gedmeu notitensts od? aentiemoe ef etat dauodd .geo sheenaaiba to tent bas enidastenoD to fo18 sat no as (anor “pel fso- pb Sat tot Seenavnat ean [stesbeg to wiot Jeedotn sAT edhe tnot to nottentdmoo e@ yd heonbo1wg t9b10 streogno? mead: Teten07 & gated es [atiqes etieogme) edt d3nodtIaA «nat Dpeented esoneasttib [ettesess oat Ons .ey tot sonatroyar shane BIshx0) sttaoquo) hae nsidtnized efi Yo eetutsldacne B ASeke dotdw jelitneb be enoifl thom tod to sew sit af yoo Sot Wedory sis woTIOS oF Hlerts od tou Iisde sw .seeq3 ton et wn pod Sulav yne eved yadt asdw [etesbeq siiacqmo) sat To | bnete Saat tol eteaed & e& sonetioymt as saved eletesdoel tae7s ROVS beoelg et od ef Rniittemoa dotde no stnemenon nate etrozqgne to enmofoo smoced madd ysdT .anmulpo 10% el edt dtod netv Yo tatoq tedd mort das .tte edt ni stosido \enmnloo rot elstesbsg beyolgas eelyte soneeskensh baa of isd) (fede of .egso Brinwors bme esesd Adin mend bedatnrs't Riss 4) Ses ' tieeatr yi tremumom ® to [steebsg sent iebtenos wir eRe Pe i'y/' ms 4 i. c | a8 : ori idee ye) 7 SOUP 7. . «= » 7 4 hm eae" -Sideosayeeth eyawfs ei tedt ,bettoqque ytre 432 columns, which would otherwise have borne false proportions. Peculiar forms of pedestals were in this way developed for the orders,which require consideration in detail. The height of t these pedestals amounts to perhaps 1/9 to 1/5 that of the ent- ire story, or about 1/3 that of the column with its capital and base’ the breadth of the pedestal, which supports the base of the column, should not be much less than that of the plinth of the base, since this would appear otherwise as not suffici- ently supported, that is always disagreeable. | The simplest form of pedestal consists of a die, cap and pro- jecting base. the cap may be connected with the die by support- ing and transition mobldings, according to the purpose for ah- ich the pedestal is employed, and in accordance with the rich- ness of the architecture, and the die may likewise be connected with the base by an apbphyge (Fig. 207). The Renaissance masters kept their orders strictly separate, and gave these simple forms to the pedestals of the Tuscan ‘col- umns, more richly profiled cap and base to the Doric, still r richer ones sometimes decorated to the Ionic and Corinthian, in accordance with the precedents of classic pedestals (Figs. 208, 208a); a separate necking was also sometimes used as by Vignola. As a rule the band is the principal member of the cap, though this is sometimes the transition member (cyma, co- rona) as on the arch of Constantine and that of Severus. | The richest form of pedestal was invented-for the so-called Composite order produced by a combination of Ionic and Corinth- ian. Although the Composite capital as being a monster has no . importance for us, and the essestial differences between the entablatures of the Corinthian and Composite orders consist o only in the use of both modillions and dentils, which after all is not great, we shall irot be afraid to borrow the richer forms of the Composite pedestal when they have any value to us. (Fig. 209) Pedestals have an importance as a basis for free standing m monuments on which something is to be placed, evep greater than for calumns. They then become columns or supports bearing an object in the air, and from that point of view both the class- ic and Renaissance styles employed pedestals for columns, and furnished them with bases and crowning caps. We shall hereafter coasider the pedestal of a monument by itself. . | a M 5 : , © ot i Sorry + : i \ if , - ; vhe bon hes py ae ; wer US at hg bay m4 ee me | -betispst ets as dove ) toRxe aa svt of sidreaog yleor\cs ef Ff fads .enniat bikctuae gino sted [{sde sn arotsieds yroitqeonoo eat to are ddod .annplos tom ate dotan ettoggue [soitiev seond of OS ~aligx of betoennoo fine tensa dae oteas(D edt wt t9fq sat Yo taemtasrT .0 aria ~ we eet9b10 mpfoo~itin. nommoo mi ardt sved ayenls stutoetidots at eres? wr of sia nate. eft af baof @ droqqgue ot bebnetat ynied to sed? oT xe a annolos eiif. snot¢shbowot 247 of ermecetg ent simanest 00 to sesofat 24 .[sttqso boa enosde . seed Jefe ovnsd & sting paead a Boiwrct to mottonot ads sved soasd bas eletiqes samo ‘bas beol ent to seeds bse s9ig 97 to myot oft seswited nord vat feomfe ef a9hq edt Yo noitoes ony sonte dod soitahanot gen eltaich [avtoetidorn edt of sonsiste? dtin Semiot yldat Perekg eds to efatiges due sessed edt to noiternot ent ,ti es eberitilquie i dete eevainatiial yino yflerensy ston etebto oteeelo aAT h ofyte oto metoeD sdT .atety Hawogmoo 10 bedoadeh mi Mhirrnony tied bane oft0d s yi bedvoqqne evoads na asedg nom “Batane9 [feme s yd qot ts bedetntt bas (mnitenyo) eavasl ont : betosnncs esa (anibioom [(tseiwed) mektanyo edt garth Nhe yi yllanctigsoxe 10 .ebaad wet 4 to Qnftosn s yd iy to oases edt no es . (FS .arT) beed [ss0q #8 yd betsogque aay oeto19 siqmte s to betetenco saad sdT .enomedh te eieewel! ont anoiseottibom [fame .anibfwon saad bsatevex s to Avail 1 aslqmaxe wet edt at wooo ylinebive alesiqso seeds to anzot wor nt hg an et seao fenbivibar dose bar .gataien i» hy i 4 7 a. ae or 133 In massive arrangements of piers, such as are required by vaulted structures, especially in mediaeval churchzconstructi- on, the bases of clustered piers and columns should be treated as masSiv® base blocks, which with a gradual increase in width, distribute the pressure of the pier over the foundation. The offsets of the courses should te softened by any transition forms; the lower course could sometimes be shaped as a bench for a seat (Fig. 210); where such a seat is useful and justi- fiable, it affords the test means for giving the pedestal a broad base. 2. The Pier. Cenerally by the word pier are understood so many different things,that it is scarcely possible to give an exact definition of the conception; therefore we shall here only apply the term to those vertical supports which are not columns, both detached and connected to walls. “«. Treatment of the pier in the Classic and Renaissance Orders. Piers in architecture always have this in common with columns, that of being intended to support a load in the air, and to t transmit the pressure to the foundation; like columns they re- quire a base slab, base, abacus and capital. As inocase of col- umns, capitals and bases have the function of forming a transi- tion between the form of the pier and those of the load and the foundation; but since the section of the pier is almost invar- iably formed with reference to the architectual details nearest it, the formation of the bases and capitals of the piers is s simplified. The classic orders were generally only concerned with square detached or compound piers. The Grecian Doric style gave wall piers an abacus supported hy a Doric and half recurved row,'of ‘Yeaves (cymatium) and finished at top by a small crowning moul- ding; théescymatium (hawksbill moulding) was connected with the pier by a necking or a few bands, or exceptionally by an Ionic cyma supported by a pearl bead (Fig. 21.1), as on the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. The base consisted of a simple projecting plinth or a reversed base moulding. Small modifications in the forms of these capitals evidently occur in the few examples re- maining, and each individual case is designed in harmony with ye AWade sbnoot at tf dofdw af aniblted etttas ont n sonaae tensa sas to teht0 meneeT edt to eqao tery sat > bre nedoty eitieg wtlong iy ni #8 efamie ytsv ylivaq eve eee tnantmobe1g semoosd anthfyom nwors oft dade bolirt aetq otto edt befttow eelyse someertened bas nanod eit eke seed edt #tol ylfsosu tod ,ayen wslimre yrsv at sles ® to00: tn to dtin teatto ofgats & to beteteanco dotfixn ,elqute ee eantbfoom nottienstt ento -, xesimdglagal ont betaevnt teh10 ofmol nafoe1) sat patatenos eelgmexs snstiogmt teom edt ar aletiqeo atne mI[l edt no siqmst odt One anedtA te moeadtioes ext mil to siqmet sit te moslyqort sit ot redial :ecelg saree i offoqA to elqmet sft of en [Low en ,oneinetd ts estic® oen bne besd @ to tatenoo text? ont oot .eutolty Je setae esyode ditn eamyS ofmol as betteent siswn doftde cas ‘gan Rotioen eT .(fIS .gf%) beod Isasq & dtiw amyo ne It betersqea Bsn 9280 teatt sat ot bone ,eoveel afag yd edt sia gael ont edT .basd Inesq [lame e# yi Stee 5 of Pet OP RE aS .b20 eat fons) elatiqes yronso eee: oo eenoktarooes teiuons treat 26 fls9 88 mvtot thed? apie eaT syttopttae metoet) r0% tesieuntns Satis e saat edt Yo gett itl t9iq edt to sesd gat emrot ol yas tent gt ditw aotfoennoo at baw ,olfyte ornol nemok sal ge beb{oom yldotn as siety to alettaso edt atsant soaee Bietegsom:. feet oft mort somedesgeabhnat etsins saonfa atin of to_ante mon won tad¥. .eseifot yd beteatoosh [etiqao s ee B tevo ytinotiue eftsil o2 seessarog Ls1en93} at sisfostiioiw on Yo egntbiuon beqsed sacdt to 1sdmun ts913 4 Jant ,Jist “of wollot yflasen 810M 169 9 bne ,an of eoley sitar! evar edt etotast of antsy tassaorg, ont toot dotdw ,sonsreten gto: ‘tq pew tk eomedsoeh eexodn atin stgfostidors nemox to bis. " (SIS .8f%) botnteupoe aetdentso? netoeiD, ag? to elstizeo weiq to anoletsv ov? stung eqeo w6tq att .otnol sit Yo sean mt ef. 2a0-0% nwond ote peeresae {[ntttused ont. bos ecodsA ps2 ebnin sit to ssnot ont ! -djod zuutess? mort bos ateneli te [fea sonertne sad most ber. [3 .b10.do1k -Aowsl) .29703%% bas sherfot to anct#snoosh Lod natdtntsoD sdt yfao heyolqme ylfotn teonfs anemod sat ad a edd of betqebe een dotde segue andtnsos dtte fatiqao DY ‘ ed rf ate been eisfeam sonsesienss sit :296q sat to aoftose rslnd Gf ig Aneh Le, ah ; 7 i yu A a 134 the entire building in which it is found. The pier caps of the Tuscan order of the Renaissance masters are partly very simple as in Vignola, partly richer and so pro- filed that the crown moulding becomes predominant (Fig. 212). The Roman and Renaissance styles profiled the Doric pier capi- tals in very similar ways, but usually left the base entirely simple, which consisted of a single offset with or without a transition moulding. The Crecian Ionic order invented two characteristic forms of anta capitals in the most important examples remaining from t the Erechtheum at Athens and the temple on the Illiagsas at the same place; further in the Propyleum at the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, as well as in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus. The {two first consist of a bead and necking betw- een which were inserted an Ionic cyma with above this a lesbi- an cyma with a pearl bead (Fig. 213). The necking was decorated by palm leaves, and in the first case was separated from the shaft by a small pearl bead. The two last are the so-called c Canopy capitals (Mauch. Arch. Ord. Pls. 11, 12), but to approve their form as well as their unquiet decorations, one must be a blind enthusiast for Crecian antiquity. The Crecian Ionic s style forms the base of the pier like that of the column. The Roman Ionic style, and in connection with it the Renais- gance treats the capitals of piers as richly moulded abacuses, with almost entire independence from the Creek conception, or as a capital decorated by foliage. What now remains of Roman architecture in general possesses so little authority over de- tail, that a great number of these heaped mouldings of caps have little value to us, and we can more nearly follow the Re- naissance, which took the greatest pains to restore the ideal of Roman architecture with whose decadence it was principally acquainted (Fig. 214). | Two versions of pier capitals of the Crecian Corinthian style are known to us -as in case of the Ionic, the pier caps from t the tower of the winds at Athens and two beautiful capitals from the entrance hall at Bleusis and from Paestum; both have decorations of foliage and figures. (Mauch. Arch.Ord. Pls.13,15). The Romans almost wholly employed only the Corinthian bell capital with acanthus foliage, which was adapted to the rectan- gular section of the pier; the Renaissance masters used similar “Ed ‘4 i a a nA yan ys na ea, ; Awe =\ Ze we eet ots one ansroaie Beaty to! sesd ak elsttgass abbet *o ,an701 Syme? 10 Simol tiedt Yo saodd mort sl¥til ast tir doide tter0008 fasaeusato msdoitt @ Bnieseseog ak yltetdo ist ‘ a | -(3£8 ,2rS Vegtt) wsiel edd Yo saat odd 10 avsteeltq wobmtw es done evetq [feme to esend sat A at ot yiqate Stom sitsn ,esdotn Setgonso 1e90 beyolyjus seOnnsts OF Bnibicosa stusoatto-s soaszetensa haa xe miata siiteeoy ated? of beonhst stew aynthi[ptm edt ine ‘banttes pak Snamtast# sviteroseh edt ti brad eno eft ee ) bas (esnomd ,S6[dsam) been Ietietam edt dtte sonebio % asostine sat ~enagloo 10 atetq sf{tsrl sat to nine sts 76 d10w [Bensmento staot{sh yd batatooeb sien eset isfabaso [utsoats en botestt neve ston ananloo [lame 108 {Sonenpear mt yiletosqes bine eldartiten, ylorittns et Gti occas sexes to S18 sicsoetidorws tonta dove to eatct eugene weitate bas eseobsie7% ,1eqgoty sinsmunom to notfieoy Gpseqesg sassSetidow 16 niasod edt of betelet stntintn to 08 baad Sefic ed? no eiton die nt .swotinmwt [sotoa es [lov ettt eae SeGtacotd? bentetes yelmrtt slqiontty edt st anthes nto ftdows ar Tasrayt ett ylno [anensa nk ,moteagserh Bat hoa rapir: gmrot’fteisbh adi sliiiv .&ninsem eseasacoy Resins se b Coreg, tm ( ae As de, eeelorica tento Bae stytroarst “edt of amkbtooor e1eiq baooqmoo te norfemto7 .% 10 aabor Yo eotrse @ \tortetnt ne Yo sely ant of QnibroodA “bsqrotet od Yen doraiw ,tineet aretq to eqvoty gatutct [8 to qoor3 s mict ewig esom to ont .f -!sevitom bnv0td u Yo efmamats to qooik s mrot ysdt .S stdkled Laups ‘te gti Saiwolfot edt eeeso dtod nl .(\fS .3r%) tasted ‘foes sbhiresd Bbneta etsy ond .2& ~:sottoetg ni Alveer Bsns itin ofgae Sentdo so etuce ,tdhit « sdem ersts ont + aH900 eusitotg seedT .quo1a 8 saoqmod a1siq [ateves .> fates [etatl Ons te0q at ,etoristek ar ea [fon ee esd Stantansdst to yootR # ak Pefosansco e1t4 ersiq Istevee tI | bas [atiqes etatagee esf settgpe wentte.sno doss ,d03h phetts sori {fen edd most Bedosteb ed medt ysm ateiq sid bee 6 “elssiqes sit to ¢nemgolsvsb ssxt sdt wot soeqe tnatorttue asad ‘ot bebbs ed cefs yem enoede Hae dtatiy nommoo s 2986¢ vee ' 7 a i104 ‘edt Of Sntbaoqest109 ,#nortsets tent? 2 bar nor eMotvouttenos 135 forms, or impost capitals in case of piers supporting arches, which differ little from those of their Ionic or Composite or- der, chiefly in possessing a richer ornamental decoration than that of the latter (Figs. 215, 216). The bases of small piers such as window pilasters or those employed near canopied niches, were more simply formed in Rom- an and Renaissance 7rc"itecture according to cirmucstances, a and the mouldings were reduced to their possible minimum, or on the one hand if the decorative treatment was refined in ac- cordance with the material used (marble, bronze) and the posi- tion of the little piers or columns, the surfaces of the pilas- ters were decorated by delicate ornamental work or inlaid work, small columns were even treated as graceful candelabra, which is entirely justifiable and especially in decorative works.The forms of such minor architecture are of importance in the com- position of monuments proper, reredoses and similar articles of furniture related to the domain of architecture proper, as nell as actual furniture. In art works on the other hand, acc- ording to the principle firmly retained throughout our entire discussion, in general only the typical in architecturel forms possesses meaning, while the detail'‘forms require transformat- ion and a finer treatment, corresponding to the purpose of the furniture and other articles. } 8. Formation of compound piers according to the classic plan. According to the plan of an interior, a series of modes of forming groups of piers result, which may be referred to a fen ground motives:- 1, two or more piers form a group of elements of equal height; 2, they form a group of elements of unequal height (Fig. 21/). In both cases the following ground motives result in practice:- 3, two piers stand beside each other; b, two piers make a right, acute or obtuse angle with each other; c, several piers compose a group. These problems occur on faca- des as well as in interiors, in post and lintel as in arched construction. If several piers are connected in a group of determinate he- ight, each one.either requires its separate capital and base, and the piers may then be detached from the wall, which affords sufficient space for the free development of the capitals and bases, a common plinth and abacus may also be added to these; a 8 aro bas tsisezo% wo13 asasd bas elaetiqas edt 10 t 19 tneitnset foiiw at ,easd basoqmoo 8 tne fetrqao p LL ot etnemanto notdianetd sitepst semitemos aolyne oh bas .sfodn # entot yilast qwows sat tadd o@ .eald oi . motisnidmos [anietxe ms se y{sxem 1897 918 tod .19go1g yino don 918 enoitoennoo sersvansiT 19 brtdd ano tuods te etsiq bevoqmon ni-sesso Yew ni yt g¢ sentoz0t bnod ylieqoiq of t9b10 ni, tdgted aftedt ties 5 | [atevee to bezogmos doses ,scete to aseiuoo taste? & baod 2 s1sdiw eteta fotad to eant yllerosgqes ei ype teontt edt to en0 .ylisnotesooo betisani poms) ont to tugoD eft to ealans edt ta bavot af enoifosancos jisd, fautenc to 918 quo13 8 to aisig edt tI .emod ts site! Wig 8d¢ to eeasd bas elstiqes sdt ,e{dtesog smosed eased ond P(e. SIS. .giF) wsdto edt basois, Onetxe nottq0] ghitos inteze eff moktt0q gntheoe1 sit to esesd Sas aqso asiq ] jeto1q edt bus geo edt to anottooio1g sat .s noitosiord atblu m edt to gaterh aidt tedz?. .bezns11a o@ sd tenn t9iq odd | sekg senol eit to. aso sdf somte .(OLS .3i7) efdterog at 0 a8 edt .On0 gnitoeto1g eft to biloe edt mtatin bebolons sd te 2tm0: 8 een a9tq edt dguoids yloriias Onetxe yamgtomict oad rt @fp2 .bred 2 88. nottr0g aattoe,ory edt intissad ,snove -geio1d od yem 2 euntbfrom xsvol sat 70 ute la atamet cen ie bnitostowy dteome s aaityoqges ,19tq Lertnso ods » egaidicon teqqu sat 70 “orb ekatbi[uom teqga ent doide 2 sat taniegeperd geno tenol edt ufne bas dyvod?t one . _ nsiond adiyem aorbloom gso stitas sat yltes{ 10 ;19er9 estat te Snco* sus. eletiges tI .(OS Bi) 8iq lfeitnae> ond it e129 eis? bInofe eno .seiq bawoqmoo & ni atdgred gnarsti rh So Yo moitosjowg ed? tenteys asib isig msx0l edt to aso, oft _# of baoyee7702 dof4a eeatuco adt Sna (ISS .3f%) eno tasagid. ddoome 26 1919 nadatd edt Ase td yao biaoo efatiaso sesas prom dostts ne sved Slow tnessanst1e teito yns yees8o aidd of wer? euntdteteth eee! to | Baiyquooe to egatnsvbssib odd senso yeu etetg Hasogne? ent Baiishoid to. bas ,netv edt gnittouwsdo as [fen as sosge yam ersitg stetages scqT .moor odd ofni JdRil Yo egeeasg > eidT .(s VIS .BIT) enmafoo yt beoslqet J1eq oi 92 otc {Iftx sd tedtedw ebtosb teart teom eno yeottivorttib yaer eae De " ‘ >< j i : A al na re one 136 or the capitals and bases grow together and form a compound c capital anf a compound base, in which reentrant or projecting angles sometimes require transition ornaments to fill the an- gles, so that the sroup really forms a whole, and does not ap- pear merely as an external combination. Transverse connections are not only proper, but are necessa-—- ry in many cases in compound piers at about one third or one | half their height, in order to properly bond together the dif- ferent courses of stone, each composed of several pieces; this is especially true of brick piers where a bond stone must be inserted occasionally. One of the finest examples of transverse connections is found at the angles of the court of the Cancel- laria at Rome. If the piers of a group are of unejual height, two cases become possible, the capitals and bases of the proj- ectifg portion extend around the other (Fig. 218 a); or the pier caps and bases of the receding portion die against the p projection a. The projections of the cap and the projection of the pier must be so arranged, that this dieing of the mouldings is possible (Fig. 219). Since the cap of the lower pier must be included within the solid of the projecting one, the cap of the formersmay extend entirely through the pier as a course of stone, breakink the projecting portion as a band. But this band man remain plain; or the lower mouldings may be broken around the central pier, supporting a smooth projecting band, against which the upper mouldings die; or the upper mouldings may ext- end through and only the lower ones die: against the central pier; or lastly the entire cap moulding may be broken around the central pier (Fig. 220). If capitals are found at three different heights in a compound pier, one should take care that the cap of the lower pier dies against the projection of the highest one (Fig. 221), and the courses #Hich correspond to t these capitals could only break the higher pier as smooth bands in this case; any other arrangement would have an effect more or less disturbing. Compound piers may cause the disadvantage of occupying more space as well as obstructing the view, and of hindering the passage of light into the room. The separate piers may theref- ore be in part replaced by columns (Fig. 217 a). This causes many difficulties; one must first decide whether he will strictly at " “ ; , ‘ a ice ver. ‘eine ng foo edd ‘Qnitsbtanco to steibaay, eat of stedbe as “tied. ted18p age th antyolqns teven s1otersad ,dtae PSE TT .bean sd [fade ssodt qedtede tw .amplos tas4s0p ho ppS% seven tedd .atsiq tot enmblon otutitedss of bebt x 1atto% exerts. ak sno ,fthin of fdbited to ois bat? eseutet ed tt bne .setbeh mtetreo 8 of anoktio3019 med elstesisq intoely vd $nedneqebat tated to ofdat seeqqe [ftw anwn loo ede ten? "1990 yen Jf .ennoloo 97 Zon 18iy sd? to tebateawet edt dttw noetrasyHod ai e 19h Havojmoo sat nt etd3ted Seowsttrh YI .ennplos m nmufoo 6d? to nokirogo1g 3stfone .tnmoooe ofni nstbt fomaen & ntetio of sfootttibh yrav of Bloow ti bnew badtee t Bioeqes fad? asttfookttib reife bas eesdT wetter [Ie eve dad bedatntmrs of dom Lftw toktsottenos dowsdo at “he for anthtoo08 bemtot ,enmgfoo tisd to seq sit yd boss yinosme ys [fa medt brows yfnc naogeno bane ,lebom. o6e (deta edd antnedtanetfe baer avebto oteaelo sat mort Yise Pnebneqebat ylerttne evs Wothe jenottostorg isfeosisk 381s isis abis bebrvery ema bre anctiacgots stesels + ba st at qen edt at .(SSS .SF%) se2o does 10% bsaogmoD at foe Laventben ag Dayolyns ersty Yo notteanto? Yo shor tes ont ct moged sex dotdn Yo yonsbas? eno ,noldonrte y iFneaqzoloveb sadttet une bevisoes teven dae autod to Yo Safi e dghoodtle ,seeet tneteateanoo s of tdhoomd Matt most Bevomet wat a4 af dotdn ,ff ni bedaers ssn 99 Setters {ayestber to tedt¢ wort ws oteasfo sit to nore nfaveb ett Yo Seady ersitxe geom sat oidtod mort 409 one ‘fsvesthem edd of Gnibdtoose etety Sasoqmo) .y bv [evesthen to meldo1g sd? vod eselts noitesup sat Pisisr: edd Yc tasmésens « yd bevios ed yan notfourteccs Ot edd to .bentase1 od ot ydtron et tevedadn diefor yam Seetensd edt to tintye sat mt fae emntoes tdsia steselo oe o8 \etsbr0 2feeslo sit to inisitee: sit mort beant ef doide fd 10% asR20q Tay Ytettees won fonnso esiu1 aieds e& tet Biot Of sosqe & to Seno fetensy sat stsT .bsbredat fon siex pe yw beteves od of esfy ef¢ to ysd doss 279f] yd beb 5 trom w9t7 oft teat noittbnos neddant eat atin Jigav Wiis Yo eetote han edie edt .ofdteeoq we soege oltttl ee Ns osvustt ton base “ateoqmt Sat te ofeneqes yfertsas 4d ot 137 adhere to the principle of considering the column only as 4 unit, therefore never employing it asa quarter, half or three quarter column, nr whether these shall be used. If it is dec- ided to substitute columns for piers, that never require a fixed ratio of heidht to width, one is always fettered by proportions to a certain degree, and if he refuses to make the ratio of height independent by placing pedestals beneath the columns, it may ofcur that the columns will appear too slender in comparison with the remainder of the pier not replaced by columns. If different heights in the compound pier are to be taken into account, another proportion of the column must be suited, and it would be very difficult to obtain a harmony of all parts. These and other difficulties that especially occur in church construction, will not be diminished but even incre- ased by the use of half columns, formed according to the clas- séc model, and onencan only avoid them all by emaocipating hin- self from the classic orders and strengthening the pier by sen- icircular projections, which are entirely independent of all classic proportions and are provided with capitals especially composed for each case (Fig. 222). In this way is found the mode of formation of piers employed in mediaeval vaulted con- struction, one tendency of which was begun in the cathedral of Autun and never received any farther development, or was brought to a consistent issue, although a kind of Renaissan- ce was created in it, which is as far removed from the coer- cion of the classic as from that of mediaeval architecture, or from Cothic, the most extreme phase of its development. y. Compound fiers atcording to the mediaeval plan. The question arises how the problem of mediaeval vaulted construction may be solved by a treatment of the piers, that may retain whatever is worthy to be retained, of the forms of classic architecture and in the spirit of the Renaissance, but which is freed from the restraint of the classic orders, so f far as their rules cannot now satisfy purposes for which they were not intended. Take the general case of a space to be divi- ded by piers, each bay of the plan to be covered by a groin vault, with the further condition that the pier must occupy as little space as possible, the ribs and arches of the vaults to be entirely separate at the imposts and not intersecting; ¢ 1 § 91g tafuottoines yi Bedows ebte add Juoqque 30 tk igiceed? tk medt .aeel od ton [ftw ersiq sat to dthtw lagos @ Digow edit ent Yo atroqqwe sdf, relugnstoes s1e% enotics | aw. pacotney Th adit ett of nottrogory nt svtasean ood 18 ids nonodt binow edit bobfnon sit tot ,yllsnoyeib bovetv ne deet oot eden nao se stetsted? .19iq Batdrogque eis to 4 meet soba bagot baa sedors shtea sdt wsbsw t2f[oanatos7 + ans of stot nt betfi{s etnomegoeise Baintetdo yaotedt 20 enwot> edt sxem ox ti ylrbes1 stor sii ,sifyte ao ib eoxtopes dotdw ,atdyied [aupe yletentzorgys te ex sad? .attoqque edt to atntoy snkanizge edt tot ata etetaelta otaesio of ylisliniea betsert od bluoda sa98elg btsnoo tom sien edits sdt anitioqggus etsiq tsluoviormss OTs anottrogeg stedt sonte ,enusfoo sieeslo gaied a nkenss bas ets yedt ;enmaloo to. seodt sort taahnsyqsiat were hntiizte odt een of ,stitede Ratiinaev 10 aserg Be: | eesge efbbin sat @fn ni‘ betestiai esved of ered gasfortian scan ai J] tof betife sno ot betqsbe s¢ yam st9ig to wtot I[aveaibos od eosly ad? ton ef atdt ‘yleeisvmoo base eaqyt fpege wee odd to tnemteett edt Zanitnteonom enoktasnp stanaqee Mevecds pnottourterccs bet fapv Igvesiben sort etivess etd baxt yitase [Irn atuioetinows Levostbem shastereb ibem aveqmoo of ,s19m nmoveh af tadw atin sonesbi000s ‘ylon ersdT .1eiq sit Sottest? to asbor sonaseraned to noitoee edt Anioubet to mefdorwg 90% noisetsbren0o toantedo fon bas eosqe ofdteaog tesxal sit yquooe of eane' ged .bsolf ett to noftosa ent setter to ,18ig oat II fquie #8 yd booelgor ed yen tt ,gox8 ont Suods yllsotrtewuye Rs oF es|bemrot og ed I[esiqeo est Yi .eaafoo Lsottbartyo mane edt + sfo1e stersgee fse9 tot Jtogane isge1g & eateq 6 od yen ttogque edt .etxea sl inte 8 toode ylno et har 'qo023 8 to tafenco. ysa 10 ,amteloo befqaoo Isupens. 19 ¢ a ) dotdn nt ,(SSS .283) sennetamvorts of yntbroopes 2mm Loo t oan Tih yrev aii ti eesao feom ar jant ,bstedmeme1 9d Jenn tt Dee i . ot fenottsojo1g 990 10 (stoeaetg mroting « timanass of iad: pibenenes tant bose ,enuoloo gmetsttib edd to seers [sncit Oyitdgile ynied tedto sft ,beol edt sta07qoe ylleen nanloo sno for od of estupss tsdtien eisl{iq bavod [ie te ton, 10 bebeol 138 ; if «e support the side arches by semicircular projections, the total width of the piers will not be less, than if these proj- ections were rectangular; the supports of the ribs would appe- ar too massive in proportion to the ribs if rectangular, ahen viewed diagonally, for the moulded ribs would then recede back of the supporting pier. Therefore we can make the projections rectangular under the side arches and round under the ribs, thereby obtaining arrangements allied in form to the transiti- on style, the more readily if we make the crowns of the arches of approximately equal heights, which requires different heig- hts for the springing points of the supports. The rectangular pier should be treated similarly to classic pilasters, but the semicircular piers supporting the ribs are not considered as being classic columns, since their proportions are entirely independent from those of columns; they are and remain round piers or vaulting shafts, to use the striking expression of the middle ages. It is here sufficient here to have indicated in what way the mediaeval form of pier may be adapted to one allied to the cl- assci type and conversely: this is not the place to go onto separate questions concerning the treatment of the pier, which results from mediaeval vaulted construction; whoever fully un- derstands mediaeval architecture will easily find his way in accordance with what is given here, to compare mediaeval and Renaissance modes of treating the pier. There only remains for consideration the problem of reducing the section of the pier to occupy the least possible space and not obstruct the light. If the pier, or rather the section of its load, be arranged symmetrically about two axes, it may be replaced by a simple cylindrical column, if its capital be so formed:as to afford a proper support for each separate arch. If the symmetry exis- ts only about a sinjle axis, the support may be a pair of equal or unequal coupled columns, or may consist of a group of round columns, according to circumstances (Fig. 224), in which case it must be remembered, that in most cases it is very diffitult to transmit a uniform pressure. or one proportional to the sec- tional areas of the different columns, and that generaaly but one column really supports the load, the other being slightly loaded or not at all. Round pillars neither require to be swelted, REL ives edt nt anaoloo ton e142 yedt de dbete rt fon ,bederntor Pp tedde2.e1s tod ,xnottrogory bextt to enmaloo Ageesto: to qito emrot [fe mI .sege of yer eno tt ,eeeeam [lew rele Dita setone: ebia of¢ ¢adt hemoasze svad ex ,stototersd batio vet e edt tant of .fetiqeo edt ovods betereqer ste adit | toea dit 5aa dorm to beraqgmeo ton ef Aoold teaogat edt te noitoer eft to mottoahst sdaT .19dto dose arkteoared t ogmt edt to mottemvot edt mo ebasgeb montnim ett of re , bsyolime elainetaw edd to dtgnette sid anttoslzen ewig eliay .19h9 edd no baol anidewiwo tosnaries sat base # antssuosnota to soetq xefqnoo bone henttes 4s anitusere . | Ubteessoeayeten sedowsibas adty edt .bootanshan fey to isetz edd to qso teogmt edt evode sedto dose mont fd wolle of wod ,nvood’ omsoed tertt tk boiasg ofdso? esol eat exigpess of .ebas tswol tisdt te toenteteai of 880g ommoed eeeso somds natlT .troqqee stiadt no sete ce screcdhane edt1 etd to efnkog tetso oneatxe odd 127 eit safe 10 sedote oft to .tHta edd Yo eiue ont mont sae a... s(2SS .QFF) arednaa tedto oct nent onom Sstoaiorg boned poexs bas sonsteeqje ajod nk tnomeynerts teolamte aa? B seoqsi eit svodm etinu e¢dore bas edty edd dotin nt sedd ois dt ewnote Motdw' (ASS: ar) teogmt Lanozeloq 8 wict 9dt ond? vofleme ace efit sot YI wmorknts eth of beander )sonte bas .2 aobte [saps ylatenretis asd neayloy eat cRe 8 fg007%.8 wort Pigc01 62 of et deoqnt anit avode anodse aed edt Go0u Of eliareteag ‘ei’tt Letistan evee ot ,doo#ld seenoy tettt edt boa seoqmt dt neawied smote to asercon cone o¢ bae .aldieeoq ee [fame ee nefove bas edér ont on aaa fedt ,29hg edt Yo atxe add mort Ist of tostota sod ' to b od © eteupe veggn edt [itt elstelgaos yan aro 2485 ed? sano etdt at :(TSSecQrtd d 4 2 9 b ood watvold iP eved of barkesd et ti TI .etacoes sd [fiw tatq end Yo 1B 9nd sombst of ,aidtesog wa sitttt ee tostorg sedow ene » suBape B&B mott yetage bleode yadt .somtatn etolorda add of Mit qofeveb qietersqee of detw ow Tf tot : (888 REV mt ee fete p Iettqes ent to auoeds sat adit odd ying gatoubet ,aadote + 3o ef1eq tnrteth teon ont soely of .(QS% .2f7) steve od o18 oat to seed? nadt a9tq edt ‘to etxe edt wott asddtet ecrs =a edt nedy sass sdt amtategrot ton ;foeti0oni 93 bloor 139 diminished, nor fluted, as they are not columns in the sense of classé columns of fixed proportions, but are rather circ- ular wall masses, if one may so speak. In all forms of piers cited heretofore, we have assumed that the side arches and ribs are separated above the capital, so that the section of the impost block is not composed of arch and rib sections in- tersceting each other. The reduction of the section of the pi- er to its minimum depends on the formation of the impost stone, neglecting the strength of the materials employed for the ‘pier, and the permanent crushing load on the pier. While the mode of executing a refined and complex piece of stonecutting was not yet understood, the ribs and arches were necessarily separated from each other above the impost cap of the pier, in the best Cothic period it first became known, how to allow the arches to intersect at their lower ends, to require the least possible area on their support. Then three cases became posseble, either the extreme outer points of the ribs and arches were equidist- ant from the axis of the pier, or the arches or else the ribs” projected more than the other members (Fig. 225). The simplest arrangement in both appearance and execution is that in which the ribs and arches unite above the impost and form a polygonal impost (Fig. 226), which shows the section b reduced to its minimum. If the ribs are smaller than the arch- es, the polygon has alternately equal sides c, and since each stone above the impost is to be wrought from a rough square block, to save material it is preferable to keep the number of courses of stone between the impost and the first voussoirs of the ribs and arches as small as possible, and to allow the ribs ho project so far from the axis of the pier, that their secti- ons may completely fill the upper square 4 becdof the rough block atcdef gh 6Figse227); in this case the cap stone of the pier will be square. If it is desired to have the ribs and arches project as little as possible, to reduce the support to the absolute minimam, they should spring from a square cap- ital as in Fig. 228); but if we wish to separately develop the arches, reducing only the ribs, the abacus of the capital might be square (Fig. 229). To place the most distant parts of the ribs farther from the axis of the pier than those of the arches, mould be incorrect; not forgetting the case when the ribs and t OEt ; f boe etaoqut to etdgied feups bow cibsy feaps sved esdore 99 Hesfuay to miot taifooey A wnelq etenpe sno tfoav 6 ot “Rid Yiev Atiw beqofsved sd meds bloow nottood # teds elettqad yattostoiq yiynoites ons beqede~eacts valid ffame no beoslq 9d of ena yods Th afsdtco ee hetasad prenote fas noxt bexin 0%. eldatine ote anottouytenos dove P a?! noltourte eben ) .no1l to book ,snosk to getatealdsia® .F 98 . eeetnsesiiatas to tasmtessT . 9 B’boon to amesd gninrson09 atnfog snattogni teon sat > to trettestt edt atin mottosnnes nt beteate nesd ever ‘Ot Sonstetsy [atoeqe dite mevih need sven saadt sey 6 edt mo eeiotsidetne to tnsmqolevsh sat of eae! fasltq to aamafoo asdtis .etroygae tosnnoo of Ynivisce qomq at aeseotont setatelcetrs to yttotqa. Snivesd eat ott t#toqory foevrh ak bose adfqeb atsedt to stavpe end of bad ecotietascloorsdot te eo#ge oft smwend [[5n ee ,adtber ets b tod ,etufsidatne sit te wets [snottoee edt no abneg rete _ pee aeotte setovenstt at eonetetest ati no yitsido bevolyne efqnie & a8 Svarttdors sat Hstesasd seiyte oresal? Sond Yo Becoqnco ean si to .(O8S .527) miQrem Sattoagorg & f ‘a yd beaword bas tedto doas mo Anty! eserg00 seant it ‘Yo etasasznaetws ister ys hagaxaqer sifted geese ed? St Sveti tions a2 to ebtaisbay eff .eamyo telleme.10 abesd prtettey baad betnteq yd hetaioosb ese fae dtooma bs feneq ance yd bsénemento yifareranh sew tf aaarbl isd nanos fat Bas (83 IT 590 JdowAk dowel!) (LES .yrt) ebaad totes y Se Vabssd freq bas xenys ys beaolons y{nonnes ynted ret | ‘ rf oot botesqae Svertanoie |¢ to shia tanof eat YZ baed fetnenento to Sebives e yd betaicoeb aan satrss peadidote sot asciW .(SES .ALT) sevled owt mi bsbivih o# arr mo edt ,sbiea yq shie hsoafy sanead oxt to beeoqsoo ser ainisien’ to Unve elamte e yi batatooeS od Sluoo- foes to ia efleotasennye hbebmarve ed blaico exntxnte bebf[pom sesdt re ‘toa 3 ‘(ERE BET) snot: Iattnso: ett oat debaetu® ovitesadxe dtiw betsent need sven emasd neboc’ eee O fi bie ,egntlres to nofttoaxteqod edt to notdstehtaroo ont p dotiw .ershris to emaed baneprt sottnen yltetad of entamon 140 arches have equal radii and equal heights of imposts and crowns in a vault on a square plan. A peculiar form of vaulted const- ruction would then be developed with very high sections of ribs, cross-shaped and strongly projecting capitals that should be treated as corbels if they are to be placed on small supports; such constructions are suitable for mixed iron and stone con- struction. : 3. Entablatures of Stone, Wood or Iron. a. Treatment of entablatures. The most important points concerning beams of wood and stone have been stated in connection with the treatment of ceilings, yet these have been given with special reference to interiors, less to the development of entablatures on the exterior and s serving to connect supports, either columns or pilasters. The bearing capicity of entablatures increases in proportion to the square of their depths and in direct proportion to their widths, as well knewn; the sgans of intercolumniations then de- pends on the sectional area of the entablature, but evidently chiefly on its resistance to transverse stress for the material employed. Classic styles treated the architrave as a simple beam with a projecting margin (Fig. 230), or it #as composed of two or three courses lying on each other and crowned by a cymatium, the courses being separated by richer arrangements of pearl b beads or smaller cymas. The underside of the architrave remain- ed smooth and was decorated by painted band patterns, but in Roman buildings it was generally ornamented by sunk panels or by relief bands (Fig. 231) (Mauch, Arch. Ord. Pl. 62), the lat- ter being commonly enclosed by cymas and pearl beads. tf the loner side of the archatrave appeared too broad, its centre was decorated by a moulded or ornamental band, and it was so Givided in two halves (Fig. 232). When the architrave was composed of two beams placed side py side, the under edge of each could be decorated by a simple sunk or ornamental panel, or these moulded sinkings could be arranged symmetrically about the central joint (Fig. 233). Yooden beams have been treated with exhaustive fullness in the consideration of the construction of ceilings, and it only remains to briefly mention trussed beams or girders, which play ? SS eee Y J ee | ’ v i Jee. to 19dtedn: WAR dates szbtad nkidvisy. tnatioqas as 19tq yd betroqque atSbr1ty ro ,motensqeoe ,siottal nowt [ bas aeqqn Saitesd edt tadt ,efdt nt etetenos staden » ~oen 916 bra ,etedmem Sotnettita. yi betoennos oie ened EI elon efdixeltnt me asmooed wabits edt sed? .aditsz04 mort boe nmeboor sldteiv to bisa ean tent e801) cor. nr9h tz to noitouttencs sat of eetlgqs stotsisdt nottonite 19 go nedt (wel Intensy Hsseeqe1 yltaenpett oft ylleroeges ofdnigs otnotost eft .sisoe ekasi s ao mottoutsenco 3nizes eisel> bne taenteéy edt ak tigcoe sd ot af meldorq edd aP sal tase to gnomteo1t yrdtleq edt nk ton boa ,nortount 'betoetieg ¢ to sonetesgqzs [entstxe snd to nortrego | legs tnat¢oqat etom et ,sldenoleav yilsotsedtes Anread ne ‘ edt gakievoo yd nolttontsenco sit [se9n09 of t4mot 943 aI .ebtsed 10 {gtem nett ni anotteioseb yd sao? ee nedoqa ybsorls eved on nokeeaseth sittas edé to moo yea fads esitineifivoeg [atenay sit to ,banstto mW To: ao1t to eerbiad to nokttouttenoo sdt nk soiterehLe t ond Yo bkea advot aniemet wen batdéyns ylsotace Jens foes? rated ea bebiexes 9d bloods ysds yenrebiiy odd to els nottsnimaxe evieoe1 cent [fin doidn .etraqg ahedt ‘"edt0 dtin gotiosanoo ar bas eelqtoniag of gaortaiey isb10 Sieaelo sds dein noitosnnos mt oxuteldatad .9 fok 64 Yo kkobtsoge19 ett bamad sivtoetidote oteasi2 to ~sieea th sewol odd no edaysed Tiedd Oboe enottein aef 10 S100 e7sn gedt enordiogosg fewton nfetieo baxrt Oae He tod sesesoy ylsnebive aso soistes Iamton sows .gntbatd pasqju edt nestited aslo edt at sonstetbh sd? 10%. ,eulev everwtidors edt Yo naqye [sstoe edt t9dder 10 ,annnloo edd Bisyenes? of (sirstem ett to sonstetae1 sft a6 ebnayeb yLte pedeot annalos edt Bettepst enofe hbarstoet? ylrlead .anett Weert bestinzey snote s3n0t yrattaon edt no bas ,ylesels q famton Sed enmofoo cieeslo sid soata .ylabin heoeqe a6 bIlyod tebhb10. ob260,. sad ,setash aist799 & OF I4Qées ‘to powisn sved taum tod .wol ti anoftstnmelooisdat ebiw ylsvit “eldevolls sxeitxo edt tt tot ;eanoloo [[at ywrav atin Bt asao to tdgted eit ,.f% OS Soode te bextt ef maed omdte s to n2gP { ntetrzs9. ntdtin y{no mage aidt no Sneaqebh bloow sebt0e adt afe doodtin sgnedo tdyka webhto etitme sat to tefoe1sdo eit baer 141 an important part‘in bridge construction; whether of wood or iron, lattcie, suspension, or girders supported by piers, their nature consists in this, that the bearing upper and lower men- bers are connected by stiffening members, and are so fastened together, that the girder becomes an inflexible whole like a roof truss. What was said of visible wooden and iron roof con- struction therefore applies to the construction of girders, but especially the frequently repeated general law, than in engin- eering construction on a large scale, the tectonic solution of the problem is to be sought in the paainest and clearest cons- truction, and not in the paltry treatment of details. The rec- ognition of the external appearance of a perfected construction, as being esthetically valuable, is more important than any at- tempt to conceal the construction by covering the structural forms by decorations in thisn metal or boards. In the course of the entire discussion, we have already spoken as occasion offered, of the general peculiarities that may come into con- Sideration in the construction of bridges of iron or wood, 80 that scarcely anything new remains to be said of the treatment of the girders; they should be regarded as being resolved into their parts, mahich will then receive examination elsewhere in relation to principles and in connection with other things. 8, Entablature in connection with the classic orders. Classic architecture based the proportions of the intercolun- niations and their heights on the lower diameter of the columns, ana fixed certain normal proportions that were more or less b binding. Such normal ratios can evidently possess but a limited value; for the distance in the clear between the upper ends of the calumns, or rather the actual span of the architrave, chi- efly depends on the resistance of its material to transverse stress. Rasily fractured stone required the columns to be set closely, and on the contrary tough stone permitted them to be spaced widely. Since the classic columns had normal proportions of height to a certain degree, the Doric order could have rela- tively wide intercolumniations if low, but must have narrow o ones if with very tall colunms; for if the extreme allowable span of a stone beam is fixed at about 20 ft., the height of the order would depend on this span only within certain limits, and the character of the entire order might change without al- ¥ £ diam 44 : Hi od A . isn ah ae ye reat is Vie? 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'e.E) .quexs tedscaa’ G» & q ro § Fi in nh 9 a : pt Mae Sh Lt AesGs OV Ee Ese soe Ges oy. 94700) men08 y BRE SAS) eee Cds GQ e\Sy fy Co oteol nanos be REy GrS\ 24S xbyor des a& a S\f Q .déatt0d narod oe ntemehs anttiate sviz y{no enoitrogoty saedT ott ne S60 yfseofo oot foromgqs of ton ae o8 .ysn Latene2 e gnottaoqo1g $003 th asees Isuen mt beheeoxs ed gon gan adide dig. of af svattifiots edt tI .bsifiesb s1x8 ersb10 add to bidton edt iasdsetR ed ysm enege edt (2ES 2217) esdors yt ¢ to enottiogosq [emt0n 3ntwollot sat sevin paenatane ee ee ® H PGR: EXSe Bes Ged as aT asbs0 ascent eee GL ABN Gar ec IME Lt Ge\t f. .quaxe r9dsons ay wigs B a Okwaekt\saaaie sz 0:8) otsad maak mh ea SAPS q:if Ga qa\e xz he okmol raaok ayes & OPA de SBiwOe S\aid: @S\23 1.0L .dtnaiaod rawod to #34 MT gnitsel ((BES .ReT) efstecbeg atte enebro 107 | asim SUS enti ee “aL 28 to .togied [stot = “EH jomolpo to tagrom HH pLatnobeg jatwolfot sft sevtg dcod emss. oft .sicted #8 Raintensy nod 2h | -peso atds 102 enotixogoertg [seston bee a hae dete Sey eng q | Bete © ae asia apler ast AT OE\E Sf bt0. Loot Ek od S\tSGe\ed OMe babhetr 4 S.0 gS\IS:\ .xe.dsons ca GQse-e |@WaslreS apresr 498 a ElSS , oft0d.w08 SOS Gee GET as\s fr asleat cEl\tery GELE ophotwot Wad GARNER Whe AS ae\eer- Gor are 209 .g08 ‘a poatiad aebri3 ot esverticore bas eretg to deemegnet2A wy a Si 4 ~~ a 7 144 altering the actual span of the architrave. Ionic and forinthian orders as well as those with pedestals, always appear to have relatively narrow intercolumniations, Since their height is great in proportion to the lower diamet— ers of the columns. An old French edition of Vignola’s Orders gives the following practical proportions, which may properly be taken as normal:- Let D (Fig. 234) = lower diameter and H = height of the col- umn; w, W., #” = distances between their axes; H’ = total height with architrave, frieze and cornice; then approximately; H a Ww” a” = Tuscan order, 7D 1250D 3D AD 9D Another examp. 7.5 D 292/3°D 13 1/30Div4o4/20D 2900 /Bap Roman Doric 8D 24D 31/3 D 41/2.D 9°3/4D Roman Ionic 9D 1°2/8 De .4.D 5°2/2°D *14 D Roman Corinth. 9 1/2 D 2D 4D 5 1/2.D.«11°1/2.D These proportions only sive starting points, correct only in a general way, so as not to approach too closely certain limits, which map not be exceeded in usual cases if good proportions of the orders are desired. If the architrave is to be suprpopted by arches (Fig. 235) the spans may be greater. the work just mentioned gives the following normal proportions for this case. H W a’. A’: a” si* Tuscan order 7 D 2D 5B §2/3D7D 3.1/2 D Another examp. 7 1/2D 1 3/4D 51/4D 91/4D70D 3.1/2 D Roman Doric 8D 1.3/4 D5 2/3 D 10D 8D 4D Roman Ionic 9D 13/4D 6D» 11:Deoo 7 1/2 D Aodhan Roman Corinth. 10D 61/2D61/2D 121/4D61/2D 4 1/2p For orders with pedestals (Fig. 236), letting P @ height of pedestal; H = height of column; H’, = total height, other nota- tion remaining as before, the same book gives the following n normal proportions for this case:- P H H’. W Rn’. Ww” a’” Tusc. ords*2 1/3D 7D 11°-D. 13/4D° 61/2D°°8 D 41/2 D Anotheex. 21/2D 7.5 D 113/4D 1 3/4D 63/4 D 81/2 D 43/4 D Rom.Doric 22/3 D 8D 123/4D 21/2D 7 D 9 3/4 D5 3/4-D Rom.fonic 320: ) 91/3D 141/2D 1 1/2D 73/4D 91/3 D 6D Rom. Gor. 31/2D 10D 151/3D 2D 8 D 93/4 D 6D. y. Arrangement of piers and architraves in girder bridges. ie iy As ; el Y ( rte rn Paty! ihe " ia eso ue Le Bo! jet Ae rc it x 2 pore ie fo bas weet. nobaty, teom Yornteta oat anonan. Yo soonam %9 e#eltsant meboon ynotte: Uilevas ome edt as evree dotde ,setotouita tnott ane yleret stom atrenonarae ‘reat oF Rarbire904.eTsh7f£R e36f15 sat to Re tatanco youd -eteta stethemistnt 10 bas tedtis eve 5 dd Qnivteost tot antqoo 19 q85 sft hae ,TMeatt tekq edt To e1sty es Svise ystt wshtedn of Snthroo9e ,19H4kR $2) eub® 10 atoubaitv to saond a8 to .te8vi1-# aso1DS antbesf otal A an sayiee seed edt meonetemoorio [fe te50U ) tSv0 esgbiad Bae ,etotoorte stkine sit aot nortabnsot Ot fitiw befonttencs od teum see edd to emta 30 vege es sotan dein of .elovel tweten teonol bas taodata ies feot fne ovaw 8 28 eevise Ji ,#ebit Yo.wolt bas dds edt hootnata drotanaehetggaes th tcerotearehigasdyetackerxyeeecens cee stresam 2 ft of 3nthmoqest10o mot tet{voeq ett esa dove as bae amend %o Bnkqoo a atin bebtvotg sd yem bas ,seogtsd & eaeen yd 1964 oft to ybod eft svisoe1 of bersqe1q7 9d 10 r1! jo Botatarate et ssiq stttne eat ynem nt antdoel et rety edt to ybod sat cs Shed ef dotdn i ataimatni sat mo yitoetth heoaly anid ie g TAL : i l- iy is ; é . = a nt wee aN ifabbares ~ebns bas gebte dtod ts anottostoiy ett dtiw teig —_- —— ae 142 The piers of most girder bridges and of similar structures are usually strong wooden trestles or masses of masonry, or more rarely are iront structures, which serve as the abutments of the bridge girders. According to their arrangements they a are either end or intermediate piers» they consist of a base, the pier itself, and the cap or coping for receiving the brid- ge girder, according to whether they serve as piers of bridges leading across a river, or as those of viaducts or aqueducts. Under all circumstances the base serves as a firm and broad foundation for the entire structure, and bridges over rivers or arms of the sea must te constructed with reference to the highest and lowest water levels, to high water as well as to the ebb and flow of tides, it serves as a wave and ice breaker, aki KasRasaxxeadxbkapxpecpkaukdédeaxkarasedgudeindrtorbheingteoa- and as such has its peculiar form corresponding to the material purpose, and may be provided with a coping or crowning course, or be prepared to receive the body of the pier by means of any suitable transition form; the entire pier is diminished upward, partly to save material, partly to less obstruct the passage of water, and also in many cases to avoid loading the foundation too heavily, besides it always looks better than if it were not diminished. The transition from the base to the body of the p pier with its projections at both sides and ends, permits the most varied changes of section, that exert an essential influ- ence on the pleasing form of the bridge pier. The architects of the middle ages fully understood how to effectively treat these projections, which served to beeak the force of the wates, sometimes erecting chapels on them, sometimes furnishing them with platforms or balconies, accessible only by means of steps, from which aid conld be given to sailors or logs could be pre- vented from striking the pier. The base of the pier and its projecting ends were not const- ructed with sole reference to a pleasing effect, but to break the waves, to admit of the use of the plainest rough and rock- faced ashlars, and the strongest mode of anchoring the stones by means of iron cramps; when such pier heads were protected by ironwork, they have a fine effect. The body of the pier is lacking in many cases, the girder being placed directly on the substructure, which is then coowned te 8 anttiogque Lateebeq 8 ,19KOt 6 yd .sdoemelised yo nt {ssonco of Batviee 19f7 fangowdt 6 ,seatste to qwor3 ; tek} od% Yo ybod odo .e19h3tg owt Yo abne sdt to aot ntad. “pr ev798 ot teetto blod # katveel sead edi mori soait D .{TES .Rk7) esbicd tremtode meboor 8 to eturts edt 10% 7 alll as tod eevies reb"rs eft iebne batgoo esT qinq terit edt 10, -19iq edt tot qo 8 Be bas toque sat esyteost tk st9dw noitoes,org 300%se. 8, syed blsoae ARES .RtT ootmico blod s svsd teum ti testa odd rot eIado. eds of Bnibio908 eyEK avotiev nf belttory sd) yar Bios nied of at tt teddedn ,sgbiid sat to tnemegnsate fqnie a od To. anoiteottitrot dtiw bodosnsoo .yisan00 Sid . bos nottaa @ at 10 ATsy & nied etoobsnpa 10 sJoub eof. 10 e10m & Siem binoda si fotdw dtiw songbroo08 of mpg ett bae ytifeool ent of bathnogesiz00 noteesigas We 2 0 i efuteoeth to Jendo: eas! 20. at0n an ta sLorq. signa 798tg eat tocgot edt te anifledias sAT Josette ylotersbom t9edto bas et9wot ,enokathbse eAil-iew0d Setinoge 19iq eyhtrd off Reiqofevab 10% eevitow, [amwdtowise oe et sebh10 ab eldiexoq rsvetsdn beyolyms od bloode, ylle e. ooe Jaon dns [ended edt Yo Xs0n [etesoetidors Tess ay sottogrtenco a }bisd to nefdorg ino. [eremen off .0t shan. od stom sono. tenn sonst9tan 1 eknt aid eqtoitne etsdn .antrsentaes to amsldotq: oft: a¢ panidsest tot tanetbeqxe oisedtee os betesasce on .ytiand Paeqe df sedt of ,esgbtad [Ie to goteeely tesol ont; ,eeRbind + bette ed sfotx eat bos,1edto does dtixn ysomied nt of sagin wv lh ssqsoshael antbanorise od eds 7 & oved $3 £0 egbind edd to ebne sft. 4a esnentode ent lengioes idiots awonk anteo yd toensastt gntesely sito bee ). yoas yllerensp -mand od, bebroc0s ylfacss ef asad, ,aev paomq odd tateo1 doifn ,yisoesm to eseasm jaisantwres: yl sonatesqge Isnretxe aeodw ore allan Reteteter slil, dines a to bati sdt. to sotodos ed¢ aco trebnogeb, yfifagqronsay fyadendsd noktienstt it no biel ed bluodeiatesdgms Letoege faap edt sauacad ,s1om edt doom o2 webs edd bas tnsatude ) .befosfhon yllarenek at r9siq bas tebtth eft to aodsonay gat theqxs citedias, sldeulsy e768 ekatifedioo beliso-oe sié sonal Istnostiod sdt Yo soitonu, sft to eesmbies edt baw ,etn f é «€ - ee a neaie 144 by battlements, by a tower, a pedestal supporting a statue or group of statues, a through pier serving to conceal the junct- ion of the ends of two girders, the body of the fier sometimes rises from its base leaving a bold offset to serve as abutment for the struts of a wooden abutment bridge (Fig. 237). The coping under the girder serves both as a block for its support and as a cap for the pier. jor the first purpose, it should have a strong projection where it receives the girder; for the latter it must have a bold cornice Fig. 238), which may be profiled in various ways according to the character and arrangement of the bridge, whether it is to be in a city or in the country, connected with fortifications or be a simple via- duct or aqueduct, bein a park or in a narrow and rocky valley, in accordance with which it should make a more or less pleasing impression corresponding to the locality and its purpose, or be more or less robust or graceful. The corbelling at the top of the pier, angle projections, t tower-like additions, towers and other moderately effective structural motives for developing the bridge pier aechitectur- ally,should be employed wherever possible in order to,smake a real architectural work of the simplest and most economical problem of bridge construction. Reference must once more be made to the general considerations on the problems of engineering, where anticipating this oppor- tunity, we suggested an esthetic expedient for treating lattice bridges, the least pleasing of all bridges, so that their parts might be in harmony with each other,and the whole be suited to the surrounding landscape. The abutments at the ends of the bridge might have a richer and more pleasing treatment by using known architectural moti- ves, than is usually accorded to them. Generally they are mere- ly terminating masses of masonry, which resist the pressure of earth like retaining walls, and whose external appearance is principally dependent on the choice of the kind of masonry. A special emphasistshould te laid on antransition between thet abutment and the girder so much the more, because the unpleas- ing junction of the girder and pier is generally neglected. Hence the so-called corbellings are valuable esthetic expedie- nts, and the hardness of the junction of the horizontal and CR 5) has ae eee wv i | ; an my i : Chr sein ed binode sgbiad edt to dno ent to esrif leottrev nt etfvey ovttnebnsy .(OM .3fT) ettate to asagilt s sutt) erewod efane . (IM .52T) ellen stode sdt dtiev om anbied etd? .aeviton [e1rstostidors walimte bos esaeodt 18 yTe iiinnas to sited seftedw ,segbhiad bedorw ai ere9eq iy ee ymtot bev: to erebiry e hia “a -ennulod bua e19tT svode esdotA .b ee: | o efaren8) .» s to enoktiogoty eft dot mevtts ed tonaso eslot bexit e% yedt dofin tot .es0qreg atest of brege™ tuontin fotsavog etom eid ed [ftw dove edt to tostta edt { ett Yo tdgted odd j19f lane suv One ,euthear aft it th tnen bas babsol vitveet ed of reeqge [fiw th {PRS bods od tt TH Yarolo bos Hedsol yltagil ,ntit ood sd q anidtonce ag tot sed toms sdt to mot odT..(2dS BAS «th Istaenjen .eAashi betstooras dznotmds? offeitetoaiedo bas (QDS .3tt) beeastqeh 9d of flese ontt nol to esdore [rot jamned deelint sdt nt abnoqeeit0o notaesiqeh to betoetato aided KO % f@ fosa sat to etioqges osd¢t oteadw .fnoemegnerie ect of i@ heaoqjo eeel 10 stom ef th yesgbind Soe elfed wol at Bid no enag@ of baa tdyted sldeishtenes to emoor 107 > fsottatife no [stnemze2 tad¢edw . dors heeaerqeb sad 2 yistem fote sit asdwy ,dow 3nratedoatbh ws as [fer tel & gotten fo noftesap sit wnkereat Juodiin seogiw4 ett bar -feenoront et yriiidate att (TES .RrT) eonares ¥ bessenont ed dtgeb eti It .anteaxelfq stom eemoosd sone Pwol Yo dow Leottqiiie ad? .(S8S .317) edneutods edt qeented nsqe {ewe 8 at betouitenoo made bettites;: flo am etnentats oat s(@hS .3f%) efedtoo es avise doidw esnom yin jemrct tnorettib to efedins to attogqua yt feosfasy of | at (02S <9) fora Leottyqtils eat taoqqne setwsdtl ‘Pad i(PeS .g8t) been ed yer dors [atnenges meio edd : : Levo geiow eft etedto ni .dore beintog e yloo ylioiste » mee a, ecensaton th sonte ,tostte Jnagete yIev € svad yen 102 ,fostte ahiesely at esdote [eottgif{Is bon [at fygei es od sitetevio ati Yi S\ P10 mage ete &\I = segh art Be BT Agcy eoldieeoq es yw vat of ett tr ai hicenicn arseqgs ped dows telvotioinag edt ptt jeotntoo teognt Amttostewg e yd belesonco Jor stk ebas Pe ide oo sont” p mn 145 vertical lines of the end of the bridge should be broken by f flights of stairs (Fig. 140), pendentive vaults in the angles with the shore walls (Fig. 241), angle towers (Fig. 242), but- tresses and similar architectural motives. This hardness disap- pears in arched bridges, whether built of masonry or merely b | bridge girders of curved form. 4. Arches above Piers and Columns. a. General. y Fixed rules cannot be given foh the proportions of agecades without regard to their purpose, for which they are employed; the effect of the arch will be the more powerful, the greater its radius, and the smaller, the height of its support (Fig. 243), it will appear to be heavily loaded and weak if the arch be too thin, lightly loaded and clumsy if it be tho deep. (Figs. 244, 245). The form of the arch has for us something peculiarly characteristic through associated ideas, segmental and ellipt- ical arches of low rise see® to be depressed (Fig. 246), and ' this characted of depression corresponds in the fullest degree to the arrangement, where the supports of the arch are low, as in low halls and bridges; it is more or less opposed to designs for rooms of considerable height and to ppans on high supports; the depressed arch, whether segmental or elliptical, only looks well as a discharging arch, when the arch merely serves its p purpose without raising the question of making 4 pleasing app- earance (Fig. 247). Its stability is increased and its appear- ance becomes more pleasing, if its depth be increased tonard the abutments (Fig. 248). The elliptical arch of low rise is fully justified when constructed in a small span between abut— ments which serve as corbels (Pig. 249). The abutments may then be replaced by supports or corbels of different forms, which likewise support the elliptical arch (Fig. 250). In many cases the broken segmental arch may be used (Fig. 251), but it is s strictly only a pointed arch, in others the broken oval arch may have a very elegant effect, since it surpasses the segmen- tal and elliptical arches in pleasigg effect, for example if its rkse = 1/3 its span or 1/2 if its curvature be as regular as possible. The semicircular arch always appears pleasing, if its lower ends are not concealed by a projecting impost cornice; it suits ie ett Yo SMyted ont baa aeye att nvewted notsreqoTy yme ; exetyz att teddy oe ,ssAd «& mort. qithers5 anise yen th toodttn etaoqque sakn yiev no beoslq ed yem Yr 10 dot pak gore bsintoq 8 aguontia ,soetts anidsterh a yai ‘&k betlite yfanoite ed yam FE , seo teal edt nt gant “y: ©epsneahneasohaned Ife of betting setted et ti: teted at enortose to stat ssdto . nemegnsiis sit of pevneba teeel ef dow bhatnror eat pbteV .beinsoor yifetosqs ed of et nottosatbh Irottrav ond ’ to wett to autbst edt antnterstsb to ebodtjem Lewitoutte | rs ‘a’ * aptbay of? .f .eske slbbin sat mt anony sisw dors qed = aotbeay edd \S .(S2@S .yrF)) mage x sche te e\s me: 22) 0 sf ee tedd0o dose ot sobie diin slonatag r fosto1w ys Snoot ets dow edt to asatneo ant ,f am it Vb s(62S .889) Lenogetb 2 no nogylog sit to aolgne ott tadt o8 «no3ylog eft to fenokharh « no broot ete B) ebason' 00 to eefrns eeidt 70 owt AQnordt eeseag done Mefgnie s svéd noitouitenoo to abodtom easdt [14 .(deS wf tore betatoq sat to tnémehral(ne ott Rnrhbts Yo dant Om ihnt¢#noenote nt aA1ow sorxe ynintstdo to. haw sale t to noitosttenco eft ok sshatnevbsa wsils.e7 besesracg 9d bluow 35 waaltics STq stew etedto slidn ,yrs9end B ont to sttay eat to se1tnso odd enimreteb ot aoitoesy sf ct es oraelut bexr? yna vt , favo 10 dSetnteq Asod OnIdenss oft etagno? este [{pnt asdtd Baninerd to rode! Shit) amtot dona bentdmaa to ebati [fh .(# AAS .2ih F yetntcortsons mofeom bre [averntbem af bsitaterq eeods § Yo besogroo seodt yifetosyes bes sonecertenes dotnl | tud Ietetontte a ton saved ,xetutevtso xsvnod bae @@ mot? Sefuloxe sd stctesredd Oloode Ore ,sofev svitearo puob edt of beteyelen Rnied ,sldieeeg 28) doom ies engsesh 10% -ofdsttrtent vintedyso st yadst ei1s0W .molttEerooeh nineqo nortan ,eantnego telleo ,swoSninw to: s10b [ene jo’ [feme oefs ,enote sfunte & yd bersveo sis fnotdw ell ed [fsx ysm ,elIsw ni eedotn [L[eme Yo egnitevoo eat 10 " fidw ,ayaw esottev taom sat mi fontdmoo amtot dows oi be fade once! & te Seen tt [sixstowtte of ton blyow entot soee 3 a | He ‘nose? tadt vot bebfrova ad blrode har )) ant brewed dtqeb beesston? ne eettopay Now Letnenzer saT a - ad retnic 146 any proportion between its span and the headght of its supports; it may Spring directly from a base, so that its piers are onit- ted, or it may be placed on very high supports aithout produc- ing a disturbing effect, although a pointed arch is more pleas- ing in the last case, it may be strongly stilted if necessary; in brief it is better suited to all cércumstances than is any other form of section. The pointed arch is least adapted to the arrangement in which the vertical direction is to be specially accented. Various c structural methods of determining the radius of the pointed arch nore nown in the middle ages. 1, the radius = 2/3, 3/4, 4/5 = ----- x span (Fig. 252). 2, the radius = hypothenuse of a triangle with sides to each other as 1+: 1, 1°: 2, 17% 3 = 1+: n. 3, the centres of the arch are found by projecting the angles of the polygon on a diagonal (Fig. 253). 4, the centres are found on a diagonal of the polygon, so that the pointed arch passes through two or three angles of the polygon (Fig. 254). All these methods of construction have a single purpose, that of aiding the enlargement of the pointed arch to full -gize and of obtaining exact work in stonecutting, some of them possessed peculiar advantages in the construction of forms of tracery, abile others were pure trifles. It would be well in practice to determine the centres of the parts of the arch, both pointed or oval, by any fixed rulesso as to lessen the labor of drawing them full size. Compare the constructions (Fig. 254 a). All kinds of combined arch forms (Fig. 255) like those preferred in mediaeval and moslem architecture, in the Dutch Renaissance, and especially those composed of concave and convex curvatures, have not a structural but merely a dec- orative value, and should therefore be excluded from structural designs as much as possible, being relegated to the domain of decoration, where they are certainly justifiable. For example, snall dors or windoas, cellar openings, narrow openings in wa- lls, which are covered by a single stone, also small canopies or the coverings of small niches in walls, may well be finish- ed in arch forms combined in the most various ways, while the same forms would not be structural if used on a large stale, and should be avoided for that reason. The segmental arch requires an increased depth toward the \ 4 3 i : Tar A edaiay es awbad ytiltdate a) seretont of atcontode ongien Bidt e6ttnpss dove betatog edt yisrtaos eft toa? etdt Yo sabslnond # oP o(8@S .3f%) nwono aff Sa to someituees na sort arterte shotetup to yntiest > OWt S29 Yo Sno Anioga NE .fOLTOOTTANOD Yo shom abet ibe shinee Sit to sto yt #fst sd yleotsos bloow totes .. Hlwow Se1shtenco e1ed eesbt to enottetooees sit preTOj019 & toqque neo sets OL to dome mh .meds of Boi o o fo1s betntey 4 ytarinos edt mo tod ,emole baol stayit Sit to noftefooeas ne no stotetsds ‘eno yvesd & sto . of yfsagil seoqje of dows felt 2 tot been slfdtaty adé gisls «oS. ,9tdm80 eft 3s bobeol Yliveed ano betntog e pie et nofinetie et5ch .xeis ett ts dsosta of bIuode iq ef [ftw afostts yntesefinn ,enortersbisno seadt oktose to emtot sit to seat yiferenes af omse oT yen $f -nedows shite of ‘nottefer ni hatate es teas veh Rit) S#lovtdors sist Yo efttorg ont tant \bobhs ad joie To diyzeb ed? of Snibtoosa I -jrstoatedo afi syan seal to soet sat mort nottostowq aff oF antbroooe | piling yefye Sat to notsentfont bettesb sdt of gnitto - et 077 easzsre edt of tnas2net ef dofdw bse ,tdZel ah ) . eeirtorg -299brad fedora’. Bnidsco of ysw [stse93 8 ni mist erdd yIqg4 lesen st eHbias ster wetdedw ,nglesh shbiad at eitotg bas esdows fe agooids seeq of baor & Sntttinrsq [few e mt ebnine tie senbr+d hart ign 7TO YIsosam to eezbind .esbivd yrroe r piu = enork to boon Yo assbrth aes Blanco od [fiw hae eshbhted vewsteay sbolont eyanate) to bi ) vad ow ted? deol .eliew mt exatasdo Atrn mofrtosnaas Dt ” oats et notsonitenso exbiad atin softosnnoo ni etotq fa dditv esiwtomite 1s sasdt es ast of .noabtad panods erent etinpet ysdt ,encota To aeghitd bedtore tot 94 noteionr [stnostrod e yd trentmorg ylanotte sbax ‘ot etneatgda ody to tnenteart te . edt te tfte fos edt to teoqrk 4% asedo yan nl mi — ne Bntiosl! sd wig sdv tk tO ,t8Lq Sit to Ratqoo ant sd Mo0lS anrtevoo sdt .eeed to stptonttedve sat atin asbhio ftdexfh eyatiqe dove edt acess isdto at +taogat sat auto 147 abutments to increase its stability under a greater load; on the contrary the pointed arch requires this increase toward its crown (Fig. 256). To a knowledge of this fact we owe the feeling of quietude arising from an assurance of a correct mode of ‘construction, in seeing one of these two cases; such quiet would scarcely be felt by one of the uninitiated, since the associations of ideas here considered would then be want- ing to them. An arch of low rise can support a proportionally light load alone, but on the contrary a pointed arch can supp- ort a heavy one: therefore on an association of ideas is based the visible need for a flat arch to appear lightly loaded, and a pointed one heavily loaded at the centre, i.e., a large mass should be placed at its apex. Where attention is not paid to these considerations, unpleasing effects will be produced. The same is generally true of the forms of section of arches, that was stated in relation to side arches; it only remains to be added, that the profile of the archivolt (Fig. 257) may ch- ange its character?- 1, according to the depth of the arch; 2, according to its projection from the face of the wall; 3, acc- ording to the desired inclination of the splay for admitting . light, and which is tangent to the extreme projections of the profile. 8. Arched bridges. We here apply this term in a general way to combinations of arches and piers in bridge design, whether gate bridges or op- anings in a wall permitting a road to pass through under a ma- sonry bridge, bridges of masonry or girder bridges with curved girders of wood or iron. Cateways include gateway bridges and will be considered in Connection with openings in walls. Most that we have said of piers in connection with bridge construction is also true of arched bridges, so far as these are structures with girders. As for arched bridges of stone, they require the imposts to be made strongly prominent by a horizontal incision and a cle- ar treatment of the abutment. In many cases the impost of the arch will at the same time be the coping of the pier, or if the pier be lacking and coin- cides with the substructure or base, the covering block itself forms the impost+ in other cases the arch springs directly from Sar trod teoqmt as tedt on \egbiad edd Yo notsebnpot edt ee to @ncpAe? arond toq .y1RReecsnon ‘ot esetpod L[etnostiod dite s{tvd 9d blwonte fos edt ee & Tot stom edited ,dowe tealuorttotm|ee & to sain adt Risin gene hetaiog # 10% buitds sno tuods bas ,dow L[eort mop. yd bemtot ef biexge gntmebinw yllenbsets enam [les poesetg fom ent bas .enote to asatn0o. eteteyee edt b rertse blyode sean tremtote eidT etremtnds me ea etdd . B ,e0ek0 ynA nk siutootte baer [eitetem ni Testi sore ta B@S .Rfe) ateddo mt tasntmorg yilstosqes shan sd yer Woue syelq dotdw ,yxonode to olqtontig oft amit omer i Vee sre ‘i Ga onl 8 sit at ,dtoome beeseih oJ teow ti. Pnemtude sdt sxtratos ons ¥ bodten od tf fant co ,eaefdes beoat door Yo t{tad at nada oeh teifto bas eusidme ,ente to eteno ,er18dnan Roie RdeeTstnsxent0 fo dgoowe beresth ste eedors sit ti etnerh + Denn Warernots & eerinpes events dow [esnemae" en? .esibt j Ritosnth etode tt ti toette bed ® asd ba& ovis ets iehaod ton et dove edt tit .(O2S watt) troqaoe & to qa edd get he neds Uae Stom tesqae fon esob di ersdmem heblnom yd m te |) duds 10 #tebsed [stnoxtrod to bseoymoo ets etebaod a? Peeneezoaace yifatosjes ef mottoeetotnt sdt seelan .198dto | Snore [stnemzse ent to tuto, fetberitektt sat sfadroe ef eee £ mot? tizooiw et dotin foednode edt aot %t i AG elblot syd heitea 44. yea ,aonta0o [ednostaon sont 5-4 be Seutot sd vem tisett Acadweie ett, dele bedrse igen | | 2f03S! 1824) eoabind Ilene [.,., fedosdneie wott Batwa getow syhitd -atsaggse oft tl age & ,asbin Tenpsas to eta. ersig. sit te .J1eqa te? -* meyer Of asdote nian sdf to shae edd neented batwesnt sd p Eqs owdtens sgbiad S649 nk erd900 yllakoeqas etdt slat add. :%¢ O03 of Sasfet flea s no tlind ef seiq. e{bbiu. seo HO TO ,e62K2 yen mi ayewete]en yd nedorwd of cals yem etstg bas epewoues ‘of atasmind&é odd syote titel ad yam egatneqo to! ae cep Ns eYRe BG5ind edt wort ‘peviton ¢nes: ‘Qinomazneits elitasog toemettib odd ai unde betwsv teom- edt to timbe forde .nevig O18 noitacexs to iq to ‘gieetio fsin sotfoenmoo ni enziseb supeeisstoiyg 10 Les 5 ,efsqedo sabiad to wtewod .ayewrisde ages hartost org oe ig ' ply RG teat etinpet ylietenes [fiw ,anrresntges at freq Inet 148 the foundation of the bridge, so that an impost cornice becomes unnecessary. por known reasons of stability the lower part of the arch should be built with horizontal courses to kbout half the rise of a semicircular arch, rather more for a.semi-ellip- tical arch, and about one third for a pointed arch, isé@., a " wall mass gradually widening upward is formed by corbelling out the separate courses of stone, and the arch presses against this as an abutment. This abutment mass should differ from the arch itself in material and structure in many cases, and it m may be made especially prominent in others (Fig. 258). At the same time the principle of economy, which plays such an impor- tant part in engineering, will generally require that to char- acterize the.abutment it must be dressed smooth, if the arch is built of rock‘faced ashlars, or that it be marked by enclo- sing members, coats of arms, emblems and other decorative expe- dients if the arches are dressed smooth on ornamental city br- idges. The segmental arch always requires 4 skewbvack normal to its curve, and has a bad effect if it abuts directly against the cap of a support (Fig. 259); if the arch is not bordered by moulded members it does not appear more ugly, than if these borders are composed of horizontal headers or abut against each other, unless the intersection is especially supported by ac corbels(Thé firstoradial joint of the segmental arch separating if from the skexback, which is wrought from a single block or from horizontal courses, may bé marked by a boldly profiled in- serted slab, the skewback itself Bey. be formed as a corbel in gmall bridges (Fig. 260). Tf the separate bridge arches spring from skewbacks quite far apart, or the piers are of unequal wicth, a small arch may be inserted between the ends of the main arches to save mater- ial; this especially occurs in the bridge Quattro {api at Rome, ahose middle pier is built on a small island in the Tiber; the end piers may also be broken by gateways in many cases, or out- let openings may be left above the abutments to remove the water from the bridge way. In the different possible arrangements many motives capable -of execution are given, which admit of the most varied stract- ural or picturesque designs in connection with offsets of piers, projecting caps, stairways, towers or bridge chapels, custom , ent Aiki | noo efgns sd? .esttorssoos weltwie bas eledtoy ,2esvor ie etneapnom ,penee stud ,eantfedioo .et{uav evidnebnsg toomiotins edt mt abte reveteda terid ok jee 3kt to equ ‘ ,eldievinves vlentins ef nottonidenco sabia a ong to emo? edt gntved motk 10 boow to aiebikg TT Weeds Tago SvAd blvots ceodt .etsty yrmoRAm Adie bentdmoo | ed ylfenenea hinode seeds bos .e15h1iR edt tol et simkot. edt te dove sit to ewtbean edt atin gnibionincs E, bio) oes smoge Sftod sxodt baa eegbind berevod .y opts eft toot s yd beweveo et yer szbaud sdt 17 calla » [few &8 sonte ,seero dtod at [sotsasdt ek sisien vis ) mt gnktos gonot « to soneupeenoo at catnsbre blety ‘end dttw efgne tedto smoke to tdgf1 # Js. sedire .noit yt inev a vd beenso at eotot atad yedteds [siistenws et ae ot Ssanerts od ayawle teom (LOS .2f%) aeerttod eal 9 to Tel uotbae 1799 ed erdt tadtedn. .so7mot sad aa nottoerlet j ifaw sat no gow eso10t etom to ont ti pLiew sat ot eup Poot dors of hosoqyo sno ,bejmetse ed teen eserstttid ya dob b to ted foe sfante e@ st bentdwoo ed yew eeonot add soare ‘ysavesrotretgatiaes ,sottoeith dns sbosinzep asaoiuse a Iveet sdt to shutinger edt Sntved sotot. es atin ~horttoerth eat neyo betudittarb ed yen [len & tantera aaitoes sorot eat hcl no, dtaes to e1mmesstq to 9289 ni se-,e0atis8. stidas od bass blaow Jk gaeo serit sdt nt ,etntog stag 10 sno. JA Jaevo of ebned tk bnovse sdt ai sSetwobie Ilan Stitos edt hie aed! Na 149 houses, portals and similar accessories. The angle corbellings, pendentive vaults, corbellings, buttresses, monuments and gro- ups of figures, in brief whatever aids in the enrichment of . bridge construction is entirely permissible. If girders of wood or iron having the forms of arches are combined with masonry piers, these should have proper abutmen- ts for the girders, and these should generally be skewbacks, coninciding with the radius of the arch at the joint. y. Covered bridges and those built upon. tf the bradge way is covered by a roof, the structural ideas result from the arrangement of the supports, which bear it, a and from the arrangement of the bridge piers on which it rests; not to load the bridge too heavily, the construction of the r roof should be as light as possible, and the Spans between the supports as great as possible; these rules vanish at the piers themselves, when a Srouped arrangement of columns is desired. From this ground idea results the anrangement of closed pav- ilions, towers and portals on the end and intermediate piers of the bridge, and of open halls over the bridge way; but such arrangements are carried out in the most varied ways in the few existing examples. 5. Buttresses and Flying Ruttresses. Buttresses are either added thicknesses given to walls to prevent their yielding, or to resist the thrust of vaults; th- eir nature is identical in both cases, since a wall can only yield sidewise in consequence of a force acting in that direc- tion, either at a right or some other angle with the wall; it is immaterial whether this force is caused by a vault or not. The buttress (Fig. 261) must always be arranged in the same direction as the force, whether this be perpendicular or obli- gue to the wall; if two or more forces act on the wall, as ma- ny buttresses must be arranged, one opposed to each force, or since the forces may be combined in a single resultant of det- erminate magnitude and direction, arsinglerforcevmay oppose i its direction, with a force having the magnitude of the resultant. The force acting against a wall may be distributed over its entire surface, as in case of pressure of earth, or it may act at one or more points, in the first case it would tend to slide the entire all sidewise; in the second it tends to overthrow t if ‘so ae - i a iw i ; eh AYA és : va ta! Y 7 ne 7 j pa ie ‘ oan se oD | if J i Pied rig . (ey JK , : ; wey { i= . w oot Ca RB ctl Heat | yee beet Oe tee peo tees opted) ot Sr egnac, 10 [lan odd aienco sdt ,[few @ tentrsrs eto8 aeotot stom 10 ond TD, fe aaator adit snttoennoo ar ateteno yiqmte aseittnd a to Sheva yedt ,xbod biy4ia s y eso10) edt to aotteokt iti tape at-ebfod 2 doidw ,eeon0t oft to tnsdtinest sat flew odt evow of tostotttae (SoS .8f%) FT sotet sat 8 hat 28. ,[fen edt to 9 tdgrew ett of [anott1ego7g at ) Ins tort te0> eat of bre lettebhve’ adi mo etiexs tik sine > mottehavot bre {fen ads 4 afstreten adt to t mottos mot fae sete ont . ‘§ = % >= = CR; % dhdior odd yltnebhrvil x {Lew f tk .efguexe tol .yllenietxe anirettad et tr ti Ore seereensotet sonds nt tf{rod et d € tdpied base Jd eaodiordt Roe 3d gated tent eit to anotenemihS sav 79 sara ON nlov ‘bre tay ton etr .= : db bitdt ont to bas , - & breoee “edt ni ,easo tevtt edt ot ad S\I = tod pena et ad bipow cod esuoced flaw oft aod? .etodmun Snuot nid €\S = S§LIS = eateatto anives Jo tettead s Qntved yifantetxs yd sf{date pa tages poe nottoe to ent{ emae edd antved so190t 8 ybod infoq edt wort Yivers to sitaso edt to aetepel bes fadao. fattnt = [lex edt to eesmiotds 10 tdjtew edt 16 .momtxem s . | eth reso ee [fet yitverh to sifnes sat eves of beagsi1ont 9d mont ed tdzted atk ti a10990 etdt -sidterog es sobre cen. 150 the wall or cause it to bulge. If two or more forces acta against a wall, the construction of a buttress simply consists in connecting the points of app- lication of the forces by a rigid body, they applying to this body a force havinc the same line of action and magnitude as the resultant of the forces, which it holds in equilibriun. The force F (Fig. 252) sufficient to move the wall sidewise ig: proportional to the weight P of the wall, i.e., to the pres- sure it exerts on its foundation and to the coefficient of fr- iction f of the materials gf the wall and foundation on each | obber; thus Ff == Pxf;=P =-'; f ==, the area-and form of the bearing surface not being considered. The more firm, solid and heavy is the masonry, the less is sliding of the wall to be f feared. ) As for the overthrow of the wall by the force k suffictent to do this, which is proportional to the weight gacting at the centre atenneey of the wall, to the distance x of the horiz- ontal projection of the centre of gravity from the point of ro- tation C, and inversely proportional to the perpendicular a let fall from the point C on the line of action of the force k; or expressed in a formula, k = =-=, since from the equation of the lever, a= & X Xe The formulas also shows that when the force is given, which tends to overthrow the wall, that will be more stable, the gr- eater its weight, its thickness, and the lower the point of application of the force, or the steeper the line of action of the force, and k bemomes entirely undetrimental when C x x is a maximum, or the weight or thickness of the wall = infinity, or the point of application coincides with the point of rotation. Evidently the weight C and distance a being constant, x may be increased to have the centre of gravity fall as near its in- ner side as possible; this occurs if its height be increased and if it is battering externally. For example, if a wall with thickness b and height 3 b is built in three thicknesses, the proportions of the dimensions of the first being b-: b, of the second 2b°-: - , and of the third 4b-: -, its weight and volume would ba unchanged, but = 1/2 b in the first case, in the last = 21/Q2 = 2/3 b in round numbers. Thus the wall becomes more stable by externally having a batter or having offsets, according i il her tus yronices attesfoses tk d= x aedW .wel boxtt 8 of ‘nO doom of tuo belfedies et [few sit medw an0900 blo» + haa aixe [sotivev ent yd betoeald ef aasm edi sands sdf i p etse ,aasm [fan # madd stom yotdton et eesatsud A batts eft .yttltdate to enoittbnoo ett yt awoidtisvo anied J sened att te nottostory ett ,f ititie sessstoni audt easme Pbns note aotbltod yveed Yo seu Sat détw ..egr .beol ett bhent edd no too SE Bntliedioo yF .f .tdated af sesotont 5 { sd720% ent to nottos to emtl bas notssotlqqe to tarog rs ptes1 of beynsite et esorttod sit tr jnevkR ayswis seom sos0% ed¢-to nottsotiaqgs to trtoq edt ,tinsy & to teordd £ [sitnso ant of Snoznst edd Yo nortoseretat sid te Hawot v 7 to ettreo: eit Aquosd? [eottrev 2 atin sigase1g to Wide Fe orvezety Yo ontl odd Moatt et X tasgned sit ; (398 {moo msevttud sit boe Ilex sdt to D tdaisw oat otnr B gntm1et .sottaotiqqe to tatog att te teardt edd ; \ ae sagetiitnd edt ntdtiw y[ettine sil taom dort ti Ht ot Sa qtilidete edt tt .ewolfot ae at neldorg ont audT ) To yronooe Attn “heasetont ed of et [few dna: anent { gqei ed tenn sotot sit to notssotlqqze to tntog sas of font yizsete sd teum so10t sit to mottos to enti odd Ped of ef eeerttod edi to seat sdt to noistoe{or2 end ets: gntiem yd Settettes od [itn Insmertupss garrt saT Paooes sdt ,eldiesoq ea wol es tiveav edt to 3atoq 3nr fesog. se Jdziew tse1R es tremindA sot Yatven of edn0 8 ,z0stetnt sit biswot Joo mottonttemod edd Bafiledies Y mwetd et tent ~btewnt yinoesm odt to aixe ent sniiocat P ebnoqeet209. not#ibmoo. bikdt edt .ytivearg to estaao at? Gis of ,rotvemnt edt no exertind sdt to t1sq # to nortostonm ao Yi serves ett yd Settigrey none ,enem ett to mortont $s efdtectats sis eynineqo sonst . (TOS .4rt) riivatapeghined bes | habe to sntf se svode ea [[ew ee arattted eat to seed . /geetttcd adt tad? ,brae need een tain mort ewollo? Ak ysel ihe att sonte ,dtbsew eft ned? wstes1s nottosto1g e bm a bso! qsiveed @ ,notsoetotq beessoat se dtiw exon asseet9 Bieston = Hessetoat se yi ned? .sbitent spo jaotlledreo. yd fer aeebi Savoth olttedies eft aids [ls of Ynibroso4 omgpeiend ent ;arolfo} e2 o18 aeatdted adt to nottensot edt fuinshaiad es ;eesd ett ts nottostory eidersbtenoo & eetinp o ring a ee , whl ee vishal , p. 0% dig SV 4 ¢ : iJ / een i ’ oral to: iu 151 to a fixed law. When x = b it reaches its maximum; but this w would occur when the wall is corbelled out so much on the ins- ide, that its mass is bisected by the vertical axis A. | A buttress is nothing more than a wall mass, safe against being overthrown by its conditions of stability; its effectiv- eness thus increases with: 1, its projection at its base; 2, its load, ise., with the use of heavy building stone and its increase in height; 3, by corbelling it out on the inside.The point of application and line of action of the force k are al- most always given; if the buttress is arranged to resist the thrust of a vault, the point of application of the force k is found at the intersection of the tangent to the central line of pressure with a vertical through the centre of gravity (Fig. 266); the tangent K is itself the line of pressure at this po- int. The weight C of the wall and the buttress combines with | the thrust at the point of application, forming a resultant, which must lie entirely within the buttress. Thus the problem is as follows, if the stability of the but- tress and wall is to be increased with economy of material; 1, the point of application of the force must be kept low; 2, the line of action of the force must be steeply inclined; 3,. the projection of the base of the buttress is to be kept small. The first requirement will be satisfied by making the spring- ing point of the vault as low as possible, the second corresp- onds to giving the abutment as great weight as possible and to corbelling the construction out toward the interéor, so as to incline the axis of the masonry inward, that is drawn through its centre of gravity; the third condition corresponds to the projection of a part of the buttress on the interior, to a re- duction of its mass, when permitted by the course of the line ofppressure (Fig. 267). Hence openings are Admissible at the base of the buttress as well as above a line of pressure. It follows from what has been said, that the buttress should have a projection greater than its breadth, since its stability in- creases more with an inceased projection, a heavier load and ( by corbelling out inside, than by an increased breadth. According to all this, the esthetic ground ideas relating to the formation of the buttress are as follows; the buttress re- quires a considerable projection at its base; as 4 wall pilaster, © See an) eee mh j oe} Sef B td3tt te noitibbs se se bebrszes | os ot at doLaw find eat to seomoras edt ,#f gynimedsygneise sot [Len ahs “asoqae [Lin th 10 ,{fan edt Yo tend Leups sansl 3 oy towol att nt sldieetmbe saa eysw100D Tol egninego 3 28 to adT «tt bauows astord ad teum aniblted eds to sesd bentfont sfqmte yi bersvoo sd Sluode saeniotdt 10 dtbserd rach! ‘ ygnetis odd d#in somebiooos mt sel{[sme 10 1s318l een rt sida 10 beda betsvoo ad yen dordw One .slodn edt “gtd? tT .(XSS .gf%) retan nist sdt bede of ssnote pele: it yineqoiwq yen th ,tnetze eldstebisnoo to ed sost a ex efit to abtsdoeth rot anineqo towo! 8 atin vedtu3! I .tnemsnt0 evyite10oeb 10% ytinotaoqqge ankhaotte test > antite gs ylno fon ,Roeeetftod Anttosioig ylanoite , -yrel ay s opie tod ,awobatn eds to abae r9K0l edt . favets sgeeeeq & amitot aidd bas ,semitsnoa sidert jo 10 ,seeReTII0d sit davotdt egnineqo getinuoss dedt «(89S .3kF) medt bavove ot tes betasns ed yea eaettiod edt Yo ateatio etetaqee onl “ah > m10 eviteidosh td3il ovisost ysu bas ,2enena anrbas ots neatttod edt to qot edt of svitalss esebt yatbes! 109 alem 9a¢ dteensd bstaninist isddis ei I] -:eKno ; taal fednemente to aoerq anrbns ef1t a 70. sasltq bontion¥ xe eat dotde to ,sotn200 atem edt datw Sstoeanoo ai tt “adit 60 nedo1d sd yam sisdmem texol to 19gqo ett ylerom ; mten eit atqorissmt ti yltesf! 10 ;(C3S .3f7%) ear ogi8) eeoittod edd to shie reitie vanisge eetbh dotde “ot eseenn yveed. yd befeninies ad yem tk geno teal add ite tance asdtts heol alsT .sidsotiqqs sis eaobt Savor ont tes ‘to mio? edt geist afoennitg edt 10 .nottarooeb sranrt s ak e # te ted? 10 ,m10% febimetyg ai 3aftertntmrd ter i eonwyi? to equots to svifom eid ;bedatntmrh ylasiinte Bab sroryc & to ted? bas ,eonseetansef ant to tadt yliers Byaedse! ent to soefy at :otdteD edt of egaoled smote to 387g edt rests sonsesisnsd otef edt at beyolqus bas eonsd ls al Juod t to bas seqq0 sit potbeol to mnsem svitostte teom 9al denen aten odd too antl leds tk everenoo events ecaort "saa Re tdzisn o1ttas ant aroitted edt mo wordt doidu ,2odoue ( ~b. tetvesd [fide a 3(ovs -313) esesotésad ond neented scam wod 8 betoore qiote ottts Yo bard s to anaem yd: bentadga at ant rf iy . “an TE ie eae ; | . * sab hs wt Lowe nee el @ alll 152 which is to be regarded as an addition at right angles to the wall for strengthening it, the thickness of the buttress must at least equal that of the wall, or it will appear too weak. Openings for doorways are admissible in its lower portion, the base of the building must be broken around it. The offsets in breadth or thickness should be covered by simple inclined pla- nes, larger or smaller in accordance with the arrangement of | the whole, and which may be covered shed or gable inclined rbof stones to shed the rain water (Fig. 267). If this inclined sur- face be of considerable extent, it may properly terminate in a Sutter with a lower opening for discharge of the water, the 1 last affording opportunity for decorative ornament. In case of strongly projecting buttresses, not only a string course at t the lower ends of the windows, but also a gallery, will be des- irable sometimes, and this forms a passage around the building that requires openings through the buttresses, or to be broken around them (Fig. 268). The separate offsets of the buttress may be treated as free ending masses, and may receive light decorative ornaments. The leading ideas relative to the top of the buttress are as foll- ows:- It is either terminated beneath the main cornice in an | inclined plane or a frée. ending piece of ornamental work; or it is connected with the main cornice, of which the whole or merely its upper or lower members may be broken around the but- tress (Fig. 269); or lastly it interrupts the main Gornice, w | ahich dies against either side of the buttress (Fig. 269); in the last case it may be terminated by heavy masses to which t two ground ideas are applicable. This load either consists of a figure decoration, or the pinnacle takes the form of a stone pier diminishing in pyramidal form, or that of a stone pier similarly diminished; the motive of groups of figures is pref- erably that of the Renaissance, and that of a pyramidal mass of stone belongs to the Gothic; in place of the latter obelisks and employed in the late Renaissance after the precedent of the tomb in Albano. The most effective means of loading the upper end of the but- tress always consists in corbelling out the main cornice above arches, ahich throw on the buttress the entire weight of the mass between two buttresses (Pig. 270); a still heavier load- ing is attained by means of a kind of attic story erected above ear . gedors si{gmte to batoartenoo bas sotntoo hie eat pofors sd? .(IVS wart) saseeadtod ont msented eoeye dta oot of Idwitl Snidsimbse toY eiatneqo es hestlity o ffewe 6 nt awobniw omtt omen edd te anted ,anrdliod nt sfute otdtod edt .toor edt at evodmedo [fene wi x0 one eid? tot etemioh alder bellso-oe sad beoubort _steqiontng aeitmte s dttw aonshtoooe at seattitud ent ! “Barb find es obfent hetnetie sie eeaaaitiod sot tI Bs yine .yflanistzs teeqqe of besn vod? tent neqged yam seeds ;(SYS .9iT) aottosto1g etsisbom to asece PYo yiteasosn sit Juodsiy tencan efietine yas mt gat te ta [areven ot antbhitad » to [few teqqu edt hatbivid uUls ston Nebiw yrev 6 ottopst eqadieq yem yodt eeee0 tedto nt yd tant of ,tloev sat to snemeyoeiie edt od 3ntb10008 btxe bemtot sd yen seasettiud nssxjed asoeqe odd asvo “Tanned 16 BOT & @voOd# Io ,neEA8991 JSs9b 19v0 esirel ol . ~(E¥s “3r%) o xd beneintett et sestitod ait to dtbaend ay BA ‘doidw tod .Oele eaendotdt ent at atestto ‘sd yar ote Bias sit to szomiotd Iisme sit to gna9908 no fIsme 9d { e1sty egbind eqaditeg th satwiedto ef ti : (sts spit) et seta eq? to dtbessd sdt asdw ,etestio siigpezet ohbvss ayania sie tds atewot to eaeasaittus efans co atgas eds sninenssgneife sot enotstthis mo 19 ,eead 1sbaomd ikl -o¢8 .entetnnot .ednsmenan to asead eas fans ett ts baxtopes sysvla ors eszessdtad to eqnom bas ,et9not no yffatosqes .eintblind bas amcor batiuay sersnod yewtiede diin sottoonnoo at bsyolyes esmttamoe z (avs e3f@) aniwolfot edt ste toeregnetta to sobom fac as eas ve yfdosath .8 te slnas 94t wort dowd tae ei easad MSZ ae11F satbnoqas3t09 edt *5 te yffanoksth to 5 Je pitted 46x09 eidt .“9 bas “d ,*s 58 #8 99 blpow t8wOt yenriete As gai sdidznorte 10% Siieibsaxs etetiqgoigqa teom sit to sno eee & #6 t1sq tnetaognt ne aniyels suit smae add te lelyne 9 yen eeeesittiud to quot: sdT .aseeo yrem oi yawit)etes ‘etne etdt svode ankteraqe: . soe! tiedt te Beam 2ni nk satd 6g bantetde ed yan etedmom [snoketh to een oft ys - (TVS tf eSeestitnd to tnemteent edt nt es .a78hq to efnemeynsite BP iessis to emio? walimte bas snmaloo [etionan ,styte otdtod 153 the main cornice and constructed of simple arches spanning the space between two buttresses (Fig. 271). The erches could be ; utilized as openings for admitting light to the attire of the building, being at the same time windows in a small corridor or in small chambers in the roof. The Cothic style indeed in- troduced the so-called fable dormers for this purpose to load the buttress in accordance with a similar principel. . If the buttresses are arranged inside a building, it may well happen that they need to appear externally, only as low buattr- asses of moderate projection (Fig. 272); these may terminate at top in any suitable manner without the necessity of vertic- ally dividing the upper wall of a building in several stories: in other cases they may perhaps require a very wide projection, according to the arrangement of the vault, so that by vaulting over the spaces between buttresses may be formed external gal- leries over deep recesses, or above a rou of internal chapels. (Fig. 273). As the breadth of the buttress is diminished by offsets, th- ere may be offsets in the thickness also, but which can only tbe small on account of the small thickness of the buttress; (Fig. 274); it is otherwise if perhaps bridge piers have butt- ressetike offsets, when the breadth of the pier is considerable, on angle buttresses of towers that are always developed on 4 broader base, or on additions for strengthening the angles of the bases of monuments, fountains, etc. | Groups of buttresses are always required at the angles of v vaulted rooms and buildings, especially on towers, and they are sometimes employed in connection with stairway towers. The us- nal modes of arrangement are the following (Fig. 276); the but- tress is set back from the angle at a, directly at the angle at b, or diagonally at c’ the corresponding arrangements of a stairway tower would be as a a’, b’, and c’, this tower being one of the most appropriate Leuati ck’ for strancthentme the angle, at the same time playing an important part as a serv- ants’ stairway in many cases. The group of buttresses may com— bine in in a mass at their base, separating above this (Fig. 277): by the use of diagonal members may be obtained peculiar arrangements of piers, as in the treatment of buttresses in Cothic style, memorial columns and similar forms of piers. bel otdted oat to yloqoron's eetwon ar 978 eonestdtoe, | gerd depm you? tent to ,enofs tadt ot hettce sd gt 2 tipact [ersnsg e ste nadt jamtot ofdtod dst asia ot. salimie meldo1q s to ones mt be Holtourtedoo ps cs otis atin oanegeth tonnes ew , seks efbbim edd. ni, bey 6 di of evig ot sttasb on ti tod seeotttes, eda. jo 5 sat to sonetetxa sat battosiyen yletiina, eugt azo} m oft yd besiveh aniot eft of nites, bloods oy ely ben Yo tned Hilev y{{sr9n9y sit jsetgeh atetiso.s.q4. qu $Onnso doidn amtot heres tf teat emit ab, etudootkdate ! 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But if we desire to give to it a Renaissance form, thus entirely neglecting the existence of the Cothic st- yle, we should return to the forms devised by the middle ages up to a certain degree; the generally valid bart of mediaeval architecture is this, that it created forms which cannot be replaced by better ones. To exclude those forms on principle, would be to advance backward. Conversely we must never feel constrained to retain the detail forms of Cothic employed in its buttresses and flying buttresses, because it knew not how to use others. On principle we should avoid the use of buttres- ges as merely decorative parts, as likewise occurred in the Cothic style nothing is to be resisted, but certainly must not fall into the opposite error of the Renaissance, of greatly enlarging the volutes of modillions intended for a small scale, and of employing them as purposeless forms for buttresses, in the sense of being general form symbols for the indication of a horizontal thrust. Flying buttresses are counter arches, which do not transmit the thrust of vaults to the mass of a buttress by a heavy and inflexible buttress pier, but by an arch, which itself exerci- ses a thrust. Flying buttresses become necessary in all basil- ican designs of several aisles, they may also be used when . the buttresses are entirely omitted, but fixed points exist, for example rocks, massive walls, etc., to which the thrust of a vault may be transmitted. Finally they lose their function as arches exerting thrusts if free standing piers or the angle masses of towers, are connected with the principal mass of a building by oblique struts or by horizontal bridges supported by then. The following modes of arrangement are possible;-«, ©" 9° oF a, three or four aisled basilican buildings. 1, merely a single buttress is required; 2, two separate but- tresses are necessary (Fig. 278). 3, to increase the resistance are necessary two flying buttresses, connected together: (Fig. 279). ui i) ea og af Sa ont par et eeexdiod Antylt ead tad anoeest omee edt aot ,> ie tos» ebsbsaol yliveed) ytev sd teom etds dgvcds ; e@pnkbitod: nsotitesd belets xte so evi? .d%/ esigted: tnersltLh to ste esfate’ stra to erteq end yk v4 Siete ebte dors evode bozverts redt ors asseetttad antyl? Meitofanta e.to {O8S .3tT) atavoeed te L[arbedteo sft oo ptehtel beocee © efinn .sletasaatgo edt enege seersted tno es fetes sv#meo edt of aelete obfe atod tevosnnxoad? Sabie sat .= .(IS88 .3f%) efred te ome extol to Lerbentso D7 ee fupet oleate tenot edt nede ,tdated f[eups. to. ats 28 PeS(SES9 Rit) Meerttod setylt efeate « slais ratoo sat a ttad gotvit ent doide temtere neee ngettiod pat GP etdt to yataniyed ent ts betate etnseetiepe: ese yeterter ett steoof Gt yreesecen ylaniootiisg et th toc .ass ‘bastnt ankifedsoo yd sbhta teaat att teetseq ytives® ighst°sd of sevfsamedt ste esaserttiod anrylt aag.+ fed [fie yest .bstee1s ylaathbroqest100 9d of e168 bas in to tedt nadd ,fote betntog s fed to miotpadtiair’tt ) 8e0dy oft! eelete ettnso dard yrev to eaeo nt reds | Seat tetaea yino ton yods ,sistbefites otdtod toxnal Petalersnss 2c: To anokve div eit vehatid oale ted ,atinavy ont Siyyegedt astotooxte YIngtw dove nl .emrota tnelotv’ gd beateo tind.» ont bus eseeeittnd sat to csem Letot ont tent x99 @ Yo noltose edd ot sostinea a syiaf oe atneaery: noses edowe aetovenasi? yt Sedosmnom sd of aatopet yadsideds oo ed blnow 9nkbiiad sdt ,rno00 yifentos ees 2 doue f -29mosce2 boa eseastetiad to etesoarte | fanr0d 2 BipPetescoes sJ of at eesisdjod sdt to eaam ifaw ont Es: Bit sham od yom tedt edniog ssodt nsented Chic nacass —gntnasm [atetentte aredt of yustat toodtin eaninego Regeiniataoo sedotn yd bsteicosb yferen sd ysmonotde etncog yeRbs 36 oad esiftso of .ode ,alsneq bisin£g jestgonas. ;eor “an fw .cetew nier 20% elennado 28 esentifoed anigitvend Yo a gated ,bstasqet 9d mob{ee [ftw .Pcineg ohtted edt al Sook isahanens Isottostq visv s gq atk Cit iot neo easitiog s tadt dnebive ties et sl Lifer eg yrnoeam edt node yloo [Lew sat sainedtgnsrse Ce od yfsorsce blyuoo eeetttad a sonsd i 1entez03 io-od tipo ‘aso bod boo A -YinoeaT seeqoloy) 10 e1ebivod aaa a page % a ey 3 f i Sy oT ae] 5 ie » pte. “ wy . eel ih ee oan “— ot edt ao ylegtine ebneqeh nolionrteanod eit soni Eke sano starsgse dose ,2ninsgo sat sevo for sdt to medmeme ot fnetoktIos si JL pnoteivih to shom f[atoage e ated? sved bluode esdors [stnenjoe bebeo! ylynowte Jedd Hite godona (0 ces sRrt) atasmtods. edt Svewot daecetoat od at owse Sd te dA Ces 3%) enworto atest baanos seit: coca vad biaote Bs) ,levpeno ete eattostnov to edtbite«e edt ale igs ,atnsntode edt medi swoiw adt base ws edt 10) mage obin to eedote to antiniot: adT EF adi of gnthioscoe ‘bekmatie sd of eyvanle ek ekoineqe ~dotad to ef [law edt cody [etietem add to Bag 009 edt ) Betoustencs ad ‘eyenfe blaote 4 Akad Yo 2t tlsstt dow Boss nem edotad edt 10 ,mrct Sersqet to exotad 10 ertoaen 5 Lfe nt ted .beqede ehber od etnrot witror edt bra talod feisy fom gotad © to xobstixe ett eden ot ead ed [tn tt dotid ni efdeteterg agen!s ei tt rot ,sobartnt ent of . 159 in accordance with the-coursed bond, that the keystone may have the required height. If the arch consists of onle 3, 5 or 7 st- ones, it will not be very difficult to bond them with the ash= lar masonry, since the arch will scarcely affect more than four courses in height. for practical reasons the divisions of the arch must be so chosen as to be suited to the natural height of the courses of stone, being at most 15 3/4 to 23 5/8 ins. thick; for measons of stability it is preferable to sompose t the arch of as many voussoirs as possible. Therefore it would be well to base the division of the arch on the beast thickness of layer of the stone, since the voussoir must be @détdervat the extrados than on the intrados, and to divide the intrados in as many stones as the space permits, since for reasons of sta- bility is is best to lessen the span of the arch by corbelling at the abutment, and this division may vary within tolerably distant limits. The division of the arch into vorssoirs and of the wall in Courses will collide, if either division be not dependent of the other. In regard to the division of courses and voussoirs, the following cases are possible. a, the courses are of equal height; b, heights of courses a are alternately equal; c, the courses have unequal heights; d, voussoirs are of equal width; e, widths of voussoirs are alter- nately equal; f, their widths are unequal. . Since the construction depends entirely on the form and span of the arch over the opening, each separate case will lead to a special mode of division; it is sufficient to remember here, that strongly loaded segmental arches should have their depths increased toward the abutments (Fig. 295 a); arches with high rise, toward their crowns (Fig. 295)b); at the same time when the widths of voussoirs are unequal, they should be wider to- mara the crown than the atutments. The jointing of arches of wide span or the covering of narrow openings is always to be arranged according to the heights of the courses of the material when the wall is of brick; if the arch itself is of brick it should always be constructed of vo- uvssoirs or bricks of tapered form, or the bricks man be rectan- gular and the mortar joints be wedge shaped. But in all cases it will be bes to make the extrados of a bricg arch parallel to the intrados, for it is alwags preferable in brick ~™ 3 ~ ee ae a hy, eden wfoodgsordt fotad te mzot Lemion & yolqms od vib ot bus ,edotad feteqet of s{dateterg ets etatol red ii Eien edt dttn {fon etins oF exotad edd to abso roduc. edd a )eeastean tod Lemiot ed yl[no fon bivox | | otatmeonoo ton dowte Aotad & eism ot bertesh ef tt tT aT AdWS «Ri%) yrnomew teldee nt as sobaiixe beyyjeste # dé f / bne [etnosttod yd asdtie .ayew ont ot snob ad. ase genre atid tod setatot, anttiotl {ether bas Jetnosisos yttieq ,oulev [anptonrte elderebienco on eesesog bleon 6d ot svad Slvow adoisd sdt sonte .seso baooee sdé ot mem mi heitites, ed bluow tod .segede teqget of baddon yleoteoe blyon ono 19dtigt jeqoeset sviteroosh 10% De to so ,ano1d Bet Heawot xoiwd betniog e to ditgebh oat image [feme rot (s \RS .Btt) ebne att brsvot sore xXoind Jat Pr to dizaeite edd oxen blyow edottd edt Anittuo sonte 18 edt oieam Bloor atoisd edt teantto of bare ,L[uttdgob , ebnty orrinsonom: [atevse to dots edt tonttanoo of elon Bie decentncen2h yino eonte ,aselerogseg ylisintonae ‘bigow dt7e5 sxtdne ett dauotds antinstxs etntot Isrber sO fedoms nemod efowe en toe yllass bloow tod ysaeqqa yi 9 eit of yino cranes stedd exo axoriad to ero Leteven to . es fortoottanco afsdt of gon base set¢70m snol mottenret [s eit yd terit betetooeh ed yam dots oft .f bod yen etiogevov ,yimonam Aotid ot es boyclgae alsinedem » tot svitom bnooee A .fots sdt to stots oft osented bet yitegionizq ett antinsoocs ak atatenoo no1a odd 3xnites to etmtot edd bose .atntoq actgeivge .nworo sds ee seatened fodod edt to nottonitenco Aorrd edt (4 TOS bos etroqst ,eeqotaysd si1sdw ,wewx Bidd at bestnetoere »eit to xedove mt beosly stew ,Stwtqo7 18 atatol ge das sew done efit to sebetamet sdt slide .ebatd tne sonseetanes watiaetl sit ogls tad doted edt ylno tok Paaignings sft gatinecoe J4 noitoursenoo besore avetios Mojmyenrceb edt nt ylfetoeqes ,anwo1s bas etotqa1 to efmiog etofe , aynt{foo beretesfy elamie ni oals bus eseuod t9lqate wet A .eeviton fenthino to wottnevni sat barinpe: esenniely 19S. ,oN0> mort asaged to etoob tot eevitem dove Yo aslqae w2OS . SCS .ek27) ered soaly bnit tdgim ,eoeets bs ofgsllec fon To [otitaned nedt oktertedostedo orem ef tettal eat 4 (OOE /6ns tiitoes beyelqe sat to etntot edt [fe -nottatink to yar ree ay anit et to 160 to employ a normal form of brick throughout; wedge-shaped mor- tar joints are preferable to tapered bricks, and to dress off the outer ends of the bricks to unite well with the wall bond would not only be formal but useless. If it is desired to make a brick arch not concentric but wi- th a stepped extrados as in ashlar masonry (Fig. 296), this — | can be done in two ways, either by horizontal and vertical or horizontal and radial limiting joints» but this arrangement w would possess no considerable structural value, partichlarly in the second case, since the bricks would have to be cut and { rubbed to taper shapes, but would be justified in manywcases for decorative reasons; further one would scarcely increase the depth of a pointed brick toward its crown, or of a segmen- tal brick arch toward its ends (Pig. 297 a) for small spans, 3 since cutting the bricks would make the strength of the arch doubtful, and to offset the bricks would make the arch appear ugly. To construct the arch of several concentric rings is structurally purposeless, since only a strengthened arch with radial joints extending through its entire 8epth would not on- ly appear but would really act as such. Roman arches composed of several rows of bricks owe their strength only to the excel- lent mortar and not to their construction. 8, The arch may be decorated first by the alternation of the materials employed as in brick masonry, voussoirs may be inser- ted between the bricks of the arch. A second motive for decor- ating the arch consists in accenting its principal points, such as the crown, springing points, and the joints of rupture (Fig. 297 b)* the brick construction of the Dutch Renaissance is ch- asracterized in this wau, where keystones, imposts and stones P| at joints 6f rupture, were placed in arches of the most differ- ] ent kinds, while the remainder of the arch was entirely of brick. — Yot only the Dutch but also the Italian Renaissance sought to relieve arched construction by accenting the springing points, points of rupture and crowns, especially in the doorways of the simpler houses and also in simple paastered ceilings , whose plainness required the invention of original motives. A few ex- amples of such motives for doors of houses from Como, Bergamo, Bellagio and Brescia, might find place here (Figs. 298, 299, 300 )5 the latter is more characteristic than beautiful or wor- thy of imitation; all the joints of the splayed soffit and jambs re ee { sdt to tiyted edt te tntog sfynte # mor? stsibsr te tenets % bedtan seodt to noktqeox® sat atin tu® j$oedidors made ekdt to sebt edT .een0 mete Jud leet 1 > 1) Jefdanotsostde aedt satwisdto bebreber od f bosodealy yrentb3o sot sidatiga svitom oissditee oA ain 10 1008 dave: dome feo sdt anivevoo ni atetenoo Yea doidu ef etoted beoaely enote to dale s yd 22 xox ed? .sretlot? yt besetoosb sd 10 s3b9 beh dul ‘does, yam atatos, sind ody te seod? es [few en Bee } ew ono edt tnsateetd esr fas etidos ayswls ef Seoqmsk edt ~ ” To°abiside Jebeod .ossifot j;eebom earvevid teon ont t Snted snoteyet ed? w1efoevedo att tot oldetioe ons as aesiivpss wotfeuitenoo before ne to tniog tastioymt a6svih toom ef% wevted osfe tr eseeod yts7 at «tasooe pot Ledros & @8 bemtot sd gemtifemoe sioteisdd yam boas Wioqyns of betnesat st wenttesoe .sotn109 Botsostomg & fiad edt to isdman edt yntreed sno to sute to Siete lod 8 od eyewls Iltw snoteyex s to moivstoces teslion . ed yea ..0%6 .elsatne to ehbeod .amelims otlodmye % to sonstroqat Bae seo0qiwq edt of anibicooa best B 10% hae bra SdBif bos [lew Yo easnvotdT .S : e@wobtiiw bas stoob to metnk ers esasD Yeon ot effew [entetxe ar eynitnsg0 p tea os gesooa Sviy of to ,mooy 6 OF FAREL To noreerabe j -OF ei seogte7 Jeerib seodn ,asisesidee ceyl .alémt ee bebisiss ed oF eyenle eta ,sittoetowg « to shenesy do eft “Tot. beametts of od teon yedt sonte .tdnet tot ‘Qniaeetwe ol sbemtea ef ofttostorqg edt dotdy ts neon ba Bi ewobatw vot eebi gothas! edt .ellsw ni etninsyo jo Sct somed jaesoDe Stat tftost ot eroob tot ptdatl to fenistxe ne ,obtenk to sbtetno tedtie benehin od bloode y fepraf yd Been etoob sob sldarttoe to yteamsoen at ani ‘panordt befool sd of don awobsiw tot Das ,xn0e1t9q to rtm fentetat me yenobntw dowdo gain to sero ni ge et totep ed of @f moo7 5 node 8100 yasm tot sidatie w sot ogfe ;ato0f doawndo dns ovtestt tot es .afjoeq to t Pa ve eR hs amr mee tamglate getdool rot bebnesar \ee nea a | se ieee oiidug ae hee a AA Sip. “agian gd * CAs Lie } 7 whe ‘ edn Pees. APS aes oats avg ying es oe ea - ‘or 161 radiate from a single point at the heisht of the human eye. ~~ Rout with the exception of those marked f, these joints are not real but sham ones. The idea of this sham architecture cannot be regarded otherwise than objectionable. An esthetic motive suitable for ordinary plastered masonry consists in covering the real arch over door or window openin- gs by a slab of stone placed pefore it, which may have a moul- ded edge or be decorated by foliage, the key stone»and imposts, as well as those at the rupture joints may_each be treated in its own way. The impost is always accented and its treatment may follow the most diverse modes; foliage, heads, shields of arms, etc., are suitable for its character. The keystone being the most i important point of an arched construction requires a@ special accent, “in wany cases it also serves the most diverse purposes, and may therefore sometimes be formed as a corbel to support a projecting cornice, sometimes be intented to support a bust, shield of arms or one bearing the number of the building. The noblest decoration of a keystone will always be a human head; sympolic emblems, heads of animals, etc., may be substituted for a head,according to the purpose and importance of the building, 2. Thickness of wall and light and spacial character of doors and windows. Openings in external walls in most cases are intended for admission of light to a room, or to give access to mén or an- imals. Even embrasures, whose direet purpose is to permit the passage of a projectile, are always to be regarded as openings for light, since they must be so arranged for the object to be seen at which the projectile is aimed. In arranging plans of openings in walls, the leading idea for windows is admission of light; for doors to facilitate access; hence the opening should be widened either outside or inside; an external widen- ing is necessary or suitable for doors used by large numbers of persons, and for windows not to be looked throush outward, as in cage of high church windows; an internal widening is de- sirable for many doors, when a room is to be quickly emptied of people, as for theatre and church doors; also for windows intended for looking through, like those of dwellings and many public buildings. a ng ge | 4 a) eS aay ” } Bink gaktego: nn a9st0dn antbioeb tot aorsst sdtonA wmk shom of% ef ebiant to sbissuo bestetins ed Ife blot fon 916 seeds Ti :neyo ot oe waders 10 as00b 0° % edt ted? o@ sifaat beysige sd. astte trom gann | t atot eft ao aesl boeqebh .ehbord [fa to eeeoging yter ben of bsd Snes ytseasoennys yllatens3 af JI -aninsgo edd pg ent seao ni neve , (SOF .2f7) aot de, bedntog er0c0h Yo eno at eidd ;hetniog ef yathliad edd nt snilisverg : ).t6 tivtge edt Yo tasr0nRt efootidots to eilivst nomaoo te sbasioed gt arner eit siaa of yreresoen tt Satverled Wins | ‘sewobain odd: dt ,soblea ans besntog: e700b sbhax hoebat elyte ofdso) aAT “vondpagapdann) tooh edd tnd ,hetatog qilsueo een dove snivailer arene | ae: 17 162 Another reason for deciding whether an opening in 4 wall sh- all be enkarged outside or inside is the mode in which the b | doors or sashes are to open. if these are not folding the ope- ning must often be splayed inside so that the door or sash does not project beyond the jamb (Fig. 301); if folding, the splayed jamb may be narrower and the opening may be splayed outside. If the door or sash is required to entirely fit into the jamb, pilasters projecting inside will sometimes be needed (Fig. 302), whose projection from the inner surface of the wall may be con- siderable, if the wall is not sufficiently thick to receive t . the entire door or sash, that it may not project inside. Conversely in case of doors, the doorway may project from t the outside of the wall, both to facilitate passage and to af- ford a projecting shelter, thus makind the opening in the wall deeper than could be obtained wit: the thickness of the wall alone. This arrangement may be necessary for entrances of chur- ches, palaces, city halls and similar buildings for public as- semblies. 2. Means of closing doors and windows. For all openings in walls intended to be temporarily open or closed, this requirement will aid in determining their arrang- enent in plan. Rectangular doors and windows are always prefe- rable for rooms of dwellings on account of admission of light, the joinery, ease of opening and closing, and for placing cur- tains before the opening, that is usually spanned by a segmén- tal or round arch. In public buildings, which require larger doors and windows on account of the depth of rooms to be ligh- ted and the greater number of persons, the doors and windows need to be round headed, or the windows may be divided by mul- lions if quite wide; windows seldop opened by special mechanism for ventilation like those of churches and buildings for ordi- nary purposes of all kinds, depend less on the form of spanning the opening. It is generally unnecessary and bad to made the doors pointed at top (Fig. 304), even in case the form of arch prevailing in the building is pointed; this is one of the most common faults of architects ignorant of the spirit of Cothic, believing it necessary to make the doors pointed because of the windows. The Gothic style indeed made doors pointed but seldom, the relieving arch was usually pointed, but the door terminated ¢ 4 a ear a uietresbeasoh: too ef erat 10 fetntt tidiertes yd o teat gatne70. fentetat edt (SOF .QkT) betnicg sban at -etitivts aaa Binoo 1005 sat some fore {stasmzeag # ovad é t{nev [ennut betntoy © dtiw been ever done betntog & qo ebtsvot [siisdem edt to amtot aitimil > aoqxs TOtTstat edt <2yelqe bas eatebiod .enottoeioxg ee eq eooitey ak’ tdgeodt edt beneroq ySeorle oved oF {t eves ‘gmtot sveonod bas xevnoo dttw bststooasa asebt joe vela YodT .am1ot oftentes to ebatiti{on a tot atnions Ytesed}? elfen ak exntmedae to sevartidots edt at treq p/eotodo: ont oe auntneqo seedt to noktouttanos ae | shovarttiors stedt %o ante nif to yar @ YO notfostth edt ed (@Of .yrt) ds te) Be isos ‘© tel bas .ebtetao begisine antpeqo os d3anoudt 1987 18 $tttas odd ted? tnebive ek th p{fsew sad to welder MeRtO? Ta yelqe sit sett .Heb{oom of sd yam antnego adt te 7 : Seat ,netttet whatbloom edt eotl. dotde midtiw thot oe & gi Beoaslges of yom (cd COP .3kt) b of 9 mont ffeiea sit uffeatt stebin {lite evartidors ont exen of reise od Srewtot hevem ed yao eetgtam tiest bne ete ek M90) ,eee0 tart? edt uf es 6 o yale odt gatveel .(o ede ecm a pee tattt ond edd nt Lgnibloow a yd beoeiqer sd yam re stint sit nf nadd t9tee1g ef slttowq sat to b 5 ddbee puis ont af Lanpe ek gniasqs eae to taenetrafne et iA) -tnsren rh bas Helttorg edt To eddbin adt ood .eseeo ‘wert sdf (eaaknsdo edt Rabgrot to elatonitq eras of bas .oveitidiqa ent ssn ot shin wos to ,e0 Of nego for18 to Saki etdt.to eiqgtontiy ed? sbatneqo edt yale P Ifan eft nt antnsqo edt tact noktqapess: at no baesd ‘ed? tot beyolgms ef brod awaa ana mew horeetno yi qwhosen Yo ehaki tedto ai 10 (dolad I snose to stentodn i atoind to etaides to teyeal & yd beaolone ef 3ntaeqgo (0 S5f04 sdt wontatetsd efgtontzg (saptoaxte bnooee eAT | Satneqo edt gnteolone at atetenoe ynineqe ma act xath Og) gE) qinogsn edt aoth foltdw tanteyga ,evettidors Leto $0) we 1o°X9itd ,elddat ,neeqoloy? ,relhes ed yaa yinoess o . hota 10 Brote Yo af svertifoms.edt olide ati nen bastetohas ayente ew cost [law yi tadd [Lacer aw tT 8 ‘ecg oda ‘pi tl doidw mort ithe Taokitev’ [ashi xo a eens 9 Mi a yee 2 163 by a straight lintel or this is cut segmental; but if the door is made pointed (Fig. 304) the internal opening must commonly have a segmental arch, since the door could not be opened if a pointed arch were used with a pointed tunnel vault above. 4. Limiting forms of the material towards openings as projections, borders and splays, its interior exposed. We have already pursued the thought in various places, that ideas associated with convex and concave forms give the leading points for a multitude of esthetic forms. They play a chief p part in the architraves of openings in walls. Therefore the construction of these openings determine the choice of the sec- tions of their architraves. net a bd (Fig. 305) be the direction of a ray of light passing through an opening enlarged outside, and let c be a parallel ashlar of. the wall; it is evident that the entire enlargement of the opening may be so moulded, that the splay a bo forms the limit within which lies the moulding. Further, the entire space from c to d (Fig. 305 b) may be replaced bp a border profile to make the architrave still wider; finally the parallel ashl- ars and their margins may be moved forward to the point e (Fig. 205 c), leaving the splay c d as in the first case, or this may be replaced by a moulding; in the two first cases the total width c d of the profile is greater than in the third case, t the enlargement of the opening is equal in the first and last cases, but the widths of the profiles ard different. According to this principle of forming the openings, the free choice is open to us, of how wide to mae the architrave, and how much to splay the opening. The principle of this kind of architrave is based on the assumption that the opening in the wall is formed by omission, when the same bond is employed for the entire wall, whether of stone or brick; or in other kinds of masonry the o opening is enclosed by a layer of ashlars or bricks (Fig. 306). The second structural principle determines the choice of moul- ding for an opening consists in enclosing the opening by a spe- cial architrave, against which dies the masonry (Fig. 307).The masonry may be ashlar, Cyclopean, rubble, brick or any other kind, while the architrave is of stone or brick. Tf we recall that by wall face we always understand the real or ideal vertical plane from which project the paneled ashtars, ee epi : / ‘ oe Wave mie? nf ee ie tales } , ai iy ts, . f 20 ‘ and Sas seott to esoet edt ofinw eshtontoo dotdn bas peer eiqrontty tert? sae Afiw somebtoooe nt ,etnrot ttdowe sit to efttoty sat ,eflaw nk egntneyo to nort itdext-nt tostow yam ti tod ,soat [Lew adt brined ayer a aq ontag tod elatpmisg bandes edt avin eonabrooos ni t ovad ot as ce .banidwoo tevan bas hetaiages sd avanle por eesian .{{aw edt to sost sit mort SoeLory overt: s eulawe saiviedto tot ,{fsw eid mort etersqer ylleas aed sevetttiors eft to xoofd dose mort tod sd gmat obte yiev eved ekaiweqo sat ,allew dois yrev at ie 8k 2Sdtto eyew ont nt eavelies to betosrdenoo st yam pophorg st yalge edt stedw .(B80F .2iT) d boe & te nel sida baa o salq edt ot gnibroscs to ,yfenpifdo tee aeno lateatto aelogmatoey yd baoslyet ems ayelge oat sr9dn \Ratioe_omg eA everttidow edt tneeenge: b hee d sely rafeywetost sit 6 eaeo mY .sost [law sot mort ytd sanonenins hae ea | of ennoloo [fame yt heoslqgs 93 ifeme yt bel itt ad yam efeatto e137 neexted esfyne ds yaa at belitiag esdow frogace alstiqes saoda , (OLE aote eyeweter ,ewohain ~R100b no Leatoeye .d ite: foteatmbs 10% ove allen nt szatnszo .botate ybsowle 6A aeyeretes “e6ntt Ife to eoascerq eis to ,ewohatw as tant ‘fove enans : , baa ."otew 10% ,e93bi1d yewoteR .elenout to efetrog eyoaatang bt ev awobarW .ote .nottalitnevy tot .eatseraidne es Mo. 0 obai ite eit! efxa’ feokisev «8 dtiv settis ,eflex Laott Sain aml 8 toode feyneiis ewohatw {fe ehofont en doinw at | yons poen Tredt of anibaoooA .akaklteo ng addutigqde ove fs .peoelag boa wQrtbhlied offdeq ,ekarlfeeh of arofed ylleq pk alf{ex at eyninege editoash | wor [fsde 8% .eedonoto of a ine me 7 195% kaknol lot . garbhltad aaténg te s#ods .S j;ahntifen’ to awobaiw ii. Sof .¢ yawohbain.feedw .b ;sedorsds to seodd. .f :e90slay i aefleme odd detogniverh of .etdgi(yie. 8 ;ewobare pseptel .2 yetoob .\ -:2e8 agathited otidaq bane steving ‘i 0. Sean {adqumiat bee aote, eaoxtiot bas ysto gatboloné Brsahseet agnbneqo SI jeeghiad yanetes If jeLenngds Yo elasi0g - yots heenenmeare .nottaltiney t0oY ,19ten to ahtedo -s5envod toe ewobniy ft ee ont cont ebntifont ‘Yo ewobatw ode tebkanco geri? of et bevised ed yam aeviton shade Naa tuatioqet teom etd teat Riis) al oo Sar if 8 Awe 4? 40 i jend : eel rer 164 and which coincides with the faces of those having triangular joints, in accordance with the first principle of the construc-— tion of openings in walls, the profile of the architrave is al- ways behind the wall face, but it may project in front of that in accordance with the second principle; bat principles nust always be separated and never combined, so as to have the arch- itrave froject from the face of the wall, unless it is struct- ' urally separate from the wall, for otherwise surplus stone must be cut from each block of the architrave. In very thick walls, the openings have very wide jambs, which may be constructed of ashlars in two ways, either as shown in plan at a and b (Fig. 308), where the splay is produced by st- ones set obliquely, or according to the plan c and a (Figs. 309), where the splays are replaced by rectangular offsets. the exam- ples b and d represent the architrave as projecting considera- bly from the wall face. In case d the rectangular offsets may te replaced by small columns in windows and entrances, or the angles between the offsets may be filled by small columns (Fig- 310), whose capitals support arches prifiled in any manner. be Special on doors, windows, gateways, etc. As already stated, openings in walls are for admission of light as windows, or are passages of all kinds, doors, gateways, portals of tunnels, gateway bridges, for water, and others such as embrasures, for ventilation, etc. Windows are formed in ver- tical walls, either with a vertical axis like wheel windows, in which we include all windows arranged about a centre, or are skylights in ceilings. According to their uses they princi- pally belong to dwellings, public buildingr and palaces, lastly to churches. We shall now describe openings in walls in the f following order. 1, windows of dwellings; 2, those of public buildings and p palaces; 3, those of churches; 4, wheel windows; 5, tracery of windows; 6, skylights. We distinguish the smaller entrances of private and public buildings as:- 7, doors; 8, larger gateways including city and fortress gates and triumphal arches; 10, portals of tunnels; 11, gateway bridges; 12, openings for dis- charge of water, for ventilation, embrasures, etc. 1. Windows of houses. We first consider the windows of dwellings for the eeason t that the most important separate motives may be derived from OO ene ee ee ers e is RS at Or ee - atasmsyoarte Lenten gated es eaedt etat yferen seodt to bas agatbitnd atelg yrev to wwobail fs ,emeot selqmte ent smpees {ftw esedqtg, {oteen s0% s aeidorg odd esso eldt ni .esheq Batbooesg ont at betas hanson teolqmte edt dtin sJostte geod edt ciatdo od et wi a eswobotw ael{is) .0 leo, at awobaty 10 sted bree sd yom {arene nt elttil ony # conte .egntffewb at heowhortnt somttenon ,asewod t to tnnonos nO .easo dose nt egnado emo? rkedt to eno ot afdtesoq es sbiw ae sbam ste yodt tonted [lene shows YI daqvo13 msds e186 bas ,fdarl to insomea elidasebis f ylovitales 9 yd besasge bas ebient beyslge ,.ofs, ,29 {9 ntl oat emtot tieett dtntig edt nedw botsioo ed yen sade “ead s sd yam evatsinots odd to ofttow eaT .(LLE .art) Be PGE soos ee timbe of begade ,betaert ylanie ad r0.bed mo yieeascen 816 dase meboow tk sieden [antetxe as dtiw .sidie Be sade fenvetnt ne ddin ,boext? sie eavobain sat tr sont mf pret oe & ofat aftit eme1t meboow sdt Te , dots imo ce ‘et o(Sré oak) tak emoor sat pie of eyieR yino swohakw talf{[oo edd YI SsaBy Yeon oct tod .etanthaodne oben y{isteney ete yods ,tsiles sg tedue sd¢ to yrnoeem teldes edt dtin anotienidmos, bet f 0 setqed) edd at besoitnaem saodt stil ,eldtesoy ose Debi’, -aflew mt eaninego [{sme ynitevoo to ebodten..191q oa s; Inenaeed Yo'‘nottentdmoo sat, mont dinget etoomeynatse ee etodel bayol sd [fiw ee awebdain ae Sa : | Y10TS Foemeasd oi enohbas¥ .4.5.. : vs va BTS rote sewol to tnemessd af enobatw-to amo] ite j (pe > vad ‘ Ae * & v hy ul : ifene atatnoo [fin [atne2 102 sevot & to, dnemenad,ad), my = edt to, tedt madd .egnitilexb sidatsagess eael sretetedt att ) t187 6 yquooo [fad sotatine dae yew19ob oft sonia, .ytode vai | gods [fame « 10% asdat od yee th to», 99872 ie 09 yliaven tnsmeeed ont ,aeiliv bas eeanod besoateh al a Qotsooed ydetedt ,.ot@ ,woor antnih .moor norsqgsoet edt Hien ) 9 sntbiodus ssmooed ytote asqge edd efinw ,ytots Laqioning >. .tkobuod eLISSIWM ,s007 testdsend ,pmootbed scv eniataos ee esenod ytto nt braot at yrota baidt 10 brooee a Tt eat .eanif{fenb stenthtoiue atatnoo seinedil asizote seeds aoe S1stostidors sdt nt hetaotbhar sd team wetiote edt to retor TnSmMayneIs tL98dF. oF bed. - 165 these as being normal arrangements. Windows of very plain buildings and of those merely intended for useful purposes will assume the simpler forms, already tr- eated in the preceding pages. In this case the problem always” is to obtain the best effect with the simplest means. ao. Cellar windows. Little mn general may be said here of windows in cellars of houses, sometimes introduced in dwellings, since the proporti- ons of their forms change in each case. On account of their | small height they are made as wide as possible to admit a con- siderable amount of light, and are then srouped by twos, thre- es, etc., splayed inside and spanned by a relatively low lintel, that may be omitted when the plinth itself forms the lintel ( (Fig. 311). The profile of the architrave may be entirely omit- ted or be simply treated, shaped to admit as much light as pos- sible, with an external rebate if wooden sash are necessary or if the windows are fixed, with an internal rebate that may be omitted, if the wooden frame fits into a rebate in the stone. (Fig. 312). Tf the cellar windows only serve to light the rooms in the cellar, they are generally made subordinate, but the most var- ied combinations with the ashlar masonry of the substructure are possible, like those mentioned in the Chapter on the sim- pler methods of covering small openings in walls. Peculiar . arrangements result from the combination of basement and cellar windows as will be lound later. 8. Windows in basement story. Forms of windows in basement of lower story are always adap- ted to their arrangement | The basement of a house for rental will contain smaller and therefore less respectable dwellings, than that of the first story, since the doorway and entraice hall occupy a part of its space, or it may be taken for a small shop. In detached houses and villas, the basement usually contains the reception room, dining room, etc., thereby becoming the p principal story, while the upper story becomes subordinate and contains the bedrooms, breakfast room, nursery, boudoir, etc.; if a second or third story is found in city houses for rental, these stories likewise contain subordinate dwellings. The char- acter of the stories must be indicated in the architecture, ae te he Abd ff thee { 0) 4. SAGE i 7 c il T ‘ zi ae dat | edt seruon asdzed: ‘edt mk’ eomtd omer sit te and tones ont bas Amb lid evtins edt Yo eeed edt entot 8 Jatoten edt eeeeotaxs tt eonke bas ,motteném19s ett itooe eseebt oft atitw ebtocce .aeotdaesgqe y{foettioS e100 10 os ad blwotea t1eq t9qqu Sit Feds ,woled bre ovodA adie Jnbae nit eben od tenn sgasdo a ,1stveed yiots tawol edt at bas enoteneuth ar dtod ,asiiote tastettrb edt to baned, oct unintetmo>s yiots adt sasn sy fetenes ak tl - attr ‘nt tuemeesd adt od cafe yem dotde .s3s8t6 effed sdt este 10% asecod at ytote tart? edt ed events Ilte baa * Dy tasrettib ak nomaoo , agottaogory Lawton 3abwo ‘th bn OBVR: ') OA.Obe O8Lb ) iy eQnklfewd .anete me Peo Fe.e * Te $8.3 * 23.p > 98.0 * nee a » «(issote?) imteea scaled ,emot ee") seaknassell OS.8 * Sener SELL = TBE ae «Eeresey .A eoslat ,smoF ane ES.0 * COLD CT.8 * ERB CO.8 * Ob.D guna eanett? soefeT .smod DOLD « Ba.E 8.0 * 08.2 00.8 = Lf obma Y i Dimsented estasv vob es 167 Carlsruhe. 3.44 x 6,89 3.77 =x 7.38 2.61 x 6.72 Beblin (according to Schinkel). For a house for rental:- 4.60 x 8.20 4.60 x 9.20 4.60 x 8.20 4 For a villa:- : 4,60 x 10.18 5.10 x 10.18 A fex smaller Italian Renaissance palaces are given for comparison Florence, Palace Larderel. 4.60 x 9.50 4.60 x 9.50 4.60 x 9.50 Siena, Daekling. 3.94 x 7.82 3.61 x 6.82 3.61 x 5.57 Rome, Palace Massimi (Peruzzi). 3B * 7 22 4.92 x 9.20 Mezzanine. Rome, Palace A. Massimi. 4.40 x 8.03 4.43 x 8.75 4.00 x 6.23 Rome, Palace Firenze (Vignola). 4.0¢/= 8.00 5.80 x 7.85 3.64 x 6.94 While the architects of the Dresfen school have grettyistric- tly adhered to the prorortions of the windows of houses here given, the dimensions given for Stuttgart, Vienna, Carlsruhe and Berlin are merely approximate, but are not the normal din- ensions employed in those cities. y. Architraves of windons. Architraves, like the usual moulded portions, are wrought f from the usual stair step blocks in many places, where rendered possible by a great development of the quarrying of stone as in Dresden; the rough blocks have normal dimensions of 7.48 to 7.88 ins. wide, and the profile of the architrave varies fron 6.02 to 6.96 ins in width; yet the same width of architrave is retained in the different stories, but this width may be incr- eased from the least to the greatest measure, according to the richness of the profile and of the building, also according to the fineness or plainness of its character. Since the clear width of the windows of different stories v vary according to the rules of the Dresden school, but the wid- this of their archives remain constant with 4 normal width of 6.5 ins., the Hap: of this to the clear width of the win- doa varies between 1-: 7 and 1°: 9; hence the architraves of ¥ \ ae wi) oY ee a ee ok AO RRR al) A Ur { fj ro | i eal Lys it HEA | cn , i On i nd ‘ Ruy a : j : aebt Scat olinn le AAR ewobnix woreda add to ot 90 fof farene3 nt ors enotanemth ashee1d sa? .wowten soor | ere heen enotebaee Sentety ent? edt of Satwo {ines be paren ave ewohatw sonseeteanss bra otenelo to eevettisor eis _., enobatn to dthin aselo ant a\t ot s\z gmted ,ashi* | heel ett bas wobntw edt bevebianoo 1st of svad 57% featq yfdtoome gnived seasod mo Lemion 5 ae sresage Sf fiitt: Beostoxs ton af evettidors edt enedu ,eflan soove rtf atets79r eft yd tad antmaqo edt to eelyne odd tao mt esnote inet ed? to mofvosto1qg edt .wobniw sid Yo : sot oat 2.0 od saael ta teom [Len edt to sont eds pdostettes tootts att sian ot edmet, debLoow sot wai O€.t ea eai® ai movi 1s anotementbh [rotiosig aedto edt | famzon gniwolfot oni betkt esd Ioodos nasbes1] eral ) aseeo beivev teom sdé wot awobntw to asvartinors 10% tetoerads sonaeatans? yitotsta s gnéved [f[sf ,soitoarg at d gate tod Dean snotebnase saiid sdt ot betiae anted ae ‘Sense oftedtes edt of afreteb to anottrogoyg edd ratoststo mre to (ALE .RET) suobatn tellang aot .f Vay © sMottoe.ong omit $00.0 bne sbix o =, 3 yanthariade sedogt to evobnin tellame to7 .S | Bievad yam alensa imor edt ;(@LE .Bt%) mottostong «ar 202.0 ¥ tat mezjnaite dott yzev of das ,eettesot déiw belt? esl hee ; ae Pi el: «@tnomento staditi{eb yi belfrt od yam an bes fi ea. (OLE R48) emte ogetevs to ewobain 10% .8 of € ria BE nt a.d belttorg eaten atom to ylentt ,sedoin aS -MOltosi,om «ent eek ae “th oe 8 ees! no S70 » AEE -3 iF) anobain.bso1d 10% eOk of & va toodtiw 10 dttw ,delrto1g yintelg so yldoin ,doi1 10 Me 2-0 Te.t of S&L apttosiow .abiw .ent (0.3 ,ele ‘igeninn ,nokinoexe to esse edt eelttova eesdt (fs ol /satevert ,havot ,evoo ,tef[[irt doss to snottoajory edt “gettirsttaoog oaT .yan [uterwso teow edt at Ssrebrenoo “ps by . egaiwoliot edt evs eelitow sagas aq igon ovat OS «Sf ,S .800 ;nottoolomg tesel ved I .oi go" Ww badategos etalt eyed) XP of cl AL 1.8 YN Deven | nebau ead ¢ 20% 29920 estevet dtin eteaimist ,Of .S .aon os eimor ddtn e930 seteven sved of .€ .3 oom phan01 t9t7e00 qeoxes m2.,9028% [lew mort paitontony sittomg sxftae esd 2 .on 168 of the narrow windows appear broad, while those of wider ones seem narrow. The Dresden dimensions are in general to be term- ed samll, owing to the fine grained sandstone used there; the architraves of classic and Renaissance windows are generally wider, being 1/4 to 1/6 the clear width of window. We have so far considered the window and its architrave as it appears as a normal on houses having smoothly plastered or stone walls, where the architrave is not produced by splaying the angles of the opening, but by the separate lintel and jambs of the window. The projection of the jamb stones in fromt of the face of the wall must at least be 0.9 in. for plane ir 1.38 in. for moulded jambs to make its effect satisfactory’ t the other practical dimensions are given in Fig. 313. This Dresden school has fiked the following normal profiles for architraves of windows for the most varied cases occurring in practice, fiall havéng a strictly Renaissance character and being suited to the Pirna sandstone used, but which still leave the proportions of details to the esthetic sense. 1. For smaller windows (Fig. 314) of simple character, 6 ins. wide and 0.904 in. projection. 2. For smaller windows of richer character, 6 in. wide and 0.904 in. projection (Fig. 315); the sunk panels may have ang- les filled with rosettes, and in very rich arrangements, they may be filled by delitate ornaments. 3 to & For windows of average size (Fig. 316), simpler and richer, finely or more plainly profiled, 6.5 ins. wide, 1.38 ins. projection. | 9 to 20. For broad windows (Fig. 317), more or less simple or rich, richly or plainly profiled, with or without sunk pan- ' els, 6.97 ins. wide, projection 1.38 to 1.97 ims.(Fig 317). In all these profiles the ease of execution, general effect, the projections of each fillet, cove, round, reverse oBee, are considered in the most careful way. The peculiarities found in these profiles are the following. No. 1 has least projection; nos. 2, 12, 20 have sunk panels; nos. 4, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, have flats separated by rounds; nos. 2, 19, terminate with reverse ogees; No. 5 has undercut quarter round; nos. 6, 9, 19, have reverse ogee with round; no. 9 has entire profile projecting from wall face, an except- — a Weve to toanenyosie Sidteathrey ylleaottyeoze eee : adliae wabmed boysioe dtiw tr Bae” S ent ats to antifssor ond pelttora seeds fie aT” Seieiett borat tat Atty svertitore edt to thandeord Bae eeroet reese ‘eng to eThtan eas bee \teqgorgnt be ne’ |) bapetherot sind ot eae i sete Befles a ty B ee ad ayentes bivotea af dotde mort, , nod oe | o(OEE. .pe™) gar p ffan ond ont tfendhdete snote fetroxttod on et qao.ent 1 qitb s baa got te dean arigofe eed yew teetonia ond of Hee NG Pr0AGue eertiopst aorsoeiorg att .(¢ [8E%.RtT) wostod pan 4 (5 IE RE") oyeedt yiaties th sdew of -Rntbinaw | $32) rnthloon awowde ebesn taemgolsvsh to aot aay Ind | mee ont dtin yeorens Yo notfosLo1g edt vatorntbracog | 1 Weqqe est tEvo Staninodetq) ver sostioe [sortie ‘oat 1 90) yan tL yleetevaoo To .0 .d ICL .gkToat sa erodaen ado feritae ea? o(S6E vat?) weds yd gontoia ws of : 5 tot yveed of {fiw bee exdt ot Teeth setsbomnoooa 489 Of 9 to eqes to someatesqqs et? .eno ntdt a tot ¢egit mm dele shade tred yfrsen stom @ 10 preahans 2 as bartibom ed yen trated | bp hs he * ey me ae -f2ey hte a | | 0 i a Ane , ‘en a Pee PA, i Ba ye f tik 7) = ae Y ; . ‘Ave & oo 3) rn 171 nindoa, at the same time protecting partly from the rain and balancing the sill, is the use of caps over the windows. A rete lieving arch is usually arranged above the architrave of the i window, over which a cap may find room; this is then separated from the architrave by a space like a frieze (Fig. 328), if t the masonry is plastered, the relieving arch is concealed by the plastering, if constructed of ordinary materials; if the arch is carefully built of stone or brick it may remain visible and project beyond the surface of the plaster or face of wall; (Fig. 328); if the projection of the architrave be 1.38 ins., that of the frieze may be half as much. ff the building is con- structed of ashlar masonry, the relieving arch should consist of two or three ashlars, the last being cut in voussoir shape, (Fig. 329), or it should be concealed by a slab of stone that may be enclosed by a border, be decorated by relief ornaments, or be made of a nobler material. The frieze must always project from the wall face it it is to act as such and if it be also of plaster; but it must have only the breadth of the window when ears are present, not to encroach on them. It is only justifiable to omit this frieze “hen the cap and lintel of the window are wrought from a single piece, and are therefore strong enough to support the weight of the wall, or wken a special relieving arch is placed abowe them. The cap will then rest directly on the lintel of the win- dox, from which it should always be separated by a visible jo- int (Fig. 330). The cap is a horizontal stone slat built into the mall, which in the simplest way has a sloping wash at top and a drip at b bottom (Fig. 331 4). Its projection requires support by a low- er moulding to make it satisfy the eye (Fig. 331 b), and a , higher form of development needs a crown moulding (Fig. 331 ¢c). According to the projection of the cap with the same height, the vertical surface may predominate over the upper and lower members as in Fig. 331 b, c, or conversely it may be reduced to a minimum by them (Fig. 332). The entire, character of the cap accommodates itself to this and will be heavy for a thick slab or light for a thin one. The appearance of caps of equal height may be modified by a steep or @ more nearly horizontal wasnhe ie ay | " we i. ao ; ! fp Ye meteor att 0800) ica wes reduen 79q99u ‘9dT ttod 8 at ong weNol aft todwen QntwKOTD To Bite natie wedott mk yldaebtve (ME wate) ono Sats aaa [akdon ot ae | foi eheatfont stom me ebeitbidals ed: yam gso od? Yo norsoeio1g saoT tt stom aidd ‘redtast too qixh ett bane geo sft garb e129 9g8 qso sit a& ,aworsgnsb 2: noitoetor7 edd snobote ef? to svarttidowe otftne edt of noite ‘a emacs sat de ~irtet mot* ted? Rattosto1g vitnekort eT A et norte) .shne oft te doom oat Josto1g of Is8qGGe . ‘9 ry Hist qeo edt Yo aottos,o17 etate50m 6 bas .sldspivbe st pmadt chase ef te exol ebam sd yertnortoeiory att hee pckse) dtheewd at feaxpenn etasqqe sbfrarvshne etr taeda yet Sit eseso ynsm ci ;om0h yllsuan as ,afeoe beowber aeito sat no stud ,asrogto] wsliare sytem yam geo | joo Antsostody ony yyltasapstt tnsrsttih yletdase oo Tot veimex [entrs? 903 ee averse yem sfodw edt anwors IO TO Bntiroggon #Adt oe .ciwtirret Hae eynth{rad ,adoa, iaeetaeS mess st9dmen s9gqge bne t9K0Ol .evsed tojtigst m edd to erutes? Gntbeol & .tuoge tetan & to been saz fe eieet) sdf. motend [encitithatt yf .sfqaed otenalo: edo t iaine ton blued #b etetin tettny wster edt to mvot eas 9 fs tided to so10% qd asostinow [sverthbem edt es sani, omet sft .eesfeen aan ti node efyontes bolleoeoe odd bs oO talnzet # Motfin evo .enents fe moedtdoeay adt to phe ,stdtosttioss nettzyRgG usble sat gonte e1w000 od supinc to'ed of bemeetes at etainsliodosl xoboddre 2 Yo tos! a bnew eetafoos banttet to etutxir ew ations n. > Saodn ,aetoetedo talimie to yeo A’ .tegeods feo sd yam ,redtey tedJen [smtct # ofmd begnedo et x9d pg shan at aedren yuiawerl edt YE wees atatreo. wt : aebaaos to noabey Sattoeto1q ylebiw es evods {sten nisa Y baie wot stam Bomeds eeelgoinsem et rettuR betadint oq rise ot homotegoos smoosd bib sdises> off Yr bas ,seoyrey q Ne | | i “Pe 17 . 7 Ke re. i | ; a & ’ 4 a ol Pa 7 Se - id) A is > ai hol L972 The upper member (Fig. 333) fulfils the purpose of a termin- ating or crowming member, the lower one is a horizontal suppor- ting one (Fig. 334); Evidently in richer arrangements these m , members may be decorated by leaf mouldings, pearl beads, dent- ils and similar ornamental elements, according to circumstances. Qne may take 7.48 ins. as a measure for the height of the cap in norhal cases; if it is required to be lower the wash may be more inclined. The projection of the cap may be increased as a whole by sli- ding the cap and its drip out farther’ this mode of increasing _ the projection is dangerous, as the cap appears heavy in prop- ortion to the entire architrave of the window, though not suf- ficiently protecting that from rain, at the same time it may appear to project too much at the ends. Caution is therefore advisable, and a moderate projection of the cap is preferable; {ts projectionimay be made less at its ends than its front, so that its underside appears unequal in breadth (Fig. 335), the upper and lower members projecting equally all round. It is incorrect to regard a cap as a principal cornice at a reduced scale, as usually done; in many cases the cornice and Cap may serve similar purposes, but on the other hand are es- sentially different frequently; The projecting cornice that c crowns the whole may serve as the terminal member for many ob- jects, buildings and furniture, so that supporting or crowning, lightwof heavy, lower and upper members seem desirable without the need of a water spout, a leading feature of the cornice of the classtc temple. By traditional custom the Creeks imitated the form of the water gutter where it could not be required, just as the mediaeval architects by force of habit also employ- ed the so-called gargoyle when it was useless. The famous door of the Frechtheum at Athens, over which a regular cap first o occurs since the older Egyptian architecture, and which by the orthodox Nechellenists is esteemed to be of unique beauty] ex- hibits a mixture of refined sculpture and a lack of architect- ural thought. A cap of similar character, whose crowning mem- ber is changed into a formal water gutter, may be appropriate in certain cases if the crowning member is made a gutter of thin metal above 2 widely projecting geison of boards. But the imitated gutter is meaningless when a mare form and fulfils no purpose, and if the Creeks did become accustomed to regard the | exr , | tno .esebt sldetagsent ae t9dd03 Toten baa sotai10o > tetew & conte teadt .notewf[onoo eels? sdt bedoret abt ‘yloetavnoo. ,redmem gnimwoeo s es bsteort ad Seow teton been ew ,astton 8 sitf beqate od taun ssdne8 ,° ee ) ybati tsdt to semsscon jet ent bottiamoo siytea otdiod, edt t9eonem sift al tinge ensiq hentiont 10) dae stettyorqqs gmev odt setaw on StedH ,S9rnI10> To mrot [sinten s pa girth iq eft ns moekeg 5 beyofqme siee 1? saT .ttornwordt ge0y es 1a% a8 foolota efdt anikan ,soimtco Sad te Patt iteensd bavet ed sdyim ates sat mort wstlede edi freob bne oftsif tnd tat to etasasct? bersst asze sl isn at :eldtesoq: es vibigas es ntas eat Yo eevilaamontst Sioto sabinkds gitesrortive tuodtin .yaw betagie~tao Bi; ton 10 2id? tot eben od HSf{pode notetvory yrs wsddoce ims ,edotbiaw # tol etatxe sointos Laqtoning: s to fed? at {[tte snevot 10: eanod s 10% a2 form ea tan’, f ton bas wsdmem gAtavotl 8 ee yf[stem toe [itn ti saenc ‘bettopet ed yam gso 8 y#w ease Bat ot .t9ten Yo PVelfew atagdatm ,siesintet sot ,gatbhlied « to ses se of ,.0%8 Yeovote .awobaix bos. at60ch. .etnesngaom Su7i (eteetaaigne anil{itfot tuodtty estnemeriupsn ox edfnTo 6 bas geo08 neseted ytiartts na shiensr ayante Peno: (suse edd Pou sis yedt toy oti le MIA e98090-00 a: a . : *980 8 Tedto od) has af fimtop F Oete17) sldeisbiagen se eved of bertopet ef qeo a medhi, , defe e to tend eb Si mrot saolagmta sit to esloenot «foae ta. {[sd200 8 yd detieqqce bre brsx10t yfnnaste ot /PIeode dale edt ywitostie tesyqa sees exam o¢ “(age eit eftiy ,yrsss9080 ef yam as down as ment Snogead alssit cud Pheer 169 edt to aredmem asKof ant ‘orn tostenq vam abo soosb od yan qao to sbhraetebas bos,nefornoo edt bavore ' s¥vsen oof usse ton of elonay anus in ot to [otntiv edd avoda beosly of yea weloenos. saT : Pffte yott cesettt edt to tagied sit xatygaoo0 ylno 1006 | Hyodt dott Tevo)pvATSIdoTA 8d2 ee dthtn ques od: “nn Svertinorws odt obtetao taut baosly ste to .(d2e egtd)ob tenes & sesov mint, nt (SEE .BtT) matt agentes ebnssxe ofnt apy to! essen tebnete edt of anibaogesti0o .efiserstenq hs a +e es tag) 173 cornice and water gutter as inseparable ideas, or in other wo- rds reached the false conclusion, that since a water gutter | must be treated as a cpownins member, conversely a crowning member must be shaped like a gutter, we need not imitate any nonsense of that kind. In like manner the Cothic style committed the fault of using the verry appropriate wash (or inclined plane surface) with its drip as a natural form of cornice, where no water was to be t thrown off. The Creeks employed a geison as the principal part of the cornice, making this project as far as possible, so that the shelter from the rain might be found beneath it. The midd- le ages feared torrents of rain but little and desired to rid themselves of the rain as rapidly as possible; in rather a sh- ort-sighted way, without sufficiently thinking of its disposal, on ahether any provision should be made for this or not. The need of a principal cornice exists for a wardrobe, stove or altar, just as much as for a house or tower; still in the first three cases it will act merely as a crowning member and not to carry off water. In the same way a cap may be required in the inter- ior of a building, for furniture, niches in walls, for altars, monuments, doors and windows, stoves, etc., to satisfy esthet- ic requirements without fulfilling any material purpose. There always remains an affinity between a cap and a cornice if their purposes are allied, yet they are not the same, one remaining a cornice and the other a cap. When a cap is required to have a considerable projection, #ith consoles of the simplest form it is that of a slab projecting strongly forward and supported by a cortel at each end (Fig. 336): to make these appear effectiv, the slab should project but little begond them as much as may be necessary, while the ends may project more’ the lower members of the cap are broken around the consoles,and underside of cap may be decorated by sunk panels to not seem too heavy. The consoles may be placed above the lintel of the window or door; only occupying the height of the frieze; they will then have the same width as the architrave over which they are pla- ced (Fig. 356), or are placed just outside the architrave that extends between them (Fig. 338); in this case a steep form is preferable, corresponding to the slender ness of the windowa Die. es . mtodd not navth of\neao efnt bilev ylatcfoeda oF MELD Of LOWE dehae1d tieds exam oF ek eteed n t0d “onespcra aang al yant @.08 of @0.d2 tdgten [atot tre + itiw Tfew sxtnomred anotenemth seed? .qeo sdt to 29d Sa ' ‘eyso ef To osods bas aevettidors 10% nev “qenof oft tadt .srved Beton sd oels bisoda tT n od bloone -2efoanoo ent braver noioid eis sordw ,qeo tts) meds ant{tto1g mt srotetent bas , tsasi} so! edd so e tent of oefe bas geo ent to miot ent o* heey od teum te a ne -esfoenoo ttt ent to cetdeinsen 8 thineateht ets eeloanco nedy ‘ed yen tf senuaoed Sidartitect stom ai [etait edd » »ytersqorg asifuoeq fitiw feneq f[atrerento ne etenc etufostidors wobmix antdotine to ansom vedtint A 0g edt baste dotiw no [lta wobntw s to tnemegnerts ent oe . ef bus seoging evitetooed « reviesr yiirey doidn | reten mort “anitfoass yitweq .ebnvotd sitedtes no pray | oa sefite wobsart. : © to batt # eke lfre wobate sat ,botete ybaenth: ea ol te 10 ,a ngsés does end no Bauot ens i ia etlowtT ab 8 ovad cishane tans {[fte edt data yntan wo al momat bas aids Sne [few edt oxch gotrnet mott tetew 947 taov ol sninwoto t8qyqo! neo sed [ite edt nese bentatie yltostisg 8 mat t {fon edt mort tedfgst asten sdf ewordt ylno ton dotaw 2 ® 1949. & Ifte sittas edt shoot oele tud ,blnow cela alqate . m3 ef ‘yedmem 84940 erat (OSE snt8): oonetAsy qe e{don 6tor ‘dedt at tloeer sdt iaflte edt) to abne eft te better yl > Lfie sat to esfgns edt ts [few add cwob enn a9nsis tester Pa iftve: etee tnevetg of neist 9d tang - uaa Istosge ee y iy Ti ay Pinout ae 17 “No absolutely valid rule can Z given for their dimensions, b but a basis is to make their breadth 3.94 to 4.34 ins. and th- eir total height 16.95 to 20.9 ins, exclusive of the lower nem- ber of the cap. These dimensions harmonize well with those gi- ven for architraves and those of the cap. Tt should also be noted here, that the lower members of the cap, which are broken around the consoles, should be wrought on the caphitself, and therefore in profiling them attention must be paid to the form of the cap and also to that of the consoles. When consoles are employed, a decoration of the frieze above the lintel is more justifiable, because it may be treated as an ornamental panel with peculiar propriety. A further means of enriching window architecture consists in the arrangement of a window sill on which stand the jambs, and which partly serves a decorative purpose and is partly desira- ble on esthetic grounds, partly resulting from material needs. * Window sills. As already stated, the window sill is a kind of cornice that projetts sufficiently to receive the architrave, or at least 9.08 to 13.8 ins. for fully developed architrave mouldings. T This projection is so great as to require some lower members, since the sill would appear too heavy without them, and these loser members must be supports. If moulded jambs are used, the front surface of the sill would seem too heavy if left smooth” therefore it may be finished with sunk panels but most project more to afford the jambs a firm support (Fig. 339). This arran- gement was already known to the classic period, examples being found on the Erechtbeum a: Athens and the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. In our rainy North the sill must usually have a drip to pre- vent the water from running down the wall, and this end is more perfectly attained wken the sill has an upper crowning member, which not only throws the water farther from the wall, than a simple slab would, but also lends the entire sill a richer and more noble appearance (Fig. 340). This upper member is general- ly returned at the ends of the sills. the result is that the water either runs down the wall at the angles of the sill, or ~— special precautions must be taken to prevent this evil; a further vies iia hie 1 aed ont uth ortia ‘edt dedd ef sioteredt tfpest — ; ont Rntbesl to encom teslqnie ed? .wobntw ond to ad Ieottedqe [fee 8 gninsot at etatanod [len oat sort ‘phos et dotde (18% 138%) [fre odd to selgne odd vinaghe Bett(oees [ffm odt to Batnehitw eaT .wols dj sort | -soastins tsqqo ath to asden tedmen teqqo os to sett edt to tuo gntiool enoatsy aot drogque tnsinsv -aaltmte ytettes seftted of .o¢s .etnelq gatrewol? pomttamos rolyte sonsentenss boas eee elbbim ead reaps ed? .tedel eidt of atnde [fede ow yetiize E a: ,~nomneo Isaon won seomt ote allie antyaere. to Ati» be?enneo ton bas beteloat ef Lite sdT .Ly ae “Yo eineofone sat to txsq & miot of ,elitsteb Le wioe “ae 4 ss) 4 flaw edt mort Rattostorg ylarte vee 6 nature esoonttno> 8 mo1t afostoiq [ite sa? .S gon [fe 10.2980! «3000 edt benattnoo sie fi 3aole 10 selt ‘aia o(ShE BET) Lfre edt to . ened ad betacqqes ef Ilia odT .£ ofan to aotdostorm tdyife se no atees [Lie odT od > od yaa dotdn ,eaad wol #8 ee borwr0t at {ke odT..¢ ) yrote tnemeesd eat ai aatbltad edd to egad edt afin Petebow tod evad biaode [lie edt ,se80 tarkt 965 mi 4 cee syvennsoen yletulosds es doom as ylno ,Rotsgot ac petass es oldatiog od yam €SF .Bit mi .o 8 To Qt base telt ek @eaevoo haitte avonattnoo edd YE .%S t ylsoantt yakige gem [[ke edt to sl{xtorg sdt , flaw edt veda: pidtbhaewd sdt yd foeto1q yer erdt to ,ShOoegth 2 o8 Sf ae atinzeq Of efff elitorq A .teflit iataosirods nono! Mey feonol sit elidw jeetuoo antite sd% madd ienol. sham ed (She «3£7) o@1p00 Bniwe edd dttw sbtontoo yam dsilit io {{te edt ,otkta ve ave (fte base aeagoo Bnsite wel} -8eTHO9 aatite sft ati« asbtonioo baa Tosco. foe qotakife 10 erstesity [fama ,aafoenoo yd dtoqqor e917 St tt eeso nk sostine [&an edt to naftosjoxg 4 10 me ets | -9ANG000 Zasiste sat sit mi } bedtimo ose [fte edt to etodaem 19wol toetsgqe act tI.. ‘enon 8 bas nottostorg tetests s saved bloode tf ,seteco Raitte qas. d\teartt edt ni @eeso bnooss edt nt naedtesvetoeredo biloe . ifs ge baooes edd mi ,potn10o antdoefowg, yfgaorte 6 a8 are | «(QE .2f7) eredmem Sninworo to [antmiet atin bred 19 . : LTD result therefore is that the sill is longer than the total wid- th of the window. The simplest means of leading the water away from the aall consists in forming a small spherical wash at t the angles of the sill (Fig. 321), which is scarcely visible - from,b elow. The widening of the sill resulting from the addi- tion of an upper member makes of its upper surface a very con- venient support for persons looking out of the window, for flowering plants, etc. To better satisfy similar requirements, the middle ages and Renaissance styles sometimes corbelled out sills; we shall return to this later. The following modes of arranging sills are those now most common. 1. The sill is isolated and not connected with other archit- ectural details, to form a part of the enclosure of a window, simply projecting from the wall. 2. The sill projects from a continuous string course, either flat or along it are continued the upper, lower, or all members of the sill (Fig. 342). 3. The sill is supported by consoles. 4, The sill rests on a slight projection of wall under window. 5. The sill is formed as a low base, which may be connected with the base of the building in the basement story (Fig. 343). 1’,. In the first case, the sill should have but moderate pro- jection, only as much as absolutely necessary. Profiles like 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, in Fig. 343 may be suitable as applicable. 2’. If the continuous string cousse is flat and projects from the wall, the profile of the sill may spring directly from it, 1 to 9, Fig. 342, or this may project by the breadth of the lower horizontal fillet. A profile like 10 permits the sill to be made lower than the string course, while the lowest vertical fillet may coincide with the string course. (Fig. 344). If the string course and sill are mouldéd alike, the sill either does not project and coincides with the string course; or it requi- res support by consoles, small pilasters or slight projection, or a projection of the waal surface in case it projects beyond the string course. If the upper or lower members of the sill are omitted in the string course, it should have a greater projection and a more solid character than in the second case5 in the first it appe- ars as a strongly projecting cornice, in the second as a light- er band with terminal or crowning members (Fig. 345). b ni bentstdo ad gy yen Ifte edt to iicevokeeaeeae viet eo gnitte to qith edt antdtino t9dtte ayer 3 gottoetorqg s 10 atetesftq ,eefornoo no [Lie edt * aeuiiess: ,asfoenco yd bertoqque od [fie eat tI .%€ Inode yedt ,2q89 Yo esloznce of es mest ov ylqqs selyn S 1 t fotdy dtsened, gevarsidows edt es dtbacid sare edt synods ddbondiod sosqe #& seolon® yodt ;beoalg ylstaraoes. od }betoannos ate 10, 984d @ po Steet aedt aneiqad netto seiat gidt baa ,(PSE .BtT) ebas tewel vied? vebaw baad yw soktsi009b 10% ywinwti0qqo ebrgt ys sosgensent »,epeloenoo edt to sxedmee t9qq0 eaT .ebatx [fa Yo sabe moo sityped ,ilte edt Yo e1edmem tewol coals ota Att {Ite edt to sbierehss sat wetmtog dtod of brayet Moo) .afeney anne yi betsi100eb sd yino ton yan ,qeo eit’ Yo # .eldssebtescs etoetoiq [fim sdt th oe ed teun- tod ,.ode ek shao ot Yo metv edt mort refostedo yvesd edt evo i of esses nem ot oidsetvba bemesh ed [fin #1 oS snare tt eevth yino gon dotdiw ,wobniw edt dvasned nordost ' id Yt ,YIKGRHOeR Stoteteds ei baa aesossedo ssb8ece : Taare st ‘dtbtw eff oF nottiogory nf {feme ek nobniw odd efite anttostoi ylebtw rot efdertiesd ai dt ynsoe stoted atoo yd Jxoqque ot s{dtaeog so sidaiteeb ton ak ti fit ave yd beter09eb ed: 10 dtoome tte{ ed yan anottoazorg § aiteote .adeed ,ecotlisbem .(SM .o4%) ebmid Ife to Aw astesita siode yoebie dose ts betintl od yom yllankt .. . (tied ddzizt Af .3tT) [emer inves « seolone Wagse0e yen oesd wol eee [[te odt Yo tnemgolaveb adT .3¢ met ssavot ak bawot qilevan eeneo al .ebapotr tasrattib ‘to tdated [entetxe fenton edt totitess of af{daraceb load ry e-anted yifaaq ,.ent CofE taeds OF magtosiorg ods tf eldteetareg ed [fiw aide jsofsttel matt ne ish BS Sutot (ite ttodt tadt ,beaneris of ed yrote teased ent to n ae onercss ® beoslg at dotdw evade ,torisint end ao ne © ,josd s as svtee ot .wobatn bextt 2 10 Axon sotstal a. obarianiad bnoses e 1c , Noad 2 8 SYteR oF wobate 4 tee e8mIe eat trcgqoe le sass sande: Si eneo edd od sedtrot [lin ata? - penete 19990 10 eninessen 6 Yo swobaiw nol edd of neviR # conta oF ton afdartasb ef tt anoegset oo tot ti qlilen i hee My ; 176 The projection of the sill may then be obtained in different ways, either omitting the drip of string course, or supporting the sill on consoles, pilasters or a projection of the wall. 3’. If the sill be supported by consoles, the same general rules apply to them as to consoles of caps, they should have the same breadth as the architraves,beneath which they should be accurately placed; they enclose a space between them, if as often happens then rest on a base , or are connected by a small band under their lower ends (Tig. 346), and this frieze-like interspace affords opportunity for decoration by sunk panels of all kinds. The upper members of the consoles, when these are also lower members of the sill, require consideration in regard to both points. The underside of the sill, like that of the cap, may not only be decorated by sunk panels, coffers, etc., but must be so if the sill projects considerably, to re- ove the heavy character from the view of the underside. . 4’, It will be deemed advisable tn many cases to form 4 pro- jection beneath the window, which not only gives it a more sl slender character and is therefore necessary, if the height of the window is small in proportion to its width; but also as b before seen, it is desirable for widely projecting sills, that it is not desirable or possible to support by consoles. These projections may be left smooth or be decorated by sunk panels of all kinds (Fig. 348), medallions, heads, wreaths, etc. and finally may be limited at each side by short pilasters, #hich enclose a sunk panel (Fig. 346, right half). | 4. The development of the sill as a low base may occur on different grounds. In cases usually found in houses it may be destrable to restrict the normal external height of the window projection to about 31.5 ins., partly being a wall, the remain- der an iron lattice; this will be permissible af the windows of the best story be so arranged, that their sill forms a seat on the interior, above which is placed a balustrade of iron lattice work or a fixed window, to serve as a back, or a second window to serve as a back , or a second balustrade intended to support the arms. This will further be the case if higher proportions are to be given to the low windows of a mezzanine or upper story; and fi- nally if for special reasons it is desirable hot to place the es sated ouee ont te ,seas> [emton ni 28 Seige. ankite | das brotts of elomaxs tot ,t9dytd tug emeed wast re cease 3aivetier tiedd bos , awobniw eft of nottoutte beoaig meat st eatso> ynitts edt, .9fo1 #8 8h .yt0de “anol 9" pes tt teR0l 3d yen tod .[ike edd es tdyred amee oat at ane sit) saad wol # ext! beatot od mead [Lie odd fed sttéa sdt antdem .eseo dtonot # notinem of eldaeivin its i Nike bes wol 8 ttoant of ,yin0aen to wank ¢.lf dt wolsd aa20%s bemtwwie: et dotdw ,everttidors bar [lte B88 ‘od yom tnomegneris isfimiea @ yflentt <(TM *.3f8) 8 ata sit to aged edt ted? noeasa est tot, 1aqo74 { edt Yo seed edd ditw bentdmoo sd yam yiote gnem fT) ovale wobatw wells soit addin gqoota & mot AGBATSY | ana ewobatn Yo entot to santwerb ed? .(OcF (One 4 a iy * osefoodos mebactd ed? of sahveta OE of ./. e bs eewobatx to amrot [amtondAsp ie ‘ P eaatoet ttots eenod to ewohntn ed? aetesnoerh wettA be notsasn of sved on .atmemetionss [amion dein sore re ‘edd of gntbnogeeit0o ylsisg etaemaznatA ast > [ancttqeoxe at beyolgme yliray ,setro¢e otedteo 0 mvot # betnevnt someagetace® dnid sasilatl sat pods ttin eeefnouted fotdn ,seeo bstsloek aqadi94 oft mort Sntrett rh tuodt tw yiroarn oftenrt to x9 “an Mietuat tagnooY odt oflayne® ofsotnd .lers983 of iid dotde to tnemeasd botaottaus sit -no ,senod a tse 4 so1t s{qmke es to atatenoo ti d9yolqms st bloode 8 Beysiqe bas ebaad)telt to ensen yd avettidors worse) ~ eu? .exotiude nobatw sdt tot stadea ytesasoen edt din 9 otts. yiote tnemeeed #2 to elfen ed? to | ‘wesasoitds sider ae | yltaeupernod dns .enobmin sat of etittor bas edmet t iene Yo: ,selktomg etever bas slymte esedtt bone asvsrti kien, yilot ore fedt ,ICE .RIT at novia sia esiteriav )tnemecsd s to awohntw betastteny sit ,attogse? smse edd fotdw .eeveniidors olqmie tdtiw batsstt ete agode edt to 10 sont (SE satT) eostame baysiqe 8 Yo ssvitom edd no bseed | _{atoeqe 8 extopes yifsnsnez aqoda to axobare edt y akedt Yo dthin odd ,ersdsude notk to nofttqsce: est 0 eented sosqe sit bas ,emart asdoow sd yd Beagetomt 2 sever niet of wie eat .notf teeda to es9ettode sd? svtece: of ,owt, edt 177 string course as in normal cases, at the same height as the i inner beams but higher, for example to afford a stronger con- struction to the windows , and their relieving arches in the lower story. As a rule, the string course is then placed at the same height as the sill, but may be lower if required, and the sill then be formed like a low base (Fig. 343). It may be advisable to mention a fourth case, making the entire height 31.5 ins. of masonry, to insert a low projection between the sill and architrave, which is returned across below this panel (Pig. 347); finally a similar arrangement may be necessary or proper,for the reason that the base of the window in the base- ment story may be combined with the base of the building, and perhaps form a group with the cellar window also (Figs. 343, . 349, 350). The drawings of forms of windows given in Figs. 348 to 350 are due to the Dresden school. ny .Abnormal forms of windows. After discussing the windows of house architecture in accord- ance with normal requirements, we have to mention a few pecnl- jar arrangements partly corresponding to the requirements of certain stories, partly employed in exceptional cases. The Italian high Renaissance invented a form of window in a perhaps isolated case, which harmonizes with the rude charact- er of rustic masonry without differing from the normal form in general. Antonio Sangallo the Younger desired to build hinm- self a house, on the rusticated basement of which his invention should be employed; it consists of a simple treatment of the narrow architrave by means of flat bands and splayed surfaces, with the necessary rebate for the window shutters. The consid- erable thickness of the walls of a basement story afforded wide jambs and soffits to the windows, and consequently narrow arch- dtraves and these simple and severe profiles, of which a few varieties are given in Fig. 351, that are fully justified. For the same reasons, the rusticated windows of a basement story or of the shops are treated with simple architraves, which are based on the motives of a splayed surface (Fig. 352). Since the windows of shops generally require a special arrangement for the reception of iron shutters, the width of their archit- raves is increased by the wooden frame, and the space between the two, to receive the shutters of sheet ‘iron. The simplest EE sw gg _— ae, gf et avobate ubabbetast 6 \anotssea ott Ratmtet to sho ‘snaphetan mottsottant edt .evarsinose [aioeqe yne bo | bemwwitet et 16 wobniw edt to dmat ent to tnost 5 att senimintsh oals dotdn ,fasver # teatare gary “wobate Yo mio? elgqmie redfawt A .(ECE .xtT) nortost | wine ylfstoeqas ,soneratsanaa metledl odd mt sti “nt etetanad tI-.exobatw stanthbtodns tot 4 ,2hn 6 shhe tenat est .salt dey ott to soetrwe ed po ods y foefowq yam dotdw .katbicom slgmte e yd beret 4 it tet se ‘sRk?) St batted sheoet ee [Isw es soatrne eran qrev Hae stedio ont heqofeveh ate eavitom ‘Sell edt gatytiseo ei bose ,[fie edt too sotlied bn vngusst ed ya (Ihe belledieo siT ston to di baw ©) CAGE RET) ovettidors edt to afttory add Yo losegunia bas seedt mort bevissb eee avitfom rdtons f'to emiot sntitdo edd yntteroosh at anttetancs ein re fe (Oo “eit eétolov to emtot dttw yléerosqes (baad me ST9% dotdw ,Bevael wfeq baa eheatlot Atiw nottos peta daqevib teon edd tot someentaned fata ods Teme oft Of Ytos redo eviteroosh « baal ot eden P SdeIL of Babmetnt saodt 10 ,eetrot2 enicesxen to fade tO eatot erSves eiom sat of testtaoo at ,emoot bf red canon (TRE gee oBRI7) estrote [eqroniag ont i. tae Fbeqre eidt Seyolgqus talword | Ra hos cvcw atdtdeenacent edt beqolevebh aaw st mort tod eee dotde ,esvartioors yd estetgfuoe bedieent to sic ‘eds no enokteveore yS faoot th ae .eliew odd Oda Bom ede dtin oxtromtad of Fdgvon asx tt Aotdw bos ,antbfind a3 a... svitstoceb seeds [fe 3ntnidmoo yd efostts hbalisv nt tdT .esvitom wobaiw sedto bos .28foenoo ,elite ,eyeo d yfleqtoats ,mOo? Qrinrk vtefiot sesonsned taqqs ati brs neadotti to L dose nt swobniw seid? .mootbed MOOT Baivil ,soor oot rhas [utsosiyae eeeneeroq eanod sft .tneiotttos gated qon od bloods dnemeaed edt srotetadt sennidsogory xb deanee: anak: eft bas ,tied syd estiota redto edt wort fing 179 rectangular, be treated’ as wheel windows or formed in any oth- er way (Fig. 359). The same'is true of all cmaller openings found in all classes of buildings. S$. Abnormal forms of caps. Different requirements may exist, which in houses of several stories lead to dissatisfaction with simple forms of window caps and to a search for richer forms. The principal cause of. this is always a desire to characterize the different stories of a building. Natural requirements and associatedsideas have led to the treatment of the basement as the heavy, bold and s simple story; of the best story as the most prominent one as severe and noble, of the remaining stories as subordinate,and of the uppermost as the lightest and most graceful, requiring and capable of the most decoration, further a ground law of ar- chitectural treatment consists, as often stated, not in seeking variety and richness in change of motives alone, but in enhan- cement of motives. From the simple window architrave we have obtained the following series of motives. 1. Architraves without ears; 2, those with ears; 3, those with caps; 4, architraves with caps on consoles: 5, those with cap and sill; 6, architrave with cap and sill supported by corbels; 7, those with cap and a special projection of wall as a base below the window; An enhancement of the motive leads to 8, where an angular pediment cap is introduced; to 9 with circular pediment cap, these being of segmental form. The lat- ter tecomes 10 by interrupting the cap by an ornamental group. In exceptional cases, a cap receives an attic story for the reception of an inscription on tablet makink 11, or 12, a pure- 4 ly ornamental centrepiece (Fig. 360, a, b). ' Let us take as an example a four story detached house (Fig. 361), which is to have four different facades, an unbroken pr- incipal facade next the street, that next the garden with a projection and the principal entrance, and two garden facades with projections; each story contains a small flat, consisting of kitchen and its appurtenances, toilet, dining room, recept- ion room, living room, bedroom, three windows in each facade being sufficient. The house possesses ungraceful and very slen- der proportions; therefore the basement should be separated f from the other stories by a belt, and the opper story be treated | | Peete it ee ee pg eA ete, a ‘om eat ‘ ‘ t a : aes ‘re iy Ie ed edd »jhieed ay beagléne “eeOet ,ossist a ott! . ‘g8 08 ‘eznaTIs of svAd won SF .yIote tnemeaed 36 eons nasd taenivorg stom ytote tasd edt to eno 2; ve teed edt gnied as aldt eatietosieds ot ee oF iote ‘qiote -odt Yo awobatw edt dginumt etotetedt bloods “adgit 6 yd godt Raitosanos .aefoanoo gniven ages + to afotviogory wehaslsa edt steisbom s70om [lite ot satel dt antstao® sevod sft to nottostorw efgne end pn: ~nottostorg tedto edt ;betentbiodse aioteieds et eka? epteine ot ae heoefq of et bnew ,moot anieth 8h moot gatvif edT .elonn edt to tostte beriav edd 0" nae edt smpeen Sw tl .tnemthsg aslvans dtinw wobni es Sor mee onlfe ynoolad sind of s08080b edt .ymooled « evan Bet Divow bas anobttw refto edt sot TsiTth bluow nob to 8 Obatw edt sexs of .notdontteib [eiosqa esi ortoper neds ylntely exon moor Qninrh baa deltot , nedor ty S ma ni iwesqorg ed ylbied [fiw salt Clame ant wt nt Eek bipes et seood sft to sonetasqge onteesfs & ned ss mont wttwe bluow ytino oct veri? sot ,ebie ash ip bivow Saemtsest roOrtetni etait baoven boe , yet ss ae ae Batonzi sd bloote teadt anno seodt ateao Vgytote bioose edt mt smoke bevaxol ed bLuow afeoe aot 1 blo0w notdostors ent mt moon Snivtl oad to Kobnin 0 sn? -ssfosnco {Lene dtiw tod ,taamtheq tuortin aeo b nefoanos tuoddiw‘eqeo eved blydde vtota ett to eno ito axobrtw ea?’ .ylfeot? .eflie stsieqse tyodtiw ad * w ong hinow bow severtidors even ylersm blvon yrote we yin edt Pex yossttt sat atin notioennoo riedt yo sostts tna : for Eatno8 into ne yo bedatoantverb ed yen ‘moon gatvil end to prtedt Litlat [ltw tnemeesd sit to ewobnrw sa? . (038 jyet) EpepeatioS ni tos odd gonta .a10% afquie to ane ysdt Yi seog Pemaqate fox stoves stom a bas ,sevod sdt to seat odd atin ed [fiw xyiote teed ed? to: awobntw sd# Yo Sads nact Joon Yo ont yfino ,Bebsoet sunt dtin seuod sto egao al pl yteitey base wine canst :entt smee and te nega od a ensa Sit #s nose Babeost ond sat wi botshracos -awolnt Laotatemnye ylfoatisd eteeqqe ebsost Saqiont pdows ni bnno® ek wobatn to butt efgnte a tud eonte O17’ & ead dotdn ,ebsost ebie’ ant Attn nedterot joguaminga 180 like a frieze, iee., enclosed by a band, thus balancing the bene basement story. We now have to arrange so as to make the wind- ows of the best story more prominent than those of any other story, so as to characterize this as being the best story. We should therefore furnish the windows of the first story with caps having consoles, connecting them by a light string course, to still more moderate the slender proportions of the house. One angle projection of the house contains the living room and is therefore subordinated; the other projection contains the diming room, and is so placed as to enlarge this and increase the varied effect of the whole. The living room is marked by a window with angular pediment. If we assume the dining room to have a balcony, the door to this balcony also serving as a win- dow, would differ from the other windows and would therefore require its special distinction. To treat the windows of the kitchen, toilet and dining room more plainly thar those remain-— ing in the small flat will hardly be proper in an assumed case, aben a pleasing appearance of the house is required on the gar- den side, for first the unity would suffer from too great var- iety, and second this inferior treatment would serve to indi- cate those rooms that should be ignored as much as possible. The scale would be lowered some in the second story, the window of the living room in the projection sould receive a cap without pediment, but with small consoles. The other wind- oas of this story should have caps without consoles and should be without separate sills. Finally, the windows of the third story would merely have architraves and would produce suffici- ent effect by their connection with the frieze; yet the window of the living room may be distinguished by an ornamental cap. (Fig. 360). The windows of the basement will fulfil their pur- pose if they are of simple form, since the act in connection with the base of the house, and a more severe and simple treat- ment than that of the windows of the best story will be proper. In case of a house with four facades, only two of them will be seen at the same time; hence unity and variety are to be considered in the two facades seen at the same time. The pr- incipal facade appears perfectly symmetrical in our example, since but a single kind of window is found in each story. Together with the side facade, ahich has a projection for 4 ui fy | T ion ae LG i’ ‘gl a or Sones Yo! eterzav .Woor drivel edt ican aan at ‘exobatw edt to sevitom sit to tnemeone Yorquets # BtIot YedFsnos soe eebadst beet bre sbie $30 sorsareoess att Qniensy [Lfte sredT .toatte hedion { 10? w@ene1t 6 aved teon etd? .yewroob edt to snsaze to p ewobntn At YI, .esonetaneo1to of Bnibtooos ,ifed ed oe tee 9% t9nnem feuee edt nk begneiie ots (fad riete Sr ae te tod ,setnode sid to ewobmiw oft of titted omer mevts vPro fom Sosmeknatis erds ,eanibnal edt of p tot ,B8arH05 YNtite off AJiw anortanidnos reiluoey 8% 4edto sdf to emrot edt no sonerfini na trexe Reddo! 8d qlno yam sobeost edt to yromied a sonia yl b Sesllut xwredt Oatt nods no Ynkwtuo9e eavitom le arise to tnewehaeyssa edt .Neeqe of of .nottoulonay bre ¥ YD eeodt Atiw afotitaoo efgrexe iwo0 nt benvase snob ne y (Led ttats sdT .Bonosttos od of. te1fupst bre Robson? on stag antveil eds To seodd nadt stento seeoqany eVvier rh ‘Snerett hh emt betsatt e[lsottedtas ad s votaredt { ots gnitdyil sof omaneit a es sevese sted wobain des yen eoslq eth a0 pnelozne ,qe0 tnamibeq « sviscet yam a “ynenno 86% Yo een dtkw bedttopnt telist « ys beig /Peteroseh # esa atdy evode nobatw saT .ofs ,motros ¢ nent ensyo# asl eyawis et vetosteds seodn ,tasmrbea eparh robatw — edt .yeo tnentosg xvaluane oe: ts -7eo eaviteroosbh yf 8 nids nf morteorint yrentaifer1y & nevih evan ef 18 0) anibrooos \yteriav of[ditensdxent ar ig987 yam yoLamie sat ot gnfbtoons ,notrote to idea bra nalq to wod .tatosiado. encitastety stom 10 tesbom tom .Aedo yon? seco [stoegs s at beyolyue ed blaode etnerbagxe ane fensstnxt Yo fas toetts Yo fastdnoo. to anal Sogo to seviton tnsistteh sdt to sorodo wo enimieteb Ajort ms tsd79y0% orn? oF fon bre alaoion nigtrao mortt fasta oF i109 nieeviton to Inemeonetns Yo wel oat wyonat wW0 os Bee ) talinte to eotvea « iadt wel bavor, tetto adit dtiv ge toontmo1g sham sd oF abns haa sibbin edz otigpos SD cietive otbotiwsg s AE BbRetIW297 Tisdd tedt sO ,atntog Lato | nnn of esvitvom tesgnoite sdt asatuost ,fetnsooe sd comaealhaaal ,tusmtwong toon ebsaw od of ote tad 8tntog, edt a3 aay 181 the living room, variety of appearance is obtained by the enh- ancement, of the motives of the windows’ in the same may the , side and read facades seer together form a group of varied but united effect. There still remains the description of the tre- atment of the doorway. This must have a transom for lighting | the hall, according to circumstances. If the windows of the stair hall are arranged in the usual manner to not be at the same height as the windows of the stories, but with reference to the landings, this arrangement not only gives rise to many peculiar combinations with the string courses, but may perhaps exert an influence on the forms of the other facades. Especial- a ly since a harmony of the facades may only be obtained, when a all motives occurring on them find their fullest development and resolution, so to speak, the arrangement of the stair win- dows assumed in our example conflicts with those of the other. facades, and requires to be softened. The stair hall windows serve purposes other than those of the living rooms, and should therefore be esthetically treated in a different way. The low- est window here serves as a transmo for lighting the hall, and may receive a pediment cap, angular; or its place may be occu- pied by a tablet inscribed with name of the owner, date of er- ection, etc. The window above this has a decorated circular pediment, whose character is always less severe than that of an angular pediment cap. The uppermost window may have a pure- ly decorative cap. We have given a preliminary indication in ‘this example, that may recur in inexhaustible variety, according to arrangement of plan and number of stories, according to the simpler or ri- cher, mor modest or more pretentious character, how artistic expedients should be employed in a special case. The general grouud laws of contrast of effect and of internal and external truth determine our choice of the défferent motives of form, to start from certain normals and not to throw together motiv— es at our fancy. The law of enhancement of motivesin connection with the other ground law, that a series of similar elements require the middle and ends to be made prominent as being spe- cial points, or that their recurrence in a periodic series must be accented, requires the strongest motives to characterize + the points, that are to be made most prominent, the weaker to f aasio * pei aia netokey 80 86 ten? cifact® = , teaqeed bas atdat! Seotdgtad ent to nottuditte sh at} apie 80%. tromegasT8, oot st ton fteom eno setatoty, ett ny forte. nidtin atime! eldipetaneg trewol baa teeapid | Bes: ij ¥ 5 «e201 sd yen e 19. yforem yattetenoo at ltw 6 to seeo at endt oa oat Attn eomAbtooo# nt ed binow tt ,yrote tant? 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The alt- ernaticn of round end anguler pedimentcerps in the same story h has its advantages in general, if the story contains more than — three windows. a certain contradiction remains even in this case, as may be seen on the facade of the Eartolini palace at Florence; the stronger motives are too much concentrated. If the caps alt-— ernated in case of four windows, as in the Fandolrhini ralace . at Florence, and the Farnese palace at Rome, a doutly ungraceful result is produced, since the ends are different without any rea- son therefor, and the middle is not accented. An alternation wo- | uld first tecowe suitatle in case of five windows, especially if angular pedizent caps were used at widdle and ends, with circular rediments over the intermediate windons. Falledio exployed this expedient in bis teeutiful Chieragati palace at Verona with goed © ‘results. In case of @ longer series cf windows, round end angular pediments hshould preferatly only te employed as a means of str- i engthening the centre and ends. The adjoined scheres (Fig. 3€2) ' sive examples of ways} in which a change of motives is adwissible in different cases, without injury to the unity or variety. e. Forms of Fedirent Cars. is As for the forms of angular and circular pediment caps, their . heights may be wade about 1/4 to 2/9 of their spans. The mwopkd- ings cf angular end curved pedizents ere sinilar to those of hor- izontel caps; the two following cases may occur; the upper or ‘ crowning wember is either merely carried around the pediment cer, and omitted on the horizontal return, which terminates at tor merely with the member connecting the facia and the crown noulding, or the entire moulding is carried along the horizon- tel cornice on which rests the moulded gatle, and stops against — a slightly inclined plane. In the first case, the intermediate . ts SG ek a set pe ebte teal odv at :ucasanrt edt exeoloas tol{rt Be Ey heat 9 MRE RETF coLret roxas, ith begofeveb qilot ed tr tk .f wedwew weq90 sat, on te woford qitdatle od of astivost .seinsbts se, it i aang epakduotetd seol ef ystiset ak dorda .462:, esas odt da bettoterh 974 efftory 943 fae bsi,. ys sides apaea edt yd beaofone sosze tasosv od? | TO as YI botsroosh elreqoty ab ,suoutboy isle3gs. i eantetes avitesoosb .dtéerw .bsod ears to bf9. auvaté sr: ‘to wokeeergat ott sonbos7 of Som ae o8 (dE, ad: yeu wuasqey? stds to Snwotgdoes os jeeenty. , { bestoaaee et geewkboy oft caso ai {sw odd to. 3082 . p odd oven eelyte sonsecitsaef off bue okees{o sdf . > [stacstr04 of a8 atasutheg xslworto bae me{uans. ot. eoeane ck etdt .bebiesqa. eliorase .tear yous, dotin-. ) odt- mort. toetstizd 3atdterse aysals et taontbs3. b Yb stootts ms yveod oot aed ¢i ,a9a89 yosu. at. oes. f moers2 out zeo ([etaostsod sdt ak .slttorg sasee, ods of seseszo0st \gaebaoose to et atdt tod \oetdt. Lsyto } welvans 20 Soytoo ott to bfucs awoto adt bas tne Batnwors Saf Boted. as sosfy fe1ki edt sist [fiw , . ‘etentbtodve & aysfy coatey oad dns ,wobuta.eritus, gat) oe: Se ete sas cigm of oldertitectos 94 ton s10tsteds. Bsaoptted od? to todd usit rswoTreH taonidsz beviG> 19 tel cog ‘ y of s9nt0? s#t to bLuow mworo sat wolls oF .389 eee feqtuist e yfeton déiw S09 of 18¢tef sat tad. \ taantbey & to 19dm9m wewol aatktsogqwe add atot _ eC@32 ott) geo ([esnosttod oat to san ao0e yd beowbomg owe adaoutbeq seloorto asdot ot) batd yes to smousnre bsgn0Ty 8 yI dows adt to off q. \eeesy eure to ebletdes .adisem ,abaslusk bebasgeue : M~otalov edt upended beosly axe dotdw .(.ot9 adsed gtonor' > ke peoltit to7qo od? .(33€ .2ft) oviwo asdomd gad droge 219: $s siff bomxot ,9y2 odt. bavors bevawo ef t9da00 Pastor seeds .cisduen todto odd efb tasasaie sd¢ O95 dofda . 10 8d Seale gatdton ylteq079 Sis. dotdw .ayeo taowkbsy rel coigeeel 8 tkoteg .g29 [staosiiod & svoda ehwkowor [siaaa anand ads dtin sonbbh 19908 ak betaay od yaw dotds .3a ds Hh | ~02an 978 yous dotdw ih ie heat ees Ferg a je Oe aang Pe - ye ee 7 oe ie ; m a faa iv = ey | ‘et re’ ay ate innealia 184 | fillet encloses the tympanum; in the last this is dene by the upper fillet b.(Fig. 363). - The upper tember a, if it be fully developed in front as well as sidewise, recuires to be slightly troken at the angle of the : cap, which in redlity is less disturbing, than if this be owit- ted and the profile te distorted at the angle. The vacent space enclosed by the mouldings of a circular or angular pediment, is properly decorated by an ornament, a shi- eld of arms, head, wreath, decorative sculptures, etc. (Fig. 264), so as not to produce the impression of emptiness and hea- ' viness; the background of this tympanum may project beyond the face of the well in case the pediment is supported ty consoles. The classic and the Renaissance styles gave the same profile to angular and circular pediwents as to horizontal cars, on which they rest. Strictly speaking, this is unnecessary; the vedinent is always sonetbing different fron the horizontal cap, and in many cases, it bas too heavy an effect, if ‘toth have | the same profile, in the horizontal car the seison is the prin-— cipal thing, but this is of secondary importance in the pedin- ent, and the crown would of the curved or angular pediments will take the first clece as teins the crowning member of the entire window, and the geison plays a subordinate part; it will therefore not be unjustifiable to make the geiscon of the angu- lar or curved cedirent narrower then that of the horigontal i cap, to allow the crown would of the former to predowinate, but the latter to end with merely 2 terminal meter, and to form the supporting lower member of a pedinent lighter than that of the horizontal cap (Fig. 365). Eroken circular pediments are produced by accenting the mid-— dle of the arch ty a grouped ornament of any kind (foliage, } suspended garlands, wreaths, shields of arms, vases, palmatigns, heads etc.), which ere pleced between the volute-like ends of, the broken curve (Fig. 366). The upper fillets of the crowning nenber “is curved around the eye, formed like a rosette, against which and the ornament die the other members. Daese broken cif- cular pediment carps, which are properly nothing élse that orna- mental crownings above a horizontal cap, permit a free treati- ent, which may be varied ‘in accordance with the special case i which they are used. 3 oneves: sacl oft dserd ot ofdettetast od ti tT | avitsetao06 & aedt evig of bas e7e> dass tte atasutbeg telogas od¢ to gukieserd edt yistt ponseatensd stel One aemod otsl ak aabt stiuov kegs ait svods tostosq yeu etwigieoe toute 19 ta0d ae ete stetomezeb © to tuskbeqes slismottos | bom od fom yew eviton movin A setintl Loxctem ati q attotl atsdies akdtiw yino tod .sicaeesly fa Saons. pang. dotse takes S9nbak eazatd? yas .scogrey etk yd ‘wigatassly easel 20 stom 978 volytouisg Laismeg 8 tao beasd ton ak sonsterze akedi to aortsottitest a yoo? dotdwy seogreq oat ao dod ,. soaegeoqqs gor ist ela fostts ‘Rafessly einh .hetests qifyt saved on etasmse10 gett ak sosly7 -@oloe002 diikn qs) .x t ougdt .afodzeo yi bedtogise o78 eyso sdt tI | .battino teed ged? ets ares ad! .sbiea sedite so eg 8 @ont mo sost [lan sdt sort ¢lSoorrd toatorg sy. m6 qi Sesebted od to tsft 24 yeu dotds ,dtbin eb 4 itt getesliq atdt to dtbsati sdf «(3 .3k8) aakd 0. eiisge2 t9eqq7s of .s{oenco sit tsdd toet edt yd eat: ; Lyidbeend msdt tdgiod s9te0e13 s oved.taao .3399 ad? 105 ent $&£ sowol $d7 Fod .53 yea si at9KOTTED ONT .Bk Fk ho od tegm setaslig,adt to dtbesad sa? wed bLuods ti a 93 {lim $f aseso Lewien si tui .xlgatbiopes Lod wortoa~or7 edt IL swohutw ac7 to svenrivors sate. to sysitidose add .esfoenco #wol elavtisisy to gel ett ak es .s9e07te0 yllsuottanyory sham 94 oot 189976 setnredto bloow wobntn edt to detatt a1it .... ewgdatw adt to dthin 1seel set of sottzaqesy b aoktoeioi7 soe esitupes syents tefee(ts aidt wn etotezedt toa yeu creldes Sefensy bas ,sost + odd tI .wiktem 8 yd ti gott botsisqee of teow iud e328 one saotesifg odd ,ifte od? dtasced seed 4 os at yisv {fiw aretagiiz adt Io tostts sal | iad 918 yoat sedtedy ot ankbrcoos bas eanoitoas tro * ran eth. Gtiw ously sase edt at 10 aveitidote edt to basi (fe an shai | sit Te eyes ed? Yo aoltoetozg odt aeagel of aatia ad avods were i od ysa esfomaos add baa dose Ny ant on ea Vt 185 Tf it ‘be justifiatle to break the less severe circular pedi- ment caps and to give them a decorative character, on the ‘con- trary the breaking of the angular pediments at the apex, a fa- yorite idea in late Roman and late Renaissance art, so that ow | bust or other sculpture may project above its apex, is an obj- ectionable expedient of a degenerate art, which passes beyond — its naturel liwits. A given motive may not be modified or enh- anced at pleasure, but only within certain lizits prescribed | ty its purpose. Kany things indeed exist, which according to general principles are more or less pleasingly formed, but the justificetion of their existence is not based on their pleas- ing appeagance ., but on the purpose which they may serve, as | we have fully stated. This pleasing effect only takes the first place in free ornament. x. Cap with fSonsoles. If the cers are supported by cortels, these flank the -jambs on either side. The ears are then test omitted. The consoles project directly from the wall face or from a pilaster of equal width, which wey te flat or be tordered by an architegave moul- ding (Fig. 367). The breadth of this pilaster will be decided © ty the fact that the conscle, to appear capable of supporting — 7 the cap, cust bave a greater height than breadth; the higher — it is, the narrower it way te, but the lower it is, the wider. it should te. Ibe breadth of the pilaster must be determined accordingly, but in normal cases it will be narrower than the architrave of the window. If the projection be broad in case of relatively low consoles, the architrave of the-window must — te wade proportionally narrower, as in Fig. 367, since the en- tire finish of the window would otherwise eppear too wide in — proportion to the clear width cf the window. a This pilaster always requires some projection from the mall face, and paneled eshlars mey not therefore abut against it, but must te seperated from it by a margin. If the window has © a base beneath the sill, the pilesters require separate bases. The effect of the pilasters will vary in accordence with th- eir sections, and eccording to whether they are behind the ~ sires to lessen the projection of the carps of the windows at , each end, the consoles may te placed directly stove the jambs eee age % edt seolacs ot es 08 ,wobntw edt to fetail sat as: as 200087 ones edt sfeF aodd yout .(33€ .2fT) vect wean gi Senteretsb ar cotfootorty sisdt bas .edast Fis 578 ,o59e svsd ow as ,eselteuedt esinaaos 34? as aoe 1s 20 .P3© Bas SIF MBE SSE weeded af ee Baord iS GO Bakfeot esfosiod «ITS base OTS .BOS .e9kY ai es © SYS ..8rd mf es begcnr7s ed’ yen (lie s xdttfoyz08 f .bbsu od of ef socorettts © .elfte robay efsst0o ‘oT 78 1960 zo {OVE .2i) overtidors sit dfeened Srete yoat out Y S¥etecos soasettibh radfrct ¢ .ITf werd at-as ‘tor iad ‘Ws bebwoqeeg To {TSE BSE sett nr os féotrdy gut low "Peftoo ek Gottw tvods sya sud todfsdw ..c.t 238 fenoy Ggid bes worsen ,€y8> eneethbsy 10% «roles 1¢ evods Bw \8500 wol bas Baord of Si¥sustetg ots .D3E RET 2k | ae ei eaifte bane e799 19vdafl sot slistive ston eed qvad dotdn To aolivers ont .pefoagon yaools3 fon Soetory gesrte sttvoet ylls1sm9a ,bTS baa EEE Lore rf ot YIessslo0 $d yitusvosst ([tw $I .tetosteds Sfod 7 ndintn .aledros earl soato doss svods eeLoenos fproved aeteg 6k eid? .tfsett Svods txom smo add etroxyse porte situpe? doide .ewobuin vst Sutegfesbh ‘hi v1e8 Poy Woee .enoaset sttedtes rot tod fereyfourts” tot ton pet ported yd belftesy ylante feos od yeu atneneanet3s pee eutt) Saort af ylgnotte fae setwobta ¢ltdeite tostorg 28h Mibitvck to beatenk beyofgns sf yer ewiot avitetoosb Od & .snote tor gatey ,aottourteccs oscod yrsalbrs “xt F d3a5 os fsortoery sot efdstivs taow et fotari wobutw Ip? sit dotdw tot ,norfourtenco fotad wk asye -8008887 | bedozs yolgus of Fou srsts1z o0o been af qt Yous yaivil aot don tassfl ts .ge2n0d to aoktourterso sai Hots seveced enoasst Isottosty yo! :elfsa venrtere 10% Tesps to bus telwaceboor ti eds sdatf eeof tinds’ eno Od Sdteephytetieketk sonte éuoess2 offedfes rot bas d o€fdcz bas eddalsa to tedt wost acktetttb rotos tano> Seuod oi beltsttea 9d blocte 300 .@noeee7 ones 2dt bedtioeab ybeetls etastbezxs oiteitie teeboy 347 dit bas apctolios offduq rot estot ssblod bae msdot: ovis | eh | e9oefeg bas ebwkbited otfsny to ewobdatt .s Eb{tud offsoy to ewobein sdt te etotoesriore sty x08 ae | 186 and the lintel of the windon, so as to enclose the frieze tet- ween then (Fig. 366). They then take the sane breadth es the -jamts, and their projection is determined ty their section. The consoles themselees, as we have seen, are either low and broad as in Pigs. 366, 367, 3€8 and 3€9, or are high and narron, as in Figs. 364, 370 and 371. Consoles resting on a base and supporting @ sill way te arranged as in Fig. 372. In cortels under sills, a difference ‘is to be made, whether they stand teneath the architrave (Fig. 370) or under a pilas- ter as in Pig. 371. a further difference consists in their te- ing upright es in Figs. 3€6, 267, or suspended es in Figs. 3€8, 269, i.e, whether the eye about which is coiled the volute is above or below. For pediment cars, narron and high consoles as in Fig. 364, are preferatie to broad and low ones, which are more suitatle for lighter ears end sills. ke Ealcony conscles, two examples of which have been given in Fig. 273 and 374, generally require strong projections of 2 told character. It will frequently be necessary to arrange several consoles ebove each other like cortels, so that each - surrorts the one next etove itself. Ibis is particularly neces-— sary in designing tay windons, which reouire strong supports, not for structurel but for esthetic reasons. Such corbtelled arrengerents may be most simply profiled by being allowed to project slightly sidewise end strongly in front (Pig. 375); 4 decorative forms may te enployed instead of uouldings. For ordinery house construction, using eut stone, @ horizon- tal window lintel is most suitatle for practical and esthetic reasons. Even in trick construction, for which the straight a arch wey be used, one prefers not to employ arched windows in the construction of houses, at least not for living-roors, but for stairney halls; for practical reesons tecause arched wind- ows admit less light then if rectengular and of equal height, and for esthetic reasons sincé itcisitoi.givesthe house a char- acter differing fron thet of palaces and public buildings. For the same reasons, one should te satisfied in house construction with the modest artistic expedients elready descrited, end res- erve richer and bolder forms for putlic buildings and palaces. 2. Windows of public tuildings and palaces. For the architecture of the windens of public tuildings and wae eee . R8r text? edt to sotssrebrenos Yoiatureteb edt ,ssoefo4 if bas togusl yllerens3 ove ewobntw sit. teddy at Peds sedtsot bee .ese0d ak asdt V4tqeb isteote 4s ia awobstw edt yltaecpoencd .todords one allan * tkodt Sos tebinw eve aimet tisdd .tdeiead bas dtbie exiuoss off sott ezatbl[ieds seed? .19testy sis ss0ge ® 6rl62 etom ,sfsoe t9axsf 8 no cals O78 (itivt yadt fak@xe soblos ertups asototeds bus ,eoau0d ¢ffeves ots med? ft ew ‘ods To dfbin T6tse72 off .ob yodt gedit etnerherxs pads ti wtootte bebtosob & acd efdd soate .ffe to textt muet ot bisg od depn cokicstis [ets ,rsfegnetoo2 ox d@ retesy s sved teem dotdn ,fetotl sdt soxt bsof sit fi ne Ba69Td OF fom aS of ,Bseu0d ak exobatw to aletnrl asae : ‘ed Ifiw [etati edt .yraoeem rsldas slyste al .slbbis Weom tk svode 2atyl esnete sat tr svetie: ot .dookd ST (ORE ott) aaktantot: [etbsy. bas antlfLodroo yd. bat fs 10 wolod bowzot ef essist s isda nsyqsd yeu +i 980 770% ) eftootie3 SU PCE -bkt .J 10 e ts es yathloon svartidore BaTOT w ain eat to [etati ent dotdw at tedt, ef sass gatbhoos wee eatt dolde ,etetasity ed Sotrogqes sintelistas stslyuag\s aristas ete? .((VE .3ff). .908t [fen adt .woxwttostoty rfp B39 Pe .suertbeq saodtin 10 dtin. .scknr0a Sntuwor. ett god gdt 9e0 yew fotati © bus adust ont to baagguoo suastidore 7 abatde on .2auntom yd beoslyor ous vistealro acy tI .a2atnsgo Sabeetoush! dhid odd mk ssitovat 2s do08 .wobokw ygones add Sge767 JA5tetot197 .[etesbey odd .ssonanpeanc atk (fs dtin oo blod &® todife setkeost stofoetiaows wobatw afdt ted ove afete atoddh Op@eungloo. edt wolls of eebvote edt to ota pbsy ott so {len edt to 906% edt to taort of eoxt baste,.ot smenoo .2ame fo yd bodroqgyue od sisge tana annoloos. sit to ales sd yen svitouw wobatkw aidt ylisai® .abitayiso to aslo enue 00 od¢ gatiduob yd bedottas ,awobaiw yed .ats{yaoo otnt Depesh ods oSat Osgusio sd est 10 jenstealty 29 bts ent yd 10 " eediors _ noftosbortak edt yy svitom siagol bayolgus yliags co ‘\,eneloo %6 egaetesifg x9Vv0 caist- yan teoLante edi af begoleveS at wobakw dedo1e of dete fexene2 edt ot sbsx asad ak soaausted -M0itogmtanoo sf pdoetes od? .8 t96c0 shen ellen ot agctasge Yniatsoao2 siaou a8 ad% bagolsva> sonsaetsasd neifssl sdt to stasootidors iy Qe a via Pe 7 grea 187 palaces, the determining consideration of the first importance is that the windows are generally larger and ligwt rooms of ¢€ greater depth, than in houses, and further that the external - walls are thicker. Consequently the windows require greater width and height, their jamts are wider and their axial dist-- ances are greater. These tuildings fron the requirements thet they fulfil are also on a larger scale, more sélid and massive than are usually houses, and therefore require tolder artistic expedients than they dc. The greattr width cf the windons is first of all, since this has a decided effect. If the windons. are rectangular, careful attention must be paid to retoving the load from the lintel, which must heve a greater height then lintels of windows in houses, so as not to break at its niddle. In simple ashlar masonry, the lintel will be a single block, to relieve it the stones lying above it must be suppor- ted by corbelling and redial ‘jointing (Fig. 376). If -jauts are used, it may happen that a frieze is formed below or atove the architrave woulding as at a or bt, Fis. 376) A perfectly corres- ponding cese is that in which the lintel of the window forms aneomrlete entablature supported by filesters, which like it- self prajectfrom the wall face. (Fis. 277). This entatlature hes its crowning cornice, with or without pediment. a seperate arcbitrave composed of two jambs and a lintel may enclose the opening. If the eilasters are replaced by columns, we obtain the canopy window, such a favorite in the bigh Renaissance, i with all its consequences, the pedestal, perforated parapet, etc. Eut this window architecture requires either a told reces- sicn of the stories to allow the columns and their pedestals to stand free in front of the face of the nall, or the pedes- tals of the columns must egain te supported by columns, cons- oles or caryatids. Finally this window motive way be developed into complete tay windows, enriched by doutling the columns, or by the aid of pilasters, or may be changed into the freq- uently employed loggia wotive py the introduction of arches over pilasters or columns. ; The arched window is developed in the simplest way from ash- lar construction. Reference is here wade to the general stete- nents concerning openings in walls made under a. The palace architecture of the Italian Renaissance developed the arched - ) 948 eadots sé} yrennen stefguoa Seom odd at nobata 3g Bh .ewobatn ods to anova de972 edt yd betkepos 9 199 to algioaity edt aaskt etivzst niot atk . bed 1% dotin ,boutet dated ovettidens scote Lerosce o 49 Bios as yd beanos> od vam dotde bas ,sost Lisn ad f gatbines tfovtdors edd 10 .qeo seLvotko s 19 dasutdhaq oe at wobakw off tL .wovfoevedi asalias edt a0 td3 } seedt .acofetvib sicstoewretar asikoos1 easly off teat fobs .eastestts vo enuofoo Lisne to sau ade yd t to ewobatw od4 to esvises adr swobata eat af agata sud bstevoo ese eamefoo [isue od? .ascsis7 sartasi0li fF m9v0 auaeguet sit ,esdo7te vi Sewasy2 so Letatl {stao ) BE yrs0ea7y wobatw To bard 8 tsas o8 .baferxotrey ike edt TI «eens slbbte edt to feds as zatasom ouse odd | eso af petloes7 yilsisien thecotatvid sands to atvate Seabee ei d2ag olbdka edt ded? .beas ef Ledcorl (atoos eefotio qi Sef{tt ote elorbacqa oft bas ,aiiieaoy hat ofotks episl 5s [etait [efnost105 6 to saso-al oacchepeiiionn as et sbte doss ts seo ssifaae s dvix o(4. STE abt) dm ft I elieren93 toa a9ob re SRE sett) (star Lataostiod A % | a qd 30 eofoxts qi b9Lfkt et mobain sdt to woasquyd ost 2k pSfosts sfefa00 8 to yousgusd edt soute ,asiggit bseolo jeotk tk wedt .xyileotfedies book esol et oaki !dagicuda | test oft to e090 .senkf bavie9 stom TO ayo 0d ta9 p abbivi’ vi Seatetdo et anoteaividh sends to avobatu 10% MGato {lane antitioesd ,efisq (e003 9207 ok t9ten8 h® gotweatb oyeds ,Aatgaissza dose teen tesonerb oat tuse off antdsel .efoviokmse sdt bas nsdt mosated af t seadt of teegnst od wnodate sit Yo cotetvib dasa ito giexsad ote efofog anigatage oof .(o BYE, eait) eslo ae -eousttogni ak sakes y199Sst? asga0 ads bas D) gataeg c910t ro ond at auwobate gntbtvi® sot sviton sedions : stnosi soefy ot eb ,enoboiw isLygasioe: of elisorlyzs yioo os ods etdxtl nosussd antntot ,2dyet: nobaku sdt evods elstail = rel qosiiod yi Setoeanoos azstasity troda fo egssa yi nents Pigaut: vlselusitas; ef toenegaerts aid? «(9 OCS .akt) wonle ats og ) aotsrog sewol odt yoo ,boxtt 976 amosaess odd conn S3ik fess gotifes [sokitev [sxtos9 ed? .be ago anted wodate sad 188 window in the most complete wanner; the arches are absolutely required by the great spans of the windows. As previously sta- ted, its form results from the principle of construction, eith- er a special stone architrave teind formed, which projects from the wall fece, and which may te crowned by an entatleture and vedinent or a circuler cap, or the archivolt moulding is wrou- ght on the ashlars themselves. If the winden is so large that the glass requires interzediate divisions, these are provided by the use of small columns or Cilasters, which linit the ope- nings in the window, the motives of the windows of the early Florentine palaces. the swall columns are covered by a horiz- cntal lintel or spanned ty arches, the tyzpanum over them being crerforated, so that a kind of window tracery is preduced, with the same meaning as that cf the middle ages. If the window con- sists of three divisionsit naturally results, in case no hori- vontal lintel is used, that the middle part is made as high as possible, end the spandrels are filled by circles (Fig. 378 a). In case of a horizontal lintel, a large circle in the center with e swaller one at each side is an appropriate arrangement. (Fig. 378 bt). A horizontal lintel (Fis. 372 bt) does not generally look well, if tbe tympanum of the window is filled ty circles or by other closed figures, since tbe tangency of a complete circle and a streight line is less good esthetically, than if it were tang-_ ent to one or more curved lines. Cne of the test proportions for windows of three divisions is ottained ty dividing the di- eueter in three equal perts, descriting small cirtles on 1/3 the diameter next each springing, theyn drawing a larger circ- le between them end the semicircle, letting the semicircles of each division of the window be tangent to these three cir- cles (Fige 278 c). The springing points are thereby lowered, end the upper tracery gains in inportence. Another rotive for dividing windows in two or three parts, only atplicatle te rectenguler windows, is te tlace horizontal lintels above the window jegts, forming transom lights actove them ty means cf sbort pilasters connected ty horizontal lint- els also. (Pig. 279 a). Ibis errangenent is particularly ‘justi- fied when the transomws are fixed, only the lower portion of t the window teing ope ed. Ihe central vertical wullion nay then ae Be ag irl 2 a int, ie *| Reeaae 7 0) © Rear Te Ure i) ' TO 0) gpa a ; in 1 + / Waihi F meh mer i *, ete : *) ‘ ™ ‘ | 4 P8t. it Reveebbate ol sredesity gaterogque 3 es botests od p asd goecsst fextaso odt ,eootetvib se7d7 satatetaos ede Tedgid: nobatw Lattnso edt eden of es oe ,hstet nd ia yen agctiivm tasrettib oo? sawobots et, | o(do ORE shit) sefortoksee bas Watt dics » )olo pwobak dowsd)ed? . toro to ¢imt{ od sbtetoo eaff{st wobmiw deredo. od? ) bas enofansnth sidarsbienos ati sort dtos ,mottourt popartaent te szoyxseg. att yd as [fon as .tdakoi ett ya usec telvose & to gekdtytevo brove tfeom bas .609 To deon etastosgrs: geitsrooeb Lis srotetsdt jsonstesqge anemeee to gottosttacoo edt Ifeoex of bast dotdr . Se ppsore: brotis elfen sat Yo eeauiokdt sidarabtrano> sdf } TE seaetbfoow toodtin’ sb itin oersiye elisvas ose &. sounloo 10 areta oeeuted eajafaesqo slyste toa ste edt (fe ,eodote yd bownsse ste ted. .eotetslisias Brybebaisre od of 518 arwtostidows asfoose at sidieetursy. asd tog bas: selporioives efdsensqeibak sdt to nortyeors ody atin ) bsenergs5 & 70 betatog yitdatia ti dotdw ,sedors bot 139 5 tt :ee7it Yo quorg s nk and? .besm yfrezory tr Mbortoinse. cet agentes dows betaroy 8 ,.srobaikn: dotedo . lkoimea gesdt asdy .aonsieszge botisy ston 8 esvi9 se betutoy sdt Qmiec ut basd isd¥o sdt 29 ‘eobte yd obte \dotdn asoaougeeneo edt [fe fy9908 ot begtide tom ste dt Riteoncs bited of euheob toa ob ex tL .ofdfod af ti =oxt Binisecasteots sdtievbises yliencoties of. ted ,alyte ordio? eoeqe vat of (five ,eiaewstivess vivedtes one Ls1osourte sort og if a0 douos {Iede ow ,syetostidots dowsdo to esottaenp Lar cgakdtytevs Siows sele [fe exotsd tewm dod .siqte ofdzod ‘ede retied asve to [few es yeu foide bus ,slgte dsat o¢ ott Ptah oe ac | etatot tedvo yd booelz a. enobak® food odP 2b ie rT aE Ay ail 0% ins ‘ey “ay taal Ye wer eme hs i ; Tigi on 1E¢ be treated as 2 surrerting pilaster. In windows of this kind conteining three divisions, the central transom bar may be om- itted, so es to make the central windon higher than the side windows. Ihe different mullions may likewise Sarrort circles - and sewicircles (Fig. 370 t). 2. Ibe Curch Windcu. The churbh window fells outside the limit of ordinery cons- truction, toth from its considerable dimensions and especially by its height, as well es ty its purpose of lighting the House of Cod, and must avoid everything of e secular naturein its appearance; therefore all decorative expedients must be avoid- ed, which tend to recall the construction of houses and palaces. fhe considerable thickness of the walls afford broad -jambs,that are usually stleyed with or “without mouldings. If the windows are not simtle openings tetween piers or columns supporting entatletures, but are spanned ty arches, 211 the forms of arc- hes perwissible in secular architecture are to be excluded, w mith the exception of the indispensatle semicircular and poin- ted arches, which if slightly rointed or a depressed pointed arch, is always appropriate in church arcbhitectwre, if a cert- ain effect is to be croduced. For churth architecture, unless the forms of classic temples are not capriciously iniroduced therein, will always return to the forus introduced ty the middle ages, wore than secular architecture, assuring that the constructive principle is to govern. Cn esthetic grounds, the rointed arch retains its superiority over the circular arch, if properly used. Thus in e group of three church entrances or church windows, @ pointed earch between two semicircular ones gives a more varied appearance, than three semicircular arches side by side. On the cther hand in using the pointed arch, we are not obliged to accept 311 the consequences which resulted fron it in Gothic. If we do not destre to build exactly in the Gothic style, but to rationally derive the architectural forms from structural and esthetic requirements, still in many spec- ial ocuestions of church architecture, we shall touch on the Gothic style, tut must before all else avoid everythings speci- fic to that style, and which may as well or even better be re- placed by other forms. 4. Ihe Wheel Windon. aa. ae mes Meneame? | ‘ae : be eS { i's ; | * me oer et itor eenedaionet wobatw footw ad? abolors revoq oad oF @ getessiy teov wobata to nzot tedt asisuet sysuls tI .970 aitwloede odd ses al .eoeo7707 aistrs9 tot olistiae toon a 8s to taponos a0 ,dtowems7t gor ae ed bedtvib som-ai Ws wou odt of to99t erexfe bluoda sso ,fton snoteied igi ath fetbar saosi1s tedtite bas .ae3e sfbbta odt ak com ae) ¢d betosadoo e1¢ shas wtso seodu .,sttaso: 8 bao0 beguetss ots edele batsictseg to nmetega 6.70 .waH of gaignofod yffsfooqa avtot [teted eit dotdwoot vot ylinterso ysee od bluade easfyte. suoeenen08 bas 3k tdois ak bortapet eyawfe srot {s19099 so at efoto a cbt goied yrooe1s otdtod to ezaso bas elftot ods son [Lore & .erwtoetrdots dovodo sk yasessoenvisgcol » to ersosit. edt wot ovitvon 8 ae beyolgns 9d gen eustea v0 .fetnosfrod ed yen anttniot adt dofdn at: ,2wobain fanoo Setiox1s 18 eelqkoutsg. sdf déim sonsd3z09208..0k bar 199 eLoattas myot. seodiw ,yrsoet! Setmevnr si yao yversaids. of tt oftdw welts gousestenc® odt to olatoniag ost of abaogaas Seibes ods dtiw sonsbro006 at et egatbivon bss wozso01sa009 | solzroatyg e@zs0e1! wobsatW .¢ ie mote¢e 3 wot ysa ewobeatw to anoieivis. Issiguey. ottag to usteye s 30 .yxs0ess Lavestoeu to erodt ove! av al iments foes ao bs0efg.94 saogs toredaig. levoost etinds goasentesgon edi to sf{ytoautyg wiotyedt .oetwoitt To. ea: ase, eazetssg yrtaogss ,dsonelioisa.,sm@rolcbetisy teow on : {fs tocenokist0096 [staeusex9 bas omely .geragtt ofyte bvecibea to. seodd of elyfonizg. of wsltete ets aantblvou eretteg ot to nzot testt A .tusadests rooTt s seitetursy ave faba ,fotns> wsitersdd edd rot sldstive ef yrs0sat wobutw’ to dt toodtin ,segceseye edt rot sno Lsotrtomosk ¢ltotite 2 edt todtd .ofgte feitoo%: edt sett gakworred to vite ysftq kokosla yd ewobakw sbivib oF oldienod at tt bodton q 39 stsibenretat {steosttod tioggua dorian .1Edto. dose: svois " fnr09 sasdt (£56 o3t4) sedots yd bstosmaos: e7s-bae 339 Sistate dowsdo odi to dasy sowol sdf .yot mo deen. satu ic cien ott ito eetrreo dotdw ,(SS8 .9f8) gelge gnc abosta iktaa: out. 220 soten odo Byood ted? ,2aibluom gizb s din ebas ae ji). ) weddabtgde, bas emobalt. sonst? 63 | 190 We can never exclude the wheel window from church erchitect- ure. It alweys remains that form of window most pleasing and most spitatle for certain purposes. In case the wheel window is not divided ty en iron framework, on account of the glazing tut by stone work, one should always recur to the motives con- mon in the widdle eges, and either arrange radial mullions er- ound a centre, whose cuter ends are connected by arches in any way, or a spsten of perforated slebs are arranged about 4 cen- tre, in which the deteil forms specially telonging to the Coth- ic and Reomanesoue styles should be very cerefully avoided. Tbus a circle is e general form elways required in erchitecture, but the foils end cusrs of Cothic tracery teing spetific, are no longer necessery in church architecture. A scroll work of plant stems way be employed as @ wotive for the tracery of church a windows, in which the jointing may be horizontal, or be arran- ged in accordance with the princirles 6f arched construction. In this way may be invented tracery, whose form entirely cor- responds te the principle of the Renaissance style, while its construction and wouldings is in accordance with the mediaenal principle. 5. Window Tracery. Vertical divisions of windows way form a system of rullions like those of wediaeval tracery, or a system of perforated hor- izontal slats of stone te pladed on each other. In this case likewise, the form principle cf the Renaissance admits of the most varied forms, scroll work, tapestry patterns, the use of figures, plane and ornamental decorations of all kinds. The mouldings are Similer in principle to those of wediaeval styles, even permitting a freer treatment. A freer formu of the patterns of window tracery is suiteble for the Christian church, a more strictly geometrical one for the synasceue, without the neces- sity cf borrowing from the Koorish style. After the classic @& method it is possitle to divide windows ty placing pilasters atove each other, which support horizontal intermediate corni- ces and ere connected by arches (Fig. 281). These cornices re- ‘quire a wash on tor. The loner pert of the church window best stands on a splay (Fig. 282), which carries off the water, and ends with 2 drip woulding, that keeps the nater off the wall. 6. Iransom Windows end Skylights. eds tdgkl of syrva eltaeopett awobniw (1508 Som are ysdt i egutites eft ee [few as . fled: to rot tastetiio aig vow yedt ,w20t Leurdn bas yoaectbto it “{pavetes oft ed betiinisg 9d yee fate of bathzo @ srelvoriotnee .2to seo 2ofgus diin ,gnofdo 10 teinoits etetg ote bos trsz otankbiodeea s ysly eqents voal ianat: edt to taeregcetss oft ditw osasdStocoe wr beste Boknz0o foot ef robag osokr? ont sk boosla asattovoa ots 2 Baas vs; , -Sisteldetas ast eee by ue.e4 seeblilsed | bus e1o07 «2 Soe f - wseopeintebaedt otfgeq ,.saoot To ayswetes bas arsob 107 tsa eer dokde ,efieotiags ek suse sdt leetotedo bas Yo netttoa 8 bos .efiee at Ie1ea92 ak anntosye mo et toob oft .yen teelgria cdt of .ewobatw of baszer ak Seietatis bas einot dttw redtrs eSvsitidows as yd. Soactons Sboce1 dott ekatblaca yd to .sost [fen edt wort, 3attoog Pbdors od? .atsldes edt no tdQcoTw O18 bas scat {Law ont mee enon YI dtatly to batd © ofat woled beyasds a4 bfooda Pievatirbavets beatnse1- 10 Th. deaters gatvbd vlaefe tedtis HB BNE oF [XE ovat blcode ovestidote dt to woisose oak Vieqites sas at .zyewrooh sdf% to dvbiw sat to dtbin tes | besad ed? ,ereidas beaeod avicesa gteds ditw goosfs; tigteastiva sso0h sit to ted¢. Maw toode ef sestticors of 80. oos ,betostors qigeotte 19 efdsen sseqgqg [lt yon rc: oapenam goktoetors Qaotte © Ons ,svsvtidors sd¢ to dtbtw peeuroob-ad? to actasyo edi refse12 ott ,slietbeeb aon adt if ottett ayewets2 bus 81007, ottw ,seso teodott odt ot Feolgyute sat noukt ,sovts eo ed viletoedes .baacttass ybserls atasibeaxes sas ¢d as aaeeani tI -tasatuotag asaoteyed bas adoold zaigatrge fpeenoo ers exstotss cords 10 .esosiey qasm ni es ,hebba od os: etkl .beowborg 946 earot feodott edt ,auose & af } #n02 to astee .e90efey nt sonseetened astissI edt yi be | a. suo wt betoets ceodt onfe bos ,settio baw: anos bb nt betasy od yen dose {sdgeettt edt to svitow Sessa m Isvoe Yo ose egniasgo odd a9ddedw of Rafbr9008 .2¢se eefiq befysoo tedtedw 1c .taebin ak sao olbbin sd? 40 0d aost bas ,bees sas alstasbhsg Ssodtin to d¢ia eanaloo g9d¢ bevizeb ean terkt odt t9vo smo baotee 8 guroely eteneh yensn yt bsyolgms dows Lsdqectsd yrore-ont 5 od setwodit ek dors Leadgugfit edt to oviton off «as “9 non soate .atewer op Iffn Sas estes ysio taeottinges. of =... seo dt bas ,ee38i7199 10% aege sbiw te aniaszoile oe -ozom sd zileossoea-. aso ,tool so eawoeteg sci. eyakasyo ~ oven eid? ak acdd setwisite. qoota s al: beatdaos ‘base yeorng tt. tO qGootk Raiawovdis .ortts as..to soi sz “$f patdesft yd effect so .ecottsso096 bexosaLone ke Late: ni doze fetiguotst edt to eviton od? .etewot aviaagoogs I w get tettt edt to drow [syosastiooss evitsaocee Ppdetuoy e4%) 10. .2t83 veto # sot eviton 6.es, Segolgue od I1pe. ee ewnkee-: >. Potato g)to ebeoet adt 19%, es .eabtad:.e to aueq geig. edt cxodn ,egntbited oifdoq 10 asostsg ,eeenod, xf), gas ods ss0ted dosog [Ieue so bosnerse od Ofoode . atin > ei dosoe Rabinatosg 8 so (od ye FBP eet). yews soaszastze Atoyl .sosTr9s to.ynoolss 2. advorguan dotaw eeerere tkodt ot gakbiosos. ,awiolt oagtby. feou: ods, to 4 _ ig -sipsoetidess ssuto edt ee | Biesets {szytoaksg odt ta bsew dona ete gedoToI 206 . on rte aq to taso908 no oldsenayelbak movte oas bas .29g039 he ‘gnt assented bsoelz goede ote your -tedisea¢; bas. barn most bostosa vod? viteel 16 ,.tenot & to ytote tewol edt arot a0 See skis edt to aapadotds sit to tavoo28 mm) .obsoat sat mo bivod dotde .edast: ebin vredeved egewls estiotedo to elstiog joy af 8 rsbay bisa ean, tenn tia soasbso008. at betsest ad "i ee “te : ers a ea cc. 192 entablature may be covered ty a pediment, or may form a balcony. Doors and gateways covered by arches admit of e series of mo- | tives, from the simplest to the richest case, with enrichments by the expedients already mentioned, especially by making the springing blocks and keystones prominent. If paneled ashlars be added, as in many peleces, or three sateways are connected in 4 group, the richest forms ere produced, like those invent- ed by the Italian Renaissance in palaces, gates of fortificat- jons end cities, and alse those erected in our tine. The last named wotiva of the triumphal arch may te varied in different ways, according to whether the openings ere of equal widths, or the middle one is widest, or whether coupled pilasters or columns with or without pedestals are used, and from this by rlacing a second one over the first was derived the notive of. a two-story triumphal erch employed iy many Reneissance church- es. Ihe motive of the triumphal arch is likewise best suited to magnificent city gates and will so remain, since the centr- al opening of wider spen for carriages, and the narrower side cpenings for persons on foot, can scarcely be tore properly c combined in a group otherwise than in this way. Ey the addit- ion of an attic, 2 crowning group of figures, end especially of sculptured decorations, or lastly by flanking it with two successive towers, the motive of the triumphal arch forms a da decorative architectural work of the first rank, which may es well be employed as a motive for a city gate, or the portal of a bridge, eas for the facade of a church. In houses, palaces or putlic buildings, where the plan per- nits, should be arranged ea small porch before the entrance. doorway (Fig. 383 a, tb), or @ projecting porch is constructed, which supports a talcony or terrace. Eoth arrangements admit of the most varied forms, eccording to their connection with the cther architecture. Such porches are much used at the principal entrances of ch- urches, and are often indispensable on account of protection . from wind and weather. They are then placed between two towers, or form the lower story of a tower, or lastly they project fr- om the facade. On account of the thickness of the walls, the portals of churches always have wery wide jambs, which should be treated in accordance with what was said under a in general. rar a bs Nhs 4 rn, oe Nae nas | ‘ow © i : 2 ed Mh Ri ae Ee A a @ % ; Mil) 4 Led ee as 2 # ‘abies : 7 Y iy 4 . Lf By , (od gas vitson eael to’ ston seat events bleode yodt (‘Esarsice 1tedt ob olyde seugzetawed edt to alsiz0z donudo $ benveo at ata? odd (feoet binoo tedt (is aqtbtove tee i Sanh 0-4 mrenees edt of beol dokdn ,anoitionos*oarky ae S seggasteng’ : icebbal .attevin®d ,eleans? to efet102 62 8 cw 6 ei. “59 pote ,perpeetdel .moktelttasV rc} apeitegd 96 Oae eltit aids today beettguoo effen at egataygo £L2 ¢ ° {(Iswe 8 tod extaoes yllaususboss Istretes.eletes gy freg sat aco tusbnszeb ylsafins al dotde) potters d stem ,efoneot ,etto eal .savtootte to eathitns ot 9 Gases totsers sifvos2 ,amoktsobtitrot bes esabrad @tioe nistavos blin se nt 1c asad ,20209707. [ureto9s dors teon egntol[iod qreessoon fone to febel satenevs. fed ‘w20t a bac .vse otalanoo fteon- sdf ok saoguna tie ng eet) eyrees -foollotat meméd sdried sede of Ut tegsosa ietuloa wie £ 3 cab meena sete to’efenso ,syerifts1 ret. slenng? ieese7te sot oldetive .dasot of of gi rex0te.otada:datsool ad : fons 93 of otigoss fsds ahatasgo.9te: ced? .aesorisy ov jo Eb dorms etd .bodors aysalocttoals.sas ysdi.sodts ene vidors bLod ,azeldes bedscitesd .sreacloas edt wot dove | as. eonotes vod bas gatanteqe oft: to soasataory. 5 soak ok: 86 sheds sot atastbeyxs\ Ioreten taom. odd midtiiliw fiotin .elsuaed to snort at titod:eenttewos ers \tobsse7 eit toqyersy 8 10 atnousltisd déiniosta109 siyd Semn019 at bas eure to ebletia yi botstooeb bag. arawod to fens et! aottetoesh evooltreqes [fe ,[etogea al wets ltr ‘beeogre osls et bas ytto s mi ton ek treeeso #h be etidors odt autvseedo iol sats ad? .t65t\ go“endates eitd oe eli{sceu at ysnltet 8 ac gailsvert oltdw Isanae teat s2obtom of. effdw Sizer of at aebtsuetgut. te saned9 val ‘ett bas ooe02 vitresesaom ¢lno 2h Lonaet ont te Esf102 seorte » tt toezettib tedwewoe at tI‘ snettoayot ¢lasteo bos ents ovsd toot wo agoeteg ted o@ .yenlier afd gaols e@tetontta odd Satataerce: 10% rail Ny ediow gaivesatace ak ofisetvbs yliewenes et th: he Sedunstce teom odt oem of .xmoae0s, to a 96) serstouate owe tf word .ytaosem welisa bs98t foo1 pce iar aes b or. ee * 1 { Mh, < ie re Dea WY ‘¥ oe eo rs anal ; et ‘193 They should always Raye wore or less nearly approximate the church portals of the Remanesoues style in their external form, yet avoiding all that could recall then. This is caused by the given conditions, which lead to like results under similar cir- cumstances. G9. Portals of Tunnels, Culverts, Cateway Eridges, 0 Openings for Ventilation, HEmbrasures, etc. ‘All openings in walls comprised under this title and stivais curely material needsusually require but 2 smell amount of dec- oration, which is entirely dependent on the part played by the tuilding or structure. In a city, tunnels, sate bridges, other bridges and fortifications, require greater expenditure for 2 architectural purposes, than if in a wild wountain solitude; tut even the least of such necessary buildings wust fulfil th- eir purpose in the most complete way, and a form must be given to them by the human intellect, beyond the requirements of at- solute necessity. funnels for reilnays, canals or other highways, will always be located where stone is to be found, suitable for structural purposes. They are openings that require to te enclosed, and since they are almost slways arched, this arch will of. itself form the enclosure. Rusticated ashlers, bold archivolt mould- ings, @ prominence of the springing and key stones of the arch, will form the most natural expedients for their decoration. Facades are sometimes built in front of tunnels, which may te- crowned ty a cornice with battlements or a parapet flanked ty angle towers, and decorated ty shields of arms and inscribed tablets. In general, a11 surerfluous decoration is to be avoid- ed, in case it is not in a city and is also exposed to view of persons on foot. The tine for otserving the architecture of a tunnel while traveling on a railway is usually so brief, the change of inpressions is so repid while in notion, that the portal of the tunnel is only momentarily seen and its form is ‘quickly forgotten. It is somewhat different if a street extends alons the railway, so that rersons on foot have time and oppor- tunity for exatining the structure. It is generally advisatle in engineering works and fortifica- tions for sake of economy, to make the most extensive use of rock faced ssbler masonry. From it such structures derive a ae: oh bel wot ¢tterg [14 .dtyusrte' bas essatesnies to yetoeteds beomted ton of yods sonte .sesavatds ati nsbdidro? ylorts Spe © seetetooite svteeen cilemae sesdt to ratos1ed9 ade eduem Satuwors 2 es sflistias egenfs o1¢. stnoneltts?. Se Sts 10% sevttow svitostts bws ofguta « yotrrot sessosd oe sdtf yatifedros ,alodioo evtesss .sectutes te eaot ; _ a*soser sit to stasiberrs elinta bot wobute ves 4 (eeoded ytteino wetyed? 098 seltetive ota tis e*rartes . paeltute bes colielttasy sot agatneso’ .mergoetdag Hs \,t9tew to ek1etoeth 10? wgetnezo .alfew at syatnego qB2009709 Tiss? ys botieoss 28 tact: bas slyarestsl teed 5 Prem pesaeee neh of eoti £1 .tnengoleveh rediaet ts Te 9908 af Beteert of Sivode elfen ot sgnteoad tans es pekurteoson evon od? .coktsool baassonstragat siedt } ee oo Ofel sd Olhodea afesdgns east ott aoast20 as 50: a Lefistea odd yd soaiggos er asdd: .9adodels aton he ee eeieenions Te9gq8 tdbta sedt ifs. yathFovs isto tit easen gattentnoberg adi 94 teu0 vagocet aat to deus To sdgeeaegae eit seatorateb doidse nortesses | > of os wet oe Jaow dscbnt botisy goomsad sa? saedt wrorrs yen to sno ,2cotterititrt to escece PRE BORA, oe ba) pBRIOITBT 68s Me hed setagnevs? sa0v8 wk. ee rers 2909 ous eemsape ,eteerte ‘sot atmensys29s033 ©: 7 Benofe gnivey Se1Veq7279 ylistosga ‘to beeoyaos 2entks fasts 190 aol .@eaode dskizsug to 10. .et9vt? wort aaa Sh soueis937¢ avitexo2eb sidokda tot bayolzse ‘soblsacess atues 8 erofoo ont to afoold actveqg ,bertasd git dove med). oebsetat. ) sania foney besolous siguie doidw to bre ent yd ,bseu one F: fsugs to od Ifsoyltusbtve seus souote add sbaaTo% ae ar yee fh to senote to aber lguow ataenoves doaga ants 3Sibtes | 7 & dows eases: qaafdo bas 29d09. to’ ..3.r, 297ade ioe o3k3) ateotafent [Ltd Lexabsates ad2 ao boost POF ak at ogo.78 . etiis af botosttencs Meet) e786 esagmevsy acressl? aes, {Ie teow dokdw ,easncte’asdtord Sas eeaota tevid td. sot 918 alensy ersepe gllersds> .sste sass ot vletaa do 10 .beteatdct osis ets alsaoasth ssodn .goaete sanisl odt sit at ehoole gatvsg tea. useols ti slid or elses a UT se ng PS 4 i wie ‘ aN r ts . KN | eae iat te y, ud ae Ree an he ou ty Pad ¥ a ee 194 character of earnestness and strength. All pretty forms are eén- tirely forbidden in this case, since they do not harmonize with the character of these usually massive structures. Rattlenents are always suitable as a crowning member of nalls because forwing a simple and effective motive. For the praject- ions of cornices, massive cortels, corbelling like that under a bay window and siniler expedients of the mason’s and stone- cutter’s art ere suitatle. See Charter on City Cates. : Embresures, openings for ventilation and similar subordinate openings in walls, openings for discharge of water, etc., are best left simple and just as required by their purposes, with- out further development. It lies in the nature of the case, that openings in nalls should be treated in accordance with t their importance and location. The more subordinate their imrp- ortance, the less emphasis should be laid on making their forms nore elaborate, than is reouired by the material need, theref- ore avoiding all that might appear pretentious. The solidity of the wasonry must ce the predominating means with careful execution, which determines the appeasance of the tuilding. The Earoceo period indeed went so far as te decorate the embr- asures of fortifications, one of many errors that we rust avoid. B. FLOCRS. 1. Stone Favements. Stone pavements for streets, sauares anc courtyards, etc. are either composed of specially prepered paving stones, or of sto- nes from rivers, or of Quarried stones. In our era stone pave- nents are seldom exployed for which a decorative appearance is intended. When such is desired, paving blocks of two colors a are used, by the aid of which simple enclosed panels nay te f formed; the stones must evidently all te of equal hardness. In earlier times such pavements were wade of stones of different shapes, i-€., of cubes and oblong forms. Such a raverent is f found on the cathedral hill in Trieste (Fig. 384) end a-simil- | ar one is in Rome. q Fleasing pavements have been constructed in different places, | 4 of river stones and broken stones, which must all have approxi- nately the same size. Cenerally square panels are formed with the lerger stones, whose diagonals are also indicated, or oblong renels are filled by closely set peving tlocks. If the river | ( eet q eds at ptal{rifecen ete ysdt .{svo bus 2o00f arc woqote id 4 foo 8d Yee astwatt etersyee -buod enodautated: mt Angie atnonsvsg wk gon0sa asdowd yo toviy dtin, esate at bawot 93 ot 918 ataemsvsg.doge to esignsre sat tut "8: TI9v. ~earsttsy to ¢istzay Tasteeth sdt of nabbed moat serezit staqsqea, dtin bas senove stevia to betousss pedal? emose to aTool® of 4.4). 4. » gate edels enota to syoolt to bart seolynge on? . a to besozmoo tedt et ,eeitio tt etnomevsg:evitas Ouylog edt foeges: sidd al eataonsyeg taatte tnotous edd) edit 4 tt fie ,infteognt sts somevolt to qtid edt to asaousvex Le | s8aot to edoold bas adele tee ylfuterss dos satel ytsv ! 9 ‘Yo ezoolt sd? Snftevod a0T beeg doom ote edele stand t Aa | -Bbteysic0> .pegssesy bat siobizt0>. .gsludissev .a3 x, to sbsiid besoloo yisasisttkb sec ot ak Seddon adkrov her to geutoege A .noteeon sdtl enzottes. Soaboxs i to GeRoynoo ef enzolod ok nost9) .f mort sitoass pia sence fediidord to gotegit betxsent ems dobdn ofus . etida to miele to stataapo soely ames edt. norsk emo ae bas box to petogit Oéelot ylasiuses sas dokdn okt Dok Faeeaayor yee asoolt sisson Hes aetetssal oes mkeoguod emggkt seve io ,goxsitsa yisesyss {staeusnt0 esate to Tesbodteo edi aivbas seguod.asteggol yasu wt eROLEE Ons edotti to s190l® 66 >: 8 ..bao: asloger. ak biel aysrte eat aeiveg dois. yusntds0 ier ses adottd tot bebwemmoos1 ote abuod Istrausato edt Javiasd af ¢& tI sebati [fs te. asistisa soehota dotde a tod -bolegans od ton tana gedé .adoiad baaolos yoliae etseqae ii9ds aketer of as oo. ebateofos tiea yleorkias wdieetarsy yluo ton, ei. tL .gntqzile tasveig of bas see ne ettool bsbinos to etaguevaq doing; sism of a99077 save | at fm ssodi gllctooqst .asdaye ofsacn, sot beiiue 215 eugot Ae sto tit evtibtioa edd tmaces of .atnamsis et9yit tmeantgcoo - seat 32 bos0gz0> tf adottd to bastent Soec edpoals ysx enors feo 083 betssy taow sd¢ at boao exe se0d? .aletister brsd | os astit asiass 20° heater ,besesery tell sadtii. .sazezieg = J axstiss edd eved yea tert? ed? .aioolt slit sot beynig i. 8; sdf .eoltt doaltioys odd ao as ,e10loo dmanetith of a0 eee, + seso ak ,yisesqet eitf ivowtes ¢ sich ayenis a = 2 hae i a ey rey it bi es ; i oF ye Aged he . 195 stones are long and oval, they ere usually!laid in the pavement in herringbone bond. Seperate figures may be composed of smell stones with river or broken stones in pavements like mosaics. Fine exauples of such pavements are to be found in Freiburg in Eaden, in the greatest variety of patterns, very carefully con- structed of river stones and with separate figures like nosaics. 2. Floors of Stone Slats. The simplest kind of floors of stone slats, also employed for entire pavements 6f cities, is that composed of stone blocks \ like the encient street pavements. In this respect the polyson- al pavenents of the Gity of Florence are imposing, with their very large and carefully set slats and tlocks of stone. Souare slabs are much used for covering the floors cf church- es, vestitules, corridors and passages, courtyards, etc. 4 fa- % vorite method is to use differently colered kinds of marble to produce patterns like rosaics. A stecimen of ancient stone in- } tersia from §. Gereon in Cologne is composed cof Rhenish slate, into which ere inserted figures of Eroblthel sufa¢ a second one from the same place consists of slats of nhite sandstone, . ‘in wbich ere regularly inlaid figures of red and green porthy- ry. Intarsias end mosaic floors may represent geometrical or a ornamental tapestry ratterns, or even figure compositions, @s- : in uany Foureian houses and in the catbedral of Siena. } 3. Floors of Ericks and Tiles. } Ordinary trick peving is aiways laid in regular bond, and the ornamental tonds are recommended for bricks set on edge, which produce patterns of all kinds. If it is desiratle to employ colored bricks, they wast not be enaweled, but must be entirely self colored, so as to retain their appearance after use and to prevent slipping. It -is not only perwissitle but | even proper to make brick paverents of moulded tlocks, whose forms are suited to e mosaic systet. Escecially those with congruent figure elesents, to eccent the solidity. Artificial stone may else be used instead of tricks if composed of very hard materials. These are used in the most varied geometrical vatterns. Hither flat pressed, raised or sunken tiles are en-- tloyed for tile floors. The first way have the pattern burnt | on in different colors, as on the Hettlach tiles. The patterns alnays form a network like tapestry, in case of either flat or st stan ‘ed quste ed? a0 arr eamot ssoin .s5lit bsees+3 , @ o1s esldtonizg busory ence oct -beaesigat 338 $ Bettkzsiv to bosels ted yao ,eflen at toc edfit severe @tassoveg tot ofdstfina eeel o1e tedt bse Sb e2ursqifs ts t9¥ns6 o ie +Sa0%8 fetottisza to 2190l7 2b ya m0 ~it9us> .9t970009 to Sorogne> ets ‘Srz0ft stet0099 jebord 94 yeu avetfsz 4 wcdored to toys! wotfod s a0 ‘biel Getieve yrev A ween sds af etofoo saaisttib gnfrts OJ .2 to yterdtl e*olszasisdoty¥ ct bevolgue fedt st pF eltoorie 233 sag aah sai 26 ewzot set otsdK* . soast0FF ' eaniftss sd? Yo-seodt eB200[F gatocr .* ) seodt ad (ffe benoktass s19d soo ft gaboow vind ad? U ee yody eseeo {Ie oI .betssaey ste 10 .boow £5 359 i 3° Sas wrot wiedd senttreteh doidw ,eeieatstat ro apt vifsiocges ef aoteya siseou sdf weuoksetinif rst o8t sedate ,pr00{t terssnev Yo sutot sit sstemeted ‘a8 afbaogesttos od2 eghdrve pane nort tds $78 efnems a ‘ andit SOaTAIT03 & FO Sea Ber 70 TrevrauaP . 7 Vaetsod2 sdv Yo sesoeted) brs sagtse sr to etdat sdt yd bewkersteb sis Bsfrote ade to atdaiss Sar: al podoe Sfo-s4 .see7s tThsds fo Sa3q86 sesdt bys .emo07 sai Stsepe bicode soor e to tdaied ods tet# .ateed eer aavty mrad Saf zo , S0s0ad + ds300! Leia; isptd ett MVE Yt F eiatoy Sattrsts HroTis eotts: sestl wey sat to Ter 7 eID .astistifork st sbuodses of? -fptsat ef astto ; got exooy acivil to tiated tecsl ‘set os tt B.0 of BT Of et teat ,oecod © to woot teeatt bea tesSrel’ sad ‘osut +. ebt 94 tiated ete tf wol oof as97y8 Yor Iftr , 2x ees a wi Seouboisar seiliv bus aseccd 20% Bastt1o7077 sa? fys6 sd! .etokisozo1s Sherave es Ose0 Sx ver [o0d5% f ed¢ Bos ,.¢t FES of Tf 84 UT Osmsees at excoT toott as § sit tot :t02fF to yot of Jot soct betesess® gk astrota to aad fe seagb Stk rot :.FF SQGSE Velltv bodosteb @ to yore suse | #iowaeed edt af egode dtiw seood ytto s tot tt erect ft =the SDE ote ro woled wort asftiova to etdytod sat a oor ‘ial if ‘Yo bezogeco ..9.r .otfoe rsdsis ox8 godt oUTis0D +: 19€ rressed tiles, whose forms depend on the stamp by ubich they are impressed. The same ground principles are aprplicatle to tiles set in malls, only that glazed or vitrified tiles should de used, that are less suitable for pavenents because of bhe danger cf slipping. 4. Floors of artificial Stone. Concrete floors ere composed of concrete, cement, or gypsum, laid on a bottom layer of bricks. A pattern may tbe preduced ty nizing different colors in the mess. A very suitable treatment is thet employed in Michelangelo’s Library of S. Lorenzo at Florence, where the forms of the floor ere directly based on those of the ceiling. | 5. Wooden Floors. fhe only wooden floors here mentioned will te those of par- quetry. Ibey are either solid, i.¢., composed of matched pie- ces of wood, or are veneered. In all cases they are wood mosa- ics or intarsias, which determines their form and prescribes their limitations. The wosaic syster is especielly suited to . detemmine the forms of veneered floors, since the separate ele ements are cut from tlocks, having the corresponding cross sec- tions. FP. TREATWMENT OF TBE MASS OF A EUILDINC. 4. Height and Character of the Stories. The heights of the stories are determined ty the heights of the rooms, and these depend cn their areas. An old school rule gives us a basis, that the height of a room should equal 2/3 to 3/4 its width, or its lenéth + breadth | or the half diago- nal of the tlan. These ratios afford starting points that may often be useful. The Eaukunde der Architekten, [1, fr. 7€, gives 4.4 to 9.€ fi as the least beight of living rooms for human be- ings; the largest and finest room of @ house, that is 19.7 x 29.5 ft., will not appear too lon if its height te 14.75 ft. The proportions for houses and villas ‘introduced by the Dresden school may be used as averarce proportions. The depth of the f front roors is assumed to te 19.7 to 21.3 ft., and the height of stcries as measured from top to tor of flicor; for the btase- ment story of 2 detached villa, 1299€ ft.; for its upper story 12.15 ft; for a city house with shors in the basewent story, the heights of stories from telon upwerd are 14.8, 13.95, 13.45, =e COE a eet to Wdqeb edt seso al.tt EeSf bas } tae 8% abott os 2.02 sovky food doccétnan svode ‘et # otlted bas euusi¥ al: settee 10% xoevod tot yrote te t dt 202 faeel ¢4 st9v0 bas tt 3f to esiszode bavot 9d p, te eatuassen at azoor to tdgted rseL> sit yot yrse bem hou) 001%, of soolt wort .ft 2r.38 ae ats! etasneced | -antbltod ) et 03.3 O&.3r eoels§ xtedeaqz2. -nabeetd oT. uA |e sets 00.98 | sesls% Legon oifted . oa Od.2t geagl e'be7a90 oriied ‘eis OS. fr sosf32. tet78% w9begtd -(eeoldoe) soefed 610 .mrf199 »:,..998fs2, fsyou .8tisas> 7 | bf has: oiveol .aizei ByanOS.08 aa soe ts? tesotde. .Qone701T five COS ri hae soefs? sgsa%et, 9709 3¢ et enl3 ESE? , soaa70lt 8 sovtt a at Mee _«pbanine? nos? tositrs. gral /93 ven. seitote szodu, to aidgied edt 2308187 arogd te 62 teow anoot foode2 .cels egcibliad otf{dez tot eiaa OO Weseests tof sth L.Ef to: ,as9lo. edt af data tt ett baie “te09! te 9d teow (fed acfgots so [fed sgref sa! .elig 18 o Isz to estrote sdf to. etdated gatbsoeag sdf .dpia > \eeiatoosisots fenitsixs 1iedt diin ostpsumog qlotertr : Bozo toy afodt ,19f10s8 edt to 19so878d9, Lenrsds9 ear pifeo eal ebotoenaeo gletoattat evenLs 518 satdgtod, stot ,ed Syents [ftw ,abathlias. atling to to sesuod, To x3 y fon aoobh sigied eI -axoor gatvil asigtetneo if seve '8 @otisgst If: bas Robins, 90? Lo BaD, edt. tp teat ¢ } -Tosudsery prigacn at #I .sa07asy snoxettid e (a7en yas dugmeeag, sar teabts odt estuoes dofdn. ,sopeos. gtio at agode, xs > gtey ek dT sepatifewb ysio tssb0n yd so splitenag .asse yoserls eyed sm ea ,esiliv to wiole Igzrogizg s9990 ait oftde .2OSo7IN7: Istoos. aot pago7 ott ani Mad. ot -o%9 .g1seted \efe99% sot ex001 ,aNooIbed vd betgno beseis995 qidoke teom sad eysals et tasneesd oot +3889 Hi dtod ~etode Isqioctsg, anti wilsisce: ek yiota haat oat ayy) Hb el erue6oe euseteds bas asoetsz to ‘eatsote fagtoatsg oi 197 and 12.k ft.In case the depth of the front rooms be 14.8 ft., the above mentéoned book gives 10.5 to 11.45 ft. as the height of story for houses for renting. In Vienna and Eerlin are to te found stories of 16 ft. and over. ‘At least 5.9 ft. is neces- sary for the clear height of rooms in wezzanine stories. The trincipal stories of palaces and chateaus measure from 16.4 to 36.15 ft. frou floor to floor. Euildins. Easement. Wain Story. Dresden, Cppenhein falace 16.20 16.60. ft. Eerlin, Royal Balece 20.00 21.50 Eerlin, Conrad’s House 15.40 17.70 Dresden, Kapher Felace 17 +20 12.40 Eerlin, Cld Falace (Schloss) 23.00 Caserta, Royal Falace 26.25 Faris, Louvre : 27085 Florence, Strezzi Palace 20.20 Rome, Farnese Falace 29-50 Florence, Fitti Falace 326.10 This extract from Eaukunde, II, p- 75, gives a series of well known palaces, the heights of whose stories may be taken as nor- mals for public tuildings also. School rooms must te at least 11.5 ft. high in the clear, or 13.1 ft. for classes of 100 pu- pils. The large hall or singing hall must be at least 16.4 ft. high. The preceding heights of the stories of relaces are int- imately connected with their external architecture. The external character of the storier, their purposes and t their beights, ere always intimetely connected. ihe cellar stos ry of houses or of gutlic buildings, will always be subordinate, even if containing living roows. Its height does not exceed thet of the tase of the building, and it requires a plain and massive treatment. The basement way have ea different purpose. It is occupied by shops in city houses, which reouire the widest show windows rossible, or by modest city dwellings. it is very commonly the crincipal story of villas, as we have already seen, and conta- ins the rooms for social purroses, while the urrer story is oc- cupied ty tedrooms, roows for guests, nursery, ctc. In the last case, the besement is always the most richly decorated story. The first story is generally the princiral story, both in i | f ontiey one geoefay ot ee (fen as ,istaot tof esevad “eeetzxe stoteredt seun gousseaq76 [earstxe att das “bas uldots teon od [fie th qitrenpsen0) .ordtoertdote E sovivess bas sfonte at tasnsasd odt altdn .bstesrt yf sa dtiw- betastt oF teon fr .bebde sk ysotea: ontuer "i | CI0te FeTkh oss ve ids abides 8 dente evewls vaote braids xo baovse A» at egsisey chetoos eatsote seout ,Letne7 sot aseuod agzel ® tsdaoo yrove Isykosiag sd? oltdw .2tslt stasesee.eerds Wrist bas bao0sa edt .aetoersdo dyld to: guetifanbd sfurte is e606 Beteons ylyuta eto sd of elanibro.e ors. .a9t rh ead odd diiw etesrivoo sedis. .ytote sagntsygo nf | i eel P quer grey wk bluote ,2strote orow-79 2610% to egath > 109 9 Legtonksy sd¢ itiw bsso0qmo basi.ebi« # edil Souzot voktaliods $ ai Jot abi ie aekbizod sat eaktentuied bes sostrsgao2 at plo Obes wol oof etesgge $5 eousd act Se eifgted eldatedtacom sted? of baosastt0)8S tovemad edt .ers{feo at banol ote eparllewd ovede asisto al to ft aofeexy s brette of idaisd sliscebieqoo s asd wd paksibas ‘adt ofmt eo: of efiteroy vou ait .anotain Bind to coesd edt to aokssnxot edt to encttoloa soniteth | i woe, sted? .wetv To taioq aoasoo 6 a9has mens soaly oF @notiteorsth setivoeq .bunoty act ai settierevit tetzes. ' feqtociay adv dain sasd eds To asrtoenxoo adt .nadg @ ators of Bsol dotda ,aqate [sax9txs a9 e0os ties dtin ifeelty ,sareloo ,.ytaoasm sdt To snortostery .ainorss ‘eased sdd to stoi oft someultak ,aletesbsq tuodtrn 10 iaeaed oft tot bacm doum at doidn ,ytnoasy bateoktast as woe to enobotw ..ats ,enobain telleodoe baa aeifao 10 boitthow ad eyawls [fiw osed ed .ote ,aado tds ¢ to eaeeete: wat to emottiojesg bos tasmpgasits .at0t odd | Va e@tots saszeasd stent oat - Seefotera asdz ai songuLtuk elisasbiaacs A @ At - i tae i? 199 crowned by a cat, above which begins the lower part of the loa- er story (Fig. 385 a). The top of this cap is at the same hei- ght as the top of the beams of the internal floor. The lower | member is usually seperated from the die of the base by a base ) menter (Fig. 385 t), and is inclined if necessary: the car is : also with a crowning wember and a supporting lower menber (Fig. 385 c); its upper surface is inclined, and its edge may also te inclined formard (Fig. 385 d). Above the wash of the cap is ¢l- aced the tase member frorer of the wall, which way te broken around any existing projections beneath windows. These projec- tions may be formed in different nays, as we have already seen, according as their external appearance is to te relatively high or low, and if a separate windon sill is arranged, this with the tase member may te changed into a second base above the cap of the base proper. In given cases many special solutions may te derived from the ‘internal requirements, a few specimens of which are given in Figs. 343, 348 and 350, from Frofessor Nicolai of the Dresden school. In palaces and public buildings, the base assumes @ greater importance, and avails itself of stronger means of expression. In a few Florentine palaces, it projects consideratly as a seat. The bases of churches generally require a strong projection to correspond to their considerable height. Th cities where dwellings ere found in cellars, the base of- ten has 2a consideratle height to afford a greater height of windows. It is not possitle to go into the endless number of distinct solutions cf the formation of the tases of buildings, to plece ther under a common point of view. here sometimes exist diversities in the ground, peculiar dispositions in the plan, the connection of the base with the principal entrance, with terraces or external steps, which lead te special arran- gerents. Projections of the masonry, columns, tilasters, with or without vedestals, influence the form of the base, as well as rusticated masonry, which is much used for the tase, furth- er cellar and subcellar windows, etc., windows of crypts in churches, etc. The base will always te modified according to | the form, arrangement and proportions of the windows of the basement story. . ‘A consideratle influence is then exercised ty the fact, whe- 7 Pere i la be Pe) ae 7 a, YU ‘ (Ese fiat in Rk : ; ag . v rs : on #,) iy ye 7"y * } q : : g i ‘7 : y 4 ; ee fs AY i cn P pete to Fooory axobete ¥6t robe genes sit radtede ) To saomegnette sds yd oGfA woost [fon add to Hose o th \ Sefderreeb ezed wol s tefue1 erobatw node sb48l Wener si yrota Legioctsy odd ab soshy af ed °iliw. seed bo Se fetecoo bye asoktoetotg sdgtle © est ylisaag medt act aie sedtsdhi .svois txcso sno odd aor? grote sa9reesd 94 Ete 200 "9 SeBtg0o antite ed Oorsisyse 93 of{oote est : ®8 astz0t%e off to to¥os vedo ‘bas tedae0. aut yd bed ‘wo sonstseggs Selon ¢ TI .yotblked sdt to dransf ‘scenes >, BaUEb( ied yiote avit to. 150% sk Hbebiove sd of af ay mt boterszes od yaa eniassson ods istw yiote Sasanesd oet wa wegyo sav bee ,sempo> gutate s et yrote I[stiontss edt haa otf diesaed ecods wort yen suse ond ot Bsbtyib Piusrsttib ee od biwoda seatcoo aakate. to anzot anf ) Bivode yodt ex0toweds ps0rw109 adi to evode nord afd foo oF Ton 88 Of ,yteeRsoon ned? sorfoetorg 1Sttae7s | -sortos,osg tkods gi yxots free at to tasz soORO! sit ysotp Leqtoauitqg odd ofstejee fest eoersso ontete > seisn dtin sostsy s to tetanoo ylisues 4 woloed tro }eexcoo gaiata off .(98§ .8f8) arakbdinos ‘aswol bae 22. to goasutuoty eft of gakbyox>s totdatt to tetvsed 159 wotune ed {fiw 3D .exsdmemw sds fo surot ady-bas con | ont .efttaeb to soktouboxint ant ¢d donsdtanatta ‘Yte beef of costuse t99g0 Oeatfoar a8 ovsd ayenis tens ted svitoetts oeeke vi .8v00' Ss seottin Go ditw . red | -Sso0bs7 3d yee seiveo adt e1BID2) ad yst) Sanvoo Qatate séd ,angteeb sedorz al okisbrod ¢ sd ysu dotdén dfsonsd ,sseist s yi [flew odt - ; bP i nets ae 200 whether the spaces under the. windows project or are recessed tack of the well face. Also by the arrangement of shops, whose large show windows render a low base desirable. A base will be in vlece in the principal story in many cases. Tt then usually hes a slight projection and consists of a plin- th, and a flat or moulded and decorated band, whose height cor- responds to that of the window sills. Flust or slightly trojecting string courses with upper and lower wenbers may appropriately te used at the height of the window Sills and caps, at the ears in rectangular, or the hei- ght of the springing of the arches over round headed windows; they sutdivide the stories in smaller divisions, and may te desiratle for producing an animated division of the wall. 8. String Courses. String courses are sometimes employed for separating the sto- ries. At least the principal story must be separated ty @ str- ing course from the one next telow it, or if it te itself the basement story, from the one next above. Whether all the stor- jes should te saparated by string courses or not, will ke deci- ded by the number and character of the stories as well as the length of the tuilding. If a ruled appearance of the buildings is to be avoided in four or five story buildings, perbaps only the besement story with the mezzanine may be seperated from the principal story ty @ string course, and the upper story te divided in the same nay from those beneath it. The forms of string courses should be as different as possi- tle from those of the cornice; therefore they should have no greatter projection than necessary, So as not to conceal the lower part of the next story by their projection. ihe larger string courses that separate the principal story from. that next telow, usually consist of a geison with water drir, upp- er and lower mouldings (Fig. 386). Ihe string course will app- ear heavier or lighter according to the prominence of the gei- son and the forws of the menmbers. It will te enriched and strengthened by the introduction of dentils. The string course must always have an inclined upper surface to lead off the na- ter, with on without a cove, by which the effective height of the course mey be reduced. In richer designs, the string course may be separated from the wall ty a frieze, teneath which way be a bordering wemter. aie tio see ee { od teow esitota s9d¢0 sdt to seets0y gntita ad? fo edt scott belttosy eltasssttio oF bas tasckzory o& etedmens as"ol bas ‘teage add Raissezzai ys 19030 gin esamatiomeaay qi 20 ,@kost ond to sdtted ads deter ; gakade edt goinzolt gi yliesf{ to , ave 10. hanot ; eurot yistaesels reqoug edt ott tf gaisnegaoo .a70 dm > 98 oer * Satphaie ytesmn eaod? (CRE 928) yew al ‘a0 . o>) e@8artk @ dtix ai hiin yattte te etic andieie Sit atg190eb of 1 od fon Bluow studoetido1s suotgas to eiastosaxs cd? e edt to Sav0s0s so ssasod tot bas nottourtadcs snore ; taodtiw [fsx edool ti teds ,b9ttu097 ad seem tT snolis ef ysm yroxel aids .grsutn0s edd a0 .e9i102899 ue fio of Sarbr00068 ,sodotsds bas eoceisq ,syatolbnd off Ped? toe? edt no dtsl 9d of ef aastta Lsgioat17 edt bas On stctsto0t yfootts ons of stodiztass cele etosuanto | oe Mo ontdeave deen eds 12bam exuibliod wisiz dite Llow edd to Sonsupsen09 af snota to. aakmetie) edt dtiw bos ‘So osesatt edt nk acvlaeiso aaol of foa ,giome [avo | st ‘edt of eIseo0f> stom otedSs of dad >, s0rietnonan so0te -elobom es siutostidois soaceareass O02 -aggor | peldon som SdRtL gadtta,acoté193012 de397) tadtken , etre qlsritas Saotitrbaes tot essomsvolis coisa tacn ye ! ,e9otato) .y | #setot7 to sao7tsg hagustune 9d2 gen aotazoo rer: dat e087 of ec [fon ee ,2idkesot ae door 2a wisn wort yra0ess : 19 bas Saktsniwrss to ene [sabi odd.bas ,retiay s yob oofnt00 sdd to ddgied sal .3gfbl ind sodd toes sstewod to ,gotdosto1g efi’, 4e0ebo77 194 ef Toatts “ySotat09 edt tedztd of: .dostersq ylsortt ren os¢olzss E aenol sdi bus ,aottsojorg -oiusesyqes aabdliad adt lite $a to rsdana ott sowot off .gnkbliod sd¢ noee [fin edatd sdt tot atetce yrtesooen esses oat ehotGited, sui agatbited wolf 18 sesotamb> sds sroteted?: .dgid 1097 t $ edt .wol geno dgid to bas: .daid ylieucitig9073 sa? seobics ac svied yas somesetsase® asiiedI 909 to agateit ‘most botwasen ,esetzt sdf tuodsix sotm109 set to ciated ,29duen teedaid sdi to got odt of teswol edt: to. nobiod mie ‘oat sg psa ree edt oF bersquse .anaflot aE . is tu _ ae ee i ave * ae 7 ‘ 201 fhe string courses of the other stories must be kept less yp crrowinent and te differently profiled from the principal one, either ty increasing the upper and lower members so as to din- inish the height of the facia, or ty rpblacing it by a quarter round or cove, or lestly ty forwing the string course at pleas- ure, composing it from the proper elementary forms in a suita- ble way (Fig. 367). These string,courses tay also te combined with a frieze. | To decorate the separate parts of string courses by means of the expedients of antioue architecture would not be normal in stone construction and for houses on account of the expense. It must be required, that it looks well without decorative ac- cessories. Cn the contrary, this luxury may be allowed in pub- lic buildings, palaces and churches, according to circumstances, and the principal stress is to be laid on the fact, that these ornaments also contribute to the effect; therefore we shall do well with plain buildings under the week sunshine of our North, and with the darkening of stone in consequence of the abundant coal smoke, not to lose ourselves in the finesse of Crecian or- namentetion, but to adhere more closely to the severe forms of Rowan and Renaissance architecture as models. Since we have n neither Greek proportions, strong light nor notle warble, we must wake allowances for conditions entirely different. y. Cornices. the wain cornice hes the meterial purpose of projecting the masonry from rain as much as possitle, as well as to receive a gutter, and the ideal one of terminating and crowning the top of the tuilding. The height of the cornice depends on the effect to te produced, its projection, or how far the material employed may freely project. The higher the cornice, the lower will the tuilding appear in proportion, and the lower it is, higher will seem the tuilding. Ihe fewer the number of stories in a building, the less necessity exists for the cornice to ap- pear bigh. Therefore the cornices 6f low buildings should te proportionally high, and of high ones lon. The following bu- ildings of the Italien Renaissance nay serve as guides. The height of the cornice without the frieze, reasured from the totton of the lowest to the top of the bighest member, is as follows, compared to the total height of the building. Villa oye re 30S 5 Tenants qea\t ,soelex\ftatdafobasy ;OS\" ,sutasats? Zatboloak sotatcs otitas od? .3r\l ,cosleq. thnod fab tates Istot eat to IS\f toods of atasoeds saatet ‘at Q\L .bosleg telfsow8 odt nk SI\l .ov0d.de ettes ue sot at €L\S suods .sosieg imtdglobael oad bas’-sate WV te sosisy supoef{ive? se Q\f bas ,softnoy tacdaek 8 edt ,foodos ashaetd sdfv to eaarhbitod mradom a0 © @ TAI goods metveses svertidots bes sedicedaannaeins y OB\T of OF\E toods to .ankbltod of? to: tdgted. [r3 @ ssatooridors to elootce todtd .overtsdors. dae: os2t7? a ns éved [oofoe nebee7d eat io seodd. .ee0fe709 196lo5 > -[feue cof gaitesg3ys Soodsin .tostis bedits: bas pages at treaties? te aecalsg ond at anottvoqorg 6003. ben ect ot TS\P of CS\L 20 srutelietas odterot Sf\1 of OLNT es tes saottiroqo7g Lemion to olor Gsxit* oi .osefs sof abl 938 siaftoy aatisese yloo tad. .escini02.to 702 j exits edt to seod? no bseqed esokitogerg aesdt a9T ni ha odt ses [fee as .tdobet stuloede@ bus.esiaote art am 9 edd Balt of goiias? oiteitias of titel ad. teum t% ga eet sonstetd svowtxe of? .9289:089- uk pa0kd1 C | basget atvevtetas® o2ls ef antbhltod:ed¥ bas. i9vaendo t > > af sons) .s0kmt00 edt to ¢Mafod bee enced wosica {Lee Sue steszte sorren 2ii dtgn fosgeo2 arat eS od? To sottostorg od! wesotn109 bas avers02 avitte aq sdtiE welietas sottontteaoo: ati ¢s bsatursieb pene sd gaidem (S80 .2ti) Isc0e eben ots: tagied or 30 tet of 8 om SAI gnods ct aottoe2 eso1s29K¢ To s of abmpogasaso9 nofdose elis eos? fics. gat. dasy a bustxe Segeyemote to Aoold. edt sous’ od S\tn% 0 adres sds o100 sdi bas ,Ad3ied adi as ifew sat ovai gst as ie id: ‘bevizsd ste side send .ddRiSd ant, abegoree, costootorg tees vi bevea eh ietisies .f, .aslgtoniagsbosor: agine for oa ieode snote odd cottostoag rstse13 Yo saga at .$ «not 28379 ial be sopso7a0b tepo sd¢ ,f ;2ddteeor es doam es benod . “. AefdQhed bas moitostorg. be g Rasa to benoxace, ak, stotelistas yaagzel:a IT > to ogtsdtifteos as oF Oiey 25 tepe goitasiss .sno asgaged yen #h bas ,fflew sit of tited seodd drin atisg i in edd Ontded: ret sa atosto1g oxotslisiae edt teat atosior3 Zsbot Saanetest ote sioofsi sdt [Is asda ,tooxt ai as sos? 1 GN f kane ast ee. ee Ao ie ah Oe 202 Farnesina, 1/20; Fandolphini palace, 1/14; Strozzi palace, 1/16; Condi palace, 1/18. Ihe entire cornice including architrave and frieze amounts to about 1/21 of the total height in the Cancel- laria at Rome, 1/16 in the Rucellai palace, 1/8 in Villa Ferne- sina and the Pandolphini palace, atout 2/13 in the library of S. Mark at Venice, and 1/9 at Eevilacgqua palace at Verona. On modern buildings of the Dresden schocl, the entablature including frieze and erchitrave measures about 1/17 of the to- tal height of the tuilding, or abcut 1/30 to 1/40 omitting the frieze and architrave. Cther schools of architecture employ - tolder cornices, those of the Dresden school have an elegant and refined effect, without appearing too small. Cnauth obtae- ned good proportions in two palaces at Stuttgart in employing 1/10 to 1/12 for the entatlature or 1/25 to 1/27 for the morn- ice alone. No fixed rule of normal proportions exists for hei- ght cf cornices, but only starting points are given at most, for these proportions depend on those of the entire building,. its stories and absolute height, as well as the point of view. it must be left to artistic feeling to find the correct propo- rtions in each case. The extreme distance possible from the obrever and the building is also decisive in regard to propor- tions and height of the cornice. Cenoa is characteristic in this respect with its narrow streets and tall palaces, high -- string courses and cornices. The projection of the cornice is. determined by its construction chiefly. If the projection and height are made equal (Fig. 388)., making h = height, the area of the cress section is atout 1/2 h 2 so far as it projects te- yond the wall face; this section corresponds to a rectangle of : h x 1/2 he Hence the block of stone must extend at least half | as far into the wall as its height, and the more the as the grojection exceeds the height. From this are derived the foll- owing ground principles. 1, material is saved by swall project- — ion’ 2, in case of greater projection the stone should be hol- lowed ag much 28 possitle; 3, the cost increases with increas- ed projection and height. If ae lerger entatlature is composed of several blocks of st- one, attention must be paid to an equilibrium of overhanging parts with those tuilt in the wall, and it may happen that it. projects thet the entablature projects as far behind the wall face as in front, wben all the trlocks are fastened together | ee eS eee i ae ae 892 ) edt sed? o8 dauode séesol te to .( 938 .2k8) sgaaior ci in 'e$98q Teddo sdt ehssore OCF .BET af coktiog dbabsdeveds "Yo notéauatsaco & fect etigest tk qokeeuserd sitive odd : Quix of ,eldsiete1g ei yiote otise as to wzot aie [Len Sd? of eldtaeoy as 3890 98 SOkNT00 oft To Utiverg to-e7d Sees novadrt of slisttesh ef ff fedd r9dsI0t. . [few eat to feb (enorifibow to seu sat yd efdtecog es douw eeresote! saved beton od of at PE t07 sagertOLvow Sat newense. One ip edt a8 doold exes ont noxt $09 sd don denon enokifibon malage sonte’ ,omo otersyae 8 ot od feum qeett.ted ed Ofuow suciilibor sit to seogioy sdt bas eves oot in 5 exe oltds o108 ed¢ ok eqord stots bee eolbdur sat Ot a9dveu ad Sluow Ff bac’ .Istsmoo ont antsd.as of ~ goddant .elensy dave itt soeie oft. to obiarsbay eve bettutws bas tetdail siea ere eccinio> soita yd feieo ¢asd sre stotessdt bas ,sd3ife ef acttosio17 sisdd le . emottostorq Lfsze to essrv0a aninie — » oval etatedoo non eofn10> 8 .w10t teelgate ett al PRatstoggee ods ,nostsy gaitootois yisoowta edz .aine Ss(fCf 228) areduen seqg0 antosoT> ent tes: ersdpen ') e3ftb totem es mt0t of sbiaiehan esi wo bowodlos er Pid codzem aatawor> sis esetvootidows Asem) at ear tI.) edt sed? vedard coor 6d teen Erdd) .sste03 8 antot [tosseoosnap too of bas .Sviton saidsaraob 8 esroosd Te iy: at sottoejomm vitdgile bre:qsefe « .Jdkton ony js Sus ,e0aso seou at estentwobds1y: siostieds t03 (Ser | ent e8 foold sxea odd no td>votn teeth atocedmac’ sui Pal .bean sk tetteag Isutos se scsa nh eloseiaqes sog hss bee sry ons weenfed Hetteeck ots H1sdusa yoteow ot ) too {fe satien .s9.h .battivooncte’ to botism ie 94° | ‘yriseeeoen gisdoloads et si ,atoold seloRnastos1 s0vt eat .(2S 8k) poets: odd qebau 2 6 fatot: [staosdod edt 3 dn @ dttw aoekss edt to sbiewsbac sdi teers oF Heiissb bed bluode efeneg berebr0d bas troda 5d Sfgorke ga 2d. ons fF .nit) exsduem aowol gutdscagua odd bas ¢i nsewted be | peetla bas geidoisns 10% tnsibsgxe teetbese sd! - neonted nokisetotg: bacose 8 to aortisgar ads si soitazeo BrdT .(8Of .at%) weds gotesatoct azodzem t9N0L ynisroqQee ; «( nate aftteeh qd bemtot yldeistera et sottostorg baooea 203 by clazps (Fig. 389), or at least enough so that the area of the shaded portion in Fis. 390 exceeds the other part. Fro the entire discussion it results that a continuation of the gall in form of an attic story is preferable, to bring the cen- tre of gravity of the cornice as near as possible to the azis of the wall. Further thet it is desirable to likhten the entab- lature as much as possible by the use of modillions, dentils and ornamented mouldings. Eut it is to be noted here, that the wedillions must not be cut from the same tlock as the geison, but they must be in a separate one, since the geison would be too heavy and the purpose of the modillions would te lost.Thus the mutules and their drops in the Doric style are objectiona- tle as being the contrary, and it would be better to treat the underside of the geison with sunk panels. Further the dentils by which cornices are made lighter and animated are useless if their cvrojection is slight, and therefore are best omitted in string courses of small projection. In its simplest form, a cornice now consists of three elemn- ents, the strongly projecting geison, the supporting lower rembers, and the crowning upper wemters (Fig. 391). The seison is hollowed on its underside to form a water drip. Tf as in Creek architecture the crowning member of cyza also forms a gutter, this must be much higher than the facia and so becomes a dominating motive, and'to not unnecessarily increase ' the weight, a steep and slightly projection is given to it (Fig. 392). Eut the facia predominates in most cases, and the crown- \ ing member is test wrought on the same tlock as the geison and | not separately in case an actual gutter is used. In richer for- ms weaker members are inserted between the cyma and geison. Eg our wethod of. stonecutting, i.e., waking all cut stones ) from rectangular blocks, it is absolutely necessary to retain the horizontal joint a f under the geison (Fig. 393). It it is desired to treat the underside of the ceison with sunk panels, the drip should be short and tordered panels should be insert- ed between it and the supporting lower members (Fig. 394). fhe readiest expedient for enriching and strengthening the cornice is the insertion cf a second projection tetwueen the supporting lower wemters increasing them. (Pig. 394). This second projection is preferatly formed by dentils (Fig. 394). { \ | | bianeetithos becely avs costsy edt bcs tk asautgs t to eaarsicor t3790 96% dofdw bavots ,seotaTo> 7 ‘to. moth 8 s90kct99 dsedoit 9d7 al .asdow ote a meatons — bas yenobiitbon;to wot sidd tebin be J -e7e9iuem towol bas 18990 ec¢i ction > ami: et svextidoys os giiestasva das sgeiaz. 4%, od? .ebeoo 2ttedtes yt bottuos? aovanede:satet0s ipso Fito fe Sf -8tt) beteto0eb ed van 10 salt bases ) enkt @ ak eo ewotif{tbon Leottzev to eetise = to. ben to i 973 vetseta ([[ite s etinztey:dotdn .slomgry. ¢ t iat to esofisiuey pisses o%e se0int09 assb0asIIAy + jeolysa eonseetened Ons ofeeels sdv ys baxkt ybaet of to stov stedbs [itv saq dodvodn ak sictortedt co od san ssretoesidoss soaseeianed 20 asno8 ,astoes). oF + m0 ,fon to avebro senteloo edt of qlioivie a7adga eteanan fade ak ons botasneczo: si filede —eobeost ai wenol sbss od yea everitdois adits v8 s9v9 S900 wodn asdt elfen odd otat tited. eistely ‘> @ sved OF senote edt sitcpet doit: .sogti1opi20 ve aeeokai0) to enoktyncsetsl .4 oy bas 19 waitin ent 2£ soaiss teritac> seticogy A: pods 1 .tedgid odsn 916 gootatvib sstds Gk sbe081 & sion B® ,edsoct exttas say ceoves b2eiz199 ei Suey senoi eat wet dotdw ,gateo? guiive 8 os bsae od meat (lis weota Betsttics teetotg of ebes ed -taow okts09 tsdyie 287 0 a) a gaiexs std yeomottiog aenol edd ta. edierss odd tee. SeeAdt teotbs of sviTte 0? tact od codd Lhiw tF -(d fe 22 hed 90% to t1sq tewol ody to sotux02 adé to watd107 ¢ sear fog t9daid edt got sarmo2 gulate .& etubogacdo sixyar dowd gottiog sedatd ed¢ to.se1uao unttie Satyr » Gy @ee oy sewol godt to soinzoo adi diin esting.dae Oagoss eae tode yloute grsq.teneL adi to asofet90:ent tol of | etidoie iset) at Qnod as ,t18q r9daid sdt tg uctsaetacg ates s O03 af ,£12 109. at olgte teddy to eastecovbs adi vd has ‘aan etidots ed? tae beqolevebay as to taskbeqxo vtlost.s Spiess eds to tdztod edt ts ted ,baguers9 o8 sd tacel ds blac ‘gbustes onsd saitosterg yiteatle s soitroy wsmof sat to svsats in ot bas senti avountfaos sviesa7g of t1sy t9dzid eat oayotA abe) 2k 45 AE (OE “att stes7 ed? toegso> vlrorang ei . a «by 204 Eetween it and the geison are pleced modillions in still rich- er cornices, around which the upper mouldings of this course are broken. In the richest cornices a group of members is pla- ced under this row of modillions, and even another projection with its upper end lower members. | A frieze and eventually an architrave is placed below the cornice whenever required ty esthetic needs. ihe frieze way remain flat or nay be decorated (Fis. 394 a), or it can be for- ned of a series of vertical modillions es in a fine example by Vignola, which permits a still greater projection of cornice. All modern cornices are werely variations cf this totive, al- ready fixed ty the classic and Kenaissance styles; the ‘questi- on therefore is whetheh one will adhere more or less closely to Grecian, Roman or Renaissance architecture. whether he will adhere strictly to the columnar orders or not, or the cornice shall te ornamented and in what manner. The architreve may te made lower in facades, since it is con- pletely tuilt into the well, than when used over a colonnade or rortica, which require the stones to have a certain strength. §. Interruptions of Cornices. A peculiar conflitt arises if the eentre or end portions of a facade in three divisions are made higher. If the cornice of the lower part is carried across the entire facade, 4 main cor- nice will then be used as a string course, which is unseerly, or the higher portion must be made to project sufficiently, t that the cornice of the lower portionmey die against it (Fige- 295 aj,b). It will then te test to strive to adjust this, so that a portion of the cornice of the lower part of the building may te changed to a string course for the higher portion (Fig. 395 €). Or the string course of the higher portion is broken around and unites with the cornice cf the loner portion (395 qd). fo let the cornice of the lower part simply abut against the projection of the higher fart, as done in Creek architecture and by the advocates of that style in our era, is and remains- a faulty expedient of an undeveloped art. ihe architecture sh- ould at least be so arrenged, thet at the height of the arch- itreve of the lower portion a slightly projecting band extends around the higher part to preserve continuous lines and to croperly connect the parts (Fis. 39¢). i ju as ye ‘an ‘i Jiih, nr 1am rida be wolgtoutrs oft nolfot ow tL) Ip tase sare? on yotgms yftosen oot yluo [isda on 48 ponseetenod sid yi Sebtovs zyliqyed yfisves eon { Leta0sta0d wd beteteqgoe fon eafrose. .£.. ‘ib \gatitea qi serints odd antiersgse to bestenl ehesties gtuoasn odd gris? of YIsvOTaDD Bertiszos. ky gattosotota wo {Lee odd aatbivib .sotu1eo. sas oF Weve jeeqizta fsokdiev at st yniwrot eods ,2a0ktostorg aw ekdt at beyolase 918 sciat0> of gesd soxt: gotheetre Skid ed) bsouboty od) vos Foetts [vtr9w0g © ageonr le E30 .nottetbertnoo femrotat a8 antuisiaoo syexeznsti6s bas ,Stenkoob of sent{ Letnositod rolls ot fersten teon bat heyssiss ste (few od? to enoktostoz: [saitrsy node } gabeessgqwe 10% ateixs: noses: on ,..o%o .etetasits pedd seaksye gote vodtis yeu dotds .er9duea {stn | > otdted cove fo asvosouIdE Islinte eis edshasisy bas .aebia cas od v1 a ‘ous of Gatvil sot bsbastah ers ax007 seed ,aoitoustanco fs $28 ed yst .enoiv ontt bas tis deett sdt gotes ot es oa , tks pretense PAMAtN AN one. at ae {fn ae eeeued ot aegae eth i- “=e “nig ei eee Sais ere e, me) of s yiiagie oF Sostersdan gated ecoidiog ,katbfind 2 205 If we follow the princirles of Creek antiquity in such cases, we shall only too readily employ two different scales, which was uBually barrpily avoided by the Renaissance style. 3. Stories not separated by horizontal embers. Insteed of separating the stories ty string courses, it is sometimes customary to carry the masonry untroken from the base to the cornice, dividing the wall by projecting pilasters or projections, thus forming it in vertical stripes; even columns extending from base to cornice are employed in this manner. A Although a powerful effect nay be produced ty this means, the. arrangenent containing an internal contradittion. it is always most natural to allow horizontal lines to dominate, and even when vertical projections of the wall are arranged in form of. pilasters, etc., no reason exists for suppressing the horiz-. ontal menters, which may either stop against the vertical pro- jections or be broken around them. Even Cothic church architec- ture, which made vertical lines dominant, never suppressed hor- izontal divisions, but on the contrary, treated them tbe more q boldly in the places where they were ‘justifiable. 4, Galleries, Ealconies, Verandahs, Eay Windows, Corbellings, etc. «. Galleries, balconies and verandahs. Halls, whether intended for church or secular purposes freq- uently have galleries on one or more sides. When they are of small breadth, they may te formed by cortellins out teams of stone, wood or iron, which support the architrave or floor, b tut in order to appear strong, they reauire to te sutported ty consoles, corbels, etc. Galleries, several of nbich may be pla- ced over each other, are cither vaulted or not vaulted; are op- en to the interior of the hall and rest on arcades or colonna- des. They have solid or perforated balustrades in front, and may be treated like a series of connected windows. These salle- ries tecome porticos, logsias and verandahs on the exterior of a building, rorticos being understood to signify a lons hall open at cne side, 2 logsia being a living room oren at least on two sides, and verandahs are similar structures of cightest construction. lbese rooms are intended for living in the open sir, so as te enjoy the fresh eir and fine vicus, mey be arr- anged in houses as well as in fublic buildings.If covered, the eae lll iil Ji oor PaREL sb ymann- fk eth beats ah butded moot ot to awktdati ‘a eave es s0dil ss cokdourtecod A .anchatn taort ¢f dv exe ,fastasveor e¢ ejutasz7o gusa 2% 5a8 atio7dne ob aadt od (Ltn wetoRtsdd entias) eddy bos .eiissi .Sbsost biloe siom sds diin e@testtaos yitnsesoly +f ,0okti0g sdt yd Sebastre xo -eoigoolsed bas ewobaty esi .8: yeenon 8 ebtateo esoo1 ese estgooisd bus snodatweesi sane gifswao ec ,ellew adt to anki isdreo ed bor on tktset bee astiio to ellen sdt ot babbe ed seis eysaie ets vod!) cfs ,etowot .2usetedo to2008 steofed dite bedetakt srs ,enottosior, gd beatstio ote .etisev ,saloenoe ,a2fsiuco ys batregace enote signte 6s yiisisaeg atysoolsd giscté10 2d? yee foods et eeendotd? s2ede .efdiico To esloanso ed 3! P beblao gated sbe ett .Savped Saotave © to déaeb sdt 22 : ao wbucysh dale eidt Yo seendords sd. .tsdtel said Md gt Saibeol ‘sti ao bas .ysooksd edt to sottosios9.24d. a0 © od vem sOfetebac etl .di a9 oF yea ota excarsy ot: niton ob vedt tsd¢ Sebtvesq .bald yas to alonez dave wap gidershtexoo soehora you tl wdsfe odd aadegn | ebiov @ivgegoisd) edd to tdgien yasersoernn [fs 1I .2al btf{oa of alderetety ot6 gorl sdaco tn to esbsatagtss B eeseee bas ghor work. tigworw oct sqtaoRee xO suOse oko? méen oo beoslg od daun ,arviste to sxbsiateaisd 3 aatoosore tom oa ,#auotdt eaey fouaso bsed s‘biids 3 bgfoorecs ed binode sbsitzasisd sat ta tazrad ach wane St a Lsr0n98 ak nabestested to sust at ease odP .Ft'F 799 to coals betouasenoo oms-anttel{ley to One. est009 Rivtaes qd bstevo> bas efaog slagaa otat tal aposs. to 2de elite wobatw fo seeds aiif eslitowg svsd yew 2ds> | eSdgied suae std te of fy yIsy 338 mate anode bosstotieg to wedbserteciai 0ez09 at tootts gatecels 2 aved awobutw yaad e778 istinoeq vase ot sett enivto .2cad sone . et elferoeqes aeocly 98 seadod.tes102.20 2sfgat a ‘ali eiteore a9ttrd yen cedt isonet senobatn vad celyae mh } oots ,1sleo1ks ,eseene aso0lia eniset Oy ve@etens .Ac5. & Te dettpitt ade. edz eal at peaninidl ad - oF eBeiot aietid vilsyiontay tod .teoueegestie sted 8 atin oOf .SdgfeiTe c19 yad?d .sasze2asTss réodhedt , Sg? .set00> Ssvtco+8 Gfin gatiatw ose .ae1s09 $igo sd you aid? to Sas sno is petite ge yd bs t07 eyTeoet? To sotaya 6 Satwiet.exsiz 10 eavules Ilse go tisds no etists odt aseolons [fat dasa has sbert Be toette edt sonegltai ekaidmsi-sth to cette tebeo ott Mofde deniess efonca oft 2s (Low as ,asaso enn at agteee nail Pai pe . vesgode vileces :ifker bead 13 | e@eRetrie> ioodtinx base déin aristd:.2 nya 2 of OF 8S of t9076 dose ao stl.easta odd (tT 8b biome rete om? To sebiaiebas One abas-edt .9y0i77199 °6 io 97. agaiztea 20 .awzot Setrsyv to alonsy does yi-bads ) a0 ,e9906 add ito osit sdf sdiltheatioahvyladte sd ees 8 eg $e qyitesi vo ,ee9be te770 thodt-no e797e ab. fertat af a) ~(YOP .akt) .edasy beatflont dtinvetanrails ga aeef tc ston od [ftw etasuszastte sordtanaad? je bopison & .obatteaisd aft to tnguagastte edt ov ears T3>e@ svad [lin gafste.sdi to sdlarsbas bsb{eon bre . kte2 6 stot of es baisest oa od osls vou-kakats 502 ihe ) (828: ht) :eafoemoo! ekil advo a eat(ssvy so etbedt’; 45: B scl .e0aso yase at dissazebcs ostlusy 315 a2hsT3 : % he 4 yj ud ay ié wee em; i AY Sae rT) Fat \ > ee | i @ se0dn aiiei2 .bse0 9d gods ysu atfgaw to abatt tacte & of agit eviR bas dose ts allen odt oft Lind sate dose t29be0 dots os 3uftvontteno> vi tuesagaeite agi 19g cdf .atcl beqgete s ai shasoes tl{satt tluay ost - tect Sta aniboin at agrot gnisselg bas tsilo0e7 ssom0019 af7e2 it to a0 .notvoursego> totais of bodysbs elistoeqes ots tgdz | agot dotdw of tadd af existe to a yateesiz tzon sf bue-deiste adt tT pantasqe otsmp2 w banoTs aut atdatl? b $18 enodd niche ntots yd bhateii4 nodt eta ager in = ae 207 rerforate: them, a solid panel must be placed behind them. The bay windows have a pleasing effect in connection with the ent- rance door, giving rise to many peculiar arrangements. The bay angles of corner houses are places especially fevoratle for a angle bay windows. Hence they may differ greatly in form of p plan, be oblons, square, circular, etc. 5. Stairs. We do not Bave to consider the construction of stairs and t their arrangement, but principally their forms. Accordingly in their arrangezent, they are straight, i.e. with a straight course, and winding with a curved course. The steps may be surp- ported by a string at one and or this may be omitted, or by swall columns or piers forming a systex of tracery. The talus- trade and hand reil encloses the stairs on their open side; t the under sides of the landings influence the effect of the design in many cases, as well as the newels against which the hand rail usually siops. “%. Stairs with and without carriages. Tf the steps lie on each other so as to be supported without a carriage, the ends and undersides of the sters may be decor- ated ty sunk panels of varied forms. If strings are used, these may be simply inclined like the rise of the steps, or they may te formed in sters on their upper edses, or lastly steps may alternate with inclined parts. (Pig. 397). These three arrangements will te more or less suitatle accor- Ging to the arrangement of the balustrade. A moulded upper edge and moulded underside of the string will heave a pleasing effect. © The string may also be so treated as te form a series of supp- orts like consoles (Fig. 398). x B. Steirs on vaults. Stairs are vaulted underneath in meny cases. The most diff- erent kinds of vaults may thus te used. Stairs whose sters are built into the walls at each end give rise to a very pleas- ing arrangement ty constructing an arch under each ster, so t that the vault itself ascends in a stepped lorm. The same prin- | ciple produces peculiar and pleasing forms in winding stairs, that ere especially adarted to trick construction. Cne of the most pleasing Kinds of stairs is that in which four straight - flights run around a square opening; If the stairs and land- ings are then supported ty groin vaults, these are alternately ee (oe) sagatttes to eatot Suktpidebes gatondoayz: ioeutlaat } «garb ‘edt 10t esvitom Potttussd: teosiodr to and sidow doved> Levstbes mtoesisovet.talgottaay « vat afoo: {Lene vi betr0qque ote B7stalods sisdu dads at bet: ‘teow ot besl ede .etsoe7s: ‘Otak Bemansdm sis see : erates geodt yLletooqas ,eztste [feve sot efissiue Pp senutoes tons gomwds ai to aeviseuedt anoor ody okas TAF hey Winn. ~petkeds: to asbeywtegie® .¥ i's gaote to sbsi YI .goik to 10 snot. to. sre sesdt Mets ee enuofoo [feta dtsodt ,atetenisd yi dstsogqea ef ter nodgte ,boyharte exe wisle beterotisg 40 .aetis gitotata ak yisoets to. Heatol us astaseenio ssat seloottisy ote aozt sdscotw Yo esbeiten{s? .earstieg p sett to 90 \eved (beteso0eb Leoitiev to deakenoo dokie fgeso Gaeod? .deeu od osfs yer Sen0nd bre work tasd ; whee to fanenos no etstaulad t0t boyolawe of woblee Wott Tdgnotn mo enote ted ,avianszrs o8' sb s9a077) bas rool ods wot eldetinaytev ai onts teed .berastard fo 3 0&8 wo debts so betaisy ed of setiagss tod edaid if eebertecied meboow yliasbivd .1oloo iseass{oas eqee to besoqueo od yee, hee brtstainsboow tot boas ebeedgvoOTe bass sodso sit ad .aentvaso Soom Lenroe: 44, x0 Plage © © sertete weboow tot afdstina oats ove astustacled ee | eerisse to wafeo slomd . diy a” — best edt yacbsttegled sat sods cesdh. taarsgh agai odd sot yiinstrogyo brotts. yodt Sos .sakigzso \ efis7 sdd eved ot asst oJ cxzewls Tega o789) tase puny -eizeqotg bas yan Isieteo 6 nk afowan edt: atot 10 jebt9wolt to sesvis ,otwtrit esd s avirsse: of bation Sit sot 2218 Yo teoo s ankdroqgee enor SqogtT {stare . B89 ee{uottzs7 ett dtia sonsbtooos xt bobastt (ore enol era bas ,desmekse1Ts Tieds ditw .baen ys ved) Soidy a ssp: avewie vod? .bodowstewo> sis yodd dokda to {sitet —.. avo gaknnozs Si seseo yoom ot bus .969 8 bes dtailg } Talley itin ostvowred Sivedai gel Sas ivatly edt to entot een 10 USa pate) nea ashe, ites dasa dae BBaITIGS SAT 09d 99mg09 ie | v2 mt satlbicbeed 9 -eyswpiela CPE: ® otuoee OF aedet 2d .evente taun ers? i tefavoaee ton ef ebkersbay eid ees. ak -Osfe gatbasl eat ' uy 208 inclined, producing very varied forms of ceilings. Cne of the most beautiful motives for the treatment of stairs was a particuler favorite in wediaval church architecture, and is that where the sters are supported by small columns. If th- ese are changed into tracery, they lead to most varied forms, Suitatle for small stairs, especielly those used in houses wi- thin the rooms themselves or in church architecture. y. Ea@lustrades of Stairs. These ere of stone or of iron. If made of stone the band rail is supported by balusters, thoubh stall columns are also favo- rites. Or perforated slabs are arranged, either decorated by free ornaments or formed of tracery in strictly seometrical p. vatterns. Ealustrades of wrought iron are particularly suitable, which consist of vertical decorated bars or of free scroll work. Cast iron and bronze tay alse te used, though cast iron will seldom te employed for balusters on account cf its brittleness and tronze is so expensive, that stone or wrought iron will te preferred. Cast zinc is very suitable for the interiors of buil- dings but requires to be painted or gilded on account of its untleasant color. Evidently wooden talustrades would only te - used for wooden stairs end may be composed of separate pieces, or te actuel wooed carvings. Cn the other hand, wrousht iren telustrades are also suitatle for wooden stairs. 6. Angle nelew of Stairs. Against these abut the talustrades, the hand rails ane the carriage, and they afford opportunity for the most varied treat- ment. Care must always be taken te have the parts just named ‘join the newels in a natural way and properly. The newels are suited to receive a gas fixture, a vase of flowers, an ornam- ental figure, or one supporting e coat of arms, etc. Their f forms are treatéd in eccordance with the particular case for wbich they are used, with their arransement, and with the me-. terial of which they are constructed. They always require a p clinth and a cat, and in many cases a crowning ornament; the forms of the plinth and lap should harmonize with those of t the carriage and hand rail, with which they may or may not te connected. €. Landings. Care must always be taken to secure a fleasing treatment of the landing slab, in case the underside is not concealed by v as ia ey 14 rn “4 sa A i r a8 if a / s Yt 4 vate k 2 : 7 i ” hs +, ee eee : ee ry ie : F "> a i “a yt coiean 308 ot actnthae ome eloaeq dawe wolled? .etioar aii ine sd you yout doldw of dtqdb momtxew. sid ;seler aio : Sit mo bas ,defa ont to deve 1s8fo bas seomiotds: od we is to erodens eetel tl .bees ef #£ Hotdw civessdiaalys d2 ,2footos af ae ,areod aretteo ts agatblics aivurrede sibew OF BHoTSRaSh smoosd yom tr eodte. .2iisdsdissnes ai rebteaoo yllotstso evswls teow seo svoteredt | eid? bee . 49 q905 sd yen aleaey oft radteir ae p< i.:'x6 | . s89baosisd tov enst eh | a eee , eRarese Gatbert .5 | ) eas attests ‘gatoate 0 eyete sdt to. esbrershas oat t 320 bsereth 928 yodt to .nottose rsloenetoaa to tol dteensd Setoustenoo art tivsy s 10: .9ostaae Lebdrosil am /datr east bsqata sabow bomi0t o72 aneo tert sis Uedt at seleser dave yi botaxosed esostiue détu re eagbe Wdade yd hetaensnrs od you vosttvs Lebiosifed eda ease fie 64 Sogetetes détw Sogaet1s etosmsa10 to ekokbluon Nee esttotrsy ont odt to notdertduoo s vftesl 20° ,satl , Sat ,etiste gatbatw vsssnsd tlusv a: to ves0 ol: .esyod nib ‘ge od yeu to rntnewtrequos Ietbs1 stubepivrs ptetorsy fnowsoaezts sesl sdf .tlasv Isbicsifsd 25 sibs bie of? d¢iw sottourtedco® ioixd ak sosnsvesrs Yo fase dotad sdf ofisetizovet sslooityes esse dotdw ,aenod 2 ib el £06 ebas§fO8 \to ova oda tt ine ai atiste. anitbotn s to’ Lease sit: 31 gs) to ed tagx dozom ,€@2e) 019) paiiinos Lig2.btss ae’ Sper aliey stotemeds ei ti ons ,bogesta. gitaag od2o7 tasD 2 ted ,fowen on aii ozedt t1.cwaiied ant adsey ee as vd-beeolons od qiisisas: Ofcods sidd gatos aw ei dotde bas .batarooed so bobloon’ ,xgkite Lao Taian tte geutefl al .gystva.edt to ebhas odd a5 Bifoe eoigacss suit yr. eenmolos.Sisas yd betsoggsa.ed bfbode : wto oltess edt Yo resot siete odd of Ongar s2s.Asids ‘cians tas 6d? te etista zatbate ([coleoeva edd ar bas | \ » spoeelh ak. guadee1t? te savod Paar dae sali oluode evbeteozatbain basta y7zoV yd betebtl od qew dotin) fewea 8 to bestent’ etsevtse ; hese Qioktst0c6b Tot beatetdo et yttavtiogqo xa fact se oo welinre bas ets.e7s | aia ad siabichdul petnete te iy el | | | : whet 7 1 Aaa! ve 7 ere si panie 209 vaults. Shallow sunk panels are suitatle to not weaken the lan- ding slab; the maximur depth to which they may be sunk depends on the thickness and clear sran of the slah, and on the parti- culer case in which it is used. If large numbers of men use the stairs in tuildings et certain hours, as in schools, theatres, concert hells, etc., it may tecome dangerous to weaken the slabs. Therefore one rust alweys carefully consider in sp&écial cases, whether the ranels may be deep or shallow, and this is also t true cf balconies. ©. Winding Stairs. The undersides of the sters or windins steirs are either left of rectansular section, or they ere dressed off to a he- liccidal surface, or a vault is constructed teneath them. In . the first case ere formed wedse shaped prisms, with roulded edges or with surfaces decorated ty sunk panels. In the second case the helicoidal surface may be ornamented by sunk panels, mouldings or ornaments arranged with reference to a helical line, or lastly a combinetion of the two varieties may be emp- loyed. In case of a vault beneath winding stairs, it way te divided in radial compartments; or may te an ascending annul- ar helicoidal vault. The last arrangement permist pretty modes of treatment in brick construction with the aid of ornatental tonds, which were particular favorites in the brick architect- ure of Holland. If the newel of a winding stairs is solid, it should have a hand rail mouldings (Fig. 399), which must te of such form as to te easily gresped, and it is therefore usually a round bet- ween tac hollows. If there is no newel, tut a central well op- ening, this should generally be enclosed. by an ascending heli- cal string, roulded or decorated, and which is wrought in the solid cn the ends of the sters. In larger winding stairs, this should te supported ty small columns, very fine examples of abich are found in the steir tower cf the cestle of Heissen, and in the graceful winding steirs of the so-called Woman’s Bouse at Strasture in Alsace. Very grand winding stairs should have a stairway separate for — servants instead of a newel, abich may be lishted ty windons, so that an opportunity is obteined for decorations the walls of winding stairs by niches, tracery and similar motives. in gaiive sdf segaigasl stoe 36 soo.to tdgé -biuode godt 10),80fe0t sista edt of &akdnedest309 Soy7e etdzied ense sat ds beoely baa ydistaosiied b2%ae1 med a Tsddo 9d7 GO 909 -Bgoktosio1y saQaty edt bes ees j Beet. \9enee earning eit oF &nibs0908, addaxsiery 2 ; cha i ‘4 -) ¢s:e@0btey70ed0 sobeveno?- . 8: > eliusy sisssaiel Sd yeu 99 801% eleaddas 9d yar, donz, Lae rs, fey ddiw badetoust gated tieq teoureqqo sd% .siigda oni f vi x 210 6. Towers. lowers are either intended for ssairs, for observation, or for bells. In all these cases they have an upper story essen- tially different from the lower stories; the upper lending of a stair tower is lighted by a window, as well as the entrance to the attic story, or to any other room. Towers for observat- ion or of fortifications serve for temporery or permanent occu- pation. Fell towers contain a room fer the bells. Church towers are eitber detached, ajoining, placed over the crossing, or are little toners on gables. The latter are also used in buildings that require signal tells, like hospitals, barracks etc. x. Flans of Towers. As for the plans of towers, they ere either free on three si- des and then projecting beyond the face of the building, or they are bhilt in end are merely free on two sides or tut one; the sonare plan is preferable. Towers way further be circular or polygonal, with three, four, five siz or eight sides. The — forn of plan is decided ty the purrose of the tower, and by the place at which it is connected to the tuilding. Wholly de- tacked towers are seldom placed near a buildings excert when in- dependent, like observation towers; but they may be arranged to be partially free, as they may be connected with the lower story of a tuilding by an arch, above which they ere separate. Stair towers should always te attached at one side or stand in the angle of a tuilding. They should generally be treated clainly, being supordinete parts of the tuilding, should have small windows, and only their uprer stories should be richly treated and have large windows. If they play a more important cart, their openings should be wore numerous, and they should be lighted by larger windows. In many cases @ gallery supported by cortelling cr other suprerts extends sround them at the he- ight of one or more len@ings. The string courses should be st- epped correspondins to the stair inside, or they should be ar- ranged horizontally and placed at the same heights as the sto- ries end the window projections. Cne or the other arrangement is preferabte according to the particular case. 8. Towers for Otservation. Such may be entirely free or may be attached, partly contain- ing stairs, the uppermost part being furnished with sallery, O Sebtetfitest sot etadbbayxs teTtete ous votyaoled goktsvisedo tot oals Utasupart ors avawod 94609 tar ssendoten seit tot auottefs 20 svtse ya0t mode ton ot Yot eaiffend # e¢ betttt qrote Letooye & viota 8 doo2 .tdgia odd Batisch toast er dotew ode t9wot eritas sit vo Tostto’ [ersoze a eetewol {fez .¥° aber’ ss9dosed> tot asttetwoey (sttnssas s16 9006T r teen gotdn .alisd sdz 0%. #001 6 ak fotii07 faarte sieare ted? of ,slifseoq a8 enttaszo case es 40 831 9 1ksdl .soneterh teers & ts bieed sd yet elfed . to axswot sdf .esgozt0y THedd yd dentwtetod o2 ro 10% eBeBogIeT FootstTib ettoo Tot bedastek Zllsses > eetoda bagors sot af eladitssy @.aAteteoo yer towos fiat 967 ak dool> od tot woot s ,baodea odd at eerelise B¥on tecn Yool> Sas eff24) wtawdt edt at eifed 10% wed: *sddTET edt ak asedotew tot eno bas .(stoWwot ose sat fSiest tasrsttird atin astiote avett nt saswot « sainns1 Ygot yiote wego ed? oF Feettnoo al .betsert eliusret 7 ee wears vitseq as sd ot sts astiote tedto ebsbfrove antsd sactas70 ytee oat ,siqsenst? Sane oven dtin astorids 16% } [fed s od ysa deeds .f5w0d sarsl @& 19% ytinutaoqg7o Pal .yfeo aokésvieedo sot ei to ,2ntegoto S0t FAdEL Pesog as aintnego snusi ge 60s yost 36 eved yer Jt 29 Whiusb extiae odt af eaoqrey ati vo ada9708 Kaly to°wrot Bt otisa fetreten. dae ofsodie0 Fsliw bas .Astodo sdt acide .99289 Yosm si teat ¢ oved bi{ootea alled anol soto ,yaooled nego se bas aovitiore ntetaoco yea s200% yarsod aft aot [fed Oae Poslo a 53 ese dtez ms70H ett opie sit to ytote tenot sa? .asudoter 6st a 10% woo7 emt sewod od to sdot sal .[kati ytto ait exit ante ont ts paogtey islvoee rot Seated Fud ,nootetauboTtS oF azakb10908 E 9m: Sea? .bebfove 9d eyewls saa tetositad® [sotteshac{Goe ot gtto ,auoeray! Yo seodd \aoktevieedo tot asoxot Yo antt p aetoatsio seertaot A .eoeeettr0t bas aesevedo .aanbiss ~stusueltted yd eacttsro005 ditn seeds tot olistius ae: Rbi-cdahd sopsatetorg 8 souboTy oF + oe a Amb L820 eS emewoP To @tood .8 a edt to taeutssit edt ti aofost yiseesoen teon dl rs ee OLe ‘ 1a < re ., : ‘i2 - balconies and similar expedtents for facilitatins observation. Church towers are frequently also for observation, especially when they serve eas stations for fire watchmen. They then have a special story fitted as a dwelling for the watchman, where the watch is kept during the night. Such a story produces a special effect on the entire tower. y. Eell Towers. These are essential requisites for churches. Their most inmp- ortant portion is a room for the bells, which must have as lae-. rse or aS many openings as possible, so that the sound of the tells may be heard at a great distance. Their character is al- so determined by their purroses. The towers of churches are usually intended for ovite different purposes. For exemple, a tower way contain a vestibule in the ground story, ani organ gallersy in the second, a room for the clock-in the third, a . roow for tells in the fourth (tells and clock must never be «in the same tower), and one for watchmen in the fifth. This would require a tower in five stories with different heights and dif- ferently treated. In contrast to the open story for belis, the other stori¢cs are to be as nearly closed as possible, unneces- sary openings being avoided. For churches with nave and transepts, the crossing affords orpertunity for a lerge tower, that may be a bell tower, may light the crossing, or te for observation only. In these cas-- es it may have as tany and as large ovenings as possitle. Its: form of plan Bepends on its purpose in the entire design of the church, and what esthetic and material parts it rlays. Toman halls should have a tower in many cases, whose lower r- roome may contain archives and an open balcony, etc, nbile in its uprer part map be a clock and tell for the hours, and a roow for a fire watchman. The tower story of the tower is often at the sane time the city jail. Ihe forn of the tower is varied according to circumstances, tut being for secular purposes, all ectlesigsticeal character must always be avoided. The same is true of toners for otservation, those of prisons, city gates, | bridges, chateaus and fortresses. A fortress character is more suitatle for these with decorations by cattlements, bays, etc., to produce a picturesque effect. §. Roofs of Towers. fhe most necessary factor in the treatment of the tower is a eae ee A 7 j f | hs ‘snote .atoot «sdoon svat ysm atoncod :teom 3d7 90 Iebinszyg -feotuob dttmotectatet yes gets jetoos “gatakdnoe vi Ssonbo1T 9d yet uted geicwox A santo} ow sds to S00 ek atewot to Bloor eds to tasatssrs oa! {fe tt toostdorw edt sot eweldo1y snoziew bas [nt ® wogo .d) + ses seogtug sav TOT slieltevs etasnale s romtoh .S seotteal{ey Yrawh bolleo-oe oa yeanstco ) .@ feelawe out te coves gutosly .d :e9lia2 to. ertot tfeeti Toor edt ,3 ;xedto dose svode agiagl icy | tuo pp Reehn aw 3toor fsotvoo ¢ 1 qid & ,9705.5 ® .2 yeobattected détitw estrollsa bas astaooled 5 sodvo bas .S9c29719 ,Bdoootsdsesn .ebaig. {Is to taentee1t dbetisv fsom sdf .ntenvoe To eoxegs suv -sinsmete eeodt Ico sokiankridnos sus 089398 29 eeds af soeettogmt SedStosb to eifsteass ere atoor ‘godt ooute .so1utowrsa bas agatditud to tostts Waters basoe etototea! .esmiitoo alitety eat antarol ai —ecoigg feveetbes edi asdt easel on .2f99%7) oft Sef god «200% off to teortsert sit mo esotts tasteore |as ite eazot edt of eretesu sonsseisach ed oreg asw aot ‘bas’ ,eodoagd> to atoos 69005 sdf to noidisors od? nes $s tombs ef soneeatcasi sit ta ywouebasd sist enki wetitesoy tena ed¥ eved of toot of wolfe ot .atoere ea bbakded tt gatfeaogoo qd .aatbited adt to. tastts. saz woke ak soy! +7908 99 dosages Fi feat eaotbLitod eat ti .bs sSeaeukio ,etemtob to asitoeseoos rredt Lie atin .ctaor t $25 ots etoos oft Sadd .addst 95 tagm-exss s10tezaa! terbh of tou ,santoetiiorws stitins sai aonsdas of betseas s matasb toa bLo00 soetidoxe ods tk 26 tesaqe toa bivods JI + odff eantbliod tasottiage! .9ofa102 afem eds svois aaids (40m Raldiemos stigpes ,mebeerd sf oytsodh tayo Seqzot R 44 Leet ae ~' a . 7 , ar = tot pai eee ae y pote is 2 212 the roof; toowers may have wocden roofs, stone spires, or iron roofs; they way terminate?@with domical, pyramidal or conical forms. A crowning form may te rroduced ty contining these forms. The treatment of the roofs of towers is one of the most fruit- ful and welcome proetlems for the architect in all cases. The elements availatle for the purpose are:- 1, open galleries with columns; the so-called dwarf galleries; 2, dormer windows; 3, forms of gebles; 4, ctlacing masses at the angles; 5, several galleries atove each other; €, the roof itself, whether it be. a dome, a hip or a conical roof; 7, corbelling out bay windows; balconies and galleries with talustrades; &, sargoyles, finials of all Binds, neathercocks, crosses, and other ornaments for the apexes of towers. Ihe wost varied treatrent results from - the combination of these elements. - C. ROCES. Roofs are generally of decided importance in the external | effect of buildings and structures, since they saterially aid. in forming the visible outlines. Iberefore sound artistic feel- | ing led the Creeks, no less than the mediseval masters, to lay | the greatest stress on the treatment of the roof. Less attent- | ion was paid by Renaissance masters to the forms of roofs, with | the exception of the dowed roofs of churches, and thus in our tine this tendency nf the Renaissance is aimed at by many arch- . itects, te allow the roof to have the least possitle pert in the effect of the building, by concealing it behind an attic, or by waking it so flat, that it cannot be seen. here is wis- sed a rational develocment of the rocf less in Italy; where nood is net abundant there and snow is hardly seen, flat reofs are the only appropriate wey, and are actually necessary for sake of economy. It is otherwise in our North, rich in both wood and snow. The entire northern nature requires the perpen- dicular lines of our tuildings to te emphasized tp the roofs; here rich in forests, the cities would seem to have been burn- ed, if the buildings did not have their powerfully effective roofs, with all their accessories of dormers, chimneys, etc. . Therefore care must be taken, that the roofs are artistically treated to enhance the entire architecture, not to disturb it. It should not appear as if the architect could not design any-. thing atove the main cornice. Magnificent buildings tike the former court theatre in Dresden, require something more than a rE gon oabo. gutoréert date ‘too Iseaofoo. we sesfutot wdo frs09 sd¢ to eegtitvo edd détw exatdavorsse deter prot of7 to saen qvaed eas ,towot att defn soefsq edd to st6itad sidon yosa ads aaond welded yiov Geteeqqs atts et tw [fed owoP ad¢ ,somek¥ ak tesite ent% o4% yqeo00 dt ost ylevosgssaavbs sion tet exeegqs 2toot bayoloveb Wy hin sbowtwd aeed bed godt Rt as fool sade .wuneeolt er snatmolLot odd {teteb mk dsert mon (isde ef et! to emm0g «8. » ceat{en to us¢sed of: -anobais T3m707 ob \) yo) ebtktewoo Too .f: po, eaysnatdd 3 t 9) s@%9wot onbdeA .2 ukbsz bas e9fie? .3 eatoos to sacttes00ed .T. oalion to totteg! f grer iedt ipiesed vigsgo3g 918. alisw gateclonad nota fassifed Slaow ti ered 2bte Ss4t a0 tto wolt 4 mn ,teexts odd Siswot toktotcs odd ef ylisvan olson ekdt al .bebtvory vilswew a1. wstew edd. 2akvomen to | iten -Sovobie gataedies ed? of aizh 2 Obs of aeqota af Peay: ; hd | estasselsisd tol oars ef suse Meteesy sort acoetety [1s tosvety of betiwoo1 ai tr TM. 8 .sldetive od iffw sokitel sori x0 gatteeto. « [lew oat d a: goofs {ftw tf .se2ot zctesely qrev to.2dsn 9d POF. ae oc ,mtot todoia s liea,sct to got ad? ovik oF erse lew oc Peventas of Oas .etdgied dsersti£6 to stuey siateqes aoat. od as, tien 26 .21solt to soatv pel Ps ee 213 formless and colossal roof with lightnins rods. Among its ani- mated surroundings with the outlines of the court church and of the palace with its tower, the beavy mass cf the former the- atre appeared very badly. Among the many noble buildings, which cccupy the Bing street in Vienna, the Town Ball with its well developed roofs arpears fer more advantageously than the new Museums, thet look as if they had been turned. .¢ - We shall now treat in detail the followins. 1. Eatter of walls. 2. Forms of roofs. 3. Roof covering. 4, Lormer windows. 5. Ridge towers. ; 6. Chimneys. 7. Cecorations of roofs. 8. Cables and pediments. 1. Batter of walls. | Enclosing walls are properly tattered, that rein water may fion off on that side where it would tetleast injurious, that would usually te the exterior toward the street, where means of removing the water .re usually provided. In this case it is proper toe add a drip to the battering side of the wall. fhe same is true for battlements. If it is required to prevent all prersons from passing over the well, a cresting or iron lattice will be suitable, and may be made of very pleasing form. It will also sometimes be neces- sary to give the top of the wall e richer form, so as to make sevarate parts of different heights, and to animate the weil by means of windows, vases of flowers, as well as tn iron lat- tices and similar expedients. 2. Forms of rocfs. The principal forms of roofs are the shed roof, hip roof, gable roof, and the pyrawidal hir roof. Composite forms map be used as required. Thus a gable roof may be hipped at both ends, or a gable or hip rocf way -join another gable or hir roof, a favorite for the roofs of towers. The inclination of roofs will freauently vary to rroduce better effects, for eaxr- cle, so that the ends of a hir roof may te steeper than its sides. 7 At the cresent time it often becomes necessary to employ the mansard roofl and for the angle pavilions of public buildings, the curved mansard. These forms of roofs are entirely approprio- ate where resulting from needs.in the sare way for sake of ec- onony, it way frequently become necessary to lessen the height toot dateite s svode dosh 8 batosfy yi toot dt. to cebu bevz9d Yo bezoyedo stom ,ebavors oitedta2s 40% > bas whorliwvey sot es ,dsyolyns od oels his uiehebe to sarot Sas anoktrogory edt conso {[{¢ al’ g 2D -akblfod eat to footte edt of bos or ngnodo Stiw sotar0> nism edt svods beocesrs sit sqeeasy ok oft £3.¢ of S&F besorée teven bfiodaenstit wol bas wol as9qys Satbitod sdt odon esbertecied pate ,.ft mad? wewol. sd yfeorsse oss sobsataulsd si? Weoled seovt tl .bell{tifet od medt ton Sinow seo0g707 11a Yaa voogss elstesbed dékw aorfoendoo xf beanéixs ote as MM e oldstitve & sovbot7 of bendiesh oJ feat sued? .eon eis | santseved took 28 fet vino tou Sukxevoo toor edt feds asist 9d favm e289 @otedt wevi .toetio snfesefy @ esd onfs tnd ,ssoqie7 ask ifs jw nk yeu 96% yd Ratensly sbs7 od ys netta to etoot Seips to gaixsvod toot sil .dewotant sts werte to a9fdand ) toos uott tootts sgoeeieforg 8 aed yl[iatea99 agarolros Yo bevovdon estivense yebaei [ia to asonsdenustts 9 to estely otedw eoosft at es .mr9t salvesettr ts med Ofod solyatda to seutiomos ~6sz0 s18 snotsenifl sxal te 00% Pao worm dotdn atasia to Sebald {fe bee aBoY vaowota vg Wwows cidd dgvodsie ,scppszafsiz yiev 189098 elinsuostt baT Quis do v2 soot od¢ to daowboow sat of ferstteass fos SPetstse: Yo sdatd yasn oper} ots aglreide to shay ro9HKal iM fpards. edt tedt yreeessee ef 8189 Jed ,stoor sleaide . aout ast es ¢y7sd od vem tetew daa¢ Vamt0t dove to ' sefdicadg as p show sci of gator0s08 ee7ot tastattib sist stoor slit. Hakot) fscivisv edt cede cols ,uno1°10 aldgod' .afgaia .gai MP tha ors acltt edt tedtedw ,etscist1s 19 euountiioc. ass eqeb vedizst atoos alts {to sazot ot? .9e39 desl eds atias gs flow as .asitt edt to abe9 rawol edt to wrt 96% | shoes 2918 easetisg (etosga to sefftt vas emkupst: eyeuls toot adv to esves bas etbiax off Peireyory of bas ,1ateRn nist to sonsziss Snevedg of anoktos gt ms ict noltstosusato besweb oels sooty seed? .tio Fe t betolo> uitastetiid to er9brod soned -loot ent to Qalze Itt to asgds sowol bas s9990 edt anole baynsits of ‘eLooda se ine TO ,eaqgede prowas to eelft exbit dite sarediey si og ra 214 of the roof ty placing a deck above a straisht roof. On esthetic grounds, roofs composed of curved surfaces sho- uld also be employed, as for pavilions and conservatories. In all cases the proportions and forms of roofs are to be chosen to add to the effect of the building. If a space for passage ‘is arranged above the main cornice with balustrades, these should never exceed 3.28 to 3.61 ft. in height’ high balustrades make the building appear low and low ones high. The balustrades can scarcely be lower than 3 ft., since th- fir purpose would not then be fulfilled. If these balustrad- es ere arranged in connection with fedestals supporting stat- ues, these must te designed to produce a suitable sky line. 3. Reof Covering. Care must be taken that the roof covering not only fulfils its purpose, tut also hes a pleasing effect. Even thatched roofs of straw may be made pleasing by the way in which the tundles of straw are fastened. The roof coverings of rural tuildings generally has a picturesque effect from accidental circumstances of e11 kénds; sometimes composed of stone slabs of irregular form, as in places where plates of rorphyry or of Jura limestone are used; sometimes of shingles held down ty stones. Woss and all kinds of plants which grow on roofs frequently appear very picturesque, although this sronth is n not teneficial to the woodwork of the roof. Fy cutting the lower ends of shingles are formen many kinds of patterns on shingle roofs, but care is necessary thet the shinsles te made of such forms, that water may be kert as far from the ‘joints as possitle. Tile roofs take different forms according to the mode of lay- ing, single, double or crewn, also when the vertical ‘joints are continuous or alternate, whether the tiles are set in tond, as in the last cese. The forms ofstile roofs further depend on the form of the lower ends of the tiles, as well as whether a any tiles of special patterns are used. The ridge and eaves of the roof always require special prec- autions to prevent entrance of rain water, and to properly cer- ry it off. These places elso demand ornamentation for any cov- ering of the roof. Hence borders of differently colored tiles should te arranged along the uprer and lower edges of tile roofs in patterns with ridge tiles of special shapes, or Suitable ¥ Ulli aa J aa ’ > a, Say) . ah " » ; 4 Bay ‘botses piety 918 Sent ,300s Gd to Kors ods fe elstsit i tia {G2 (ose te @2L og ~eotaotoe?).entot anisne & 3: ‘aupastatety sees edt .eteos szsle to 9ae0 at « ba bodies wuetaY’ Setkonon Gidea? 4¥ 200 ‘edt yd beak \ 978 eexot Ietoeve of tno setsle to ss0 ode “2 be pted 9d todtset ver dotiw ,saretias bsissy teen eé3 anole esb103 seroLon tmenetti6 to eetcle getyols 309006 eyewis 916 eremt0 Snvots ebced bas eevas oos wt stele to seg6t1 ed? .esnetaae toot of bative viaustiy g to egcitesr> bos .[etew déiw berevo> yisaaor17 s208 ‘Outs Sas bast tae9 to 10 .dtoK betstusd to ,setsly %o elstutt es {few as (xoyoTZ evsefs ers . nove Bx: eanobarh temt0d —® Ia oat Gh dogueits ef yrore to datd 9 rocs>-enem'al moogwsl eS boddyhl xk dokdw .etoor orsense at effsto sbeteext vilstasasazs bas yldoit ytov od wae oasa? t getstes(fy usented swartidore as to ‘teteroo vila ‘9d aso Send eff Ons ,gaectdey Oos siuteldedns oe | Ob .BfT 28 4D .d .e@ COR Leff) ebte dose sa astolov oat emvohats 7, asin Sog0072 sehheigtib aedt sd .yem yod? et po a3 «yx0va 7S yi hatckuoed nesitenos, 278 i se0706 .s3i¢J med? vod. -sanotsiee # sk a9dn 9n5To s yd atdkien Raivetod mek odis> sdf dofldw at toot oetiosto12 vigacrte = ovsa qd betsa9seb ore Saedl. .et20% yd Poeols era. xe ee gcivdRel tot evise yllaveu awodntn sayted .ebred: due 10 somedrogst! edt of gaborooss (ottie ws geist la beterooeb od yam yous ,wsdt vd beysly saatpsedh to © toor efday asbooW .aisig stel 19 etoot elds Ist @onstioyxi eatzy to atoekhbsyxe sviisiso86 astto sis ste MP. Yotnorest oteti{tovt of aedtegot bar2zqc0mred yen ysah oT Benod to anobotw teste} «dow ‘eratsle rt metisost seg ! al optoince ,xelsotto ad eouttauce yar exutdlind otideg Pepeyot serevibh teom ont to 2d yam yiisi9csy wm ,feortrtt fe apes? .2aides1> to wrot once bas. evertivoms ge, avsd-bivode “doom bbe ever{s avobetw toot bas tem109 .omty taeda to sbsn eno sto fostts svitasaos> saz ah ea7eanrdd gi re Niece ono mink; leentesthions beqoleved yifpt 8 xf -9gas77e of bo& .ovot astesefz to ayooutd> sit edew 09 215 finials at the arex of the rocf, that are to be treated as free ending forms. (fectonics, p. 195 et seq). In case of slate roofs, the most picturesaue effect is obta- ined ty the use 6f the cld so-called Cermen method of laying. Ey the use of slates cut to special forms are produced the most varied patterns, which may further be heightened by en- Eloying slates of different colors. Forders along the ridge and eaves and tands around dormers are always decorations pec- uliarly suited to rocf surfeces. The ridges of slate roofs are most properly covered with metal, and crestings of perforated cvlates, of hammered work, or of cast lead and zinc or wrought iren, are always proper, as well as finials of these metals. 4. Dormer Windons. In many cases a kind cf story is arranged gn the roof, espe- cially in mansard roofs, which is lighted ty large windows. These may be very richly and ornamentally treated. They sener- ally consist of an architrave between pilasters, which support an entaklature end pediment, and its base can be extended by | volutes at each side (Fis. 400 a, b, c, a; Fig. 401, a, b, c). They may te then properly sroured with the windows of the upp- er story. Lerge dormer windows are sometimes required ty the need of hoisting weights by a crane when in a warehouse. They then have a strongly projecting roof in which the carne is fixed, and ere closed by doors. These are decorated by wrought iren bands. Cormer windows usually serve for lighting and ventila- tins an attic; according to the importence or subordination of the part played by thea, they may be decorated by ornamen- tal gable roofs or left plain. Wooden gatle roof cf church tow- ers are often decorative exredients of prime importance, and they mey be connected together to facilitate fastening-the ro- res require in slaters’ work. Dormer windows of houses and of cublic tuildings way sometimes be circular, semicircular or ellirtical, or generally way te of the most diverse forms. They should have an architrave and some form of crestins, frequently nade of sheet zinc. Eorner and roof windows always add much to | the decorative effect of a tuilding. 5. Chimneys. In 2 fully developed architectural style, one must not forget to wake the chimneys of pleasing form, and to arrange them so ‘Son vow sithiind wae 0 @oette séi ¢edd oa f 30h are! qbedt te e700 difw esaed aved aoat foods ) agente qao eid? Yo atot edf sadoue io saneds “eats oF, gage et. tL «tottous? am0> to shor Idtosza , Kewevse ontince of as {fen as. gaia bssetad o aon it istex teode fo Toot @ dite elodw oft Antraved . 70078 idea [fsue yd betstooeb oF yea Toor sin} .qher tao wiry ; hd e€n07> & To ag0% .8dd sa uehoed to encits2o0s3 2). et satesete edt ,atov0T to eaorte10056 ad7 Ne at tdgu0u8 af betaoers 9d yer Si Ooe .datsStadoo vi yifetense ef TF bes .A97qJOO seeks Ootenyen 10 oaks Se eistnti.edd sede poor sdv to 926i7 aes ao AutiReTD 5 exe to eqjede 943 ai ,alsktetes couse o47 to eatot gatas Beso1 .ekvootediaen eI betsr029 . eves! O98 atswoit 7 to aglguc edd Batineasoto .amiot do artoa Lis oae gem aslzkooiag [erexeg wed .219K07 o04 gileroszas mobsert sasteets oct gonts ,sieiatt Ouse agate ‘gefesolq faor su? eoudors god? .tasatsoiF isd? ws ~bos ,babkby yidisa ydosli doteisy, ¢ii1sa.18 eaus tesutces fetoitored geo ont o10tte somszssqae oy | | speostave toot edt to rvetoatedo evi | 4+ 004983. 10 TugakbeT, .f 6 bas ,gtoot sidsz to eeoctios Sao ad4¢.na0t, sod? -botetq09b Seated aoit,,aelmnet sunttae ar ee pegoto B sazte8 s0sto To. asuatTid to suoSadw 42 SebqeTs TO ~wez beeolo od yeu vod? toot act to sortetor sas tazel ® et natolicd edt to. 9bfe gaol ouo dsav oF ,yeetisis 4 nl .eodotudo supesasmad swore of ee tadto aa% arin T S10u To as0 enteareds sliqevos1t 4038 .9¢) .avostaz as of dbatetooeb eeatiencs e109 e294) {ends te asd geat yo. skodl eeobtotes isieves: aL b2b5ivso ats Dns tenner tas pe egole couse odd diin wogtf bastiort owt et tq seteagc ao 2 :etconclszed e8 steegge of O57797a S18 Sasdd to , Toor Saeed acd to selisd beters0sb gldots od? bavited oaen r9tta! Pile to eottopesons, ,etasaento to bie sdt- ed .sonseataqsi 3 903 sdew of ef aottetoneb to 260m fexgteq gacu ogi iivoe tue eakgetorss qd toentzory Jeqmeatoe> ody bas \dmeteg7e ed? meddyied abss 943 gaibsel to asdon ifs ) eiasvoro8 edd ae eit pareesioe giisey so5loa djvatsls ' Oe a yilign? , '. (MTR We ati a; } owe ea ea iA Oy, jude 216 so that the effect of the tuilding may not be injured. They should then have bases with cars at their tops for the dis- charge of smoke. Ihe form of this carp always depends on its special mode of construction. It is proper to give the chin- ney a twisted shap es well as te combine several flues in a group, covering the whole with a roof of sheet metal to keep out rain. This roof may te decorated by small gables or have the forn of a crown. €. Lecorations of Roofs. Among the decorations of roofs, the cresting is here special- ly considered, and it may be executed in wrought iron, cast 2 zinc or hammered sheet copper, and it is Benerally arransed as a cresting on the ridge of the roof; then the finials ere free endings forms of the same materials, in the shape of sprays of flowers and leaves, decorated ty weathercecks, crosses, @nimals and all sorts of forms, ornamenting the angles of roofs and especially the towers. Few general princirles may te given for crestings end finials, since the greatest freedom is admissitle in their treatment. Ibey produce the most pleasins effect if they are vartly cainted black, partly gilded, and by their ope en sppearance afford the most teneficial cantrast to the mass- ‘ive character of the roof surfaces. 7. Fediment or Gable. These form the end surfaces of sable reofs, and ere either closed as in antique temples, then being decorated by sculptu- res or opended by windows of circular or other forms, which light the interior of the roof; they may be closed by an open stairway, so that one lons side of the building is connected with the other as in some Romanesque churches. In houses and calaces, the attic frequentls contains one or more rooms and then has windows; these ere sometines decorated in the rich- est manner and ere divided in several stories. Their outlines consist of the two inclined lines with the same slope as the roof, or these are stepped to appear as battlements; from the latter were derived the richly decorated gatles of the Cerman Renaissance, by tbe aid of ornamenta, accessories of all kinds. The rost natural mode of decoration is to make the two ends and the centre most prominent by acroterias and sculptures; 211 nodes of loading the ends heighten the epparent stability, although selder really increasing it, and the acroteria at the : | : | 7 : = SS y FT} i Ay \ 5 a Cis - aspegh deti ysov of been’ offedtes as estitetisa satass PB Hornets avrot s0bbas sett egedt .esdo1cdo to S6ond bas gotegtt .efetart .eeeeors: liso stazted stea0 “. nis berevos ei often odf sbeyolyno od neds eee aeet me edtt ,h9a89 emoe ni etedooto yd betmotenis of esa’ seat Ger bas seat ofnt Ssvloset of yew to ,afyie sidtod sdf to Poettitent o28 dtoF .ooneeetsned ueet99 ond ni es evtot Stodd .sooetesrgs Hakttragih bas Feentses to egatolted tnt seodd tot bao0se St stots .eeanod ers70 eho .Basetsdo It Sopdet tinyen TeTsets Io satoarsad a -o39 Bsteq5' srnoe eMOIPOCATSHOD BHOTS .8 ‘ goteesoigcs gitrow Sas [stneutnen feon sdt ak erat? © Svteasqco te0u edt ak sert snse edits bee . stats Tdors to tnewyolevet {[eetroteti sury sd? .aottsarte On woiad al seodd yuolvoustecos onota ok to SetrTe5 pPasiaerot ads of efekreted wedto mk tt Sotextroryys ef Beebat st 3I .eottowrtanos endte ot gaitetes yheorts 29 Batt asa acttouztanscs saote .2s0ely trersttis wk teat ' \g somedt sort sernorred .noktoorfedoo boon sort be 2 bos anuuloo ,Sintslistas edt to stost efif lento? Mistsie tedto bas 999d BO tuonvolsveb aedsts0t Sd3 tod hier ob edt es ifow 26 ,noktoertadoo snote ek bestes99 et enota to someserest sd? .ancitfosody ottadtes to Ge oiditte aettsil edt bedtroee1s antdesid ‘batavenstt bas Pe-noterst ot sonetatast poayolgae 94 bfv00 dsowsucds af 1090960 yen tr as yfoo To (nokterabtasds at asucoo tev dahon snota to etaswefe og? .seetta satevarstt tebss mes .2isle ,steoy ,srorfe'to essed otdsticoot events o78 5 85 feastosdidoze [fA .atlnay bas esdors to atrosavoy Hae ee ree 989d? of sousasteTt dfin boanemis ef nortour ek .aettou to eee edt vi Asonegore ot sevte ef edoanrtd +e Deo-nties tastettibesds 3642. jbotes2e Ge 64 tieast face Set gI .curtdi{isos sfistd to ateste s af ere stutogite ie oat teds ,soltoutténoa sactea ta Siteinteioaisdo “Ratko: 5 ,etteil aistiso aidtin aisno1 eysuls aistostte ett ad ‘Bas ,e11600 aad of sudta to etoysl sdt te easafords odd a0 Wy) Bas eeotnt0> sot oldtesoy at soitseio1z sfistebtesos soer peer wtostts oft edits ols gattico to show sat gods .r9ntr0? ee , “4 ec : gin ; ' 7D ive a Any wit ' \- av 217 centre satisfies an esthetic need. In very high gables, as in those of churches, these free ending forms reouire a proporti- onate height; sgatle crosses, finials, fisures and similar rot- ives may then te employed. The gakle is covered ty a cornice, that may de ornamented. by crockets in some cases, like those of the Cothic style, or may te resclved into free and fanciful forms as in the Cernan Renaissance. Eoth are justifiatle for buildings of earnest and dignified appearance, churches, muse- ums, opera houses, etc.; the second for those intended to have a character of greater magnificence, for chateaus, theatres, comic operas etc. A. STCNE CONSTRUCTION. This is the rost monumental and worthy expression of archit—- ecture, end at the same time is the most expensive mode of con- struction. The true historical develeprent of architecture was carried out in stone construction; those in brick and wood on- ly approximated xk in other materials, to the forms-and rotiv— es dlready existing in stone construction. It is indeed true that in different places, stone construction was first develor- ed fron wood construction, borrowing from thence a part of its forms, like those of the entatlature, columns and gable roof; tut the further development of these and other elements first eccurred in stone construction, as well as the determination of esthetic prorortions. The resistance of stone to crushing and transverse treeking rrescrited the lizits within which stonework could be erployed; resistance to tension alzost ne- ver comes in consideration, cr only as it may occur in 2 bear under trapsverse stress. The elements cf stone construction are always monolithic bears of stone, vosts, slats, ashlars and voussoirs of arches and vaults. All architectural const- ruction is arranged with reference to these. Although a sreat— er firmness is given to stonework by the use of mortar, it must itself be so arranged, that the different parts of the structure are in a state of statle equilibrium. It is always | characteristic of stone construction, that the elements of its structure always remain within certain limits, depending on the thickness of the layers of stone in the quarry, and that consideratle projection is possitle for cornices, and further, that the mode of cutting also aids the effeci. _ ms ! >) - sate QQ2E 09 |. eotdotos? see .etdt of somstats7 atiz¥ ha yen enote to astttisu tagtettid to sew ont nsacq7 , ede acnote robt6d od? .mott0t¥aw0d eaots sc itstoersdo vl dtoa odt bas edisy Istutootte eft sot beyolque ei coeds dst retsa sat .gow eidt mf seller edi to easn odt 8!) lan mk egatnsqo to eevertidats. .2soter02 bs9 2987500 “ 2 fysede od [fiw ditow eaode too gaisteset s4¢ bas -at79 lee to ont osfe ef etd? 1990779 yimogsn ont rott bodete i eesabied [suns to ascota ff 10 .ellewistca baretasly oF i n Sas 692 ofyasxs tol ,2t0foo daoxettih to tod deans @ to Sait some7 ed? .eamtoetés 6 oi Seyolane 9x6 asaode eyo7g altsted sratostido1e edt tot bec0 94 sedt bisonde bnegsb sodiwet etd! .eisoasa sdt ist nowse> eren odd ie¢an ods to sxetxe? sdf ao to emote SdF 2atiten To sage fda bas 692 siti bred yifsugs eas eaove to sdeed oz tT se05 043 dituw somsdrooce nk abko9b divode sao .esrersonee | beh eetentwobotg blwode sotdw Rarblred sdz to pene bee ¢eontss as garhired sat savig eeen af mote wsiisbh od? sono setdgttd bos [ottesdo-s est dotdw ROE ).g sotuotoel .on0 s19ddRtL sdt osdt euTOt 1927909 29% “Te sMOTPIGAPSGOO A9TIS 1, ( pontancs eidd ak atot to tusatests odd oF. Disyed, at #yed5 edt at bisa seed ybsorls asd ytsesscas anh ye Rameodn s es bas Isteney of ote SEL og ,edote3 goannas [ u peat yd Oeagkazsted ef goffontteqoo dora to astesieds it to oonnoo etenktat edt ed .etaeusls edt to, enotesan } aee3909 aetite to dottostotwy tdatie sdi yd Oas: .eagse Saen o1c ted adios sscghoty aysals a1cteisd? TI .aenk vasivtea ont. sterfies wol vieviteflox baa atciuow [isgve c atész atedizon odt .mottouttedo> of1d nk bazoloved Me ere dotdw of .agtels mtediaea wol odd to etatostidozs bad Sone .dotad bas astasvs3 tswol .nsitsvsd-diuoe odt Sfiiso sd yeu olyte gert? ad? .yfetl 19990 to stgé0stidors BS eds ci dn0vee ode ,etotsd Hsdluon devin Quavootidors do ts es1ot been vieouses,ai¢gsa sisditon anf wsttoo eazas agi 2 -eistI t99qga to dsdd af etiirovet d897g 8 gan dokan 10 ,beatdae2 94 ysu died brs exxot sekfgoey of dae! sO?P s9gI0 to stotoesidows doizd eds ni yiteon bsaksmoo ybaorls AdtO> St19t Ors eioviwd Hodisos dvod beeu ofyte etd conte . xf to 218 With reference to this, see Tectonics, rp. 117, etc. Further, the use of different oualities of stone may strong- ly characterize stone construction. The harder stones should then te euployed for the structural parts and the softer for the mass of the walls. In this way, the water tatles, strang courses and cornices, erchitraves of openings in walls, supp-- orts and the remaining cut stone work will te sharply disting- vished fronx the wasonry proper. This is also true cf nalls tlestered externally, or if stones of equal hardness and str- ensth but ef different colors, for example red and nbite sand+ stones ere employed in a structure. The rarer kind of stone ~ should then te used for the architectural details proper, and the more common for the masonry. This further derends on the ease of working the stone or on the texture of the. raterial. If two kinds of stone ere equally hard, like red and white s sandstones, one should decide in accordance with the character of the building which should predorinate. Red sandstone used in mass gives the tnilding an earnest and gloomy character; which has a cheerful and trighter one. the darker stone requi- res coarser forms than the lighter one. Tectonics, ¢r. 182. I. ERICK CONSTRUCTION. In regard to the treatment of form in this construction, eve- rything necessery has already teen said in the Charter of Tec- tonics on Ericks, rp. 134 etc. In general and es a whole, the character of trick construction is deterrined by the small di- mensions of the elements, ty the intimate connection of the mass, and ty the slight projection of string courses and corn- | ices. It therefore always produces works that are massive, have small members and relatively low relief. Two styles have been developed in tric construction, the northern mediaeval brick architecture cf the low northern plains, to which are allied the south Eavarien, lower Eavarian and Cutch, and the trick a architecture of uprer Italy. The first style way be called tri- ck architecture with woulded bricks, the second is that erploy- ing terre cotta. Ihe northern style scarcely used terra cotta, ubich was a great favorite in thet of uprer Italy. Foth styles lead to peculiar forms and toth may be combined, or rather ere already combined mostly in the trick architecture of upper Ite- ly, Since this style used toth moulded bricks and terra cotte. ers : | erene bus edotad bebfeom aeewted eomexstiib edd SAddudsé- bus bowels evolzwe elyte tert? ot ,baed 18 d Gus velo dettbave wort Hevtes shoold Letaswento visa # aredtzoa edt yd botsoz5 oft getessls yvevenod > dtin .etutcetiders ford sasnete 10 Breineld sdf ous nk: Stesoetideys Astts gtee s sottstrogsasad bev s@ekekfecol enor at ylao efdsatvbs od son fiw sno acatuiee {fiw dF ,bentetdo, od ylroset yen emote so Se eyrmoest edt to? bse0 ylao gated mn ~efokts of be .. \.¥auoeae NOTAT IMA BwWORS. TuxIM . oe yrenthro oft af dora wiiinne estatnare> al 7 aot Sentetdo sd ysx srotve tuo toststticve o1sdn bas | se dots bas saote Sexta se ,elisteS Ls1ctootidow Leg Pavel eds ni yllotsney favct ant sfif ,bovolgrs ed [ftw no fasel | A eye ofttosga ylfodn s nt bszoleved oTsdt Sas ,zbns me obem ois esofut0 bas g2e1009 bacids odd ifs sxods yor edd te at ¢ftes ete soote to adsold bas: .sa ' bain i evoob so8con edd tot Hexit sd of ste srodoss: nov ee 2 | oasueti ftouttanos ‘Sentn ata? to mtol peqalsved stom & al Bs Alsen 20 yrmoesT ost OF ‘Hotingt yletitas ek drondot Setoorte todio {fe es {fowes swobutn bas e105 to edust 18d tq .basd sed%o sdt wd senote ton to eber ote atysg fo ¢avooss ano dofad to sd ys [Isw add goinodtansses emede Yul to o76.a0eed hus elatize> tisdd slide ,on0d: 10% ao. Peds SquTIetah oF Jaek BE Si ,esety SatsLoet to wees. 7 iss72 svin oF esnote Sa0d tuo yd elsvraint talussy fre ‘od yosm to etatoodidors euote bus dotad hariu sat vifssx ef sonseetsoed sdt bas es26 afbbia ads to Sette I[stosye = yatouboty ‘to moitagiar atedteo 5 absb nt ok id “bet a9 Sue sacotebasa stidw to atofoo to tasitaoo sad ’ god bas guigniaqge Rattss00e6 sot teol ab UiaudrozJa off saose to asemmos ¢d yicossm ford anttqeaiesct 103 410 -9i%) azoanstt wo ellie woonty es td¢ied ome sat te f he 219 the difference between moulded bricks and terra cotta consists in this, that the latter is modeled, cast or pressed in moulds, and therefore admits of plate forms, such as parts of friéezes, and freely sculptured ornaments, while moulded bricks ere prop- erly only profited bricks, so that the first style renounces nearly all ornamental and sculptured ornamentation. On the ofh- er hand, the first style employs slaged and colored tricks, ra- rely ornamental tlocks carved from sundried clay and burned. However pleasing the worgs created by the northern mediaeval and the Lombard or Sienese brick architecture, with out impro- ved transportation 2 pure trick architecture excluding all st- one will now be advisable only in some localities. Put where cut stone may readily be obtained, it will usually be preferr— ed to tricks, these being only used for the masonry. Ke MIXED SIONE AND -ERICK HASONRY. In countries where brick is the ordinary tuilding material and where suffiekent cut stone may te obtained for the princi- pal architectural details, a mixed stone and brick constructi- on will te employed, like that found senerally in the Netherl- ands, and there developed in e wholly srecific way. At least there all the strong courses and cornices are made of cut sto- ne, and blocks of stone are tCHilt in at the openings, wherever iron anchors are to be fixed for the wooden doors cr windon frames. . in a more develored form of this nixed construction, the br- ickwork is entirely limited to tbe masonry or wall, and the ‘james of doors and windows as well as all other structural ¢t parts are made of cut stone. Cn the other hand, pilasters for strengthening the wall way be of brick on account of the stron- ger bond, while their capitals and tases are of cut stone. In case of isolated riers, it is test to interrupt the brickwork at reguler intervals by cut tond stones to give greater strength. The mixed brick and stone architecture of rany Cutch buildings ef the middle ases and the Renaissance is really refined, and in it is a certain intention of producins a special effect by the contrast of colors of white sandstone and deer red tricks. No cprortunity is lost for decoratins springing and key stones, or for interrupting brick masonry by courses of stone rlaced at the save height as window sills or transoms (Fig. 402), so spfeusa bovofsentot yrmomnn i5ind oct dad Yo suvdostidots doked bas onote boxin eis svid @ das testoeos odd stot ysds bos .qasta wilyoeg ; \tostte ottetsotosiedo.& guintssdo to ensen [2 nett aot visret nopenian epatbliod at ifetosgas oo seovutoente Ler pow, ha : -WOLPOURRSHOD. JOON hl id azxol to tiisd aeitite o18 esecod mabool ia aebao effen asboow té bise aved esd sedw siszHe) eQEL oF .eboO no goinptael to sosas0d off at opis » soaateisor edd yfoo tom mobtourttanco beon. mr sonts i ,see%se ssievansts bas noreasignoo oF stetoonte 7 eusot favatourtte: yrstnsasls .bsitare ok goranet REIOH .noitouttenos onéta of boas seoas noztTt tasastiLp 13 ,eflte ,puced exes eserte eetsvensit of Josidve ansed Deatiout .atcoy 918 astogqee [soitzs) .ansed antnieata bas {10 -paotesesgaon of toctdve ffs .se0etd baie atutta antes Bald geno [sottiey bose .aysedots e16 aoiangsd of azsduté fe [exsutoastea seect to antot ed¢ 10% .atacy neouo ao eotasovoel IO ast9ed9 edd of.ebsn ei sone4 ieidtin stotoetidore noboow beyoleveb yilnt saom od? .S8l omvl bus eeiwe us beteorerges Isd7 ei bedatsgooe sis on t 8 doin yietvel ,ssol te tiiad yitaou eflasuret .asecod ox elise guttostoms vignomte od? .sbienk SoantL eusxt ) baof ,enobartn avoissen Gtin astroce wel .asiisiise ; edd sBonsteeque oftakaatosiedo tists esaucd nodcor erstourte astexsyoe foss ak agse tnatettib teom oni p boon to crea eds of opd ,eonrd) [Ls to aiaivies . -eetareuoo feids aisle te ssvtoetidoce. geboon Bnlate sem eal fit sated esoszetetal sat .zoitovitanos saadurt tied. fod: 1 ¢sd2? baoyed yrota doses to asttoeto1g.¢ sAaonioiad pede ,20nv0d stedt estretoarad> .etoor eliey yoote odd bas . ‘ied r9dutt. tied ceed? .dixet ont of. batgabs ¢aed ox » -botetesly ro ately seddie .faowdoiad) to aelasg:dtin ) svissicosb edt one eometeej 18 aniesoly yissifuosz s ~ nornguaranod auore ms JO0n qaxLs of hs P rio apd nb doapent al besese sem ered biee od gen 2evaseti - os” heen - ‘220 that the brick masonry forms closed panels. These expedients give the mixed stone and brick architecture of Bolland its peculiar stabp, and they form the readiest and simplest gene- ral means of obtaining 8 characteristic effect with suall- means, especially in btuildings inténded werely for utility, as in ru- ral structures. WOOCD CONSTRUCTICN. Wooden houses are either built of logs or ere half timbered. Compare what has teen said of wooden walls under A, 4, @, and also in the Charter of Tectonics on Woods, rp. 139. Since in wood construction not only the resistance of the s structure to compressicn and transverse stress, tut also to ¢ tension is exerted, elementary structural forms result entirely different from those used in stone construction. Borizontal tears subject to transverse stress are teams, sills, rurlins and straining teams. Vertical supports are fosts, inclined ones being struts and traces, all subject to compression. Horizontal timbers in tension ere tietears, and vertical ones are king os ‘gueen posts. For the forms of these structural elements, refe- rence is made to the Chapter 6f Tectonics on symboléc forms, fr. 122. The mest fully developed wooden architecture with which we are acouainted is that represented ty Swiss and Tyrolese houses, formerly restly built of logs, lately with a timber frame lined inside. The strongly projecting patle roof, cren galleries, low stories with numerous windows, lenc to these wooden houses their characteristic appearance, that varies in the most different ways in each separate structure by weans of carvings of all kinds, due to the abundance of wood in Alpine countries. The rewaining wooden architecture of Cermany chiefly uses balf timber construction, the interspeces teins filled with brickwork; @ projection of each story beyond that next btelon, and the steer gatle roofs, characterize these houses, which - are best adapted to the North. These helf tinber tuildings with panles of brickwork, either plain or plastered, acquire a peculiarly pleasing aprearance when the decorative brick bonds are employed. He. HIXED WOOD AND STONE CONSTRUCTICN. Whatever may be said here nas stated in seneral in relation 9 yuer ol .oeaottoon' teat: fiom redeis Bed sdt ot qo eds te elletseqes {fen ately ¢ asd yiote taon aibfiod sit to sousts0998) fennetxe sd) -batedmit tan fines’ sottosstesos to sho bas elefteiss sit no abseg if tdgsote ak etnsueat® ,offtterye .kattciay sdt ao 24 ote aedoon si0q t9dttew yftasbiv’ .ofs .288t to aval : ord toe 926 book bas saote Hk mofsoattan0s bexia 1080 © ot botqebe ast3ed ots dod tad .eeathlited Istassc y) .ote .eotetontta (ste 10 esacod tis tesbom 22ers Sets cenliex (lene rot botive {fen et olyte bexts aidl pos actfowit: eit Lis ,sonk yttave> .soaved ‘axstestot Pasiivosy-« bee .eese bus edged #2 woor Batiaitd sat of ged [socl of baogeetr02. ot seeds ot asvis ad oOLoode 19d edt [itn sistoesidors asboon yleteq at elyts oeete etait b bus elsvitact 10% ~estotopise vIstegmet zt deyoisas ad a -2ee0g10g YISTOGMeT ootviettse seodt stot [srs . -bevorsz od oF ats | MOT EIUAPZHOO JATaY i ype cori #eso 10) tddeo7m to sgatbl[isd qtio vino side al @ @6%, ti osn07d) To ts00 ode To tnso008 1D -asitsiso0rea90 @keysore fod sods bas ,botseg oteaslo add at tre2ra bees fo x .etsttnes saz cD) .fetaetsnx (stctcotts Istosze s as oe foktootteacd fequsostiders atehon at s1as7 tastroywt as Sta verifier st ens200 aotk to sew svtecstre oor od? | wboe sabdiad ,anottidides (sacitensedat tot aaatolisd al is ,novk to soastateay 9d? dtin soceboo08 al .eases ofe 97 resentigel tovutstosrsds 3s syed Sigoda ff to eeun b@r 10 des2 to agotte dus eawolo> yi Sesetees ylterdo st Skeasd .eteed brs sisbiiy owt yi eeotte se1evacsi ,oovs Bane eiveom sie stoot bas 2liew ot? .abor 10 218d Jddeo1r i boow 19 gtaeess to sites son aoitwadsode ards to MB t9tOKt8d2 [et9q93 ed? .sasly to asvea TO ,soti dtiw nots a8. wos? ativess egetiitud sort ys Sozesaacy econtdarl 3 ose situps dotdés .sodsf bas isfrates to yuonooe 101- tte sai etotsrsd! seldtecoq eaclenouth teallsae odd sven padtt ot bis7 sd Oluode voitastte aael odd .atetonita ads Bouborg of Stef ed bloote st bas ,sousiseqqs citdatize Lea ‘4 ypaotliver efttrl ,eetutoutta [fsme to 9¢s89 al .tosite ano ri et od Jeon o1s> ,enotteta yerliat 10 ,.of% ,Ro8500 aobte3 a > aL to the half timber work ‘just mentioned. In many cases the btase- rent story has a plein wall, especially if the upper story is half tinbered. The extennal appearance of the building then de- pends on the waterials and mode of construction used, as well as on the peinting, ssraffito, ornaments in wrought ircen, over- lays of tikes, etc. Evidently neither pure wooden architecture nor wixed construction in stone and wood are suitable for mon- unental buildings, but beth are better adapted to country dwel- lings, wodest city houses or rural structures, etc. this mixed style is well suited for small railway stations, foresters’ houses, country inns, all the structures attached to the drinking room at baths and spas, and a-peculiar charac- ter should be given to these to corresgond to local conditions. This mixed style in purely wooden architecture will likewise be employed for temporary structures, for festivals and in sen- eral for those satisfying temporary purposes, after which they are to be removed. N. KETAL CCNSTRUCTICN. In this only city buildings of wrought or cast iron require consideration. Cn eccount of the cost of bronze it was hardly used excert in the classic period, and then but exceptionally as a special structural material. Cn the contrary, iron plays an important part ‘in rodern architectural construction. The most extensive use of ircn occurs in railwey stations, buildings for internaticnal exhibitions, bridges and roof tr- usses.e In accordance with the resistance of iron, all struct- ures of it should have a character of lightness; compression is chiefly resisted ty columns and struss of cast or weougsht iron, transverse stress ty iron girders and teams, tension by - wrought bars or rods. The walls and roofs are mostly composed of thin sheets, nben not built cf masonry or wood in combina- tion with iron, or even of glass. The general character of lightness possessed by iron buildings results from an endeavor for econony of material and lator, which requires each part to have the swallest dimensions rossible. Therefore the stronger the structure, the less attention should te paid to its exter- nal artistic appearance, and it should te left to produce its oun effect. In case of small structures, little pavilions, garden houses, etc., or railway stations, care must be taken ‘ | | Pee. ey ee yee v; i) | Sei cA OY SAP ata ; i Ae g fi ; my eres. ; ‘ ie on roe % : Sse | ener geo ot coals bus work dead ak at183 ste10906 oF -88909% tot sot af suso.od! e2bati ifs to atasasa soatdo ‘aelinte bas elf[sa wsv0 estqoceo .atnomynon .399 # wort teeo 10% afdstive ots antot wollod bas betsto ve ewel {e19005 .aott tdg0oam tot aboz bus e1sd ae z on0 aly 192 bilsy 918 aotmotos? to 33I bas bet “et JOOW JHA BATS HOTT TDHXIU -O Elaioes to gitisa ed yse etotonate 5s seeco yasn at -wtaoesa to allan oved asoo1t szzsl yiev acdt ynotk : gakteveo edt svrece: of Bees er Foon bas ,aotk to vigeca 96% bus so1udogige Jove af boau ef [siseyeu dost n20% Iuteostg bas s4atl sdf dtiw ateattnoo yioatasaly ¢t | y abbtyd snote svtessx ,efamexs 10% .dronmott edd 9 somite .eo3k taco to shen Tk cad? sootis azsfied s iz5 sot ehakblivd soaed ;x9tosied> svizesn & brovse pai fq stom ats asivtootte isfitia bas esisostayeseqoo easly to eben ylovitas, if asdt eeigagaay to efLivag | MATT CO TRANBDWAAHA . ro aoterets mot etfivee: selg edd to ddeaezasece erevi ‘“,Btteq odat bebivib sedvis acted sois nevta 6 . okt etsdveacd beknss1e ot6 aftas ac » 20 sbsoat edt tesa Ssosiq 912 emoot to asia A ie natotenst sit bas ,ebatfiend tasostée ort ascat onsero> sw .8ifiv s .aadod hodosted s al .temtst sai — sdt.bsas ,moo1 gakvif so aninesS .asoot taszi8f sig odd 9085 tarktt sds al .nedi ot songtster dsin 639 i ous booose edt at ;h0ibited sdt to 1831 of tuott soa? SRST .boagnerts ab tokietxe edt asdf bas beqoory saath oi mole boosfy 918 smg03 to asttsa ont , 190109 6 esiquo00 9¢ ag eins odd ts noot Isqioniag sdf zotvesl redste .staoit " vbtoses teed ysu es ,emoo1 as{Isue at bebivid ef 19egt09 Sixes erenis bivods enoor [satontiy to esbiee A -adnaustivos2 \ sesins , exathliod of{deq to eshsoet [eatoaing sat 2anols easito ots node fied sotel 6 eg betesst od od et stefo0tte Gbaealy usito ab sohiatoo A .fiad ods Savo1s beyuors od oF 976 | on esoot odd dotdu gd anoonm tetdo to aetise akdd batded bs “egg oat egnteltos. stf407 ak ssoteved? .alitassoos ; a qya09 eynibitvd [led af tod ,2897 of aos? sort ecorgeTs - srokietxo ov sofietat gott od {ftw tf ,eodomsto bas esassods > gol ph bP j >a a) Ps ps f ‘ Wa i +L 222 to decorate parts in cast iron and also to use wrought iron or- nawents of all kinds. The same is true for fences, latticed ga- tes, monuments, canopies over uells and similar otjects. Ferf- orated and hollow forms are suitable for cast iron, thin flat- es, bars end rods for wrought iron. General laws stated on ft. 150, 154 and 164 of Tectonics are valid for iron and its uses. O- MIXED IRON, STONE AND WOOL CONSTRUCTION. In many cases a structure may te partly of stone, wood and iron; thus very large rooms have walls of masonry, the roof is of iron, and wood is used to receive the covering material. E Hach material is used in suct structures and the massive mason- ry cvleasingly contrasts with the light and graceful forms of | the ironwork. For example, massive stone bridse portals have a better effect than if made of cast iron, since casting must : avoid a massive character; hence buildings for exhibitions, conservatories and similar structures are more tleasing, if ; partly of masonry, than if entirely made of glass and iron. | F. ARRANCEMENT OF FLAN. Every arrangement of the plan results from division or addi- tion, @ sSiven area being either divided into parts, or such p parts ere arranged together. A series of rooms are placed next the fecade 6f @ house, be- | : tween two adjacent dwellings, and the remaining rooms adjain . the former. In a detached house, a villa, we commence with the largest rooms, drawing or living room, and the others are pla- ced with reference to them. In the first case, the plan is made fron front to rear of the building; in the second the interior is first grouped and then the exterior $s arranged. If the hou- se occupies a corner, two series of rooms are placed along its fronts, either leaving the principal room at the engle, or the corner is divided in smaller rooms, as may test accord with the requirements. A series of rrinciral rooms should always extend along the principal facades of public buildings, unless the s structure is to be treated as 2 large hall, when the others) are to te grouped around the hall. A corridor is often placed behind this series of chief rooms ty which the rooms are made accessitle. Therefore in public buildings the errangement will progress from front to rear, but in hall buildings comprising theatres and churches, it will te from interior to exterior. te ess Iya ast oa? otte out %o ads hse Sis cisx at 18610 aT ay obo yas stobttroo edt gest of ,bodasyis ef oF 5 ott alobdce Sift aeathited yaea ak sod eldiveod ae ‘eels sta ted .ecc0r 944 of BROSO8 TOT svies eno ton wot ac {fon es ,eveel> sosonted elevtetat at eftae1 yd ‘hbehenatied ,elabow .24009 Snintetno> eeaso to nos Sobeultat oe esd doidn .sousttognt wst097> 2 suodee node sta jeoludttasy ci teol Beanies er 05022 .nely sad atit sin ot seaetts bloods sao stotetsdt ..ofe .2e Poekbltwd stidaz egusf Tr9V at bas ofdteser es sititl 190 > Sit mort Sotdloas1 ,bevebraaos 87 teow sutt te aeol en bdrT102 wd gatélted edt To @oafn Trozstit6 os? To sor ‘ on Pem0c1 tsdio #os9 1sen saaetre bloote so sonsd .ots h si08 notfosaned tkedt sisy OF bas .s5dtogcs aakanclot iT t bLoode eH .ofS ,etoora70o .eatets sisvizy to ansea yd it ptoau 28 afrw0s bus arobig1ed .esludttoey sdem of ett 9% eTedt mae yd yousysx°0 yzeiozmet tot eves of .oldte mtd ffs to patrolies ,etoor auelg dtin etio2 sdatl aaigas ‘ode ont eaattomos ‘erd? .berkvoo: sd yea ae estyeol bus fy Yo tusvehast1s to Oise ed yer sadt sousdioyur feon a , | eBOWTSITOR FO 2uorrde 22 ! ) y epoitoos geou> od¢ ,bexkt exe esttote to effzted 31 ee? .en8ly oft Yo Paowegnsrse. eds yt Osffottno> ore zyard is edt of woifeler s1otos#itote cxsbow to tmeq isitae fe mzot e6t sort vattiogst aseco [scotfqeoxe af ¢litro seat sas, ton yrova yne al ,eogogze7 Isfooye mort to atze yas og af eae sdf es ,fevel omee ont ao trodko a6 asifooeg aodw .29g8 Lanotiqeore ab teY wegatbit “Sedgid xo tenol obew exe efled osoe .yteansoea tt; sign > fod .%f ovods so nolsd todtio gaibastre ends ,ysote i seitts aietnvow at eo .ssifivosg sxe stke eat to enottrs poorg effeoen ofite 8 to aottsool Leatasbioos ed? .asii 18 ets geom ano eteds ,setsose to etasngyasi1s wtivoss f 8r end? .bavota ad¢ to 2ucksibac> seodt to sen teat eds @ otat gist bas. eolor [fe nobdeds of yuszaeoen axoosd [f{sn . s8 soely of [ntsze9 9d bluode ono #07 .aca¢0 (siosze. ott tu oar. aiess: ot bat ,fovef one sit no aidigaog ee arooy yosn zi : -ue30 bebiosd estiote to inci 2834048 PAUOD GMA aIIaAT 2A | 223 In order tn make the best use of the site, the plan is always to te arranged, so that the corridors may occupy as little area as possible; but in many buildings like schools, the corridors not only serve for access to the rooms, but are also occupied by purils in intervals tetween classes, as well as for recerpt- ion of cases containing books, models, collections, etc.; they then assume 2 Ssreater importance, which has an influence on t the plan. Space is always lost by vestibules, stairs, passag- es, etc., therefore one should arranse to make this loss as little as possitle, and in very lerse public buildings, the loss of time must be considered, resulting from the connect- ion of the different wings of the tuildins by corridors, courts etc. Hence one should arranse near each other rooms properly telonging together, end to make their connection more direct by means of private stairs, corridors, etc. He should further try to make vestibules, corridors and courts as useful as pos- sible, to serve for temporary occupancy by men, therefore arr- anging light courts with slass roofs, galleries of all kinds end logsias as may be required. This comprises the things of wost importance that way be said of arranserent of plans. €. SECTIONS OF EUILDINCGSs If heights of stories are fixed, the cross sections of buil- dings are controlled ty the arrangerent of the plans. The ess- ential part of modern architecture relating to the section is, that only in exceptional cases resulting from the form of the Site or from special rurroses, is any story not arranged thro- ughout on the same level, as the case in so many mediaeval bu- ildings. Yet in exceptional cases, when peculiar arrangements make it necessary, some halls are made lower or higher than a- story, thus extending either below or above it. When the con- Gitions of the site are reculiar, as in mountain cities or cas- tles, the accidental location of a site usually produces very peculiar arrangements of stories, where one must strive to make the test use of those conditions of the sground. Thus it may w well become necessery te abandon all rules and take into acco- unt the srecial cases. Eut one should be careful to place as many rooms es possible on the same level, énd to retain. the heights of stories decided upon. Re FACADES AND COURT FACALES.: © oBFTAIAT | padod ‘mk -297A089 « Onda ft bos metate aort bevizeb. ye ea Bt sbsost sdf et ~ooktrog ,Bnobain ona @1000 to? ekataeso sdf snot? on ) taomegaet7s sit suiateteb ylisqioaiz7 ..ofs ,ei9H0! ee sc. bas ,katditud edt to sonstaegat bas scoring odt .9b8 if gfao toa settups? sottsstzstostsd) sebsoet sdt to pxzct Gen tt tedt tod yaoitetet edt to dluser sot et rottetx9 odd yt seoquag beatteed edz of tosgast ytsvs at baogse7t09 ® bas alsiisten getblied to sotedo edt sictorsd? .esatos fisdtmreted aid? ditt. brocs totste at 94 taut ansot Lr S87e02 ofsethiodue to ylisrsm9y 918 aticco to aebsost igoftingsy ofat begoleveb o7e siicoo out sereo vasa of Strslisy qd bateto0e).ed yom avaoce ed? -adiow Lametoor om oisd bee enobuta xsd .atowot tiete bac s1iata ests vas yd ,tetad at ,ectstooot ous sito seten .89 iB taco ¢auoo 6 ¢edd boreduenet od of at dt Sod .oottes Sidtesog netv to gateg fosteid teom 943 woat Llow te 10 webisk s eseclons tas09 ody tedtedw of 4nkds0008 it estitty ot ds dona od team fosnogcetzs ett woty ent be | eoldteeod es einer 88 agkstosvas aa, ta J), e@20TIIINS FO sIWIa .2 t sod {fede on ,s§atbited Yo adati sat Gatdtisasb al ; Wee fv Had seridoth beh ebmeiges ri Sevyolyse tebic edd T Hite | » SRalolio? (stutloorzaa".t Byso & of Saefavtape aoksd'es bobrs2s3 od of g10 sesdk Bester since od stotsisdt fave ved! .teetetsié on satesy “Fesrzesd> bas [sc0f ot uted .sldiaacg ae elféornon 8H et wstosisio wf9dt sons .2bodten fetotogite Sire F to soltayoosb add yd bas .s0cs 185378 tsoq eeasarrely etottetersy betsvitles ¢i'to ,ataktbdvotrne Leds ilo fe sousbroo0s af eoftev Aufquota O24 tuere2eT1s trodf - Phe igéasoq dffs betoonsoo o1s ved? TI .adeitibcos fefkosge $e 1190 ebioeb [fim rstostedo Isool sdt .esecodarst bas eey basget ac betebtenco od of 948 ywedd Tk sos .89Ge769708 Lane | ee wegvasie s ,nersidon to estatee edi to ero Yo enesn odd of galotosoe eisiagorqggs od {Lin gokios79 “fern gatltevetg & To soestatxs odd ‘to Sao at sodd 349 rE 2 ;iseqe of o@ ,tetostedo bestitvio stom 8 ouveas zodt egghete qfoaols ot wsdt tip1sq of Sedi0vs 84 syauls tenn ps 8 feist aleast Seer ads anes ind vito to tat “4 Wi maw 4 Ww, 224 Ke FACADES AND CCURT FACADES. The facade is esssentially derived from the plan and the sec- tion. The openings for doors and windows, porticos, logsies, towers, etc., principally determine the arrangement of the fac- ade, the purpose and importance of the building, and the detail forms of the facade. Characterization requires not only that the exterior is the result of the interior, tut that it may c correspond in every respect to the destined purpose of the str- ucture. Therefore the choice of building materials and struct- ural forms must te in st¥ict accord with this determination. Pacades of courts are generally of subordinate character; yet in many cases the courts are developed into Bagnificent archi- tectural works. The courts may be decorated by galleries, log- Sias, stairs and steir towers, bay windows and balconies, nich- es, water works end fountains, in brief, by any meass of deco- ration. Eut it is to te remembered that a court must appear an well frow the wost distant point of véew possible, and that according to whether the court encloses a garden or affords a fine view, its arrangement must be such as to utilize these advantages as fully as Possible. S. KINDS CF EUILLDINGS. In describing the kinds of buildings, we shall here follon the order employed in Eankunde des Architekten, Vol. If. 1. Agricultural Euildings. These are to te regarded as being equivalent to a capital paying no interest. They must therefore be constructed as eco- notically as tossible, using the local and cheapest materials and structural methods. Hence their cheracter is determined ty tlainness, neat appearance, and by the decoration of their nat- ural surroundings, or ty cultivated vegetation. Their arragerent and grouping varies in accordance with their special conditions. If they are connected with veasants’ cotta- ges and farmhouses, the local cherecter will decide their ext- ernal appearence. Eut if they are to be considered as Gependen- cies of the estates of noblemen, a Sreater expenditure in their erection will be approrriate according to the means of the omn- er: then in case of the existence of a prevailing rural tyre, | they assume a wore civilized character, so to speak; still it : must always te avoided to permit ther to closely approach the | appeerance of city tuildings; they should remain rural structures. | j p Sdt of HSdostte egathifed Letwtfootr3e .2eitts at nove 99 8 beoore fon bloods se2eslsz Sne asltess .aensldor to to ¢katl etd? .soustesqyys \Ieaitetxe sist? si ytaobou janosd? to anesm odt ¢d boxdt of Mtv ytotsqorg bas saqt if etoetidors ott to gatioet ovitoutsear sit Ons S at estrofoetucenm to ebatd fis rotons .sasdt tot eA ro sdt sift sretostedo tastregaine bas ately « betfoe st t 8d bigode setwtoutte dome [fs ,sedtol> gatdtow at Siqticescon otuloais buoyed eemwttoaegzs (1A .s9098789098 Iked yoaow odt ,bebdiovs teed et eeentces to socerse978 as «-- -a8adtow ad¢ Yo Frtonad-edt 10% bebnezre tk rettod (BGS etuonottope7 (sioeze qs ysettotost 10% anytasb to¥ dae di wetinvoey antyolyne sot ytinviscago biotts .aaortib jotods [vtetes s siisost Bas ,awiot fsictfoasidore sig pat th Sedt o8 .a9fos1sd9o Jaobon tiedt to tasooos 6 sfq eagathbf{ied ssodt —_ oF soltastak add estaboo . _ etaeo stersbon to dass odd Qotved tou measlion to ctave yatanod @hatblind! set edt bea aatifewe sds dtodd antatstoos | og ,sldiesoy es ylately 2s betsett 94 bigots .200 WT .tloett eesatend odd ni boosla ad gen Lsiryze> elite S enoot yaivil sat qrote Gavotte frodzid 6 at atetaon yl BGs encothsd sit nated erote sozao aseol © si vasatbltud | aa97996 bas moktoottenso $rio2 .actsanstis tot sacet | fo ett Io etsonertupet tsid> sot sis thiotfaste Bs imas ots cizc7 bas sachs ys skatbanorzea teeeesl? .egeth aa. etovesbas ko yiitow aqoftetoosSs to aness as of islinke 818 ootvieg yIsteet0t sat tot sgatélias et seliuia of So9tdee ete ous 122800905 [sxutivotuge E 9d 257809 feist & oSD08TS97 76 fentetxs St nottsf{es ot £tibaos Laoos of aolisdgsbs oe Soc ,eefs sesdt sot sfj6a battes:> £ sedt svid tagts teds .bebfove si of si {fs 08 eS9EuOH yti) .f ; itedn ,eetiine? efgete rot agatiforxb starsgea ets saad? Nua fetoot tot asacod ots ysdt ro jex0elsy 19 eB{liv .aopdion rod t srs ged? +Utota goss af etslt sion i) 9n0 g0rnistace 10 bte {fs ao soxt feet ~2doord nt bLind axe to bedaeteh | a Biixino exbie estit to ont ao. es7t sie godt bas enor ak 616 - nbse it no ebaozsb aoktez0996 bas sonets9q98 sentetcs to setbab — w/ til ies 225 Even in cities, agricultural buildings attached to the seats of noplemen, castles and palaces, should not exceed a certain modesty in their external appearance. This limit of permissible type and propriety will te fixed by the means of the owner, and the instinctive feelings of the architect. As for these, so for all kinds of manufactories in general is suited a plain end unimportant character. Like the workmen in working clothes, all such structures should be modest in appearance. All expenditures beyond absolute necessity and an appearance of neatness is best avoided, the money being tetter if expended for the tenefit of the workmen. Yet designs for factories, ty special requirements and con- ditions, afford opportunity for employing peculiar though sin- ple architectural forms, and require 2 careful choice of them on account of their wodest character, so that it is easy to re- cognize the intention to make these buildings pleasing at a moderate cost. Country seats of noblemen not having the rank of villas, but containing toth the dwelling and the farm buildings of the on- ner, should be treated as plainly as possible, so that all pos- sible capital may be placed in the tusiness itself. They usual- ly contain in a highervsground story the living rooms and farr buildings, in a lower upper story teins the tedrooms and the rooms for strangers. Solid construction and appearance, as well as simplicity are the chief requirements of this class of buil- dings. Fleasant surroundings ty gardens and parks are the chief means of decoration worthy of endeavor. Euildings for the forestry service are similar to those for agricultural purposes, and are subject to similar requirenents in relation to external aprearance. A rural character is advi- satle for these elss, and an adaptation to tocal conditions, so all is to te avoided, that wight give them a cityfied &ook. 2. City Houses. These are separate dwellings for single families, whether for workmen, villas or palaces; or they are houses for rental and containing one or more flats in each story. They are further detached or ere builé in tlocks, i.e., free on all sides, or are in rows and then are free on two or three sides only. The degree cf externa’ appearance and decoration depends on their as) Pe Ao 399 ia Feecktabpwsde nottoutteso> bilo sasts bas sonedrogat ffs bus bedsores od et af yiotagorg sesteos2 sid. Lh. .e4 i _ shebolors exotoredd ate alstteden gaidiiod. to esate »sotesta a0ino .d9L7d 10 egot® Yo dates efieq: Lesret i ve tr 1ed% os0n 280778 tow bivodaveeved A; .er0ets9tni b aso ed ,gatbiivd etttcs ac taet of brotis aso iptqes00 i esousoy od Sluode commsoedidote to ofyie biloeyE, b1ot m re : 6 ST supiter009b tnodtin svt 3 981290. neddsdans 9d dd nk noktesoo9b oft sc? ysq fenm dasaet 943 .fetosmaot f satutes of sid etem tedhezetds 10% e¢sq:sodti bas vitiqnte rllaetretes diver: aottouiteccs bilos to wel sigess ozottxs atiod tuo Oskarss tf .etHtoetiders’ yio G08 of cu (squ00 taxit bisow ti-a0% .ctst-ts078 ¢ oF -dfnon merot nisel of ao eeuso bivor ylbnoces\ bat .elsiveden ask sgzs oiteisés t90 To sau. odd ni yuoncos tnotess9: ont — Sigtostinow besos s sidieseqni ei yuosooe dotdw tonsa jad) ,osevod 8 ot barobienot ed of tetrt ek ezonnots. tol Bi etneqsooo sit to inea sdv of Sotive sonsiesaqe bea fdw tvodtin ,ytibiioa gesiope sautt 2208189778 bs 10 acer ton aciddgasvi .sonsoitiages ieet om ed \* efnevestion atdd enoaned. avited 190d Of 24800. edt ac eoseysb) te1tt eancd « to nsia-adtr. OUR Oct mo od of 928 ewoot! Ke teddouw oo qiletoorze) .bs adie -sertote [exevsa 2moms Sabivib 9d of: e178 10: ,se0dt wile bsuerk to seve edd seliscms oof .gagesdoceense iieves ssoteseds [fin tI .sbsoe? efi senorras) sd. bas yitosta nt guote sfaete s\aedt ston: gawoco of sidered Hae. ot at sancd off 1. .gakifewb efonie s aniatio> segcd ) as etedn esftio sthas{ al sworrsa ti deaqesdo ad. ikie: ct May amis 002 ,wotsen bas ogre geroces-seood: does ,sseb-gisy rms das odf .telt ono Jesal)ts dtin dose: .eeitotesv0b 4 12 as kweteds somsbtez0e ai bobaet1s nods ef soners9775. Len Ou et ti ,z0ilrust Iseevee yd betagooo ,isdaer tot noegod at j fo? ,eetsota, ont af syif of doso: tot, aseso yosm of fh eetsote a90% sxivpes aett bivew cecod 2 foot. .usbresend percents ak eevod a6t fo nottarooed {se19txe: og. .eatlisat yloyttostts ototerestt prefg sdt détm eoasbiooos ck 22 | ett asd tean0 edt sealou .Sebiove 9J) bfcode sosla | eee... oo) Svebabbitnd sdf paitssat qloyiisetts o wh 226 importance and size. Solid construction should first be requi- red, if the greatest propriety is to te exerted, and all imit- ations of building waterials are therefore excluded, all struc- tural parts beings of stone or brick, using plaster only in the interiors. A house should not appear more than it is. If the occupier can afford to rent an entire building, he can also af- ford a solid style of architecture; should he possess les means, he must then decide to live without decoration. If the house is for rental, the tenant must pay for the decoration in his rent, and thus pays for things that make him no return. This sround lew of solid constructicn would materially simplify our entire city architecture, if carried out to its extreme results, which would te a great gain. For it would first compel us to econon- ize materials, and secondly would cause us to learn to'exercise the greatest economy in the use of our attistic expedients, wi- thout which econory is impossitle @ sound erchitectural styles Net richness is first to te fonsidered in a house, but a refi- ned appearance suited to the rank of the occupant. This refin- ed appearance first requires solidity, without which there can be no real magnificence. Everything not genuine or that is imi- tative lessens this refinement. The tlan cf a house first depends on the means to be expend- ed, especially on whether all rooms are to be on the ground floor, or are to te divided among several stories. A house be- comes cheaper, the smaller the area of ground covered by it, and the narrower its facade. It will therefore usually be pre- ferable to occury more than a single story in practice, if the house contains a single dwelling. If the house is in a block, it will be chearest if narrow. In large cities where ground is very dear, each house tecomes high and narrow, containing three or four stories, ¢ach with at least one flat. The entire exter- nal appearance is then arranged in accordance therewith. Even in houses for rental, occuried by several fenilies, it is usual in wany cases for each te live in two stories, for example at Austerdam. Such 2a house would then require four stories for two families. The external decoration of the house is always arran- ged in accordance with the clan; therefore effectively grouped plans should te avoided, unless the owner has the means for al- so effectively treating the buildings. s — Ay os or i ae ae We 7 ‘eu Li ip i uy ri ty: had _ we r i 5 , ', ly 7 i I j W/ tas 'e mottgeoet edt tot efdtezoq es sostroz (fen to sets 9316 meat ewobakw stom at aebtiuy fom qitseupoands , 91 jn Esaretes OS eseso ynea xt opmeH .amoor oft Saati of ¢2 b yeu ebesa oftente® .enobartn Fuodtiy begnerte at ao tas edt 34 tto257 ton ig atte enshy efiiv bequory qLenpestosotp) sevcoatn bnity 8! eds port tivees ¢elteido gacieascor ban ends sot % go too fool .ansévey détm botosunoo exe Todd sodtsaw abe yilssey dotdw .stte edt of 2arbt0908 isdt7ot One | betsety 9d asdt you Qnthftod ed?! .aataqvers ayiustet “bas .pdsbasisv ,a1owot riete ,awobnatn ged .estshol S$ edt sophst of .betiosteb e216 Istas1 10% esagon tI 19 SB doom es Ssihsost to dvbiw odd bane Oofyvos0 Sane 7 .30001 sit to atasgetince2 sdt 2ntnearel tuo t esd Stenpe sdd eonta .sidetetesz si [Ltn aslo sveaps f .efonto edt tyoore ,aete att tot at9fs9nr1eq Gest oel edt 2f ,sotte asfueustost soit siveer yilseen avery to sets edt of agtétog0s7 ak womiata sot bett re tf efiasiad feteteliuos as to seso sk -r0t fliv to enafy set o1s bshastes stom bre tovore ed? »feniatxs stisdt ¢5 Dfeode bontts+ arom sdt .seo0aiag pd ot moutaia 8 of Faoo Tisdt soubor of bettasd si sk tk | | aw ‘OSfdstided garS{rud eit gatise ,sldteeoy as ¢eldotvo-oa lot tin say? eattaerol? bfo sdt of actotez ono ,swit teeed ed tk 12 .enobatw bsdows taclaquia od¢ bas guroasa tseib odt dtiw ysibifos to xsl bauowrs ads of ot9dba i eoitio assbom af ,fetasa 162 ssagod taex2- sdz-ak as wbGe snote to elistsh ditw sosls7 ssu0d-9d3 to sat sit oF it fdw atditw adiall edt sis -sasd? .vlisetetes beretacig lag scedt oltdw ,et! taue seostsy tasate! odd god. acgts | 39 [eq [erroqark Sas Lsyot .yisontsd .ence197 stevirs cot @ .t0ntev03 yokiduget 2 to Yusbtaesa sid Yo tedt as [Law “bas ecsstsdo afett soate .atiat{ sesdt aseaice st vrev o eaoese: etevitg oltdn.,s#toasssoue sfsdt TOt dsbnetat as ad ese oted? ,asifkast tiedd bas asvisansd¢ tot bliss vi P@et escsle, to tetosisdo edt eogectint tss3 etofost rodso yosa a 4 parties ont das bheyolqas aisizodsa gubbitad edt esditesd Ne ag ’ ia. > hel es, ofl?T = a Y P u At 1 » r Ts Uy | Wet, fae aiatéo of at asttty aot dnoxestoos: fegtoniay 47, W) nf 7 (4) 224 A vrincicpel requirement for villas is to obtain as large an area of wall surface as possitle for the reception of furnitu- re, consequently mot putting in more windows than are necessa- ry to light the rooms. Hence in wany cases an external wall is arranged without windows. Esthetic needs may reouire this wall to be decorated to not appear monotonous, but one should not resort to the cheap and senseless expedient of erranging - blind windows. Eicturesgquely grouped villa clans with praject- ions and recessions chiefly result from the general location, | whether they are connected with gardens, look out on fine viens, and further according to the site, which usually demands a pic- turesque grouping. The tuilding may then be treated ty means of loggies, bay windows, stair towers, verandehs, and like means. If houses for rental are detached, to reduce the area of gr- ound occupied and the width of facade es much as possible with- out lessening the requirements of the rooms, an approximately square plan will te preferatle, since the square has the smal- lest perimeter for its area, except the circle. These plans usually result from rectangular sites, if the facades are lin- ited to a winimum in proportion to the area of ground covered, for in case of an equilateral triangle its perimeter is more. The richer and wore extended are the plans of villas and of palaces, the more refined should te their external appearance; it it is desired to reduce their cost to 4 minimum and to tuild as quickly as possible, making the building hatitabtle in the least tine, one returns to the old Florentine type with rustic masonry and the simplest arched windows. If it te desired to adhere to the ground law cf solidity with the greatest economy, as in the great houses for rental, in modern cities one resorts to the tyre of the Roman palace with details of stone and walls plastered externally. These are the liwits within which the de- signs for the largest paleces must lie, while these palaces are for trivete persons. Frincely, royal end imperial palaces, as well as that of the president of a republic, governor, ete., very far surpass these limits, since their chateaus and palaces are intended for their successors, while private rersons usual- ly tuild for themselves and their femalies. There are naturally many other factors that influence the character of palaces, but besides the tuilding waterials employed and the magnitude of ~ : Phe a ’ ‘ e ‘¢ ran sgt f atedaao atdsts beoab)es ed yftho a60 dotdw ,aoitelywon + etore gievtteler s snotewentb 19flowa: d¥fm2cae8 at | je -ofdreaog 8980965 -sintostidote 626185 to vd atts bas esoslay moonded sometTottih Isrromiag adi, oT eitetdo .aaetlfend ae Tedoersio siodt wk et Seat pe: sewobnte Thodt to Inontetyr eax ys @ esegod aezseont to sebos Bektsy taor sat yitassivd ‘%. edt oF Ratbroo9s ,etooqgaet tedso af sltie rere atin ssebo77 ayswle [lin seed? .2zo289. Leto . ‘ab wed? .beaidnos e190 ysdt dotdw oft vay ond of Bh ; ; sade ~@boen aeted taoretifb soatytoksean tot asiwtancs erettio eies exosler bre exegod to etutoetidots sit to ‘et? .a80e7 FapTstiib to stif. ta esbow sdk .erstos 3 is ead 4d bentetts dner odd ,feecqeth 2kedt we | te 18 to eoenbagds sat .ecorsihmcs otrentio sat .swengels eb I q) BR0t98T tedso bus ,delson [strodea ,notbon yert bas ewidts ,anotisbaent bos ssdsvodises es .aussn 8 [Yo tesoersto sdt souseltnt Lith ,.ore vakez cas woe laa tte 263 to euptvtbess .notsscite Is20f sas va flew as pee | eUtiLideteb gBeessf yo Totees> te Soom Sat do 08 qineesosn teen sit eaeb sedt “erit to agoai” sf? eat spuds at bas .batbIivd edt to somsessgge sat ogerd odd to tate ies oljessasv sis rob eanecwon eee ON eedomrta Le ies eifaosr fotdw bobiode od Bbivode [fis aesdonepocnT ) to satoresxs sdt rod eantdliod ste vaw? cowvoste nace anit sd3 tedienon.o} yluo beam sy ons aide re aesingooat ‘timo hones: {sorLozaeve ed? .snotaastoo bavot sods aik{ alaqgedd bas ,wayalliv bos: weitere wi. nodory r i T+ ~OtS attoslty ,alartyand 1949 a‘godaid .& “t } apcdepaa, dotuds offodied. sal ey f 4 yIstowso ee ) nied Sysninwitg. .o :eenoneds i Paga > “Yt > \paeefoausy rot bes tum $3 ated atid nas git Yo taemeszersitis ed? | jue nottexttesvat yd dorde. .etas509d5e to tedxoe Szexovs Br greobeinse 2he-totey 2 oktsloyog edd to. tae0 sex CC OF Yo yocovoot? sdv cov .ehurilowh to toenseert ant ¥ > seatininds ysdde toe atekpelloo .d :eta¢aete vo alse ft Benois oukt s4t et'sdo Ieztonits ie W, f 4 i; 4, 4 / Z22E the palace, the principal one is the time allowed for their c completion, which can only be reduced within certain linits. Hence with smaller dimensions a relatively richer treatment of palace architecture becomes possible. . The principal difference between palaces and public build- ings is in their character as dwellings, chiefly indicated cy the treatment of their windows. Evidently the most varied modes of treating houses are pos- sitle in cther respects, according to the requirerents in spe- cial cases. These will always produce certain results accordi- né to the way in which they are combined. Thus in different countries for satisfying different human needs, the expedients of the architecture of houses and palaces take different char—- acters. The nodes of life of different races, the materials at their disposal, the rank attained by the architectural dev- elopment, the climatic conditions, the ebnndance of a circula- ting mediuz, material wealth, and other factors , will decide the treatment of dwellings. Even the frequency of natural occ- urrences, earthauakes and inundations, storms and tempests, s snow and rain, etc., will influence the character of houses, es well as tee local situation, conditions of the site, and % the need cf greater or lesses durability. The “teeth of time” then does the rest necessary to change the appearance of the tuilding, and to chanse the splendor of newness for the venerable eprearance of the historical. 2, Churches. In churches 211 should be atcided which recalls secular arch- itecture. They are tuildings for the exercise of Christian wor- ship, and we need only to consider the evangelical and Cazhotic confessions. Ihe evangelical church only recognizes parish cb- urches in cities and villages, and chapels like those found in hospitals, prisons, etc. ‘The Catholic church reouéres i- 4, visbop’s churches, cathe—- drals or winsters; b, collegiate and abbey churches; c, perish churches; d, pilgrimage churches; e, votive, cemetery chapels, nausoleurs. The arrangement of the church must always be suited to the average nunber of attendants, which by investigation amcunts - to 55 per cent of the population, of which 4/5 are adults and iy ee tenner 9d¢ s0% shod9 sid 8 -:078 dofdw dovude sdf to % bs aneror edt 6 ;ytetsobe edd 2 .soustios dsj sot evan “a f ttogtteat tot escort ,ntesvettged ,sloiitasy yiseeeoea 8 | eabatd Ife to etaevaee sot bas ,ebyooes : b bebinark ed medtke bfvode fiotudo edt to osly edf, Yo. esos deet) sdtof gakbtoc0s 30 . 20039. ad, , a2 | ee cricive eooek to, sagnd. atied sdt oF gudéhroo06 Jeey. .etysenets Io ceo yd exer setevibh izon ai bettkrbos | t to nordecol qd .as [fen as ,@fogsdo .siodo of. auortEbbs it s% .atuensls seeds to eaaot odijyd viisnit bes ,e49 pias aslz to wottsatdsoo oft bas 2sfeis ston so. 9n0 détw fos .tddted [acps to eelete dtin doron {fen s gatoedors fo 6 asolifead @ ¢ilenki #6 .sfietrs olfbbiaw songid agin piee odd effuast .aliew obfe. ede at qa gic awodukw. ed be mot ont wd g5989 9908 oi bestibor ,gutblind edt to eoeasn jeassors yi ,zcuttotiat bas wskseiie: ,elogsic .2eitetvose bus ams spoldey stentbrodue sodts2 sit to bas.ahoor sav eeortsano> odd tka yr)ev {itm toivetol od! -esetted ghia 0 not staged 96f diin osls/yetioqjgs add bas antlivo, od? aie, ae anodnin edt to. taonteot? of bas donkh sat staa bas Sektikaktd teow, edt aacnetenuoufo {Ig ssdeQ, pod) ,s0t weviats od of ef eps2, oft af ofdevisousos toatis #xe otototed? -yuio{tud sot to toitetrs doa, sofryvetas jfoads..to sass ak slisaiybe efuo ak eflan to gntusfas 10 bebassss gatpiied s ,bsbser ei ysoneos foizse tL .ytie si po tot Lien gateqlous agsi orisos1 ftm asig Leytase po. eldesovst teow ad? af doY .asflg begeda acoso, 5 add toode ylao sd bigow Liew te. dixosf sdt,,.aglg, relsoric sigh odd somsh .sex8 Lauos to aslg axs00a,.6 79%, Fada assis | doxsdo 8 .sunloy ofisiebiacoo ati sot .i8913 3d, ton sale 8978 otk ot 3utbuoqee2s0> idgied aistisg s,a9qipo ipa -nega edd mo sbasqgeb yltetdo etuy bas .bediasy tk | oberg sysnts dorgvo oft, ,tustxs sidetgbtenco aft ei b> eyeris. hed eat To soegnesy aft,bns .akotdl kag 19ds0 ne dotde ,avzot Isiufoetidors odj at w2ehca13 aistis2.s nto elieses otek o8 of .anso {stooge doeo.od Baibi0095, nosed 1% mere yroedt begofevob odd of agnglad ergtoetcio1s doigso odie sey badicyeenh: tats oF hegagong goa ef ti dotdn ere) ae. | | @ edt of ebzentetts Yeredwus banos ot nerbLiug Ae”, %) ¥ 4, - 225 1/5 children in round numters; efterwards to the special needs of the church which are:- a, the choir for the clergy; b, the nave for the audience. c, the sacristy; d, the tower; e, the . necessary vestitule, taptistern, rooms for instruction, for records, and for servants of all kinds. The plan of the church should either be arranged about a cen- tre, be oblong, or according to the Creek cross of equal arms, according to the Latin cress of uneauai arms; the plan may be modified in wost diverse ways ty use cf transepts, vestibules, additions to choir, chapels, as well as by location of the tow- ers, and finally ty the forms of these elements. From its paen with one or wore aisles and the combination of plan and section, producing a hall church with aisles of equal height, e chuber. with higher middle aisle, or finally a basilican design lisht- ed by windows high up in the side walls, results the éazternal masses of the building, modified in soce cases by the towers, secristies, chapels, galleries and triforiums, by treatment of the roofs and of the rather subordinate sables, dormers and ridse turrets. Ihe interior will vary with the construction of the ceiling and the supports, also with the distribution of t the light and the treatment of the windows. Under ali circunustances the most dignified and monumental effect conceivable in the case is to be striven for, in both interior and exterior of the tuilding. Therefore external pl- astering of walls is only advisable in case of absolute neces- sity. If strict econcmy is needed, a tuilding arranged on the central plan will require less enclosing wall for equal area than @ cross shaped plen. Yet in the most favoratle case of a circular plan, the length of wall would be only about 1/10 less than that for a square plan of equal area. Hence the gain would not te great. From its considerable volume, a church always re- ‘guires a certain height corresponding to its area, especially if vaulted, and this chiefly depends on the span. In this way ty its consideratle extent, the church always predominates over other buildings, and the grandeur of ibs masses always demands a certain grandeur in the architectural forges, which must be chosen according to each special case. To go into details of church architecture belongs to the develored theory of building, wbich it is not proposed to treat here. It is now sufficient ~ Mi y TY ty : . ue . ee, 7 te i by ws ue I ef 4 Py," Se 4 Z 4 hs nie Hania ‘, bfted todto wort gabtsthth en estdtodo tb rosoeteds fenot dowd to tcewtse7dt edt at adhttoq ([etivoans eon ) @eenststt od? .btel et ebiee Istooge’s atin a0 etoos gio: odt to sometrosut edt Atk brotes bloods tasntedat petidows to ytstzey .elekrersa to yiifss9 7 abassed et at tysoed .vrsutesa base eieorsato odt ee ffay ee oy bebssors yitass ton ef worteto0ed af timtl atdtrss m ono soned jeu Satned eort eferbottss tse7e to A419 ott abate bee t9*0q sit eo fostts Bextesbh odt oschory of Srt Seldon efteted sat gntden .keviten (stetostidors sds ¥o fe ealtedeb at sortetodsls Ifs gutoavonss tod’ .bortin aa sesirstoded ob [fistntostidoze ro siteg sedtke ste aefistenso arsbol . WStescen owoe asin aoortaog ed bebnnotrme escola Lotrrd ‘geom ote yous sonre .eonertas [eyztontts sat 8 S208 ore weaoktevsls ao bas eettio wott soastegt amoe ts seedt sieto99d is abed? af owoqieg weds Ir yi fauslos Soe yttver2 ant biove od seve ffs bee’ hotts2003b bes tusmeyaéate Leth tw Betoonsc> eetntoowe serososttdo te telgsee of gxfza0 eyus to sonebresat ,efatyo7 -:awoflot’ as.sre astisits bos elstottto rot esottto ~fessd> .Bsetesd) 10f asevod. dsh°bae atofsvecrs ,wete10h \asayofsne ted edntficed .ans Neva gorvoeesrh dtiw ¢rastion ,exswolf to e{se rot eyode dows estistyey’ aya that aga 19388 vBllon serosa - ‘4 ; 4 lt m 269 sakeroseb teat Loarte {sttoeees ust s ston dy, By 220 to note a few essential foints, that determine the specific c character of churches as differing from other tuildings. The most essential portion is the treatment of church towers and roofs on which @ special value is laid. The richeness of the treatment should accord with the importance of the church, and depends on ‘quality of materials, variety of architectural forms, as well as the ornaments and statuary. Excert in rare cases, a certain limit in decoration is not easily exceeded at this time; the era of sreat cathedrals lies behind us, hence one must str- ive to produce the desired effect ty the power and orisinality of the architectural motives, making the details noble and dig- nified, but renouncing all elatoration in details. 4. Cemeteries. Modern cemeteries are either parks or architecturally treated burial pleces surrounded ty rorticos with some necessary build- ings at the principal entrance. Since they are most properly at some dgstance from cities and on elevations, their landscape surroundings usually aid and increase the solemn Sravity requi- red. The burial places are common trenches, seperate graves, tombs and family tombs. The great burial field serves for the first use, while the tombs are arranged in the surrounding rpor- ticos. Cn account of the sreat extent of cemeteries and the low height of the enclosing tuildings, it is desiratle for es- thetic reasons to treak up and dignify the long porticos ty structures like chapels at their centres and angles. It is very Suitecle to arrange the laerser wonuments and mausoleums to form streets of tomts efter the classic method. Forches at the ent- rances of the fortices, a memorial hall, a chapel and buildings of all kinds near the principal entrance for diverse purposes and adarted to needs varying with local conditions, serve to decorate these cemeteries. It is always necessary to extress the gravity and sclemnity if their purpose in their architect- ural arrangement end decoration, and all must be avoided btel- ongins to secular architecture. Structures connected with cen- eteries are as follows:- portals, residence of superintendent, houses for hearses, charel, offices for officials and physici- ans, dwellings for employees, foremen, excavators and gardeners, shors for sale of flowers, mortuary with dissecting room, cre- matory, wells, water closets, sardens, nurseries and conserva- G i Hye a \etostidous edt to waldorz edt ak Pies a impel: ae ini: ( Obi hn. 8 wegugogsays 6? ; Dickaateteuere ceud pateeqow, ‘detnsh tot vise, he é as. ,do1d> asttiaidd edt elfeoet tadt .s9dt at, badtovs p odd to etuonsts Isktneees £14 sasfy eaoro ot: Gilet t .eieotones -hém 0% woot), Sleittasy ; basen dd [Lie Ton ,Syeritese ,soospea‘menon ,zetsizocs One tier reiiso bas etesols teten ,daobiesig bes asttayebh 20% 3 ovis bos sonsstas Lsyftontag eds emrz0i slositasy agoks fe ibae. .cobon sit sot eetselleg ot rotbesl arisse ott of eidt sobeost ed? fo dreg Bsido sd? enzot onks ouse pe woo2 sds Herotae. et 3k sorg saego ylotitae nksnet ysu Seatonse od? Jtaow of teno sozt gathastxe ctese astm an } wot sdaomegaetis (stooge gafaicpss ufodo io bard 6 satopet.bas ,tinev toomgestt © of exattiaa Sotose odd ete tefatiods bes tides oft sot Ba00d .askdex0986, ott o0: feds ,eortteffeh ygsoo0 ayents bfuode asmo@ .tase edt esd at tags ed? bes teow odt ts sitiste rrottaly oat 8 Diss abeaa, aevkg o6¢ vod) sasm07.003 asdd stom tot. eda ope ‘bebastt6 vilsitoss edd, azideron satyth to efmenesio ats: P tertt off tasotitess gassibso sat 19 .aldsitus tear sido of neo sedd .gukddgil ossdisve ats yd oldeist tostidors edt 19t sigde deiiool 244 atosioa telaqqd sailisvertq on7. sbooumenss bas sudoasovs edt to)dasa qewilete 10% bean ed oF gino 918 e19no! eshlsood eqs De oiors qifeveass ose etekit caucd od3 ho ancitatnes ffs gaitsd angrot {sotatonosy bys toety ¢lao ,se20asorvs eds to sidbisiteet goiadot9 sdt bee .ssoint dodizcent: aa nen eizexed edt dived to Sfotdacdt bas wel sda 91 cougozenye te soktouttsaao 10% anoitsigges toiass Begeors ,#0itt bas saets fu to dlind ¢lerkéas ed of sent ond ojgue tot aqmwloo saode bag soiz9tat aft ot ort, tose 2 Liteso [etussegon shusmmeoa2 oale aslyad, epaitelisa edd. oe Lan ¥ 7 eas .t 7 nt a | } dats has adi s0% Baokiouatancs feiaoganea ous ,soeactt » aia Cae leh -obteteweg) dekust .3 bed bas. elfen {stnemuaem yd Oe¢ofoue sd bluons saadt j.. Me .aeveT: to is eaketroo enottoee ofat esett to ewos vi fii \ a rz ; Ne 7 o "s ve) ea , : < os Oe 1) a Mar: | , B aunties quseesoen Stavectvues of. jacchoeneueds , aoe, dtkw egatifss neboowiesiifen es sbatd {fs to atiagsy . ae a .. ‘efbbaetea Rurtevoo siege teyqoo to sea ‘231 conservatories. Io combine all necessary buildings in pleasing groups is the protlem cf the architect. 5. Synagogues. These serve for Jewish worship; hence everything is to be a avoided in them, that recalls the Christian church,-and espec- ially the cross rlan. All essential elements of the synagogue will be named; vestibule, room for men, sanctuary, rooms for rabbi and chorister, women’s Boom, s&sirways, wardrobes, hall for deputies and president, water closets and cellar. The spa- Cious vestibule forms the principal entgance and gives access to the stairs leadins to galleries for the women, and at the saze time forms the chief tart of the facade; this vestitule way rewain entirely open. From it is entered the room for the wen with seats extending from east to west. The sanctuary is a kind of choir requiring special arrangementr for receiving the sacred writings in a fireproof vault, and-requires artis- tic decoration. Rooms for the rabbi and chorister are toward the east. Homen should always occupy salleries, that require two tlatform stairs at the west and the east in case of sitti- ngs for more than €00 women. For the given needs and the req- uirements of divine worshir, the centrally arranged f¢lan.is.& mest suitable, or the ordinary basilican; the first beins pre- ferable by its overhead lighting, that can te obtained by a dome. Orcrley rejects the Moorish style for the architectural treat- . nent of the synesobue and recommends the prevailing style of the locality. Towers are only to be used for stairways. Repre- sentations of the humen figure are generally excluded from the synasosue, only plant and geometrical forms teins allowed with an inscrited frieze, and the crowning symbols of the tables of the law and the shield of Cavid, the hexasran. Strict regulations for construction of synagogues require ¢ them to be entirely built of cut stone and trick, excepting c cast iron in the interior and stcne columns for supportions | the galleries. Oprier also recommends monumental ceilings, i.e., 4 vaults of all kinds as well es wocden ceilings with visible trusses, and monumental constructions for the roof with the use of copper aS @ covering material. 6. Jewish cemeteries. These should te enclosed ty monumental walls and be divided ty rows of trees into sections contains rows of graves, the ai ohio prio neunsve edt Yo HE OY xd bstz0000 ozs alien yateoloas edt ts cobte taunt 1% if } exeob obfe {is dtiw ,y19Ssaso edt oF oonertae sat ’ ‘ek ebie asg00l eeddn .Pt0d0- 8 ofni axs70 ,s00% ire fo agetostiod edt B90ivtee avotgifon 19t Lfetiode aed bas qistetss edz to sores? edt rot antvica sabia yar 2: TKS STIYSIZ rot nOOT 8 SRitywoo seed? .eenogta3 : od? eerie eet gnidaee 0% woot © 2s [su 22s . teas oF b feun Ifed od? .3ey02 add no ylPoe1ld n5790 teom graven: $ at eyeunoob shin sestoost bus faes oF teow sort owed ) @& aftioo ad? dokiw danowds ,asbka teanef ett to .oldieeor ae vol es gaobh adibustso awobatn satel | anked ton ,ebfetoo sdf mort scivise sat sosbaos atd .B svad téom eyarblied owad? [f[4 .fisd sat wstes oF wmetientiens gab sbhanined) .sonstsex 7s Loitingth one ond Tes oe aLepeegts . 28S OCS a | estctblies Loadse .f ae | -afoodos .yrenisd of | ne Blootes. sseiity bac pieniag got evsead foonoe: last weeds botcozs eliistaaivacs ,bssoo1teros ylanie bes ylbiies eases. ous S3esTge Oa OF taqgory evsale al 1 .angb sduaso ieebuin oi''.ebte bast ttel edt ao vioo s0ei! eat tinbe od yaS aoomscen sB sd fas gatlios dt s890 30. 52a¢e2 bia pasteh etd? .so02 eenlo odd of tdRfi irehauds icuba oF fobotw yosw atsiuo tang tend .2aibliad eft ip sofsstedo 5 t nt beosla yffesenss af ifed onze! A .baguors bated sea Mis at ton ti .teomsead 96% at avtesanyd & bas y2ota 199 Metuzaitath yilastsitxs 4 Sisode 1193 seed? .s1c¢ogada o9 (potiss oasibasl ed bivoda euoot okwerd .etod¢o adi reat Bh bas 210% ot douse sth) ewoot Loodse soaks .tuait: diros Neat wi eacteesca2 Oae anoktoetors vifsuee 515 etets soit ) sree anana es betertiae of aatetio ydetedd nota. .a9id i -8figodee zadgiad .4:> : | nedara bus niccten lesa iaeeeath ,8Loodoa setgtd to8 ie: .siderteed et sonstesgge (eoredxs tadati s .aloodoe edd bas gaothltod act to enotesesib afdaliovs ausaz 3sd7 t oa: sted oels ef nektovxtese> biloég -Loodoe eds to inca due as od bfeoda. foodoe edt to 19fisdz3 ode sdgoweriones af aatisost fed od? e8viR orsdt. swoktoattanss 903 es fet apr cn a /232 intersections of the avenues teins decorated ty fountains. The dinnercesides of the enclosing walls are occupied by family tombs. The entrance to the cemetery, with all side doors for persons of foot, orens’ inte a court, whose longer side is occupied by the hell for religious services, the buildings on the other s sides serving for the guards of the cemetery and for religious curcoses. These comprise a room for prayers extending from west to east, as well es a room for washing the bodies. The room for prayers must open directly on the court. The hall must also ex- tend from west to east and reovires wide doorways in the middle of its longer sides, through which the coffin is carried, and large windows extending down as low as possible, since the rat- bis conduct the service from the outside, not being alloned to enter the ball. All these buildings must have a monumental and dignified eprearence. (Eaukunde des architekten. II. pr. 270, 284, etcseo.). 4. School buildings. x, Primary schools. Srall school houses for vcrimary and village schools must te solidly and simcly constructed, monumentally treated when this can be done. It is always proper to so arrange the class rooms to admit the light only on the left hand side. The windows sh- ould extend ur near the ceiling and be as numerous as possibll, to awit abundant light to the class reom. This determines the cheracter of the building, that must contain many windows, th- ese being grouped. A large hall is senerally pleced in the ur- per story and a gymnasium in the basement, if not in a separa= te structure. These tarts should be externally distinguished from the others. Erawing rooms should te lopgiand nerrow with north light. Since school rooms differ much in form and loca- tion, there are usually projections and recessions in the tuil- Ging, which therety ottains an animated appearance. 8. Higher schools. for higher schools, ¢ywnasia, real shhools and higher girl’s schools, a richer external aptearance is desirable, suited to the weaus availatle, dimensions of the building and the higher work of the school. Solid construction is also here the first requirements the exterior of the school should te as substant- jal as the instruction, there siven. The hall reouires larger ‘vor? ees PY SI 8 of Bbeel siotsreds bas enotawantd al ae tein tleotiertze of biota + ‘bie jhery at Se pate | Baca -(Iemolaastesg to yrsbn0e%2) .efoodes marl «Y * “to eeiwebece ,afoodoe otwdostyfoy bee e2iticteviat sb rete elovitelor edt errhp? sTootse teittid’ telimte f ac Soustroqnr thedt of gakb10d08 ‘Yottetrcs sdt to Wot pel spellon nistan> egutblisd sasd? .sekasbeL to back rey aia atacttto tot etoor .ffed testa odt . andor eesto done eeukt fx9091 al .esibute bes Bottsrodsl ,anvsain S enotbites to eoltes botoommos’ s ce boanstre ‘food over © Ott bus {fed toon odd eebtest \ermtonzte Cs3f>obey SK: | ,emoogun edt elisosneve bas anoor stetosl existrod ¢tno eseq9e at beosly ets stnositeqsd {stosqe bas esktots7o 8 p’ yffsaensy amoot o1ndo0f tobrsf oie bes (fed su? vesat 1 ba bolted sit sonta .sbsost odd ci anottostory Yo t2d000 ite Pelied tiste .asivditesy eat Vatobtr1o. anol esriopss Y ) tnemt sors qedott & wor ysfunt1090g0 Srotts [fed teane ts jee ,Bn00T soknerd -Baodeow osol’ sat yaottroq Lert¥aso dood ‘em007 sonbory stotstedt bus fdarl to Iseb tes71R° s hit te ogres agoTemGn .Bwobaiw ads neonted erstg worten a3 fu | isis 970m ,beboom bavorg To o518 Sud aesetont ton 6? pivent sednid aot emottotivent sesdt to endivaog svoe ets ) wort qidors ead? .deor edt asdt estiote S1om sates a0 WY .etoszaticpes ‘Tessten $43 sott ticass 2ngtesb’ b43soe7 tee SBed? wod bas Tedteiw ,peoHstanuoris Istosze" odd ao abh ot it bedasrts ed 30 dtvoo 8 bawots Ssquo7y od bLuodé' adnt 9 esiagts bas gttves® s@uebtsh to wéfeye & etter nots .sone7s9g7e fenistxe tkedd rot slisdive ayexic’ ste ‘{oteseds su tdiw edt gutters obeve stotersad oft a “esa00d stage bus boosted oF bet tue’ sodebitemden dnet fF at bexast1s ste ebotblted to’ ebutd to reduoa beber 4‘ Ds isace giod? to tagoo0e go ezsl ,sottsottieesls gatwol pevavere esod? veicossstupes saftate thodd! 7o% eedt’ (bee . | sancti tte Isqtoutag s Yo tetend> yltstoo tedt agatblicd .x’ gnoo ,ebaid {fe to exoot etshtbiodpa bsdSene0d S18 Motta mtbiiod ,eskasdors .efled g19d000° ,aguiblied evissreiisz igen yh ibaa al "pbatonet got elisa Boas 880s bd 233 dimensions and therefore leads to a considerable enlargement in plan, and it should te artistically treated in the richest manner. Y* High schools. (Secondary or professional). Universities ané polytechnic schools, academies of art and similar higher schools require the relatively highest decorat- ion of the exterior according to their importance as institut- ions of learning. These buildings contain college lecture and ~ class rooms, the great hall, roofs for officers and professérs, museums, latoratios and studies. In recent times such buildings have teen arranged as 2a connected series of buildings, so that the trincipal structure, besides the great hall and the offices, only contains lecture rooms and eventually the museums. All lab- oratories and special departments are placed in separate build- ings. The hall and the lerger lecture rooms generally cause a number of projections in the facade, since the building usually requires long corridors, the vestibules, stair halls and the great hall afford opportunity for a richer treatment of the central portion; the long museums, drawing rooms, etc., require a great deal of light and therefore produce rooms like halls with narrow piers between the windows, numerous large windows. To not increase the area of ground needed, more than necess- ary, some portions of these institutions for higher instructi- on require more stories than the rest. Thus richly grouped and treated designs result from the natural requirements. Tt depe- nds on the special circumstances, whether and bow these tuild- ings should be grouped around a court or be erranged in connec- tion with eae syster of gardens. Cravity and disnity of character are always suitable for their external appearance, and we sho- uld therefore avoid treating them with the cheerful and luzur- jant magnificence suited to palaces and opera houses. A large number of kinds of buildings are arranged in the fol- lowing classification, less on account of their special purpo- ses, than for their similar requirements. These classes are as follows. a. Fuildings that chiefly consist of 2 principal hall with which are connected sutordinate rooms of all kinds, comprising — legislative buildings, concert halls, exchanges, buildings for festivals, theatres, halls for dancins. gos boyastrs aosktte to baeoques giteid> exard{ioy .§ ncbiddae dest ‘8 G¢ia Befoeunoo sd you feds bas ates Sled ,esottto teoq .aeitttetete ,siled anos asstrgaes aka? Dioner VIwt tot (fed eds Wie ets Leatwira ,es0rtto Wi -2eitetoor tot abattiiai bas sontasco i to effed Istevee to dekenoo yltstdo eqqntbliol .y Lane -Basseem oatetsgx0o ,os0c1 rsff{sea ddin 4 5 . . -@aorsididse tie t03 exactblies .e99 pottio to ‘asoot tod [ist sort on aketeoo sgarbltuzF .4 ad> 8 dtin botoenscs o1¢ bas atobinto> sicjbe tedt ass Bs ecotees jausani saietiqeod jenoituiiient sasvolsned a). ‘spaoetag ,ssfieqtees Isotgofoods .euglyes batls 3¢ ee, seioantas BIatGirnd yrsdElit .s engeuod His : a0 elisd telleme nae emoot diiw dbetoenmco elish .2 p csifed sedxzem .encdtiste yewlte1 eptel dateiaqmoo .medé 6 Letatevboi vot exaibliud »setsctsviesnce vaeansdoxs teds .pektdanot- osnoid .etaia .esiissosisas .f Mgeed foauss 40% ,amntrsope .2sirotsvisedo .edéei .x oe -tealo yas ok. fm e@0sc09 af agntdd yasa aved bars yas to ayarhliad sdf asd f 910s ddsoudt Sdyted ct wbrosxs evowle Lisa Leqtostyy th fotos ,a9sxed Bas a9ftsi ise vi babavottes at .wrote vam gelfsue goetateiuc> astiote cwi 10 sae to egardiios s. J yeu agathitod ytots Gut seedl .esotito hae e1odky ay act T9V0 e@9teatuesetg aodt [fei en? .etroo hanes ag din toor sodaid s eetings: snilftes seoda .gakdfias dtix e@sdsors dtiw to Besofo gaisd sefiate tasol oad ,tol{ene es [Lor ac ,8949q99 tisds te ayswiissa Oge Se auth ibee 63 betcers ed yen colgas sé? .yicia s9990 Rtetoose 6 FGOTR Bids 192 sBooit10g yi dabavotiws antes Bassi3017 (stosqa 9dd adiw. sogsbr0908 af osielovab aysals om exabbltnd odd ls Lme / efoenetfasy to.esgu0k .6 pre elyosy odv one siste edd stedn taonetitsg to zoag08 ib s stisoey .Beiiagss odd bus giseivia ead ys betasaet Md Glest odt %6 eaentsory sdt Uddin sonsbroo0e mk sonozttiaysa t te Wettib binoda refostedo afedt dud .b2yoete axe yedt dotda epee. edt to sosleq hae to tsdt aoxt mnereny as doom f ' a2 - Lwin Af vl fe _ ‘234 8. Euildings chiefly composed of offices arranged around co- urts and that may be connected with a lerge principal hall. 7 ihis comprises town halls, ministries, post offices, telesraph offices, criminal courts with the hall for jury trials, banks, casinos and buildings for societies. y. Fuildings chiefly consist of several halls of medium size with smaller rooms, comprising museums, libraries, record offi- ces, buildings for art exhibitions. $8. Euildings contein no true hall but rooms of different si- ges, that adjoin corridors and ere connected with a chapel; b benelovent institutions, hospitals, insane; asylums, deaf and tlind asylums, theological seminaries, prisons. ©. Military buildings, barrecks, headquarters, arsenals, gu- ard houses. ¢%. Halls connected with rooms and smaller halis or without them, comprising large railway stations, market halls, produce exchanges, conservatories, buildings for industrial exhibitions. n. Wanufactories, mints, bronze foundries, abattoirs. «x. Eaths, observatories, aquariums, ctc., cannot be tlaced in any class. The tuildings of any class have many things in common. The yrincipal hall always extends in heisht through more than one story, is surrounded by galleries and toxes, adjoining it being buildings of one or two stories containing smaller halls, cor- rigors and offices. These two story buildings may be Broured around corts. Ihe hell then predominates over the rest of the. building, whose ceiling requires a higher roof with lower wings, the lower stories being closed or with arcades with vestibules and stairweys at their centres, as well as sueller halls in the upper story. The angles may be treated as pavilions, the courts being surrounded ty porticos. For this group @ special tyre is always developed in accordance with the special programme for the building. - 8. Houses of parliament. Houses of parliament where the state and the people are ret- resented by the ministry and the deputies, reguire a dignified magnificence in accordance with the greatness €f the realm by which they ere erected. Eut their character should differ as much as possitle from that of the palece of the ruler. Cren diet otecr Jovegun' hes ieee {eorstee s2oottt09 09 bas exso06 tuetaovnco ,gaohegss to bateol> b52 aniange yoke. sG9TssouId4 seeds of betqoebs eiyelooitis, ere e70 f stoatoons telauie © estupet esottto odd suickstaoo eka F a ~ »blise FIS9N99 ee | sete the Peenees ontefi e katetaos eyans! sneiit ( S bare 8 sotkupet bas alodm ent setsakuod fotin .cered pemoty .emoor eediols .eyenstete .esiuditeoy rusig nso 1 dtiw alseseodos tot alled ,otideg oft 10% evaeruetess sffed Legioutsg odé atotss, ,easiotesw sot atigta os ‘teun [fed sdt dotdw revo ankbliad anolso #8 absocbhotg- yf yoo dtin Bbetoennoo sis alfied tison00 sesat tI .otsnt 's sottositent act euoot dtin e2akw etivosy saak eadt o¢ toi enoot ,eiish cfecs telisua ,soixsidti mottos eat1902 ont t0 ono tgods bexesate Beisd eestt Lis jogzog ett of baoheet100 Sfoode [fan Treonoo ait to as Petotsieds binode ti bas ,vetpasely [ee0t to cusnyotrs ef Stexpanetiodnye {£4 .{ntisedo tne futooera tad. ,borticRzb 9807 aq efdt of ian yiset{[soeg stoteaeds ox ofeun ot eee). e_aboneb, tot effel .OL- , i bas @ aetsel tes dite wntoseb.xot [lod ¢ to tatenos ened? dastustess ,mnoon shensagty .evo01 eodtolo .ef{fed sed bs vlletenes ess esktosevisencs bas emobtsh -enpos bas sdueeet esgasely es. avise yloviowloxes egaiblios om 943 to eltsti euisose ved? .vetoessedo dutteedo. s iB geok: ‘Yo eleizeten aaibitnd to betouttecos |i ysmees ine ebsen edt of betive apttszo09) to edou. yas eatyolynxe Ptast tot enoftsso09b ak 287 3 Ratrelg. 19% bes- anid ‘ i yast ah botosse. yiisses.2s elavitest rot elds ghatoneh rot alles goin atasseiivoes af sbtogies eisson ef edie! edi geiysyne eloigs,to ease. ¢ bebivetg. 54 tens ecovesua Oas eofteiies, Jeniestze 90998. .31it to 952 £6 taow odd sot ovise alsviteot set’ elise .sfidstteso fetooaced aefto ois ,tneusevas base igea¢otus. tc ascoa eb sot sifsd wort gottib tad ,eashte3 egwesols eviecst b bebivotg od fanu, slyosz, to s9ds00 s9gsel done 2 gaceo94 a “4 etsctuob tavn bap euottididze 10? deau.oele-ef [isd eae ¥ eg per oud) .detd2El yLict od: bas gatolind o0% Yo. ence szides “8 obte oot to aois1oy, 19790 ods. at anobaln to eidaiiyie ant a yi eg [fed odt sitde -sldfesoy tr tooryet£t 94 sels Sluois bas a. ia, be APE) ys ‘ "ae | 235 porticos, external stairs and towers, where bells are rung at opening and closing of sessions, convenient access and corrid- ors are particularly adapted to these structures. ihe side wi- nés containing the offices require a simpler treatment. 9. Concert halls. These laways contains a large concert hall with galleries and boxes, which dominates the whole and requires a kind of basili- can plan; vestibules, stairways, clothes rooms, promenade halis, restaurants for the public, halls for rehearsals with wardrobes and stairs for musicians, adjoin the principal hall. This usval- ly produces an oblong building over which the hall must predom- inate. If these concert halis are connected with consérvatories, they then require wings with rooms for instruction and adwinis- tration, libraries, smaller music halls, roows for servants, all these being arranged about one or two courts. The charact- er of the concert hall should corresfond to its purpose, which is enjoyment of ideal pleasures, and it should therefore be d dignified, but sraceful and cheerful. All symbolisms referring to music are therefore peculiarly suited to this purrose. 10. Halls for dancing. These consist of a hall for dancing with galleries and smal- ler halls, clothes rooms, promenade rooms, restaurants and play rooms. gardens and conservatories are generally added. These buildings exclusively serve as pleasure resorts and should have a cheerful character. They reauire little of the monumental, tut may be constructed of building materials of less durability, employing any mode of decoration suited to the needs of the t time, and for tlaying a part in decorations for festivals. Halls for festivals as usually erected in many modern cities nearly coincide in requirements with hells for dancing; in teth must be provided a means of rapidly emptying the lerge hall in ease of fire. Hence external galleries and numerous exits are desirable. Halls'for festivals serve for the most diverse rpur- roses of enjoyment and amusement, sre often tonnected with ex- tensive ctleasure gardens, but differ from halls for dancing, because a much larger number of people must be provided for. The hall is also used for exhibitions and must dominate the entire mass of the building and be fully lighted, thus requir- ing skylights or windows in the upper portion of the side walls, and should also be fireproof if possible, shile tee hall for ee i i et ee > : 5 te ict ears a ee ae aa hed me gam - ¥ , a pe e pr ; aes : 7 laier Be aeeai ele Vat FELERiGUbtbees 400: whos ‘anit ehakbiiod oeent af .rdeit Ietottitas drie yieo bose ¢l on tot oldeztvbs at tt ,w gusto to onody ci ns yetevse } sdbk 1s9f> 8 sausood .erewot thete ot estista szactt0 oF 5 aot bas ,bertedmenet yliess at eatete odt to saomegaszis Puc st (fed ott to eesm Legtoatta ed? tect coaser otteds mae t « | ssdptod oaks to seeaen tekeela enon dttn ; eaettaod? ff. ode bas woot soastbos adi yd betsarwoh 928 oeedt: atk base ,seluorroinear ¢fistener ei soot soaerhos pwOotetae ,woluditesVY .s{iteaoy moda Soaestgxe ad bleoda iq eitsqe17 doidw ,aeen @ wt10t eyestiete [sytoetys bas ate peerod Soe eogrsife2 ast dtin moor sonorhas adt saotsi ato i Bed? erate bts edd af beosly $aed 018 enco? stantor1oswe t 8 e780 edt ai as ,atisoo ebufont aces Lenottasoxs ® witant6 to tedt ak sateasddgi odd to mst ssisds ad? .ence fo eno ef eexteed? yhamoo-hss aassod sisqe to: stadt a etitiidsisS (Isae edt To tanco0e ad ..sasalstissdo Bisods nottestis| ,asonsmz0die7 ods brs ati? to togosb 7 Gemacof .oldtaacg géotse teetes7y edd *datawese of daz Seeeneakh edt oF abndhesti0® Jb)as 131 en Smoose ak somstss eel: gortonttenos gork bas isnota stotered! .2ntblked sas | es sitsif es°boen sd bluods boow ba8 .stasa tokio ah .cottourtenoo easta sdf at ea slissaszetbat suote yi de sitl siditeninooutitad ytit{tiewsh Ilawa lo eafsie “iad to sotaédat edt af beau od vax .anegye bus coonte ' 4, etteltozety :sostrwsg. dtu .afted aekaeal: tot. nokioes baibooerg sdv ak botete sé Posag dtod tot segotg st .arowod ar atiste’to srszobnes Vv -2d0ese orvadrsd bos La 28 otthaash: OF gaktelot faotlodage vatdtyr2d yaifsers |d3 e1oted agobte) ecokde7oosb vs slistive Ti1sqy sdt aaitrens mecca setting odt tet eocrt1o@. se00 -Sistagorqge gle $78 sabasbbe is esitto bet idmey .Sr 6 dokdw ,ffsd feeb e:saioped aysals abarblitgd svasioxs et i factsttib to sadwon & es [len ae ,2atbLliod sdt sed ae ort: s@etsoassocs tedvo Soe eyseriets ,sludfttesy dtin .se2rt ns j a ee ctecrae ‘aodto wort soattarb es aoktestistoarsis wisds y : r af iS Th 236 dancing does net require lighting by windows, as it is seneral- ly used only with artificial light. In these buildings for fes- tivelss as in those of class 4, it is advisable for two reasons to arrange stairs in stair towers, because a clear idea of the arrangement of the stairs is easily remembered, and for the es- thetic reason that the principal mass of the hall is contrasted with more slender masses of equal height. 11. Theatres. ; These are dominated by the audience room and the stage. The audience room is generally semicircular, and its natural form should be expressed when possible. Vestibules, anterooms, foy- ers and principal stairways form a mass, which properly proje- ets tefore the audience room with its sgallertes and boxes. All subordinate rooms are best cleced in the side wings, that in exceptional cases include courts, as in the opera house in Vi- enna. The character of the theatre is that of dignity and grace, that of opera houses and comedy theatres is cone of srace and cheerfulness.. Co acconnt of the small durability resultins fron danger of fire and the performances, attention should first be raid to securing the greatest safety possible. Nonumental arr- earance is second as far as it corresfconds to the dignity of the building. Therefore stone and iron construction play the chief parts, and wood should te used as little as possible, cn ly where indispensable as in the stage construction. All mate- rials of small durebility tut incombustible like sheet zinc, stucco and ¢gyrsum, may be used in the interior of the theatre with perfect rroporicty. As stated in the preceding section for dancing halls, the ar- rangement of stairs in towers is proper for both oractical and esthetic reasons. Everything symbolical relating to dramitic art is evidently suitable as decoration. Gardens before the treatre, foyers and open porticos for the public, while awaiting the performances, are also appropriate. 12. Eank and office buildings. Exchange buildings always require a sreat hall, ahich domina- tes tke building, as well as e nuwber of different business of- fices, with vestibule, stairways and other accessories. For t their characterization as distinct from cther buildings, all S of ofeler tent .of¥edine ote efodays Sas ems{dae 1 icaaios 8. eottatretoaisda ated? ateqzt of ton aebao pAtioe aele bas ,bsb990x9 9d ton biuoda nottstoses to | edt @i sokts10296 bas .betebtenoa stor ed bivois. sott a bos dott 8 aedt .sbsat ot efdsagsotg alctresew sfliselay ¢.t8dto ot hetgqsbs tetieds ,elyve Isintostidore tasottta istasteo os yd betica ets egarhlind Sansicxe bas edasd Eiytersesas eviansaze qi Sestaddo yliszo1g teow ,seto52 af § 19600 begneite epatdoftog ‘to aburt to word, edt Bicerresre to todush oguel s to Seacgqmoo seied yd bors | ylao ,astossedo axotian ¢ agiw oas essogres af fi (fed stetsges bas syanttese ,eesfuditesy to scasatso2g Gdt nsdt redid stototeds ,gzote teqqo eft ci dsoaty yl odl .eanebiigds [Sodcecod!rehistes¢iiseacszsen 218 yod? giv sbtw es bus: yaen e8 erfepet yedt of eseso [saoitasoxs an: ewobatu to anor uaol gonad .alisd odt ai guitysors Peeuttemog ,z2eftots Lesaves sved sgatbliod odd baa: aes “A Ad -eukoesp9a Sne guemsesd sdt esdigeds eorrete cordt sot Boot bas edniffond .ecoktio 10% ofdettue et s9toensdo | ae ab Som edt tot tapmtesst 1sdott s ,asaegray tos Be, ob liga.axe? gti Ag bos “jtoosnreyp ctto odd. Rovesoitto odd Gkhtngs bash? 6 107 [fed sgusf 8 eetigaos ysds esobreod .asorttc ymsa obtel cals bas .sivdtisev Seiesariensuite revo! bagsly de es , dobbs ef tewotd’ B® aoass yoau ol .aqewtisis eve tiled 8 ovls bus eodttte)tedi ifof>.s atetuos. of, .9t we.) -fSmdoten oxft adv tot noo s Asie .sgod add ontd Pe 0006 194084 elevitalor giivost tewot bas I{sd sdf .weottto odf wgaste wsifwosy ati {fst nnot sdtsgnivir et pottiog & .eiiwos bayows bogaess5 wlevas..etabtx109 fiinego efgz0f aeqo to quooiss: 6 diin ofodiiger: edteasve stasessqe7 102 10 efusmeoueonns tot svte2 of \Sfed.eds to meno! ont odd Tot y9z0I1g osds ots ed! .elavidest gats90 -T98OT. Sat. I0:s9t3 foo .Beottio dgstaelas ,ag0rtto teog ,ssimgarast bt . S80kTToO To Fsnogueo yleritas geonle ete, egnkblind: dowk Pestope7 yiiscen xsd? e840bigo9 Kiin bas aetp0D snode bed epti90o Lsrevee esmtsenoa bas aslodivasy bus esoasises (572 8 ,botreten sd bioode tueuteett to sbos redo: 5 vipsone CTs re © ee? lie. 237 emblems and symbols are suitable, that relate to business; tn order not to impair their characteristics a certain measure of decoration should not be exceeded, and alss solid construc- tion should be wore censidered, and decoration by the use of valuable materials procurable in trade, than a rich and mag- . nificent architectural style, better adapted to other buildings. Eanks and exchange buildings are suited by an ostentatious cha- ' racter, most cvrorerly obtained by expensive materials. The Broup of kinds of tuildings arranged under 8 is charact- rized by being composed of a large number of simmilar roors for Like purposes and with a uniform character, only wodified by prominence of vestibules, stairways and separate hells, nost- | ly tleced in the upper story, therefore higher than the wings.: | They are nocrenneatiyssimtileritossthodlbbaiddigses,| but only in exceptional cases do they require as many and es wide windows, excepting in the halls. Hence long rows of windows usually oc- cur and the tuildings have several stories, sometimes two or three stories tesides the tasement and meqzanine..A-.plainer character is suitable for offices, dwellings and rooms for ot- her purvoses, a richer treatment for the halls. 13. Torn halls. i. : These contain the offices of the city government, and thus : many offices. Eesides they comprise e large hall for asserblies Elaced over the extensive vestibule, and elso large and spaci- | ous stairways. In many cases a tower is added, as already sta- | te, to contain a-clogk that strikes and also a bell for indica- ting the hour, with a room for the fire watchman. . The hall and tower reauire relatively richer decoration, thus giving the town hall its peculiar stamp. The offices need wide : corridors, usually arranged around courts. 4A portico is placed | over the vestitule with a balcony or open logsia opening out of the ball, te serve for announcements or for representations during festivals. These are then proper for the tno lower sto- ties of the tower. 14, Kinistries, post offices, telegraph offices, courts. Such buildings are almost entirely composed of offices arran- ged about courss and with corridors. They usually require sev- eral entrances and vestibules and sometimes several courts. Cenerally a richer mode of treatment should be rejected, and a. ery ka is? us , yy, ¥o silvia bifos bus évisees & Udin beltertcs s¢ Efvode snd at to ows odd yd bodetnguiteds od Bliods dolin .stutoost in ‘betertesoace ih ean: aaditaiadsh medots wis bas sd ali 6 | o8led167 asttekods bus aqols sot asagod .eoniasd .¢r hokage vot (led 8 atstaoo'yfistens2 egotbited sae ae retith yrov to teduod = ef Efen ge .yerota verge sdf nk: yektove Snevsttth od at boosfy bas wottcor9t tot ber ‘ed od¢ to ensem od? of sbaoheetto> tosctestt Lentetre P dtth .efdeors sstzev stotorwsd? bas .betoe7s xt tb ddétde Bed ost Ssttetostsdo ot yt bYvote on .enssu Fasdaads to ite betoeaa0 e8s eanibitet seédt noda oale ,rotasées ad? ® .etsbasiey .atde77187 yd avitsstts meit sign of , anh yltasbive ore Sas easts ett od bStifs ete elaiok ie oete ,nottesol atitedt doin sonshi0509 st boteet bne- par , “'.ifed Isqrontry 8d? ssnooed moor gakeib sat ommc’ ot esald?s eos avon y eeets ak Seos{s ebatbltcs iweev $299%9, GHOOT {eqisakia on aved gvileveo ved? sece ey qodr .etedto svods bstabeyniterd ed of sriupsy teus i eiled nt ewobatk on ,awobnitw eetal bas auyoxemen Seen p86 sd ysu ,estesol ape tse svad yoo ,atdetivde / tusat send [save r9 efdon « stispe2 bas, ecGoti+o3 ) eV raard’ a Stace tis ,pesttto bio094 uebaord tt e2agsen’ dL. tod seods $s ensfq to {etea22 of bkse sd yar. pee Kenoksoot tod suit to ebuticass edd a0 ebuszeh efit as ae ton vee 15 you eaofbhbitod saeds tedvedn ad onfs ymedt eb fe e108 "0 800 sysd yedd Yediedw 1 .e¢7b0o batots 53 078 etdt no fas .ertt mort ¢tetse +f stiekooes “bekdo MegeRonOn S18 yodt ,seogsay Ssiton Tiedt of sonotsies dtiw ‘Ve at noisoursesoo bifoe Oak incr serxtt-sdd Yo akatbfkad pesrotatos: qi motteroseb cafe tot .nodd TY oldetiog vi ied .toovze7rt elexviias of tegn ssottto brodsa~ weschtatag | » ott 2s sous ae erotrotes to tasuisoit obteitis® bseq fon 90079 Bkhd to aderoltus r.. att of: oabbroses qasv ffin anosgun To.tetosteds sal sisy to eaoftos{{[od .woddt at betkiidee bas besosiion pa J stoonseort tesf{doo att stinpst bas sasdyin ors yrevsase Aetebservces addin somsxe09q8 bettingth s eiebetioe 31g ass eee 238 one should be satisfied with a massive and solid style of arch- itecture, which should be distinguished by the arms of the sta- te, and any richer decorations should be concentrated on the portals. 15. Casinos, houses for clurps and societies. | Such buildings generally contain a hall for cancerts and balls, in the upper story, as well as a number of very different rooms, used for recreation and placed in the different stories. The : external treatment corresdonds to the means of the society ty | which it is erected, and therofore varies sreatly. With the use of abundant means, we should try to characterize the hall on the exterior, also when these buildings ape connected with gar- . dens, to make them effective by terraces, verandahs, etc. | Hotels are allied to this class and are evidently arranged | and treated in accordance with their location, size and rank. The dining room becomes the principal hall. Euildings pleced in class y have many things in common, bec- ause they usually have no principal rooms except vestibules, that reouire to be distinguished above others. They senerally need numerous and large windows, ne windows in halis having skylights, may have corridor-lifte logsias, may be decorated by vorticos,and reauire a noble external treatment according to their dignity. i 16. Museurs, libraries, record offices, art exhibitions. Little may te said in general cf plans of these buildings, Se ee as this depends on the magnitude of the collections placed in. them; also on whether these buildings may or may not be sroup- ed around courts, or whether they have one or more stcries. A ehied requisite is safety from fire, and on this ground alone, with reference to their noble turpose, they are monumental buildings of the first rank, and solid construction is not cn- ly suitable for them, but alse decoration by sculptures and paintings. Record offices must te entirely fireproof, tut do not need artistic treatment of exteriors as much as the other tuildings of this grour. The character of museums will very according to the objects collected and exhibited in them. Collections of paintings and statuary are hishest and require the noblest treatment. Libra- ries ere suited ty a dignified appearance with decorations by i es” Ten Pe. ae faluse bas erodsus Isqibutsy od& Yo steud bas eovseta eeum t2h .etored? bogasserze7 etaewdzs7sb ody of amive “yd bes ateltig,to atisitieg yd ostetoosd sd bis fd ferotsa nt anortosf{{[o> yetss eds to enokéssapasias 39% bos soastoe dads of dnenine aoa io efisitixo7 vd {foo otdgerzecdés ;6f10n. 664 to efzes tasdezb io. ano dled soto ,nem To se2e8t mateyot to enottsdgeseryges _ upghageal eauofyes Juoh Se teed ,eletizess .TL eanegiig , esi oo ak ats sved 8 r9b00 91s e001 auivien od? -begne1ts 938 sasdt | @ ef nottete edt stotsred? .acoits0g 10 golodssaey to ba moo .ehotn ebfe bas eookiteg déin yarblivi. Lex Siiersy ef (isd tacos od? wedaevre2 to agatlisud siz bas @t 04 welvotbesyxeq bas nottede devoid? 8 to sisost ade 9c sibddyodoffen ebsorsseueo. coil) .anoisedg features yewiftet tot arhfasd Yo Tosuels duecisos s espooss piadsnsdten09 to asitousseyerceosd sesat vitosapssmed ,doolo 8) syaticec dtiw yesaiu. .pofuditesv aredt. bas im@ohtysoxs suodtin Zaouls ose god? .ynesvea wilwosy 6 usadd ne a : 5). etuodguotd? .2iiad glove eudct' tor aparece See asenved tosls ,elisd sedisy atOvO2 aoTk to eowwtoctds fae] f4919 ah S42 andtsidia faniséxe tred? .cimo0aar ak enotitcy soe. dein agela Posts > bas ¢oaitaib wav esmooss ‘Serolyes aletaster edt yi Siciieds ,ssithavot escoid ,etate .estrotostuasi 208. i> tod... ovieasr yllense ore geefo aids of eaaibirod Lid ) bts 101 esitovost to eses. ed? .etilite 20} osometei' yl bfvode youom sdt,tot ,botstfe gdbesrls ag: ineutesat st090b tot aedt ,meatbrom ont ¢iteaad o¢ bgdssg 10,39 teow odt abetio of Qaiyis diton ef Sk deY .aotbfliod Byes’ -osathosegss evarsboa 8 atky sone tecggs t vee ieatial euntblinud eiste xo [eyom.o18 etati . 99050 rotfos af dasmisestd taohom ti neve .nokscnrseld pot bettotf vifezease ek aokisi0ossh sat .esiottaia +7 ated? .comdotem edt to esevod od bos eoteg soasites ladies to ehsed gd yileotloirye betasesige2 fisx si ies Ieotpolcos ,avolteops, ,eeisoisvieado ,edted ofS geition bas eolodiveey exisi sivost, esacod ated WL ar hs are are 240 connected with manufactories of arms, cannon foundries, exper- iment stations, these being related to group n. In external de- sign a large number of different buildings are arransed about an axis, whose centre is occupied ty the museum of arms. Fatt- lewented towers will serve as eppropriate decorations for such arsenal buildings. 19. Railway stations, market halls, conservatories, buil- dings for industrial exhibitions. Railway stations of higher rank always require large covered halls with which all other rooms are connected, or around whicb these are arranged. The waiting rooms are connected with large vyestibules or rorticos. Therefore the station is usually a cen- tral building with porticos and side wings, containing offices and the dwellings of servants. The front hall is parallel to the facade of a through station and perpendicular to those of terminal stations. Iron corréspondsnweitrtepthéir nature and becowes a dominant element of designs for reilnay stations. Consequently these tecome structures of considerable extent, and their vestibules, wings, with perheps a clock tower, sive them a peculiar stamp. They are almost without exception mas- Sively tuilt throughout. varket halls, plant houses and buildings for industrial ex- hibitions are in great part structures of iron covered with glass with some portions in masonry. Their external appearance ty the materials employed tecomes very distinct and characteristic. 90. Manufactories, mints, bronze foundries, abattoirs. All buildings in this class are usually massive, being chief- ly intended for utility. The uses of factories forbid a richer treatment as already stated, for the money should preferatly be expended to benefit the workmen, than for decorating the building. Yet it is worth trying to obtain the most pleasing appearance with a moderate expenditure. Mints ere royal or state buildings and deserve a certain distinction, even if modest tresiment is seldom exceeded. For abtattoirs, the deccration is generally limited to the entrance gates and the houses of the natchmen. Their purpose is well represented symbolically by heads cf animals. 91. Faths, observatories, aquariums, zoological gardens. | Eath houses require large vestitules and waiting rooms. Ihey | sunken peters isi TEL pele esatsagos | ) Beoasastingge odt [fe bas ,etasissseet .esbeneu ra poten tives saedt word + 9d? .zaottibace easdt to dstewss to sonstatrs edt vd bet eye efdbte edd at ,eoutt Jngtone ait aortio to auotisort2 ot edt bsonsolint vilsitasees »So0t199 susce7 edt Lite snedt sts eettts to aneig to esqys Isgtoart, ad? sooty Wie apots .J yenely bDesvasaqea yllesiaso .s -gaatwollor maee> t5e1sa L[eyioniay ¢ guols Begnsiis easly betsggels .o B at beoe!z yviseomw ,saelg dose’ bh sesoaly ontioddgren ont Seyitt mo ansiq usluatt3iass .9 yentstduow vd bebacowise esl qine todd efoatade tedto to odel ,aistavon’e teen iz festaso. to aslgusxd senortosqid esaat of cotesst med .mogmod patlred .eaneil siil eettio ¢es23 ob bu ents ftoswegaetts [ertaso ¢itoitts s.esttto osset nf Beh oft bas ,avottisass doatteth to asiderego sda aot? iedentbrodus yd bsitibor wesd asd asitio ceadt to norensy bums osdzet2 .2 to Lerbedtesiodd dita soost¥ auc? sensit e708 ody difin ertaeo tealoorlisises 3 ylisarird een eeesivive Inozetith sdt vette ylad .[eas sdoned sdt Saoy Masbeocborg asiz tefvotto eicwt is ese 3et2 s beurot-h2d 9 fe botsool .eeeloun 8 as agitio saetons bed ctlssd bas pano> st aise al .bebasqes ssitio edt doidw bavore mitaoo anil L[egfontty 6 ge0oed sad yrsdinetioflied) ds isda -gak ekted fo extaso sdf .tsorta 22063 odd atin eL3as Pedt baé .sxelsq blo od? qd ailie2 to ;ferbedise a6 ed baie < yoe772 ode to ebualet owt ao 2o1va90 owt utot Led aw eid? -ensly enots ao boaue72a 918 @etefo peidesW 014 | cg ie esttito sesd? saqsmod sit déiw etrrovst 3 og to sao af abedansd ~B9itro axedow gnogd .asdsy ytio = at bus 3todeaeA ni agehy 3nof to aoigaaco bart ail dodsen seaheie ne paeres a18 ecalg aol 019063 ak ’ Jigs fgets i 242 with the system, es for example in Carlsruhe, Hannheig or Chicago. The motives that determined the plans of cities were the fol- lowing:- a, the castle of a prince or a cathedral formed the centre of the city: kb, such a centre is wanting or consists of the intersection of two principal streets, senerally at right angles; c, the city is only arranged according to the chief 1 lines of transportation; d, the plan is developed according to given conditions of the site, which perhaps prevent its exten- Sicn in one direction. From these result certain tyres of plans, which are complica- ted by the existence of several of these conditions. The fort- ifications of cities in ancient times, in the middle ages end until the recent period, essentially influenced the form of t vlan. The principal tyres of plans of cities are therefore the followingy- a, centrally arranged plans; bt, cross shaped plans; c, elongated plans arranged along a principal street connecting tno neighboring places; d, sack plans, mostly placed in a yval- ley surrounded by wonhtains; e¢, semicircular plans on rivers or next a mountain, lake or other otstacle, that only permits ex- tension in three directions. Examples of central plans are fou- nd in great cities like Vienna, Eerlin, tongon, Faris. Yet ev- in these cities a strictly central arrangement does not exist, from the operation of distinct conditions, and the general ex- pansion of these cities has been modified by subordinate condi- tions. Thus Vienna with the cathedral of S. Stephen as a centre, was originally a semicircular centre with the Lecpoldstadt be- | yond the Banute canal. Cnly after the different suburtan citi- . es had formed a ring was @ tnuly circular plan produced. Faris and Eerlin had ancient cities as a nucleus, lecated on islands around which the cities expanded. In Eerlin the connection wi- th Charlottenberg has become a principal line continued at an angle with the Kénig street. The centre of Faris is occupied by the cathedral; of Eerlin by the old palace, and the tenn h ball form twe centres on two islands of the Spree. ‘All Wendish cities are arranged on cross plans. This was al- so a favorite with the Romans. These cities naturally have four city gates. Among modern cities, Mannheim is one of this kind. We find examples of long plans in Augsburg end in Freibtorg in Eaden. Long plans are developed from former market towns, whose wide principal streets are likewise market places, for 2 to ytko edd at ons dental weqqm at :18F to elLyusxe tetooos ont to noktopesstak 96% te detsool ,siniess tegae @ oad asthe besee edundoa owt efs eoslg fash edt al .eyel moented slaeeiaeg 2 eoigvo9o ytio Isqioviay odd oftdw to ts Met ‘it saftas s3008 a6 ta fooststak dotdu .27s ui 8 wt etetxs fy dose ody to. sfgusre- okteitesostatio 4 J : i atscasa. i peay ett sudd% wrot soderag jak uihaartbate Peddinot odt ao aotetkaon edt ydesdia sexds'-no. ot: bem 6 ylostt aso di tedt o@ yeltes> ont to enshte2 ode eltess adt besore bas 164084 9df to veilev odd anoles fee aot jeer eaotzsy ai boonbowg o%s eusls tefodstotas? . 1 rs ia od? .eisito ons setd .doteeM .noqmed .sng0lod steed pm oUt 3 bos blo sdt af A dotdw of isat ef sasit Yo args -yeoge7ty .esaeek .stoo’ ,emgolod ge aa .FO> .9tf .etho Hel ood smoved acidio odt If .esis uotdem to esidko: aedto ; ve yeaa ,eunetV ts es elody 8 wtot asidio ssa one bfo edt ’ rn endo , S00 ,s9ceTOLD) ~osb anes eno .noftstrozeusae to asatl Leqtonkrsg owl 8 tT sedzwive eik bas vekO dtoi tose zetat .sevit edd ae D,eaoldod te es seluae tdatit ie tevist otso sdf atsvao sted bewz0t.qiisuer ots ‘dbase i sizvioe ont .asosefend pet beqeosy at wrkowods. to celzy edt to .xtio blo ptoseteint ota doidw .mebrotenA to seds sdtl. ateorde itso .adt bel{so .tafoy Lertosos s nott anttsibss ate } edt paoolfed aaelg To: yaoms: test ofg cf .wshistems ot aebasot ed? .sotigso. yfeontay oF ogb sdastetie2; $o ono va v" ~gdeotte Iekbet Yo tea edt bedastat edutaiie? to yzto piedt Dosotsgs bas ofotto stelqiuo> s. stot Sisoda vastado to 9a: oa bas ,satwisdio Sdagsods sioerzsoous ard tsd ,mobhase 3 odd. dese bas dévoe ,deen sdf no Sebmadxe gino aed efit al .grsbaned azedtton sti. aacimzet desg. das Jeo eveh adi of olosteio faxvtes @ emsot sist baelab us +o neeo0 ieeette et-eclys% sianere 10%: .coatedt bsiscal eettia to teengqo va . ines atin oot Shge-agiaaengé: of. ti9:fetidused efi no 503 ay > eat9sazte harktosano> ‘a nthten edd to sao af nit od ¢onns> tsa? eettio: (ih: en ‘oat p kotfeciduos s ys beogboty ereniensly telagetts aaived ous ER weeebia sno ao nt bommed at somed aud? -:enoittbasa aevig sai | St yeatsinvoe to slotiovs yi isdto eds a0 ,sse sad ea eee fe time ‘ rie ” ite 7) J 243 exemple at T8lz in upper Eavaria and in the city of Steyr in upper Austria, located at the intersection of two mountain val- leys. In the last place ate two suburts named after the rivers, while the principal city occupies a peninsula between the riv- ers, which intersect at an acute angle. ‘A characteristic example of the sack plan exists in Stuttgart, developed inoborshoe form about its principal streets and hen- med in on three sides by the monbtains and on the fourth by t the sardens of the castle, so that it can freely extend only along the valley of the Neckar and around the castle gardens. Semicirtular clans are produced in varicus ways, for example Mentz, Cologne, Kampen, Munich, Linz and others. The general tyre of these is that in which A is the old and E the modern city, Fis. 403, as at Cologne, Mentz, Kampen, Prague, and many other cities cf medium size. If the cities become too large, the old and new cities form a whole as at Vienna, Frague, Dres- den, Florence, Rome, etc. Two principel lines of transportation, one being parallel to the river, intersect toth city and its suburbs. If a tributary enters the main river at right angles es at Coblenz, Fassau, Amsterdam, two suturts EF and 6B’ are usually formed outside the old city, or the tlan of the city is grouped in zones or rings streets like that of Amsterdam, which are intersected by stre- ets radiating from a central point, called the cathedral rlace in Amsterdam. To the last group of plans belongs the fan-like one of Carlsruhe due to princely caprice. The founder of the city of Carlsruhe intended the net of radial streets from the chateau should form a complete circle and surround the castle garden, but his successors thought otherwise, and so the city bas only extended on the west, south and east, the garden, for- est and park forming its northern toundary. In like manner the ocean or an inland lake forms a natural otstacle to the devel- opment of cities located thereon. For example Naples is erran- sed on its teautiful sulf in semicircular form with radial and connecting streets. ‘All cities that cannot te placed in one of the given classes and having irregular plens were produced by a combination of the given conditicns:- thus Cenoa is hemmed in on one side by the sea, on the other ty a circle of mountains; it therefore < et ’ 7 As 9 "y : J elie re ean i yt a ban over ban aodted out yettoedbes teatte (egtortva a est | beosowl ink gesf 10 stow cele ean 900% .ateoute YSIit eredto bas owstis2 .stgarey eitf soktro -ellid: ev } (Busta rytto towel aatel-wol¢ dae vrio soqze dorev Bl otaneres odd ay bases ,s%8 .uobed-cabat variussat2 fut ystto s Yo nokeasixe ods a9datd oels 2olostate’ Leioe72 ek Body ~skts?) at sngo0loo0d of ato? eat s¢ .an0ttserth’ enc gisalints $6 webs? ni gasditets fs .nilted ni notes? | Hy baswnae tio void toot seodw te cietcoon odd .eartho to sustov 8s safcsxre oF yrseeo°ss ylmo be tT tho epaeay blo teow to eusfoun ott sect estngode-fot fed ylbrsd exolis to aotestace easlerzzisg) 8 to ete | eiguia qisv ef efat ;osmoitas® delyz to says ype Peds sited ¢ifvesasooe ataetidedat edt tect toduecst on ifs to atostia oft bas ,efdieeoq a2 yisoearoo es' seorseot HI dove eebeen antessie teow ott cteivss of bagnerss stb esnom base aedotuds vi Seeastecy sien astke garoliod Lagvacd s@a0Ttecinersos to aséy sat berinisssd: ict iF ko easiz pokonsrse wb soagod to edoold relnyaetoss be nme to agelg to moiatwih ad¢ beneteve> wiisvac bos bso ytto suit node ,@eorteottitit to fesomss’ sat eo feves aefg fertnso sit: een .csitebaeoi blo sti bao agktss S1ot ods To soely edd foot foorte sara s bas , esate ti cola ens of pobenstoty efdeeesss otnt dodtsdo: oren Cokie 1 vite 60 ',snogt¥ ot seotta [aqytoakig ont ontur0t geve .s8itios fi staviay seoatt bas efokblied ci fing deow osssool e129 Ifettnerce vitro edt toirstosied> Of Feddeo" stkiasy od etstt 20 wsleaastost aedtedw .sef{y to Hrot afi tevxdao n09 taom ote eddold welogasioes .bes7Obs anon adoddd fetoot diin esavod eouborg ylino reds sorte ,2anrolind sot od *,begoleveb yltnetetenoo ei aetaveiodt tk [Ltda yastia ot } iw eolyasia? wastosteds yieetb O03. evogotouom « esmuree id BO mT0< srabagesdsbetinye eonte ,bebiéve of bluode elses" $3908 a 4 gedibeaeg- ely boot 8 stem wodlee aes ah ves | atodace eikt ueteys relagnetos1 od3 cochenuenieceeidto DD ywleas cutt yew owen ond at Sopmenre esittc te etreq 40 ,abso? b ode oved ukized at sadtse pewtdth eas) od baoots tet7eN0 1 2 od? ob of aetideb ano tr ,teol si suis doom tadt ,enatacvbs be 9 * 98 sonsteth edd Loves? tewe ed conte’ 20d e8it ct b ods | yas 10 aaiauahe ei satl bedtob od2 wedfedw [ektstsant auied si a i e wh Bs 3 q 4 , ya ” Y oe“ ~ ie Fe nies Ba } ? wer 7 rr ‘on R j a 2 vee a '" 14 Ms ake \ 244 has a principal street encircling the harbor and many ascending hilly streets. Rowe was also more or less influenced by its se- ven hills; cities like Ferusia, Eersgano and others have an ele- . vated urper city and a low-lying lower city; Siena, Zurich, §S Stuttgart, Eaden-baden, etc., extend up the surrounding hills. Special otstacles also hinder the expansion of a city in vari- ous directions, as the Eois de EFoulogne in Faris, the Thier- garten in Ferlin, at Freiberg in Faden and similarly situated cities, the mountain at whose foot they originated. Tt is only necessary to examine a volume of Faedeker’s suides telrecognize that the nucleus of most old German cities consi- sts of a purposeless confusion of alleys hardly belonging to any type of tlan mentioned; this is very simply explained, if we remember that the inhabitants necessarily built the fortif- ications as compactly as possible, and the streets or alleys were arranged to satisfy the most pressing needs. uch larger. building sites were possessed by churches and monasteries, wh- ich determined the paan of communications. Convenience requir- ed rectangular blocks of houses in arranging plans of towns 4 and usually soverened the division of plans of cities. Only af- the ecnoval of fortifications, when the city coudd expend bey ond its old toundaries, was the centrel plan developed in most cases, and a ring street took the place of the fortifications, which were changed into asgreeatle promenades in many Cérman cities, even forming the principal street in Vienna, on which are located most public tuildings and finest private houses. The entire esthetic character of the city essentially der- ends of its forn of clan, whether rectangular or triangular blocks were adopted. Rectengular blocks are most convenient for buildings, since they only produce houses with rectangular plans; still if the system is consistently developed, the city assumes @ monotonous and dreary character. Iriansles with too acute angles should be av@ided, since acute-ansgled corner hou- ses seldom make a good plan possible. Cities arranged on the rectansular syster like Mannheim and Turin, or parts of cities arranged in the same way like the ‘quarter around the Cens d’Armes market in Eerlin have the dis- advantage, thet much time is lost, if one desires to so fhom a to d in Fig. 405, since he must travel the distance ec + cd, it being inmaterial whether the dotted line is followed or any _ y1ow esd totetonons Y eievoutea od¢ Yo 1sfostedo odt dotdn uebag eaaots tbeeo a ued? aebteaaoo vitsiad Iisde of ssaad? i pieveloun od sekguooo gidsietesy istass0: eesadewd edt ; .%o tease odd o1sds sbdISq. 807. btenot ebssixs bas _ytio 1071 Eines sad3 es {low es .daemnqeve? wire eat bas eoldsatas Wet etivest soasd! .havot of of e186 scotiesivact otLigg. das 9a . earte [sqfoukaq esocgitcos teds .wel bivow [sosoukay Sbis teivo s190 ,2sottto ssemteed bas agods tot bexgeds, tod Pods i. -dtow feodostlogat bag; sonsbiapz x0t 3aks3. ateoste fige teed od ayowls [fiw, ¢tt> eat to ancktx07] Lacnstce al. poitsolaunnoo Yo ensax..sd? ti sopesdiess, tetted: gat. os of{y sds bas eotia sdgeamio,edd sonia ,203-O8160, yLr94 is rq Lftw adte) avevesw sdf .ba09 ofdd of deel stil [2107 | “anita ees inetys a0 ao t9dmsv0 s{iiv edd yd. beiqaooe ad i »etis dastey oz gatbtotts: abate srs380% ant adhe ef odsat olselodn One Sekuptosisasi - serosa eth anata [shoitizas bas. farvten of sono7ste7 245 other possible course along the streets ifs pursued to reach the roint d. In case of a fan-like plan like that of Carlsruhe, acute and obtuse angles of different degrees are produced. The same will result from the expansion of cities carried out by plans if rationally executed. Let A, E, C, LD, Ein Fig. 406 be five neighboring places, which it is desired to connect with a city as a nucleus. It will then be best to arranse five prin- cipal lines of communication to the different places, connect- ing these principal streets by ring streets. It it is desired to avoid acute angles, the vertices may be truncated and pub- lic squares be arranged at the intersections of radial and cr- oss streets, so that this again recurs to the block system. E Fauneister in his work on Extensions of cities, exhaustively discusses this and other ouestions, which do not require our . consideration, except as they influence the esthétic appearance of a city. The external appearance of streets and squares, the character which should be given them by the architect, tepends on both the entire plan and on the character of that quarter of the 1. city intersected by the streets. On the whole, one may distin- guish three principal kinds of the parts of cities:- 1, busin- ess quarters, 2, residence quarters; 3, industrial quarters. Eaumeister hes very cleerly stated on ¢. 80 of bis work the conditions under which the character of the streets result fron these. We shall tkriefly consider then. The ctugsiness quarter preferably occupies the nucleus of the city and extends toward the parts, where the seat of the admin- istration and the city government, as well as the rost inport- ant public instrtutions are to te found. Thence results the crincivai ground law, that contiguous principal streets are best adapted for shops and business offices, more quiet side streets being for residence and intellectual work. The external portions of the city will always be best suited to the better residences if the means of communication are pro- perly cared for, since the cheapbr sites and the pleasure of a rural life lead to this end. The western side will preferably be occupied by the villa ouarter on account of the prevailing western winds, affording the curest air. Manufacturing and wholsale trade is preferatly iaeitan With reference to natural and artificial transportation. Hertors, to nottscof ods to stimeo end emtusese8 axovis bse alnuss jo 91 ak basi oft to oulev toffete odd ,eesntsod efseolode $ 59992 stom to been edt es Lfow as etro edt to enateso7 fs feqnoo ,foktectaunr0> to sentf sess odd. to exsatsen ‘edd Yo etridedvo od no wsdtsop¢ antantostucsm 9dt to mots Pen 26 .ncode atte betosqaos elteou ,eeittenbdut reste yisd 7 gat tovo Setetissa sas (Leremss ai*sbort [isiet'sdt a NES MOR or eeFoRste 6 90 # fot yifeasaes (ftw ett & *eatooste edt orotetedt s. 39738 tilsromer eietosistio sisdtidotds dite esa¢t 49 ,aoidsoiaunwoa to senkl atem ,sisorte f{srtocie¢g ots ve eds to tueq 8 Qntbiv£d 16 rom10l sit. Qnitosrnoo © x2 dont exe vod! sayeli{s worsen gfilentt ome .2oeu0d to eds BS ,noitsotnomso> to etsorte .etse1te ooelsy ,etoamte ef | ) opis ots efeoste [eyiontig ed? .t00g-90t ast etoatia “weds no seteob os astia getbitad bas .sotteotnsna09 te to oso teod edt sf5n-of.s505d. petse rte obra sat ao gt esftote @ ao b sd. 0% Bkathlind sdt esireost vids on s9stod ot yd betgnoso elisido ef toot bayoTe od? § adverse isgtoaksy sasdt ,saokstoaco.[ss0l ot gakSr9004 tat Pte eaten sit to tanc0ss aD .2eecF to awot 1g9ot 10 owt mysters tow ose afsotte Lextomt7y svedt .tesqwe sit et bas eeeiietne1 10? yltetdo ore aseuad: 242. .ysotooe teed add ud 08d yldoin vd atuemed edéisem fosists ot yit e1enwo ated? | gt to eau tesd odd -ofstvod -zs6u0 nt stoteted? .esdsane? afds avods ,yiote ontaessem 6 o§aetT1e Of TeyeTy ef Jf gobiees elgate 6 yleo antaistaos yrote tasd edt bsosly to 1500.00? .ytote doso ak eteli. cad ots syods teen eat to seo so.enteessen 58% asdties yrs050 tfeomta ase b9eG) yldots edt to ogyt odd eetenterro: sw: stds, ol watslt pPeerta anid eat ao saon? od fl wtust 20% ssevod Istisie7 +. Ne ine: of etoowse isdto bas tensheiol .ssbatd edt co .sane alee ee. seayns to eselo vested sdt. to tetosrsado garftavesy od? -ofei dtix arobain yed to see sdf ot etetesoo atiusdiak [etnec oe. yiota bavo1d ods svode asogemme> wobatw ysdiedt eelyaszs pore et eviton aid? .ytote r9qym edt woled ynoolsd © 2s abas /ysd adt tsdt o8 ,zobia odd 2% edebasiev yd begofaves yLdors [feue s gcturot .yrose smoweeed odf otnt abastre ylisves wobnin | BEL ak zotizovis e1s tedt .ssepod ofdwob al «fied songatae * Ma Pte ere. . ecg ol .comzoo-daou sius¢dofde to sagys abetiss .zeing 246 canals and rivers determine the centre of the location ef the wholesale business, the srailer value of the land in the outer portions of the city as well as the need of more space and the nearness of the sreat lines of communication, compel the loca- tion cf the manufacturing quarter on the outskirts of the city. Cnly minor industries, wostly connected with shops, as well as the retail trade in general, are scattered over the entire city. ‘b. Streets. Therefore the streets €6f a city will generally follow certein tyres with which their characters generally agree. They are p principel streets, main lines of communication, or side streets, connecting the foruer or dividing a pert of the city into blo- cks of houses, and finally narrow alleys. They are further vil- la streets, palace streets, streets of communication, and the streets for the poor. The principal streets are also main lines of communication, and building sites are dearer on them than on the side streets; hence to make the best use of the ground, this requires the buildings to te 4 or 5 stories in height. The ground floor is chiefly occupied by the better warehouses. According to local conditions, these princiral streets have tae or four rows of trees. On account of the noise of carriages and in the street, these principal streets ere not preferred by the best society. The houses are chiefly for rental, and t their owners try to attract wealthy tenants by richly decorated facades. Therefore in order to make the best use of the capital, it is cvroper to arrange a mezzanine story, above this being pf Claced the test story containing only a single residence, then next above are two flats in each story. The owner of the house can himself occupy either the mezzanine or one of the upper flats. In this way originates the type of the richly decorated valatial houses for rent, like those on the Ring street in Vi- enna, on the Linden, Fotsdamer and other streets in Ferlin. The prevailing character of the better class of houses for rental in Eerlin consists in the use of bay windors with btalc- onies, certain types of which are most common. In the simplest examples the bay window commences above the ground story and ends as 2a balcony below the uprer story. This motive is more richly developed ty verendahs at the sides, so that the bay window usually extends into the basement story, forming a small entrance hall. In double houses, that are afvorites in Eerlin, b Sed200a00 828 Gtod bas jwobatw yed esi asd savod doss q sasttots [eevee ai eove 20 .esinoolsd qd yxote sasd seni etashive as. esitote tesusasd ad? at sonsmace vesatf tootte edt mort déed ai sacod odt sasde be 109 banot 916 atoorte eoeisy tedt wobloe ai st © ited otidug to cals ,eofdom bas avonttz to ssogleqz fo atl odt to offs bes sansiV at teerle guid edt to sasq A pasdto. mort wsttrbh sead? .eved denokinsy 94 ysa aiizs7 @ Satvil eatetaoo yloviealors ¢toda tasvsced ode Sand of i ntbLiud adt to rehensn sdt fo ascttto oft as Ilan a6 HB etV bas dis? st¥ to tiry e.,msbtotand at tdogiane7998 we n oitt yetseits sosisa beffed 94 yite3077 yex,sogs2 ot t eeoktio sktsf aadfo Ons efisi ai atserte pingeites got acaly teon af bowot ete eteotte «a llty oneqgo09 {sac oft qi Gosttetostsdo yltoito o1s .aet 109 esotezed? ¢f dus . xiao yLiuer elaote « yd eslliv betosish sietr sais ,gtote wertt & ons tugnessi-s oa ylancivedacsad cirdwosroisied? .n9b78k 8 vd bs Sema? tot agcthited tadztd yd berebtod os atsetts Isto is ofttil vuatgival bas teiep .wol yiteou sts siserté afite veg oi badasnoett stow ous ,etsoita sdt ni: setom yd bet ii w sat to tmont nk eaobts§ sd? .ooitessee7 rot gnidien pe eed wort we02 94 yluo aso esiliv edi ssid ,g29b ce aadto deeb To constss2qe odd 28d teexte sittas edd bas ,esdsh a9 9fq ,sedotegq bsetilsate ,2cortre7 cobte) .41909 8. at eats .290neatae rledd bes ellen sebteg wol 10 esanst tatootte to asayd seed? squste isifuess 8 atcotts sliiv sI to oto bortm sts dad .xttasg ot tuo bsitss2 nob . od doss ototed aebiss [feme s af etadd .asitis wasn wo ck bas ;atsofd ak titad exe yodt tk asva ,taarte -afofo .2qoda dviw etsatetie [stast tot asesod Ona asosley vn Sot oct to HotdI93 aigtese edv of es ,egafoliad orliag t tooite 19aksgisg to gasy/atedeon sdt at ,otf1s3 ai tes bed sto dzsq destese €dF sdotaoli of seoste astftaixs! oi a0 owbiitn sobideg vi betqao9o ylorksas seonls si doing oi tasits estas 2 «eiigaaden jogo. sacastesuaxis sasde tod wot ,egat vos - eint todt sot cies as st eyerls [Lin sise1te edt to retsetsdo Sova — siedd vqW290/oF soteny eyane [itw yitisew sdP. .adeszi a edt setea eudd bas 29kltast ono itedt yfao ddin asa ij ites ascateg 08 tel ad Lfte. fotdy ,30ifLowd dstaez set 247 each house has its bay window, and both are connected in the best story ty balconies, or even in several stories. Eays that commence in the tasement stories can evidently only be arrang- ed where the house is batk from the street line. It is seldom that palace streets are found consisting only of palaces of princes and nobles, also of public buildings. A part of the Ring street in Vienna and also of the Linden in Eerlin may be mentioned here. These differ from other streets in that the basement story exclusively contains living rooms as well as the offices of the manager of the building. The Heerengracht in Amsterdam, a part of Via Ealbi and Via Nuova in Genoa,may properly be called palace streets, like many streets in Faris and other large cities. Villa streets are found in most plans for extension of cit- ies, are chiefly characterized by the usual occupancy of the villas by a single family only, and it therefore contains only 2 tasement and a first story, alse it is detached and surround- ed ty a garden. Therefore while thespreviously mentioned prin- cipal streets are bordered by higher buildings for rental, the villa streets are mostly low, quiet and inviting, little affec- ted by noise in the streets, and more frequented by persons w walking for recreation. The gardens in front of the vallas are often so deer, that the villas can only ce seen from the gard- en gates, and the entire street has the appearance of a street in a vark. Carden porticos, trellised porches, pleasing garden fences or low garden walls and their entrances, ectc., sive the villa streets a peculiar stamp. These types of streets are sel- dom carried out in purity, but are mixed wore or less, thus in many cities, there is a small garden before each house in as street, even if they are built in blocks; and in other streets, calaces and houses for rental alternate with shops, hotels and cutlic buildings, as in the western portion of the Linden str- cet ‘in Eerlin, in the western part of feipziger street there, and in Meximilian street in Munich. The easterp part. ocf-Ludwis street in Kunich is almost entirely occupied by public build- ings, etc. Eut where circumstances develop naturally, 2 typical character of the streets will always te an ain for their inheb- itants. The wealthy will always prefer to occupy their own hou- ses with only their own families, and thus prefer the villa tp the rented dwelling, which will be left to persons possessing halls eae Aird! Or Riley MT eB ibs * ype ay, event Bi: mt ee ae ito. bas rin: gre rift aietonts cerulie aook qtio teddvons (ot Lsvoues soten isctteyases. @noin ,sroetss i ia “anoaney Us betietsad sisiuenp eved esttto. ysd 99 ‘etoarstory s to dso7e ner ead? :es0itsgueace ciet100 sieloraane *‘etetias as .etelLisasoo yvttt yoOt 6 om s gatbts! to agstacvbs sediist sit eved yod? .er000 3 ettic’ to evotalitasy {stntet eit ets bas sie to. so nesl 7 4 jetoonaca off To ynotonom sid Sautistai yiiaessely onle Gegtto. © To retosxsdo supsetieig odd of sour bos bus .2t Weren esteupe \aaolsscttidrot ys ai downed \asidi2 setlaes 1 tokdsotti¢act eit to [evowe2 adi redte osnisiso yLtaeup ays -Bsitetesaon bas eodousdo moh Baruest i af fanottgsoxe et [avesd eisda esttio ot asivibaool tefuoté1sy ts .& sarootte to ancitosareint .t -:exe contd Weieeecen o.tod ytexel & tom ef steuns sd¢ Gourk .azarb (fevett to seeetont ne od Setaqsos: ad team 3b. yhfo e{ovett 2estedus yao bas veoh Oos e8ed sare sual = gotfitt to tasoooes nO sesdoiwwds mse0 eetsxoe .t ‘gs ,sctviea eutvid to bye bus keinotgod ont 30 totato-e itso ,esdomoto otfodts) to saso ni enoieesaory toh es ‘x9 sldetebienos to eexsgpes bee yflsegeu asdatudo tae > edt to bas aredvasn odt te Ooteoc!l vyileues ek staune ! ~_e to sixs [sotsist.sdt emtot adsost Lagtoaisg ‘edd tadt fs dtvcs edt amols ebostxs coals sissp2 edd eens. 19fto al ma nts yrudassse bas Srodarored te es, ,(s. 20d .2i%) 8 a8 tod antvest «eebte sat anols abusixe calla ti exedio edt 10 ,sredierl ts as {49803 .ghd) sfhodo sad brides aq ie 249 level of the pavement. The streets then have the section shown in in Fig. 407, which gives a very peculiar arrance to Utrecht. Venice is often improplerly compared to Amsterdam, but the canals do not form lines of transportation for goods, but for persons, since the principal facades of palaces and houses lie on the canals, their rear being toward the streets. The sener- al aprearance of the Crand canal rises to that of a palace ca- nal in wany places. all alleyu in Venice are narrow, so that no carriages of any kind are used there. Venice and Amsterdan therefore form the must reculiar contrast. ‘Ihe principal ftoi- ats to be considered from an esthetic point in enlarging the . plan of a city, Eaumeister comprises in these laws; symmetry of groups of buildings, picturesque perspective of streets. and squares, well chosen points of view, attractive arrange- ment of the masses of buildings. 63 Souares: These ere intended to efford space for crowds of men in those parts of the city where travel is very sreat at certain hours. They have the further advantage of aiding a good circt- lation of air, and are the natural ventilators of cities. They also pleasantly interrupt the monotony of the connected stree- ts, and add much to the picturesque character of a city. In earlier cities, hemmed in by fortifications, squares were fre- ‘quently obtained after the removal of the fortifications by tearing down churches and monasteries. Localities in cities where travel is exceptionally sreat at times are:- 1, intersections of streets; 2, at particular tuil- dings. Since the square is not a luxury but a necessity in a city, it must be adapted to an increase of travel; squares too large cause heat and dust and may embarras travel. 1. Squares neer churches. Cn account of filling and emptying a church at the tesginning and end of divine service, as well as for processions in case of Catholic churches, cathedrals a and churches usually need squares of considerable extent. The square is usually located at the western end of the church, so that the principal facade forms the terminal axis of the square. In other cases the square also extends along the south side ( (Fig. 408 a), as at Regensburg and Strasburg cathedrals. In yet others it also extends along the sides, leaving but an alley behind the choir (Fig. 408 b), as at Freiberg, or the church is a4 -Setaloet ylostias ve “ plans Cement oro" esi#ia bettidaot sebld. B ehtad aon ¢k To aeeaod dgtw asbie soudt ao doris of¢ ” ) -(b.2 BOD »8t2) mela ody beomenlont sotdr .ssbte {le tdous odt banolfa {stbadteo aeitetrs ce to wtiatrors } edt odtf .etot {essonds as doxacs betelorr we ovta os to mokteoof sal sstaek bas aoverl to sodousd> spon att to tmemegasate sdd% Setoatio ylisrsney Iliad 08 etoted ted? ef stesoa dotoda tzentt bare feserel a e908 @ berinyes esefltass sihentes Saou .asisuoa ofves) «3 - aTsnp2 sftaso eft soash .ewetvs2 yrstilia tot stas02 See tewacoeh ati of yleteta tnom Sas teedoix edd eenso at .egathitod Leyor redo tk oo ot0m bos ,xtto sat nt efi bnvows betsool sus seraerdif base ansoass beso yitaespstt os afled wot otcted estesp2 of tba elzoaq edt tnusestags efi{ad anol .aysb cisatueo no Beeetsio ered .oste skas{ to estecog usea beosly ylisvan totic aot abnibiind ofstc .aaokascoo (stoege no slinouas pete taoq .moottsitdant [enciisoubhs redsitd ,adoecisd # qiferomey dgnodd .zeisuoe stinger woblee anceta2 89. vets s0% sgathbliad .eawsupe2 edt ste1tooeb of weds #ed bos esitbausl e@loodoe ,ee2zged suntan sittd .esottsta ftetenso .elied [eiqtenpbart ,clies todten ,aitotzeda edt ot snoosi bse sd bluode 10 earsu9e sutupsy ¢lls1a0s% jai Ascot edd to eoitse s Aton eid ai sovta as¢stomus3 tbat ylteizd sd ysm dotdw ,sessupa to engly to’ eaqys mo ) aefgas cautdo bas otuoe tin tom atostte ss0t wt Weosdo tiste hotntstio bstsonuxs 319 ascttrey oot .(§. fy x » to fo estes e4% S eo al of te es hontetdo ste egatbited bel in ,2o00 isluagasioes ont otiw ss{ture ors seeabfiud 219% io noitosezetar to yttisiexestt edt tnttagtbs .£ .on bes ows 376 stodd ,pofkan Saotstiio da bards 3 dtiw eso ‘aa mB a0acc% to sdoold edt tL .aafgeo snoretiib.ctiw wot bas Rea ' a59 toetetich {stoves .meteye telorxastoes eat no bepaes 5 re ie ) beasfiteda $28 eeanod to edsols etreoqyo ox? -.$ -19900 ut ef so .{&) Setecautd ets asfans bre toeatedak etestia ows eae i atpasta ont to anotaaets edt nsented eetl ezs002 odd a (te soacnotat ateotte wodx edasmegasise dtod to anctéeciino? : es ay ‘of toonsgns116 sd¢ svfg ,eelkas seatdo bus stsoe .sdben eS ‘s, a rth, ote PLAYA es > ‘ 1isdt .ainst ezasf $ste To quozg Yo sotefe @ to qgouso s ,flfeds sezef s Hisesy% ts conmotd sabes df edtl rswod 3 suil sinsouziea 1s ered? ,arstacot yatagns s.ct atsisuot tsivex edt {few .{fon od% ,f -:eatstagot 10 ellow to asyzyd tedso paiage ,€ faketavod getaner.odt .S .gchtyze. beeofones ‘rua eenottsaoosh tofen bas esdsoaso .) :gnistavot Gime Bitede Savor ylleuau bas Lsottisy o78 effsn presedd .t fenGand {exavee to diysb © of asuttouoe ,fevel seten add of GOt Foorescerzs owoe din got te dao cs dttw bodekwin? .tset 5 He E palfisn sot afedo bus Sodood 8 ylersn ,sedem od4 Bnteies wioud {fot odF t8H% of bem0t od teux 709 Lis sdf .dtq9b ai betasnegto ed yeu tofsadxe edi due .¢i oo t5a-si (se ab edtso esnotd edt sts. adz09 dove to eolyasxe tesort ont | da tetaheee 878 nam Soins, mi cose @*egoT sat to truco ck * | “-ullearstzs [saeksteo bas risa Lissitedteas betsess neve er tleast {fon edt to ftede sat ye * 252 gometimes containing pretty todies of water, conds acd streams, and they are much visited on certain days in summer on account of wilitary music, and their borders are favorite places for restaurants and places of amusement. Many cities must be satis- fied with promenades, arranged on the site of the ancient for- tifications, for the lack of such gardens; this is the case in most cities in Holland, of which only Amsterdam, Baarlem and Hague have their notle parks. Ancient ceneteries no longer used for burials are sometimes transformed into tarks. Flaces for games Bhould te arranged in cities as well as botanical and z zoological gardens, baths, places of amusement with palm gard- ens on the model of the calm garden at Frankfort, Flora at Co- logne, and that of Charlottenburg. One should further never n neglect to arrange seats in gardens end squares, as uell as ¢ cvorticos, where opportunity offers, that persons may shelter in case of rain and way promenade. Cnly monuments should not have seats near them, tecause these only afford too ready OCF- cortunity for defacing the monument. U. WELLS AND FOUNTAINS. Excert monuments, the most beautiful end suitable decorations of squares are wells and fountains. Markets require cleanliness and therefore fountains, which are now merely hydrants with 1 large tanks, their centres occupied by a pedestal supporting a large shell, e canopy or a statue or group of statues, or a structure like a tower like the Schéne Erunnen at Nuremburg. The warket fountain is a running fountain. There are several other tyres of wells or fountains:- 1, the well, well house, enclosed spring. 2, the running fountain; 3, spring wells and fountains: 4, cascades and water decorations. 1. Cistern wells are vertical and usually round shafts sunk to the water level, sometimes to a depth of several hundred f feet. Furnished with a curb at tor with sowe arrangement for raising the water, merely a bucket and chain for wells of small depth. The well curb must te formed so that the full bucket @ gay be set on it, and its exterior may te ornamented ty reliefs. The finest exaurles of such curbs are the bronze curbs in the court of the Coge’s palace in Venice, that are circular inter- nally and octagonal externally. fhe shaft of the well itself is even treated esthetically in 979 cote aniste gathukn 6 ps senttscog, 20982 aa0a jr 262 $ottoelLe> tot ateed s ates #i to.d19q,.19w0l odd (te bos Sotieg fsvesibew est of gaiscolsd [fea 8 fous 1 at yroddsi1t. at died atwol belleo-or. ads at nottoss $ ab botser sonseniesed odf aont siqaexs as eved on bas puierendi vega foed: #8 1eg0N0% edt oflsyas2 oknotad to tottoon tweluogts. to et usttel.sdt ntedo. s qd bobasgeue ei, deious, ods eoge> Jaor al , 24d betzoggee oJ tasn tlesdk yefivg ca! evoling § tevo nbows anit ste eovitos to astise « dns ,aenasm olds | ar eevik fosheavuse .secely yase.aci baisooxs s99d sved Beas s Yo aehisg et gaiylgqva ego .atedood owt.dtta iLson gisiy on? (2td. 429). fovel sowed a.ts toerte syssdto edt | . ite used saote ([stnostvod & da0qque eidiied. tessstIib gis edt dotdwot ,slbbte sd¢.ts: anoisiobs evits1egs6 qa joosb as bebbs ste afsniarws? seqt,esciy sdt,isv0 .Seaades2 18 ak toa 916 Outi eidd to glial .as9d sacosve ont to eno poen ets you! .setissvacson asiicitl to. ersssiolo: sds ax ead .egete [sievee no bossvele,exs Sas sataso sid fe bee J 3 } to bao odd dotdy ofat {fen.e of bodosiia 97 o¢ls. you Ls maplod e yd betroqgee gated boo asddo edd, iting 2i ea¢, zotdem yd -Tag0009. 5003. oF Sentzs 3d. ¥su svison aidl wifew odt basote sasz a6>.en0 ded? ecoiguszie ,gacl etivo Bmpentss f9d702 8 e0ef7, of eiisetyis od usdt [Lim 31,.(Enh BV al pengot od yeu dotde .selliy snktzoaqes att bus seed I Wd anota odt -ifen sds wort, toaster af [lon pdt. ht .syan | St doold eds otar isl godt ,msod acti as yd beoelysz sd skit ‘Yo [few otdte? etel Intposta yiov A .yeling sds adsog o afod> odt Saided aglesanyd sdv io J4u00 ont af abasie e2tudesiie ok, isabedidso a vi Seogbosg af flap ‘eat to Jaesaclaveh sedixet A aque ezohg ton to semis ovois dala antigvoo saomts | te sd gga dale agttevoo edt to stigeo-od!? -.yollugq senso eidé gakdeiagottats to evitow odd aetecigico doigu | —evode beosly efseaento aa [fen es ,waottibhbhs evitgtoo96 { asd sougeaisse? os eds. patnencote bas gontats ,2iaty ai tdagtw ys bevorgei: auted syitos sit ,allew dove yass > seatel of bezofovsd at Efe yyouse sad. to svitow eta? batt) soaudouite feaoaylog {isaa.s ai refoetsdo asitaie to s 253 some cases, sometimes as a winding stairs with open well in t the lower part of it beins a basin for collecting the water. Such a well telonging to tbe mediaeval period and of square section is the so-called Jew’s bath in Friedberg in Taunus, and we have an example from the Renaissance period ‘in the well of Antonio Sangallo the Younger at Orvieto, tegun after 1525. The latter is of circular section. Tn tost cases the tucket is suspended ty a chain that runs over a pulley. The pulley itself must te supported in any suit- able manner, and a series of motives are thus produced which have been executed in many rlaces. Sauvageot gives a beautiful well with two buckets, one supplying the garden of a monastery, the other a street at a lower level.(Fig. 411). Iwo piers of different heights suprort a horizontal stone team strengthened by decorative additions at the middle, to which the pully is fastened. Over the piers free terminals are added as decorati- ons of the stone bean. Wells of this kind are not infrequent in the cloisters of Italian monasteries. They are usually rla- ced at the centre and are elevated on several steps. Fut they tay also te attached to a wall into which the end of the beam is tuilt, the other end teing supported by a column (Fig. 412). This motive way te tumned to good ecconnt by making the bear quite long, arranging that one can pass around the well (Fig. 413). It will then be advisable to place a cortel between the bean and its suprorting pillar, which may be formed in various ways. If the well is distant from the wall, the stone beam may be replaced by an iron team, then let into the tlock that sup- vorts the pulley. A very graceful late Cothic well of this kind stands in the court of the Gymnasium behind the choir of the cathedral in Strasburs. A further developrent of the well is produced ty placing a strong covering slab above three or wore piers supporting the culley. The centre cof the covering slab may te strengthened, which originates the motive of distinguishing this centre by decorative additions, as well as ornaments placed above the viers, statues and ornaments; the German Renaissance has left tany such wells, the motive being improved ty wrought iron work. This motive of the canopy well is developed in larger designs of similar character in a small polygonal structure. (Fis. #14). anode th ae tan ont ante Tehale chee Gevodt .ofawexs aA a6: ten edt o79de CROsLSOH at steeY at dorsds edt reon + ioiite # at bal .fo19dd st# to too1 sdt no betoeflos adnate bated woitizaget sat .urdtato ett bawors ages J Rattosfloo edt otal awolt wisn bettie sis slide a *neite foes ts5n| S82 ‘aagoted dtin beflr? eootaaqo “sQtT af owode as etife sds danotdt eesy 189 teven y og? .eyete yd éfdtesecon $d yeu 4 inst bas F Locus ft to onoteret eit mort Oettogave et oisdos stedoud ads Peisnd sat Sus ateto ods to fdgkew edt e{fen yoob yrev al . poo ef ah anetds efante of of atads edt tot teeta oot he oY bofatitedes ei eeslbutw os .aiotirsb nr 2a coasd Bettosgee at eitdt bos ,bsaotest ek aftsio’stt dotdw ot jods ef Motown ,oixe 309 of bedsesis at [este kh .abatissd | A selice edt mo bavow ef mied> edt oftin . chest stot xd ae godt .abasd edt to tno suteatie ost [sede ait etmevesa » ‘sd mokes9fos3 esoitepet yieaitioen yd tetse to garetts MOTE: / slitasos ee {tert es’ st can etiey mort 80% oe 9 bas bedosteb modt et misteto sdt to asiesh slodw oft » I fan vial To sffotn' a af Beosfly ek 12 .antbiied © yd : etoot Sartostorg 6 ye rae tnteve © @rede beyofyrs yilewen ote eoenod [Lon Pat natyye' odf toot 8 seban boxosly at bao [Low 2 sd tt i. nofyepe sdf Feat oF guitairs Tot evias of Boeolons fOktaetts Stiopst telycidie} at eantzge (stomty .bovenss Z-ngbs7 efit gotite al .efnies sesdt dtod ct detoved s ‘Bs estéftuenp dove of bsatetio ef tefaw tod ¢ilserstas 8 Sutdatsh wok os Efsw' 2s eseo7tHy Lsoguono29 ast de60 Bil Pats at esdota as Seaasets ylleuvec ore eaniainvel sk f3n9 ab f b>: 2 .pdooogota vi bseolo ste 1stse tot ateltvo sat bus pak soten sdf a1sde baaasly yliet6ess 916 affed gutdgi {{eve silf bogasiss sis autstauot tot eadiesb 1adtO fae -ofart akasd smo sort ehuy vaten sdt¢ otedn ,e2atblted Oy {Ts svowes of 28 O6 ..9%9 brtdt s otat wedd sao reno! Bt geqo dvtw besfesv ets aniedavot dove .ysttoqut to as). Pete [f{ite das ,rotT9g [evestber sdt of Saoled . hte eno dh lah wate wet & -buSt8 ak ae ,gottio astf{stl (s1evee ‘hoasad bas yasnt9) af afers? cals ass w atess 9370 me to satenoo shih anid wot engtesh rsb782 a a ny “alae x ‘ aN t, ' ) 254 ' An example, though wore simple than the one shown, is found near the church ‘in Veere in Botland; where the rainwater is c collected on the roof of the church, led in a channel E that runs around the cistern, the impurities being deposited in it, while the clarified water flows into the collecting basin ty openings filled with bricks set near each other; thus only the water can pass through the slits as shown in Fig. 415. ihe ch- annel E and tank A way te accessitle by steps. The pulley for the bucket chain is supported from the keystone of the vault. In very deep wells the weight of the chain and the buckets is too great for the chain to te simply drawn up ty hand; in such cases as in derricks, a windlass is substituted for the pulley, to which the chain is fastened, and this is supported ty two tearings. A wheel is attacked to the axle, which is then turned by toth hands, while the chain is wound on the axle. A ratchet prevents the wheel froz slipping out of the hands. Then the reising of water by machinery requires progection ty a roof, so that iron parts may te as little as possitle exposed to rust. The whole design of the cistern is then detached and covered by a building, or is placed in a niche of the wall and covered by a protecting rcof. Well houses are usually employed where a srrins is treated like a well and is flaced under a roof. The spring is then enclosed to serve for drinking, so that the surplus water is removed. Mineral springs in particular require attention to be devoted to toth these points. In cities like Eaden-EFaden, where naturally hot water is obtained in such ‘quantities as toe be u used for econombcal curposes as well as for drinking and baths, cutlic fountains are usually arranged as niches in the walls, and the outlets for water are closed ty stopcocks. Special dr- inking halls are generally planned where the water is drunk. Other designs for fountains are arranged like small open b buildings, where the water runs from one basin into another 1 lower one, then into a third, etc., so as to remove all vesti- ges of impurity. Such fountains are vaulted with open rooms at one side, telong to the wediaeval perior, and still exist in several Italian cities, as in Siena. A few similar springs hou- ses also remain in Cermany and France. Larger designs for springs also consist of an oren tasin with e to dipift ud! Level bawasy vadgid add wort ntead 10, 1 ay eager 1 gemini 19 sfyaecs ‘ | . , sgSomsT edt to soagoe boldeo-oa ome ania setsert: bas e@liow eteteto sit asewted > ok. ‘DHepot sas ted efiew otlduy wobise ons dotda: att B yootqteo96 nobles sotetedt ems bus .gaaned stevirg eb /e3ta89 saods 3s infe ovota 8 vi bovevos aent st nm fe eb $1 selboed gekne © dttw boow to ylieweu .ausq y eaore Beat beteass add ab bua .mork tego To saote eid #380 8 40 .deomsavo Lentaret 27 bus $e. tie pit 26 duel .acteve © anitregque Istiges to atet vas sett #@ Gorisio0e} 6 sved yaa savy S09 to ofoosd sal “eat getgatne atk Sfovs oF setulov oii abged aort yd 3 “ete ater s offl betéert netic ,ivo7a afd rol | @ \atesh ont ebeste ..ot9 ,goxetb to eidalod ,aoil « 5 ed: sagiesd babeeely at0g ct tod .dala oneda bewollow s Pseeoto Sms guuz ous to esd odt.co Yaliges sev 6 nese part) (bevels et Lieg goten odd doin co 70d .38 setato sott witrs gideyionts3 eatedavet sarnanh 8 Jil aoninye TO afowbepoos aoisan vi betlyave keted ci SP hathr954e .tolteo ong edd todzin tiévreeas s sott esgis = 70 antstcost {fen wdtte ots yoat ,tcsmeansage 1hedv eis ,2tt00o af banely nesvto ara tomt0r en? .antedagot fstil sootory: one siacd, of, to daozt od? afb oakstavot edit evertidors aA (TER. o2f9) Lien sdf to eost ont ‘bezolsveb ed yen etdt ba .odois oft saterosed 2006 vente whoa —@taomtbe; ,aanulo> ,eteteslisg sitiw evo Mal. .tekien mt nottesgoeb yas 15%. 29990 28d afesi odd to mod & .ifsde s siti oetaswsnte sf 183 T99qu Sut ,fedsia sf haga sdt to sdatod o4% Js Gugowe beitss9.20te7 bead fasags sn o7ky oyTadoetd odt taentses s9d0is to seco nt due edt ak aatetavet sa? oven wae ot sateta @ din oetosa go to setteitose edt e¢ fLon es saoaleg astist io ' wesigroarag eaea sdf doin soas$10098 ai bemtot yfigon | ek bae ,asele aba hia Seteves t¢ ta bssogngo.2t ei aatesapot (few tf taovtegnsyts 2203004 sosa0ts dass do £ edola edd seat ca ,so8t pcos atoted sind § adohtads Sins: oe esha tanat ite - altos TugUsgesTye ekAs jeollsde Bin: wie alee ; iad 7 ay vd ia 4 255 a chnnel for rewoving surplus water, and one descends to the tasin from the higher ground level tn a flight of steps. A fine example of such a design is afforded ty Conauschingen in its so-called source of the Tanube.. - } Fetween the cistern wells and flowing fountains are pump we- lls, which are seldom public wells but are found in courts of private houses, and are therefor seldom decorated. The cistern is then covered by a stone slab at whose centre stands the pune, usuelly of wood with a swing handle. It is also made of stone or cast iron, and is then treated like a stone pillar with cat and free terminal ornament, or a cast iron column with any form of capital supporting a statue, lamp, or free ornament. The hendle of the pump way have a decoration at its uprer end by iron tands like volutes to avoid its swinging sidewise. Ee- low the spout, often treated like a rain spout .asnthe head of a lion, dolphin or dragon, etc.,-stands the basin, most simply a hollowed stone slab, but in pore pleasing designs teink like & vase resting on the base of the pump end crossed by oron rods at top, on which the water pail is placed, (Fis. 476). 2. Running fountains principally differ from cistern wells in teing supplied by water acqueducts or springs led through cires fron a reservéir higher than the outlet. Abtording te t their arrangement, they are either wall fountains or detached fountains. The former are often placed in courts, are niche f fountains in the front of the basin and project little from the face of the wall (Fig. 417). An architrave like that of a door decorates the niche, and this way be developed into a can- ory with pilasters, columns, pediments, etc., while the front of the basin has space for any decoration in relief. In circu- lar niches, the upper part is ornamented like a shell, a hori- gontal band being carried around at the height of the springing, and in case of richer treatment the discharge pipe may be con- nected with a statue in any. way. The fountains in the courts of Italian palaces as well as the sacristies of churches are mostly formed in accordance with the sane principles, the basin is composed of or covered with marble slats, and is sonetimes of cast bronze. Another arrangement if wall fountains is to placectheckasin before the wall face, so that the niche is shallow; this arrangement would be ouite suitable for the corner , een ne Bia) oh oe Arion ; ) is Sek sag. ae Puterkosthhveress at028 a8 Pls nktees atestta ons to oe3 sd of betysbe ylaclooiiseg ek taewsqaents Ortds A | 4 enna sot existe to, eynew to eQatiael sdt 19d bapa ek ,evots @ort betdatl ,abaoadedt 10 f ,sdotm betyelne ae as bebteges oF of 2i dotdw. ya aun qasarak betusv ed qlieses. ysa sooqssaetse to a9b val Mo. wokts10995. to elatemisy o6t of 321920008 batestd af ebakd {fe to sotiot: ofmk Sogofeved od yeux wales Sotew ok as ([fow se ,easdisa ocilssl gues o8 of it .petitoeista to ecottstisl, .somseaiened stsf edd io efob: .astew antéwoye aoregrt .elfede .elessain acizad ot (pottosa ope tmosanto oF ewaee .sencnslie ,ago2st> i eaooclsy. aea29) Ses fonstd to etsvoo ds eotiuevat.cals H \pogetstondoe ,iosoeease —balliser9V os tokze aotyou3 Ogetetannd )wetuombar0 weten etki otiv [oazsg 1698 saa pod vex entodagol boiosted to a10t seolyate sft. soten to seoduun edt agateod tedoid at .ealfew goog oo: 6 bes .bensetont sd bloow atuineyo satsdoeio ; botasy taom eff .(O8b .gi8) Ostosise od asly to ascot ,Bntetaso? teiesu svebiel edi at eidieeoy ¢listosges r309 8 10. T9tto dose evods aisis af voa,918 anreed goede yt ofdieesooe sd coals yeu ct2ai azqge edt .baez9% aro? {ecotylog beatduos tas ofanie boirav odd. eliaediva 7 To austaye sdt as ensfinavbs -booy of bag. sdogne (Sd iw of Qatbrocos yxsy cam bane ,eakstavot todses, doug | ,Bt209 qosfesy 10 ,afsoe ,pitsis citw betoeing> 348 | mod edt eshtesd baw10t ab aliede sazew.%o.guqey 199 : ‘pogtteb todto das seed? to moties029% 39 anuegge 24. setot [adgousnte qisiny 10 jasig .festae Lis ,egied taott dP stoten edd oF sone testes evad yoadé dé, . gid fextaso edt sebakd [La-o atetics: coved gen, afesd sad Puefoyneioes ately 8 to ayetemoo (fS> «98%). ahutayod aqz;is Roses © , Toten edt at eiteou .8 gdbod (saogeloy.1@ zeloatio. enki ed betat0c0b od yom bos ,eogty ogisdosdd.gdd ,paigtons ott ei atdt syodA softs .etoile: . 207s toxsdeoa ,eoddd @hsvode bas ,sois10y sonol edd to iedd ot) Oadihua, asia. diiv ggaond? .b teog youl 20 wreceo @ .ovTeta 6 Te3g.con Tadd. 399 nied od daon o7so yellede ro slearev ce bentot ied wee aucesd fenoled govt goose Tf evteess 907 TAdITS tos. ob yods gadi rt uoyE—19388 bbe oF satadnwot tadsen sot a9br otivovet aes L al : oe ie 256 of two streets meeting ap an acute angle (Fig. 418). A third arrangement is yvarticularly adapted to be ¢baced un- der the lendings of ramps or stairs for terraces, aquariums or fishponds, lighted from above, is to arrange a well house, which is to te regarded as an enlarged niche. These three mo- des of arrangerent may usually be varied in many ways, and treated according to the princirle of decoration of niche foun- tains, may be developed into ¢rottes of all kinds like those in so wany Italian gardens, as well as in water decorations o of the late Renaissance. Imitations of stalactites, tufa, slit- tering minerals, shells, figures spouting water, dolphins and dragons, silenuses, serve to ornerent such sgrottos, which were also favorites at courts of French and Cerman princes. Such srottos exist at Versailles, Sanssouci, Schwetzingen, Wilhkems- néhe near Cassel with its water ornaments, as well as elsewhere. The simplest form of detached fountains may te treated like purr wells. In richer designs the number of water basins and discharge openings would be increased, and a corresponding form of plan be selected (Fis. 420). The most varied forms are especially possible in the larger mwarkef fountains, whether t basins are set in tiers above each other, or a common basin is formed. Ihe utrper basin may also be accessitle by steps.(Fig.421). Evidently the varied simple anf combined polygonal forms (Migs. 422) may be used to good advantage as the systems of plans of such market fountains, and may vary according to whether they are connected with stairs, seats, or gas lamp posts, or an up- per group of water shells is formed besides the common tank. As a,means of decoration of these and other designs of foun- tains, all animal, plant or purely ornamental forms are suita- ble, if they have reference to the water. The front side of the basin may have reliefs of all kinds; the central pillar of the fountein (Fig. 423) consists of a plain rectangular or circular or polygonal ‘body a, wostly in the water, a second b contains the discharge pipes, and may be decorated by inscrip- tions, coats of arms, reliefs, etc. Above this is the base c with clan suited to that of the lower portion, and above is a cap that nay bear a statue, a canopy or lamp post d. ihe upper basins way be formed as vessels or shells; care must be taken that they do not appear too massive if seen from below. It is e favorite idea for market fountains to add water-spouting iis aes re ie j } aan tee (aa? to adichicl ioe move ,a90el7 olsetive at eeuiete } os ,elitss mort as qd aistanot orttie ent saoloas of {kt od ven [ker 5 ,9fftcy edt to ostae wh tess st ent i tno bsifetros od yer ness oct to stisy seozs0y eidt ae .8906f7 199079 vs offkTx o¢F of Homtot os 230 fb suse oft ovedt 29% .entetasot bas saistouot tatig2 .£ OF Ratan0s getnrsonce biee ameed eed Sedsy eutt seel to st0% pvise eldostiey yodt sed¢ sowetettkb eids ditw tos ,ants ® of Seyolons ¢lao ors bas ,S2097107 svits10dss elon esd thw Setosncs> aated ,setew aaiatstdo to ease s Iyga to wuot teolante sdf wetasiz stew to dett 5fo3 Bese Svsd eatot sefors ;fstache7 & mo [feds & to eteiemos eet sseqgu odd qd bet tewol sdv \xedto dose sve elfede } gen alfede off .ntesd ofgnta s yy Sebazottua 2d yaa ) aso ot 9d yeu efeteebes edt Ons ,elisde to eqnots ed tab) \enev B to ¢1s7 toWOl ods \wety deretesfo = .panetoo i. to prot sdt edss agatmoge ogisdoaid .segssalooe ) dd te besseqnc0o od asa to ,elaxine to adisom .esano!lt } ettteeor ot ebodWiel gaszeez: oat sedd tnobive ef 41 ot gaizze avon {few a sedt sectsitavet to jnenteess assert mt emo edz bas .d803 s to mroT od? aad oxof t to sesuta0o fott & .iebfsio teatoas os yi Hsawo1 fe .eafesd [[sde oafteoltrevo toisw to ensexts 9atel2 soten [ast sisx aouitemoe ,2gninsgo s3yvedoeio ts edsivon. ws to defanoo oefs yeu yoa?. .coretavct satage To tas gai srorgee peutetde vd bedweasanto bos beiesexd atess.2 of ‘yqous. 8 4d beeolowe od seviet eo sk yetfede seten woot 8 To wortetak edd [000 dbus séetTooeb ysa si 10 oy ak Istsemento ylemy ere eaistanot shs08s9) .>': if to esusfov sf{detebtenoo dfiie eitonw [esvtostidore ors f sfosd suo’ odhf Ioxatootidore yloten ed yea vod!’ .19t80 -gwob gatweog zetew to emgott)s tseTy ooTid-diiw , $207 Y bas ,dowe fedguutst @ etoles sietourte stif-stee \ferwtoetidows ae to soowt at 1) .mteed acktosftod «6 wort ,dtow dood [eroftitzs. 10 [siutsa betooiseaco ak sino] oo es mtaed fed7n @ ofai eodauy rosod dotdn tH etze7 » bogoleved od yew eetstasot sbscacs tou? 40007 da‘ tvet? t eteonsere taslz bre estets{uos yi etoomento “‘etsn Sofeetes A geen eb to mapas reer ed shanetent fies 4 ' .) ae Ate 257 statues in suitable places, even on the margin of the basin, to enclose the entire fountain by an iron grille, so arrang- ing it that in spite of the grille, a pail may be filled. For this purpose parts of the basin may be cortelled out or openi- ngs are formed in the grille at proper places. 3. Spring fountains and fountains. For these the same is nore or less true that has been said moncerning running fount- ains, but with this difference that they perfectly serve a pu- rely decorative purpose, and are only employed in sardens, as a means of obtaining water, teing connected with basins for gold fish or water plants. the simplest form of spring fountain consists of a shell on a vedestal; richer forms have several shells over each other, the lower fed by the upper. The whole may be surrounded by a single basin. The shells way te replaced by groups of shells, and the redestals may be in form of short columns, a clustered pier, the lower part of a vase, or figure sculptures. Discharge openings take the form of simple tubes, flowers, mouths of animals, or tan be connected with statues. Tt is evident that the sreatest latitude is rossitle in the treatment of fountains; thus a well known spring fountain in Rome has the form of a toat, and the one in Fiazza Navona is crowned ty an ancient obelisk. A rich contrast of falling and rising streams of water overfloping shell tasins, shell like mouths ab discharge openings, sometimes make real water ornan- ents of spring fountains. They may alse consist of an islet in a tasin treated and ornamented by statues supporting the water shells; it may further te enclosed by a canopy structure or it way decorate and cool the interior of @ room. 4. Cascade fountains are purely ornamental in purpose and are architectural works wilh consideratle voluzes of falling water. They may be nerely architectural like Aqua Facla in Rome, with three great streams of water pouring down from a gate-like structure tefore a triumphel erch, and floying into a collecting tasin. Or in front of an architectural background, is constructed netural or artificial rock work, from different parts @6f which water gushes into a great basin as on Fontana Trevi at Romee Such cascade fountains may be developed into extended water ornaments ty sculptures and plant ornaments in connection with buildings, flights of sters, tridges, srottos, st saottrtet et csgeeonenod ts bas fomoesasé ts as ..9%8 i. mee ds Pad - s@eliissiel ts f)) tse2 8 eittsbvanot od vss stint adt Saisolons Lisw od itd « sad? ,tAgted tmofottinn oved gaow does ovode .(dSS p etat ot steotew odd otai [fat tonaso ftsee edt no gakdus of anklkes cout wof 8 vd Senwote si esa yntqoo ect satasd edt to atyeofons oaf a5vo 2ardario sQ2t wh | «2PWEMOMON .V batty a ae ‘eaotts20s06 fastdqtty ods antedanot, iain aed? 5 ¥ ot zlno. oyed ow dofdn tol .ainsusnos sie gsaaror ‘tb & eees> Ife ot setdaouvaon Istdolsugee toa .bas {sitx0 dt evods beti0a79e ad gos tostdo od¢ noonted sbexyei no ; eaoitsbovct to easd sat ous ,Letasbey oat ,Isteebes edd yi betsezaws fosiia sat oF OnEdI0cO4 - eatosmogom botsfloet to abakd taststir60 Sdats, ¢trasals fo 08 20 ee019 s (enslino to ateienoo fooido off .f, s(mtite? .otodsue7d go tossuson) sintourd]e reno? eDottoqqua ef déeud A. oS sebosi0qgue. ef rentade & .£ ebedtouzva sis esaotgiaouwt > eJostdo odd ak suiste asitiasops 14 ..¢ pteebed 8 no shaste 22023it Layioatay sdk .5- Titec eneutsta ateatoiodge S 10 o nf Aly ehasotgdosd Isautostidots us sed toonsaos odz, X., st n@ agutete ed aokts1oceb .cisedtes ylotez afl 2.3 efasmocom tot siaesettepe vienizy ond eee et9db & tf bas ,e92a88 to egokticgoT] 5003 oved fanm yoqs dtod yleteagtrotal .3afeseiz 33 tenn eeatlivo trog od¢ to gatatexd odt soate .beitetice todlee w16 ei st sotybs esdet ed bas .fesutoeiidows-eltdgils got ai ad aci woidigeyzse2 edd to geht odd sec lac} iosdiqors gi tosngaos vedtod ods ,elquere sot asd? .bsbhiosd,.¢bs F a0 daste esmpgtt siaentostodys oat rtqogegastis af yt{uet io s Yo somesseqge odd ofodn.cdt avez Qa8 Lise aareols bSkGnO> tezit s ed bimode Fi .saaegit (sieved basse worew. gD goctsts ott todd (QSAR oat) sly sit go SaomeRas1 yas, to pieaaoss tnoagcou odé déiw bstoonq0> 9d yaw swoe af Qluoda's as fd oif{ eeotsta sdé (Is emyo at saongcom geata) ogt.a1. ‘ i. 90% bienot nobiosuih ons odd gi auidool ota tleamid .waqiud a pene: at fngmocon edd «tootte gatesoltau oe 20d dokde ,tase a etl i ashi 258 etc.., as at Sanssouci and at Wilhelmshdhe in imitation of those at Versailles. The wall enclosing the basin way be formed like a seat (Fig. 424), whose ‘back must have sufficient height, that a child st- anding on the seat cannot fall into the water; for this purpose the coping may be crowned ty a low iron railing to prevent one from climbing over the enclosure of the basin. V. MONUMENTS. Eesides fountains the principal decorations of streets and squares are monuments, for which we have only to consider men- orial and not sepulchral nonument&s. In all cases a distincti- on iswmade between the object toube supported above the ground, the pedestel, and the base or foundation. According to the object supported ty the pedestal, we may c classify eight different kinds of isolated monuments. 1. The otject consists of emtlemsl a cross or an obelisk, a tower structure (monument on Kreuzberg, Eerlin). 2. A bust is supported. 2. A statue is supported. 4. Iwo statues are supported. 5. An eauestrian statue is the object. 6. The princivel figure stands on a pedestal surrounded by or € subordinate statues. 4, The monument has an architectural background. wy 8, It is purely esthetic, decoration by statues subordinate. There are two primary requirements for monuments of all kinds; they must have good proportions of masses, and if isolated, t their outlines must be pleasing. Unfortunately both requireme- nts are séldow satisfied, since the training of the sculptor is too slightly architectural, and he tekes advice from the architectonly when the idea of the composition has been alre- ady decided. Thus for example, the Luther monument in Worms is faulty in arrangement; the subordinate figures stend on the en- closing wall and give the whole the appearance of a chessboard, on which stand several figures. It should te a first condition of an arrangement on the plen (Fig. 425), that the statues at a should in some way be connected with the monument proper at t. In the Luther monument in Worms all the statuss like that of Luther himself are looking in the same direction toward the e east, wubich has an unpleasins effects the monument is also not ees: las to stxs edt of eolgus. tduit te boiasasizo f tube torte .Faew of dass wott batonetzs . shi of (ellersg at de0efg ton at taomonom ods node .Sdeteks 5° botsbie ) ont otesbo7l to tedd oikf tleastk teette edd. to ofb i steotte edt to ebke 6d te chaste tos .atirs4 ated as bebasz07 ed teem stited ak teoaucon tell tdo8 eck... 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The Schiller monument in Eerlin must be regarded as beings ‘quite faulty, both in proportions and in its dimensions rela- tive to those of the soueare in which it stands, since the str- uctural masses of the treatre or of the two churches on Cens d’Armes market reouired a told and massive structure. The mon- uments in EFerlin most pleasing in proportions are Schinkel’s monument of the great elector and Rauch’s monument of Frederic the Creat. ) In regard to proportions and effect of cutlines, these will always be decided by the proportions between the pedestal and the object supported by it, and which rrescribes its plan. If we conceive that a cube rests on a slab and supports a ‘pyramid, (Fig.4263), the proportions of the masses viewed diagonally a will be comrletely changed and may be unpleasing; had we drawn a cylinder with height equal to its diameter and supporting 4 cone, insteed of the cube and pyramid, its appearance would be the same frow any point. If we exploy a form interuediate bet- ween the tno, we have two choices of a form for the monument, either the octagon or the cross (Fig. 427). Circular, octagon- a1 or cross pedestals always look best if viewed diagonally. It is preferable to make the pedestal of such form as to pro- duce a gradual transition from the square te the cross, then to the octagon and finally to the circle. If we asain return #6 the sinclest case and insert a cap between the cube and the pyranid (Fig. 428), its projection will conceal a part of the cyrarid and thas lessen the object suprorted by the pedestal. As it is really the trincipal part of the monument, the pyran- id should appear as large as possible, hence a special base is gEeperly given to it, whose mass is in a pleasing proportion to the mass of the tyremid. If the base #s too massive, the tyramid looks small} end if too lon, it does not ect as a mass. If an otelisk is made the principal object of the wonument (Fig. 429), or a wemorial column instead of a pyramid, the mass of the tase would arrpear unpleasing in proportion to the obelisk. Cn this consideration are based the good end bad arransgerents footie 1 i nokdsoyouy od? ‘otnsmceor feo 08 .einoneson To 7 iridantien: etd sonta .gatasofyas erotercdt at Intesbeq. bas ppeat cof SI statis as svieesm cot satouz01q9: data oot sbsx ie {fin th ovoteted? .avore oliv ¢ edti edool vlin weebeq od to 980 ods noonted seed isisoesa 6 taeent of 19 Gt aotouber aodt .tnemomor Sdt to Sootdo Leqtoatey. sds. bes gO) -atteq af rotowstadae s ys) taWonos odd to Sdatas Ledos bidouet es .bovedo exe ene! 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Olvote 8h) eprvaleay at pintsea detiede ods at awode ar efnencnos ran De 5 a) 4 é >is ‘i 5:4 ' it OGh es te 2€0 cf monuments. 6n most monuments the proportion between object and pedestal is therefore unpleasing, since the pedestal is nade too high, propucing too massive an effect. It too freque- ntly looks like a tile stove. Therefore it will always be prop- er to insert a speceial base between the cap of the pedestal and the principal object of the monument, thus reducing the total height of the monumgnt ty a substructure in parts. Cne will never fail if these ground laws are obeyed, as Rauch did in his monument of Frederic the Creat. A second point requires nitice, that the pedestal an@ the base of the object must be so arranged,with reference. to: thed ckject, the treatment and the decorations in relief, that the object becomes the principal thing, or that a contrast is pro- duced between the treatment of the object and the more or less detailed treatment of the base portion. Thus an couestrian statue agrees with a richly treated base ebove a nore simply formed pedestal, statues with rich drapery or richly detailed costumes, @ standing or crouching lion, a dragon fight, etc., will require plain and simple -beses and pe- destals, to retain the contrast. Thus the developrent of the architectural mouldings of the base and pedestal essentially depends on the degree of detali ic the rrincipel object. To treat a monutent as a shem fountain from which no water flons like the Schiller monument in Eerlin, is a coarse offence against the external and internal truth of an art work. The ascending sters that form the substructure of a monument should recall the steps of stairs as little as possitle, and therefore should te so rrofiled thet rain water may sreedily ron off, and that their purpose may be apparent to the eye. (Fig. 430). Inscriptions are best cut with a rectangular sect- ion of the letters; incisicns with triangular section easily becore illegitle ty exposure to weather. To arrange seats on the tonurent itself is improper, since it may easily te defaced. Eut it is suitable to rlece seats in the vicinity of the monu- ment so thet it may te seen with ease. 1. Zn ronunents whose princiral subject consists of emblems or objects of any kind, except statues, the base and pedestal should be errenged to accord therewith. A fine motive of such monuments is shown in the otelisk fountain in Carlsruhe (Fig. ery a re Tm) Os 7 r 4) i aa” é Stes ri , v-jee al Tk , F iad ; = a § a 9) ‘a t | aaa wanttteny ow’ ed bedaslt Bi detiedo as 7( ths oa. end baoyed tosjozg elstsebsz. gaofio svizesm saodn.\ote t oatnans 8 es bestitte et rete! od? 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[stitesed teon sdf gaont. ebsostqued qau esudcta Tee ptpebeat to ,sotoely. teox§ edi to afaezgnom sud eas. coud i, | sat to. Neca eat pokey ‘ai: inosifed to tedt ,tesn2 Bee oy Rar Pe says oA Qeepamaloa qd) bateaogeb, gated a a ip ibecenese to. asae! borottas rtatnesce tsom edt to aad a Si > Ail vi, ' i pi . *~ » ‘ cone ' i es 261 431): an ovelisk is flanked by two griffins, lions, river sods, ebve,, whose massive oblong pedestals praject beyond the square of the otelisk; the latter is utilized as a running fountain, whose two tasins may project beyond the pefestal at its sides. The sane motive wey be utilized in wonuments with statues. 2. Monuments with busts usually have a prorortionally high pedestal that receives the inscription; to prevent this fron : having a too massive effect, a special base may te inserted b between the cap of the pedestal and the bust. The busts may stand free or may be rlaced against the rear walls of torti- cos, or also be arranged as memorial fountains. The busts may be protected from rein ty a canopy-like sthucture. 2, Especial care must be taken in case of detached monuments with statues, that they have good proportions on all sides, @& and that they diminish rrorerly upward. Therefore it is proper to cover the figures with mantles, which conceal the spaces te- treen the legs, to place emblems at the feet of the figures, pedestals supporting an arm cf the figure, and similar access- ories, which give the chief object a broad base. Hence in many cases, sittings figures appear better than if they were stand- ing, since their lower portions are broader. In monuments with statues, the pedestals usually look too broad when viewed diag- onally, and the angles are therefore usually truncated (Fig. 432). In nore richly detailed pedestals, the angles are flank- ed ty pilasters or slight projection, and an entatlature is i inserted ctetween theér capitals anf the carp. 4, Honuments with twe statues as a rule require en oblong fp pedestal, with its broader side at front. This broad front site then requires, so as not to seem empty, to be divided ty reli- efs, inscrited tablets, end like ascessorics. Figs. 433 and 434 represent the base of such a monument at Ceneva, executed after designs of Erofessor Nicolai. 5. Equestrian statues likewise need an oblong redestal, but jts end is in front. The told mass of the body af the horse forms an esthetic contrast to the pedestal, at whose base angle statues may be Placed. Among the most beautiful equestrian sta- tues are the wonuments of the Great Elector, of Frederic the Great, that of Colleoni in Venice, the angles of the pedestal being decorated by columns. é. 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Nore", ute ‘tonot yaaxefoo Isizones es seqyt Sawety wet at : i a bneows rr, ee bas ,earriligdielyrst 262 is that where a central statue is surrounded by four angle fisures. An increased development én height results in such monuwents as well as a tyramidal enlargement downward. It is preferatle for these monuments also to make the pedestal low- er, placing the principal statue on a special base (Fig. 435). Host seated angle statues likewise have separate bases. Sometimes four sutordanate statues are placed between the angle statues, or groups of emblems, coats of arms and other symbolical or ornawental accessories. These may be so arranged that the lower part of the pedestal is separated from the upper cortion bya cap, and independently developed architecturally ., so that the upper part tecomes a low frieze, flat or decorated by reliefs. In this way the mass of the pedestal can te more richly treated, and its beauty of proportion be increased by these subdivisions. 7, The treatment and proportions of an architectural backgsr- ound of monuments must te arranged in accordance with the mon- ument when serving as a foil to heighten the importance of the monument. Thus the statue of Eavaria in Munich is surrounded by 2 hall of fame, and in the competition for the monument of Victor Emanuel, a triumphal arch was tlaced in the foreground, beneath it being placed the actual monument. The erchitectural surroundings of a monument may evidently te arranged and treat- ed in the most varied ways; not too large a scale will always te preferatle for the architecture, so that the monument may be as prominent as possitle. Nichelangelo well understood in his tombs of the Medici as well as in the monument of Fore ‘Julius II, how to make the statues themselves more imposing by the small scale of the architectural tacksround. There remains e word to say in regard to monuments, which are not detached or isolated. They are generally arranged as niche monuments attached to a wall, and the architecture of t the niche forws the principal motive of their treatment. The notive of the triumphal arch was frequently used to geod advan- tase in the more extended designs of this kind. Four niches, each containing a statue, are also combined in a detached mon- ument, that terminates at top in some form of roof. (Fig. 436). 8. Furely esthetic monuments are usually arranged according to a few ground types as memorial columns, tower structures, temple buildings, and also as gtatues arranged around a centr- inet e ~ 4 rebaeke Yo ab aefty conned odd usdt .tetog Laatase jsoa napfoo fe3I)\ eer0t betrev tron edd sist you dt . scot @ wt amufoo Letvons! 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Binseen .usdt eyomen of beeogetb ef eno ‘fas: ,assbi a1sboa wort benktsiea ased eved yous f1. .sorviourte wea josts = blo edt 69483 mebfo dusteoqet yilsotisdtes.sot actis to ¢tel bas: tdyis te avob mtot wosd qilsces evad saottss wes tl ,botstrotTet ends si eesey odd asec ottiast oft bas s yilszeney et stesite edt to asly efit .betoere, ere sot nonsn 0% bsag at autasyo [sitnso seg7eL svt Jed? oe nite? werogunenag toot evsee e4einezo obte telfeme odd of kin AINE core yA 7 263 central point. When the memorial piller is of slender proport- ions, it may take the most varied forms (Igel column near Tre- ves, monument of Columbus at Genoa, Hemorial column in Neustadt at Vienna, Mary’s columns of Rococo perior ‘in different cities of Austria); in larger designs it was usually treated as a co- lumn with capital, whose abacus is accessitle by a winding st- airs (column of Trajan in Rome, Column Vendome in Faris, Monv- ment of victery in Berlin). Honuzents like towers are either solid (monument of Lysicrates, monument on Kreuzberg in Eerl- in), or are arranged to serve as towers for otservation. These may also be treated in different ways according to lo- cation. The substructure containing the entrance to the stairs or an elevator, (towers of Trocadero in Faris), sometimes forzs an extended architecturel design, sometimes with the form of an open portico, that of a chapel (Fig. 43, a), or finally a cross shaped substructure bt, with centre occupied by stairs. In arrangement 2 the stairs tay te placed in an apse, so that it is first connected with the central stairs above the vaults. We have a characteristic example of temple and centrally ar- ranged ¢lans in the Walhalla near Regensbure and in the Ruhmes- halle near Kehlheim. Such designs with which are to be classed lookout pavilions, like the Cloriette of Schénbrunn near Vien- na, do not admit of a general discussion, being entirely free compositions, probatly the freest and most pleasant problems of the architect, permitting a nultitude of solutinns. We CITY CATES; TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. Now that most cities have no narrow circle of fortifications, a principal notive for the treatment of city gates entirely d disappears, that gave the gates a certain character in early towns, the gate tower that sometimes only served to contain a portcullis or drawbridge, or sometimes the prison, or suard. City gates have become obstructions to traffic according to: modern ideas, and one is disposed to remove them, rather than erect new structures. If they have teen retained from consider- ation for esthetically important older gates, the old fortifi- cations have usually been torn down at right and left of them, and the traffic near the gates is thus falicitated. If new ga- tes are erected, the plan of the streets is generally arranged so that the larger central opening is used for wagon traffic, abile the smaller side openings serve foot passengers. Yet such Fd) a tk 7. Ve ya? >. oe sa - ' ee ee $i mea ¥ ie F 1 a or “es Z 7; : i ae i a at eS Lond. ent ponsen. oot \bevera vilentasve ests; ateb02 Sf ta. anvtoner tna? edit betalost ylertios essen eons tant speatal oaiatebtidl 40 ono ta bohastis satel esyeaesa 10 »tfiisi at ets) gained 6 ed 0 peat bran re dodaelt yltasspeat ste egisd pau edt ativeet sud? .ytsh fortoo edz to wotdoelfos 19% > odt tI’ .eoatw neewted gauctneys s91c fo ftnoxeaas edt ees (Len es dow seLuortoimea » 4d betevoo ef + elisses at owe fedquatiad eds to evitow aay .agataege stir et tneg sibbiw odF .(68 22679) ngteod Letaoten A teddo to shiabssp 8 ,eoutete Yo quord oas cisis 08. 45 © anzottealg yi) bstev00 sie aaeian ed? bus ,wottg1coeb p dose ~etaoweliisd sved yea asvorerey sitds bas .eiteta B aisexte edt af stil Qutese tot elistine vliaileoeg sis } edt tevo bebasiis od gs esxoj meqo.one ,alavitest S «yTeResoonnG 918 aRuta 9790F .seorTSY sue oat 102 : Sate tr -9idfaeso0e obits sdt vdeo of beosly ad gaa sriste trelisisteng gta ebas sheds .gowsten s tnuotdin sfentated Qesonsttognt| e10u lo agatbling a990199 yd bas asisgoz yd bid sort tivast vileoas ysio a to tofxedat adv of ayou iestoaqno. yods eeoteses.tassed odd al .yenite: a 18009 8 foqmoo deesl ge. bfaode doftdw .natta1c005) oideitie 94 tet edt yotarol yraoese od}.to moisstinil bod bag gat sbtant etonant yeaftex to gory oels ak suse sal. .tougd _— atediebie to eliasa edi 2950 Leaded sit aod? fi esenegss w976eT2 tstinowoa Is Hatounrteadoo 7, AGTAN GOW SUTAAD..G2NaH ,BHITLAT .x 6 93s. asktfo afdtin erevit.oas efsaso zsvo manbiad id. ods evods douwm ton .af eiserte odd to Lovell sht.gs. - vic al .ashastems bas ailie® ,aigel si.2e .toten 5dt.do oF oad evods djrd. beoaly ois aebbind, -anoijes eyouletages agbrrd sisdo ef¢ of yloo sbemetsd.ef soaetsiat iwatv to -orticrt nogen ative woblea $1 .dnaitestin2 ot asediesd ) eetdio aft isdt o2 ,efbbia atk to dour.oot yeusz5t7i. sad gem off¢ to ¢ano208 mo Hetero! ed dacs oteqwod odd usbtotems eat “a0 sdgiett to strozeneit se iBgso ,afeaso geisgeqe agzbind gtd setts 6 sasge sgbird edt tL .estuot zadto aist of sieaso 7 ae 4 oe79 oodt ak tk {OED .gti) asee od founs>. asbie ait ‘t6ud, -gnols baotxs efsente tk 03 sustuatt lity gisany sistonts2 s 2s ¢0 et i as aabiad ait rebag basy bidssete Tku9eesy 10 edu sdt yf aes A a eter Oh) a ¥, a oe: 7 a ae F i yA t eet gi ree 264 modern gates eventually proved too narrow for the traffic, so that they were entirely isolated like the Fropyleum at Hunich, or passages later arranged at one or both sides as at the Eran- denburg gate in Eerlin. Cates are frequently flanked by suard houses, or ty buildings for collection of the octroi duty. Thus results the usual arr- angement of tree erenings between wings. If the central gateway is covered by a semicircular arch as well as the narrower side cpenings, the motive of the triumphal arch is usually the most natural design.(Fig. 438). The widdle part is generally crowned by an attic and group of statues, a quadriga or other symbolic decoration, and the wings are covered ty platforms reached by stairs, and their parapets may have battlements. Such platforms are peculiably suitable for seeing life in the streets during festivals, and open toxes may be arranged over the side arches for the same purpose. Where wings are unnecessary, external s stairs may te placed to make the attic accessitle. If streets terminate without a gateway, their ends ere preferably marked by squares and ty corner tuildings of more importance. Cate- ways in the interior of a city usually result from the passage under a reilway. in the better quartets they especially reonis= re artistic decoration, which should at least comprise a rpleas- ing and told limitation of the masonry forming the railway via- duct. The same is also true of railway tunnels inside cities. Thus the tunnel under the castle of Heidelbers should have been constructed at somewhat sreater expense. ‘X%. ERICCES, RAMES, EASINS FOR WATER, HAREORS. Eridges over canals and rivers within cities are usually lou, as the level of the streets is not much above the highest level of the water, as in Faris, Eerlin and Amsterdam. In cities in mountainous regions, bridges are placed high above the point of view; reference is here made only to the chain bridge in Ereiberg in Switzerland. It seldom suits wagon traffic to raise the bridgeway too much at its middle, so that in cities like Amsterdam the towpath must ce lowered on account of the many bridges spanning canals, causing transport of freisht on the canals to take other routes. If the tridge spans a siream so that its sides cannot be seen (Fig. 429), it is then erected as a structure purely utilitarian. Eut if streets extend alongs the tanks or passenger steamers pass under the bridge as in oktedtes as ot utinutzox70 et otedt yntre4 it ,eegbiad ytid yusw acd? .egbtad eat ts sebe atl aaice! abLow ,eoqe70LT at eepbixd ‘onrd errs? ai des Detves ems ,e1ed¢o bas akixs3 ak skbiad stvotssre vactts10995 edt to svitow ed! .etiow {saitosti gots’ ae bey | ; Wa éeeto® at botete es aot [eotiteumys to e9ndtrd Wat yexsty Ses adsontuis to tushegnetts edt ys bodeints? ods betextasoaes af betfesb aofttetozsb yas’ eshdiad aoxk jbkad: eds tasmento ot bebbs ef aaby¢oe rue slitr ets he. ot foett hs aoet Weatbeitecie to sbon odt ie sortosfes say ni- tad sort O¢ Soustsazy¢ anteesfz 8 baivtes to wasen [ex fad most sgtef aot bersbreres viteterss $i Sfvode etdy ) ton yous sadt on ,siare; usonstemporks es 18% a6 abttto ‘sd% Bas ,eb0eaq oitodtae Gels bas fetrasen viettae 9d svotesods bleode eazbtwd rfosed elas has sotesal teow sdt to eno et saoldod ts satdh edt asvo epbtrd 8 ai wserte sit usyo ehatsae sf bose .begbind cok (8 Of godw Rakessly teen y(Lstarss ore esehied Bedard 1 .chaey ts onke2 edt tsvo seabied [fe ylsssa sdkl fore ) aot actsly atin cottowstemon eM seve of Slitastuds gine s28 7 teow Besbiad seer2 bss ,corstoeite somt talfene a seseesm ot ‘To wotarvih oft “cd tostts sotessfz $8 To Fetavo> eyeuls eagbt1d to enotisro20b Leytoutys 547 bee sd? .cisty sit to agen ont to troutestt Lertoetiaoga B edt sobined ,esety etetbonteint sit to 2785 sit bas’ ales Og bas sd? .quets (stooge s skbtxd odt oviR teat: oud “ts entt2 edt rove eoubizs edt te as ,Aterot raddis eae D betourtenco evs alstxoy sfdved orede sdf ed? .aon0t ate “a ot ott eodss yifsses weds ,eska onbiad poe teed pdvasd eat tevyo shbitad uisdo odd to sonazse it ont bas elettog Yo wekise ety sbsitiaath bas vletete te > bateosls 8 soaboty tMeart stutowise edi. te watsdo odd itiek on: ssbi otfyovst s asidvio ni sepoi7d reflene nd ~ 9 ab oF ,e8t20q bas edd 10% aqvory to ao0%sts Stexsqse ots bisd o* sofoolg edd wo as imonuaon 8 yd i9ky slbbia odds a8 edt bra. 508877 Oae gretiwett to eeebirrtd ofo ont wifes] i «. pa oo —T,” sé tuo guriisdroo yi eayew foot ood asbiw of se707g, vaev ‘elas? ts satdh sit tevo sbbtad edt af es .eusig’ eds to ge -.eteee dvix Ssdaiaxot ow aaso tory 26 bos Sifon ylieretsrg ets eohbkad emote fo syntlies eal cee apenent sbsz bes betatottsq xo ,saote to + yealay hboow' to ebsn o1s bas ,egarlies sbett so derit sdd al waenbiad sort tot most to to eakbiad eredanbes neented gatbuetrs afisw Seqstea 978 eaatiies per otutoelo 20 ey tot aveog auef trozgse of averse. van ttsal ee beteews od yeu ahailitss odd asgbisi r9ilewe ai a weboow to etatiisk .toetts ferctoursa..s 2otovbotg ated ’ 803 io Qniasveo fseretse aeito Ssiourtesoo yll suse ove if bowsa~ser! to eben 83 you bos estisliss to astestavles Bett«covat ylismsek orew es2disg cobcow Osteves gistelycod bare ony "ovo subiad ws edit .1e%s87 575 eoxbinad saote D528 — bas sacetvoe Tove eS2esg Tobrazt0c 6 Stadw ,Boasi90!f 5 {sy £3¢f3 dan ts oe bad int einai qifeneas: ek woitsicosb eiiaiaheabiebe [ rin am betesottes: :.0¢8 »Bilew gefuisies ,wilse yeuo .e3087 pee ‘918 yraoass bkfoe bos blog 4is Sas .etaoass ase70 ston sonssetsash brs esac efbbiu off .onedt 1.5%. botive Siietsn odd yletew Tebieno> oc esaso dove of batisitss aysn #ettrs bas .2tetéae doun oot eyswis at9% eteenigns; :ebsau “one ered § dtiw boesely of ot .21990r390 donor 7045,,s798 betwtylyoe ,etmeweltted ,axed beflledyoo: 73 .aotsexoz9b tac yerewot oftas bus etel{e1 ,settio to suelize .aais Yo |tsoo Vynotonor odt svstier of tdyuos yods etasessqxe islinta bus yenoktssttitrt to affew even sa2ds tk rellew thedt to te ptaoseis. edt of Sefbs omen etcatt He evi" Na AUN an: . “ia | q F } } u =) ve ae > | ations 19804 editor s - eh ¢I .equsf es 101. et207 ebsa 1s agiite: sai to na i i ; 266 2 lookout tower may also be built on the central pier. The chains of chain bridges require . special suprert at each bridge pier, that usually takes the form of a tower. The apre- : arance of the chain bridge over the Banube in Eudapest is very stately and dignified; the series of portals and the lines of the chaing of the structure itself produce a pleasing effect. _ On smaller bridges in cities a favorite idea is to substit- ute separate statues or groups for the end portals, to decora- teethe widdle pier by a monument as on the Elector’s bridge in Eerlin, the old bridges of Frankfort and Frague, and the posts of the railing are made posts for gas lamrs. It is likewise very proper to widen the foot ways ty corbelling out the tops of the piers, as in the bridge over the Rhine at Easle, where semicircular pier caps are furnished with seats. The railings of stone bridges are preferatly solid and also of stone, or perforated and made of brick in smaller bridges, or are balustrade railings, and are made of wood for wooden bridges or of iron for iron bridges. In the first case, the railings are parapet walls extending between pedestals, which nay serve to suprort lamp posts for gas or electric lights: i in smaller bridges the railings may be treated as lattice sir- ders producing a structural effect. Railings of wooden bridges are usually constructed cf an external covering of toards, like talustrades of galleries and may te made of fret-sawed toards. Completely covered wooden bridges were formerly favorites, cov- ered stone bridges are rarer, like a bridge over the Arno at Florence, where @ corridor passes over shops and connects the Uffizi and Pitti palaces. All structural decoration is generally rejected in case of ramps, quay walls, retaining walls, etc.; rusticated masonry,., cyclorean masonry, and all told and solid masonry are test suited for these. Ihe middle ages and Renaissance were not al- Ways satisfied in such cases to consider merely the material needs; engineers were always too much artists, and artists were too much engineers, to be pleased with a tare wall nith-— cut decoration. Ey corbelled tays, battlements, sculptured coats of arms, emtlems of cities, reliefs and angle towers, and similar expedtents they sought to relieve the monotony of their walls; if these were wells of fortifications, then the preceding expedients were added to the elements of military aT ae Vere ee | : nD | La is evitstoveb ottedtee getdeeretar Quidem otussesidots p eaitne sd? .estey ytto bas asgbizd to ahme .alfisn ytio - salsa easice anette tains diet eft ao tedobh nt [fen alee . s@OREkL yd betasmento exsitt bedois bavos *] ht si -agide Boiviese: aol aloob szxsf to alls - teed ot doide ,nisiz base seft ylisucn ste ,arodied $0 sof azonidosm tsddo Ins aes i:e207In7 Bisas oF usta gafttes{ .afeeaov Gottoow sot eket1 noth doe asaay po .eboay sot abede selifen o1cde cove oF aacled .etieia gnttise ,aseuod tdati ,etoltee sof elied Sesxeyvo0 ,esevod Meeebtay Lotod jetasiestac: ,zsottto godcts .otfiny oss tot 32 *ateds atodtedi bas eo1cde sat ovid .edit0eaes 70s relives sed teon oft to 902 sanottinnos [kool oF Antor000s awete Ens eco joottsog Fees ati ditw some) to isdt ei atodisd. | od ‘go xtivitos odt bas ettda edt to ustv sasortragen ent fesse odd odem of ofttit onod ead-eto bigieni anebom 400 ‘Yo ob need usd. gatdtemoe [lide ;4uiassly ston erode to ue bP ,scasten02 to e10d7ei ods geigqota sol sveoq es beac sd gals ysn ysdt sans “ng _e gatzsoaes sot been oats 938 ganslos foos seoslz yasu al oe gaied stelg nebsel s mere das sedanousedd ,dools Wyss ete _ “t- 267 architecture, waking interesting esthetic decorative works of city walls, ends of bridges and city sates. Ihe entire quay u wall in H&échst on the Kain is even decorated by a late Cothic round arched frieze ornamented by lilies. Walls of large docks for receiving ships, as well as those of harbors, are usually flat and plain, which is best suited to their purpose; cranes anf other machinern for loading, wood vosts and iron rings for mooring vessels, landing stages and stairs, belong to such shore walls. Sheds for goods, custom houses, covered halls for sailors, light houses, waiting rooms for the public, ticket offices, restaurants, hotel gardens and similar accessories, give the shores and hartors their special stamp accordins to local conditions. One of the most beautiful hartors is that of Cenoa with its great portico; one enjoys t the magnificent view of the ships and the activity on shore. Our wodenn insipid era has done little to make the treatment of herbors more pleasing; still something has teen done of Lake Constance in this respect. the hartors of Constance, Lindau, Friedrichshafen, are known for their beautiful designs. Ceneva also possesses beautiful quays, as well as parts of Naples, T Trieste and Leghorn., in their quays decorated by gardens. Cth- er cities famous for beautiful harbors and shore promenades are Dover, Havre, Erighton, Kiel, Hamburs and Fortsmouth on the I Isle of Wight. The very large quays in London and other sea ¢ ports serve exclusively for material needs, so that attention is paid only to architectural considerations, so far as to lo- cate magnificent tuildings in their vicinity, railway stations, hotels, warehouses, etc.; these large and really splendid stru- ctures give to such harbors and ‘quays a specific esthetic character. Ye LICHTING OF CITIES. This is preferably by gas and electricity, and reguires lamp costs for supporting the lights. Since cities require a large number of lamps, cast iron is usually employed as the material of lamp posts; it is proper to make the cedestals of stone for large lame posts, such as are usually erected before palaces and putlic buildings or on squares. It is even advisatle to treat the pedestals es cclumns for sake of econony., and bec=- ause they may also te used as posts for stopping carriages. In many places such columns are also used for supporting a clock, thermometer and barometer, a leaden ctlate being hinged P ‘ i a \) i RY ve A may De ay. eae } } . 7) ? : { i an fe WW ’ aa f Zn S ' i ei - Siam | ; ay? a ? oi io ohh nN oe y Bee a) a gas. eeenan re: odrges ti tadt ,#199 rewol stots of | ac? to nelq c¢ bstakeq oF yer Si a0 ba5. .xa0d | 1 edt ots ‘yRafeea dttow agaidds gcitiety tot aserd .2e8 " t bodeett od yew dae atebin obsg wi deog gust edt to t189 Sede oft .9esv 6 to fasq tewcl edi 10 ,b07i19 ofeast> edt béstiel at betsert test ovls atvbns bisna0 bededainth 9d a5 yileues .boter0sed elaslinte one sidsishes> ewotine. ent Sitorqoe dotdn ,fettqes asidtntrod: bstaoxs yioott.s vi be shai go wsfonas dtin pegeet io eforio 8 to gaat fo a at Boos 84 ysu agus! edt .ettas> edt sort donk to sqoo7ts Satntot ,2edto doses svois exert Laseves dows sort siside o¢ bsiosazs ¢il{ssan ei 3k) .evit to bisew¢gg 8 tor .sonbotg yileutos yods neds, asogite ass ike sdt e90h as ,titesaned wort {[s5% oe wes775 ton. econo Site eqeel sat to exke ent [lite ;eforto 5 af tags preatod mei .boutsts1g ed Sinode iperehantss fordw ptf ash torsanwoss: asiporto ai es .esbsde essl3 soodsin sebsds ti asd? eesi ef dose toi beitspet sosze eat bes vtibonm . bain mort sdQil eid Gostory. dead dotan Oe e@ynel sit baited beoslz asito sts exotoslteA .ti 1 nt meds to timbe notk sess ak atzoKn 25 etsoy qual. ont _ baen eietet ak osmots to onis (ifsisd ai suemtesord Zio ef sort tdaworn bas .eu0oee Sosofons mi Fye0rs ateoz t 9 sot sexs efateu seett sonte yacscrod etevity ar antetnal ie me heagae efeoy quel to todmgm fos7h sit tot. bowe 95-08 | eu odd eaelan dtgneste olttil oot sosseesy omts tee) ts ogo sd¢ uk ywwbnt of becogxe sd of wloddd otizo . ‘eteoy gael eff goetcd tdbia | BIAVERRAT. 40% 2HOITABOIIG 63 seteatnrs evoteveds .,assoyied visxogmss svitoe scadd pBbaid seievib yrev to etosibeyxe gotyolyua ,isiooasaod Sat foot ots yeds dotdn mk) .ss9y edt to goesPe eds od 2aib100 frit bas soveot to shasfrsy ,sesit bas abtebasie ae dove eysnetsg bas estore Ledysvtts .etowolt to edisete es [ .Btesata to eacttoeasstai ‘evo ,AtononetY asboon 2 -déin } ateos bag enolyms ,erattaiey {steorsd10 ,coitersth zeit 18 ,soeayg to ebea ebatd [fe \to afosido ovttescceb errs | aett betdenksol{t .enotsyizoent détw etelies ,ysls 8 teonenoro bue tsyoo adi code eeiaowesso fue nLeviteet rod _ atotadosge edt bas ,gisuce Istosge s a0 ‘taoqze aleiditto ¢éio x! han 4 BE , ss). ? ra , Le y: ts iy, x 268 to their lower part, that it way be turned like the leaf of a book, and on it may te painted a plan of the locality, addres- ses, times for visiting things worth seeing, etc. The lower ¢ part of the lamp post is made wider and may be treated like t the classic tripod, or the lower part of a vase. The shaft can de diminished upward and is also test treated in imitation of . the antioue candelabra and similarly decorated, usually crown- ed ty a freely treated Corinthian capital, which supports the lamp or a circle of lamps, with angular or scroll arms radiat- ing from the centre. The lamps may be placed in a circle or in several tiers above each other, forming groups of three, four or five. It is usually expected to obtain from such groups bet- ter effects than they actually produce, for a pyramidal sroup does not appear so well from beneath, as does the simple arran- gement in a circle; still the size of the lamps will decide 7% which arrangement should be preferred. When burners are used without glass shades, as in circular crowns of sas lights, the space required for each is less than if shades were used, which both protect the light from wind, modify and disperse it. Reflectors are often r¢laced behind the lamps. The lamp tosts as works in cast iron admit of the most varied treatment in detall; zine or bronze is rarely used for lamp rp costs except in enclosed rooms, and wrought iron is only for lanterns in private houses, since these metals ere too costly to be used for the great number of lamp posts needed in a city. Cast zine posseses too little strength unless the material is ‘quite thick, to be exposed to injury in the open streets, that might deface the lamp post. ¥. CLECORATIONS FOR FESTIVALS. These serve temporary purposes, therefore excluding everyth- ing wonumental, employing extedients of very diverse kinds, ec- cording to the season of the year, in which they ere erected, such as standards and flags, garlands of leaves and fir branch- es, wreaths of flowers, triumphal arches and gateways built w with a wooden framework, over intessections of streets, tapes- tries, dreperies, ornamental paintings, emflems and roats of arms, decorative objects of all kinds made of gyrsum, paper and clay, tablets with inscriptions, illuminated transpagencies, etc. For festivals and ceremonies when the court and government or city officials appear on a special square, and the spectators ; ek eel fh le a a 7 ee 1, Fla, ee a Udae sa a Si ms | ee ae site oe. | 4 7 ek ay , ; oo nor t pantie bvseises reas beakers basertas 00 - Weiseesoen ots chaste viens one ahaksktto one Pia cianlionionrts to woo xektoods tot ,elevitest feo jive wsftete boa eecktto .otnersetest eelisn yliues . beboon eve asedr107 eseris¢? 167 aie b te pasren gus ofet smottidtdxe e*biton 616 106 107: fk ove bas @lewtue to etastnod bas ,sie999 sit to newex skeds sved aoidgio test Life deol’ .eortsontidics fot ‘betoveb yitie7 10 eA Totte ,Bwottidtdxe fetasesbar sot 3 p bas anottidtdxe sae , od fedkewn tot ,euorstitaxs ode of aoisrbbs at heat didze e*bdiso«n od? .soesttoa | sting sla «sexerae’ To ebotitive ¢ ssiness ecotteitixze to enmgfeeb [etseqe bos .ateotd ,inomsenae to keels t saotést0css to es ven {etenss & mt bise od yor oltert > ,esuecen bee erotano ,aacttihaod [sood .efevis ‘easvot (of sot eaotictsze%7 to tedi oboe [svivast ode . emotéss0006 edt nk bean ad of etuetbhsyxe rot sole ) od- Iktw enoktetoesb: bas fevidast odd to retos sic een ost ud t0 ape teayaitemppgaabagne tefomson adt . be \ ttl .LevEdast y ntstres sobag betentteds ed yom soaid ife to elewrtest py asifnoeg atest sved-eievitest doigd) .weiv to Bintog qileonas teaet bae ,tooe odd oF antbi10508 bantateteo iS trom ods ek ae TO yeettro o€fonssd nt e985 rebidd. esq | te alavitest eys° bas Leotrotetn as b2678052 39 yan. yodt Peo: sqo7 betoglargitnusoes a To sottalistect sad ts ant es Bi seseitint yoo edi yamine ,i91969 edt: to soning: betstor3s iigBe atsq 8 dtin botoseumoo oxodd o7e alevitast [sotsoraty t 80 ~evet tusttogmi Sion sdf asin .bonottusy vant esondt se ,Gseob baa divkd. .g6n sort avets: evotwototv: saeittes fevitest teLodoy [is esbelond yrorsiso balds A’ .bese10792 | em tant ,etastaoa Sttesnayy bge aniteota .batonts .oteus at Lsevites! ihe oe ant. colheapnaaen gees se. cLfissons ) st Ievites? 2 oag .a96eerT ot fevttesl wobeen-arr2 ed bebastts enokidelfoo antlovsas sits detfIs\.oxs' sands of thiftdgo teeth edd yiLenkt bag ,faorxet099 antrxb: afsaokass} Watedt of autbr00048 ,muntea 10 Yaraoe ooel of edeniaves sent 3 oo tesf patente doktiw ,phokdididrs at béfron° 40 .gonst7T07 7% | pat: Meares | Sede er eat its a.) > aw ‘io , ot , yy \ q tony i 269 concentrated, raised amphitheatres,:pavilions for the court 4 | and officials, and music stands are necessary, while for musi- cal festivals, for shooting contests or tournaments, large as- sembly halls, restaurants, offices and similar subordinate iro- ous for various purroses are needed. . For our era world’s exhibitions take the rlace of Clympic games of the Creeks, and contests of animals and men #@n Roman amphitheatres. Almost all larger cities bave their buildings for industrial exhibitions, wholly or partly devoted to local exhibitions, for musical contests, art exhibitions and other purposes. The world’s exhibitions in addition to the halls of exhibitions require a multitude of ‘annexes, restaurants and p tlaces of amusement, kiosks, and special designs of which as little may be said in a general way as of decorations for fes- tivals. Eocal conditions, customs and usuases, character of the festival and that of rreparations for it, sovern the deci- sion for expedients to te used in the decoration. Thus the character of the festival and decorations will be decided by the mourning of a solemn funeral ceremony or by the -joy of a festival. | Festivals of all kinds may te collected under certain general points of view. Church festivals have their peculiar character, determined according to the sect, and recur annually like Cor- ‘pus Christi day in Catholic cities, or 4s in the next group they way be regarded as historical and are festivals of greet- ing at the installation of a recently elected rope or a newly appointed prince of the Church, or nay be any jubilees. Historical festivals are those connected with a prince, like those ‘just mentioned, when the more important days, coronation, marriage, victorious return from war, birth and death, are com- memorated. A third category includes all popular festivals of music, singing, shooting and gymnastic contests, that recur annually or periodically, like the October festival in Wunich, Firt-weador lestival in Dresden, Eeorle*s festival in Cannstadt. To these are allied the traveling collections attended by pro- fessionals during Fentecost, and finally the great exhibitions that terminate in late sumuer or autumn, according to their in- portance, or world’s exhibitions, which usually last from May till the end of Cctober. THE ENC. a eee eee ee iw, Va ron : f . i Ss ,QPMOTH9 82 BIGAT a ae eee = eotabtoo? to anel Saetr0 at teo'. -_—_*+ 6s eee =~ = = HOKTOCborFAl ~—S ee ew He ee HoEEeOTT -=—=- «ee = + + + Eilean anteofoud .A Cee eR NE HS - ebaed [aistouTte of ea 6 e424 + Brod tools wa 3 wee ba ee we ~~ + = BOT BROT? .8 ais Bete eeebngd. dailol to 2fdie2 wy tn eh eS el ei tere ~ aoe = Hood cetnel[?® 6 see ee ew te et = 4)- Bb00d Syideiooss d ~-_ ee wm ee + eflsw to garsotasly Isqgetek .F “ss eee ee eee ee ee + + gilee weboow 6d ~~ = erodmtd (Sdnosiiod te begoqnoo afisw .x ao =e se S eleggoducs fesitsey to alls .9 we ee we ee ee ee tm - oollow bisod-.y . ~~ ee ewe eee eee flow Onetod .4 ~s-2- eee = + = ~ a00hT TS Sos Botlenss os ow mo all nol ealiiea ibe ite: eto ~ = oasatiie] «3. ee wl ee ee = dtemosedurs Bee 6? “_—|—_ ee ee He sarah sh ~ Ss ele] - egnglisd. J ~-- ee ew eee agailiss onote. bedtusy-aok ot “see e + + >> = ~ enms97 asboon to gncfied. .S ~eee e e eee t ee we ee odelise goal a ~- + boon bas sort to stocs bozae7d ofiieky od ~~ is eee we = = = stoor bangetd asbooW .x -—ss = - -a01f T° stoot baesers slitsiy .&. es asleeY 2 ' t ' : e i ; ‘ ’ + ' ¥ ’ ‘ 270 TAELE CF CCNIENIS. Preface- ------- - er reer ert rr ee Host important laws of Tectonics. - ------ - 7 4 Introduction ------ cfr rr ct rrr ee Frograme- —-- om mwmme to rer sts oe 17 A. Enclosing walls- ----- ef rer rrr errr 41s 1. Stone masonry- ------ eer eter er ert 18 a. Rubble masonry of boulders -'- - ----=--- l= 19 be Cyclopean masonry- - ----- ot ttre eo 20 | c. Rubkle masonry of guarried stones- - ------- 22 : d. Ashlar twasonry of small stones ----=--—-~-7~= = 25 | e. Ashlar masonry of large stones -- - -- = ~™- == 26. | a. Kode of dressing --------- cer mee ee 2& 8. ‘ashlar bonds - wom beh ebe Soe eee 41 @. Block! bonds < Here) perenne Spee She ae SE ee g,. Crose ‘hond - = « - 4 + -)= = 44S = = eee 42 yao Cothic: or Fobish:bent- t-te ere eee Ay dy: Hooda welleird oe Pi theres rete ree ee eee AR a. Walls composed of horizontal timbers - - -- - = 48 8.:iWalls. ofp versacal, timbers- etinsy pe010,.8 | --—--- aie ~s eee em eee eH = ~ OF] v¢ 2 = ethosy [sveetbol -.a (ene eo ere # oe os & & ~ aS [gBY) 8207) 2.’ ~ | ) etiosy isoisad .3 ~<_ee we =e © == ~—- $lusy Lescof ey. 2 _~ + ~efiosy beddfty to sevidoersyiiesooe] .¢ a ae ly ne mai aed ~eifosy aetetol?) .3 : “mae ree = + ~ © Otlosv sonseetsaad > “ese ~ > ~ + ~ “beauties gaitged, Jeyeqges .2 ee ee tw em 8 Hee wm = spgmelod .f ~see-- ~~ - sgoitstsbiages Ledenes) '.s eae eee ee + ~~ = = etoig iagssibem Sasagnod .y ~~ -- = ~~ ~ OTL 10. b8ge .9aote fo esanteiistag .* Joan Se Se we CORSO eo - «- + «JIgenveerT .£& Deere + + ~ ~eTabo oteselp odie. detoeacuo) .€ Se wappotad rebate to asvstéisors: bus siait sy Deen e ee ew ee cBancloo bas 219g oveds Bedouk «> ie - ‘- ee nl we ie ee ee he o & s+ el OER) LP - -—<-“s2e ee ee ewe ee ee = e9ROEI0> bedoss 2g ee --~ = = 20 tl bud- seods. des. ceroits bogavod sy | ---+ +--+ = sopgotiiod: gaicit pas.eenes tried .¢ BE - ~~ - --- ~ = + agnibligd bolets aot 10 cosa! -s P- - - - - =~ = = =~ BQotbliod osleie, cis 10 evid of ee ~~~ welien, ai, e2ateer0, .1 eer ee ee men = - ~allew vincess ai egainedd .! ee ee ee et ee meee mem eistone) of _» + ~baod thedg bus ellew ai avaineyo to sasgé .f ane rencbsin 608 excob bas {fer to saendoio? 3 eee = + encbate bus @99b Qaieolo to ansed »f a i A. Ancient vaults = ---=---------++-+--- 80 #. Tunnel vaultse ++2+2+2e22+2222e2 22222 80 8. Cross vaults ------+----+-------- 82 ye: Pomeit+ee -- - ee eee ee ee eH HK He 83 t. Mediaeval vaults -----------+ +--+ rske) a. Cross vault- --------+-+-+-+-+----- ga 89. 8. Eomical vauli- --------+----- - ee = 96 y. Tunnel vault -------- - - ee ee ere o6 §. Decorative totives of ritted vavits- - ----- 97 e. Cloister vaults- --------------e- 104 ¢c. Renaissance vaults -----r--- on x) oa 105 C. Surperst tearing ceilings- --------- my on 406. 1. Columns- -------e - ee er er er ee er rrr 106 a. General considerations -------------°- 4106 te. Columns in detail- --------+-ce er eo - - 119 a. Form of capitale =--+-+2s+2+22222224--- = 120 8. Form of shaft- ----------+--+- +e 129 ys Easesvof ecclums --<----- +--+ - = 8 130. 8. Eedestal of column --------------- 131 2. Pderciose soat——= ----- eee ee ee ee eee 133 a. Classic and Renaissance treatment of pier- - - - 133 68. Compoundselassic piers— --.—--------e sn ee +135 yscCempousd mediaeval piers -« - -- - + =< = sie 13 2. Entablatures of stone, wood or iron- ------=--= 140. a. Treatment + + = + e-e-e-tetete = eee eee me 140 8. Connected with classic orders- --1-1----- = 4141 y. Fiers and architraves of girder bridges- - - - - 142 4, Arches above piers and columns - ---------- 145 a. Genersleu+is sie cm me we re SSS = 185 6. ‘Apebedubridges@atiecter + - = t= in 8 oS ee 147 y. Covered bridges and those built on ------- 149 5. Euttresses and flying tuttresses ---------- 149 ae Iheee or four aisled tuildings ----------= 154 bauFive.or sizteleledibuiidiage - - - = - + + ~ = =e 155 D. Openings cin(wallese-beccas. et er tr Re Oe ae 156 t. Qpenings tinguacsonry-walls« = «+ + <= + (2 7 SS 156 dy (Genetal-onsed-rngtgros Srocresd-ettd + Ss os 15€ 1. Spans of openings in walls and their btond- - - - 156 2. Thickness of wall and doors and windows- - - - - 161 2. Means of closing doors and windows - ----- - 162 are “seers se nceey garsiand »b - | ‘* Bwobaie bas 21000 mo [stosqe .4 =~ +--+ = + +a9¢u08 To exobetW .f ~2<- + + ewobatw tolled .» wine eas 4 = « stnomonsd at erobath .2 ~- = += + = + pHOdnin To esversrdomd wy ane e ew wes = = + Otes Golleo~se V2 wes ee ewe ee ee ew = OBS? TOKEN. L8 oe eee en en ee w os Ofie wobaete!.> -~- ++ <= ~enodats to surokt (srto0ds . 6 ee2ee ee ** age So onto} [entondh s6- ~—- === ~ = + 9789 teentber To ar108 LS e esien eee ee - + ~eglfoonoo Aiiw 183) .x° «ep0ai67 bas shatbitad scideg To meshexeces obec ee ee - + ~ = BeORTiO sOTHEI LE BOG www ws 2 os She eQbate fedet Gs eos ee ee see ~ = = ~ HTSSGSIt woHTtH .é “cidgtiqia Sac: awobots ‘toner? .3 -— = = = = ssyenstsy das 97009".3 f eatesviad bac cleanest to efaigel .? ee ee Hee ele tee = aie oro0lt 23 “sew ee ee ee + + etn seses soot .f a we hie oe Hee = ~2dREe sHodartqiwicolt .¢ -_+ =< +4 = ss esis bas siziad to et0aLt .¢ “=— ssote [etottitiea.jorst00lF .> eww ee me eee He eH et00Lt sabe .¢ = + + * = =B0tbLied to ese to‘saendess! 2% -- + - - ~ *88ftote To fodseisdo bas Tagtsa .f - -esoin709 bas assetp0d oniite .wefiet.asts% .S meee ewe eee me = BOLTS) TOtSH x a a es alge Cae Se ort OSEENOS Babs), 2 “7s ee Se ee +e wl wee © )* Beotntod: Ly - + + 2 = + wis se90teteo to ancktasszedsl 26 -ersdrou Isfnosii0d ys dbstarsyea Jon estsore .f --- + ~ -Gwobsiw yed),foinosisd ,asiaeils? ..b - efisbastey bas asinosisd ,selfasiisS .© _—-~-—-— - — = 89fm0els7 bs5 arobars si .9 ee ~ = eriste -¢ | ~agzsttses duedsin- bas dtiw eatas2..x ee ie + i a S adfuey wo ierteds.. 5 i, Sas -~_- —-— = -_- -_ it - ~~! -~— = eo ~ -——- = ' re ' ‘ 272 4, Limiting forms of materials- - - ------ - - 163 ‘be Special on dcors and windews - -------+-+-+- 164 1. Windows of houses- --------------- 164 a. Gellar windows --- 27202242222 42 2 2 = = 165 @. Windows in basement- -+-------- se y. ‘Architraves of windows ----------=-= 167 8. So-called ears --------- eee eee 169 ©. Window cars- ---------- eee ee ee 170 t. Window sills ---------+------+-%- 174 n. ‘Abnormal forms of windows- - --------- 177 &. Abnormal forms of caps vy ve *2*+e22e2 222 2 179 8. Forms of pediment caps ------------ 183. K. Cap with consoles- ----<" <----+-+-+=+<-"=-= 185 2. Windows of public buildings and palaces- - - - - 186 2. Church windows ----------------- 1899 4. Wheel window ------ +--+ 1989 5. Window tracery -------- eee eee eee 190 6. Transot windows and skylights- --------- 150 1, & Doors and gateways- - ------------ 191. 9.- Fortals ‘of tunnels and culverts- -----~-~—== 193 BE. Floors -<-- -* << - - se e e- ee he me ea Ke 194 1. Stone pavements-- ---- - oe om rm oe a 194 2, Floors’ oft stone! slabs et} — ~- — ~~ ee 195 $. floors’ of bricks! end: tiles! < + si - — = ~ Se 195 4, Ploopmofiartificidl stent = ae 156 5. Wooden floors —- - 4+ = +3 -- +e - ee =e 196 i. Treatment of wass of building- ------------ 196 4. Beight ant character of-stories- - - -<- <= == ——3 196 2. Water tables, string courses and ‘cornices= =< =- <== 198 ao. Water tables -----+- + ee ree eer rere ise 6.¥ String woersebl Ht 4) a a 198 ¥i.3 Cornhees: ons “ELF eek ep St ee oe ee 201 &. Interruptions of corntces= * - +--+ = eS 204 3, Stories not separated ty horizontal members- - - - - 205 4.: Galleries, ‘balconies, bay windorws- - ----<-=<--= ‘205. a. Galleries, ‘talconies and verandahs ----<---- ‘205 G. Bay! windows: and balconies 4 es = SS ee 206 5. Staines 9¢ SMe He ee Re Sr 207 - a. Stairs with and without carriages- -------- 207 6.) stage on vadlte- oars Boe Rie = ee me 204 - ' t -_~ - - - al - - ~~ ~ -” - - - a. - igareerares to esbsstaniei .y | SIE E 7° -nofto01t ga05 ~_— — = om - -_ - — ~~ - to efsnec efank «6 ---- ajaibasd ,2 atkets gatiate vie -+ + + — =,- egonor * satowoy, Io easll .x etowot woidevisad0 .9 ~~ + ~gtewot [isa .y ~ seyenot to stood .é ' 3 ~~ ee =~ -glool ~~ ~elien To tedde2 ~ = ~ #1091 to am1oF -gnis9vo0 Yook ‘swobotm. 132705 *+-- + + ex¢oonisd etcooa to anottstoosd -~ ~eiiso yo tmentded v4 ~ - wakdoutdgeo> anosé .9 -~--- -.~ aottouitecos dois “yuigosss ioind oas saote dSexti 2+ ~ + + = -g0it0071F2 909: hoot +S9ffo0iteuo> sposs: Sas: beog, bort' -e- este - - ~~ Hoktoprtenes, [stout Soon bac saofs ,morr. baer ~~ = -08l3 to Tasnsaqce171h ~ - «nantiited. Io eaoktoe2 -sebeont t2v00' bas eabsos? ~ + ~ es0ibitud to ebatii agetolios isistioors94 of ~ - ~ > a ~” ~ + + = -pagued: ytd je = wyet ele goorgd) ~-- + + selestesed - + “bro seuzobsaye _~ -eehistoneso, deiwel eyesore eB foodad.-y + 4. 4 * yisuicnd ov cmon mgd|rth 28 _- *- e -Sasd5ih. wy ~elied epzef Rarsiataco santblied .2 ~ + ~~ +elfed Iexveves pninistacd .8 “4 ra ; AY el ofl J ol “ye “7 23 oh te} y. Ealustredes of stairs- ------------- 208 6, Angle newels of stairs ------------- 208 ¢. bandings -----+----- Seay. stm. Som shank eel res tine ae 208 x, Winding uteirs ----------------- 209 | 6. lowers - -- --- - - ee eee ee ee ee ee ee 240 a. Plans of towerse ++ se eee ee memaaia a om 210 3. Observation towers - --------------- 210 y. Bell towers--- - --- - eee em me eee 241 58. Roofs of towers- ---------- ee ee eee 241 G Roofs- ----- 2 -- eee ee ee er er ee eee ee 2142 1. Fatter of walls- --------- -- - eee eee 213 2. Forms of reofs --------- ee ee ee ee ee 213 3. Roof covering- ------- ee eee ee eee 214 4. Dorwer windows ----° fr ------- ee ee ee = 215 5. Chimneys ------ eee ete ere etree i -— 5 6. Decorations of roofs - --------------- 216 7, Fediment or gable- - ----------=- 5-546 216 H. Stone construction --------- - eee ee ee 239 I. Erick construction ----- ---- ee ee er ee 248 ke Hixed stone and brick masonry- ---- --- - = 7+ == 219. Le Wood construction- ------ e+e" rer et e ee 220 ¥. Hized wood and stone construction- --------=-= 220 N. Hetady construcbieons=ste. -o~ - oo = ee 221 CO. Hixed iron, stone and wood construction- - ------ 222 Fev Arrangement of :flam-i- oa ss & « sastosoions ,eavfyes .elstiqeod .2 eee te ae - = + = -agathliod ersttiit .s eanottididcs .ateiten ,ecottsts yewftea .2 ertotieds .pabsbanot .gelttotostuaed «6 ~ - ~ bd ~ - ~ oo - - ~ ~ eotroveviseto ,emuriesos ,edies .» --++-+-~ + + = tasusiftes Ie eseu0t .5 meen ee ee eo ee oBiled tr99000 .2 ~ewe new ee oe ~ ~ = welied gatoasd .0L hie < me me we = bo + = we BeaebOG? wt ~—-=--~ = -8h0tblted ssrtto bus gasd .sl be we ee eee ee ~~ = Bll B oWol .f! asoitto dastzclos bae feoq ,eeiutataii .b! *asttsitooe bee eduf> tot esesod ,gomtes> .¢l ~- - egoiito al ~pefisotevisacoS — ~ - - - - > a —_ n = - -~ - - ~ ~- al ~ ~ byooex ,anconow ,asiterdid .3f ~-—--+ anotyes ,eletrgeok .\f ~~ - ~ efefieete ,sisertsd .Si .Bigiten ,esortate yaafliss .ef -- ~- ~etaka ,settoostruad .Of asriossyvesio ,edvsed .ff -~-2-+- == 2649 %. Cecorations for festivals- ----------+---°- 268 peli aah i mS i eae wt % F Mahe Li ay fet ary dh bul Yenc i i nM fs iy be raat } nite ‘ yan i Ny, if