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Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
The Iron Age, N.Y,
This work is intended to be a hand-book for the fireman, pur-
chaser, and user of boilers, rather than for the boiler-maker or
scientific man. The work is somewhat smaller than the other
hand-books by the same author. It is, however, bound in uni-
form style with them. Most of the common forms of boilers
are illustrated, as well as many of those not usually seen. The
author aims, he tells us, at a dissemination of plain, practical,
and correct information in regard to the functions of the steam-
boiler, its care and management. The work, as a whole, is valu-
_ able, presenting in a compact form many of the tables, facts,
and figures which have heretofore been scattered among a wide
range of authorities.
Engineering News, Chicago, Ill,
Mr. Roper is the author of several well-known hand-books
relating to the steam-engine, and steam machinery in general.
In this, his latest work, he states that his object is “simply to
show what the results of his thirty years’ personal experience
with all classes of boilers prove to be the safest and most dura-
ble materials for their manufacture, to show the absolute ne-
cessity of good workmanship in their construction, and to call
the attention of owners, engineers, and firemen to the rules that
limit their usefulness, safety, and longevity.” As in all his
other hand-books, the writer addresses himself to men of ordi-
nary intelligence,— those found in charge of steam-engines and
boilers,—and in consequence his book is written in the plainest
and most intelligible language that can be chosen. We have not
the time, nor possibly the necessary amount of practical knowl-
edge of all the latest improvements in steam-boilers, to criticise
closely and intelligently the contents of the book, but in con-
nection with it we would call attention to the large number
1
USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER,.
of boiler explosions, attended with great loss of life, that have
recently occurred in this country and in England, and which,
upon investigation, have been proven to be the results of igno-
rance and carelessness on the part of attendants, and we cannot
but think that steam-users would find it greatly to their advan-
tage if such plain handy-books as those of Mr. Roper’s were
placed in the hands of every attendant upon a steam-boiler or
engine, and his attention called to the advantage of making
himself familiar with its contents.
The Locomotive, Hartford, Conn,
“UsE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.’”’—Stephen
Roper, of Philadelphia, is the author of several hand-books on
Steam-Engineering, which we have noticed in the LOCOMOTIVE,
from time to time, as they have been issued. Their great merit
is, that they are adapted to the wants of those whose circum-
stances had prevented them from obtaining such an education
as will enable them to cope with the various formule that enter —
into the higher branches of steam-engineering. Most works
on steam shoot over the heads of this class of people. And yet,
when we come to the matter of actually handling a boiler, or
an engine in use, their practical experience is invaluable.
We have said thus much by way of introducing a new work
which Mr. Roper has just issued, viz., USE AND ABUSE OF THE
STHAM-BOILER. This contains just the kind of information
that a person having the care of steam-boilers needs, and
such information as we have put forth in our various pub-
lications from time to time. We heartily recommend it to all
persons who have to do with steam-boilers, whether as proprie-
tors or engineers. The hand-books which Mr. Roper has issued
are as follows: ‘‘ Catechism of Steam-Engines,” ‘ Hand-Book
of the Locomotive,” ‘‘ Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-En-
gines,” “ Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Use and
Abuse of the Steam-Boiler.”
Mr. Roper’s address is 447 North Broad Street, Philadelphia,
and those having the care of steam-boilers cannot do better
than address him on the subject.
2
USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.
The Newark Artisan, Newark, N, J,
We have, from time to time, favorably noticed the publica-
tions, relating to the steam-engine proper and its collaterals, by
Stephen Roper, 447 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pa., and
published by Messrs. Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger of that
city. The recent publication, USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-
BOILER, meets our most hearty approval, as embodying fully
all its title indicates. The work is entirely devoid of abstruse
terms, and comes squarely down to the understanding of the
ordinarily educated mechanic in so plain a manner as cannot
be misunderstood. As we have said of Mr. Roper’s previous
publications, we now say of this,—that employers can do them-
selves no greater service than placing a copy of this work in
the hands of the employé in charge of their engines.
North-western Lumberman, Chicago, Ill,
As the author of “ Roper’s Hand-Book of the Eeattaitve, ?
‘“‘ Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,’’ “‘ Roper’s
Catechism of High Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-En-
- gines,” and of other valuable contributions to our mechanical
literature, Mr. Roper needs no introduction to such of our
readers as are interested in steam machinery. Like his former
works, the USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER is emi-
nently practical in its character and designed for the use of
practical men. ‘Bearing in mind the difficulty which ordinary
mechanics experience in endeavoring, as they sometimes do, to
extract information from books of a scientific nature, he has
used plain, clear language, to convey his meaning instead of
ambiguous scientific terms, and where it has been necessary to
give mathematical information, has employed simple arith-
metical calculations, in lien of abstruse algebraic formule.
From an experience with boilers and steam machinery extend-
_ ing over a period of thirty years, Mr. Roper has been able to
gather an amount of practical knowledge which, combined with
that derived from other sources and condensed and arranged
3
USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.,
in the convenient form in which we find it, makes one of the
most valuable books for reference and instruction, in this par-
ticular department, to be found in the language. It is wide in
its scope, and includes besides a full description and explanation
of nearly all the different styles of boilers which the genius of
the nineteenth century inventor has produced, how best to use
and preserve them and their attachments; a large quantity of
additional matter in the way of rules for estimating the strength
of materials, safe working pressure, horse-power and heating
surface of steam-boilers, etc., ete. The tables, which are plen-
tifully interspersed throughout the work—and which are
fortunately arranged so as to be comprehensible even to those
who are not Ph. D.’s —also contain within a small space a vast
amount of information which is of practical value to the every-
day engineer. It is printed in large, clear type, and bound in
morocco, in handy, pocket-book form, and is in all respects a
volume which every one interested in steam will be the pi
and wiser for having in his possession.
National Carbullder, New York City.
This is a very compact and comprehensive pocket manual,
and is the only book that has been published in this country
devoted exclusively to this subject. The various kinds of steam-
boilers now in use, comprising stationary, locomotive, fire and
marine, are illustrated and described. Rules are given for esti-
mating strength of materials, safe working pressure, horse-
power, heating surface, ete. Nothing is omitted pertaining to
the functions, care, and management of boilers. The yolume is
a plain, practical treatise, devoid of scientific technicalities and
algebraic formulas, and can be easily understood by the ordi-
nary reader. It should be in the hands of every mechanic in
charge of steam-boilers. There is a general and analytical
index.
4
- USE AND ABUSE
OF
THE STEAM-BOILER
BY
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER,
Author of
‘Roper’s Catechism of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steame
Engines,” “ Roper’s Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” “ Roper’s
Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s
Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “ Roper’s
Handy-Book for Engineers,” “ Roper’s Improve-
ments in Steam-Engines”, etc., etc,
With Kilusteations,
ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED.
PHILADELPHIA:
EDWARD MEEKS,
1012 Watyvur Srreer,
1890,
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by
EDWARD MEEKS,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
Prete rere Cree eeererrrrr ees eeee rere ever er eee eee a errerr reer ever rrre rrr recer retirees eee eee 1) =
am Oe
a> ©
Roos
\QAU
TO
JAMES M. ALLEN, Eso.,
PRESIDENT OF THE HARTFORD STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION
AND INSURANCE COMPANY,
This Volume
IS
RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED
BY
THE AUTHOR,
As amark of appreciation of the eminent services which he has
rendered humanity by his thorough investigations into
the causes of steam-boiler explosions, by means
of which they have been stripped of
e their apparent mystery and
assigned to real
causes,
ili
INTRODUCTION,
‘TT is not the writer’s intention to enter into an elab-
orate discussion on the relative merits of the dif-
ferent varieties of boilers now in use, nor on the open
and unsettled questions connected with steam-boiler
engineering, such as the horse-power of boilers, the
quantity of grate and heating surface which should
constitute the commercial horse-power, the propor-
tion of safety-valves to grate and heating surface, or
what part of the shell, flues, or tubes of a boiler
should be considered heating surface. His object
being simply to show what the results gathered from
experience prove to be the safest and most durable
materials for their manufacture, to show the absolute
necessity of good workmanship in their construction,
and to call the attention of owners, engineers, and
firemen to the evils that limit their usefulness, safety,
and longevity. ;
The writer’s experience with all classes of boilers
extends over a period of thirty years, which enables
him to fully understand the kind of information
most needed by the men generally found in charge
eure Sie ¥
vi INTRODUCTION.
of them, and he has tried to convey his meaning in
language so plain that it may be understood by any
person of ordinary intellect. Of what use are alge-
braical formule to men who do not fully understand
them? Do we not write and speak to make our-
selves understood? If so, why should anything be
embodied in a work on the care and management of
steam-boilers which persons of the most limited
education cannot comprehend? Until quite recently,
it was impossible, for persons needing information, to
procure a plain, practical treatise on this subject;
this arose, perhaps, from the fact, that men who had
attained proficiency in this line of business had no
taste for devoting their time to writing, and that
those whose circumstances enabled them to do so
were prevented by a want of that practical knowl-
edge which can only be obtained by years of hard
work, close study and observation.
The great mistake of many writers on the steam-
boiler and steam-engine is, that they write too much ;
if they would condense and render such explanations
as would.come within the comprehension of men of
ordinary intelligence, they would do more to diffuse
information among the class of men for whom they
pretend to write than by writing elaborate treatises,
INTRODUCTION, © Vii
replete with algebraical formule and purely scien-
tific terms, and couched in language incapable of
being understood by the very men who most need
the information, leaving them to interpret the mean-
ing as best they may. What engineers and mechanics
generally want is perspicuous and terse language,
concise expressions and clear explanations.
It is also quite customary for writers on the steam-
boiler to regale their readers with accounts of the
able researches of Joule, Peclet, Rankine, and others;
in the’ field of Thermo-dynamics, which, however
edifying to the writers themselves, can be of no value
to men having charge of steam-boilers, as not one in
one thousand of them, even if they could procure
these scientific theories, (which is extremely doubtful,
as the researches of Joule and Peclet were never
published in the English language,) would be able to
decipher or understand them; and Rankine’s works,
though quite common, are nevertheless beyond the
comprehension of the majority of men in charge of
steam-boilers. There is far greater need for the dis-
semination of plain, practical, and correct information
in regard to the functions of the steam-boiler, its care
and management, than of the steam-engine, because
the former is more subject to the uncertainties of
Vill INTRODUCTION.
indiscretion and ignorance than the latter, and in the
case of the former, neglect is attended with more
serious results. .
Rules are given for estimating the strength of
materials, safe working pressure, horse-power and
heating surface of steam-boilers, the collapsing pres-
sure of flues, etc., and also the aggregate strain to
which boiler shells and flues are subjected when in
use, as a knowledge of the material so extensively
employed in the construction of steam-boilers, and
the strains to which they are subjected, must be of
great value to engineers, whether engaged in the
construction of new or in the repairing of old ones.
In fact, it has been the main object of the writer, in
the preparation of this book, to put in practical shape,
for the benefit of engineers and steam-users, the in-
formation collected from his own experience, as well
as from other reliable sources; and while, in the
preparation of the book, it became necessary to dis-
cuss the relative merits and peculiarities of a great
variety of steam-generators, the writer has endeavored
to do so without prejudice, and solely with the view
of benefiting the class of persons for whom the book
was intended. 8S. R.
CONTENTS.
For a full reference to the Contents in detail, see Index,
page 341. ‘
5 PAGE
ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOILER . ; ; PLO
STrEAM-BOILERS : ; ‘ ? ‘ Rees Ws
DESIGN OF STEAM-BOILERS .. , ; : oe ont)
ForMs OF STEAM-BOILERS P ‘ ; on OT
THE PLAIN CYLINDER BOILER ; ‘ F au 28
THE FLUE BOILER . : J ‘ . F . 28
THE TUBULAR BOILER . ; 5 ; . PRE
THE DOUBLE-DECK BOILER . : r ‘ 31
THE DROP-FLUE BOILER. ‘ i . P Sige
THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER : ; , ’ . 83
FIRE-BOX BOILERS . F j ; : A pet
TUBULOUS BOILERS . ! ; ‘ : ‘ . oo
S1zE OF BOILERS : ‘ . , , rae ¥ 6
SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILERS . ; : 88
MARINE BOILERS . , AL, 49, 46
Table showing the Nimbes of Bidars Feet of
Heating Surface to 1 Square Foot of Grate Sur-
face in the Boilers of noted Ocean, River, and
Ferry-boat Steamers . : ; : é . 47
BOILER-HEADS . ; : F : . “ 8 HO
STEAM-DOMES . - ; ‘ P : . . Oa
MUD-DRUMS. ‘ 56
W ATER-SPACE AND ee -ROOM IN aay as BOILERS 58
ix
x CONTENTS.
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS AND
THICKNESS OF BOILER-PLATE . : : ‘
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS . : ; .
EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS .
CLAPP AND JONES’ VERTICAL CIRCULATING TUBU-
LAR BOILER 5 : : . ; 1 ;
METHODS OF TESTING THE EVAPORATIVE EFFI-
CIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS : : : ;
“PROPORTION OF GRATE SURFACE TO HEATING
SURFACE. jo +. : ‘ F : ‘ :
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM-
BOILERS . 3 , 2 ; HG ,
INTERNAL GROOVING IN STEAM-BOILERS : :
SILSBY’S VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILER . , ‘
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF. BOILERS . ‘
‘-HEATING-SURFACE OF STEAM-BOILERS . ; 4
Rules for finding the Heating-surface of Steam-
boilers : ; ? E , : E 5
THE LATTA STEEL COIL-BOILE ‘ 2 ; :
HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-BOILERS . ; : A
THE MooRHOUSE SAFETY SECTIONAL BOILER :
SETTING STEAM-BOILERS . : : ; : :
TESTING STEAM-BOILERS . ; ‘ ‘
REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS . ; ; ;
NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS . ‘ : ; ;
THE WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER. , ‘ ;
SAFE WORKING PRESSURE OF STEAM-BOILERS :
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Steel Boilers.
Table of Safe Internal. Pressures for Iron Boilers.
THE ROGER’s AND BLACK BOILER . , ; é
SELECTION OF STEAM-BOILERS. ; i ; ;
PULSATION IN STEAM-BOILERS ; ; 4 :
PIERCE’S ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER : A :
PAGE
59
61
63
69
70
73.
73
78
80
80
83
87
89
92
98
100
. 108
. 107
110
111
115
119
128
129
129
131
133
CONTENTS,
LOCATION OF STEAM-BOILERS . ; :
THE HARRISON BOILER . : : : ‘
BOILER-FLUES . : :
Table of Squares of Thickntes of Ten ane Gar
stant Numbers to be used in Auda the Safe
External Pressure for Boiler-flues
Table of Safe Working External Pressures on
Flues 10 Feet long
Table of Safe Working Eutenial Beccares on
Flues 20 Feet long
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF Wrovenn IRON chee aes
FLUES 4 INCH THICK .
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF Wrovdene TRON Boreas
FLUES 7°, INCH THICK
' COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF Wrowae? -IRON Borie:
FLUES 3 INCH THICK.
Rahat PRESSURE OF WrougEe IRON Bonne
FLUES 7; INCH THICK ; ‘ ; j
THE SHAPLEY BOILER } : ; ‘
BoILeR TUBES . ; ; ‘ é :
THE PHLEGER BOILER . ; :
Tables of Superficial Areas of External Buibfated
of Tubes of Various Lengths, Diameters in
Square Feet ;
Table of Superficial hiene of Tubes of different
Lengths and Diameters from 23 to 3 Inches and
from 8 to 20 Feet : ;
Srmam- BOILER CONNECTIONS AND Movtenu terra ;
GAUGE-COCKS . : ‘ : .
STEAM-GAUGES. P , A : y 4 :
GLASS WATER-GAUGES ., : ( ‘ "
THE BABcock AND WILCOX’S Serra STEAM-
BOILER . . . .) . L] e ‘J
xii CONTENTS.
SAFETY-VALVES : : : :
Table showing the Tike of Safety- Walves, { in parts
of an Inch at different Pressures : : :
Table of Comparison between Experimental
Results and Theoretical Formule .
RURES SO eras TS AE SR meee tire oh,
WITTINGHAM’S ToRuLods BortER. 5 ° 5
FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS . é . ‘ P
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS . : : ‘
PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF SCALE IN STEAM-
BOILERS . F , : ‘ ; ‘ ,
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS . ; : i
EXPERIMENTAL BOILER EXPLOSIONS . , ‘
THE Root BoILER . : : i :
VAGARIES OF EXPERTS IN REGARD To STEAM-
BOILER EXPLOSIONS . " : ‘ ‘ A
DEFECTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM-BOILERS. ; P Aree
THE ALLEN BOILER. : : ; : é :
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS. ah
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING . j , ‘ ‘
DAMPERS . : ( ; ‘ ; : , ;
STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION . ;
Rules for finding the Quantity of Water whih
Boilers and other Cylindrical Vessels are capa-
ble of Containing . 5 i : ;
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF Furi ON STEAM-
BOILERS . c : ; ‘ é , ;
BoILER MATERIALS. ‘ : ; d 4 :
STEEL : : s : f ‘ Q ‘
STRENGTH OF IRON BoILER- PLATE. 4 ? i
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER
MATERIALS : : ; : ‘ ; :
277
CONTENTS.
PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLEs FOR BOILER SEAMS. 281
Table showing the Strength of Welded Boiler-
plates. ; 3 : . ‘ . 286
PATENT BOILERS Zot
THE GALLOWAY BOILER. i's ame
STRENGTH OF RIVETED SEAMS . 290
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE- AND Taine:
RIVETED SEAMS, (i291
HAND- AND MACHINE-RIVETING . 298
COUNTER-SUNK RIVETS . 295
RIVETS . 296
Table hie ae irntter ine Pitch of Heats ae
different Thicknesses of Plate e297
STRENGTH OF STAYED AND FLAT BOILER Sie las 297
BOILER-STAYS . . 299
STAY-BOLTS . ol
CALKING . : . 303
TESTING-MACHINES . . 3808
FEED-WATER HEATERS . . 809
Table showing the Units of Héas eared ie oa.
vert One Pound of Water, at the Temperature
of 32° Fah., into Steam at different Pressures
GRATE-BARS
CHIMNEYS. ;
Table showing ae Prones Diet vi Height
of Chimney for any kind of Fuel
of Area of Section of the Chimney . ;
SMOKE : ;
CONTRIVANCES FOR > dacetaeaa Da iiene AND
ECONOMIZING FUEL IN BOILER FURNACES .
2
xiii
PAGE
. 311
. 314
. 815
. 317
Table showing Heights of Chimneys for Draduoltce
certain Rates of Combustion per Square Foot
. 318
» 319
321
xiv CONTENTS.
Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought-
iron at various Temperatures. : . 824
Table showing the Linear Dilatations of Bislida
by Heat . : . 826
Table deduced from ix nenenr erie on Loh Plates
for Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute,
Philadelphia . . 826
Table showing the Readies af Experiments er
on different Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. . . 827
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from
3 to 13 Inches in Diameter. ‘ . 828
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates per
Superficial Foot as per Thickness. . 828
Table showing the Weight of Round-iron fou 4
an Inch to 6 Inches Diameter, One Foot Long. 329
Table showing the Weight of Boiler-plates One
Foot Square and from ysth to an Inch Thick . 880
Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron from
4 an Inch to 6 Inches Square, One Foot Long . 330
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes,
One Foot in Length, from } Inch to 14 Inches
Thick, and from 3 to 24 Inches Diameter. . 8381
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various
Qualities of American and English Cast-iron . 332
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various
Qualities of American Wrought-iron. ‘ . 8383
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various
Qualities of English Maa: : ; . 834
To PotisH Brass. ‘ iy Meee . 334
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS i: REE OBO
STEAM-DAMPERS . aa . ; . 339
INDEX gery ; “ f : ; " . 341
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
PAGE
ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOILER . a ee . Le
PLAIN CYLINDER BOILER é A ; , 4 28
FLUE-BOILER . : : ; i - ; 3 29
TuBULAR BorueR . : ; z ? ' 3 30
DOUBLE-DECK BOILER . 3 ‘ . : 31
DRoP-FLUE BOILER Lf : : ; : Ca ee
LocoMoTIvE BoILER . : ; ¢ : < 33
MARINE BoILERS . , ; ‘ zi “ 42, 46
BorLER-HEADS , ‘ , : ; é ; ye DO
STEAM-DOME . ; * ¥ ; é : : ne
Mup-pRuM .. : . : 56
VERTICAL TUBULAR BorLers é ‘ pets 68
THe LATTA STEAM-BOILER . : ‘ 90, 91
MooRHOUSE SAFETY SECTIONAL Borner d : 99
WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER : ; : : : 112
RoGErR’s AND BuAcK Borer. : : 2 : hes
Piprce’s RoTary TUBULAR BOILER . ‘ ; paket:
THE HARRISON SECTIONAL BOILER ; } : . 189
THE SHAPLEY BOILER . ‘ . i : : . 154
Tue PHLEGER BoILER . : , ; : ; . 159
(GGAUGE-COCKS : : , ; E , - . 168
STHAM-GAUGES ‘ : ; - . ; A . 170
GuAss WATER-GAUGES £ 173
Taw BABcocK AND WILCOX’s SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILER 175
THE SAFETY-VALVE ‘ : : ; . 176
WITTINGHAM’s TUBULOUS Boruer. N 189
EXPLODED BoILER OF THE FERRY-BOAT “ WESTFIELD. ” 208
Exprniopep BorLerR oF THE ‘“ CHARLES WILLARD.” 222.
- THE Root Borer . se l6
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING DEFECTS | IN STEAM-BOILERS . 231
THE ALLEN BoILER ; ; : : F : 205
RIVETED SEAMS. , F : } ; ; . 293
CALKING ; : j , : : : . 804
CHIMNEYS . é ; - . ; ; . 816
AUTOMATIC STEAM-DAMPER : } 2 ; : $2009
ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOiLER.
USE AND ABUSE
OF
THE STEAM-BOILER.
STEAM-BOILERS.
STEAM-BOILER may be defined as a close
vessel, in which steam is generated. It may
assume an endless variety of forms, and can be con-
structed of various materials.
Since the introduction of steam as a motive power,
a great variety of boilers has been designed, tried,
and abandoned; while many others, having little or
no merit as steam-generators, have their advocates,
and are still continued in use. Under such circum-
2* B 17
18 USE AND ABUSE OF
stances, it is not surprising that quite a variety of
opinions are held on the subject. This difference of
opinion relates not only to the form of boiler best
adapted to supply the greatest quantity of steam with
the least expenditure of fuel, but also to the dimen-
sions or capacity suitable for an engine of a given
number of horse-power; and while great improve-
ments have been made in the manufacture of boiler
materials within the past fifteen years, yet the
number of inferior steam-boilers seems to increase
rather than diminish. It would be difficult to
assign any reasonable cause for this, except that, of
late years, nearly the whole attention of theoretical
and mechanical engineers has been directed to the
improvement and perfection of the steam-engine, and
practical engineers, following the example set by the
leaders, devote their energies to the same object.
This is to be regretted, as the construction and
application of the steam-boiler, like the steam-engine,
is deserving of the most thorough and scientific study,
as on the basis of its employment rest some of the
most important interests of civilization. Until quite
recently, the idea was very generally entertained that
the purely mechanical skill required to enable a
person to join together pieces of metal, and thereby
form a steam-tight and water-tight vessel of given
dimension, to be used for the generation of steam ta
work an engine, was all that was needed; experience
has shown, however, that this is but a small portion
THE STEAM-BOILER, 19
of the knowledge that should be possessed by persons
who turn their attention to the design and construc-
tion of steam-boilers, as the knowledge wanted for
this end is of a scientific as well as of a mechanical
nature.
As the boiler is the source of power, and the place
where the power to be applied is first generated, and
also the source from which the most dangerous con-
sequences may arise from neglect or ignorance, it
should attract the special attention of the designing
and mechanical engineer, as it is well known that
from the hour it is set to work, it is acted upon by
destroying forces, more or less uncontrollable in their
work of destruction. These forces may be distin-
guished as chemical and mechanical. In most cases
they operate independently, though they are fre-
quently found acting conjointly in bringing about
the destruction of the boiler, which will be more or
less rapid according to circumstances of design, con-
struction, quality of material, management, etc.
The causes which most affect the integrity of
boilers and limit their usefulness, are either inherent
in the material or due to a want of skill in their
construction and management; they may be enumer-
ated as follows:
First, inferior material; second, slag, sand, or
cinders being rolled into the iron; third, want of
lamination in the sheets; fourth, the overstretching
of the fibre of the plate on one side and puckering on
20 USE AND ABUSE OF
the other in the process of rolling, to form the circle
for the shell of a boiler; fifth, injuries done the plate
in the process of punching; szath, damage induced
by the use of the drift-pin; seventh, carelessness in
rolling the sheets to form the shell, as a result of
which the reams, instead of fitting each other exactly,
have in many instances to be drawn together by
bolts, which aggravates the evils of expansion and
contraction when the boiler is in use; eighth, injury
done the plates by a want of skill in the use of the
hammer in the process of hand-riveting; ninth,
damage done in the process of calking.
Other causes of deterioration are unequal expan-
sion and contraction, resulting from a want of skill
in setting; grooving in the vicinity of the seams ;
internal and external corrosion; blowing out the ©
boiler when under a high pressure and filling it again
with cold water when hot; allowing the fire to burn
too rapidly after starting, when the boiler is cold;
ignorance of the use of the pick in the process of -
scaling and cleaning ; incapacity of the safety-valve ;
excessive firing; urging or taxing the boiler beyond
its safe and easy working capacity; allowing the
water to become low and thus causing undue expan-
sion; deposits of scale accumulating on the parts
exposed to the direct action of the fire, thereby
burning or crystallizing the sheets or shell; wasting
of the material by leakage and corrosion ; bad design
and construction of the different parts; inferior
THE STEAM-BOILER. 21
workmanship and ignorance in the care and manage-
ment. All these tend with unerring certainty to
limit the age and safety of steam-boilers.
On account of want of skill on the part of the
designer and avarice on the part of the manufac-
turer, or, perhaps, both reasons, boilers are some-
times so constructed as to bring a riveted seam
directly over the fire, the result of which is, that in
consequence of one lap covering the other the water
is prevented from getting to the one nearest the fire,
for which reason the lap nearest the fire becomes
hotter and expands to a much greater extent than
any other part of the plate; and its constant un-
~ equal expansion and contraction, as the boiler be-
comes alternately hot and cold, inevitably results
ina crack. Such blunders are aggravated by the
scale and sediment being retained on the inside,
between the heads of the rivets, which can never be
properly removed in cleaning.
The tendency of manufacturers to work boilers
beyond their capacity, especially when business is
driving, is too great in this country; and no doubt
many boiler explosions may be attributed to this
cause. Boilers are bought adapted to the wants of
the manufactory at the time, but, as business in-
creases, machinery is added to supply the demand
for goods, until the engine is overtasked, the boiler
strained and rendered positively dangerous. Then,
again, it not unfrequently occurs that engines in
22- USE AND ABUSE OF
manufactories are taken out and replaced by those
of increased power, while the boilers used with the
old engine are retained in place, with more or less
cleaning and patching, as the case may require.
Now, it is evident to any practical mind that boilers
constructed for a twenty-horse power engine are ill
adapted to an engine of forty-horse power, more
especially if those boilers have been used for a
number of years. In order to supply sufficient
steam for the new engine, with a cylinder of in-
creased capacity, the boiler must be worked beyond
its safe working pressure, consequently excessive
heating and pressure greatly weaken it and endan-
ger the lives of those employed in the vicinity.
The danger and impracticability of using boilers
with too limited steam-room may be explained thus:
Suppose the entire steam-room in a boiler to be six
cubic feet, and the contents of the cylinder which it
supplies to be two cubic feet; then, at each stroke of
the piston, one-third of all the steam in the boilers
is discharged, and consequently one-third of the
pressure on the surface of the water before that
stroke is relieved; hence it will be seen that exces-
sive fires must be kept up in order to generate steam
of sufficiently high temperature and pressure to
supply the demand. The result is that the boilers
are strained and burned. Such economy in boiler:
power is exceedingly expensive in fuel, to say
nothing of the danger. Excessive firing distorts
THE STEAM-BOILER. 23
the fire-sheets, causing leakage, undue and unequal
expansion and contraction, fractures, and the conse-
quent evils arising from external corrosion. Exces-
sive pressure arises generally from a desire on the
part of the steam-user to make a boiler do double
the work for which it was originally intended. A
boiler that is constructed to work safely at from
fifty to sixty pounds was never intended to run at
eighty and ninety pounds; more especially if it had
been in use for several years. Boilers deteriorated
by age should have their pressure decreased, rather
than increased.
One ‘of the first things that should be done in
manufacturing establishments would be to provide
sufficient boiler-power, and, in order to do this, the
work to be done ought to be accurately calculated
and the engine and boilers adapted to the results of
this calculation. Steam-users themselves are fre-
quently to blame for the annoyances and dangers
arising from unsafe boilers and those of insufficient
capacity. For motives of false economy they are
too easily swayed in favor of the cheaper article
simply because it is cheap, when they should con-
sider they are purchasing an article which, of almost
all others, should be made in the most thorough
manner and of the best material. In view of the
fearful explosions that occur from time to time,
every steam-user should secure for his use the best
and the safest. The object of a few dollars, as
24 USE AND ABUSE OF
between the work of a good, responsible maker and
that of an irresponsible one, should not for one
moment be entertained.
It is very bad policy for steam-users to advertise
for estimates for steam-boilers, or to inform all the
boiler-makers in the town or city that a boiler or
boilers to supply steam for an engine of a certain
size is needed, because in this way steam-users fre-
quently find themselves in the hands of needy per-
sons, who, in their anxiety to get an order, will
sometimes ask less for a boiler than they can actu-
ally make it for; consequently, they have to cheat
in the material, in the workmanship, in the heating-
surface, and in the fittings. As a result the boiler
is not only a continual source of annoyance, but, in
many instances, an actual source of danger. The
most prudent course, and in fact the only one that
may be expected to give satisfaction, is to contract
with some responsible manufacturer that has an
established reputation for honesty, capability, and
fair dealing, and who will not allow himself to be
brought in competition with irresponsible parties for
the purpose of selling a boiler.
There are thousands of boilers designed, con-
structed, and set up in such a manner as to render it
utterly impossible to examine, clean, or repair them.
Generally in such cases, in consequence of imperfect
circulation, the water is expelled from the surface of
the iron at the points where the extreme heat from
THE STEAM-BOILER 25
the furnace impinges, and, as a result, the plates
become overheated and bulge outward, which aggra-
vates the evil, as the hollow formed by the bulge
becomes a receptacle for scale and sediment. By
continued overheating the parts become crystallized,
and either crack or blister; this, if not attended to
and remedied, will eventually end in the destruction
of the boiler. Many boilers, to all appearance well
made and of good material, give considerable trouble
by leakage and fracture, owing to the severe strains
of unequal expansion and contraction induced by
their rigid construction, the result of a want of
skill in the original design.
DESIGN OF STEAM-BOILERS.
it has become a general assertion on the part of
writers on the steam-boiler that the most important
object to be attained in its design and arrangement
is thorough combustion of the fuel. This is only
partially true, as there are other conditions equally
important, among which are strength, durability,
safety, economy, and adaptability to the particular
circumstances under which it is to be used. How-
ever complete the combustion may be, unless its
products can be easily and rapidly transferred to
the water, and unless the means of escape of the
steam from the surfaces on which it is generated is
easy and direct, the boiler will fail to produce satis-
3
26 USE AND ABUSE OF
factory results either in point of durability or econ-
omy of fuel.
Strength means the power to sustain the internal
pressure to which the boiler may be subjected in
ordinary use, and under careful and intelligent man-
agement. To secure durability, the material must
be capable of resisting the chemical action of the
minerals contained in the water, and the boiler
ought to be designed so as to produce the least
strain under the highest state of expansion to which
it may be subjected,— be so constructed that all the
parts will be subjected to an equal expansion, con-
traction, push, pull and strain, and be intelligently
and thoroughly cared for after being put in use.
These objects, however, can only be obtained by the
aid of a knowledge of the principles of mechanics,
the strength and resistance of materials, the laws of
expansion and contraction, the action of heat on
bodies, ete. The economy of a steam-boiler is influ-
enced by the following conditions: cost and quantity
of the material, design, character of the workman-
ship employed in its construction, space occupied,
capability of the material to resist the chemical
action of the ingredients contained in the water, the
facilities it affords for the transmission of the heat
from the furnace to the water, ete. The safety of
any structure depends on the designer’s knowledge
of the principles of mechanics, the resistance of
materials, and the action of bodies as influenced by
THE STEAM-BOILER. 27
the elements 'to which they are exposed; and in the
case of steam-boilers the safety depends on the judg-
ment of the designer, the quality of the material,
the character of the workmanship, and the skill
employed in the management. Safety is said to be
incompatible with economy, but this is undoubtedly
a mistake, as an intelligent economy includes per-
manence and seeks durability. Adaptability to the
peculiar purposes for which they are to be used is
one of the first objects to be sought for in the design
and construction of any class of machines, vessels, or
instruments, and it is undoubtedly this that gave
rise to: the great variety of designs, forms, and
modifications of steam-boilers in use at the present
day, which are, with very few exceptions, the result
of thought, study, investigation, and experiment.
FORMS OF STEAM-BOILERS.
According to the well-known law of kydrostatics,
the pressure of steam in a close cylindrical vessel is
‘exerted equally in all directions. In acting against
the circumference of a cylinder, the pressure must
therefore be regarded as radiating from the axis,
and exerting a uniform tensional strain throughout
the enclosing material. The cylindrical form,
whether used for the shell of a boiler in which it
is subjected to internal pressures, or for the flues
through which the gases escape, or for tubes for the
28 USE AND ABUSE OF
circulation of the water, is the form best adapted
for strength, permanence of shape, and cheapness of
construction ; as flat surfaces, when exposed to high
pressures, are positively dangerous, and whenever
any departure from the circular form has been at-
tempted, the result has been a failure.
THE PLAIN CYLINDER BOILER.
The plain cylinder boiler, shown on this page, is
one of the earliest forms of steam-generators, as well
as one of the most simple in construction, and, until
quite recently, one of the most extensively used, but
it is fast passing out of use, except in localities
where economy of fuel is a secondary object. Its
advantages were lightness, moderate first cost, and
that it afforded better facilities for cleaning, repair-
ing, or the renewal of any of its parts, than any
other type of boiler. It also possessed peculiar
advantages for rolling-mill and blast-furnace pur-
poses, as it required little care, and was least danger-
ous on account of the great body of water it con-
THE STEAM-BOILER. 29
tained. Its disadvantages were its great length, es-
pecially in locations where space was of great value;
its waste of fuel, arising from its limited heating
surface; and the great body of useless water it con-
tained, which had to be heated every time the boile»
cooled.
THE FLUE BOILER.
The flue boiler, illustrated above, is a modifi-
cation of the plain cylinder, and is characterized
by an arrangement of one or more flues, generally
two, though in some cases three or even five, running
longitudinally within the shell through which the
smoke and gases from the furnace pass to the
chimney. With the same length and diameter, the
heating surface is much greater than in the cylinder
boiler, consequently it occupies less space, which is
an object of great importance in many instances.
But it has the disadvantages of extra weight, in-
creased first cost, and that it is more difficult. to
3%*
30 USE AND ABUSE OF
clean or repair. It also requires more care on
account of the liability of the flues to become over-
heated and collapse, in case the regular supply of
water should be neglected. Like the cylinder, it is
fast being replaced by other forms.
THE TUBULAR BOILER.
The tubular boiler, a cut of which may be seen on
this page, is similar to the flue, except that, instead of
large return flues, small tubes are used for the escape
of the smoke and gases from the furnace to the
chimney, and the transmission of the heat to the
water. This boiler, with its various modifications, is
probably in more general use for stationary, locomo-
tive, and marine purposes, than any other form. Its
introduction and employment as a steam-generator
formed the basis for some of the most important im-
provements heretofore made in railroad and marine
steam-engineering.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 31
The tubular boiler possesses many advantages, in
an economical point of view, over either the cylinder
or flue, as it occupies less space, and requires less fuel
to evaporate a certain quantity of water in a given
time, and in consequence of the small diameters of
the tubes, their liability to collapse is entirely obvi-
ated. Its great disadvantages are that it is impossible
to clean, and in many instances very difficult to re-
pair. It requires equally as much attention as the
flue boiler, and more than the plain cylinder.
- THE DOUBLE-DECK BOILER.
The double-deck boiler, a cut of which may be
seen on this page, is a combination of the plain cylinder
and tubular. It consists of a tubular and cylinder
boiler, connected together by necks. This kind of
boiler presents an immense amount of heating surface,
as the heat and gases pass under the tubular boiler,
32 USE AND ABUSE OF
return through the tube, and re-return between the
tubular and cylinder shells before passing into the
chimney. It requires less attention than either the
flue or tubular boiler, as in consequence of the tubu-
lar section being continually full of water, and the
upper section or cylinder forming the steam-dome,
there is very little danger of the tubes becoming
stripped. Though it requires considerable room
between joints, it occupies less floor space than the
tubular. Its disadvantages are its extra weight and
first cost, and that it is very difficult to clean or
repair.
THE DROP-FLUE BOILER.
Boilers of this class are generally of a large diam-
eter and are internally fired, the furnace being in the
front end of the boiler, the smoke and heated gases
escaping through the upper flues, returning through
the middle flues, and escaping to the chimney through
THE STEAM-BOILER, 33
the lower tier. They are very efficient, and are fre-
quently employed for marine purposes, but are liable
to crack and become leaky, in consequence of the
unequal expansion and contraction to which the
sheets are exposed at the points where the flues
return.
THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER.
The locomotive boiler, a cut of which is shown
on this page, though not in very general use for
stationary purposes, when well proportioned for its
work, is very economical, as it occupies but little
space, presents an immense amount of heating sur-
face, steams very rapidly, and, when well constructed,
is compact and powerful. This is owing to the fact
that the fuel is burned in a metallic fire-box, sur-
rounded by a water-space which absorbs the heat
that would otherwise be lost in heating the walls of
C
84 USE AND ABUSE OF
a brick furnace, and that the space between tlie
grate-bars and crown-sheet is higher than could be
obtained in any other design or form of boiler. This
is very favorable to combustion. Another advantage
is, that the tubes in such boilers are generally of
small diameter and more numerous, which of itself
is a great advantage, as small boiler-tubes are
capable of producing more satisfactory results than
large ones, as they not only increase the amount of
heating surface, but at the same time can be made
of thiyner material. This admits of the heat being
conducted more rapidly to the water than if they
were large and necessarily thicker. ;
FIRE-BOX BOILERS.
Fire-box boilers are that class of boilers in which
the fuel is consumed in a metal instead of a brick
furnace. It includes all locomotives, nearly all
marine, and a great many boilers used for stationzry
purposes; in fact, all internally-fired boilers may be
said to be fire-box boilers. A wide difference of
opinion among engineers exists in regard to the
economy of fire-box boilers; as, while all agree that
the fire-box increases the weight and first cost, some
claim that more water can be evaporated to each
pound of coal in a fire-box boiler than can be done
in a brick furnace, as, in consequence of a more ex-
tended metallic surface to absorb the heat from the
THE STEAM-BOILER. 85
fuel, more is utilized, and, consequently, less lost:
while, on the other hand, it is asserted that the fire-
box, though possessing advantages in point of con-
venience, has none in point of economy, as, if the
fire-box was cut away from any boiler, and the
shell set up in brick, it would evaporate as many
pounds of water to a pound of coal as when it was
connected with the fire-box. Besides, the fire-box is
likely to corrode, which induces leakage and neces-
sitates repairs.
TUBULOUS BOILERS.
This class of boilers is in very extensive use as
steam generators, and, unlike the tubular, they have
no shell. In the tubular boiler the tubes serve to
convey the flame and heated gases from the fire, and
the expansive force of the steam ‘is controlled by the
shell as well as by the tubes, the former sustaining
an internal pressure, which has a tendency to rupture
it, while the external pressure on the tubes has the
effect of causing them to flatten and collapse. In the
tubulous boiler, on the other hand, there is no shell,
properly so called, and the tubes being filled with hot
water and steam sustain an internal pressure only,
rendering them safer, particularly if the tubes be of
small diameter, as it is well known that a tube of a
moderate thickness of metal is capable of withstand-
ing with safety a pressure which would utterly de-
stroy a boiler of ordinary size.
MILIARITY with Steam Machinery,
more especially with Boilers, is apt to
beget a confidence in the ignorant which is
not founded on a knowledge of the dangers
by which they are continually surrounded ;
while contact with Steam, and a thorough
elementary knowledge of its constituents,
theory, and action, only incline the intelli-
sent Engineer and Fireman to be more cau-
tious and energetic in the discharge of rats
duties.
36
THE STEAM-BOILER. SF
SIZE OF BOILERS.
It is generally understood that the larger a steam-
boiler is for the work to be done the more economi-
cal it will be of fuel, because the combustion is
slower, and consequently more perfect, and the
flames and smoke are thus in contact with the
heated surface a longer time and therefore impart
more of their heat to the water, and that—the water
capacity of a large boiler being greater than that
of a smali one—there is more hot water stored up
for use when the maximum power of the engines
must he exercised, for which reason the fire need
not be forced so much as it would be if it were
necessary to generate all the steam consumed at
such times as fast as it is used. But it must not be
inferred from this that boilers entirely too large for
the services they have to perform are economical, as
an extra large boiler contains a great body of water
and requires an extra quantity of fuel to get up
steam every time it is allowed to cool down.
[t is not unusual to find manufacturers of steam-
boilers recommending a thirty-, or even a forty-horse
power boiler for the purpose of supplying steam to
a twenty-horse power engine. This is very doubtful
economy, as an extra diameter.and length of boiler
necessitates extra strength of material, which in-
duces extra weight and first cost, and an increased
gonsumption of fuel. A. steam-boiler, like any other
4
38 USE AND ABUSE OF
machine, should be proportioned to the purposes for
which it is intended, and its application to that
particular purpose should be the result of mature
deliberation, and be based upon sound calculation,
and not on custom, hearsay, or any other vagaries
that may be popular regarding such things.
It is also quite common for small boilers to be
replaced with large ones for the purpose of furnish-
ing an extra quantity of steam, while, perhaps, the
same sized grate-bars, same area of flue, and same
chimney are used. Such arrangements are generally
influenced either by ignorance or avarice, or perhaps
by both, and are sure to give rise to dissatisfaction
between the boiler-maker and purchaser. Before
purchasing a boiler, it is necessary to know the
maximum quantity of steam that will be needed,
the quality of the fuel, and the character of the
draft, etc. These three things intelligently con-
sidered and decided upon, the heating and grate
surface can be proportioned accordingly, after which,
if the management be careful and intelligent, there
can be no reason why the boiler should not give
satisfaction.
SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILERS,
Sectional boilers consist, essentially, of a system
of tubes, so arranged that a continuous circulation
of the water is maintained through the tubes from
THE STEAM-BOILER. 39
the mechanical action arising from some portions of
the tubes being maintained at a higher temperature
than others, the heated and lighter water ascending
and the cooler and heavier water descending. The
shell is dispensed with, and the heat applied directly
by both radiation and contact to the exterior sur-
faces of the tubes. The idea of sectional steam-
boilers is claimed to have originated with Jacob
Perkins, about the year 1830, and since that time
a great variety of designs and constructions of
that class of steam-generators has been tried, and
nearly all abandoned. This arose partly from a
want of knowledge of the requirements of a steam-
boiler on the part of their designers, a want of skill
in their construction, as well as from a want of
proper tools for their adjustment.
The claim which opened the way for the introduc-
tion of sectional boilers, and one on which their
inventors and advocates have laid so much stress,
namely, that they were non-explosive, and that a
tube, or number of tubes, or even a section, might
explode and do but trifling damage, has not held
good, at least in all cases, as the accidents at Hoopes
& Townsend’s and at Troth & Gordon’s, in Phila-
delphia, show, several men having lost their lives in
both eases; in one, by the explosion of a section, and
in the other by the explosion of the whole boiler.
Why, in the face of these facts, such boilers should
claim to be non-explosive, or safer than ordinary
40 USE AND ABUSE OF
or wrought-iron boilers, is difficult to see. In their
construction large quantities of cast-iron are em-
ployed, and, to be of equal strength with the
wrought-iron, it must of necessity be a great deal
thicker. Now, as it is well known that the thin
part of steam-boilers expands more rapidly than
the thick, and that the limit of the expansion of the
two metals is different, it is plain that some parts of
sectional boilers must be subjected to an enormous
strain, while the strain on other parts will be only
that due to the pressure.
Most sectional boilers have attached to them a
wrought-iron steam-drum, which, except for its
smaller diameter, possesses all the dangers of the
ordinary wrought-iron boiler; and if this drum is
constructed of iron of thinner gauge, or is imperfectly
made, the liability to accidents is the same as in the
case of the wrought-iron boiler. Besides, most sec-
tional boilers are difficult, if not impossible, to clean ;
their first cost is more than that of the ordinary
cylinder, flue, or tubular, while their evaporative
powers are, with very few exceptions, less, and it is
generally admitted that they are slow steamers.
Though they may occupy less ground space than the
ordinary form of steam-boilers, they generally require
more room between floor and ceiling, while nothing
is known of their durability or longevity. Many of
the sectional boilers now in use embody in their
designs nearly all the bad points of the old-fashioned
THE STEAM-BOILER. 41
wrought-iron boilers, without embracing any of the
good ones.
Another great disadvantage inherent in nearly all
sectional boilers, and one which entails a good deal
of annoyance, and incurs a certain amount of danger,
is the great variation in pressure and rapid fluctua-
tion in the water level, whenever they are worked up
to their full capacity. That any of this class of
boilers now in use will be able to supersede (as was
once claimed by their inventors) the ordinary forms
of wrought-iron cylindrical boilers, seems very im-
probable; nor is it at all likely that they will ever
be able, in point of durability, efficiency, or economy,
to successfully compete with them ; still, some recent
forms of sectional steam-boilers are creating very
favorable impressions.
MARINE BOILERS.
There is now, as there always has been, a great
diversity of opinion among engineers in regard to the
true principles upon which to design a marine boiler
which will produce the greatest effect with the least
stowage, first cost, subsequent labor, and fuel. Ex-
perience has shown that the best that can be done,
is to determine which of these considerations should
have the least weight, and as a guide, look to practice
rather than any assumed theoretical principles. For
land purposes, there is hardly any limit to the size
4*
USE AND ABUSE OF
42
iy
Li
PATAAIOONNTY
TOM eo —
‘Y3TIOG YVINEGAL ANIGVW
THE STEAM-BOILER. 43
or weight of a boiler except first cost. It is easy,
therefore, to design and construct one with sufficient
heating surface, water-space, and steam-room. But
in designing a marine boiler the case is quite different,
as the designer is restricted both in room and weight ;
for if the vessel be occupied or loaded down with
boilers, it detracts from the room and capacity that
should be devoted to other purposes.
Marine boilers are of necessity either flue or tubu-
lar, since the flame must be within the shell of the
boiler; but in this arrangement they are almost as
various as the makers. The large flue is preferable
because less liable to choke with soot, ashes, cinders.
or salt which may come from leakage. But in situ-
ations which restrict length, height, and width of
boiler, the only method of producing in a flue boiler
such extent of fire surface as will extract all the heat
capable of being used to advantage in generating
steam, is to reduce the size and multiply the number
of flues. The most ordinary forms of marine boilers
are the horizontal and vertical; and, so far as effi-
ciency is concerned, there does not appear to be any
great difference between them, where equal surfaces
are presented to the action of the fire; but there are
many things, particularly in sea-going steamers, to
be considered, and for them that boiler is the best
which gives equal effect, occupies least space, and
affords the best facilities for cleaning and repairs.
A certain proportion between the area of the grate
44 USE AND ABUSE OF
and the total heating surface has been found pro-
ductive of the best results, with a given description
of fuel; but any alteration in the quality of the fuel
used will be found to affect this result materially.
Consequently, no general rule can be laid down for
marine boilers that will answer for all kinds of fuel ;
nor is it at all likely that any one form will ever
fulfil all the varied conditions under which such
boilers may be placed. A consideration of great
importance in the construction of marine boilers. is
their capacity to contain water and steam. ‘This, of
course, depends upon the size of the boiler and the
proportion of space occupied by flues or tubes, as, if
the space within it be nearly filled with flues, there
can be but little room left for water.
In fixing on the proper capacity of the water-space
of a marine boiler, there are not such peculiar diffi-
culties as in the case of the steam-chamber, and any
one at.a first view would say, as many do without suf-
ficient consideration, that there cannot be too little
water, provided the boiler is filled to the proper
height; for it is quite obvious the smaller the quan-
tity of water the less will be the expenditure of the
fuel during the first getting up of the steam after
each stoppage of the engine. It is, however, not the
“getting up” the steam, but the keeping it up, that
ought to be considered of most consequence. It isa
prevailing opinion that, after steam is once got up,
there is no material difference between keeping a
THE STEAM-BOILER. 48
large quantity of water boiling and a small quantity,
provided the escape of heat is prevented by sufhi-
ciently clothing the boiler with non-conducting sub-
stances; but on this subject engineers differ. Why
ractical men should differ in opinion on so plain a
matter is unaccountable.
The quantity of water carried must exceed that
of the evaporation in a given time, in order that the
supply of feed-water may not greatly reduce the
temperature of the water in the boiler and check the
formation of steam. There must in all cases bea
sufficient height of water in the boiler to prevent the
flues or crown-sheet from becoming bare in case the
supply of feed-water be neglected or the vessel
pitches in a rough sea. When marine boilers are so
constructed that steam cannot be taken off above the
level of the water without danger of working water
into the steam-cylinder, it becomes necessary to
resort to the expedient of attaching a steam-dome to
the boiler. This steam-dome is constructed either
inside or around the smoke-pipe, and, though not
adding much to the cubic capacity of the steam-room,
has the effect of superheating the steam, or imparting
to it an extra heat, which greatly increases its ex-
pansive force, and renders it less liable to condense in
the passages between the boiler and the cylinder.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 47
TABLE
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SUR-
FACE TO ONE SQUARE FOOT OF GRATE SURFACE IN THE
BOILERS OF NOTED OCEAN, RIVER, AND FERRY-BOAT
STEAMERS.
| Number of sq.
feet of heat-
NAME OF STEAMER. ten eye
of grate sur-
face.
| Powhatan, Wee Nate. teas ean een es ak 22.3
Susquehannd, 68 ee. nce.coccedeane Bip Pea 25.
Mississippi, iy By eS oS Brera ey rier 18.6
San Jacinto, Bek iets oan 5 ni'y San ees 27.
Saranac, DE REA coos So dete nicatiiee ai Stamens aa 27.25
Princeton, TOU aces an sean eatin 22.
Michigan, RPE Mien dre aha ou ose Rea 19.75
Vixen, CRE ane wetneeia ee 16.
Massachusetts, “ “ ...... Ws gtaeeis ts 33.6
Georgia, Merchant Steamer............. 22.25
Washington, ie <6) SRM 23.5
United States, ty 5 aR Rces., 21.9
Northerner, re 4, tee Sage aig on 24.9
Falcon, 3 Aenea ce het 20.8
Philadelphia, ¢ ee th ov eae 21.
Republic, My air 3 reece aura: |
Ohio a ene ek eee 22.25
Hermann, We Nh fee 30.6
Cherokee, o Sr ea daectcege tec): hy ick
Union, ve sige + pe 66.4
Constitution, oe Ws eee Vesey 34.5
Golden Gate, od ee ik ee 32.8
Monumental City, “ CSET aah Ab an 31.4
El Dorado, he ER Maen ya sas 26.8
City of Pittsburg, + Oe tabae's sollaeiy gO
Pioneer, Sg ge Ae ee ames 2S
Albatross, °) Es veiecehopi. OeOeO
Osprey, Spates hecsesven: fe ae4.
Humboldt, a eR bert. can tive beet 19.6
Franklin, Ny sti Leagbeien 28.4
48 USE AND ABUSE, ETO,
TA BL E..— Continued.
| Number of sq.
feet of heat-
NAME OF STEAMER. Pel Cheer
of grate sur-
face.
Arctic, Merchant Steamer............-s000- 33.25
| Baltic, am AN NAAN tae oe age ee 33.25
Pacific, cs Att Wenteey Wasa Wie sees 33.25
Atlantic, x9 CHE ascGuach oonaewss 33.25
May Flower, 4 Ce eahawe hen bin cane 31.71
Empire State, “ eee eA eye tee 24.5
America, x TOPOMY Meine. Soins se Soeeeee a 32.25
Knoxville, i Tit thusasidew en tputenss 63.1
North America, River Steamer..........sscseeee 22.3
South America, iy Scat abs nl-s «ntewesteg eee 24.9
Oregon, = PeiE it iaaednicas ekeameret 31.3
Alida, Pe Mar tsanevae tenane cee 27.9
Niagara, Ny BAT Pama Are ir, Aerts 27.
Joseph Belknap, “ Huse: ea'slbaiew's eee epeh ai 27.9
Mountaineer, a Ed disse chloe aiee SeaeeeS 32.
New World, “ rt Ve Ns hie ae 25.17
Traveller, f rah Wain WADE een cae eee 21.3
Isaac Newton, . Ae AK ogelan ld tian hens ee 28.2
Roger Williams, “ PAR Mtvoneniewapae seek 19.2
Thomas Powell, “ re ts she ktet teauer pate 25.5
Armenia, i ite Ee ace reer eed 24.5
America, ¥ ph eae ey red PE 26.
Bay State, e nM eset nescaee wads 29.3
Empire State, ik Ay? yA Ae pene 25.
Baltimore, ¥ ewimeeat catise subaeess 42.37
J. M. White, Western river Steamer............ 26.
Rescue, Shera ch tek ade ynoneheWissabarteet 28.
Anglo-Saxon, “
Merchant, Ferry-boat
Seneca, Hg
Onalaska, ‘i
John Fitch, 4:
A MOPAR biscestucnsaciencssoetees steer eee
We Y regard steam as an incomprehen-
sible mystery ; and although they may
employ tt as a power to accomplish work,
know little of its character or capabilities.
Steam may be managed .by common sense
rules as well as any other power; but if the
laws which regulate its use are violated, it
reports itself, and often in louder tones. than
ts pleasant. |
5 D 49
50 USE AND ABUSE OF
BOILER-HEADS.
Flat Head turned Outward,
There are two forms of boiler-heads in general
use, and four ways in which they are secured to the
shell of the boiler. These are — first, the flat head
turned outward; second, the flat head turned in- ©
ward; third, the arched head turned outward;
fourth, the arched head turned inward. Consider-
ing the two facts, first, that, with a given amount of
material, arched forms are stronger than flat ones,
and, second, that cast-irou resists compressive better
than tensile strains, it plainly appears that the first
plan mentioned above is the weakest, and the fourth
plan the strongest, mode in which a cast-iron head
can be used. It is also true that either form of head
is stronger when turned inward than outward. The
correctness of these statements, in so far as the
strength of the head is concerned, cannot be gain-
said; but there are other considerations besides
strength which determine the form of boiler-heads.
The first to be considered is the arched head
turned inward; the strongest plan. It will be
THE STEAM-BOILER. 51
noticed that if the head is made of uniform thick-
ness, with a curve at the spring-line of the arch, to
secure a sound casting between the head and the
sheet, an acute angular space is left, liable to fill up
with sediment and harden into scale by the action
Arched Head turned Inward,
of the fire, which is usually severe at this part of the
boiler. Experience has shown that the boiler-plates
at this point have corroded and burnt out very
rapidly with the heads made and inserted in this
manner, though the action of the sediment may be
prevented by squaring up the head to a right angle
with the sheet; but this renders the plate liable to
over-heating, from the excessive quantity of cast-iron
in contact with it just over the fire. This latter
difficulty may, to a certain extent, be overcome by
setting the boiler far enough ahead in the front to
protect the mass of iron in the head from the severe
action of the fire. There are other objections to
inserting heads in this manner, such as loss of
capacity, etc., resulting from the great space occu-
WAIVERSITY OF (ELINGES
52 USE AND ABUSE OF
pied by the head in the shell. Now, by adding one-
fourth more metal, and distributing it evenly in
thickness all over, and giving the head an arched
form, it can be turned outward, possess all the re-
quirements of strength needed for safety, and avoid
the objectionable features of the concave head.
The flat head turned outward possesses more
objectionable features than any other form, as it is
the worst disposition which can be made of metal to
withstand internal elastic pressure, as the tendency
of the force within a boiler is to cause the flat end
Arched Head turned Qutward.
to bulge outward, and assume the spherical form.
This brings a severe strain upon the point of least
resistance, as shown in the cut on page 90, and also
upon the rivets which join the head to the shell.
Whether boiler-heads be turned inward or outward,
it is evident that they must possess strength equal at
least to that of the metal of the sheet across the
transverse rows of rivet-holes, as the section of metal,
after punching, is the measure of strength in any
boiler without stays. While we may assume that
THE STEAM-BOILER. 53
the head loses the same amount of metal by the
rivet-holes, proportional to its thickness, as the sheet
does to which it is secured, whatever be the size or
number of rivets, we have but to consider, in the
comparison of strength, the ratio of thickness of
head and sheet and the tensile strength of each
material. Wrought-iron heads of the flat, arched,
and egg-shaped forms are now very generally used,
on account of their great tensile strength, lightness,
and the facilities they afford for bracing; more par-
ticularly in boilers of a large diameter.
-—f ee ae eee eee
| SE cas SS
STEAM-DOMES.
The advantages claimed to be derived from the
steam-dome are, that it acts as a steam reservoir and
also an anti-primer, in consequence of being further
5*
54 USE AND ABUSE OF
removed from the water than any other part of the
boiler, which is true to a certain extent; but, as re-
gards its advantages as a steam reservoir, it can
easily be shown that an ordinary sized steam-dome
adds very little to the steam-room of a boiler, For
instance, a boiler 48 inches in diameter and 20 feet
long would contain 251 cubic feet of space; if we
take three-fourths of that as water-space, we will
have 1éft about 63 cubic feet for steam-room. Now
suppose we take a steam-dome 24 inches in diameter
and 2 feet high, we gain only 6 cubic feet of space,
the steam from which would fill the cylinder of an
engine 12 inches in diameter and 24-inch stroke five
times, even if worked expansively.
Now, with respect to its advantages as an anti-
primer, it appears to be taken for granted that the
higher the point at which the steam is taken from
the boiler, the drier it is likely to be; but the cool-
ing effect on the steam, by domes of large diameter
exposed to the atmosphere, seems to be entirely lost
sight of, as it is well known that when an engine is
at work, the steam rushes into and through the dome
with great velocity, and in its passage is liable not
only to take with it a great quantity of water, but
have its temperature lowered by coming in contact
with so much surface exposed to the action of the
atmosphere. It frequently happens that the steam
taken from a dome is more wet than that in any
other part of the boiler.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 339)
The reservoir of power in a boiler is not so
much in the steam as in the heated water. With a
working pressure of 60 pounds, each cubic foot of
steam in the boiler will produce only 4.65 cubic feet
of steam, at atmospheric pressure; but 1 cubic foot
of water in the boiler will produce nearly 35 times
that amount, as at 60 pounds pressure the tempera-
ture of the water is 307.5°, or 95.5° above the boil-
iug-point, at atmospheric pressure; and, as every
degree of heat added to water already at 212° may
be taken as competent to generate 1.7 cubic feet of
steam, 95.5° will produce 162.35° cubic feet, or
nearly 35 times as much as 1 cubic foot of steam,
at 60 pounds pressure. It will be seen from the
above that, notwithstanding the general opinion that
the presence of a steam-dome is essential for obtain-
ing dry steam and as a remedy for priming, it should
be regarded as not only a useless and expensive
appendage to a boiler, but a source of real weakness
and danger; the practice of cutting a dome-hole in
the shell of a boiler, without providing for the
weakening of the plate by some other means, should
be looked upon as a very mischievous and danger-
ous practice.
When it becomes necessary to have a dome, as
in case of limited steam-room, or where the arrange-
ment of the tubes or flues is such as to make it
necessary to carry the water high in the boiler, the
hole in the plate under the dome should not be cut
56 USE AND ABUSE OF
larger than is sufficient to allow a free escape of the |
steam from the boiler to the dome, or to admit of a
convenient adjustment of the dome-braces. In most
marine boilers the steam-dome is constructed either
inside or around the smoke-pipe, and, though not
adding much to the cubic capacity of the steam-
room, has the effect of superheating the steam, or
imparting to it an extra heat, which greatly increases
its expansive force, and renders it less liable to
condense in the passages between the boiler and the
cylinder.
=
0200
lb 00000
Lil =
0
coo
arpne °° o dt
MUD-DRUMS.
As will be seen by the above cut, the mu
drum is a small cylindrical vessel, ordinarily about
twenty-four inches in diameter, attached to the under
side of a steam-boiler for the purpose of receiving
the feed-water before it enters the boiler, and collect-
ing and retaining the mud or other impurities that
may be contained in the water; and also for the
THE STEAM-BOILER. 57
purpose of imparting heat to the feed-water before
entering the boiler. When we consider the short
life of the mud-drum, which rarely exceeds six or
seven years, and also the expense of removing it and
replacing it with a new one, its use in any case
becomes a question of doubtful economy.
Steam-users and engineers for a long time enter-
tained the belief that mud-drums were beneficial,
inasmuch as they imparted extra heat to the feed-
water, and retained the mud that would otherwise
have been carried into the boiler. Experience,
however, has shown this to be a grave error, as mud-
drums impart very little heat to the feed-water, and
retain nothing but the earthy matter which is held
in suspension in the water, while all the destructive
carbonates that are held in solution are carried into
the boiler. A good deal has been said and written,
and many theories advanced, to account for the pit-
ting or honey-combing of mud-drums, but the mys-
terious manner in which it occurs, and its peeuliar
character, have not as yet been fully explained, as
scientific men are still unable to assign even a plausi-
ble cause. The most probable cause for this singu-
lar pitting or rotting away might be assigned to the
location of the drum, as it receives, on the upper
side, nearly all the heat imparted to it, and has not
enough on the lower side to keep the iron perfectly
dry, and to prevent the rusting of the plates and
rivet-heads.
58 USE AND ABUSE OF
WATER-SPACE AND STEAM-ROOM IN STEAM.
BOILERS.
The cubic contents of a steam-boiler may be
divided into two parts, namely, that occupied by the
water, and that which is occupied by the steam, each
of which has, of necessity, a very narrow limit of
variation, though they differ very materially for dif-
ferent boilers. In the case of a locomotive, it is
almost impossible to fix any ratio whatever between
the water-space and steam-room, since the former, of
necessity, is limited; and every additional row of .
tubes to increase the heating surface reduces the
area of the water-space. So with the steam-room,
to secure dryness of steam and steadiness of action
large space is desirable; but it is hmited by the same
considerations that restrict the water-space.
According to Bourne and Armstrong, the water-
space should be three-fourths, and the steam-room
one-fourth, the whole internal capacity of the boiler.
For the boilers of stationary engines, these proportions
give very satisfactory results ; and for locomotive and
marine boilers two-thirds water-space and one-third
steam-room are the proper proportions. In the case
of the marine boiler, it is, of course, necessary to have
sufficient water to keep the flues and crown-sheets
from becoming bare when the vessel is pitching in a
rough sea. So also in the case of the locomotive, it
is necessary to have sufficient water to cover all the ~
THE STEAM-BOILER. 59
parts exposed to the direct action of the fire when
the engine is ascending or descending steep grades.
The proportions of steam-room for all boilers are
based on the idea that a certain reserve of steam is
desirable in proportion to the amount of water evap-
orated per hour, and that that reserve should never
in any case be less than twelve times the capacity
of the cylinder.
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS
AND THICKNESS OF BOILER-PLATE.
The diameter of steam-boilers must be determined
_by the ends which they are desired to meet, and the
objects for which they are employed; also the tensile
strength of the material, and the internal pressure to
which they are to be subjected. For the same in-
ternal pressure and the same material, the thickness
for different diameters must: be proportional to the
diameters of the boiler; for extra pressures, either
the diameter must be decreased, or the thickness of
the material increased, which also increases the
weight. As the thickness of boiler material for or-
dinary high-pressure. use must range from three-six-
teenths to seven-sixteenths of an inch — inasmuch as
any material thinner than the former can hardly be
calked, and if thicker than the latter is difficult to
rivet, except with machinery — the extreme limit to
the diameters of boilers for high-pressure steam must
60 USE AND ABUSE OF
be about sixty inches. The boilers of low-pressure
engines are frequently made from one hundred to
one hundred and twenty inches in diameter, but they
are intended to sustain a pressure of only about
twenty pounds to the square inch.
Length of Boilers.— The strength of a boiler to
resist internal pressure is not affected by its length,
except what is due to the stress or sag, induced by
the weight of the boiler itself. Boilers may be viewed
as having certain relations to girders in principle.!
Girders generally have their two ends resting on two
points of support, and the load is either located at
fixed distances from the props, or dispersed over the
whole surface as in the case of the steam-boiler.
But, unlike the girder, the boiler is exposed to high
temperatures, and to deteriorations induced by the
extreme limits of expansion and contraction, which
have a tendency to cause it to bend or sag in the
middle. It has been demonstrated by practical ex-
periment and observation, both in this country and
in England, that there is nothing to be gained by the
use of long boilers, and that the extreme length of
plain cylinder boilers should never exceed seven
times their diameter; of flue boilers, six times; of
a tubular and double-deck, five times; and of loco-
motive boilers, from three to four times their respec-
tive diameters.
Thickness of Boiler Materials.— There appears
to be a wide difference of opinion among engineers
HE STEAM-BOILER. 61.
as to the thickness of the material capable of pro-
ducing the most satisfactory results in an economical
point of view within the bounds of safety. It is
generally admitted that the thicker the boiler iron
and the poorer its conducting qualities, the greater
will be the loss of heat; and that the thinner the
material, provided it possesses sufficient strength and
good conducting properties, the less resistance is
offered to the passage of the heat from the furnace
to the water. Boilers made of a superior quality of
iron may be thinner and lighter, and consequently
more economical as to first cost; but it is claimed, on
the other hand, that there is no difference in point
of economy between thick and thin plates except in
first cost, provided that they are of the same quality ;
as, while it requires less fuel to raise the temperature
of the water to the boiling-point in the thin boiler
than it will in the thick one, the latter will generate
more steam with a given quantity of fuel in a given
time than the former.
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS.
As the particles of water rise heated from the
bottom of the boiler, other particles necessarily sub-
side into their places; and it is a point of consider-
able importance to ascertain the direction in which
the currents approach the plate to receive heat. s00peeazn ceulicess 42 inches.
PEPCK CERO L SEPOIN or hou et oh ucéaasepnanacasdiocesee 3 as
2)42
21 external radius.
375
20.625 internal radius.
Thickness of iron $ = .875
__.56 single-riveted.
2250
1875
21000
10000 safe load.
20.625) 210000000 (pressure.
101.81 pounds safe working
116 USE AND ABUSE OF
In the foregoing rule, 50,000 pounds per square inch
is taken as the tensile strength of boiler-iron, and one-
fifth of that, or 10,000, as the safe load. Hence five
times the safe working pressure, or 50,000 pounds,
would be the bursting pressure. The ultimate
strength and safe working strength of boiler-plate of
every thickness are well understood by intelligent
mechanics, as eminent engineers in this country and
in other countries have made the subject of iron under
different circumstances a study ; they have tested its
strength under different degrees of heat ; * they have
_ tested it when riveted, in order to ascertain what re-
sistance it has to withstand tensile strain; they have
tested it in relation to its quality, and from these ex-
periments certain data are obtained, on which calcu-
lations are founded, the results of which, in practice,
are not only reckless, but criminal to disregard.
To ascertain the strain per square inch of sectional
area to which boilers are subjected under working
pressures, we must know the diameter of the boiler,
the thickness of the iron of which it is constructed,
and the pressure per square inch of steam as shown
on the gauge; then by multiplying the surface of the
plate required for one square inch of sectional area
by the pressure of steam in pounds, multiplying
result by the diameter of the boiler in inches, and
dividing by 2, we get the strain per square inch of
* See Tables on pages 326, 327.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 117
sectional area to which the boiler is subjected. The
surface of boiler-plate required for one square inch
of sectional area will depend upon the thickness of
plate ; thus, iron + inch thick will require 4 superficial
inches to make one square inch of sectional area;
iron 4 inch thick will require 2; iron ¢ inch thick
will require 2.66, and so on.
Rule for finding the Pressure per square inch of
Sectional Area on the Crown-Sheets of Steam-Boilers.
Multiply the width of the crown-sheet in inches
by.its length in inches; multiply this product by
the pressure of the steam in pounds per square inch
by the gauge.
EXAMPLE.
Length of crown-sheet.........--scesserseenseseeers 48 inches,
Width: Of CrowN-BUCEt)........csacceres. sacennesers 36 inches.
36
48
288
144
1728
Pressure per sq. in. 80 Ibs.
2)138240
2000)69120 Ibs.
34.560 tons.
118 USE AND ABUSE OF
Rule for finding the Aggregate Strain caused by the
Pressure of Steam on the Shells of Boilers.
Multiply the circumference in inches by the length
in inches ; multiply that product by the pressure in
pounds per square inch. The result will be the ag-
gregate pressure on the shell of the boiler. .
EXAMPLE.
Prmrmeter OF bollersccccacts tenes ors 42 inches.
Circumference of boiler............ 131.9472 93"
Length ‘of ‘boiler....c.cistciseeeae ves 10 feet, or 120 “
Pressure of boiler,.......42.052:00% 125 lbs.
TOU.0472< 120 $125 | 8
hie. 29000 Sac ern 1,979,208 pounds, or 989 tons.
EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLES.
The horizontal column on top of the page, , 00,
0, 1, ete., represents the number of the iron or steel.
The decimals, in the second horizontal column,
are equal to the fractional parts of an inch in the
third.
The vertical column on the left. hand side is the
diameters of the boilers in inches. All the other
columns represent pounds.
Example. — 24-inch diameter, 2 steel, 289.03
pounds per square inch.
Example. — 40-inch diameter, 2 iron, 107.01
pounds per square inch.
THE STEAM-BOILER.
TABLE
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS.
BIRMINGHAM WIRE 3
GAUGE.
ee, |
Thickness of Steel.
External 24 || 289.08
Diameter, |26 | 266.13
30 || 229.74
32 || 215.04
34 || 202.10
36 || 190.638
Lorgitudinal vi aay
__, Seams,! 49 |! 169.90
Single. 44 || 155.37
Riveted. 46 || 148.50
48 || 142.22
50 || 186.44
O2 |) L812
54 || 126.19
56 || 121.62
58 || 117.37
60 || 118.41
62 || 109.71
64 || 106.24
66 || 102.98
68 || 99.92
70 97.08
72 94.31
74 91.74
76 || 89.30
| 78 || 86.99
84.79
275.52
253.78
235.18
219.00
205.06
192.74
181.82
172.06
163.30
155.39
148.21
141.66
135.67
180.17
| 125.09
120.89
116,04
111.99
108.21
104.68
101.37
98.26
95.34
92.59
89.99
87.81
85.21
83.01
80.91
229.74
211.65
196.20
182.85
TRL 21
160.95
151.86
1438.74
136.44
129.85
123.87
118.41
113.41
108.82
104.59
100.67
97.08
93.65
90.50
87.55
84.79
82.20
79.76
77.43
75.29
78.24
71.29
69.45
67.70
119
143.23 |
135.96
129.06
122.88
by 9
112.01
107.29
100.03
98.95
95,24
91.81
88.61
85.63
82.89
80.28
pyres:
75.47
73.29
71.24
69.30
67.46
65.72
64.07
120
BIRMINGHAM
WIRE GAUGE.
| Thickness
| _ of Steel.
In
24
26
28
30
32
34
External
Diameter.
USE AND ABUSE OF
TA BL E— (Continued)
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS.
8
259
1 Full.
‘Ibs. per
sq. in.
197.63
182.13
168.88
157.42
147.42
138.60
'|180.80
}123.82
117.55
/111.40
‘|106.71
'|102.04
97.74
| 93.07
‘| 90.15
86.78
83.65
80.74
|| 78.02
75.49
73.11
70.88
68.77
66.79
64.92
63.16
61.48
59.90
58.39
4
.238
4 Scant
181.18
167.09
154.95
144.45
135.29
127.22
120.05
113.65
107.90
102.71
97.99
93.68
89.74
86.11
82.77
79.68
76.09
74.14
71.62
69,32
67.138
65.09
63.16
61.28
59.76
58.00
56.47
55.01
53.63
5
220
32
167.33
154.24
143.04
133.36
124.91
117.47
110.86
104.96
99.65
94.85
90.50
86.53
82.89
79.54
76.46
73.60
70.95
68.49
66.19
64,04
62.02
60.18
58.35
56.67
55.09
53.59
52.17
50.88
49,55
6
.203
of Full
154.18
142.13
131.83
122.92
115.14
108.28
102.20
96.76
91.81
87.45
83.44
79.78
76.48
73.85
70.50
67.87
65.43
63.16
61.07
59.06
57.20
50.45
53.52
52.27
50.81
49,48
48.12
46.88
45.65
7
180
aa Se’t.
136.44
125.80
116.70
108.82
101.94
95.88
90.50
85.69
81.37
77.46
78.91
70.67
67.70
64.97
62.46
60.13).
57.97
55.96
54.04
52.32
50.68
49.14
47.68
46.31
45.02
43.80
42.64
41.54
40.50
8
165
=z Full
124.91
115.10
106.85
99.65
93,36
87.81
82.89
78.49
74.538
70.95
67.70
64.74
62.02
59.12
57.22
55.09
53.11
51.27
49,55
47.94
46.43
45.02
43.69
42.44
41,25
40.13
39.07 |.
38.06
07.11
BIRMINGHAM WIRE
GAUGE.
Thickness of Steel.
External 2
: 26
Diameter. 98
Longitudinal) 34
Seanis,| 36
‘Double 38
| Riveted.| 40
Sean 42
Seams,| 44
aa le 46
ericetsa. 48
I~
bo
THE STEAM-BOILER,
TA BL E— (Continued)
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS,
121
ee | SOE
358
2 Scant,
340
age
eee ss Oe -
145.05
139.99
135,26
130.85
126.74
122.83
119.18
115.74
112.49
109,42
106.51
108.76
101.14
198.69
184.31
175.80
168.04
160.94
154.41
148.01
142.88
137.61
132.86
128.38
124.20
120.27
116.53
113.18
109.86
106.78
103.87
101.11
98.49
96.01
LOO _ USE AND ABUSE OF
TA BL E-— (Continued)
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS,
ee tye ola ees Um ee MLA aay Bs Tei we
Thickness .259 .238 .220 .208 180 .165
of Steel. ¢ Full.|iScant] 3% |s% Full/3Se’t.|5, Full
fe Ibs. per
‘|| sq. in.
24)|247 .06 |226.62/209.16 192.72 175.63 /156.14
26)|227.67 |208.87 |192.80 |177.66 |157.25)|143.98
28}|211.10}198.69}178.80 |164.78|145.87 |133.57
30|/196.78 |180.57 |166.71 |158.65 |136.03 |124.57
32)|184.28 |169.75 |156.14/143.92/127.43 |116.70
Pei 34//173.27|159.06]146.84/135.35|119.85|109.77
Seams. |86||163.50|150.07 |138.58]127,75|113.13|103.61
138)|154.73 142.07 |131.20 120.95 |107.12| 98.11
146.94/134.88 |124.57 |114.84|101.71| 938.16
Curvil, |42//189.85/128.38/118.57|109.32} 96.82] 88.69
Scams |44||183.42/122.48|113.13}104.30/ 92.39] 84.64
Single |46|/127.55/117.10/108.16) 99.73) 88.34] 80.92
Biveted 48)|122.18}112.17|108.61| 95.54) 84.63] 77.53
~~ "|60}|117.24)107.64} 99.43] 91.68) 81.22) 74.41
52}1112.69!103.48! 95.53) 88.13} 78.07) 71.53
54||108.47| 99.60] 92.00] 84.84) 75.16) 68.86
56|/104.56| 96.01] 88.69] 81.79] 72.46) 66.39
58}/100.92| 92.67| 85.61) 78.95} 69.95) 64.08
60|| 97.53} 89.56) 22.74| 76.26| 67.60] 61.60
62|| 94.36} 86.65] 80.11] 73.17) 65.44) 59.98
64|| 91.88] 83.98} 77.58} 71.52| 63.385) 58.04
66]; 88.59) 81.86} 75.16} 69.32] 61.42) 56.28
68|| 85.97] 78.95) .72.94| 67.23] 59.60] 54.61
70|| 83.49} 76.68} 70.84| 65.384] 57.89} 53.05
72|| 81.16] 74.53] 68.86} 68.51) 56.28) 51.56
74|| 78.95| 72.50} 66.72} 61.78] 54.75) 50.16}
76|| 76.86] 70 58) 65.21) 60.15| 58.80) 48.84
78|| 74.87! 68.76} 638.52} 58.60| 51.98] 47,58
80|} 72.99) 66.96! 61.94) 57.12} 50.62) 46.39
‘External
| Diameter.
a =
THE STEAM-BOILER, -
TABLE
123
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS.
BIRMINGHAM WIRE 3
GAUGE.
' Thickness of Iron.|| -375
308
a Scant.
In.
External 24 || 180.65
Diameter. | 26 || 166.34
Longitudinal | 88 || 112.75
Seams, | 40 || 107.01
Single 42 || 101.81
Riveted. |44 || 97.11
46 || 92.82
48 || 88.89
50 |} 85.28
521} 81.95
54|| 78.87
56 || 76.02
58 || 73.36
60 || 70.89
62|| 68.57
64|| 66.40
66 || 64.37
68)! 62.45
70|| 60.65
7211 58.95
74|| 57.34
a 00.81
54,37
20 Ol] 53.00] 50.57| 48011 42.32| 40.04 53.00
51.88
50.57
50.56
49.251 43.41 |
122.63
114.29
107.01
100.60
94,92
89.84
85,28
81.16
(7.42
74.01
70.89
68.02
65.37
62.92
60.65
58.54
56.57
54.72
53.00
51.88
49.85
48.41
47.06
45.78
44.56
48.01| 42.32
135.75
125.08
115.95
108.07
101.20
95.14
89.77
84.98
80.67
16.77
73.24
70.01
67.06
64.35
61.84
59.53
57.38
55.38
53.52
51.78
50.15
48.61
47.17
45.81
44.53
43.32
42.17
41.08
40.04
124 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABL E— (Continued)
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS.
BIRMINGHAM
WIRE GAUGE. 3 a D 6 7 8
Thickness of || .259 | .288 | .220 | .208 |.180 | .165
Iron. t Full. t Scant.) 33 3yFull. 5 Se’t. #5 Full.
SNe ee
In.
External | 24 || 123.53 | 113.31 | 104.58 | 96.36 | 85.28 | 78.07
Diameter] 26 || 113.84) 104.44] 96.40 | 88.83
28 || 105.55! 96.85] 89.40 | 82.39
80|| 98.39] 90.29] 83.36 | 76.83
82|| 92.14| 84.56] 78.07] 71.96
84] 86.64| 79.51] 73.42| 67.68
36 || 81.75| 75.04] 69.29/ 63.88
Long. 38 || 77.39} 71.04
Seams. |40|| 738.47| 67.44
Single /|42/| 69.98] 64.19
Riveted. | 44/} 66.71] 61.24
46|| 63.78| 58.55
48|| 61.09] 56.09
50|| 58.62] 53.82
52|| 56.35| 51.74
541| 54.24] 49.80
56|| 52.28] .48.01! 44.3
58 || 50.46 a 42.81 | 89.48
60|| 48.77) 44.78
62 || 47.18! 43.38
64 || 45.69} 41.96
66 || 44.80} 40.68
68 || 42.99] 39.48
70 || 41.75} 88.34
72|| 40.58} 387.27
74|| 39.48} 36.25
76|| 38.43} 385.29
78|| 37.44] 34.38
80]! 36.49} 33.52
THE STEAM-BOILER. ~
TA BL B — (Continued)
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS,
BIRMINGHAM WIRE
GAUGE.
» Thickness of Iron.
External
Diameter.
Longitudinal
Seams,
Double
Riveted.
Curvilinear
Seams,
Single
Riveted.
3
00
.858
3 Scant.
215.26
198,23
183.70
171.15
160.21
150.58
142.05
134.43
127.58
121.40
115.79
110.68
106.00
101.70
97.73
94.10
90.66
87.49
84.54
81.78
79.17
76.78
74.49
72.34
70.31
68.39
66.60
64.85
63.22
0
340
r
204.12
187.91
174.23
162,35
151.98
142.86
134.77
127.55
121.06
115.20
109.88
105.03
100.59
96.51
92 75
89.27
86.04
83.04
80.24
77.63
75.17
72.87
70.71
68.67
66.74
64.92
63.19
61.56
60.01
1
300
5
T6é
179.49
165.35
153.28
142.86
133.76
125.75
118.64
112.30
106.60
101.45
96.77
92.51
88.61
85.02
81.71
78.69
75.81
73.17
70.71
68.40
66.25
64.22
62.31
60,52
58.82
57.22
55.70
54.26
52.90
2
284
cd
33
169.67
156.34
144.94
135.09
126.49
118.93
112,23
106.22
100.88
95.96
91,55
87.52
83.88
80.48
77.31
74.41
71.73
69,23
66.90
64.72
62.68
60.77
58.96
57.26
55.66
54,15
52.71
51.85
50.06
126 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.
TA BL E— (Continued)
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS.
en tien hs Se) Ae ie Bet Cees
Thickness || .259 | .288 | .220 | .203 | .180 | .165
of Iron. || } Full. |} Scant.! 35 | 9s Full. |, Scant.| 5 Full.
In.
Ext’l | 24|| 154.42 | 141.64] 130.73 | 120.45 | 106.60 | 97.59
Diam. | 26 || 142.30 | 130.54 | 120.50 |111.04| 98.21) 89.99
28 || 131.94 | 121.06 | 111.76|102.99) 91.17 | 83.48
112.86] 104.19} 96.03; 85.02; 77.86
105.70| 97.59| 89.95] 79.65 | 72.94
99.39} 91.78} 84.60] 74.91/68.61
93.80] 86.61} 79.84] 70.71 | 64.76
88.80] 82.00| 75.60} 66.95} 61.82
84.380} 77.86] 71.78| 63.57 | 58.23
80.24]. 74.11} 68.38] 60.52) 55.44
76.56 | 70.71} 65.19| 57.75 | 52.90
Single |46|| 79.72] 73.19| 67.60} 62.3838] 55.22|50.58
Riv’t’d |48 || 76.87! 70.11] 64.76| 59.71! 52.90) 48.46
Long. | 34 :
50|| 78.28] 67.28] 62.11] 57.31| 50.77 | 46.51
Seams, | 36 || 102.19
Doub’e| 38 || 96.74
_ Riv’t’d |40]| 91.84
Curvil. |42|| 87.41
Seams, | 44|} 83.39
64.67| 59.74} 55.08| 48.80) 44.71
62.25] 57.51| 58.40} 46.98 | 43.04
60.01 | 55.44) 51.12} 45.29) 41.50
57.92| 53.51| 49.385| 48.72 | 40.06
50.98} 51.71| 47.69| 42.25) 38.71
54.16] 50.03) 46.14) 40.88 | 37.46
52.45| 48.46] 44.69} 39.60 | 36.28
50.85} 46.98] 43.33] 38.39| 35.18
49.35| 45.59} 42.05| 37.26|34.14
47.93| 44.28| 40.84) 86.19] 33.16
46.59} 43.04] 39.70} 35.18 | 32.23
45.382} 41.87) 88.62} 84.22] 31.36
44.11] 40.76| 387.60] 33.32) 30.53
42.98} 39.71| 36.63] 32.46 | 29.74
41.90] 38.71| 35.71| 31.64] 28.99
“i HE tmportance of a correct Safety-valve
‘ can hardly be over-estimated, and it is
the duty of every man owning a Steam-botler
to see that this important adjunct is well
proportioned and always in good condition.
The Safety-valve should only be regarded as
a means of safety when well proportioned,
well constructed, and well cared for after
being put in use.
127
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M. 128
THE STEAM-BOILER. 129
THE ROGER’S AND BLACK BOILER. .
The cut on opposite page represents the Roger’s and
Black Boiler. It consists of a cylindrical shell, sus-
pended vertically by four wrought-iron brackets or
knees, placed equidistant near the top of the shell,
which rests upon the brick casing of the boiler.
The shell is invested with two lengths of external
circulating tubes of two inches diameter. The pro-
ducts of combustion pass up the outside of the shell
around the outside tubes, thence up through the
tubes in‘the drum to the upper part of the out-
side shell to the stack. This boiler possesses no ad-
vantages over any of the ordinary forms of wrought-
iron boilers except in compactness and economy of
space. It has the disadvantage of a large shell
and convex crown-sheet directly over the fire, which
forms a receptacle for all the deposits in the feed-
water, rendering it liable to be over-heated or
burned through. The cylindrical shell is consider-
ably weakened in consequence of the perforations to
receive the tubes.
SELECTION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
Every boiler should be selected with a view to
meet the particular purpose for which it is to be
employed, and all the circumstances connected with
its use, such as locatioi, pressure, character of the
i
130 USE AND ABUSE OF
water, quality of the fuel, &c., should be duly con-
sidered. Some boilers should have small steam and
water room, and at the same time possess great
strength and be capable of generating steam very
rapidly ; while in others the reverse of these condi-
tions is more desirable. In cases where fuel is abun-
dant and of little value, the character of the boiler
makes very little difference, provided it possess suffi-
cient strength and afford ample facilities for cleaning,
repairs, or renewal of any of its parts; while on the
other hand, in locations where fuel is scarce, the
boiler that will give the most economical results with -
the smallest quantity of fuel is the most desirable.
There are thousands of boilers put in use every
year totally unfit for the location and purposes for
~ which they are employed, that would answer very
weli under other circumstances. There are also
thousands of. boilers now in use that possess poor
steaming qualities, and on account of defects of de-
sign are weak and dangerous, and not at all durable,
as they afford no opportunity for cleaning or repairs,
while others require special tools to repair them,
thereby incurring loss both in expense and time.
Such boilers must ever have a narrow limit of use-
fulness ; while those possessing strength, simplicity of
design and construction, capable of being managed
with ordinary care, affording the best facilities for
cleaning and repairing, offering the most resistance
- to the destructive effects of the chemicals both in the
THE STEAM-BOILER. 131
water and fuel, and being capable of being set up al-
most any place and used under almost every circum-
stance, must ever have the widest field of usefulness
and be the most reliable and satisfactory to steam-
users. or this reason there is not a shade of doubt
that the old-fashioned wrought-iron cylinder, flue, and
tubular boilers will ever be superseded by any others.
PULSATION IN STEAM-BOILERS.
Pulsation in steam-boilers, though not discernible
-_ to the eye, as in animated nature, goes on intermit-
tently in some boilers whenever they are in use. It
is induced by weakness and want of capacity in the
boiler to supply the necessary quantity of steam, and
sometimes is caused by the boiler being badly de-
signed, thereby admitting of a great disproportion
between the heating-surface and steam-room. Boil-
ers are frequently found in factories that were
originally not more than of sufficient capacity to
furnish the necessary quantity of steam, but, as
business increased, it became necessary to increase
the pressure, and also the speed of the engine, or,
‘perhaps, to replace it with a larger one, which has
to be supplied with steam from the same boiler.
The result is, each time the valve opens to admit
steam to the cylinder, about one-third of the whole
quantity in the boiler is admitted, thus lowering the
pressure; the next instant, under the influence of
LS USE AND ABUSE OF
hard firing, or, perhaps, a forced draught, the steam
is brought to the former pressure, and so on; this
lessening and increasing the pressure continues while
the engine is in motion, which has an effect on the
boiler similar to the breathing of an animal.
The strains induced by this pulsation are trans-
mitted to the weakest places, viz., the line of the
rivet-holes, and that marked by the tool in the pro-
cess of calking; the result is, the plate is broken
in two, as shown in the following cut. The manner
in which the break takes place may be illustrated by
filing a small nick, or drilling a small hole, in a
rim
il mts v Hi Hm
ATA
piece of hoop or band-iron,.and then bending back
and forth, when it will be discovered that the mate-
rial will break just at that point, however slight the
nick or small the hole may be. Pulsation is fre-
quently very severe in the boilers of tug-boats when
commencing to start a heavy tow, and also in loco-
motives when starting long trains. Some frightful
THE STEAM-BOILER. é 133
explosions of the boilers of tug-boats and locomotives
have occurred under such circumstances. Pulsation,
if permitted to continue, is sure to effect the destruc-
tion of the boiler. It is always made manifest by
the vibrations of the pointers on steam-gauges, or an
-unsteadiness in. the mercury column. It may be
remedied, to a certain extent, by adding a larger
steam-dome, but this has a tendency to weaken the
boiler, and render it more unsafe. The only sure
preventive of such a silent and destructive agent is
to have the boiler of sufficient capacity in the first
place.
PIERCE’S ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER.
This boiler is entirely encased in brickwork,
and is supported upon trunnions at each end, in
such a manner that it is rotated by a gear, actuated
by the’ steam-pump, which supplies the boiler with
water, or other motor power. The boiler is, at all
times, one-quarter full of water, which amount is—
unchangeable, being regulated by an automatic feed-
‘water regulator. The feed-water is introduced
through one trunnion, and the steam withdrawn
through the opposite one. The grate has an area
equal to the entire inner base of the brickwork sur-
rounding the boiler. The flame and heated gases
arising from the grate completely surround the
boiler, thence pass through the outer row of tubes
12 -
br Oa USE AND ABUSE OF
to the opposite end, and emerge into a chamber,
thence returning through the inner or superheating
row of tubes, en route to the stack or chimney. The
constant and thorough circulation of the water, it is
claimed, facilitates an easy escape of the steam, and
prevents foaming, while the passage of the steam
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PIERCE'S ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER,
over and among the superheating tubes raises its
temperature sufficiently to allow of considerable
expansion ; nevertheless there is some exaggeration
in this respect, as it is difficult to see what advan-
tage can be gained by such an arrangement. In
the first. place, it is complicated, and expensive to
build; besides, it requires power to work it, and, as
THE STEAM-BOILER, 185
the mud and deposit are kept in continual agitation,
it has a tendency to pass over with the steam, and »
destroy the piston, cylinder, valve-faces, and seats.
LOCATION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
No class of machines are oftener injudiciously
located, or show by their location a greater disregard
for the convenience and comfort of those who tend
them than steam-boilers. It is quite common to find
boilers stowed away in dark, damp, and out-of-the-
way places, although there may be an abundance of
unoccupied room in the same establishment; and
also to find boilers so situated that it is utterly im-
possible to examine or repair them, and very difficult
and laborious to fire them. Even in many instances
where boilers are located in light and airy places, they
are sunk several feet below the surface of the ground
on which they ought to stand, although there may
be thousands of cubic feet of unoccupied space above
them. Such ignorance and recklessness can only be
accounted for by the fact that for years an idea has
generally prevailed among owners of steam-boilers
that any location or out-of-the-way place was good
enough for a steam-boiler, and that any kind of care,
after it was located, was sufficient to manage it.
In one instance in Philadelphia the proprietor of
a factory located his boiler in a passageway of about
four feet between two buildings, and walled it in
136 USE AND ABUSE OF
front and rear, covering the top with iron girders
and heavy flagging stones. Although the engineer
was there seven years, he never cleaned the flues, as
there was no arrangement made for doing so when
the boiler was set. He never saw the safety-valve,
and when asked if he knew where it was, said, “ he
supposed it was up under them flags, as he heard a
hissing and snorting up there sometimes.”
In another instance, the owner of a steam-boiler
placed it in a coal vault, under a sidewalk, and
walled it in between solid masonry. After it had
been two years in use he was asked if he had a good
safety-valve on his boiler, and he answered that he
did not know, as he never saw it; and when asked if
he knew whether there was any at all or not, he an-
~swered no. He remembered that the man who built
his boiler asked him if he wanted a safety-valve, and’
he told him that he did. Some day he would try to
find out, and if there was not any on he would make
the boiler-maker return the price of the safety-valve.
In another case in a hotel, where there was a large
roomy basement 40 x 60 feet, and very high between
the floor and the ceiling, the boiler was placed in
a hole in one corner, five feet below the level of
the floor. The fire-room was made 8x4 feet, and
when the engineer or fireman cleaned or replen-
ished his fire he had to stand on perhaps a ton
of coal in that hole. On one occasion, when a cap
blew off one of the steam-pipes, the engineer, in
—— —— -
7
THE STEAM-BOILER. 137
attempting to escape, was scalded to death, which
was caused by an old ladder that was used for ascend-
ing and descending into the hole breaking under him.
Another case occurred in a large safe factory,
The boiler was placed. crosswise in the cellar, and
was just three feet shorter than the building and
about four feet below the level of the floor. The en-
gine then was set directly against the side of the
boiler, and when the engineer stopped or started his
engine he had to go up two or three steps and stand
on top of the boiler. The flues of the boiler were
only cleaned twice in ten years.
Another instance was that of a planing-mill, where
four cylinder boilers were buried in the ground in
the yard, without any shed over them, so that the
top of the brickwork extended about one foot above
the surface of the ground. The top of the boilers
was a receptacle for all kinds of refuse material, and
finally the keeper of a large livery stable next door
commenced to pile his horse-manure on top of the
boilers, the owner of which thought it was a very
good arrangement, as the heat arising from the ma-
nure would be apt to make a great saving in fuel for
him jn the course of the year.
Another instance was where four large flue boilers
were placed in a basement between four solid walls,
and the top covered over with brick arches, resting
on iron girders, not more than fifteen inches above
the shells of the boilers. The coal was run down
12*
138 USE AND ABUSE OF
into the fire-room through a circular hole, twenty
inches in diameter, and the ashes had to be lifted
through the same hole in an ordinary water-bucket
attached to a rope. In this case there was a fine ©
yard directly over the boilers that was only occupied
by old barrel hoops and broken package boxes.
Another was the case of a boiler in a glass factory,
which was sunk in the ground four feet below the
level of the water in the creek on which the works
were located. Every time the engine was stopped
the water flowed in, filling the boiler-room, putting
out the fire, and sometimes submerging the boiler,
and although an intelligent bricklayer offered to
remedy the difficulty for twelve dollars, the proprietor
declined. He preferred to pay twenty-five dollars
for a bilge-pump to pump out the water by hand
every morning before the engine was started.
Such blunders as these might be enumerated
sufficiently to make a good-sized volume, but it is
unnecessary, as the foregoing will be sufficient to
show the unpardonable errors that were made in
connection with steam-boiler engineering.
THE HARRISON BOILER.
This boiler consists of sections or hollow cast-iron
grooves, connected together, and communicating
freely with each other. This form combines the
greatest strength with the least weight of material ;
THE STEAM-BOILER. 139
but the capacity of the spheres is so limited that
they soon become choked with deposit, which in-
duces leakage, and necessitates their renewal. It
may be said to be more safe from explosion than
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THE HARRISON SECTIONAL BOILER,
any other sectional boiler in use; but it is unfit to
stand hard firing, or where it has to be taxed to its
utmost capacity. It is better adapted to the purpose
of heating buildings, or where a very low pressure
will answer.
BOILER-FLUES.
The well-established law that the strength of
cylinders is inversely as their diameters, and the
hitherto undisputed axiom among practical engi-
140 USE AND ABUSE OF
neers, that cylindrical tubes or boiler-flues, when
subjected to uniform external pressure, were equally”
strong in every part, regardless of length, led to
erroneous opinions regarding the strength of boiler-
flues. For flues to collapse, under the ordinary
working pressure of steam in what was supposed to
be properly-proportioned and well-made boilers, was
formerly not an unusual occurrence; and, although |
many theories were advanced on the subject, it was
not until the celebrated English engineer, William
Fairbairn, made an extensive set of experiments on
the strength of tubes of various diameters, lengths,
and thicknesses of material, that the real cause of
the weakness of boiler-flues was revealed.
These experiments were made by hydrostatic
pressure, applied both externally and internally, to
test the strength under ordinary conditions of prac-
tice, and they proved conclusively that the strength
of flues exposed to external pressure, as ordinarily
used, is inversely as the length ; that is,a flue twenty
feet long will collapse with just half the pressure of
a flue ten feet long, everything else being equal; in
other words, a flue twenty feet long, which would
_ bear a pressure of ninety pounds per square inch, if
shortened to ten feet, or, what is the same thing in
effect, if it be hooped in the middle of its length by
T-iron, will then bear a much higher pressure.
Although it had long been established that a circle
is the strongest possible form that can be made, and
THE STEAM-BOILER. 141
that no deviation from it can be made without re-
duction of strength, yet it was not previously known
that a nine-inch diameter of tube was reduced in
strength more than one-third by deviating from the
shape of a circle only sufficient to make a lap-joint,
the ratio being as seven to ten, so proved by actual
tests.
When pressure is exerted within a tube or cylin-
der, with spherical ends, the tube can only give way
_ by the metal being torn asunder; and the tendency
of the strain is to cause the tube to assume the true
cylindrical figure, or spherical form—the form ot
greatest resistance. With pressure exerted on the
outside of a tube, the tendency of that pressure is te
crush in the tube—to flatten it. It is well known
that iron of any strength, when formed into a tube,
will bear a much greater strain to tear it asunder, if
that pressure be applied wternadly, than it will bear -
without crushing in when applied eaternally. A
bar of iron, when used as a tie-rod, will resist a very
large amount of tearing force; but that same bar,
placed as a prop only, under the weight exerted in
the former case, would be doubled up and crushed
out of form. The inner tubes of boilers are nothing
more nor less than a series of props, as they have to
sustain the immense weight of the pressure exerted
externally on their diameter. The constant and
never-ceasing tendency is for those props to give
way — for the cylindrical tube to depart from the
142 USE AND ABUSE OF
form of greatest resistance, to become flattened or .
bulged, and ultimately crushed in. The foregoing
conclusions show the imperative necessity of adhering
to the true circle for boiler-flues, more especially
where high-pressure steam is used.
Rule for finding the Safe External Pressure on
Boiler-Flues.— Multiply the square of the thickness
of the iron by the constant whole number, 806,300 ;
divide this product by the diameter of the flues in
inches; divide the quotient by the length of the flue
in feet; divide this quotient by 5. The result will
be the safe working pressure.
EXAMPLE.
Diameter, 13 inches. Length, 10 feet.
Thickness, ~ of an inch. 13 diameter.
_10 length.
$X8 =r ye nee
=
390
7256700 7256700
9 £ — ausaree = —_—__ =
ez X< 806,300= 64 + 390= 24960 = 290.73 safe
external pressure. “
THE STEAM-BOILER, 343
eA be
OF SQUARES OF THICKNESSES OF IRON, AND CONSTANT NUM-
BERS TO BE USED IN FINDING THE SAFE EXTERNAL PRESS-
URE FOR BOILER FLUES,
Birmingham
Gauge.
ee 375 & 875 X 806,300 = 113,385.937500
OO vetace 308 X .358 & 806,300 = 103,338.633200
ere 340 * .340 806,300 = 93,208.280000
Lina: 300 .800 & 806,300 = 72,567.000000
Boake & 284 & .284 & 806,300 = 65,032.932800
HR se 259 & .259 & 806,300 = 54,087.410300
AL sewed 238 & .288 & 806,300 = 45,672.057200
Bikcee 220 & .220 & 806,300 = 39,024.920000
Gativen 203 X .203 & 806,300 = 38,226.816700
is Pee 180 & .180 & 806,300 = 26,124.120000
Bi esis 165 & .165 & 806,300 = 21,951.517500
3
8
Explanation.— The column on the left-hand side
of the page, %, 00, 0, 1, etc., represents the number
of the boiler iron according to the Birmingham wire
gauge; the second and third columns, .375, .358, ete.,
represent the decimal parts of an inch, the inch being
taken as 10,000, which columns being multiplied
together give the square of the thickness of the iron ;
the fourth column represents the constant number
806,300, by which we multiply the several squares
of the thicknesses; the fifth column represents the
several products.
144
USE AND ABUSE OF
TABLE
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 10
FEET LONG.
N'
wamcauer,|| 00; 449 1 2
Pees OeO ere |: /Bb8e 14340 ht \BOO Ot aed
Diam. in In. wih ares Pay
6 629.92 574.10 | 517.82 | 403.15 | 361.29
7 539.93 492.08 | 443.85 | 345.56 | 313.96
8 472.44 430.58 | 388.37 | 302.36 | 270.97
9 419.95 382.74 | 345.22 | 273.95 | 240.86
10 377.95 344,46 | 310.69 | 241.89 | 216.78
1] 343.59 313.15 | 282.45 | 219.56 | 199.80
12 314.12 287.05 | 258.91 | 201.58 | 180.65
13 290.73 264.97 | 238.99 | 186.07 | 166.75
14 269.97 246.04 | 221.92 | 172.78 | 154.84
15 201.97 229.64 | 207.13 | 161.26 | 144.51
16 236.22 215.28 | 194.18 | 151.18 | 135.49
17 222.33 202.62 | 182.76 | 142.28 | 125.06
18 209.97 191.18 | 172.61 | 134.38 | 120.43
19 198.92 181.12 | 163.52 | 127.72 | 114.09
20 188.98 172.23 | 155.85 | 12095 | 108.39
21 179.98 164.02 | 147.95 | 115.19 | 103,23
22 170.28 156.57 | 141.23 | 109.95 | 98.53
23 164.33 149.76 | 135.08 | 105.17 | 94.25
24 157.48 143.53 | 129.46 | 100.79 | 90.32
25 161.18 137.78 | 124:28 | 96.76 | 86.71
26 145.37 132.79 | 119.50 | 93.03 | 83.37
27 139.98 127.58 | 115.07 | 89.58 | 80.28
28 134.98 123.02 | 110.96 | 86.39 | 77.42
29 130.33 118.79 | 107.14 | 83.41 | 74:75
30 125.98 114.82 | 103.56 | 80.63 | 72.25
32 118.11 107.65 | 97.09 | 75.55 | 67.74
34 111.16 101.381 | 91.88 | 71.14 | 63.75
36 104.99 95.68 | 86.30 | 67.19 | 60.21
38 99.46 90.65 | 81.76 | 63.65 | 57.04
A) 94.49 86.11 | 77.67 | 60.47} 54.19
42 89.99 82.00 | 73.97 | 57.59 | 51.61
THE STEAM-BOILER,. 145
TABL E— (Continued)
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 10
FEET LONG.
|
wancavce.|| 8 4 Th Sate a ay ane tt
Tinerness|' 959 | .238 | 220 | 208 | 180 | .165
Diam. in In.
300.49 | 253.73 |216.81 |184.59 |145,14 |121.95
7 || 257.56 | 217.49 |185.83 158.22 |124.40 |104.53
8 || 225.36 | 190.30 |162.60 |138.45 |108.85 | 91.46
9 || 200.82 | 169.16 |140.83 |123.06 | 96.76 | 81.30
10 — || 180.29 | 152.24 130.08 110.76 | 87.08 | 73.17
Dae 163.90 | 138.40 |118.26 |100.69! 79.16 | 66.51
12 || 150.24 | 126.87 |108.40| 92.30| 72.56| 60.97
13 || 138.69 | 117.11 [100.06 | 85.20] 66.98 | 56.28
14 ‘|| 128.78 | 108.74 | 92.92) 79.11! 62.20] 52.26
15 || 120.19 | 101.49 | 86.72| 73.83] 58.05| 48.78
16 || 11268 | 95.15 | 81.30| 69.22| 54.42| 46.10
17 |] 106.05 | 89.55 | 76.51| 65.15| 51.22] 43.04
18 || 100.16 | 84.58 | 72.26) 61.53] 48.37] 40.65
19 94.89 | 80.13 | 68.46 | 58.29] 45.83] 38.51
20 90.15 | 76.12 | 65.04| 55.37 | 43.54| 36.58
21 85.85 | 72.49 | 61.92] 52.74| 41.46) 34.84
29 81.95 | 69.20 | 59.12] 50.34] 39.58| 33.25
23 78.38 | 66.19 | 56.55| 48.15| 37.86} 31.81
24 75.12 | 62.43 | 5420] 46.14) 36.28| 30.48
25 72.11 | 60.89 | 52.11 | 44.30| 34.83| 29.26
26 69.34 | 58.55 | 50.03 | 42.59} 33.49] 28.91
27 66.77 | 56.38 | 48.17 | 41.02| 32.25! 27.10
28 64.38 | 64.37 | 46.45| 39.55] 31.10) 26.13
29 “62.16 | 52.49 | 44.85| 38.19| 30.02] 25.28
30 60.09 | 50.74 | 43.36 | 36.91} 29.02) 24.39
32 56.34 | 47.57 | 40.65| 34.61} 27.21) 22.86
34 53.02 | 44.77 | 38.25 | 32.57 | 25.61} 21.52
36 50.08 | 42.38 | 36.13] 30.76| 24.18; 20.32
38 47.44 | 40.06 | 34.23} 29.14] 22.91! 19.25
40 45.07 | 38.06 | 32.52] 27.68 | 21.77 | 18.29
30.97 20.73 | 17.42
too K
146 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABL E— (Continued)
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 20
FEET LONG.
aM Gaver. 8 00 0 1 a
PAICEDEES)| 376), | BBS jckveag Neen00 Aeon
Diam. in In. : es Pf yoy:
814.96 | 287.05 | 258.91 | 201.58 | 180.65
7 269.97 | 246.04 | 221.93 | 172.78 | 156.98
8 236.22 | 215.29 | 194.18 | 151.18 | 135.49
9 209.97 | 191.37 | 172.61 | 136,98 | 120.43
10 188.98 | 172.23 | 155.35 | 120.95 | 108.3
1 171.80 | 156.57 | 141.26 | 109.78 | 99.90
12 157.06 | 143.53 | 129.46 | 100.79 | 90.32
13 || 145.37 | 132.49 | 119.50 | 93.03 | 83.38
14 134.98 | 123.02 | 110.96 | 86.39 |. 77.42
15 125.98 | 114.78 | 103.56 | 80.63 | 72.26
16 118.11 | 107.64] 97.09 | 75.59 | 67.74
17 111.16 | 101.31 | 91.38 | 71.14] 6253
18 104.99 | 95.59} 86.31 | 67.19 | 60.22
19 99.46 | 90.56 | 81.76 | 63.86 | . 57.05
20 94.49 | 86.12 | 77.68 | 60.47 | 54.19
21 89.99 | 82.01 | 73.98 | 57.59 | 51.61
22 85.14 | 78.29] 70.62) 54.98 | 49.27
23 82.16 | 74.88 | 67.54 52.58 | 47.18
24 78.74 | 71.76 | 64.73 | 50.39 | 45.16
25 75.59 | + 68,89} 6214] 48.38 | 43.36
26 72.68 | 66.54 | 59.75 | 46.52 | 41.68
27 69.99 | 63.79] 57.54) 44.59 | 40.14
28 67.49 | 61.51 | 55.48
29 65.17 | 59.39 | 53.57
30 62.99 | 57.42] 51.78
32 59.06 | 53.82 | 48.55
34 55.58 | 50.66 | 45.69
36 52.50 || 47.84 | 43.15
38 49.73 | 45.38 | 40.88
47.24 | 43.05 | 38.83
44.99 | 41.00 | 36,98
THE STEAM-BOILER. 147
TA BL E—(Concluded)
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 20
FEET LONG.
pees hes |
G- ‘
uawcaucr.|| 8 ory Wetaye ea wan a te
Thickness! 959 | .238 | .220 | 203 | .180 | .165
Diam. in LBs
150.25 | 126.87 |108.40 | 92.30 | 72.57 | 60.98
en 128.78 | 108.75 | 92.92| 79.11 | 62.20 | 52.27
8 112.68 | 95.15 | 81.30 | 69.22 | 54.43 | 45.73
9 100.16 | 84.58 | 70.42 61.53 | 48.38 | 40.65
10 90.15 | 76.12 | 65.04 | 55.38 | 43.54 | 36.58
11 ‘|| 81.95 | 69.20 | 59.13 | 50.35 | 39.58 | 33.25
12 75.12 | 63.44 | 54.20} 46.15 | 36.28 | 30.48
18 69.35 | 58.56 | 50.03 | 42.60 | 33.49 | 28.14
14 64.39 | 54.37 | 46.46 | 39.55 | 31.10 | 26.13
15 60.10 | 50.75 | 43.36 | 36.91 | 29.02 | 24.39
16 56.34 | 47.58 | 40.65 | 34.61 | 27.21 | 23.05
17 53.03 | 44.78 | 38.25 | 32.57 | 25.61 | 21.52
18 50.08 | 42.29 | 36.13 | 30.76 | 24.18 | 20.32
19 47.45 | 40.07 | 34.23 | 29.14 | 22.91 | 19.25
20 45.08 | 38.06 | 32.52 | 27.68 | 21.71 | 18.29
21 49.93 | 36.24 | 30.96 | 26.37 | 20.73 | 17.42
29 40.98 | 34,60 | 29.56 | 25.17 | 19.79 | 16.62
23 39.19 | 33.09 | 28.27 | 24.07 | 18.93 | 15.90
24 37.56 | 31.71 | 27.10| 23.07 | 18.14 | 15.24
25 36.05 | 30.44 | 26.05 | 22.15 | 17.41 | 14.63
26 || 34.67 | 29.27 | 25.01| 21.29 | 16.74 | 14.45
27 33.38 | 28.19 | 24.08 | 20.51 | 16.12 | 13.55
"28 32.19 | 27.18 | 23.22 | 19.77 | 15.55 | 13.06
29. |] 31.08 | 26.24 | 22.42/ 19.09 | 15.01 | 12.61
30 30.04 | 25.37 | 21.68 | 18.45 | 14.51 | 12.19
32 28.17 | 23.78 | 20.32] 17.30 | 13.60 | 11.43
34 26.51 | 22.38 | 19.12 | 16.28 | 12.80 | 10.76
36 25.04 | 21.19 | 18.06 | 15.38 | 12.09 | 10.16
38 93.72 | 20.03 | 17.11| 14.57| 1145 | 9.62
40 22.53 | 19.03 | 16.26| 13.84 | 10.88 | 9.14 |
1
, 42 jf 21.06 | 18,12 | 15.48 | 138.18 | 10.36} 8.7
148 USE AND ABUSE OF
Rule for finding the Collapsing Pressure of Boiler-
Flues.— Multiply the square of the thickness of the
iron, in thirty-seconds of an inch, by the constant
number 262.4; divide this product by the length of
the flue in feet; divide this quotient by the diameter
of the flue, in quarter feet, and the quotient will be
the collapsing pressure in pounds per square inch.
EXAMPLE,
Diameter of flue, 24 inches.
Length of “ 10 feet.
Thickness of iron, # in.
Thickness, 3 — a a
Diam. 24 in. = 8 quarter ft. 144
262.4
576
288
§64
288
10)37785.6
8)3778.56
472.32 pounds.
Explanation of the following Tables of Collapsing
Pressures.— The outside vertical column on the
left-hand side of the table gives the length of the
flue in feet; the horizontal column at the top of the
table gives the diameter of the flue in inches. All
the other columns denote the collapsing pressures in
pounds per square inch.
149
THE STEAM-BOILER.
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THE STEAM-BOILER.
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-BOILER.
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HE Steam-sauége, like the Safety-valve, is
a means of indicating the approach of
danger; though a silent, it is no less an im-
pressive, monitor.- It does not speak, but by
moving its steady hand on the face of the
dial, it “points” to the danger. With a
Sood safety-valve, good gauge-cocks, correct
steam-Sauge, competent inspection and care-
ful attendance, there need be little fear of
steam-boiler explosions.
153
154 USE AND ABUSE OF
@ red
___ vd
TTT
UTVAPEVATEMTOOOEAD
NT MT T
:) a
THE SHAPLEY BOILER.
This boiler is vertical, in two cylindrical sections,
both being connected by a horizontal tube-sheet,
Z. The fire-box is conical in form and is joined to
the lower section by a tube-sheet, which is convex
and stayed. Below the crown-sheet of the fire-box,
J
;
THE STEAM-BOILER. 155
and above the lower edge of the upper section, a
series of 13 3-inch horizontal fire-tubes are arranged
radically and secured to both. In the annular space
between the fire-box and the lower section, which
connects the two tube sheets, is secured a series of 26
2-inch vertical fire-tubes. The annular space above
the outlets of all these tubes is confined by a movable
cover — made in two parts, to facilitate the cleaning
of the tubes; and below the vertical tubes communi-
eate with an annular space around the ash-pit in the
base of the boiler, from which the products of combus-
tion escape by a pipe to the chimney. The water-level
is maintained over the crown of the fire-box, covering
all the tubes and wetting all the fire-surface. The
upper section has a cast head provided, with the usual
nozzles and valves, and a fire-door frame penetrates
the lower section to the fire-box, which latter is fitted
with a circular grate in the usual way. These boilers
are used entirely for portable engines.
BOILER TUBES.
The object of the tube, like the flue, is to transmit
the heat to the surrounding water, and conduct the
smoke and gases to the chimney ; but, unlike the flue,
the tube may be filled with water and act as a pass-
age for the circulation of liquids, while the flame
and heat may come in contact with the outer, instead
of the inner surfaces. In regard to their diameter,
156 USE AND ABUSE OF
mechanical construction, mode of attachment, etc.,
they may materially differ from flues. The resistance
of tubes is due to their hardness ; the materials rang-
ing in the following order — steel, iron, brass, copper.
Iron, of late years, especially where anthracite coal
has been used as fuel, has nearly superseded all other
materials for tubing on account of its hardness, good
flanging qualities, and the fact that it can be made
lighter and still possess sufficient strength, while its
steaming qualities are nearly equal to copper or brass.
The failure of iron tubes may, in the majority of cases,
be attributed to a contracted water-space, bad circu-
lation, and the deposit of scale adhering to the outer
surface caused by impurities in the water.
Diameter and Arrangement of Tubes.— As re-
gards the diameter of boiler tubes, tubes of 2 inches
diameter, placed in vertical rows from 7 to 1 inch
apart, have been shown to be productive of the most
satisfactory results, as such an arrangement admits
of an easy circulation of the water, and of the free
escape of steam from the heating-surface to the steam-
dome, besides giving ready access to the mud in its
passage from the water to the bottom of the boiler;
and also because there is much more heating-surface
in a tube of this diameter of a given length, in pro-
portion to the space it occupies, than in a larger one.
Thus a tube 2 inches in diameter and 11 feet long
has 829 square inches of surface, and one 4 inches
in diameter has 1658 square inches, or just double the
~
THE STEAM-BOILER. 157
quantity. But the four-inch tube occupies four times
as much space as the other, as it is twice as high and
twice as wide. Therefore, in proportion to the space
it occupies, the tube which is two inches in diameter
has twice the surface of the larger one. If we com-
pare a two-inch with an eight-inch tube, we will find
that the former has four times as much surface, in
proportion to its size, as the eight-inch tube. .
Small tubes have the additional advantages that
they may be made of thinner material, and yet have
the same strength to resist a bursting pressure from
within, or a collapsing pressure from without, as
larger tubes made of thicker metal; and that the
heat inside of a thin tube is conducted to the water
more rapidly than it could be through a thick one.
Tubes of less diameter than two inches are not
economical, as they are liable to become stopped or
choked with ashes, cinders, and pieces of unburned
fuel. Tubes are often crowded to an injurious extent
for the purpose of getting more surface, totally disre-
garding the other conditions of steam-raising. Heat-
ing-surface in the abstract is one thing, its efficiency
is another, as the under portions of the tubes and in-
ternal flues are almost worthless for steam-raising,
not only on account of the difficulty which the steam
has in escaping from the surface on one side, but also
in consequence of the deposit of soot, ashes, and flue
dirt, which is the rule, on the other.
in horizontal tubes various means have been re-
TA 3 ;
158 USE AND ABUSE OF
sorted to for the purpose of extracting more of the
heat from the gases than they will yield by radiation
or conduction through their mass, by breaking the
current at intervals, and so bringing fresh portions
of the gases in contact with the plates, and by giving
them a zigzag motion; this, however, has the effect
of impairing the draught, and, in most cases, of
causing a reduction in the evaporative capacity of
the boiler. In passing up through vertical tubes,
gases act at a disadvantage for imparting their heat
to the plates. The particles cooled by contact with
the sides on entering, have no tendency to make way
for those in the middle of the current that still retain
their heat, which can therefore only be indifferently
imparted by radiation or conduction,
The evaporative efficiency of tubes, as before
stated, depends on the nature, condition, and thick-
ness of the material forming the tubes, and is propor-
tional to the distance the heat has to traverse or to
the thickness of the tube, and inversely to the dif-
ference of temperature between the two surfaces.
Assuming the gases entering a tube to be all of the
same temperature, the particles striking against the
upper surface must give up part of their heat, and,
in cooling, descend by virtue of their increased
gravity, despite the onward and upward force due to
the momentum of the mass which opposes their de-
scent. The hot particles immediately behind and
beneath these will come in contact with the upper
THE STEAM-BOILER. 159
surface a little farther on, and so a species of con-
vection is kept up as the gases sweep along.
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THE PHLEGER BOILER.
This consists of a number of wrought-iron tubes
nearly horizontal, connected to wrought-iron tube
plates and set in brickwork. There are 17 bent
tubes, 2 inches in diameter and 15 fect long, so ar-
ranged as to form the furnace and water-grate, being
secured at the ends to wrought-iron tube-sheets.
There are also 68 straight tubes of the same dimen-
sions, secured at the ends to wrought-iron tube-sheets.
These tubes are all connected with each other and
the steam-drum, which is 23 feet diameter and 12
feet long, and which contains shelves for the preven-
tion of foaming.
160 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABLE
OF SUPERFICIAL AREAS OF EXTERNAL ‘SURFACES OF TUBES
OF VARIOUS LENGTHS AND DIAMETERS IN SQUARE FEET.
The following tables are designed to facilitate the
calculation of the heating-surface of the tubes in
tubular boilers, and are adapted for tubes of various
lengths, from 8 to 16 feet, advancing by inches, and ~
of various diameters, from 13 to 2} inches, advancing
by & of an inch. |
Explanation.— The large figures at the end of the
horizontal lines give the length of tubes in feet, and
the small intermediate figures on the same line give
the additional inches. The vertical column on the
left gives the diameters of the tubes in inches. The
numbers in the tables represent the superficial area
of our tube in square feet, and decimal parts thereof,
for the different lengths and diameters of tubes re-
quired.
Example.— Required, the heating surface of 163
tubes, 12 inches diameter and 11 feet 10 inches long.
Thus, having found the length (11 feet 10 inches)
in the above-named horizontal line of figures, trace
downwards to the line opposite the diameter (17) in
the vertical column on the left, where will be found
the number 5.421, being the area of the tube, and
which being multiplied by the number of tubes (163),
gives the total area of 883,623 square feet, thus re-
ducing the whole process to a simple matter of mul-
tiplication.
"G | Z6LG | SFLE | F69'S | EF9'E | GES'E | OFG'E | LEF'S | SFF'E | 66E'¢ | OGE'S | TOE" |
9IG"e | OLF'S | FFE | LLY'S | TESS | G8U'E | SESE | GEIS | SHT'S | 660°E | SS0'S | 900°S
ZEL'G | SPI'S | FOT'S | 190°E | LION'S | FLOP | OS6'F | 988'F | SHS'F | 66L7 | 9GLT | GILV
198°F | 968° | SSL'F | SELF | POLY | S99'F | G29'F | I8S°F | OFS'F | 66F'P | 8SV'P | LIVY
SPe'P | COG'P | LOF'D | ScF'F | O6E'F | SSE"F | FIST | OLVF | LESH | 661 F | TOTP | Sol F
SIF | SSI F | LETH | ITP | 9L0'F | 1H0'T | 900'°F | 0246'S | SE6'S | 668"E | P98'E | 8z8"S
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SHLONAT SNOIUVA AO SAPNL AO SHOVAHUNNS TVNAALXA FO SVARV VIOMaad AS
USE AND ABUSE OF
162
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610'L | 0L6'9 | 1269 | BL8'9 | $28'9 | PLL'9 | FZL'9 | G29°9 | 9z9'9 | LLG’9
6299 | €89°9 | 9ES°9 | O6F'9 | FFF’ | L6E"9 | TSS"9 | FOS'9 | 8G6'9 | 6169
6869 | S619 | SGET'9 | SOLD | F909 | [G09 | LLO°S | PEGS | 06'S | 9F8'S
6FS8'S | 808"E | L9L°E | 9SL'E | G89°E | HHO'S | PON'S | E9GG | Geg'g | [87'S
6EF'S | IBF | E8EE | SHE'S | GOES | 89G'E | OSU'S | GETS | FES | SITS
690° | FE0'S | 866'F | C96F | LE6'F | G68'F | 9S8°7 | 168'F | S8L PF | OSL'P
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€10°9 | 960°9 | 086'S | FEBS | L88°S | TP8"S | G6L'E | 8PL'S | GOL'S | SG9'E | 609°S
GIL’S | ZL9'E | 89'S | H8S"E | IHS" | LES | HSP'S | OLTH'S | 99E"S | SSES | BLES
SGe"e | LISS | 916° | SESE | GEIS | FETS | SITS | GLO'S | 180°S | 066'F | 6767
100°E | €96'P | PZ6'F | 988'F | 8F8'F | OISF | GLLV | VEL | 969°F | LS9'F | 619'F
PPO'F | 809'F | SLE | LESP | GOS | GOFF | IEP | 9687 | O9E'T | S6E'F | 686'F
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THE STEAM-BOILER.
69"
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USE AND ABUSE OF
164
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822'6 | 6L1'6 | OS1'6 | 180°6 | Z80'6 | Z86'S . S86'8 | F888 | SE8"s <
GILZ’8 | 699°8 | G69'8 | 9LZE°8 | OSG'8 | ESF | LZEV'S | L688 | HHS'8 1G
G0G’8 | 6ST'8 | SITS | GL0°8 | 820°8 | F862 | 1LP6L | L68°L | FESL RS
069°L | 6F9°L | 809°L LOGL | 969°L | S8h'L | PHP'L | SOF'L | S9EL ZI
LLVL | 68T2L | TOVL | €90°L | FEO'L | 9869 | 8F6'9 | OL6'9 | ZL8°9 tI
£99°9 | 629°9 | F6G'9 | 8GG°9 | €ZG°9 | LEF'O | SPO | 9IF'O | L8E9 ral
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6ST'8 | SIL’8 | 990°8 | 0Z0°8 | EL6°LZ | L662 | 1882 | HE8L | 88L2 43
619°L | CS9°L | G6S'L | SPSL | FOSL | T9WL | LIV LI PLEL | O€S'L G
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THE STEAM-BOILER.
TABLE
165
OF SUPERFICIAL AREAS OF TUBES OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS
AND DIAMETERS FROM 24 INCHES TO 3 INCHES AND FROM
8 FEET TO 20 FEET.
1225.224
1319.472
1413.720
1507.968
1602.216
1696.464
1790.712
1884.960
829.382
869.055
1036.728
1140.400
1244.073
1347.746
1451.419
Super.
area
in feet.
og ee
tn Go Ht Gn Go bd
SUO ROW
9.16
9.81
10.47
11.12
11.78
12.43
13.09
5.75
6.03
719
C91
8.63
9.35
10.07
1555.092
1658.764
1762.4387
1738.110
1969.783
2073.456
904.780
1017.878
1130.976
1244.073
1357.171
1470.268
1583.366
1696.464
1809.561
1922.659
2035.756
2148.854
2261.952
7.06
7.85
8.63
9.42
10.21
10.99
11.78
12.56
13.35
14.13
14.92
15.70
STEAM-BOILER CONNECTIONS ANI) ATTACH-
MENTS.
The same apparent want of skill that is so fre-
quently shown in the setting and location of steam-
boilers may be observed in the arrangement of their
connections and attachments.
was to connect a boiler with the object for which it
Those whose duty it
166 USE AND ABUSE OF
was intended, frequently proceeded without any cal-
culation whatever as to how the work would come
together or finish ; consequently it is nothing uncom-
mon to see some very uncouth arrangements. Pipes
are often used either too large or too small for the-
purpose for which they are intended. Again, they
are cut without any degree of accuracy, and have to
be bent and strained to bring them together. The
consequence is that they are subjected to an enor-
mous strain induced by contraction and expansion,
causing leakage, besides incurring the dangers that
may result from a pipe or connection breaking while
under pressure. |
An instance of such blundering occurred in this
city. A steam-pipe, four inches in diameter, was
attached to a boiler in such a manner that it could
not be connected at the other end, and, instead of
bending it, the steam-fitter sprung it, requiring four
men with a long lever to do so. Then, as soon as it
was connected and the steam turned on, the strain
induced by the expansion of the pipe forced one of
the cast-iron connections to break. The consequence
was the engineer was killed and five or six others
badly scalded. Every intelligent engineer is well
aware that the straighter and more direct a pipe is,
for whatever purpose employed, the more satisfactory
will be the result; and yet how common it is to see
pipes, for the purpose of conveying water or steam,
bent in almost every imaginable direction, and as
THE STEAM-BOILER. 167
many as a dozen elbows and couplings used for the
purpose of connecting them, when by the exercise of
ordinary skill and good judgment two or three would
answer. |
Such botching is a reproach on the men calling
themselves mechanics that do it, and could find no
reasonable excuse save in the fact that the same
want of skill, carelessness, and recklessness is to be
found in almost everything else connected with
steam-boiler engineering. A. steam-fitter guaran-
teed the owner of a steam-boiler that he would
furnish dry steam to his engine if he would allow
him to alter the steam-pipe, which at the time was
very straight and direct. He altered the pipe to the
shape of two double cranks, and instead of three
elbows, which were used before the alteration was
made, it became necessary to use eleven. As a result
the steam-cylinder was continually flooded with the
water of condensation, and the power of the engine
so diminished that the arrangement had to be taken
down and replaced with the straight pipe, which
involved a great loss both in time and expense.
GAUGE-COCKS,
The gauge-cock is one of the most indispensable
adjuncts of the steam-boiler. It is as important as
the safety-valve, as, without some reliable means for
determining the height or the level of the water in
168 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.
steam-boilers, there would be no guarantee of safety,
even under the most intelligent and careful manage-
ment. But the advantage of the gauge-cock has
uot always been appreciated, proof of which may be
found in the wretched condition in
which they are frequently found on
boilers, It is not uncommon to find
them leaking, covered with mud, filled
solid with deposit from the water, or
broken off even with the head of the
boiler and plugged up. It might be
reasoned that their importance to en-
gineers, firemen, and owners of steam-
boilers would entitle them to more care-
ful and better treatment; but as every other attach-
ment of the steam-boiler, as well as the boiler itself,
has been in the past subject to neglect, abuse, and
harsh treatment, it would be a wonder if the gauge-
cock escaped. Gauge-cocks require frequent exam-
ining and blowing out, but when opened it should
not, be done with a snap, but gradually; nor should
they be closed with a jerk or a thump. They should
also be frequently ground on their seats for the
purpose of making them steam- and water-tight, as
whenever they are found leaking, or looking as if
they were not cared for, it furnishes indisputable
evidence that there is ignorance and mismanagement
somewhere. |
La
Bhi, everything about the Boiler-room
\ neat and clean. When water- and steam-
Sauges are dirty and corroded, and the
boiler-heads and furnace-doors covered with
dirt, itis a sure sign that there is poor man-
agement throughout the establishment.
15 169
170 USE AND ABUSE OF
STEAM-GAUGES,
The object of the steam-gauge is to indicate the
steam pressure in the boiler, in order
that it may not be increased far above
that at which the boiler was origi-
nally considered safe; and it is asa
provision against this contingency
that a really good gauge is a necessity
where steam is employed, for no guide
| at all is vastly better than a false
one. The 1 most essential requisites of a good steam-
gauge are, that it be accurately graduated, and that
the material and workmanship be such that no sensi-
ble deterioration may take place in the course of its
ordinary use.
The pecuniary loss arising from any considerable
fluctuation of the pressure of steam has never been
properly considered by the proprietors of engines.
If steam be carried too high, the surplus will escape
through the safety-valve, and all the fuel consumed
to produce such excess is so much dead loss. On the
other hand, if there be at any time too little steam,
the engine will run too slow, and every lathe, loom,
or other machine driven by it, will lose its speed and
of course its effective power in the same proportion.
A loss of one revolution in ten at once reduces the
productive power of every machine driven by the
engine ten per cent., and loses to the proprietor ten
4 = :
alley A a
THE STEAM-BOILER. 171
per cent. of the time of every workman employed
to manage such machine. In short, the loss of one
revolution in ten diminishes the productive capacity
of the whole concern ten per cent., so long as such
reduced rate continues; while the expenses-of con-
ducting the shop (rent, wages, insurance, etc.,) all
run on as if everything was in full motion. 228 Ae o2a
=) 280 i) oS oO } o8o
aa a a Aas =i aa g md
aS | O8% a2 | O8s o3 | o8s
Lee 7 ae Bee ics ae ae at
22 | $282 || 228 | $888 || 222 | $888
A < ¥ < Ay <
0.25 | .022794 10 .005698 70 =| .001015
0.5 021164 20 003221 80 | .000892
1 018515 30 002244 90 | .000796
2 014814 40 001723 100 | .000719
3 012345 50 .001398 150 | .000481
4 010582 60 001176 200 | .000364
5
j -909259
16
182 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABLE
OF COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND
THEORETICAL FORMULA.
Boiler Pressure, 45 Pounds. Boiler Pressure, 75 Pounds.
Area of | Area of Area of Rea of
: Opening | Opening . Opening pening
Seo found by jaccording oe found by | according
vei Experi- to ; Experi- to
ment. | Formule. ment. | Formule.
Sq. Feet. | Sq. Ins. | Sq. Ins. Sq. Feet. | Sq. Ins. | Sq. Ins,
100 :
089 09.2 aps POD 12 Ag
200 180 LQ 200 24 24
500 45 48 500 9 9
1000 89 94 |} 1000 1.20 1.18
2000 1.78 1.90 2000 2.40 2.37
5000 4.46 4.75 5000 6.00 5.99
Now, if we compare the area of openings, accord-
ing to these experiments, with Zeuner’s formula,
which is entirely theoretical, it will be observed that
the results from the two sources are almost identical,
or so nearly so as not to make any very material
difference. In the absence of any generally recog-
nized rule, it is customary for engineers and boiler-
makers to proportion safety-valves according to the
heating-surface, grate-surface, or horse-power of the
boiler. While one allows 1 inch of area of safety-
valve to 66 square feet of heating-surface, another
gives 1 inch area of safety-valve to every 4-horse
power; while a third proportions his by the grate-
surface,— it being the custom in such cases to allow
1 inch area of safety-valve to 17 square feet of grate-
surface. This latter proportion has been proved by
THE STEAM-BOILER. 188
long experience and a great number of accurate ex-
periments, to be capable of admitting of a free escape
of steam without allowing any material increase of
the pressure beyond that for which the valve is
loaded, even when the fuel is of the best quality, and
the consumption as high as 24 pounds of coal per
hour per square foot of grate-surface, providing, of
course, that all the parts are in good working order.
It is obvious, however, that no valve can act without
a slight increase of pressure, as, in order to lift at all,
the internal pressure must exceed the pressure due
to the load.
The lift of safety-valves, like all other puppet-
valves, decreases as the pressure increases; but this
seeming irregularity is but what might be required
of an orifice to satisfy appearances in the flow of
fluids, and may be explained as follows: a cubic foot
of water generated into steam at one pound pressure
per square inch above the atmosphere, will have a
volume of about 1600 cubic feet. Steam at this
pressure will flow into the atmosphere with a velocity
of 482 feet per second. Now suppose the steam was
generated in five minutes, or in 300 seconds, and the
area of an orifice to permit its escape as fast as it is
generated be required, 1600 divided by 482 x 300
will give the area of the orifice, 13 square inches.
If the same quantity of water be generated into steam
at a pressure of 50 pounds above the atmosphere, it
will possess a volume of 440 cubic feet, and will flow
184 USE AND ABUSE OF
into the atmosphere with a velocity of 1791 feet per
second. The area of an orifice to allow this steam
to escape in the same time as in the first case, may
be found by dividing 440 by 1791 x 300, the result
will be .; square inches, or nearly % of a square inch,
the area required. It is evident from this that a
much less lift of the same valve will suffice to dis-
charge the same weight of steam under a high press-
ure than under a low one, because the steam under
a high pressure not only possesses a reduced volume,
but a greatly increased velocity; it is also obvious
from these considerations that a safety-valve, to dis-
charge steam as fast as the boiler can generate it,
should be proportioned for the lowest pressure.
RULES.
Rule for finding the Weight necessary to put on a
Safety-valve Lever, when the Area of Valve, Pressure,
etc., are known.— Multiply the area of valve by the
pressure in pounds per square inch; multiply this
product by the distance of the valve from the ful-
crum; multiply the weight of the lever by one-half
its length (or its centre of gravity); then multiply
the weight of valve and stem by their distance from
the fulerum ; add these last two products together,
subtract their sum from the first product, and divide
the remainder by the length of the lever: the quo-
tient will be the weight required.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 185
EXAMPLE.
Area of valve, 12 inches. 65 13 8
Pressure, 65 pounds, 13 16 4
Fulcrum, 4 inches. za Wa fe
Length of lever, 32 inches. Si aa a
Weight of lever, 13 pounds. ety pies
Weight of valve and stem, 8 pounds, 3190 208
240 32
32)2880 240
90 lbs.
Rule for finding the Pressure per Square Inch when
the Area of Valve, Weight of Ball, ete; are known.—
Multiply the weight of ball by length of lever, and
multiply the weight of lever by one-half its length
(or its centre of gravity); then multiply the weight
of valve and stem by their distance from the fulerum.
Add these three products together. This sum, di-
vided by the product of the area of valve, and its
distance from the fulcrum, will give the pressure in
pounds, per square inch.
EXAMPLE,
Area of valve, 7 inches. 50 12 6
Fulcrum, 3 inches. 30 15 3
Length of lever, 30 inches. BIE vid h 0
Weight of lever, 12 pounds. cee ae i
Weight of ball, 50 pounds. 18 EE
Weight of valve and stem, 6 pounds. 180°.
21)1698 3
80.85 lbs, 21
1 *
186 USE AND ABUSE OF
Rule for finding the Pressure at which a Safety-valve
is Weighted when the Length of Lever, Weight of
Ball, ete., are known.— Multiply the length of lever
in inches by the weight of ball in pounds; then mul-
tiply the area of valve by its distance from the
fulerum ; divide the former product by the latter:
the quotient will be the pressure in pounds per
square inch.
EXAMPLE.
Length of lever, 24 inches. 52
Weight of ball, 52 pounds. 24
Rlow
Fulcrum, 3 inches.
Area of valve, 7 inches. an
104
91)1248
59.42 Ibs.
The above rule, though very simple, cannot be
said to be exactly correct, as it does not take into
account the weight of the lever, valve, and stem.
Rule for finding Centre of Gravity of Taper Levers
for Safety-valves.— Divide the length of lever by
two (2); then divide the length of lever by six (6),
and multiply the latter quotient by width of large
end of lever less the width of small end, divided by
width of large end of lever plus the width of small
end. Subtract this product from the first quotient,
and the remainder will be the distance in inches of
the centre of gravity from large end of lever.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 187
| EXAMPLE.
Length of lever...... PG BY BREN Ra be eR Pl 36 inches.
Width of lever at large end.) so: teessnnescisstovesasiese a ab
PV TOtEAGL Je Ver Ab. SMA CENG aiscaceaces besmer vdcance hae
36 + 2=18—1.2=—16.8inch. 36+6=6kK1=6+5=1.2.
Centre of gravity from large end, 16.8 inches,
The safety-valve has not received that attention
from engineers and inventors which its importance
as a means of safety so imperatively deserves. In
the construction of most other kinds of machinery,
continual efforts have been made to insure accuracy ;
while ip the case of the safety-valve, very little im-
provement has been made either in design or fitting.
It is difficult to see why this should be so, when it is
known that deviations from exactness, though trifling
in themselves, when multiplied, not only affect the
free action and reliability of machines, but frequently
result in serious injury, more particularly in the case
of safety-valves.
Safety-valves should never be made with rigid
stems, as, in consequence of the frequent inaccu-
racy of the other parts, the valve is prevented from
seating, thereby causing leakage; as a remedy for
which, through ignorance or want of skill, more
weight is added on the lever, which has a tendency
to bend the stem, thus rendering the valve a source
of danger instead of a means of safety. The stem
should, in all cases, be fitted to the valve with a ball
188 é USE AND ABUSE OF
and socket-joint, or a tapering stem in a straight
hole, which will admit of sufficient vibration to
accommodate the valve to its seat. It is also advisa-
ble that the seats of safety-valves, or the parts that
bear, should be as narrow as circumstances will
permit, as the narrower the seat the less liable the
valve is to leak, and the easier it is to repair when
it becomes leaky.
All compound or complicated safety-valves shouid
be avoided, as a safety-valve is, in a certain sense, like
a clock— any complication of its parts has a tendency to
affect its reliability and impair its accuracy.
WITTINGHAM’S TUBULOUS BOILER.
This boiler, shown on opposite page, may be said
to consist of a series of tubes, a steam- and a mud-
drum. The tubes are placed angularly, and the two
drums are placed horizontally and transversely to the
tubes. There is also a water-drum, which is added
or not, as circumstances may demand. Inside these
tubes are others, of much smaller diameter, which
pass entirely through the larger ones and the castings.
These inner tubes are threaded at each end, and nuts
on them, with faced collars, enable them to serve as
both stay-bolts and flues, as, by screwing up the nuts,
the outer tubes are pressed into their seats, and tight
joints are secured. The mechanical construction
of this boiler is of the most perfect character; it
ee a
THE STEAM-BOILER, : 189
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ZA
Wey
YM
we =
Vs = ——=
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is very durable, and keeps perfectly tight. It has
a good reputation for efficiency, durability, and
economy.
FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS,
‘The tendency of the water in a steam-boiler to
rise into the cylinder is well known to engineers, and
is generally attributed to the presence of dirt, grease,
and other soapy substances. But it frequently arises
190 USE AND ABUSE OF
from a disturbance of the relation existing between
the temperature and elasticity of the steam in the
boiler, as, when the discharge of steam is out of pro-
portion to the steam-room in the boiler, the high
temperature required to generate steam with suffi-
cient rapidity to supply the demand causes violent
boiling, and the agitation is greater when the relation
between the temperature and pressure is most dis-
turbed. This is often the case with tug-boats just
starting to tow a heavy vessel, or a locomotive starting
a train of cars, and even with stationary boilers hay-
ing too limited steam capacity, when a heavy piece
of machinery is thrown on.
The most common causes of foaming are insuffi-
cient steam-room, foulness of boilers, excessive firing,
and the effects produced by the intermittent action
of the steam-valves. The supply of steam to the
cylinder being cut off for a considerable period
during each stroke, the effect is to throw the water
in the boiler into a slight undulatory motion, as may
frequently be observed in the glass water-gauge.
Foaming in locomotive boilers is generally caused
by impurities in water, which are confined to certain
parts of the country known as the alkali regions;
these impurities consist essentially of potash, soda,
ammonia, and lithia. Locomotive boilers using sur-
face water are also apt to foam if allowed to become
dirty, in consequence of decayed vegetable matter
being held in suspension in the water, such sedimen-
THE STEAM-BOILER. 191
tary accumulations adding to the strength of the
ingredients above referred to.
Foaming in marine boilers is most generally
caused by changing the water from salt to fresh, or
vice versa, and is made evident by the boiling up
of the water in the glass gauge. When foaming
arises from this cause, the water in the boiler should
be changed as soon as possible, which can be done
by putting on a strong feed and blowing out con-
tinuously, or at short intervals; and it may become
necessary to throttle down the steam, cut off short
by the link, or even to stop the engine in order to
ascertain the level of the water in the boilers, when
it will frequently be found to have fallen below the
proper level. Violent foaming can be checked by
opening the furnace door and damper, and covering
the fire with fresh coal; but this means of relief
should be used as little as possible, because it has a
tendency to injure the boiler, owing to the sudden
contraction of the parts most exposed to the fire.
Foaming is also inherent in some types of boilers,
in consequence of their peculiar construction, which
prevents a free escape of the steam from the heating-
surface to the steam-room. Boilers with a large
amount of heating-surface and small steam-room
generally foam ; so also do boilers with the ordinary
amount of steam-room, if the water be carried too
high. Various expedients have been resorted to,
such as perforated pipes, baffle-plates, etc., to counter-
192 USE AND ABUSE OF
act the dangers induced by foaming, but without
any permanent results. Experience has shown that
the most reliable preventives of foaming are, ample
steam-room, good circulation, clean boilers, and
moderate firing. All the phenomena connected with
foaming have not yet been satisfactorily explained ;
but, from whatever cause it may arise, it is always
attended with a certain amount of danger, Foaming
is sometimes confounded with priming, but they arise
from very different ‘causes, and are productive of
very different results. Foaming may result in per-
manent injury to a boiler, or even induce explosions,
while priming can only cause a waste of fuel and loss
of power. Foaming is always made manifest by the
violent agitation and rising and falling of the water
in the gauge, and also the muddy appearance of the
water, and the great quantity of particles of sediment
contained in it that have been brought up from the |
lower part of the boiler by the violent ebullition of
the water. Priming may and does go on unseen, but
it can be discovered by the white appearance of the
steam as it issues from the exhaust-pipe ; as saturated
steam, or steam containing water, has a white appear-
ance and descends in the shape of mist, while dry
steam has a bluish color, and floats away in the
atmosphere. Priming also makes itself known by a
clicking in the cylinder, which is caused by the
piston striking the water against the cylinder-head
at each end of the stroke.
ig has been too much the custom heretofore
for owners of Steam-boilers to disregard
_ the advice and suggestions of their own engi-
neers and firemen, even though men of intel-
ligence and experience, and to be governed
entirely by the advice of self-styled experts
and visionary theorists.
17 N 193
194 USE AND ABUSE OF
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS,
All natural waters contain more or less mineral
matter. ‘This is acquired by contact with the earth’s
surface, and by percolation through the soil and
rocks. It consists principally of carbonates of lime
and magnesia, sulphate of lime, and chloride of
sodium, in solution, and clay, sand, and vegetable
matter, in suspension. The many other saline in-
gredients found in various waters exist in very
small proportions, are generally very soluble, and,
therefore, have no relation to the utility of water in
boilers. Of the above-mentioned salts, the carbo-
nates of lime and magnesia are only soluble when
the water contains free carbonic acid — consequently,
the waters of rivers, lakes, etc., contain them in less
quantities than those of wells, springs, and creeks,
owing to the precipitation caused by the spontaneous
evolution of the solvent on: exposure to air, heat,
and light.
Our American rivers contain from two to six
grains of saline matter per galion, in solution,
and a varying quantity in suspension, generally
exceeding ten grains. Well and spring waters hold
but little in suspension, but a quantity of the dis-
solved salts, varying from ten to six hundred and
fifty grains in the gallon. When such water is
boiled, the carbonic acid is driven off, and the car-
bonates, deprived of their solvent, are rapidly pre-
4
THE STEAM-BOILER. 195
cipitated in a finely-crystallized form, tenaciously
adherent to whatever they may first fall upon. Sul-
phate of lime requires five hundred parts of water
for its solution, and, as the water evaporates, super-
saturation occurs, and the salt is precipitated in the
same form and with the same adherent quality as
the carbonates. Chloride of sodium, and all the
other more soluble salts, are precipitated by the
same process of supersaturation ; but, owing to their
greater solubility, much more evaporation is required.
All suspended matter gradually tends to subside.
This combined deposit, of which the carbonate
of lime usually forms the greater part, remains adhe-
rent to the inner surface of the boiler, undisturbed
by the force of the boiling currents. Gradually
accumulating, it becomes harder and thicker, till it
is as dense as porcelain, though tougher, and at
length may obtain such a thickness as to prevent the
proper heating of the water by any fire that can be
placed in the furnace.
The high heats sometimes necessary to heat water
through thick scale, will sometimes convert the scale
into absolute glass, by combining the sand with the
alkaline salts composing it. The evil effects of the
scale are due to the fact that it is relatively a non-
conductor of heat. Its conducting power, compared
with that of iron, is as 1 to 37.5. Consequently
more fuel is required to heat water in an incrusted
boiler than in the same boiler if clean. seocssenseieces 212°?" Fah:
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USE AND ABUSE OF
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THE STEAM-BOILER. 209
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
That the use of steam-power is fraught with
danger is only too well known; the extent of the
danger, however, as indicated by the number of
boiler explosions every year, and the loss of life and
property entailed, is but vaguely appreciated by the
public. No official record is kept of such accidents,
and only those of exceptional interest are reported
in the newspapers. Even in such cases as are re-
ported, it is almost impossible to ascertain their true
cause, as there is seldom a unanimous opinion on
the part of the experts who examine into the causes
after the event; besides, there are a great many
people who think they know something that will
explain the cause of these fearful accidents, but, for
some reason or other, their fine-spvn theories have
not been of any practical value. This doubtless
arises from the fact that the conditicos under which
boilers are used, and the causes of their explosions,
are very imperfectly understood by any one except
those who have devoted time, thought, and study to
their construction, care, and management.
Until quite recently, boiler explosions were attrib-
uted to one cause only, namely, an insufficiency of
water; and this, in turn, was attributed to the care-
lessness of the attendant who had charge of the
boiler. The boiler was iron, and, of course, it would
not, or could not, explode if the vagabond fireman
13% O
210 USE AND ABUSE OF
had not let the water get low. The boiler might, in
the first place, be made of an inferior quality of
iron; might be constructed in the most bungling
manner; the fittings might not only have been of
the most inferior kind, but inadequate in every re-
spect. In fact, it might be burned, banged, abused,
or crystallized through excessive firing, or it might
be cracked, patched, corroded, and taxed beyond its
strength; and when patience ceased to be a virtue,
it exploded. It was sure to bring down the censure,
if not the vengeance, of the community on the
devoted head of the unfortunate engineer or fire-
man; and if, perchance, his life was saved, he was
sure to be ostracized and driven out, as though it
were, from the face of the Lord. Strange as it may
seem, this monstrous belief was not confined to timid
people alone, but was entertained very largely by a
class of men styling themselves scientific experts.
Of course, in the face of such ignorance and stupidity,
it would be useless to attempt to prove that some
of the most destructive explosions that ever occurred
in this country took place when there was a suffi-
ciency of water in the boiler.
Another of the stereotyped causes of explosion
was tampering with the safety-valve. That adjunct
of the steam-boiler might be out of all proportion ;
it might be miserably constructed ; in fact, it might
be an unsafety-valve instead of a safety-valve — but
what difference did that make when the boiler ex-
THE STEAM-BOILER. 211
ploded? No one took interest enough in the matter
* to ascertain its proportions, or the manner in which
it was fitted, so that the blame, if blame there was,
might rest where it rightfully belonged, viz., on the
party who attached such an abortion to the steam-
boiler. All cheerfully united in cursing the fireman
if living, and blasting his memory if dead. Verily,
those who chose the care and management of the
steam-boiler as a calling in the past, as well as those
who intend to do so in the future, ought to feel
grateful to the men who stripped boiler explosions
of the mystery that so long enshrouded them, and
attributed them to their real causes.
More recently, the theory that electricity was an
active agency in steam-boiler explosions was quite
rife; but Faraday and other eminent chemists proved
conclusively that the development of electricity in
the steam-boiler, if such a phenomenon could at all
occur, would be due solely to the friction of the
steam against the sides of the vessel; that the pres-
ence of electricity would be more likely to occur in
the steam-pipe or in the steam-cylinder than in the
boiler, and that all the experiments, investigation,
and researches fail to discover the presence of elec-
tricity in steam. Even if it were a fact that the pres-
‘ence of electricity did actually exist in steam, how
was it to accumulate? it certainly could not be done
when the boiler was not in use, as there would be no
friction to create it; and when the boiler was in use,
212 USE AND ARUSE OF
if such a thing could exist, the electricity would
escape through the safety-valve and steam-pipe, or ~
any of the openings, with a velocity more than one
million times faster than steam at two hundred and
forty pounds to the square inch. Besides, boilers and
their connections are conductors, the same as light-
ning-rods; and if electricity existed in the boiler, it
would soon find its way to the ground.
Explosive Gases.— This theory was, in its turn,
urged as one of the main causes of boiler explosions,
and it was claimed that large bodies of steam were
decomposed by being brought in contact with red-
hot plates, and that gas was formed with such rapid-—
ity and elastic force that no boiler structure was
sufficiently strong to withstand it. But it was shown
by thousands of practical experiments that only a
very small quantity of steam could be decomposed
by being brought in contact with the parts of steam-
boilers most likely to become heated; and that even
then it would not be dangerous, as the hydrogen is
not explosive, unless mixed with its equivalent of
oxygen, when it would have to be ignited with a
spark to produce explosion. Again, assuming that
nearly all the steam can be decomposed, the hydro-
gen would only burn quietly in the presence of
oxygen, as it becomes liberated on the red-hot sur-
face of the plates and fails to produce an explosion.
But to take the extreme view of the case, assuming
a sudden and perfect union of the gases to take
THE STEAM-BOILER. Lhe
place, it would still be difficult to see how an explo-
sion could take place, as neither the volume nor
pressure would be increased. |
Concussive Ebullition.— Then the phenomenon
termed concussive ebullition was advanced as a
cause of boiler explosions. This theory was founded
on the experiments of Dufour, who claimed that by
suspending drops of water in heated oil, the temper-
ature of the water might be raised considerably
above the boiling-point without the formation of
vapor, but that if a bubble of air or a particle of
any porous substance was placed in contact with the
water a burst of vapor immediately occurred. Now
if this theory should be shown to be correct, sensible
people would be at a loss to know what relation or
what similarity of conditions can exist between drops
of water suspended in oil and a steam-boiler in ordi-
nary use. It was also claimed that the presence of
oil in steam-boilers would cause them to explode;
but this theory lost much of its weight from the fact
that oil is frequently used for preventing incrustation,
and that the boilers in which it is used do not ex-
plode. It is also well known that oil is very liber-
ally used in the making of steam-boilers, and that
there is hardly one that has not had more than a
gallon of oil smeared over its surface in the different
processes of manufacture.
Spheroidal Theory. — The spheroidal theory is
the so-claimed tendency of water, when thrown upon
214 USE AND ABUSE OF
highly heated plates, to assume the spheroidal con-
dition, and to evaporate suddenly when the temper-
ature is sufficiently lowered. The exact application
of this theory is by no means clear, and the assumed
delay of the water in evaporating is antagonistic to
the sudden evaporation from the overheating theory,
as it is difficult to see how the evaporation of a large
quantity of water in an ordinary boiler could be de-
layed (as is assumed in this theory) without reducing
the temperature of the water below that sufficient to
produce an explosion. It is well known that water
in this state evaporates very slowly, and this has
been attributed to the supposed fact that the heat
was transmitted through the spheroids; but Bou-
tigmy attributes it to the reflection of heat from their
surfaces, showing that they do not absorb heat.
All the foregoing magnificent theories have been
disproved through the operations of the Hartford
Steam-Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company.
Proof of this is found in the fact that whenever
manufacturers and steam-users place their boilers in
the care of this Company they are sure to receive
immediate and full protection from steam-boiler ex-
plosions. As it is noticeable that the electricity
immediately gives out, that the drops of water fail
to suspend in heated oil, or even form into spheres
and roll over the surface of the plates like spinning-
tops, that the gas fails to generate in volumes that
would place a Wilcox’s fire-annihilator in the shade,
THE STEAM-BOILER. 218
and that the water refuses to thump against the sides
of the boiler, when the intelligent and experienced
inspector comes to do so with his hammer and chisel,
he would be very likely to say that either such theo-
ries or the plates were a “little too thin,” or perhaps
both. To compensate for the absence of so many
splendid phenomena, there is always sure to be an
immense discovery of broken braces, cracked seams,
bulged plates, distorted crown-sheets, defective steam-
gauges, and inferior safety-valves.
The principal causes of explosion, in fact the
only causes, are deficiency of strength in the shell or
other parts of the boilers, over-pressure, and over-heat-
ing. Deficiency of strength in steam-boilers may be
an original defect, arising in the material or workman-
ship at the time of construction, or it may be due to
deterioration from use, to ordinary wear, or to inju-
ries arising from mismanagement, want of attention,
and repairs, etc. It often happens that boilers are
deficient in strength for the pressure they are in-
tended to bear, and no accumulation of pressure be-
yond this is necessary to bring about their destruc-
tion. Deficiency of strength arising from bad
workmanship is the most difficult to discover, and
not unfrequently escapes the closest scrutiny, more
particularly so in the case of flue, tubular, and loco-
motive boilers, as their examination is attended with
certain difficulties.
Over-pressure niay be caused by the safety-valve
216 USE AND ABUSE OF
being recklessly overweighted, by the sticking of the
valve on its seat, by the inadequate size of the com-
munication between the boiler and the valve, or by
an incorrect or worthless steam-gauge. Boilers are
frequently found running at a pressure which is
regarded -as perfectly safe, but when the gauge is
examined and compared with one known to be cor-
rect, it is found to be 10, 20, or even, as is some-
times the case, 50 pounds out of the way. If a
boiler supposed to be running under a pressure of 80
pounds is found, in consequence of an unreliable
steam-gauge, to be actually running at a pressure of
120 to 130 pounds, the limit of safety may have been
passed, and an accident is imminent, which may
occur at any moment.
Over-heating induced by excessive firing is no
doubt the cause of many explosions, and most fre-
quently occurs when the boiler is too small for the
engine, or incapable of furnishing the required
amount of steam, as the intensity of the fire neces-
sary to generate the desired quantity of steam has a
tendency to repel the water from the plates. The
same effect may be produced when there is a great
disproportion between the grate- and heating-surfaces,
or where the heat from a large grate is concentrated
on a small space. Under such circumstances, the
heat is delivered with such intensity as to lift the
water from the surface of the iron, thereby exposing
it to the direct action of the fire. Explosions occur-—
THE STEAM-BOILER. 217
ring from excessive firing are in all cases the result
of avarice, ignorance, or a want of skill in the care
and management of the steam-boiler. Over-heating
may be caused by the accumulation of hard, solid
incrustation adhering to the parts most exposed to
the direct action of the fire, or it may be due to
shortness of water, which may result from leakage
of the valve or stop-cock, to a failure in the supply-
pipe, or neglect to turn it on at the proper time or in
sufficient quantity.
A steam-boiler may be well designed, made of
good material, and of first-class workmanship, and
yet in a few months after being put under steam it
may explode with terrible effect. On examining into
the cause of the explosion, it may turn out that the
water which was used made a heavy deposit; that
the boiler had not been cleaned out since it was put
in use; that the fires had been fiercely urged, and
the water driven from the surface of the iron; asa
result, the life had been entirely burnt out of the
sheets directly over and around the fire, thereby
weakening the boiler and putting it in a dangerous
condition. That the sudden heating or cooling and
oxidation of the boiler induce great deterioration of
strength has been proved by experience. Defects in
the material, as blisters, lamination, arising either
from their inferior quality or want of care in the
manufacture, are other sources of weakness in steam-
boilers.
19
218 USE AND ABUSE OF
A great deal more might be written on this sub-
ject if needed, but suffice it to say that there is
no mystery about steam-boiler explosions; they are
all regulated by cause and effect; and it will be
found, on investigation, that seven-tenths of all the
boiler explosions that occur yearly in this country
might be traced to some sufficient cause, were all the
facts known. Even if there is some apparent mys-
tery connected with boiler explosions in some in-
stances, it will vanish before sound and careful
investigation. The solution may involve the exami-
nation of a great number of boilers and extend over
years, but the greater the number examined, with
their particular defects understood and explained,
the greater will be the fund of information from
which to draw conclusions. No amount of theory
will explain the different causes of explosions, as that
can only be determined by a full comprehension of
the circumstances under which they occurred, which
involves the quality of the material of which they
are constructed, character of workmanship, form or
type of boiler, setting, attachments, properties of
water used, kind of fuel, age, treatment, and skill
employed in the care and management. These are
the vital points to be considered in order to arrive
at any approximate solution of the cause or causes
of steam-boiler exp:osions.
The sooner steam-users and engineers discard all
theories in conneciion with steam-boiler explosions,
THE STEAM-BOILER. 219
and come to the conclusion that when a boiler ex-
plodes one of two things is certain — either that the
pressure was too great for the boiler, or that the
boiler was not equal to the pressure; that it gave way
in the weakest place, and that the strength of
any machine (the steam-boiler included) must be
measured by its weakest point, and that the sooner
this principle is universally recognized the better it
will be for every steam-using community. A weak
spot, a flaw, or a crack in a boiler does not improve
by use, and when any machine breaks down at a
point which shows that it must have been weak for
a long time, no one thinks of going into a long dis-
cussion or explanation of the mysterious agencies
which were suddenly brought to bear on it and cause
it to break. Not so, however, with a steam-boiler ; it
may have been burned, corroded, and cracked for
years, and when at last it explodes there are always
to be found those who wish to involve the whole
thing in mystery and tell how it must have occurred,
who are always unable to tell how it might have
been prevented.
‘Within the past eight years, mainly through the
operations of the Hartford Steam-Boiler Inspection
and Insurance Company, steam-boiler explosions
have been stripped of the mystery in which vision-
ary theorists had so long enshrouded them, and the
belief in such heresy as mysterious steam-boiler ex-
plosions is principally confined to those who are
920 USE AND ABUSE OF
incapable of or unwilling to be convinced, even when
the facts are laid before them. The class of persons,
of all others, that ought to encourage such theories,
and take refuge behind them, when called upon to
pay damages in case of accident, are those who
discard such theories when accounting: for boiler
explosions, and the correctness of their views is suf-
ficiently attested by the almost entire absence of
serious accidents in connection with the thousands
of boilers of all sorts and conditions that are or
have been in their care for several years past.
Few have any idea of the extent to which steam
is used in our large cities, or of the risks to which
even those who have no interest in the boilers, and
who are not connected in any way with the business
in which they are used, are exposed. In almost
every building along our principal thoroughfares
may be found a large boiler, used for heating pur-
poses or for furnishing power, which is concealed
from public view. It is only when the public are
startled by an explosion, and by the death or injury
of innocent persons, that the true condition of things
is revealed, and that the dangers incurred by every
passer-by are exposed.
HE opinions of wise men, who are willing
to investigate for the purpose of gaining
and giving information, are entitled to due
respect and consideration. But when theo-
ries and opinions are promulgated that have
no truthful basis upon which to rest, and
which seem to have no end save that of exalt-
ing the promulgator, it is the duty of those
who have had practice and experience to
counteract such influences, and show how
much labor can be expended in mystifying
and clouding a subject which might other-
wise be comparatively simple.
19.4 ic tek
USE AND ABUSE
OF
EXPLODED BOILER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE “CHARLES WILLARD
yy
THE STEAM-ROILER. 223
EXPERIMENTAL BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
Several attempts have been made, and large
sums of government money expended, to ascertain
the cause of steam-boiler explosions by experiment ;
but such experiments have failed to shed any
light on the subject, as they must ever do, in, conse-
quence of the circumstances under which _ boilers
are made and used being so different. Take, for
instance, two boilers of the same dimensions in every
respect, and of the same material and workmanship,
to be used in different parts of the country and
under entirely different circumstances. One may
explode with disastrous effects, while the other may
remain perfectly safe and sound. Now what rela-
tion can be established between the danger or safety -
of either, unless all the circumstances connected with
their care and management be known, viz., proper-
ties of water, character of the setting, condition of
the boiler, care and management, etc. A boiler of
a peculiar type may be selected for the purpose of
testing what pressure it would take to burst or ex-
plode it.
The first thing to be done in such a case would
probably be to see that the joints were all steam-
and water-tight, and that the braces were all taut,
and everything restored as nearly as possible to its
original condition. The explosion may establish the
fact that the boiler sustained a pressure of two or
224 USE AND ABUSE OF
three hundred pounds to the square inch before
giving away. Now, perhaps, there may be located
in the same neighborhood a boiler of the same type,
made by the same manufacturer, of the same thick-
ness and brand of iron, and by the.same mechanics ;
but it may have some inherent defect, due either to
the material or the workmanship. It may have been
badly cared for, burned, bulged, crystallized, cracked,
or corroded ; then, if it should explode, what relation
would it bear to the other, save simply in type?
What criterion would it establish by which to deter-
mine the safe working or bursting pressure of all
classes of boilers, or even those of the same type?
The following instance came to the knowledge of the
writer, which goes to show how futile any attempt
must ever be to establish the cause of steam-boiler
explosion by experiment. An engineer undertook
to apply the hydrostatic test to the boiler in his
charge; and, to accomplish his object, he placed a
quantity of grate-bars on the lever of the safety-valve,
and by means of a force-pump raised the cold-water
pressure to one hundred and twenty pounds to the -
square inch, without the boiler showing any signs of
weakness or leakage, although it had been in use
nine years. The test was considered satisfactory ;
the water was then run down to the proper level,
the fire started, and it was only when steam blew off
at the safety-valve that the engineer remembered
that he did not remove the grate-bars from the
THE STEAM-BOILER. 225
safety-valve lever. He then drew his fire, and
allowed the boiler to cool, and when the grate-bars
were taken down and weighed, it was ascertained
that the boiler sustained a steam-pressure of three
hundred and seven and one-half pounds to the
square inch. 3
Another boiler of the same type, located in the
same neighborhood, built by the same manufacturers,
and as nearly alike in every respect as possible,
showed signs of leakage when only two years in use;
but, as the cause of the leakage was concealed under
a mass of masonry, it was impossible .to ascertain
what the nature of the defect was. An experienced
boiler-inspector was called in, and, after removing a
portion of the brickwork by which the boiler was
enveloped, he discovered that the material was
cracked through between thirteen rivet-holes in one
of the seams a little below the water-line, and that
the heads of three of the rivets in that part of the
seam that was sound had dropped off, in consequence
of being cold-shutted in the process of riveting.
Such a boiler would, in all probability, burst or
explode under a pressure of less than one hundred
pounds to the square inch, which goes to show that
the cause of boiler explosions can never be deter-
mined by experiment. This can only be ascertained
by a knowledge of all the circumstances connected
with each individual case.
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226 USE AND ABUSE OF
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THE ROOT BOILER.
This boiler consists essentially of 80 wrought-iron
tubes, 4 inches and 9 feet long. These.tubes are set
in brickwork, at an angle of about 30° from the
horizontal. The tubes are connected together at the
ends by a system of triangular plates and crowfeet.
The boiler has a steam-drum 18 inches by 63 feet
long. The superheating is effected in the upper por-
tion of the boiler.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 227
VAGARIES OF EXPERTS IN REGARD TO
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
The boiler in a plaster-mill in Pennsylvania ex-
ploded, killing the fireman instantly, and it was on
evidence at the inquest that the boiler was so located
that it had no protection from the effects of the
weather. It was not known to have been cleaned or
examined for ten years. The steam-gauge got out
of order and was allowed to fall into disuse, and the
gauge-cocks became choked with mud. After the
explosion, the safety-valve was picked up more than
one hundred feet from where the occurrence took
place, and it was so much corroded, that it became
necessary to use a hammer to drive it from its seat.
An expert was summoned to testify at the inquest,
in order that the jury might be able to form their
conclusion as to the cause of the fireman’s death, and
he stated that the air that afternoon was surcharged
with electricity, and that that was undoubtedly the
cause of the explosion; he was invited to examine
the boiler and its attachments for the purpose of
satisfying himself on the subject, but he declined to
do so, stating that his mind was fully made up in
regard to the cause of the explosion.
Two large steam-boilers in a cabinet manufac-
tory in Philadelphia had but one safety-valve, which
was located on a branch-pipe for the purpose of
allowing a stop-valve to be placed between it and
228 USE AND ABUSE OF
the boiler, for the purpose of using one boiler at a
time if desirable. On one-occasion, when the engine
was undergoing repairs, it became necessary to shut
down this stop-valve; when everything was ready,
in the absence of the regular engineer, one of the
workmen was instructed to fire up with wood and
shavings, and as all the means of escape for the
increasing pressure was cut off, the boiler exploded,
killing eighteen men and injuring two others so that
they died soon afterwards. A noted expert was
summoned before the coroner’s jury to explain if
possible the cause of the disaster, and he testified that
there was a strong current of electricity passing be-
tween the poles that afternoon, and that. its pas-
sage was probably obstructed by some dense clouds,
which phenomenon was the cause of the explosion.
He further stated that if the explosion had not
occurred until an hour afterwards, he did not believe
it would have taken place at all.
The owner of a planing-mill in Michigan, instead
of employing a competent person to take charge of
us engine and boiler, instructed any of his workmen
who could find it most convenient to. fire up, and
.an the engine. The water which was used in the
Soiler was taken from a mountain stream, and was so
impregnated with lime that the pipes became choked,
and the boiler became so coated with incrustation
that it bulged and cracked in several places, and
finally exploded, killing three men and frightfully
THE STEAM-BOILER. 229
wounding five others. An expert was sent for in
order that his teatimony might shed some light on
the cause of the explosion. He stated that there was
an extensive belt of ozone extending over that sec-
tion of the country, and that wherever the presence
of ozone existed in the air boilers would explode, no
matter how carefully they were managed.
At the investigation that followed the explosion
on board the ferry-boat ‘‘ Westfield,” it was shown
that the boiler was made of #-inch iron, and 120
inches in diameter. The safe working-pressure of
such: a boiler when new, according to Fairbairn,
would be from 28 to 80 pounds per square inch. It
was in evidence that, though the boiler had been in
use twelve years, it was badly cracked and patched,
and was carrying a pressure of 40 pounds to the square
inch at the time of the explosion. Such a statement
of facts would enable any intelligent mind to form
a definite conclusion as to the cause of the explosion ;
nevertheless, an expert came forward and offered to
explain the cause of the disaster, when, on being
questioned, he stated that at the time of the explo-
sion the boiler was full of inflammable gas, and when
asked what kind of gas, he answered that it ‘‘ might
a’ bin” oxygen.
Experts have always made it an object to mystify
the cause of steam-boiler explosion, probably for the
purpose of retaining the honor among their fellow-
men of being looked up to as the only exponents of
20
oa
230 USE AND ABUSE OF
a phenomenon which produces such disastrous results.
They seem to imitate the ancient priests, both among
the Jews and heathen, who were, from their ordinary
duties, necessarily conversant with the generation of
steam; but their knowledge of it was mainly exerted
to delude men to idol worship and lock their minds
in ignorance instead of to benefit and enlighten them.
DEFECTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-
BOILERS.
The following cuts illustrate some of the mechanical
defects that impair the strength and limit the safety
and durability of steam-boilers. All punched holes
are conical, and unless the sheets are reversed, after
veing punched, so as to bring the small sides of the
holes together, it will be impossible to fill them with
the rivets. Fig. 1 shows the position of the rivet in
the hole, without the sheets being reversed; and it
will be observed that, as very little of the rivet bears
against the material, the expansion and contraction
of the boiler have a tendency to work it loose. It is
apparent that such a seam would not possess over
one-third the strength that it would if the holes in
the sheets were reversed and thoroughly filled with
the rivet, as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 represents
what is known in boiler-making as a blind-hole,
which means that the holes do not come opposite
each other when the reams are placed together for
- a
FIG, 1, FIG, 2,
FIG, 3
@o G@
FIG, 5, FIG, 6,
232 USE AND ABUSE OF
the purpose of riveting. Fig. 4 shows the position
of the rivet in the blind-hole after being driven. It
will be observed that the heads of the rivet, in con-
sequence of its oblique position in the hole, bear only
on one side, and that even there the bearing is very
limited, and, through the expansion and contraction
of the boiler, is liable to work loose and become
leaky. Such a seam would be actually weaker than
that represented in Fig. 1. Fig. 5 shows the metal
distressed and puckered on each side of the blind-
hole in the sheets, which is the result of efforts on
the part of the boiler-maker, by the use of the drift-
pin, to make the holes correspond for the purpose of
inserting the rivet. Fig. 6 shows the metal broken
through by the same means.
Now it will be observed that nearly all the above
defects are the result of ignorance and carelessness,
showing a want of skill in laying out the work, as
well as a want of proper appliances for that purpose.
The evils arising from such defects are greatly ag-
gravated by the fact that they are all concealed, fre-
quently defying the closest scrutiny, and are only
revealed by those forces which unceasingly act on
boilers when in use. Such pernicious mechanical
blunders ought to be condemned, as they are always
the forerunners of destruction and death. There
can be no reason why boilers should not be con-
structed with the same degree of accuracy, judgment,
and skill as is considered so essential for all other
classes of machinery.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 238
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM-BOILERS,
Until quite recently the steam-boiler has under-
gone very little improvement.. This arose, perhaps,
from the fact that men of intelligence and mechan-
ical genius directed their thoughts and labors to some-
thing more inviting and less laborious than the con-
struction ofsteam-boilers. Consequently, that branch
of mechanics was left almost entirely to a class
of men that had not the genius to rise in their
profession or improve much in anything they at-
tempted. As a result, ignorance, stupidity, and a
kind of: brute force were the predominant acquire-
ments in the construction of the steam-boiler; but
within the past few years this state of things has been
changed, as some very important improvements have
been made, not only in the manufacture of the mate-
rial of which boilers are made, but also in the mode
of constructing them. The imposing display of pow-
erful and accurate boiler machinery shown at the
Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, is an evi-
dence that the attention of eminent mechanics and
manufacturers is directed to the steam-boiler, and
that in the future its improvement will keep pace
with that of the steam-engine.
Boiler-plate is now rolled of sufficient dimensions
to form the reams for boilers of any diameter with
only one seam, obviating the necessity of bringing
riveted seams in contact with the fire, as was usually
20
234 USE AND ABUSE OF
the case in former times. In the manner of laying
off the holes for the rivets, accurate steel gauges
have taken the place of the old-fashioned wooden
templet, thereby removing the evils induced by
blind-holes, and obviating the necessity of using the
drift-pin. So, also, in the method of bending the
sheets to form the requisite circle—with a better class
of machinery, the work is now more accurately per-
formed. The old process of chipping is, in nearly
all the large boiler-shops, superseded by planing the
bevels on the edge of the sheet preparatory to
calking. Recent improvements in “calking” have
resulted in perfect immunity from the injuries for-
merly inflicted on boilers in that process. In most
establishments of any repute in this country, riveting
is done by machinery, which is (as is well known to
all intelligent mechanics) very much superior to
hand-riveting. It is only small shops that enter
into rivalry to secure orders and build cheap boilers,
using poor material and an inferior quality of me-
chanical skill, that use the same old crude appliances
—in many cases the merest make-shifts—that were in
use a quarter of a century ago, and constructed with-
out regard to any of the rules of design that are
considered so essential in appliances for the con-
struction of all other classes of machinery.
THE STEAM-BOILER,. 235
SIRS
AANA RATAN
RUN
THE ALLEN BOILER.
In this boiler the roof of the fire-chamber is made
of nine cast-iron cylinders, each seven inches internal
diameter and eleven feet long; and into each of
these cylinders eighteen wrought-iron tubes, three
and a half inches in diameter, are screwed, the lower
ends being closed by plugs. These tubes hang down
from the roof into the fire-chamber, and are set at an
angle of about twenty degrees from the vertical ; the
lower end being farthest from the fire-door. The
tubes over the fire are three feet two inches long, the
rear ones are four feet five inches long. Steam-
drums are arranged over the boiler.
Mes Y Engineer should inform himself
4+ on the subject of the safe working press-
ure of Boilers, and when he finds the limit
of safety has been reached, he should prompt-
ly inform his employer, and wse his inflw-
ence to have the Boiler worked within the
bounds of safety.
236
THE STEAM-BOILER, 6
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS.
No class of men are entrusted with greater re-
sponsibilities, none hold in their keeping more im-
portant interests of life and property, than those
having the charge of steam-boilers. A mistake in
judgment at a critical point, ora careless neglect of
duty, may cause, and has often resulted in, terrible
destruction to life and property. The most skilful
and best-informed engineers, and those best versed in
steam matters, are the ones who most fully appre-
ciate its dangers, and also the most willing to learn
all they, can relative to any new points of interest,
danger, or safety.
In the management of steam-boilers there are
certain rules that must be observed, and to insure
faithfulness, the owners of boilers should secure the
services of intelligent men — ignorance and careless-
ness have been the occasion of too many accidents,
and great destruction of life and property has not un-
frequently been the result of employing cheap help.
In the care and management of steam-boilers, men
should be employed who know at least something of
the nature of the power with which they have to
deal; men who understand the use of the various
attachments on steam-boilers; men of good sound
judgment who have, if not a thorough, at least a
practical knowledge of the strength of iron, of its
capabilities to resist pressure, and who know beyond
238 USE AND ABUSE OF
what limits they should not allow pressure to accu-
mulate.
it will be poor consolation to the owner of a steam-
boiler, after his property has been destroyed by a ter-
rible explosion, to congratulate himself on the fact
that he saved a few dollars a month in the wages of
his engineer, by employing a careless or incompetent
man. But if those who neglect and abuse steam-
boilers were the only ones to suffer from explosions,
carelessness and mismanagement would be less a
matter of public concern; but when the lives of
hundreds are often thus exposed to danger, it should
be the aim of every steam-user to do his utmost to
render the use of steam in his establishment safe, as
after an explosion, where persons have been killed
or maimed for life, the public verdict is very severe,
and no right-minded man would wish to covet any
man’s experience or reflections who has laid himself
open to public censure by neglecting to do what
might have prevented so serious a disaster.
A very mischievous practice exists in various
parts of the country in reference to starting fires
under steam-boilers preparatory to raising steam.
This duty is entrusted to ignorant watchmen, who are
too often the agents of disaster. These men are
instructed to light the fire at a certain hour, and
comply with their orders without exercising the least
judgment on the subject. Numerous instances are
on record where watchmen have started the fires
THE STEAM-BOILER. 239
under steam-boilers and raised steam before discover-
ing that there was insufficient water in the boilers,
thus incurring the risk of burning the boilers, if not
actually ruining them. No persons ought to be per-
mitted to meddle in any way with the steam-boiler,
except those who are skilled in the management of
them, and who are fully conversant with the proper-
ties of steam. Thousands of lives are lost and much
valuable property destroyed through the ignorance of
those left temporarily in charge of steam-boilers.
It may seem strange, but it is no less true, that,
notwithstanding the numerous fatal explosions that
have occurred, resulting from defects which could
not have escaped the notice of a competent inspecter,
many of the users of steam-power appear to be in-
different as to the condition of their boilers. They
would rather incur the risk of an explosion than
stop their works one day in the year, that their
boilers may be thoroughly examined. Even then
many of them will not be at the trouble or expense
of having the boilers properly cleaned and the flues
swept, without which a satisfactory examination is
impossible.
In the majority of cases boilers are not cleaned
half as often as they should be. When the water
is hard, and scale accumulates on the sides or flues
of the boiler, solvents are very often resorted to to
remove the scale. After the scale has been thrown
down it is frequently allowed to remain there and
240 USE AND ABUSE OF
- form a heavy conglomerate coating, which prevents
the water from coming in contact with the iron, the
result of which is that the parts of the boilers ex-
posed to the direct action of the fire are cracked,
bulged, or burned through. The yearly report of
the Hartford Steam-Boiler Inspection and Insurance
Company shows that nearly half of the whole num-
ber of defective boilers became so on account of
incrustation and deposit of sediment; and, strange
as it may seem, there were forty per cent. more dan-
gerous cases from the deposit of sediment than from
incrustation and scale.
The first duty of an engineer or fireman when he
enters his boiler-room in the morning is to try the
boiler gauge-cocks and ascertain if there is a suff-
cient supply of water. Many boilers have been badly
injured from neglect of this precaution. Fires are
often replenished, and when well started, attention
is directed to the water in the boiler. If from any
cause during the night the water has escaped, the
result may be a burned sheet, or probably still more
serious injury.
Too much reliance should never be placed on
self-acting apparatus, such as gongs, floats, steam or
alarm whistles, for regulating the height of the water
in steam-boilers, as, even if they act with certainty,
they provide only against one or two contingencies,
while the dangers to which steam-boilers are exposed
are numerous.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 241
The glass water-gauge, though one of the sim-
plest, most beautiful, and useful attachments of the
steam-boiler, should not be relied upon altogether to
show the level of the water in the boiler.
The gauge-cocks should be kept clean and in con-
stant use, as they furnish the most reliable means of
ascertaining the height of the water in a steam-boiler.
The furnace door should never be allowed to
remain open longer than is sufficient to clean and
replenish the fire, as the contraction of the tubes and
flues, induced by the cooling down of the furnace,
has a very mischievous effect on all parts of the
boiler exposed to the cold draught.
The feed-water should be sent into the boiler as
hot as possible, as, if it be forced in at a low tempera-
ture, it will impinge on that portion of the boiler
with which it comes in contact, and, as a result of
the continual expansion and contraction induced by
the varying temperature of the water, the boiler is
liable to crack and become leaky.
If, from neglect or any other cause, the water in
the boiler should become dangerously low, the fire-
doors and damper should be immediately thrown
open, for the purpose of admitting the cold air to the
heated plates, and the fire withdrawn as soon as pos-
sible. Under such circumstances no attempt should
be made to introduce cold water into the boiler, or
disturb the safety-valve, as either might be attended
with disastrous results.
PAS oh Q
249 USE AND ABUSE OF
The safety-valve should always be moved before
the fire is started to get up steam, for the purpose of
ascertaining if it is in good working order. It should
also be raised whenever the boiler is being filled with
cold water in order to allow the air to escape, as air
has a tendency to retard the influx of the water, and
also to occupy the steam-room when steam is raised.
Air also interferes with the uniform expansion of the
boiler.
All new boilers should be thoroughly examined
before being filled with water, to ascertain if there
are any tools, wood, lamps, greasy waste, etc., left
behind by the boiler-makers, that would be liable to
be carried into connections or cause the boiler to foam.
In getting up steam in boilers just filled with cold
water, or that have been out of use for some time, the
fire should be allowed to burn moderately at first, in
order to admit of the slow and uniform expansion of
all parts of the boiler; as, when the fire is allowed
to burn rapidly from the first start, some parts become
expanded to their utmost limits, while others are as
yet nearly cold, thereby subjecting the boiler to fear-
ful strains, induced by unequal expansion and con-
traction, which frequently results in leakage, frac-
ture, and sagging of the shell or flues.
When boilers are laid up, or out of use, even if it
be for a few days, they should be opened, cleaned, and
thoroughly examined, to ascertain if any of the stays
or braces have become loose, slack, or disconnected.
|
THE STEAM-BOILER. 243
' Before being closed up, all gaskets for man- and
hand-holes, and grummets for mud-holes, should be
painted with a coating of black lead and tallow, to
protect their seats from deterioration induced by
the chemical action of the sulphur in the gum-pack-
ing, now so universally used for the joints of steam-
boilers.
When the weight is once fixed on the lever of a
safety-valve, at the right point to retain the safe
working pressure, the extra length of the lever
should be cut off.
The feed-supply and the firing should be as steady
and as regular as possible, as frequent and extreme
alterations of temperature, especially with boilers
carrying a high pressure, or irregularities of any
kind, have a very injurious effect.
Ashes should never be allowed to accumulate
around the water-legs of fire-box boilers, or the
water-bottom of any boiler, as wet ashes, like any
other lye, corrodes, and eventually destroys the iron.
Boiler-flues should never be allowed to become
choked with ashes, nor the shells to become coated
with soot, as it very much impairs the efficiency of
the heating surface and induces a wasteful consump-
tion of fuel. The flues and tubes of boilers should
be swept out at least once a week. This is a very im-
portant object in point of economy, as, when the flues
become choked with ashes, it requires an extra ex-
penditure of fuel to generate the necessary quantity
244 USE AND ABUSE OF
of steam. Care and attention to little matters in
managing steam-boiler fires will not only add to the
working age of a boiler, but save materially in the
consumption of fuel.
Boilers should never be filled with cold water
while they are hot, as it causes contraction of the
seams and stays, often inducing fracture of stays or
leakage in theseams and tubes. The tubes of boilers
being generally of thinner material than the shell,
cool and contract sooner. For this reason the boiler
should never be filled with cold water while the
tubes are hot.
When two or more boilers are connected by feed-
pipes, the stop-valves on each should be shut off
when not working, as the water is liable to escape
from one to the other, on account of variation in the
pressures ; and as a consequence, when the water in
one is up to, or even above, the proper level, the tubes
or flues in the other are very often destitute of water.
When, in consequence of leakage, accumulations
of salt occur in the flues or tubes of marine-boilers,
they should be removed as soon as possible and the
tubes thoroughly swept, or, if need be, bored out with
a flue-scraper; otherwise the parts covered with the
accumulation will be apt to be burned through. In
some cases it is necessary to direct a steam-jet on
the place affected for the purpose of softening the
deposit. |
When flues become so leaky that it is impossible
THE STEAM-BOILER. 245
to make them tight in the tube-sheet by calking, this
object can be effected by cast- or wrought-iron ferrules
or expanders driven into the end of the tube. This
arrangement, however, is only an alternative, as it
interferes with the free escape of the gases from the
furnace and diminishes the draught.
One of the most common causes of deterioration
in steam-boilers, and also of leakage of the seams and
under side, and at the junctions of the tubes and
tube-sheets, is the reckless practice of blowing out
the boiler while still hot and filling it again with
cold water. Under such circumstances, the contrac-
tion of the crown-sheet, tube-sheets, and tubes is so
rapid and unequal, that, if persisted in, the result is
the ruin of the boiler.
When an engine is stopped, if the steam should
increase to an excessive pressure, the safety-valve
should not be moved, as any sudden release of the
steam might be attended with risk: it is better to
open the furnace door, cover the fire with fresh fuel
and turn on the feed-water ; this will have a tendency
to lower the temperature and keep up the circulation
in the boiler, so essential to safety when the steam
is shut off and a hot fire in the furnace. Many
boilers have exploded just as the engine was starting,
after having stood still for some time; this arose,
doubtless, from the fact that the plates directly
around and in contact with the fire became over-
heated in consequence of the circulation becoming
21 *
246 USE AND ABUSE OF
enfeebled or entirely suspended after the steam was
shut off. As soon as the engine was started and the
pressure lessened, the water on the surface of the
over-heated plates flashed into steam of tremendous
elastic force.
When boilers are to be cleaned they should be
allowed to stand for several hours and cool before
the water is run out; the deposit of mud and scale
will then be found to be quite soft, and can be easily
removed or washed out with a hose from all accessi-
ble parts. There is a very erroneous impression ex-
isting among engineers and steam-users, that blowing
out a boiler under a high pressure has a tendency
to remove the mud or deposit; this, however, is a
mistake, as the contraction of the different parts of
the boiler, induced by so sudden changes of tempera-
ture, has a tendency to induce leakage of the seams
and round the rivets and ends of the tubes.
It is a very general impression among engineers
and firemen, and receives encouragement from those
who sell nostrums for the prevention and removal
of scale, that so long as the mud or deposit is retained
in the soft or slushy state, it can do the boiler no
harm. ‘This is undoubtedly a mistake, as it retards
the escape of the heat from the fire to-the water, in-
ducing over-heating, which is generally followed by
cracking and blistering of the plates and leaking at
the seams.
It is not uncommon in factories to have two
THE STEAM-BOILER. 247
boilers for the same engine, in order that one may be
out of use while the other is working; but, while
this is an accommodation, it is not always economy,
as boilers wear out faster when not in use, by oxidiz-
ing and corroding, than if moderately worked. It
will be found more economical to work with extra
boiler room than to have one or more standing idle,
as it will tend to prevent priming; besides, the fur-
naces will be more economically worked with a thick
fire than with a thin one, and more of the heat will
be absorbed by allowing it to accumulate, thereby
maintaining a high temperature in the furnace with
slow combustion.
Never neglect to blow out, examine, and clean
boilers when solvents are used to prevent and remove
scale; because boilers under such circumstances re-
quire as much, if not more, care than if no solvent
or compound is used, as all that can be accomplished
at best by such agents, is to loosen and throw down
the scale, which if not removed will be apt to form
into a hard conglomerate on the bottom of the boiler,
preventing the water from coming in contact with
the iron; the result is, the plates are burnt through
and the boiler permanently ruined.
T is a matter of regret that, too often, fire-
men and engineers are laggards in the
issues Of that real intelligence which ought
to be carried out as effective traits of char-
acter, indispensable to the credit of their
profession. Too often a loose indifference to
correct rules ts displayed by them, which
shows that they have failed to perceive their
own advantages.
248
THE STEAM-BOILER. 249
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING.
In estimating the relative merits of different
steam-engines, it is generally assumed that the fuel
is burned under conditions with which the men who
supply coal to the furnaces have nothing whatever
to do. In short, that any man who can throw coal
on a fire and keep*his bars clean, must be as good as
any other, however well qualified. But this conclu-
sion is totally erroneous, as it is within the experience
of nearly every engineer and steam-user, that many
engines now in operation throughout the country
consume twice as much ftel, per horse-power, as is
required for those that are more economically man-
aged.
The use of a more improved class of steam-
engines involves the necessity of employing more
skilful and careful attendants; not that the work is
more difficult, as less coal has to be thrown into the
furnace, but because a careless or unskilful fireman
can counteract all the ingenuity displayed in the
improvement, construction, and management of the
engine. Consequently, every engineer should be
required to prepare himself for the duties of his pro-
fession by commencing as a fireman; otherwise, he
cannot. be expected to be able to instruct his fireman
in the manner of firing best calculated to insure the
most satisfactory and economical results.
There have not been, heretofore, that attention
250 USE AND ABUSE OF
and thought devoted to the examination of the sub-
ject of the economy of fuel which the magnitude of
the interest involved, and its importance, in a na-
tional point of view, render it worthy of. The
saving of one pound of water per horse-power per
hour for ten hours a day, in an engine of 100 horse-
power, assuming that the boiler evaporates 7 pounds
of water per pound of coal, would make a saving of
1000 pounds of water per day, which would require
the consumption of 143 pounds of coal — 225 tons a
year — the cost of which would be, at the ordinary
price of coal, over $125.
The methods most in vogue for the consumption
of all kinds of fuel are those which gradually de-
veloped themselves, as necessity dictated, to the un-
tutored intellect of uncultivated men, but which,
however creditable to the men that devised them,
inasmuch as they availed themselves of all the
sources of information within their reach, are never-
theless a reproach to the more advanced knowledge
of physical and mechanical science enjoyed by the
present generation.
Even with the best coal and most careful firing, a
quantity of the coal falls through the fire-bars either
as unburnt coal or ashes. Another portion goes up
the chimney, unconsumed, in the form of smoke and
soot; and a further quantity, half consumed, in the
form of carbonic oxide. The loss from these causes
may amount to from two to twenty per cent. It all
THE STEAM-BOILER. 251
arises from wrongly constructed furnaces and bad
firing, and can nearly all be avoided. Most coal con-
tains a greater or less quantity of moisture, and the
evaporation of this moisture causes the first loss of
heat. Radiation from the furnace causes a further
loss. But the great causes of loss are the admission
into the furnace of a large quantity of useless air
and inert gases, and the escape of these, with the
actual products of combustion, up the chimney at a
very much higher temperature than that at which
they entered the furnace.
Air is composed of about one-third oxygen and
two-thirds nitrogen. The oxygen only is required to
effect the combustion of the fuel, and the useless
nitrogen merely abstracts heat from the combustibles
and lowers the temperature of the furnace. About
12 pounds of air contain sufficient oxygen to effect
the combustion of 1 pound of coal; but, owing to
the difficulty of bringing the carbon into contact
with the oygen, the quantity actually required to
pass through the furnace is from 18 to 24 pounds of
air per pound of coal burnt. The surplus air passes
out unburnt, and its presence in the furnace lowers
the temperature there and abstracts a portion of the
heat generated. As the whole of the air enters the
furnace at about 60° Fah., and the unconsumed air
and products of combustion leave the flues at from
400° Fah. to 800° Fah., the total loss from these
causes is from 20 to 50 per cent. Each pound of
252 USE AND ABUSE OF
good coal burnt is theoretically capable of evapo-
rating about 14 pounds of water. In practice, under
the most favorable circumstances, it evaporates but
from 7 to 9, and in ordinary practice from 4 to 6.
There are difficulties in the way of abstracting all
the heat from the furnace gases. First, because, with
natural or chimney draught, the gases require to
pass into the chimney at not less than 500° Fah., in
order to maintain the draught ; and, secondly, because
the transmission of heat from the gases to the water,
when the difference of their temperatures is small,
is so slow that an enormous extension of the surface
in contact with them becomes necessary in order to
effect it. But by having energetic combustion and
a high temperature in the furnace, the quantity of
air actually required may be much reduced. By
suitable arrangements for admitting air and feeding
coal into the furnace, the proportions of each may be
suitably adjusted to each other; and by a liberal
allowance of properly disposed heating-surface, the
temperature of the gases may be reduced to that
simply necessary to produce a natural draught, or to
about 400° Fah. or less, in a furnace where the
draught is obtained from a steam-jet or fan.
Before starting a fresh fire, any dust, ashes, or
cinders that may have remained in the furnace after
the fire was drawn, should be removed and the sur-
face of the bars made perfectly clean and level ; then
a thin layer of fresh coal should be scattered over
THE STEAM-BOILER. 258
the grates for the purpose of protecting them from
the extreme heat of the fresh fire, as the coal so
scattered will absorb the heat that would otherwise
be transmitted to the grates, and cause them to
spring or warp. The fresh fuel will also cause the
fire to burn more moderately, which is an object of
great importance when boilers are cold. Most of the
kindling, whether light wood, shavings, oily-waste, or
paper, should’ be placed in the front end of the
grates, near the furnace door, and then covered with
a uniform layer of wood. ‘This is a necessary pre-
caution, as, when the fuel fails to ignite at the front
at first, it generally takes a long time before the fire
buras through.
When a boiler is of sufficient capacity to generate
the necessary amount of steam, without urging the
fires, it will be found most advantageous to carry a
thick bed of coal on grates, as, when the coal can be
burned in large quantities and with a moderate
draught, the heat is more generally utilized than if
the coal is burned in small quantities and with a
sharp draught. For stationary boilers, the fuel
should not be less than from 3 to 4 inches thick on
the grate; for. marine or locomotive boilers, if
anthracite coal be used, from 5 to 6; if bituminous,
from 6 to 8 inches. Of course, the thickness of the
fire must be governed by the character of the fuel
and quantity of steam required.
When the coal is in large lumps, so that the
22
254 USE AND ABUSE OF
space between them is considerable, the depth may
be greater than where the coal is small and lies com-
pactly; and where the draught is very strong, so
that the air passes with great velocity over and
through the fuel, there is not time for the carbonic
acid to combine with and carry off the products of
combustion, and consequently a bed of greater depth
may with propriety be used. When very large coal
is used, it will be found of advantage to mix it with
some small ‘coal, particularly when the draught is
strong, as such an arrangement forms a resisting
barrier to the currents of cold air that would other-
wise pass through the interstices between the lumps,
and render the combustion more perfect.
When an increased quantity of steam is wanted,
the average thickness or quantity of fuel on the grate
must not be increased, but rather di:ainished, and
supplied in smaller quantities and more frequently.
As soon, however, as the supply of steam exceeds the
demand, the coal may again be supplied in larger
quantities at a time. When it becomes necessary to
replenish the fire, it should be done as quickly as
possible, as, when the damper and the fire-door are
both open at the same time, the current of cold air
passing through the furnace above the fuel not only
reduces the temperature in the furnace, but has a
tendency to injure the boiler.
There should in all cases be ample fire i the
furnace, an extra quantity of water in the boiler, and
a ae eee,
. THE STEAM-BOILER. 25d
a full head of steam, before any attempt is made to
clean the fire. Then the damper should be opened to
its full extent, in order that the heated gases and dust
may pass into the flue; and if there be more than
one fire, one only should be cleaned at a time, and
allowed to become thoroughly kindled before the
next one is cleaned. The fire should never be
allowed to become low for the purpose of making it
more easy to clean, as, in consequence of the small
quantity of fire in the furnace after cleaning, the
combustion is cheeked, the temperature of the fur-
nace lowered, and consequently a serious loss of fuel
incurred.
It is always best to have a good fire in the furnace
before commencing to clean; then close the damper
and open the furnace door for a few minutes, in
order to take the white glare off the fire before com-
mencing to clean it. The damper should then be
reopened to its full extent and all the live fire pushed
back to the bridge, without disturbing any of the
ashes or cinders. The latter should then be drawn
out, and the fire that was pushed back drawn for-
ward, and the ashes and cinders that remain near
the bridge removed. The fire should then be dis-
tributed evenly over the grate, all the cinders and
clinkers that remain picked out, and the fire covered
with a thin layer of fresh coal, care being taken to
waste none of the combustible fuel.
The fire should never be disturbed so long as any
256 USE AND ABUSE OF
light shines through the grate into the ash-pit, unless
the boiler fails to furnish the necessary amount of
steam. Even then it is better, if anthracite coal be
the fuel, to shed out the ashes from the bottom
through the grate with a thin, hooked poker. But, if
bituminous coal be used, it requires frequent breaking
up, in order to allow the air to intensify the combus-
tion. When broken up, it should always be pushed
back toward the bridge, fresh fuel supplied in the
front,and allowed to coke. The smaller the quantity
supplied at a time, and the more attention paid to
its distribution and regulation, the more perfect will
be the combustion, and the more intense the heat.
if, from neglect or any other cause, the fire should
become low or the grate partly stripped, it should
not be poked or disturbed, as that would have a
tendency to put it entirely out; but wood, shavings, -
sawdust, greasy-waste, or some other combustible
substance, should be thrown on the bare places, and
after being covered with a thin layer of coal, the
damper opened to its full extent. The regulation
of the draught should receive particular attention,
as air costs nothing, while fuel is quite expensive. —
Therefore none of the latter should be allowed to
pass out of the furnace without being fully utilized.
The ash-pit and front of the furnace should at all
times be kept free from dirt, ashes, and cinders, as
such accumulations have not only the effect of dimin-
ishing the cubic contents of the space under the fur-
ee eT Te eee ae
THE STEAM-BOILER. 257
nace, but also of obstructing the free current of air
through the grate-bars, so essential to the perfect
combustion of the fuel. “
It is a well-known fact, that much of the waste
attributed to the steam-engine occurs in the furnace,
and may be summed up as follows: Waste of un-
burnt fuel in the solid state; waste of unburnt fuel
in the gaseous or smoky state; waste by external
radiation and conduction; waste by the excess of
heat which escapes by the chimney over. that re-
quired for the draught. These sources of waste give
rise to excessive losses, which perfect arrangement
and good management may tend to avoid; and if
the arrangement and proportion of the boiler are
good, the losses which occur in the consumption of
fuel may be attributed, in a great measure, to the
ignorance, inattention, or carelessness of the fireman.
Clean grate-bars, with an even distribution of the
fuel in the furnace, the exercise of judgment in the
quantity of air admitted, and the regulation of the
draught, are the main points to be attended to; and
although they require the exercise of skill and intel-
ligence, they cannot be said to involve an unreason-
able amount of either labor or vigilance.
When it becomes necessary to supply fuel to
a boiler furnace, or to clean, slice, or poke the fire,
it should be done with decision, quickness, and en-
ergy, as, when the furnace door and damper are open
at the same time, the cold currents of air passing in
22 * BR.
258 USE AND ABUSE OF
above the fuel have a tendency not only to lower the
temperature of the furnace, but to impinge on the
parts of the boiler most exposed to the fire, which
induce contraction, leakage, and permanent injury.
DAMPERS.
In the foregoing chapters such articles and at-
tachments as have for their object the control and
regulation of the water, the designation of the steam
pressure, and the cleaning of boilers, have been con-
sidered. It may not now be out of place to call
attention to appliances for regulating the draught
in furnaces, flues, and chimneys, which, as now em-
ployed, are few and simple, consisting either of a cir-
cular plate, which swings in a round flue, or a square.
plate sliding in an iron frame. The importance of /
efficient dampers has never received due consideration
either from engineers or steam-users, when we con-
sider how largely they contribute to the economy of
fuel, by retarding the combustion which would gener-
ate steam in excess of that needed, and also by pre-
venting the cold air from escaping into the flues
when the boiler is not in use, thereby lowering the
temperature of the boiler and its surroundings, and
involving the expenditure of an extra quantity of
fuel when steam is raised. The damper illustrated
on page 339 is one of the most simple and efficient —
devices ever invented for the regulation of draughts
in the furnaces of steam-boilers.
Ko one who destres to be proficient in his
Ci’ art will rest satisfied with a knowledge
of the mere routine duties required. It is not
enough to know that certain results are pro-
duced from certain causes; this we may
learn from mere experience. But, in order
to become really intelligent, we must So
further, and learn why the cawses produce
the results, so that, in an emergency, other
means may be swbstituted to accomplish the
desired ends.
259
260 USE AND ABUSE OF
STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION.
It is asserted, on reliable authority, that the pro-
portion of boiler explosions and ruptures, as com-
pared with the number of boilers in use, exceeds the
number of fires in buildings as compared with the
number of buildings in the country. Tt is estimated
that there are upwards of 100,000 steam-boilers in
use in this country ; the number of explosions annu-
ally is from 125 to 150, but when to these are added
the ruptures, collapsed flues, ripped seams, etc., the
number of disasters is increased to 900 or 1000,
making one per cent. of the whole number in the
country damaged more or less annually.
The use of steam-power is increasing the world
over, and it will continue to increase until some new
motor, more effective and less expensive, is discov-
ered. Therefore, intelligent and thorough boiler in-
spection is one of the imperative necessities of the
age. The manufacturer or steam-user, from a press
of business or a want of that practical knowledge
which is only attained in any pursuit by close study
and observation, is unable to attend or give direc-
tions in all the details involved in the care and man-
agement of his steam-boilers. For a very small
consideration, he can avail himself of the advantages
to be derived from the inspection and insurance of
steam-boilers, by placing his boilers under the care
of responsible and reliable parties, who will do
THE STEAM-BOILER. 261
everything that can be done to insure safety. The
experience of the past in the care and manage-
ment of steam-boilers has shown the necessity of
such a system, as it not only gives additional se-
curity from the effects of boiler explosions, but also
refutes the false and absurd theories which have
tended to divert the attention of engineers and
owners of steam-boilers from that watchfulness so
essential to their care and management, by inducing
the belief that no amount of care on their part will
avail against certain mysterious agents at work
within their boilers.
Another advantage of intelligent and practical
steam-boiler inspection is, that it gives the engineer
an opportunity to inform himself on many points of
vital importance, by conversing with one who, from
making a special business of boiler-inspections, has
become thoroughly versed in all matters pertaining to
boilers and their attachments; consequently, every
engineer and fireman should afford boiler-inspectors
every facility to make a thorough examination of
the boilers in their charge. They should give them
all the information and facts relating to the same, as
it may not only be the means of saving their own
lives, but of many others, as well as much valuable.
property. It is the duty of all engineers, steam-
users, and those who take an interest in the lives
and property of their fellow-man, to encourage care-
ful, thorough, and intelligent steam-boiler inspection,
262 USE AND ABUSE OF
which, to be efficient, must have a pecuniary interest
involved in its operations, as those who sustain no
loss, either of time, means, or salary, are apt to
become derelict of duty.
RULES FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF WATER
WHICH BOILERS AND OTHER CYLINDRICAL
VESSELS ARE CAPABLE OF CONTAINING.
Rule for Cylinder Boilers.— Multiply the area
of the head in inches by the length in inches, and
divide the product by 1728; the quotient will be
the number of cubic feet of water the boiler will
contain.
EXAMPLE.
Diameter of head, 36 inches.
Area il ie a OL ue te Lae
Length of boiler, 20 feet, or 240 inches.
1017.87
ime nk
4071480
_ 208574
1728)244288.80
141.87 cubic feet.
Rule for Flue Boilers. — Multiply the area of head
in inches by the length of the shell in inches; mul-
tiply the combined area of the flues in inches by
their length in inches; subtract this product from
the first, and divide the remainder by 1728; the
THE STEAM-BOILER. 2638
quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water
which the boiler will contain.
Rule.— To find the Requisite Quantity of Water for
a Steam-boiler.—Add 15 to the pressure of steam per
square inch; divide the sum by 18; multiply the
quotient by .24; the product will be the quantity in
U.S. gallons per minute for each horse-power.
Rule.— To find the Required Height of a Column
of Water to supply a Steam-boiler against any given
Pressure of Steam.— Multiply the boiler pressure in
pounds per square inch by 2.5; the product will be
the required height in feet above the surface of the
water in the boiler.
Another Rule.—7o find the Requisite Quantity of
Water for a Steam-boiler—When the number of
pounds of coal consumed per hour can be ascer-
- tained, divide it by 7.5, and the quotient will be the
required quantity of water in cubic feet per hour.
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL ON
STEAM-BOILERS,
Anthracite coal is undoubtedly the most trying
fuel on the parts of steam-boilers exposed to its
direct action, but nevertheless it is less destructive
to the whole structure than either coke, wood, or
bituminous coal. This arises from the fact that it
can be consumed in more uniform quantities, and
offers better facilities for the regulation of the air
264 USE AND ABUSE OF
than any other kind of fuel that might be used, as
the grate-surface can be easily covered with a uni-
form stratum necessitating the passage of the air |
through it, which limits the quantity according to
the thickness of the fuel on the grates, rendering the
combustion more moderate and uniform. While, on
the other hand, the combustion of coke, bituminous
coal, and wood, is, at times, of the most fierce and
energetic character; and, in consequence of the im-
possibility of maintaining a uniform fire with these
three last-named kinds of fuel, large quantities of air
are admitted, which has a very deteriorating effect
on all parts of the boiler, as they are continually
exposed to the evils induced by extreme expansion |
and contraction.
BOILER MATERIALS.
Boiler-making now holds an important place
among the mechanical arts. Its progress has been
aided chiefly by the enormous growth of the steam-
engine, as the prime mover, and also by the increased
facilities afforded for procuring suitable materials and
by the improvements made in working them. In the
early days of the steam-engine, boilers of copper and
cast-iron were used for generating steam, but they
were seldom subjected to a higher pressure than that
of the atmosphere; but when pressures of 3 to 4, or
even 7, atmospheres came into use cast-iron was
THE STEAM- BOILER. 265
found to be unreliable and treacherous, for which
reason it was discarded in favor of wrought-iron,
which was not employed at first, in consequence of
the difficulty found in working it and in making
steam-tight joints. It has, however, of late years be-
come the material employed to the almost entire ex-
clusion of all others. In fact, it has been more ex-
tensively used in the construction of steam-boilers,
for the past thirty years, than any other material,
doubtless on account of its great tensile strength,
together with its ductility, power of bearing sudden
and trying strains, and general trustworthy nature ;
its moderate facilities of working, the ease with which
it can be welded, riveted, patched, or mended ; its
moderate first cost, etc.
The first quality to be sought for in boiler mate-
rial is strength. This does not necessarily imply the
mere power to resist being torn asunder by a dead-
weight, as in a testing-machine, but the quality to
withstand, without injury, the varying shocks and
‘strains to which boilers are exposed. An inferior
quality of plates cannot be relied upon to bear the
ordeal of repeated heating and cooling, as they in-
variably warp and twist, showing defects of. manu-
facture; more especially in the process of cold-
bending, when minute fractures often occur on the
outer surface of the plates of stubborn or inferior
qualities of iron.
The defect most commonly revealed): in working
23
266 USE AND ABUSE OF
boiler-plates is lamination. This defect arises from _
the imperfect welding of the several layers which
make up the thickness of the plate, and is usually
caused by interposed sand or cinder, which has not
been expelled in hammering or rolling during the
process of manufacture. This is more frequent in
thick than in thin plates, and is sometimes very diffi.
cult to detect in cold plate, although often discernible
in the hot. It also often happens that plates, which
are passed as quite sound, on careful external exam-
ination, are found to be severely laminated when
subjected to heating and hammering, and prove ©
totally unfit for use.
Blisters are of a similar nature, and arise from
the same cause as lamination. Sometimes they ap-
pear as mere surface defects, and are of no conse-
quence; but their appearance may be an indication
of the want of care or skill in the making of the
plate, and should always excite suspicion. It fre-
quently happens that these defects pass undetected
after the closest scrutiny and test by hammering,
but disclose themselves soon after the boiler is set to
work, especially if the plates be exposed to sudden
variations of temperature. In the plates over the
fire-grate of an externally-fired boiler such a blister
may prove a very serious defect, and often necessi-
tates the cutting out and replacement of the sheet.
Inferior brands of iron will rapidly show unmis-
takable signs of weakness, when placed under the
THE STEAM-BOILER, 267
trying ordeal of bearing the alternate impingement
of a fierce flame and currents of cold air. The rapid
variations of temperature caused by the sudden and
frequent openings of the furnace-door and leakage
of cold air through the grate-bars will soon tell on
any kind of iron, but more quickly on that of an
inferior brand. | |
Characteristics of Boiler Iron when Broken. —
On breaking a plate or bar of wrought-iron the frac-
ture presents an appearance by which the quality of
the iron may, in some measure, be determined. ‘The
fracture is designated on the one hand as fibrous,
tough, silky, close-grained, etc., or, on the other hand,
crystalline, coarse, open-grained, brittle, and cold-
shut. When broken suddenly the best qualities of
plate- and bar-iron exhibit a fine, close-grained, uni-
formly crystalline fracture, even silky, of a. light,
silvery color; the appearance in the harder descrip-
tions approaching to that of steel. The appearance
of indifferently refined and inferior qualities is
coarser, usually of a darker color, more or less une-
ven or open, exhibiting large facets, and approach-
ing some descriptions of cast-iron. When broken
gradually, good iron presents a well-drawn out close
fibre, of light greenish hue, whilst inferior qualities
give a shorter, more open and darker fibre.
When good ductile iron is gradually torn asunder
it draws out or stretches to a considerable extent,
causing a diminution of sectional area at the frac-
268 USE AND ABUSE OF
tured part, which should always be compared with
the original sectional area of the specimen in judg-
ing of the quality. An inferior bar or plate may
bear as great a tensile strain as a similar specimen
of superior quality; but, on comparing their frac-
tured areas, it will generally appear that the latter
has been drawn out considerably, whilst the inferior
specimen, having stretched but little, has not sensi-
bly diminished at the fracture. This is owing to the
fact that good ductile iron is so much more trust-
worthy than badly refined, when sudden strains
occur. The one will stretch, while the other will
snap. It is also a well-known fact that wrought-
iron changes from fibrous to crystalline after en-
during long-continued cold hammering, vibration,
tension, jarring, and other strains, after long ex-
posure to the influence of heat, or alternate expan-
sion and contraction, whenever it has been used
for the plates of a boiler-furnace. Even the very
best plates, after from ten to twenty years’ use in a
boiler, have frequently been found to break without
stretching, at the same time displaying a crystalline
fracture.
It has been said that this shows that a change has
taken place in the nature of the material, and that,
from being fibrous and tough, it has, by some un-
explained cause, become crystallized and brittle, or
that it has lost its nature in consequence of the treat-
ment it has undergone, whatever that may have been.
THE STEAM-BOILER, 269
There is no doubt that the strains and other causes
above mentioned have a tendency to make good iron
become brittle and liable to snap suddenly under the
same treatment that would originally have torn it,
gradually, and to this extent a change is produced
in its nature. This snapping, and not the fatigue of
the metal, is however the direct cause of the crys-
talline fracture, which is but a necessary consequence
of the suddenness of the breaking, and not a property
of the iron itself. To say it snaps readily because it
has become crystalline is to confound the cause with
the effect. It is erroneous to say the fibrous nature
has passed out of the iron, for its ductility can, to
some extent at least, be restored, in most cases, by
simply heating to a bright red, and slowly cooling
the iron, or, failing that, by hammering or rolling it
while hot. By heating to redness and suddenly
cooling a piece of wrought-iron, it will become liable
to snap, producing the same effect as cold hammer-
ing. The explanation of this is not clear, and it
may be owing to the loosening of the crystals, into
which the composition of the material ultimately
resolves itself. To this cause may also be attributed
the same tendency to snap after long-continued jar-
ring, or alternate expansion and contraction.
It may be asserted, without fear of contradiction,
that all boiler-plate worthy of the name is fibrous;
whether its hardness makes it liable to snap, and
therefore appear crystalline, depends on its original
23 *
270 USE AND ABUSE OF
character and the treatment it has undergone. No
fine iron can, however, by any treatment, except
burning, be made to appear coarse, and the fibres of
the poorer descriptions of iron cannot, without re-
fining, be made to appear fine and close-grained. It
is from a want of knowledge of the above facts that
false opinions are so often expressed respecting the
qualities of boiler-plates.
It is no unusual thing to find intelligent mechan-
ics and boiler-makers expressing their opinions at
coroners’ inquests on the quality of the iron in
exploded boilers, without anything to base their
opinions on except the load per square inch required
to tear the plates asunder; they seem to forget that
if the boiler be an old one, that the age, the position
in the boiler in which the rent has taken place, the
amount of strain to which it has been exposed, and
all the circumstances connected with the occurrence,
should be known in order to decide understandingly
as to the quality of the iron. It has been shown
in numerous instances that good ductile iron can be
made to appear crystalline when pulled asunder in
the testing-machine, by confining the minimum sec-
tional area where fracture will occur to one point or
to a very short length.
The general conclusions, with regard to boiler
material, which may be regarded as established from
experiments, observation, and practice, thus far seem
to be — 1st. That the laws of resistance of the parts
THE STEAM-BOILER. 271
of boilers to the internal pressure are sufficiently well
established. 2d. It is of the utmost importance that
the materials employed should be of the best quality
as regards strength and durability ; and as there are
but few manufacturers of boiler-plates, the inspection
of materials, especially boiler-plates, should be made
by competent persons appointed for that purpose, at
the place of manufacture, which inspection should
extend to the qualities of ores and the process of
manufacture; the required stamps, brands, or certifi-
cates being put on or authorized by the inspectors in
person. There is much greater certainty of securing
the best materials by an inspection of the process of
working and the raw materials employed, than by
an inspection of plates after they have been sent to
market, when, judging from all external appearances,
good and bad plates are not easily distinguished.
Practical limits to the thickness of boiler-plates.
The proper strength of boilers, in order to enable
them to withstand with safety the required pressure
of the steam, is a matter of much importance as re-
gards both life and property ; and the responsibility
of the proprietors and constructors of boilers is of
so grave a character as to justify the devotion of a
much larger space to this subject than is convenient
in this work. The principles on which the strength
of all boilers, of whatever material, depend, may be
expressed in a very few words —the strength being
directly as the thickness of the metal, and inversely
as the diameter of the boiler.
972 USE AND ABUSE OF
So long as the quality of boiler iron remains as it
is at present, the thickness of the plate may be prac-
tically determined within exceedingly narrow limits,
as a good boiler must be constructed of plate ranging
in thickness from not less than one-fourth to not
greater than one-half an inch, as anything less than
the former cannot be properly calked, and any
thickness greater than the latter is difficult to rivet
without the aid of machinery. A thickness of three-
eighths seems to have become the standard thickness
for all diameters of boilers intended to sustain a high
pressure ; this, perhaps, arises from the fact that
boiler-makers seem to be better acquainted with the
practical limit to the strength of that thickness,
because it has, of late years, been used more than
any other; nevertheless, for steel, of some of the
higher grades of American plate, a less thickness
will suffice for the same pressure.
STEEL.
As steel is likely to be universally adopted asa
material for boiler-shells, it is unnecessary to look
forward to any further progress in the direction of
obtaining a stronger material. Therefore, any effort
to increase the strength of boilers should be directed
to the selection of the best material, and to the most
practical methods of disposing of it.
Steel seems to meet the demand for the new mate-
THE STEAM-BOILER., 2738
rial, and has been able, under very varying cir-
cumstances, within the past seven or eight years,
to establish its superiority over iron or copper.
In comparing the properties of steel and iron
plates, there can be no doubt that the processes
employed in the production of .cast-steel are im-
mensely superior to those employed in the manu-
facture of wrought-iron, for insuring a uniform
texture in the material. Cast-steel plates, made
from a fluid mass run into a single ingot, and when
well worked under the hammer, are likely to be
perfectly homogeneous and free from the imperfect
welds and internal defects caused by the presence of
cinder and slag, either of which is frequently found
even in the best-puddled iron, which, being built up
of numerous small pieces, all more or less properly
welded together, is entirely dependent upon the skill
and care exercised in its production for its homo-
geneity and freedom from lamination, blisters, and
other internal defects.
It was probably the high degree of tenacity and
ductility, exhibited by tool- and spring-steel, that
first drew attention to the advantages offered by this
material for the construction of steam-boilers. Its
high price, however, long stood in the way of its
being largely adopted; and this obstacle was only
removed by the introduction of new methods of
manufacture, which can as yet be termed improve-
ments only with respect to their commercial success,
8
274 USE AND ABUSE OF
and not as affecting the quality of the material.
There can be little doubt that the adoption of steel
for boiler-plates has been retarded by the want of
knowledge of its properties, and the consequent diffi-
culty sometimes met with in working it. The result:
of this is a disposition on the part of the great major-
"ity of boiler-makers to avoid using it as much as
possible.
It has been found by experiment with different
qualities of steel-plates that. toughness is incompati-
ble with great tensile strength, and these two quali-
ties may be considered as being in the inverse ratio
to each other. If it becomes necessary to have steel
with a tensile strength of from 90,000 to 100,000
pounds, it will be found to be hard and brittle,.and,
therefore, not adapted for boiler-plates. In order to
insure freedom from brittleness, a tensile strength
of from 60,000 to 80,000 pounds is the maximum
that can be allowed. The high degree of tensile
strength exhibited by steel-plates allows the use,
with safety, of this material thinner than either iron
or copper, thus reducing the weight, and rendering
the difference iu first cost of material an item of less
magnitude than is usually supposed. Besides the
weight saved by using steel — often a most impor-
tant consideration — it may be urged that the thinner
plates will conduct the heat more rapidly, and give
a correspondingly superior evaporative efficiency.
This superiority is not, strictly speaking, in. propor-
THE STEAM-BOILER. 275
tion to the reduction of thickness, since the relative
conducting powers of steel and iron are about 244
and 218. Then the density and perfect homogeneity
of steel render it nearly impervious to the action of
sulphur and other foreign ingredients existing in
coal and water, which have proved so destructive to
iron and copper.
Effect of Punching on Steel-plates.— One of the
principal results obtained, both from experiments
and experience of the material in actual riveted
work, is that steel-plates of average suitable quality
are more injured than wrought-iron plates by punch-
ing. It is chiefly ship-builders to whom _ boiler-
makers are indebted for exact experimental knowl-
edge. on the behavior of steel-plates in the process
of punching.
STRENGTH OF IRON BOILER-PLATE.
Although there is great variation in the tensile |
strength of rolled iron boiler-plate, since that of good
plate will average about 50,000 pounds per square |
inch, if the strain is applied in the direction of the
“grain” or the fibres of the iron (or the direction
in which it has been rolled), and about ten per cent.
less if the strain is applied crosswise of the grain,
it has, however, been found by experiment that,
when a tensile strain is applied to a bar of iron or
other material, it is stretched a certain amount in
276 USE AND ABUSE OF
proportion to the length of the bar and to the degree
of strain to which. it is subjected. It is found that
if this strain does not exceed about one-fifth of that
which would break the bar, it will recover its orig-
inal length, or will contract after being stretched,
when the strain is removed.
The greatest strain which any material will bear,
without being permanently stretched, is called its
limit of elasticity; and so long as this is not ex-
ceeded, no appreciable permanent elongation or
“set” will be given to iron by any number of appli-
eations of such strains or loads. If, however, the
limit of elasticity be exceeded, the metal will be per-
manently elongated, and this elongation will be in-
creased by repeated applications of the strain, until
finally the bar will break.
At the same time, the character of the metal will
be altered by the repeated application of strains
greater than its elastic limit, and it will become
brittle and less able to resist a sudden strain, and
will ultimately break short off. It is, therefore,
unsafe to subject iron, or, in fact, any other material,
to strains greater than its elastic limit. This limit
for iron boiler-plates may be taken at about one-fifth
its breaking, or, as it is called, ultimate strength.
It should be remembered, however, in this connec-
tion, that it often happens that the steam pressure is
not the greatest force the boiler must withstand, as
sudden or unequal expansion and contraction are
THE STEAM-BOILER. Qe
probably more destructive, to locomotive boilers
especially, than the pressure of the steam. ,
The manufacture of boiler-plates is carried on
very extensively in the United States, especially in
Pennsylvania. American iron is naturally stronger
and tougher than the English, bearing an average
tensile strain of from 60,000 to 70,000 pounds per
square inch, while the best Yorkshire iron bears
only about 56,000 pounds to a square inch, and the
Staffordshire about 44,800 pounds. The mean ten-
sile strength of American cast-iron has been deter-
mined with considerable care by means of experi-
ments conducted for the United States Government.
Major Wade, of the U. 8S. Ordnance Corps, found
that the mean tensile strength of American cast-iron
was 31,829 pounds per square inch of section ; while
the tensile strength of the English cast-iron, as
determined by Mr. Hodgkinson for the railway
companies, is very much inferior to this — being but
19,484 pounds to the square inch.
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND
BOILER MATERIALS.
Cohesion is that quality of the particles of a body
which causes them to adhere to each other, and to
resist being torn apart.
Curvilinear Seams.— The curvilinear seams of a
boiler are those around the circumference.
24
278 USE AND ABUSE OF
Elasticity is that quality which enables a body te
return to its original form after having been dis-
torted, or stretched, by some external force.
Internal Radius.— The internal radius is 1 of the
diameter less the thickness of the iron. To find the
internal radius of a boiler, take 4 of the external
diameter and subtract the thickness of the iron.
Limit of Elasticity.— The extent to which any
material may be stretched without receiving a per-
manent “ set.”
Longitudinal Seams.— The seams which are par-
allel. to the length of a boiler are called the Jongi-
tudinal seams.
Strength is the resistance which a body opposes
to a disintegration or separation of its parts.
Tensile strength is the absolute resistance which
a body makes to being torn apart by two forces
acting in opposite directions.
Crushing strength is the resistance which a body
opposes to being battered or flattened down by any
weight placed upon it.
Transverse strength is the resistance to bending,
or flexure, as it is called.
Torsional strength is the resistance which a body
offers to any external force which attempts to twist
it round.
Detrusive strength is the resistance which a body
offers ‘to being clipped or shorn into two parts by
such instruments as shears or scissors.
—- <
THE STEAM-BOILER. 279
Resilience, or toughness, is another form of the
quality of strength; it indicates that a body will
manifest a certain degree of flexibility before it can
be broken; hence, that body which bends or yields
most at the time of fracture is the toughest.
Working Strength.— The term “working
strength” implies a certain reduction made in the
estimate of the strength of materials, so that, when
the instrument or machine is put to use, it may be
capable of resisting a greater strain than it is ex-
pected on the average to sustain.
Safe Working Pressure, or Safe Load.—The safe
working pressure of steam-boilers is generally taken
as 1 of the bursting pressure, whatever that may be.
Strain in the direction of the grain, means strain
in the direction in which the iron has been rolled;
and in the process of manufacturing boiler-plates, the
direction in which the fibres of the iron are stretched
as it passes between the rolls. ; ,
Stress.—By the term “stress” is meant the force
which acts directly upon the particles of any mate-
rial to separate them. —
There is another property of boiler materials
which has been named “fatigue of metals.” It
refers to that ultimate tendency to wear out, from
which material and inanimatesubstances seem no more
exempt than living creatures. It may be explained,
perhaps, by the “stretch,” and consequent weaken-
ing, which experiments establish as a quality of the
~
280 USE AND ABUSE OF
toughest iron. The following are the results of a
series of experiments made by Captain Rodman, at
the United States Arsenal at Watertown, upon the
iron manufactured by a well-known firm in Balti-
more. A square inch of the best flange iron was
subjected to the various strains mentioned, with such
results, as to temporary and permanent stretch, as
are shown in the annexed columns :—
: Temp’y Stretch. |Permanent Stretch.
sca mia Sa gk poss of an inch. Pores of an inch.
O00 ba... sattare oeek: 20 0
HGO00 FOL oiled 41 1
CATO ie Siar perk se 57 1
BB ODO. craig bin cates 76 3
DS H60' aS 100 7
ROD, cg Sire ci 537 408
BODO) 8 heres dees ag J8RS 1661
Bp oom ere alae 4000
It will be seen from the above table that the first
essay, by means of a strain of 5,000 lbs., produced
no permanent stretch in the bar; and that 10,000
Ibs. and 15,000 Ibs., respectively, only produced a
permanent stretch of ;4°% of an inch, or about 4 of
the temporary stretch. But in the next two strains
of 20,000 and 25,000 lbs., the iron begins to show a
great acceleration of the weakening process or in-
crease of fatigue, for now the permanent strain has
sprung up to ; of the entire stretch. In the two
-
THE STEAM-BOILER. 281
next items this acceleration is astounding, the perma-
nent stretch being 3 of the whole upon 30,000 lbs.,
and ,% of the permanent stretch of 35,000 lbs.
PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLES FOR BOILER
SEAMS,
Punching rivet holes, according to Fairbairn’s
experiments, is in itself a cause of weakness. Not
only is the section of the plate in the line of the
strain reduced by the area of the holes, but the plate
between the holes is not so strong per square inch
as the solid plate. The excessive strain of. the
punch appears to disturb the molecular arrange-
ment of the metal, and to start fractures which, in
case of stay-bolts, often radiate in every direction,
allowing corrosion to take place, and ultimately
causing the bolts to pull out of the plate.
In eight experiments by Fairbairn, the highest
strength of plate experimented upon was 61,579 lbs.,
and the lowest 43,805 lbs., per square inch ; but with
the same plates, after punching, the strength per
square inch varied between.45,743 lbs. and 36,606
lbs. The average of the two experiments, there-
tore, showed a loss of 10,896 lbs. per square inch,
due to the jar and strain of punching, in addition te
the loss of section through the holes.
In the process of punching, from a want of ac-
curacy in laying off the holes, through ignorance
*
282 USE AND ABUSE OF
or neglect of workmen, the holes do not come opposite,
sometimes half, their diameter; they are then drifted
until the sheet is fractured, and the material partly
destroyed.* This habit cannot be too much repre-
hended, and the use of drift-pins, although consid-
ered indispensable by many good boiler-makers, is
productive of great evils. As a result, when the
rivets are driven, it is almost impossible to make
them fill the holes, and consequently an undue
strain will come upon some of the rivets, while upon
others there will be very little. In that case, there
is danger of shearing off the rivet upon which the
extra strain comes, inducing a strain upon the ad-
joining holes, and thus starting a rupture, which will
ultimately result in the destruction of the boiler.
The usual arguments in favor of punching are
a saving of from one-third to one-sixth of time and
labor, as compared with drilling — a most conclusive
argument with the manufacturer; but it is argued,
on the other hand, that the positions of the holes
marked off from the overlapping plate can be pre-
served more faithfully with the drill than with the
punch. This, doubtless, is a very strong argument,
as it is well known that half-blind holes are the bane
of boiler-making. But it must be understood that*
the quality of the plate has an important influence
on its manner of bearing the severe treatment it
undergoes at the hands of the punching-machine.
* See page 231.
THE STEAM-BOILER, 283
Inferior and badly refined plates, being brittle, suffer
toa much greater extent than those of better and
-more ductile quality. In fact, punching a hole at
the usual distance from the edge (oné diameter
clear) in an inferior plate will often produce fracture.
The violence done to the plate may be seen more
clearly by considering the force requisite to punch
it. It has been found by experiment that the resist-
ance of a wrought-iron plate to punching is about
the same as its resistance to tearing by a tensile
strain. Recent experiments authorized by the United
States Government, at the Washington Navy-Yard,
establish the fact that drilled holes for boiler-seams
are nineteen per cent. stronger than holes that are
punched. From this it is obvious that the rivet-holes
for all longitudinal seams of steam-boilers should be
drilled. The curvilinear seams, being subjected to ©
only about half the strain of the longitudinal, might
be punched. It is also worthy of note that, while
the punched plate is weaker than the drilled plate,
the rivets in the punched holes do not shear so easily
as those in the drilled holes. This is probably due
to the edges of the drilled holes being sharper and
more compact, and consequently more capable of
shearing than the edges left by a punch.
_ Experiments on drilled and punched holes have
shown conclusively that rivets in drilled holes, sub-
ject to shearing strain, were about four per cent.
weaker than rivets in punched holes, under similar
&
284 USE AND ABUSE OF
strain, and that the sharp edges of the drilled holes
have a greater tendency to nip off the rivets than
the rounded edges of the punched holes. In com-
paring the strength of punched and drilled work,
it was found, First, that drilled plates are 19 per
cent. stronger than punched; second, that rivets
are 4 per cent. stronger in punched holes than
in drilled; third, that there is a difference of 15 per
cent. in favor of drilled work.
The following table shows the result of experi-
ments on strips of boiler-iron cut from the same
plate, two being punched and two drilled, with one
inch holes, having a sectional area at the reduced
part of 12 square inches.
BREAKING WEIGHT IN TONS.
Difference per
cent. in favor
of drilled.
Difference in
tons,
Drilled bar. |Punched bar.
Ist. | 304 | 26 | 41 | Lee
2d. 314 26 Bi 21
Mean. | 31 | 26 | 5 | 19 |
The following are the results of experiments to
test the difference in value between rivets in punched
holes and similar rivets in drilled holes :—
Experiment.
3 inch Rivets in Drilled Holes.
First, single shear = 26 tons per square inch.
double shear = 39.2 tons.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 285
Second, single shear = 26.4 tons per square inch.
double shear, experiment failed.
& inch Rivets in Punched Holes.
First, single shear = 27.2 tons per square inch.
double shear =
Second, single. shear = 26 tons per square ae
double shear, experiment failed.
It is generally assumed that plates of fair quality,
having a tenacity of 42,000 pounds per square inch,
cannot be relied upon to bear more than 32,000 to
34,000 pounds per square inch of section left be-
tween holes in ordinary steam-tight riveted joints,
which would be equivalent to about 24 and 20 per
cent. loss of strength. This is about a maximum
loss for hard plates of average equality ; but many
soft plates do not suffer more than from 5 to 10 per
cent. loss of strength; with the holes punched a whole
diameter, clear of the edge, and at the second row
of rivets, in double-riveting, do not suffer so much.
The damage by punching diminishes as the distance
of the hole from the edge increases; consequently,
some boiler-makers, who prefer punching to drilling,
have their plates cut about half an inch larger than
their finished size, in order to keep the holes at a safe
distance from the edge in punching; the surplus
material being afterwards either chipped or planed
off.
286 USE AND ABUSE OF
Welding the seams of boilers would be of im-
mense advantage, since the welded joint is nearly
twice as strong as the riveted joint; and since twice
as much steam pressure is exerted on the longi-
tudinal seams of the cylinder of a boiler as on its
circular seams, the right proportion of strength
would be preserved by welding the former and rivet-
ing the latter. The following advantages would
be acquired by welding the seams of boilers :—
Ist. It would cheapen the cost of construction, by
saving much of the time occupied in riveting, and
all that consumed in calking; 2d. The full strength |
of the plates being preserved, a thinner material would
suffice; 38d. Much higher pressure could be carried
without increasing the weight of the boiler; 4th.
There would be no double thickness of plate to pro-
mote unequal expansion; 5th. Where the greatest
strain would occur there would be no caps or joints,
and consequently there would be no leakage.
Rad 69s Bem SY
SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF WELDED BOILER-PLATES.
he dth nas fe | Broke | Broke Breaking Strength in Lbs. per
in Square Inch.
Ce Tested. | Weld. Solid. Least. | Greatest. Mean.
| i A pond Pe a 5 8 f § 33,000 | 47,600 | 40,400.
wae 4 md g 39,200 | 44,400 | 42,000
13 f 4 1 8 36,000 | 47,000 | 43,400
Total.) 23 | 33,000 | 47,600 | 40,600
THE STEAM-BOILER. 287
PATENT BOILERS.
The patent boilers not described and illustrated
in this book, are the “ Blanchard,” ‘‘ Lowe,” ‘“ How-
ard,” “ Anderson,” “Kelly,” and “Lynde.” They
belong to the same class as the Moorhouse, Wiegand,
Root, Allen, Harrison, etc., and differ from them
only in the number of parts, as the principle at-
tempted to be embodied in the design of sectional or
patent boilers appears to be the same in all, although
attempts have been frequently made to show that
their design was based on some new principle in the
generation of steam, which, on examination, would
be found to be only a vagary of the designer or in-
ventor, an alteration from some former design, or at
best only a slight improvement on some generator
already in use. This appears to be the age of boil.
ers; inventors are continually taxing their brains to
produce new steam-boilers, but so far most of their
productions have either proved a failure or a very
poor investment.
THE GALLOWAY BOILER.
The shells of the Galloway boilers (English) are
made of Bessemer steel, generally 3 of an inch thick.
They have two furnaces to each boiler, composed of
steel rings flanged and riveted together in such a
manner that no seam or rivet comes in contact with
the fire. The inside of the boiler is composed of an
288 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.
oval flue, in which are placed a number of conical
water-tubes, having the smaller end at the bottom
and the larger at the top. These tubes serve as
braces for the large flue, and on account of their
shape afford easy access for the steam in its escape
from the heating-surface to the steam-room.
Along the inside of the flue is a series of bafflers,
which alter the direction of the heated gases from
the furnaces to the chimney, and cause them to
impinge on the water-tubes, thus increasing the heat-
' ing surface. These boilers are claimed to be very
efficient, and capable of evaporating 102 pounds of
water to one pound of coal, which, if true, has been fre-
quently not only claimed, but accomplished in this
country by boilers of more modest pretensions. The
circumstances under which such wonderful evapora-
tive capacity is developed, are rarely ever explained,
and if investigated, it would probably be found that
they were all very favorable to the boiler, possibly
when the plates were new, clean, and free from in-
crustation, the fuel of the best quality, the com-
bustion as perfect as possible, and the management
of the most intelligent and experienced character.
The Galloway boiler owes its reputation in Eng-
land to circumstances other than its efficiency, dura-
bility, and economy. It is expensive to build, and
also to repair, as it requires special appliances for
either purpose. Such boilers are not at all adapted
to this country, nor is it possible ever to introduce
them here to any extent.
Mf HE engineer’s duty, in the performance
of the daily routine, involves the applica-
tion of the laws of Nature in various ways.
To build a fire intelligently ts a chemical
experiment, involving a knowledge of the
principles of combustion. The production of
steam, and its wse as a motive power, depend,
upon other laws equally impertant and in:
. teresting’. .
25 T 289
290 USE AND ABUSE OF
STRENGTH OF RIVETED SEAMS.
The strength of a riveted seam depends very
much upon the arrangement and proportion of the
rivets; but, with the best design and construction,
the seams are always weaker than the solid plate, as
it is always necessary to cut away a part of the plate
for the rivet holes, which weakens the holes in three
ways :— lst, by lessening the amount of material to
resist the strains; 2d, by weakening that left be-
tween the holes; 3d, by disturbing the uniformity
of the distribution of the strains. The first cause of
weakness will appear obvious on the inspection of an
ordinary boiler-seam, owing to the fact that forty-
four per cent. of the original strength of the material
had to be removed by the punch or drill to make
way for the rivets. The second cause of the reduc-
tion of strength is owing to the injury sustained by
the plates during the process of drilling and punch-
ing. The third cause of weakness is owing to the
fact that if one or more holes are made in a plate of
any material, and it is then subjected to a tensile
strain, the strain, instead of being equally distributed
through the section left between the holes, will be
greatest in that part of the metal nearest it.
The strength of boiler seams may be calculated
by taking the area, in square inches, of the metal
between the holes, and multiplying it by the ultumate
_ strength of the metal, after the holes are punched.
THE STEAM-BOILER, 291
Single-riveted seams being equal to 56 per cent. of the
original strength, and double-riveted seams 70 per cent.
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE- AND
DOUBLE-RIVETED SEAMS.
On comparing the strength of plates with riv-
eted joints, it will be necessary to examine the sec-
tional areas, taken in a line through the rivet-holes,
with the section of the plates themselves. It is
obvious that in perforating a line of holes along the
edge of a plate, we must reduce its strength. It is
also clear that the plate so perforated will be to the
plate itself nearly as the areas of their respective
sections, with a small deduction for the irregularities
of the pressure of the rivets upon the plate; or, in
other words, the joint will be reduced in strength
somewhat more than in the ratio of its section
through that line to the solid section of the plate.
It is also evident that the rivets cannot add to the
strength of the plates, their object being to keep the
two surfaces of the lap in contact.
When this great deterioration of strength at the
joint is taken into account, it cannot but be of the
greatest importance that in structures subject to such
violent strains as boilers, the strongest method of
riveting should be adopted. To ascertain this, a
long series of experiments was undertaken by Mr.
Fairbairn. There are two kinds of lap-joints, single-
292 USE AND ABUSE OF
and double-riveted, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 on
opposite page. In the early days of steam-boiler
construction, the former were almost universally
employed, but the greater strength of the latter has
since led to their general adoption for all boilers
intended to sustain a high steam pressure. A riveted
joint generally gives way either by shearing off the
rivets in the middle of their length, or by tearing
through one of the plates in the line of the rivets. __
In a perfect joint, the rivets should be on the
point of shearing just as the plates were about to
tear; but, in practice, the rivets are usually made
slightly too strong. Hence, it is an established rule
to employ a certain number of rivets per linear foot,
which, for ordinary diameters and average thickness
of plate, are about six per foot or two inches from
centre to centre; for larger diameters and heavier
iron the distance between the centres is generally
increased to, say two and one-eighth or two and
one-fourth inches; but in such cases it is also neces-
sary to increase the diameter of the rivet, for while
five-eighth, or even half-inch, rivets will answer for
small diameters and light plate, with large diameters
and heavy plate experience has shown it to be neces-
sary to use three-fourth to seven-eighth rivets.
If these are placed in a single row, the rivet-holes
so nearly approach each other that the strength of
the plates is much reduced; but if they are arranged
in two lines, a greater number may be used, more
THE STEAM-BOILER., 293
space left between the holes, and greater strength
and stiffness imparted to the plates at the joint.
Taking the value of the plate, before being punched,
at 100, by punching the plate it loses 44 per cent. of
its strength; and, as a result, single-riveted seams
are equal to 56 per cent., and double-riveted seams
to 70 per cent. of the original strength of the plate.
It has been shown by very extensive experiments at
the Brooklyn Navy-Yard, and also at the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J., that double-
riveted seams are from 16 Fig. 1, |
to 20 per cent. stronger than
single-riveted seams — the SS > ose
material and workmanship i moe
being the same in both cases. 3
Fig, 2.
900 Q
ao 070 0°9"9 )
HAND- AND MACHINE-RIVETING,
Taking the strength of the
NPARE SAtivecs ls. Lc crcovbocbkattedss 100
The strength of the double-
riveted joint would then be 70
And the strength of the single-
riveted would be.............. 56
The two methods most generally employed in
uniting the riveted seams of steam-boilers are what
are termed machine- and hand-riveting. In the former
process, the rivet is upset with a single blow; while
in the latter, the material is spread or distributed by
25 *
294 USE AND ABUSE OF
a series of blows from hand-hammers. In the pro-
cess of hand-riveting, the heads are rarely finished
till the iron is cool enough to erystallize or crack
under the head by the heavy blows of the hammer,
and if the material be not of superior quality, will
frequently snap off under rough usage.
The evil of the rivet not filling the hole well is
sometimes aggravated in hand-work by the blows
being dealt on the circumference of the point, in
order to form a shoulder speedily to resist the ham-
mering, instead of letting them fall dead on the
point, which should tend to make the rivet first fill
the hole before the shoulder is formed. The advan-
tage of machine-riveting is that the machine upsets
the rivet and closes up the hole better than hand-
riveting, as the dead, heavy pressure is exerted
through the whole mass of the rivet, and the effect
is not concentrated upon the point, as it must be with
a succession of light, sharp blows from a hammer.
Then again, as the piston of the machine is not
limited in its movements, it will follow the rivet
home, drawing the plates well together, filling. the
holes, and making the work equally good, whether
the rivet is half an inch too long or half an inch
too short, thus accomplishing what no workman
could possibly do.
In machine-riveting, the heading is done on the
“capping” system, thus gathering the metal to-
gether instead of scattering it, as is the case with
THE STEAM-BOILER. 295
the hand hammer. When it becomes necessary to
take work apart, where the rivets have been driven,
it is shown that the holes are thoroughly filled, and
it is also found almost impossible to dislodge the
rivets from the holes, while the holes were not more
stretched than if the riveting had been done by
hand. The shearing strain is less on machine-
riveted joints than on those riveted by hand, on ac-
count of the compactness of the rivets in the holes,
and the great friction between the sheets at the lap,
induced by the power of the machine. Another
great advantage of steam-riveting is its quickness
and cheapness, while the rivets and plates are left
soft and free from any crystallization. The general
conclusion drawn from practicai experience and
observation is, that for good, sound boiler-work
machine-riveting is the best.
COUNTER-SUNK RIVETS,
Counter-sunk rivets are generally tighter than
any other form of rivet, because counter-sinking the
hole is really facing it; and the counter-sunk rivet
is, in point of fact, made on a faced joint. But
counter-sinking the hole also weakens the plate, in-
asmuch as it takes away a portion of the metal, and
should only be resorted to where necessary, — such
as around the fronts of furnaces, the flanges inside
of combustion-chambers, and the bottom flanges of
296 USE AND ABUSE OF
steam-chests. In these places it is by no means det-
rimental ; but no part of the shell of a boiler, except
those already mentioned, should be counter-sunk.
RIVETS.
The rivet is the means most generally, if not al-
together, employed for
uniting the seams of
steam-boilers; aud it nay
be taken as a rule, that
j in any but the best class
of work the rivet is
stronger than the plate
section between the holes. In old. boilers particu-
larly, the plates at the joints are generally found to
be much more brittle than the rivets, and the rivets,
except at the heads, will escape corrosion, where the
plate may suffer severely. It has been found by ex-
periment that the strength of rivets of various sizes
and descriptions in ordinary riveted work averaged
37,640 lbs. for single shear, and 34,000 Ibs. for
double shear per square inch of sectional area. The
shearing strength of iron rivets with thin steel plates
has been found to be less than with plates of the
same strength. This is probably due to the harder
steel cutting into the iron of the rivet. The aver-
age of eight experiments with steel plates and iron
rivets gave 37,000 lbs. per square inch.
oe
THE STEAM-BOILER. 297
The strength of riveted seams may be calculated
by Multiplying the area in square inches of one rivet
by the number of rivets, and the product by the strength
of the metal to resist shearing.
TABLE
SHOWING DIAMETER AND PITCH OF RIVETS FOR DIFFERENT
THICKNESSES OF PLATE.
SINGLE-RIVETED SEAMS. DouBLE-RIVETED SEAMS.
Thickness} Diameter Pitch Thickness} Diameter
of Plate. | of Rivet. of Plate. | of Rivet.
+ in.| 4 in.} 14 in: + in.} 4 in.
> 6“ 5B & 13 6“ vs (q 4 “
ry 6“ re 74 1? “ce 3 73 4h bc
| ie aL 3 6 lz «& re one “ns 66
1s “ 4 (14 3 “ A: ““c H “
2 4 les 2 4
aint ‘“c 2 6c 24 “cc q's 6“ é 6c
ts (74 a, (79 91 (79 5 (74 é 73
ri 6é u 6c at 6“ rh cc rs 6c
2-3 6 1 66 4 “c -. 6 1 “
in ‘“ : pes 21 “ rw “ yyy te
oe 6c 1 (79 941 c¢ i 6c 1 (73
13 (73 Ki 66 gt (7 43 (a4 1} “
74 1 4c 1 (9 <¢ (74
STRENGTH OF STAYED AND FLAT BOILER
SURFACES.
The sheets that form the sides of fire-boxes are
necessarily exposed to a vast pressure, therefore
some expedient has to be devised to prevent the
metal at these parts from bulging out. Stay-bolts
298 USE AND ABUSE OF
are generally placed at a distance of 43 inches from
centre to centre, all over the surface of fire-boxes,
and thus the expansion or bulging of one side is
prevented by the stiffness or rigidity of the other.
Now, in an arrangement of this kind, it becomes
necessary to pay considerable attention to the tensile
strength of the stay-bolts employed for the above.
purpose, since the ultimate strength of this part of
the boiler is now transferred to them, it being im-
possible that the boiler-plates should give way unless
the stay-bolts break in the first instance.
Accordingly, all the experiments that have bcen
made, by way of test, of the strength of stay-bolts,
possess the greatest interest for the practical engi-
neer. Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments are particularly
valuable. He constructed two flat boxes, 22 inches
square. The top and bottom plates of one were
formed of 3-inch copper, and of the other 3-inch
iron. There was a 23-inch water space to each, with
12-inch iron-stays screwed into the plates, and
riveted on the ends. In the first box, the stays were
placed five inches from centre to centre, and the two
boxes tested by hydraulic pressure.
In the copper box, the sides commenced to bulge
at 450 pounds pressure to the square inch; and at
810 pounds pressure to the square inch the box
burst, by drawing the head of one of the stays
through the copper plate. In the second box, the
stays were placed at 4-inch centres; the bulging
THE STEAM-BOILER. 299
commenced at 515 pounds pressure to the square
inch. The pressure was continually augmented up
to 1600 pounds. The bulging between the rivets at
that pressure was one-third of an inch; but still no
part of the iron gave way. At 1625 pounds pressure
the box burst, and in precisely the same way as in
the first experiment—one of the stays drawing
through the iron plate, and stripping the thread in
the plate. These experiments prove a number of
facts of great value and importance to the engineer.
In the first place, they show that, with regard to
iron stay-bolts, their tensile strength is at least equal
to the grip of the plate.
The grip of the copper bolt is evidently less. As
each stay, in the first case, bore the pressure on an
area of 5x5 == 25 square inches, and in the second
on an area of 4X4=16 square inches, the total
strains borne by each stay were, for the first, 815 x 25
= 20,375 pounds on each stay; and for the second,
1625 x 16 = 26,000 pounds on each stay. These
strains were less, however, than the tensile strength
of the stays, which would be about 28,000 pounds.
The properly stayed surfaces are the strongest part
of boilers, when kept in good repair.
BOILER-STAYS.
Advantage is usually taken of the self-supporting
property of the cylinder and sphere, which enables
300 USE AND ABUSE OF
them, in most cases, to be made sufficiently strong
without the aid of stays, or other support. But the
absence of this self-sustaining property in flat sur-
faces necessitates their being strengthened by stays,
or other means. Even where a flat or slightly
dished surface possesses sufficient strength to resist
the actual pressure to which it is subjected, it is yet
necessary to apply stays to provide against undue
deflection or distortion, which is liable to take place
to an inconvenient degree, or to result in grooving
long before the strength of the plates or their attach-
ments is seriously taxed. .
_ Boiler-stays, in any case, are but substitutes for
real strength of construction. They would be of no
service applied to a sphere subject to internal press-
ure; and the power of resistance would be exactly
that of the metal to sustain the strain exerted upon
all its parts alike. The manner in which stays are
frequently employed renders them a source of weak-
ness rather than an element of strength. When the
strain is direct, the power of resistance of the stay is
equal to the weight it would sustain without tearing
it asunder; but when the position of the stay is
oblique to the point of resistance, any calculation of
their theoretic strength or value is attended with
certain difficulties. All boilers should be sufficiently
stayed to insure safety, and the material of which
they are made, their shape, strength, number, loca-
tion, and mode of attachment to the boiler, should be
THE STEAM-BOILER, 301
all duly and intelligently considered. Boiler-stays
should never be subjected to a strain of more than
one-eighth of their breaking strength. The strength
of boiler-stays may be calculated by multiplying the
area in inches, between the stays, by the pressure in
pounds per square'inch.
STAY-BOLTS.
In the choice of material for stay-bolts for the
furnaces of marine boilers and locomotives, and even
stationary engines, there are other considerations
besides that of strength alone. Iron would undoubt-
edly be superior to any other material that could be
employed for that purpose, if strength and its facili-
ties for working were the only objects to be considered;
but there are two evils that limit the usefulness of
iron stay-bolts: first, they crystallize; second, they
corrode. In either case they are likely to snap in
half under any extraordinary pressure —that is,
at the very moment when their services are most
needed.
Copper has neither of these faults. It has extreme
tenacity up to a certain point of its working, and hot
water does not corrode it in the least. Some engi-
neers have tried the effect of placing iron stays in
two or three of the upper rows, and copper in the
lower rows, where the corrosive influence of the
water is more powerful. But this is opposed to all
26
802 USE AND ABUSE OF
practical experience, since the upper bolts are always
found to break most frequently from the superior
expansion of the inner plate; hence, the material
that will endure the most bending should be em-
ployed for them.
Steel stay-bolts have been occasionally employed
with good effect. When they have a spring temper,
they seem to stand the effect of contraction and
expansion better than any other material, since their
small diameter and great elasticity permit them to
conform to all moderate variations in the boiler
caused by ordinary degrees of temperature. The
safe working strength of copper, iron, and steel stay-
bolts may be estimated at about one-fifth of the ulti-
mate strength, which for steel is 80,000, iron 60,000,
and copper 32,000; but if the screws are cut within
the original diameter of the bolt, one-tenth of the
working strength must be deducted.
The following table shows the result of experi-
ments on iron and copper stay-bolts screwed and
riveted into iron and copper plates. rst, a 7-inch
iron stay with enlarged head, screwed and riveted
into a $-inch iron plate, failed by breaking through
the shank with 25,000 pounds, the screw and plate
remaining uninjured. Second, asimilar arrangement,
but with a copper plate, failed with a load of 21,400
pounds, the head tearing off, and the copper threads
stripping. Third, a -inch iron stay with enlarged
end screwed into a é-inch copper plate, and not
THE STEAM-BOILER. . 808
riveted, was drawn out of the plate by 16,200 pounds,
the copper thread stripping. ourth, a ¢-inch copper
stay with enlarged end, screwed and riveted into a ¢-
inch copper plate, broke through the shank with
14,400 pounds, after stretching 3% of an inch.
é Strength dis-|Strength dis-
eee tribated over wributed over
ee 25 ae area|16 oi area
- wou give;/wou rive
Pounds." Nba, per sq. in./|lbs. per a in,
Ist. Iron into iron
screwed and riveted...) 25,000 1,000 1,563
2d. Iron into copper
screwed and riveted...) 21,400 856 1,338
3d. Iron into copper
screwed only.......c.0 16,200 648 1,013
4th. Copper into copper
screwed and riveted. | 14,400 576 900
CALKING.
The object of calking is to bring together the
seams of a boiler, after riveting, so that they may be
perfectly steam- and water-tight. This is done by
using a sharp tool ground toa slight angle. The
edge of the plates being first chipped or planed to an
angle of about 110°, the calking-tool is then applied
to the lower edge of the chipped or planed angle,
in order to drive or upset the edge, thus bringing
the plates together and rendering the joint, to all
appearances, perfectly steam-tight, and able to resist
304 USE AND ABUSE OF
the internal pressure brought to bear upon this par-
ticular point.
The purely mechanical skill required to enable a
person to join together pieces of metal, and thereby
form a steam-tight and water-tight joint, was all that
was heretofore considered necessary, as it had been
almost universally thought that little more than
this was needed, and that, provided the joint was
tightly and well calked, or, in other words, “ made a
good job of,” was all that was required. But, un-
fortunately, this is but a small portion of the
knowledge that should be possessed by persons who
turn their attention to this subject, and experience
has shown that persons engaged in this kind of em-
ployment should
possess a very dif-
j ferent kind of
. LM knowledge, other-
wise the best ef-
| forts of the manu-
ante ule facturer of the
Ordinary Method of Calking. material engine
boiler-maker will be rendered useless.
It is well known that the use of a hammer on
wrought-iron will granulate, or harden, it to such an
extent as to make it almost as hard as steel. Now,
the angled tool before mentioned, through its action
' (in the process of calking) upon the lower edge of the
chipped plate, causes a granulation of that plate;
HELL
THE STEAM-BOILER, 805
while the under one is much softer, in consequence
of not being exposed to the action of the tool, conse-
quently the skin, or outer surface of the softer mate-
rial, is indented or cut. _
A boiler may be constructed by parties of high
repute, be made of the best material, and, to all ap-
pearance, be capable of standing any test that may
be applied to prove its safety, and yet its durability
may be very limited, or it may collapse or explode
soon after being put in use, for the simple reason
that a cause existed from the very first which could
not be seen, and which no test could point out, and
that cause was the grooving or indentation made by
the calking, which became larger and larger through
corrosion, expansion, and contraction, thus render-
ing the plates unfit to resist the strain, which must
eventually induce rupture or explosion, resulting in
loss of life and destruction of property. This ten-
dency to weaken the plates of steam-boilers, by the
present mode of calking, may be illustrated by very
familiar examples. |
When a blacksmith desires to break his bar of
iron to a given length, he first cuts around the bar,
weakening it. The breaking is then easily accom-
plished — frequently with one blow. A glazier sim-
ilarly uses his diamond. Now, if a bar of iron, which
has not been cut, be taken and submitted to blows,
in a majority of cases it will bend to a right angle or
more without showing any fracture. The explana-
Pas Wen
306 USE AND ABUSE OF
tion of this is, that by cutting a channel through the
outer layer of fibre, the strain is confined to the point
where the channel is cut. The fibre on either side,
to the depth of the channel, is not acted upon at all,
and exerts no influence as a protection to the under-
lying layers of fibre. Hence, when the blow is re-
ceived, the effect is confined to the channel, and the
fibre, having little or no opportunity to protect itself,
breaks short off. These illustrations are perfectly
analogous to that of the cutting or indentation made
by the old-fashioned calking-tool.
On examination, steam-boilers are frequently
found to be fractured along the edge of the outer lap
of the sheet, both transversely and longitudinally, in
consequence of a channel being entirely cut through
the skin of the iron by the calking-tool, thus render-
ing the plate weak at the point of the greatest strain.
The force to act is ever present; the iron is already
strained, as, by bending a sheet of iron to make a
required circle, the fibres of the iron composing the
outer circumference must, of necessity, be stretched ;
and, by imperfect bending, will be stretched laterally
as well as longitudinally, while the fibres of the iron
composing the inner circumference are upset, and, if
badly welded in the act of manufacture, pucker,
thereby exposing the inside particles of the iron to
the corrosive action of the acids in the water, pro-
ducing honey-combing. Thus everything is ready
for the cutting or grooving to be made — both the
THE STEAM-BOILER, 807
strain on the outer, and the puckering on the inner,
circumference. It then becomes only a mere ques-
tion of time as to the result.
Very few, except those familiar with the laws of
steam, have any idea of the immense pressure
exerted on the shells of steam-boilers under ress-
ure; and when we consider that this immense press-
ure is brought to bear along the lap of the joints —
the points deviating farthest from the true cylin-
drical form — the importance of having the iron not
only of good quality, but free from the defects in-
duced by inferior calking, must at once be admitted.
Immense sums of money have been expended in
experiments, with the object of ascertaining, if pos-
sible, the cause of boiler explosions, which, if con-
ducted by competent persons, might have proved, in
many instances, to be the result of a mischievous
system of calking.
The cut on page 308 represents an improved
method of calking, which is acknowledged by com-
petent parties to be one of the most important
improvements ever made in the construction of
steam-boilers. It is the invention of James W. Con-
nery, foreman of the Boiler Department at the
Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, and is
known as Connery’s Concave Calking. By this
method, the dangers to life and property induced by
the old system of calking are entirely obviated, as
even the uninitiated cannot dent or gall the plates
308 USE AND ABUSE OF
with Connery’s Patent Calking; the importance of
which will be’ appreciated by all steam-users, more
especially when it is known that it is impossible, for
Connery’s Concave Calking,
even the most skilful’ boiler-maker, to calk a boiler
with the old-fashioned calking-tools without perma-
nent injury to the plates.
TESTING-MACHINES.
There is at present in this country a great need
of cheap, simple, and reliable machinery for the
purpose of testing the tensile strength of metals,
particularly boiler-plate ; as it is of great importance
to steam-users and the public to know exactly what
strain iron of a certain kind or quality will bear
without permanent set or fracture. When a boiler
explodes, it is of great service to be able to test the
tensile strain of the metal torn asunder, that some
idea of the force exerted may be estimated, and also
THE STEAM-BOILER, 3809
to know whether iron that has been subjected to
heavy strains for a number of years has become
“fatigued” or weakened.
There are few machines in this country adapted
to this business, and these are very expensive. The
expense attending their construction, and the com-
paratively little use to which they are put, have,
without doubt, stood in the way of their construc-
tion. If manufacturers and users of iron and other
metals fully appreciated their value, they would be
more frequently met with. ‘The materials for
machines should be tested; and a proper under-
standing of the exact strength which this material
will sustain would, no doubt, often lead to improve-
ment in design and construction. In some cases,
the whole machine would be lighter, while in others
it would possess proportions better adapted to sus-
tain the heavy strains to which it may be subjected.
FEED-WATER HEATERS.
Inattention to the temperature of feed-water for .
boilers is entirely too common, as the saving in fuel
that may be effected by thoroughly heating the feed-
water — by means of the exhaust-steam in a properly
constructed heater — would be immense, as may be
seen from the following facts :
A pound of feed-water entering a steam-boiler
at a temperature of 50° Fah., and evaporating into
310 USE AND ABUSE OF
steam of 60 pounds pressure, requires as much heat
as would raise 1157 pounds of water 1 degree. A
pound of feed-water raised from 50° Fah. to 220°
Fah. requires 987 thermal units of heat, which, if
absorbed from exhaust-steam passing through a
heater, would be a*tsaving of 15 per cent. in fuel.
Feed-water, at a temperature of 200° Fah., entering
a boiler, as compared, in point of economy, with
feed-water at 50°, would effect a saving of over 18
per cent. in fuel; and with a well-constructed heater
there ought to be no trouble in raising the feed-water
to a temperature of 212° Fah.
If we take the normal temperature of the feed-
water at 60°, the temperature of the heated water at
212°, and the boiler pressure at 20 pounds, the total
heat imparted to the steam in one case is 1192.5° —
60° = 1132.5°, and in the other case 1192.5°— 212°
—= 980.5°, the difference being 152°, or a saving of
133.5 =138.4 per cent. Supposing the feed-water
to enter the boiler at a temperature of 32° Fah., each
pound of water will require about 1200 units of heat
to convert it into steam, so that the boiler will evap-
orate between 62 and 74 pounds of water per pound
of coal. The amount of heat required to convert a
pound of water into steam varies with the pressure,
as will be seen by the following table:
THE STEAM-BOILER. 811
ACS
SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CONVERT ONE
POUND OF WATER, AT THE TEMPERATURE OF 32° FAH.,
INTO STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES.
Pressure of Pressure of
ee Gy tach Units of Heat. Oy Batak Units of Heat.
by Gauge. by Gauge.
1 1,148. 110 1,187
10 1,155 120 1,189
20 1,161 130 1,190
30 1,165 140 1,192
40 1,169 150 1,193
50 1,173 160 1,195
60 1,176 170 1,196
70 1,178 180 1,198
80 1,181 190 1,199
90 1,183 200 1,200
100 1,185 |
If the feed-water has any other temperature, the
heat necessary to convert it into steam can easily be
computed. Suppose, for instance, that its tempera-
ture is 65°, and that it is to be converted into steam
having a pressure of 80 pounds per square inch.
The difference between 65 and 82 is 33; and sub-
tracting this from 1181 (the number of units of heat
required for feed-water having a temperature of 32°),
the remainder, 1148, is the number of units for feed-
water with the given temperature. Yet it must be
understood that any design of heater that offers such
resistance to the free escape of the exhaust-steam as
to neutralize the gain that would otherwise be ob-
Sip.u* USE AND ABUSE OF
tained from its use, ought to be avoided, as the loss
occasioned by back pressure on the exhaust, in many
instances, counteracts the advantages derived from
the heating of the feed-water.
It is a common practice on steamships to heat
. the feed-water to 135° or 140° before sending it
into the boiler. Where the jet condenser is used,
this extra heat is derived from the blow-water; but
as this means of heating is not available with the
surface condenser, it is generally derived from a
water-jacket surrounding the smoke-stack, or a spiral
pipe within the stack. But although any heat im-
parted to the feed-water is a clear gain, yet the cost,
complication, and danger of these arrangements gener-
ally overbalance the benefits derived from their use.
The feed-water should be sent into the boiler as
hot as possible, as, if it be forced in at a low temper-
ature, it will impinge on that portion of the boiler
with which it comes in contact; and, as a result of
the continual expansion and contraction induced by
the varying temperature of the water, the boiler is
liable to crack and become leaky. Where economy
of fuel is no object, as is often the case at coal-mines,
saw-mills, and wood-working establishments, a very
inexpensive way of
averting the dis-
astrous effects of
" ees pumping cold water
Heater Pipe, . into boilers is to
THE STEAM-BOILER. 313
introduce the feed-pipe into the back end of the
boiler, carrying it forward about three-quarters the
length of the boiler, and then returning it -to the
back end, where the water is discharged into the
boiler. - By this arrangement the water will have a
temperature nearly equal to that of the water in the
boiler when discharged from the pipe.
Open feed-water heaters, though very efficient,
are nevertheless objectionable, and should be avoided
whenever any better arrangement is attainable. The
grease from the cylinder mixes with the feed-water
in such heaters, and on being carried into the boiler
‘combines with the carbonate of lime, sinks to the
plates when the boilers are at rest, and is rarely ever
afterwards moved by the circulation of the water, or
even the most active boiling currents. By contact
with the plates the water is kept from their surface,
and the free transmission of the heat interfered with,
which induces over-heating and burning of the
plates.
All feed-water heaters should be provided with
the meaus of ascertaining the temperature of feed-
water. This might be done by placing a hollow
plug in a T on the feed-pipe, between the heater and
the boiler, into which the bulb of a thermometer
might be inserted at any time; and as the plug would
be exposed to the action of the water in its passage
from the heater to the boiler, its temperature might
be easily ascertained.
27
314 USE AND ABUSE OF
GRATE-BARS.
Perfect combustion is the starting-point in the
generation of steam; the conversion of coal and air
into heat must be the first process, and the second is
to apply that heat with full effect to the boiler. The
oxygen of the air is the only supporter of combus-
tion; and the rate of combustion produced, and the
amount of heat generated in the furnace, depend on
the quantity of air supplied; and the quantity of air
admitted depends on the size of the opening through
which it passes. Then, as a matter of course, the
grate-bars offering the least obstruction to the air
passing through them, and affording the largest area
for the air combined, with an equal distribution of
the same, must be the best adapted for the purposes
of combustion.
The failure of grate-bars is due mainly to three
different causes — breaking, warping, and burning
out; consequently, grate-bars, to be durable and
efficient, should have a narrow surface exposed to
the fire, the spaces for admitting the air being numer-
ous and well distributed. The metal constituting
the bar should be distributed in the best possible
manner, to relieve the grate from all undue strain
arising from unequal expansion and contraction ;
there should also be considerable depth, in order that
the lower edges may keep cool, and prevent the pos-
sibility of warping or twisting. Grate-bars of good
THE STEAM-BOILER. 315
design and proportions are frequently ruined by
being exposed to a white heat, whenever a fresh fire
is started, whereas, by distributing a thin layer of
fresh coal over their surface before the shavings and
wood are applied, they may be preserved intact for
years. The grate-bar has not heretofore received
the consideration from engineers and steam-users
which its importance, in an economical point of
view, so eminently deserves.
CHIMNEYS.
The object of a chimney is to convey away
the smoke, and to produce a draught — that is,
a current of fresh, dry air through the coals on the
grate; this draught is produced hy the difference in
the specific gravity of the air inside and outside of
the chimney. If the quality of the gases inside and
' outside were always the same, formule could be
established for the size of chimneys with a consid-
erable degree of accuracy. The gases inside of a
chimney are generally composed of atmospheric air,
free nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, steam,
free hydrogen, free carbon, sulphurous acid, and
other elements. If the relative amount of these
gases, and their temperature, were always the same,
there would not be much difficulty in determining
the proportions; but as these conditions are contin-
ually changing, as well by the gradual consumption
316 USE AND ARUSE OF
of the coai.on the grate as by the management of
the party in charge, it is impossible to arrive at any
exact or definite conclu-
sion. The air outside the
chimney is also continually
undergoing changes, pro-
duced by moisture, temper-
ature, density, ete.
For stationary and ma-
rine boilers the chimneys
are generally of a uniform
height, arising from the
nature of the structures
with which they are con-
nected, and hence the ap-
proximate amount of com-
bustion on a square foot
of grate-surface, and the
resulting evaporation of
water per hour, are pretty
well known from practical
observations. For marine
boilers, the general rule is
to allow 14 square inches
area of chimney for each
nominal horse-power. For
stationary boilers, the area
of the chimney should be one-fifth greater than the
combined area of all the flues or tubes. In boilers
THE STEAM--BOILER. 317
provided with any other means of draught, such as
a steam-jet or a fan-blower, the dimensions of the
chimney are not so important as it is in cases where
the draught is produced solely by the chimney.
Rule for finding the Required Area of Chimney for
any Boiler. — Multiply the nominal horse-power of °
the boiler by 112, and divide the product by the
square root of the height of the chimney in feet.
The quotient will be the required area in square
inches.
TABLE
SHOWING THE PROPER DIAMETER AND HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY
FOR ANY KIND OF FUEL.
Nominal Horse- | Height ee Tiahia Diametarat op. |
power of Boiler. in Feet.
10 60 1 foot 2 inches. |
12 75 j Ree
16 90 Direc, deen
20 99 Dee RN al
30 105 Lee aes
50 120 2feet2 “
70 120 Pe Yi Sion 3s;
90 120 SOP eT esse
120 135 Oe a ae
160 150 IER eis
| 200 | 165 oo Bake aR AS
250 180 Ln ee SOA
318 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABLE
SHOWING HEIGHTS OF CHIMNEYS FOR PRODUCING CERTAIN
RATES OF COMBUSTION PER SQUARE FOOT OF AREA OF
SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY.
Pounds of Coal Burned
Pounds of Coal Burned FG
Heights in Feet, | Pet Hour per Square Root. of Grate. ao nate
a? Chimn hi as of Grate to Section of
ue Chimney being 8 to 1.
60 7.0
68 8.5
76 9.5
84 10.5
93 11.6
99 12.4
105 13.1
na 13.8
116 14.5
121 15.1
126 15.8
131 16.4
135 16.9
139 17.4
144 18.0
148 18.5
152 19.0
156 19.5
160 20.0
Though the above Table was arranged from data
collected from what were considered reliable experi-
ments, yet it may be said to be only approximately
correct, as the conditions existing in different chim-
neys and furnaces vary so much that no theoretical
formuls will give results which can be relied upon
as strictly correct. According to the experiments
THE STEAM-BOILER. 319
of Mr. Isherwood, the best proportion for the
draught area is } of the area of the grate. Many
constructors, however, make it greater, amounting
in some cases to 4 and }.. Others make it less, 4
being not uncommon. But experience has shown
1 to be the most practical proportion, and the one
capable of producing the most satisfactory results.
SMOKE.
Ever since the days of Watt, the consumption of
smoke has attracted the attention of scientists, in-
ventors, and engineers, but, hitherto, without any
very practical results, as the methods that offered the
most plausible solution of the problem involved in
the burning of smoke have invariably failed to pro-
duce such results as would warrant their adoption
and general use. A uniform supply of fuel to the
furnace, and the introduction of air above the fire,
were advocated as furnishing a remedy for the loss
occasioned by smoke; but the former was, in most
cases, found impracticable and inconvenient on ac-
count of the varying circumstances involved in the
management of furnaces; whilst the latter was fre-
quently productive of more waste than that oc-
casioned by smoke, in consequence of the current of
cool air above the fire being constant, and the quan-
tity of fuel on the grate, and the temperature of the
furnace, varying very much.
320 USE AND ABUSE OF |
From numerous smoke-stacks throughout the
land can great volumes of smoke, as black as mid-
night, be seen, at almost all times, rolling upward,
carrying with them, to all appearance, the most
valuable portions of the fuel. But it must be un-
derstood that all that comes out of the chimney is
not smoke by any means. Bituminous coal contains
from five to six per cent. of hydrogen, which unites
.with the oxygen necessary to combustion, and con-
stitutes water. A ton of bituminous coal will make
nearly one-third of a ton of water in the form of
steam. That this steam is black, does not neces-
sarily indicate the presence of much carbon, as a
grain of soot, if distributed evenly in fine particles
through a cubic foot of steam, would color it blacker
than the ace of spades. Now it requires no argu-
ment to show that this steam cannot be burned. It
may be condensed by being made to pass through
tubes kept at a low temperature, though a draught
could only be maintained artificially under these
conditions.
Were it not for this mass of steam, the carbon |
would soon fall as a cloud of black dust; but, being
intimately and atomically mixed with the large
volume of steam from the furnace, it is carried along
by the atmosphere, only differing in color, like the
cloud of steam we see issuing from the chimney of a
locomotive when in action. With furnaces properly
constructed, in which a thorough mixture of the
THE STEAM-BOILER. 321
heated gases with air may be effected, as in the
Bunsen burner, smoke might be partially consumed ;
but the conditions under which this successful mix-
ture of the air and gases may be effected are rarely
ever found in the furnace of a steam-boiler, as the
temperature is continually varying, while the quan-
tity of air that passes into the furnace is constant.
The volume of smoke may be diminished in ordinary
furnaces by supplying the fuel in small quantities
to one side of the furnace at a time, or by placing
the fuel inside of the furnace door, then, when the
smoke is consumed, move the fuel back and replace
it with a fresh supply. This necessitates the con-
tinual opeping and closing of the furnace door,
which admits the cold air in such quantities as to
lower the temperature in the furnace and defeat the
object intended to be accomplished. As an object
of comfort and convenience, the successful consump-
tion of smoke is very much to be desired, but when
once formed, smoke cannot be burned by any known
process or device.
CONTRIVANCES FOR INCREASING DRAUGHT
AND ECONOMIZING FUEL IN BOILER FUR-
NACKES.
Where space is of no object, a large boiler, large
grate, and high stack afford the best advantages for
the combustion of the fuel employed for the gene-
ration of steam; but whenever, on the contrary,
Vv
322 USE AND ABUSE OF
space and weight have to be economized, as in the
case of locomotive and marine boilers, some means
of increasing the draught and intensifying combus-
tion becomes indispensable. For years, the question
whether this object can be effected by means of water
or steam has agitated the practical and scientific
men of the country, many engineers and others
uffirming that water does increase the heat of a fire,
while almost all men of thorough scientific training
hold that such an idea contradicts well known and
recognized laws.
The idea of a jet or jets of steam above or below
the grate is very old, and descriptions of such ap-
pliances are to be found in various publications on
the burning of smoke; but the statements on this
subject are very contradictory, and the benefits to be
derived from the use of the steam-jet are as unde-
cided at the! present day as in the days of Watt.
The principal benefit claimed for the steam-jet is, that
for every ton of oxygen required for the combustion
of the fuel, four tons of useless nitrogen have to be
heated from the ordinary temperature of the air to -
that at which the gases escape into the chimney;
whereas, by the use of the steam-jet, we increase the
quantity of oxygen, and are enabled tintensify the
combustion by diminishing the quantity of air ad-
mitted, thus utilizing the heat that would otherwise
be lost in raising the temperature of the useless nitro-
gen to that of the escaping gases; or, in other words,
THE STEAM-BOILER. S20
we will suppose that the incandescent coal derives a
portion of the oxygen required for its combustion
from the water, it is obvious that the amount of air
that is required will be lessened in due proportion.
A great number of experiments, both in this coun-
try and Europe, have shown that there is nothing, in
an economical point of view, to be gained by the use
of either steam, or water, either in the increase of the
draught of ordinary furnaces or in intensifying com-
bustion,as,while the draught may besensibly increased,
the consumption of fuel is not materially lessened,
proof of which may be found in the fact that wherever
such means are tried, they are sodn allowed to fall
into disuse, if not entirely abandoned. For factory
purposes, or where it becomes necessary to Consume
a large quantity of fuel on a small area of grate, the
fan-blower is undoubtedly the most practical, efficient,
and convenient, as it not only intensifies the com-.
bustion, but greatly increases the quantity of avail-
able heat. The expense incurred in its employment
is confined simply to the cost of the fan itself.
824 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABLE
SHOWING THE ACTUAL EXTENSION OF WROUGHT-IRON AT
VARIOUS TEMPERATURES,
Deg.
of Fah. Length.
Cr po aduo ating s i:
25 a lige eae 1.0011356
MOS neseedas 1.0025757 ) Surface becomes straw colored, deep
Pat nahads tee 1.0043253 yellow, crimson, violet, purple,
"1 Ade 1.0063894 deep blue, bright blue.
OSE iesases yitped Surface becomes dull, and then
te ES ae 1.0114811 bright red. :
dee Se eonerce se Bright red, yellow, welding heat,
ye ile 10512815) White heat.
DOLD ccesecses Cohesion destroyed. Fusion perfect.
Linear Expansion of Wrought-iron.—The linear
expansion which a bar of wrought-iron undergoes,
according to Daniell’s pyrometer, when heated from
the freezing- to the boiling-point, or from 32° to 212°
Fah., is about gd, of its length; at higher tempera-
tures, the elongation becomes more rapid. Thus, it
will be seen how sensible a change takes place when
‘iron undergoes a variation of temperature. A bar
of iron, 10 feet long, subject to an ordinary change
of temperature of from 32° to 180° Fah., will elon-
gate more than } of an inch, or sufficient to cause
fracture in stone work, strip the thread of a screw,
or endanger a bridge, floor, roof, or truss, or even
push out a wall if brought in contact with it.
THE STEAM-BOILER. 825
The expansion of volume and surface of wrought-
iron is calculated by taking the linear expansion as
unity ; then, following the geometrical law, the super-
ficial expansion is twice the linear, and the cubical
expansion is three times the linear.
Wrought-iron will bear on a square inch, without
permanent alteration, 17,800 pounds, and an exten-
sion in length of 54/55. Cohesive force is diminished
z000 by an increase of 1 degree of heat.
Compared with cast-iron, its strength is 1.12
times, its extensibility 0.86 times, and its stiffness 1.3
times. :
Cast-iron expands 73555 of its length for 1 de-
gree of heat; the greatest change in the shade, in
this climate, is ;;4, of its length; exposed to the
sun’s rays, za\p0-
Cast-iron shrinks, in cooling, from ,'; to gy of its
length.
Cast-iron is crushed by a force of 93,000 pounds —
upon a square inch, and will bear, without permanent
alteration, 15,300 pounds upon a square inch.
To find the surface dilatation of any particular
article, double its linear dilatation; and to find the
dilatation in volume, tripleit. To find the elongation
in linear inches, per linear foot, of any particular
article, multiply its respective linear dilatation, as
given in the table, by 12.
28
326
USE AND ABUSE OF
TAB:
SHOWING THE LINEAR DILATATION OF SOLIDS BY HEAT,
Length which a Bar Heated to 212° has greater than when at the
Temperature of 32°.
SIGSS, Caster. st caunrenies ries heepe eevee temas 0018671
COOPPOR sean s de> senkate’ dareucpeeimeaem tee ayne weaned 0017674
(ROLE Pool iees hie Babe tts sivemin en Ue neaetone lanign de 0014880
Proms Gasty ocipeeaces oie eanneirecuaras elastin 0011111
LYOR, WLOURtedisedarened soso suerteand tegen th trores 0012575
SUL Er sa ecee svecne a teoen 4ariae nou nph ee secvameay tre sst 0020205
Steel egecssescvec see yeesesawabeusvevesnve chedeldcaury PE IRIE
aes os a
DEDUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS ON IRON PLATES FOR STEAM-
BOILERS, BY THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADA.
Iron boiler-plate was found to increase in tenacity,
as its temperature was raised, until it reached a
temperature of 550° above the freezing-point, at
which point its tenacity began to diminish.
At 32° to 80° tenacity is 56,000 Ibs., or + below its maximum.
“
ifs
“
“
if3
570° «© 66.000 «
720° «55 000
1050° « © 39.000 *
1240° «99.000
1317° « ) # 9000 «
the maximum.
the same nearly as at 30°.
nearly 4 the maximum,
nearly + the maximum.
nearly } the maximum. ©
Jt will be seen by the above table that if a boiler should
become overheated, by the accumulation of scale on some
of its parts, or an insufficiency of water, the iron would
_ soon become reduced to less than one-half its strength.
oN
yf
THE STEAM-BOILER, 327
TABLE
SHOWING THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS MADE ON DIF-
FERENT BRANDS OF BOILER IRON AT THE STEVENS IN-
STITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HOBOKEN, N. J.
Thirty-three experiments were made upon the
iron taken from the exploded steam-boiler of the
ferry-boat “ Westfield.” The following were the re-
sults: Lbs. per. sq. in.
Average breaking weight.........cscccscssessseens 41,653
16 experiments made upon high grades of American
boiler-plate.
Average breaking Weight, .....e+..0sevensesesesoeess 54,123
15 experiments made upon high grades of American
flange-iron.
Average breaking weight......cscses sesccsescsceess 42,144
6 experiments made upon English Bessemer steel.
Average breaking weight.........sssssecsesersterees 82,621
5 experiments made upon English Lowmoor boiler-
plate. 2
Average breaking weight..}.........sssseeceesee vee 58,984
6 experiments made upon samples of tank iron
taken from different manufacturers.
Average breaking weight No, 1......s.ssessseeees 43,831
é “ «“ NO¢ Diccesessu eng receerees bevO De
«“ a6 y Noi Sea eee 41,249
2 experiments made on iron taken from the ex-
ploded steam-boiler of the Red Jacket.
Average breaking weight..... ...csssessersersseeees 49,000
It will be noticed that the above experiments re-
veal a great variation in the strength of boiler-plate
of different grades.
———- -
USE AND ABUSE OF
828
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THE STEAM-BOILER.
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THE STEAM-BOILER, . 3831
TABLE
SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES, 1 FOOT IN
LENGTH, FROM + INCH TO 1} INCHES THICK AND FROM
3 INCHES TO 24 INCHES DIAMETER,
1393/1564
145 |1623
154 |1734
165}|185}
1763198
1874/2114
198}|2233 |
209 |235}
2221/2947
2331|259
24341273}
2448/9851
2654|298}
277413104
RS SEE
- g THICKNESS IN INCHES.
as
8
ad Latent, cere en el Pay | leo: Lee
ope Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs.
3 PL oe LUE faked |) Gal Elvonanss|esce ses |ooduess| aameen
3h PTA LORY Ole (BI dl ce cist sdasodeh sascter ene
4 BO LOR 22 bh 28a Nd Bey 4 cased te Lalvleen= baie dando cpenien
BeeaW PIS ViF4h | She | BOR na, deeds s.stesaseentagnenen
5 Ie | 19F 1°27. |) 8441; 4241 BOS] 759 beccicec licens
Be) 15 | 214 |} 293) 374.) 46°|~ B49] 6391... 0 ee
Og a 234 | 82 | 40%] 493} 59 | 683) 783] 883
SAL San 5 251 | 344 | 43% | 534] 634] 734] 844] 95
Bee ale cased 271 | 36% | 462 | 563! 673) 784) 89211014
i, aap oreieee 29 |.39 | 50 60%! 72 | 833) 95411073
a eae 30% | 412 | 53 645| 764] 883) 100%|1133
ut Renee 33 | 444 | 564); 682] 80%] 933) 1063/120
ee hae 344 | 464] 59 | 713] 84%] 984] 1113/1253
1 1174|132
$a2 USE AND ABUSE OF
a A Be
SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES
OF AMERICAN CAST-IRON.
Breaking weight of
a square inch bar.
Common pig-iron,
Good common caeulaee,
Cast-iron,
«cc 6c
73 (f9
Gun-heads, specimen from, .
“cc ‘c 6é
Greenwood cast-iron, ; i ; ;
§ (after third melting,) .
Mean of American cast-iron, ;
Gun-metal, mean, ; ; i
English Cast-Iron.
Lowmoor, q ; : , é
Clyde, No. 1,
Clyde, No. 3,
Calder, No. 1,
Stirling, mean,
Mean of English, .
Stirling, toughened iron,
Carron No. 2, cold-blast,
‘ “« 2, hot-blast,
i “3, cold-blast,
ig “ 3, hot-blast,
Davon, No. 3, hot-blast,
Buffery, No. 1, cold-blast,
3 “ 1, hot-blast,
Cold-Talon (North Wales), No. 2, cold-blast,
“ 2) hot-blast,
. 15,000
. 20,000
, 20,834
. 19,200
. 27,700
. 24,000
. 39,500
. 21,300
. 45,970
. 31,829
. 87,282
. 14,076
. 16,125
. 23,468
. 18,735
. 25,764
. 19,484
. 28,000
. 16,683
. 13,505
. 18,200
. 17,755
. 21,907
. 17,466
. 18,487
. 18,855
. 16,676
THE STEAM-BOILER. dau
A BL,
SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES
OF AMERICAN WROUGHT-IRON.
Breaking weight of
a square inch bar.
From Salisbury, Conn., . : ; : . 66,000
“Pittsfield, Mass., : : . 57,000
‘“< Bellefonte, Pa., j : i : . 58,000
‘< Maramec, Mo., : : ; : . 48,000
es Ny Ns ‘ ; ? é . 58,000
“ Centre County, Pa.,. ; : : . 58,400
“« Lancaster County, Pa. . ¢ ; . 98,061
“Carp River, Lake Superior, . ; . 89,582
“ ~ Mountain, Mo., charcoal bloom, : . 90,000
American hammered, 3 , ’ ; . 53,900
Chain-iron, A ; . ; i ; . 48,000
Rivets, : ; ‘ , : : : . 58,300
Bolts, . : P ‘ : ; ‘ , . 52,250
Boiler-plates, . ; : 4 ‘ . . 80,000
Average boiler-plates, : : ‘ : . 55,000*
“« joints, double-riveted, . ’ : . 85,000
3 SeMec ATONE Ths. : ; : . 28,600
Chrome steel, highest strength, . : : . 198,910
. lowest uf ; : : . 168,760
* average “ ‘ § 4 . 180,000
Homogeneous metal, ae : : . 105,782
+ «2d quality, ‘ , . 81,662
Bessemer steel, . : : ; : ; . 148,324
2 PR RO OR Se Ae NRT EHD RON gS Wp
. . ° , “ : : h . 157,881
334 USE AND ABUSE OF
TABLE
SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES
- OF ENGLISH WROUGHT-IRON.
Breaking weight of
a square inch bar.
English bar-iron, ‘ : : ; ; . 56,000
Iron, mean of English, ; , ; , . 938,900
‘rivets, ; : ; ‘ ‘ F . 65,000
Lowmoor iron, . ; : : “ : . 56,100
Lowmoor iron plates, . : ‘ ; : . 07,881
Bowling plates, . . ‘ é : : . 53,488
Glasgow best boiler, . ; : 5 : . 56,317
+ ship plates, . . ‘ d : . 53,870
Yorkshire plates, hs : ; : ; . 07,724
Staffordshire plates, . . : . ‘ . 48,821
Derbyshire plates, ; ; ; : ; . 48,563
Bessemer wrought-iron, ‘ ; . : . 65,253
vi : * : : : A . 76,195
‘ 66 66 : y ; . ; 82,110
Russian cS " ‘ : . : . 99,500
: i ef : ‘ : . ., 76,084
Swedish i e ; > " ‘ . 58,084
TO POLISH BRASS.
Engineers will find the following receipt a very
good one for polishing the brass work of their engines.
Oxalic acid dissolved in rain- or cistern-water, in
the proportion of half an ounce to a pint of water,
if applied with a rag or piece of waste, will re-
move the tarnish from brass and render it bright;
the surface should then be rubbed with an oily rag
THE STEAM-BOILER. 835
and dried, and afterwards burnished with chalk,
whiting, or rotten-stone. This is probably one of the
quickest known methods for cleaning brass. A mix-
ture of muriatic acid and alum, dissolved in water,
imparts a golden color to brass articles that are
steeped in it for a few seconds.
Owing to irregularities of surface, it often hap-
pens that considerable difficulty is encountered in
putting a good polish on articles of brass or copper.
If, however, they be immersed in a bath composed
of aqua-fortis, 1 part; spirits of salt, 6 parts; and
water, 2 parts, for a few minutes, if small, or about
half an hour, if large, they will become covered with
a kind of black mud, which, on removal by rinsing,
displays a beautiful lustrous under-surface. Should
the lustre be deemed insufficient, the immersion may
be repeated, care always being taken to rinse
thoroughly. All articles cleaned in this manner
should be dried in hot, dry sawdust.
Another receipt for cleaning brass, nickel-plated
ware, or German silver, is to dissolve one ounce of
carbonate of ammonia in four ounces of water, after
which it should be mixed with 16 ounces of Paris:
white. To apply it, moisten a sponge with water,
dip it in the powder, rub quickly and lightly over
the surface of the metal, after which it may be rub-
bed over with some of the dry powder on a soft cloth
or piece of clean waste.
836 USE AND ABUSE OF
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS.
Take a quantity of pure red-lead, put it in an
iron mortar, on a block or thick plate of iron. Put
in a quantity of white-lead ground in oil; knead
them together until you make a thick putty; then
pound it; the more it is pounded, the softer it will
become. Roll in red-lead and pound again; repeat
the operation, adding red-lead, and pounding until
the mass becomes a good stiff putty. In applying it
to the flange or joint, it is well to put a thin grummet
around the orifice of the pipe, to prevent the cement
being forced inward to the pipe when the bolts are
screwed up. When the flanges are not faced, make
the above mass rather soft, and add cast-iron borings
run through a fine sieve, when it will be found to
resist either fire or water.
Another Cement. — Powdered litharge, 2 parts;
very fine sand, 2 parts; slacked quick-lime, 1 part.
Mix all together. So use; mix the proper quantity
with boiled linseed-oil, and apply quickly. It gets
hard very soon.
Another Cement.— White-lead ground in oil, 10
parts; black oxide of manganese, 3 parts; litharge,
1 part. Reduce to the proper consistency with boiled
linseed-oil, and apply.
Another Cement. — Red-lead ground in oil, 6 parts;
white-lead, 3 parts; oxide of manganese, 2 parts;
THE STEAM-BOILER. oot
silicate of soda, 1 part; litharge, + part; all mixed
and used as putty.
Another Cement.— Take 10 pounds of ground
litharge, 4 pounds of ground Paris white, + pound
of yellow ochre, and 3 ounce of hemp; cut into
lengths of 4 inch; mix all together with boiled lin-
seed-oil, to the consistency of a stiff putty. This
cement resists fire, and will set in water.
Cement for Rust-Joints. — Cast-iron borings or turn-
ings, 19 pounds; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 pound;
flour of sulphur, 2 pound. Should be thoroughly
mixed and passed through a tolerably fine sieve.
Sufficient’ water should be added to wet the mixture
through. It should be prepared some hours before
being used. A small quantity of sludge from the
trough of a grinding-stone will improve its quality.
Rust-joints, composed of sal-ammoniac, iron bor-
ings, flour of sulphur, and water, were formerly em-
ployed for all the permanent joints around engines ; —
but they are fast going out of use and being replaced
by faced joints.
Red-lead joints were also very generally used, but
they are now obsolete, and justly so, not only for
their dirty appearance, but also for the difficulty ex-
perienced in starting them, as it required, in most
cases, the use of sledges and chisels, which incurred
the danger of breaking the flanges.
Ail movable joints of the best description of land
and marine engines are now faced on a lathe or
29 WwW
4
Soa USE AND ABUSE OF
planer, and then rendered perfectly steam-, air-, and
water-tight by filing and scraping, so that all that is
necessary, when put together, is to oil their surfaces.
For smooth surfaces that can be conveniently
calked, sheet copper, annealed by heating it to a
cherry red, and then plunging it in cold water, makes
a permanent joint.
Lead wire makes a very cheap, clean, and per-
manent joint. Copper wire also makes a very good
joint; but, when convenient, it is always best to
plane or turn a groove in one of the surfaces to be
brought in contact.
For uniform surfaces, gauze wire-cloth, coated on
either side with white- or red-lead paint, makes a
very durable joint, particularly where it is exposed
to high temperatures.
For pumps of stand-pipes in the holds of vessels,
canvas well saturated on both sides with white- or
red-lead makes a very durable joint. Pasteboard
painted on both sides with white- or red-lead paint
is frequently used with good results.
STEAM- AND FIRE-REGULATORS.
The numerous devices which have been employed
by engineers for maintaining a uniform pressure of
steam in boilers, shows the importance of a con-
trivance for this purpose. As a consequence, many
steam- and fire-regulators have been introduced to
;
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THE STEAM-BOILER. 339
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AUTOMATIC STEAM-DAMPER,
3840 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER,
the public; but most of them, from complexity or
want of good workmanship, have failed to give satis-
faction, and in many instances have proved to be
of more injury than advantage.
_ The cut on page 839 shows an improved self-ad-
justing steam- and fire-regulator, simple and durable
in its construction, and not liable to derangement or
loss of sensitiveness from time or use ; having perfect
control of the damper, it will, when once set to any
required pressure, maintain that pressure in the boiler
so long as the required quantity of fuel is supplied.
These machines are in successful operation
throughout the country ; they maintain an even head
of steam, with economy in the consumption of fuel,
safety to the boilers, and general saving in wear and
tear.
The following advantages are secured by these
Regulators: Uniformity of pressure in the boiler.
Economy of fuel averaging ten per cent. Freedom
from explosions induced by excessive pressure. For
these appliances, or any information concerning them,
address
S. ROPER,
447 NortH Broap STREET, PHILA.
INDEX.
Adaptability of the steam-boil-
er, 16.
Adjuncts of the steam-boiler, 27.
Allen boiler, the, 235.
Arched boiler-heads, 51.
Arrangement and diameter of
tubes, 156.
Babcock and Wilcox’s sectional
steam-boiler, 174.
Blisters, 266.
Boiler, double-deck, 31.
drop-flue, 32.
explosions, experimental, 223.
flue, 29.
flues, 189.
furnaces, contrivances for in-
creasing draught and econ-
omizing fuel in, 321.
Harrison, 138.
Boiler-heads, 50.
arched, 51.
flat, 51.
Boiler iron when broken, charac-
teristics of, 267.
locomotive, 33.
making, 264.
materials, 264.
materials, thickness of, 60.
plates, practical limits to the
thickness of, 271.
Roger’s and Black, 129.
29 *
Boiler seams, punched and
drilled holes for, 281.
stays, 299.
the Allen, 235.
the Galloway, 287.
the Phleger, 159.
the Root, 226.
the Shapley, 154.
tubes, 155.
tubular, 30.
vertical marine, 46.
Boilers and boiler materials,
definitions as applied to,
277.
expansion and contraction of,
80.
fire-box, 34. :
length of, 60.
marine, 41.
patent, 287.
size of, 37.
tubulous, 35.
Calking, 303.
Care and management of steam-
boilers, 237.
Cement for making steam-joints,
336.
for rust-joints, 337.
Characteristics of boiler iron
when broken, 267.
| Chimneys, 315.
341
342
Clapp and Jones’ vertical circu-
lating tubular boiler, 69.
Cohesion, 277.
Collapsing pressure of wrought-
iron boiler flues 4% inch
thick, 149.
pressure of wrought-iron boil-
er-flues 7’s inch thick, 150.
pressure of wrought-iron boil-
er-flues 3g inch thick, 151.
pressure of wrought-iron boil-
er-fiues is inch thick, 152.
Comparative strength of single-
and double-riveted seams,
291;
Concussive ebullition, 218.
Connections and attachments,
steam-boiler, 165.
Contrivances for increasing
draught and economizing
fuel in boiler furnaces, 321.
Corrosion of marine boilers, 77.
of steam-boilers, internal and
external, 73.
Counter-sunk rivets, 295.
Crushing strength, 278.
Curvilinear seams, 277.
Cylinder boiler, plain, 28.
Dampers, 258.
Defects in the construction of
steam-boilers, 230.
Definitions as applied to boilers
and boiler materials, 277.
Design of steam-boilers, 25.
Detrusive strength, 278.
Diameter and arrangement of
tubes, 156.
and length of steam-boilers,
ete., £9.
Disadvantage inherent in sec-
tional steam-boilers, 41.
INDEX.
Double-deck boiler, 31.
Drop-flue boiler, 82.
Durability of steam-boilers, 26.
Ebullition, concussive, 213.
Economy of steam-boilers, 26.
Effect of punching on steel-
plates, 275. ‘
Effects of different kinds of fuel
on steam-boilers, 263.
Elasticity, 278.
limit of, 278.
Evaporation in steam-boilers,61.
Evaporative efficiency of steam-
boilers, 63.
efficiency of steam-boilers,
methods of testing the, 70.
efficiency of tubes. 158.
Expansion and contraction of
boilers, 80.
Experimental
sions, 223.
Explanation of tables, 118.
of tables of collapsing press-
ures, 148.
Exploded boiler of locomotive
“Charles Willard,” 222.
boiler of the ferry-boat ‘‘ West-
field,” 208.
Explosions, steam-boiler, 209.
Explosive gases, 212.
boiler explo-
Fatigue of metals, 279.
Feed-water heaters, 309.
Fire-box boilers, 34.
Flat boiler-heads, 50.
Flue boiler, 29.
Foaming in marine boilers, 191.
in steam-boilers, 189.
Forms of steam-boilers, 27.
Fuel on. steam-boilers, effects of
different kinds of, 263.
INDEX.
Galloway boiler, the, 287.
Gases, explosive, 212.
Gauge-cocks, 167.
Glass water-gauge, 173.
Grate-bar, 314.
surface to heating surface,
proportion of, 73.
Hiand-and machine-riveting, 293.
Harrison boiler, 138.
Heaters, feed-water, 309.
Heating surface, etc. ,table show-
ing number of square feet
of, 47.
surface of steam-boilers, 92.
Horse-power of steam-boilers, 92.
Hydraulic test, 106.
Improvements in steam-boilers,
194.
Incrustation in steam-boilers,
194.
Inspection, steam-boiler, 260.
Integrity of steam-boilers,causes
which affect the, 19.
Internal and external corrosion
of steam-boilers, 73.
grooving in steam-boilers, 78.
radius, 278.
Iron pboiler-plate, strength of,
275.
boilers, table of safe internal
pressures for, 123.
Lamination, 266.
Latta steel coil boiler, 89.
Length of boilers, 60.
Lift of safety-valves, 183.
Limit of elasticity, 278.
Linear expansion of wrought-
iron, 324.
Location of steam-boilers, 135.
343
Locomotive boiler, 33.
Longitudinal seams, 278.
Marine boiler, vertical, 46.
boilers, 41.
boilers, corrosion of, 77.
boilers, foaming tn, 191.
tubular boiler, 42,
Materials, boiler, 264.
Metals, fatigue, 279.
Methods of testing the evapora-
tive efficiency of steam-boil-
ers, 70.
Moorhouse safety sectional boil-
er, 98.
Mud-drum, 56.
Negtect of steam-boilers, 110.
Over-heating, 216.
Over=-pressure, 215.
Patent boilers, 287.
Petroleum, 206.
Phleger boiler, 159.
Pierce’s rotary tubular boiler,
133.
Plain cylinder boiler, 28.
Practical limits to the thickness
of boiler-plates, 271.
Prevention and removal of scale
in steam-boilers, 197.
Priming in steam-boilers, 192.
Proportion of grate surface to
heating surface, 73.
Pulsation in steam-boilers, 131.
Punched and drilled holes for
boiler-seams, 281.
Punching on steel-plates, effect
of, 275.
Radius, internal, 278.
344
INDEX.
Receipt for preventing formation | Fle for finding the safe external
of scale, 204.
Red-lead joints, 328.
Regulator, steam- and fire, 340.
Repairing steam-boilers, 107.
Resilience, 279.
Riveted seams, strength of, 290.
Rivets, 296.
counter-sunk, 295,
Roger’s and Black boiler, 129.
Koot boiler, the, 226.
pressure on boiler-flues, 142.
for finding the safe working-
pressure of steel and iron
boilers, 115.
for finding the weight neces-
sary to put on a safety-valve
lever, when the area of
valve, pressure, etc., are
known, 184.
for finding the heating sur-
Kotary tubular boiler, Pierce's,
133.
Kule for cylinder boilers, 88, 262.
for finding centre of gravity
of taper levers for safety-
valves, 186.
for finding the aggregate
strain caused by the press-
ure of steam on the shells
of boilers, 118.
for finding the collapsing
pressure of boiler-flues, 148.
for finding the heating surface
of vertical tubular boilers,
88.
for finding the pressure at
‘ which a safety-valve is
weighted when length of
lever, weight of ball, etc.,
are known, 186.
for finding the pressure per
square inch of sectional
area on the crown-sheets of ©
steam-boilers, 117.
for finding the pressure per
square inch when the area
of valve, weight of ball, etc.,
are known, 185.
for finding the required area
of chimney for any boiler,
317.
face of steam-boilers, 87.
for finding the quantity of
water which boilers and
other cylindrical vessels are
capable of containing, 262.
for flue-boilers, 88, 262.
for locomotive or fire-box
boilers, 87.
for tubular boilers, 88.
to find the required height of
a column of water to supply
a steam-boiler against any
given pressure of steam, 263.
to find the requisite quantity
of water for a steam-boiler,
263.
Rust-joints, 337.
cement for, 337.
Safe load, or safe working-press-
ure, 279.
Safety of steam-boilers, 26.
sectional boiler, Moorhouse,
98.
Safety-valves, 176.
lift of, 183.
Safe working-pressure of steam-
boilers, 115.
working-pressure of steel and
iron boilers, rule for finding
the, 115.
INDEX.
345
Safe working-pressure or safe | Steam-boilers, durability of, 26.
load, 279.
Seams, comparative strength of
single- and double-riveted,
291.
curvilinear, 277.
longitudinal, 278.
Sectional boiler, Wiegand, 111.
steam-boilers, 38.
steam-boilers,
inherent in, 41.
Selection of steam-boilers, 129.
Setting steam-boilers, 100,
Shapley boiler, 154.
Silsby’s vertical tubular boiler,
80.
Size of boilers, 37.
Smoke, 319.
Sound test, 106.
Spheroidal theory, 213.
Stay-bolts, 301.
Stayed and flat boiler surfaces,
strength of, 297.
Steam and fire regulator, 340.
Steam-boiler, adjuncts of the. 16.
Babeock and Wilcox’s sec-
tional, 174.
connections and attachments,
165.
explosions, 209,
explosions, vagaries of experts
in regard to, 227,
inspection, 260.
Steam-boilers, 17.
adaptability of, 27.
care and management of, 237.
causes which affect the integ-
rity of, 19.
defects in the construction of,
230,
design of, 25.
disadvantage
econoniy of, 26,
effects of different kinds of
fuel on, 268.
evaporative efficiency of, 70,
63.
foaming in, 189.
forms of, 27.
heating surface of, 838.
horse-power of, 92.
improvements in, 2338.
incrustation, 194.
internal and external corro-
sion of, 73.
internal grooving in, 78.
location of, 135.
methods of testing the evapo-
rative efficiency of, 70.
neglect of, 110.
prevention and removal of
scale in, 197.
priming in, 192.
pulsation in, 131.
repairing, 107.
rules for finding the heating
surface of, 87.
safety of, 26.
safe working-pressures of, 115.
sectional, 38.
selection of, 129. ®
setting, 100.
strength of, 26.
testing, 103.
water-space and steam-room
in, 58.
N
Steam-damper, 339.
domes, 53.
gauges, 170.
joints, cement for making, 336,
room and water-space in boil-
ers, 58.
diameter and length of, 59. Steel, 272.
346 INDEX.
Steel boilers, table of safe inter-
nal pressures for, 119.
Steel-plates, effect of punching
on, 275.
Strength, 278,
crushing, 278.
detrusive, 278,
of iron boiler-plates, 275.
of riveted seams, 290.
of stayed and flat boiler sur-
faces, 297.
of steam-boilers, 26.
tensile, 278,
torsional, 278.
transverse, 278,
working, 279.
Stress, 279,
Table deduced from experiments
on iron plates for steam-
boilers, by the Franklin In-
stitute, Philadelphia, 326.
of comparison between ex-
perimental results and theo-
retical formule, 182.
of safe internal pressures for
iron boilers, 1238.
of safe internal pressures for
steel boilers, 119.
of safe Working external pres-
sures on flues 10 feet long,
144.
of safe working external pres-
sures on flues 20 feet long,
146.
of squares of thickness of iron,
and constant numbers to be
used in finding the safe ex-
ternal pressure for boiler-
flues, 143.
of superficial areas of exter-
nal surfaces of tubes of
various lengths, diameters’
in square feet, 160.
Table of superficial areas of tubes
of different lengths and
diameters from 2% inches
to 3 inches and from 8 feet
to 20 feet, 165.
showing diameter and pitch
of rivets for different thick-
nesses of plate, 297.
showing heights of chimneys
for producing certain rates
of combustion per square
foot of area of section of the
chimney, 318.
showing the actual extension
of wrought-iron at various
temperatures, 324,
showing the linear dilatations
of solids by heat, 326.
showing the number ofsquare
feet of heating-surface, 47.
showing the proper diameter
and height of chimney ior
any kind of fuel, 317.
showing the results of experi-
ments made on different
brands of boiler-iron at the
Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology. Hoboken, N. J., 327.
showing the rise of safety-
valves, in parts of an inch,
at different pressures, 181.
showing the strength of weld-
ed boiler-plates, 286.
showing the tensile strength
of various qualities of
American and English cast-
iron, 382,
showing the tensile strength
of various qualities of
American wrought-iron, 333,
INDEX.
Table showing the _ tensile
strength of various quali-
ties of English wrought-
iron, 384.
showing the units of heat re-
quired to convert 1 pound
of water, at the temperature
of 32° Fah., into steam at
different pressures, 311.
showing the weight of boiler-
plates 1 foot square and
from zsth to an inch thick,
830.
showing the weight of cast-
iron balls from 3 to 13 inches
in diameter, 328.
showing the weight of cast-
iron, pipes, 1 foot in length,
from 4 inch to 114 inches
thick, and from 38 to 24
inches diameter, 331.
showing the weight of cast-
iron plates per superficial
foot as per thickness, 328,
showing the weight of round-
iron from 1% an inch to 6
inches diameter, 1 foot
long, 329.
showing the weight of square
bar-iron from ¥4 an inch to
6 inches square, 1 foot long,
330.
Tensile strength, 278,
Lesting-machines, 308,
347
Testing steam-boilers, 103.
Theory, spheroidal, 218.
Thickness of boiler materiats, 60,
To polish brass, 834.
Torsional strength, 278.
Transverse strength, 278.
Tubes, boiler, 155.
diameter and arrangements
of, 156.
evaporative efficiency of, 158.
Tubular boiler, marine, 42.
boilers, 30.
Tubulous boiler, Wittingham’s,
188.
boilers, 85,
Vagaries of experts in regard to
steam-boiler explosions, 227.
Vertical circulating tubular
boiler, Clapp and Jones’, 69.
marine boiler, 46.
tubular boiler, Silsby’s, 80.
Water-gauges, glass, 178,
Water-space and steam-room in
steain-boilers, 58.
Wiegand sectional boiler, 111.
Wittingham’s tubulous boiler,
188,
Working strength, 279.
Wrought-iron, linear expansion
of, 324.
Zine as an anti-crustator, 207.
eens mpl cane
ROPE R’S
PRACTICAL
HAND-BOOKS
FOR
ENGINEERS.
Of all the efforts of human ingenuity known, perhaps
none has monopolized so large a share of inventive genius |
as the steam-engine. No other object in the entire range
of human devices has so irresistibly arrogated to itself the
devotion of scientific men as the production of an artificial
movement from the vapor of boiling water.
ROPER’S PRICE.
Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines. $3.50
| een aan een
ROPER’S
Hand-Book of the Locomotive. 2.50
——_#e— —
. ROPER’S
and-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 3.50
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ROPER’S
Catechism of High-Pressure or Non=-Condensing
Steam-Engines. 2.60.
ROPER’S '
Engineer’s Handy-Book. 3.50
ROPER’S
Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and _ ,
Firemen. 2.00
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Care and Management of the Steam-Boiler. 2.00
OK
, ROPER’S
Simple Process for Estimating the Horse-Power
of Steam-Engines. .50
ROPER’S | ;
Questions and Answers for Engineers. 3.00
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Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler. 2.00
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Young Engineer’s Own Book. 3.00
ee wee aes eee
INTRODUCTION.
HE object of the writer in preparing these works haa
been to present to the practical engineer a set of
books to which he can refer with confidence for
information regarding every branch of his profession.
Up to the date of the publication of these books, it was
impossible to find a plain and practical treatise on the
steam-engine, This arose, perhaps, from the fact that
men who had attained proficiency in steam-engineer-
ing had no taste for devoting their limited leisure time
to writing, and that those whose circumstances enabled
them to do so, were precluded from a want of that
practical knowledge which is only obtained by years
of hard work and close observation. Many of the
books heretofore written on the steam-engine are full
of formule for calculating questions that may arise in
the engine-room; but, as they are generally expressed
in algebraical form, they are of little service to the
majority of engineers; for, however useful such for-
mule may be to the scientific, they can be of no prac-
tical value to men who do not fully understand them.
It is also no less a fact, that nearly all writers on the
steam-engine deal more with the past than the present.
This is to be regretted, for, however interesting the by-
gone records of steam-engineering may be as a history,
they cannot instruct the engineer of the present day
in the principles and practice of his profession.
An experience of over thirty years, with all kinds of
3
|
INTRODUCTION,
engines and boilers, enables the writer to fully under-
stand the kind of information most needed by men
having charge of steam-engines of every description,
and what they could comprehend and employ. With
this object in view, he has carefully investigated all
the details of stationary, locomotive, fire, and marine
engines, taking up each subject singly, and excluding
therefrom everything not directly connected with
steam-engineering. Particular attention has been
given to the latest improvements in all these classes
of engines, and their proportioning according to the
best modern practice, which will be of immense value
to engineers, as nothing of the kind has heretofore
been published. They also contain ample instruc-
tions for setting up, lining, reversing, and setting the
valves of all classes of engines—subjects that have
not received that attention from other writers on the
steam-engine which their importance so justly merits.
A certain portion of each book is devoted to an exam-
ination and discussion of the principles of Hydro- and
Thermo-Dynamics, which include Air, Water, Heat,
Combustion, Steam, Liquefaction, Dilatation of Gases,
Molecular and Atomic Forces, Dynamic Equivalents,
subjects with which the practical engineer should be
fully conversant; as to ignore the principles of any
subject is similar to building a structure without
knowing the strength of the foundation; for it is only
by a minute and careful analysis of the physical
phenomena which convert heat into a motor force
that the steam-engine has been brought to its present
perfection.
Ss. R.
HAND-BOOK
OF
LAND AND MARINE ENGINES;
INCLUDING
THE MODELLING, CONSTRUCTION, RUNNING, AND
MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND MARINE
ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Fully Hllustrated,
BY
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER,
Author of
’ Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ ‘Roper’s. Catechism
of High-Pressure or Non- Condensing Steam-Engines,” ‘Roper’s
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of
Modern Steam Fire- Engines, ” “Roper’s Handy-Book
for Engineers,’ ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s
Own Book,” “ Roper's Use and Abuse of
the Steam-Boiler,” “Questions for
Engineers,” etc.
MARINE BEAM-ENGINE,
PHILADELPHIA:
EDWARD MEEKS.
Lay ) 5
Roper’s Hand-book of Land and
Marine Kngines.
Opinions of the Press.
Ircn Age, New York,
HE author of this hand-book says, in his preface, that
his object in preparing it, “has been to present to the
practical inquirer a book to which he can refer with confi-
dence for information in regard to every branch of his pro-
fession.”
Rules and directions expressed in algebraic formule are
of little service to the majority of engineers, because they
are not fully understood. The author, keeping this in mind,
has avoided most of the points which render many of our
hand-books of limited value to the practical man. He has
had a long and extensive practical experience among the men
for whom he writes, and understanding their wants, has pro-
duced a book which seems admirably adapted to those who
have anything to do, in a practical way, with steam ma-
chinery. We have given the work a careful examination,
and consider it one of the most satisfactory works of the kind
we have ever seen. Mr. Roper thoroughly understands his
subject, being entirely practical, and, at the same time, hay-
ing a correct understanding of scientific principles. His
chapters on the theory of steam engineering are so simple
and practical that there is no mechanic in the country, how-
ever ignorant he may be of higher mathematics, who cannot
learn all they are intended to teach. His practical directions
for the management of engines are just such as we should
expect from an experienced engineer who had spent all his
6
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
life in an engine-room, but who had learned the theory as
well as the practice of his trade. They are plain and to the
point, and the reader may accept them with an entire confi-
dence. His descriptions of engines, pumps, and the appli-
ances connected with engines, are exceedingly satisfactory,
as are also his rules, which seem to be the best and simplest
which could be formulated. The book has an abundance of
tabular information, which seems to include all the tables
that could be of any use. The engravings are good, and are
just what is wanted to explain the text.. In a word, the
amount and kind of information contained in this work seems
to be all that could be desired. The owner of a steam-engine
cannot well do without it, and no one who runs an engine
should be ignorant of any part of its contents.
CONTENTS,
INTRODUCTION.
THE STEAM-ENGINE.
STEAM.
Table showing the Temperature and Weight of Steam
at different Pressures from one Pound per Squara
Inch to 300 Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam pro-
duced from 1 Cubic Inch of Water, according to
Pressure.
EconoMy OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY.
Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in Con-
nection with the above Rule.
Table showing the average Pressure of Steam upon the
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the
Cylinder from } to ;4, commencing with 25 Pounds
and advancing in 5 Pounds up to 180 Pounds Press-
ure.
Table of Multipliers by which to find the mean Press-
ure of Steam at various points of Cut-off.
HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING STEAM-ENGINES,
PoWER OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
Foreign Terms and Units for Horse-power.
Table of Factors.
WASTE IN THE STEAM-ENGINE.
DESIGN OF STEAM-ENGINES.
THE BED-PLATE.
CYLINDERS. |
Table showing the proper Thickness for Steam-cylin-
ders of different Diameters.
8
CONTENTS.
PISTONS.
PISTON-RINGS.
PISTON-SPRINGS.
STEAM-PISTONS.
SoLip PIsToNs.
Table of Piston Speeds for all Classes of Engines —
Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine.
PISTON, CONNECTING-ROD, AND CRANK CoNNECTION.
Table showing the Position of the Piston in the Cyl-
inder at different Crank-angles, according to the
length of Connecting-rod.
Table showing length of Stroke and Number of Revo-
lutions for different Piston Speeds in Feet per Minute.
PISTON-RODS.
CRANK-PINS.
Table showing the Angular Position of the Crank-pin
corresponding with the various Points in the Stroke
which the Piston may occupy in the Cylinder.
STEAM-CHESTS.
VALVE-RODS.
GUIDES.
ROcK-SHAFTS.
CrOss-HEADS.
STEAM-PORTS.
Table showing the Proper Area of Steam-ports for
different Piston Speeds.
SLIDE-VALVES.
PROPORTIONS OF SLIDE-VALVES.
LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE.
PopPpET OR CONICAL VALVES.
Table showing the Amount of “Lap” required for
Slide-valves of Stationary Engines when the Steam
is to be Worked expansively.
CONTENTS, ©
LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE.
CLEARANCE,
COMPRESSION,
FRICTION OF SLIDE-VALVES,
BALANCED SLIDE-VALVES.
FITTING SLIDE-VALVES,
SLIDE-VALVE CONNECTIONS,
ECCENTRICS.
ECCENTRIC-RODS.
CRANKS.
CRANK-SHAFTS.
PILLOW-BLOCKS, OR MAIN BEARINGS.
FLY-WHEELS.
LINK-MOTION.
PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES ACCORDING TO THE
BEST MODERN PRACTICE.
SETTING UP ENGINES,
DEAD-CENTRE.
How TO PUT AN ENGINE. IN LINE.
How To REVERSE AN ENGINE.
SETTING VALVES.
How To sET A SLIDE-VALVE.
SETTING OUT PISTON PACKING.
PISTON- AND VALVE-ROD PACKING.
AUTOMATIC CUT-OFFS.
GOVERNORS.
THE HuUNTOON GOVERNOR.
THE ALLEN GOVERNOR.
THE CATARACT.
WRIGHT’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
HAWKINS AND DopGk’s HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
WATTS AND CAMPBELL’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
THE BUCKEYE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
CONTENTS.
WHEELOCK’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
THE CorLiss HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
HAMPSON AND WHITEHILL’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
THE ALLEN HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
WoopRUFF AND BEACH’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE,
NAYLOR’S VERTICAL HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
WILLIAMS’ VERTICAL THREE-CYLINDER HIGH-PRESS-
URE ENGINE.
RopPer’s CALORIC ENGINE.
HASKINS’ VERTICAL HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
MAssEy’s RcTARY ENGINE.
PORTABLE ENGINES.
How To BALANCE VERTICAL ENGINES,
KNOCKING IN ENGINES.
THE INJECTOR.
PUMPS.
FORCE-PUMPS.
PISTON-PUMPS.
BoILER FEED-PUMPS.
STEAM-PUMPS
THE ATLAS STEAM-PUMP.
THE DAYTON CAM-PUMP.
DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS,
THE PULSOMETER.
‘JAMES WATT.
CONDENSING OR LOW-PRESSURE STEAM-ENGINES.
EXPLANATION, OF THE WORKING PRINCIPLES OF TH?
CONDENSING ENGINE.
HORSE-POWER OF CONDENSING ENGINES.
THE VACUUM.
MARINE STEAM ENGINES.
CoMPOUND ENGINES.
11
CONTENTS.
TDIRECT-ACTING ENGINES.
BALANCING THE MOMENTUM OF DIRECT-ACTING EN
GINES,
OSCILLATING ENGINES.
TRUNK ENGINES.
GEARED ENGINES.
BACK-ACTION ENGINES,
SIDE-LEVER ENGINES.
BEAM ENGINES.
MARINE BEAM ENGINE.
STARTING-GEAR FOR MARINE ENGINES.
CONDENSERS.
AIR-PUMPS.
THE HYDROMETER, SALINOMETER, OR SALT-GAUGE.
THE MANOMETER.
THE BAROMETER.
MARINE ENGINE REGISTER, CLOCK, AND VACUUM
GAUGE,
STEAM-GAUGES.
GLASS WATER-GAUGES.
THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR.
METHOD OF APPLYING THE INDICATOR.
ForRM OF DIAGRAMS,
How To KEEP THE INDICATOR IN ORDER.
THE DYNAMOMETER,
THE ENGINEER.
MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND MARINE ENGINES.
How TO PUT THE ENGINES IN A STEAMBOAT OR SHIP.
SCREW-PROPELLERS.
PADDLE-WHEELS.
FLUID RESISTANCE.
Signification of Signs used in Calculations,
12
a a a os
CONTENTS,
DECIMAL.
Decimal Equivalents of Inches, Feet, and Yards.
Decimal Equivalents of Pounds and Ounces.
Useful Numbers in calculating Weights and Measures
ete.
Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gal
lon or an Inch,
Units.
THEORY OF THE STEAM-ENGINE,
WATER,
AIR.
THE THERMOMETER.
Comparative Scale of Centigrade, Fahrenheit, and
Reaumer Thermometers.
ELASstTic FLUIDs,
CALORIC,
HEAT,
COMBUSTION,
GASES.
STEAM-BOILERS,
STEAM-DOMES,
MtUp-pRU Ms.
SETTING Borers.
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF BoILERs.
TESTING BOILERS,
NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS,
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS,
HraTING SURFACE, )
RULES FOR FINDING THE HEATING SURFACE OF STEAM
BOILERS.
EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BOILERS,
HORSE-POWER OF BOILERS,
; a 13
CONTENTS.
FIRING.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING.
RULES FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF WATER BOIL-
ERS AND OTHER CYLINDRICAL VESSELS ARE CAPA-
BLE OF CONTAINING.
LONGITUDINAL AND CURVILINEAR STRAINS.
RULES.
EXPLANATION OF TABLES OF BOILER PRESSURES ON
_ FOLLOWING PAGES.
Table of safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers.
Table of safe Internal Pressures for Steel Boilers.
MARINE BOILERS.
Proportions of Heating Surface to Cylinder and Grate
Surface of noted Ocean, River, and Ferry-boat
Steamers.
SETTING MARINE BOILERS.
BEDDING MARINE BOILERS.
CLOTHING MARINE BOILERS,
CARE OF MARINE BOILERS.
REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS,
TUBES,
Table of Superficial Areas of External Surfaces of
Tubes of Various Lengths and Diameters in Square
Feet,
BoILER EF LUES,
BOILER-HEADS.
SAFETY-VALVES.
Table showing the Rise of Safety-valves, in Parts of
an Inch, at different Pressures,
RULES.
FOAMING,
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS,
14
CONTENTS,
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM-
BOILERS.
BoILER EXPLOSIONS.
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE:
RIVETED SEAMS,
CALKING,
STRENGTH OF THE STAYED AND FLAT SURFACES.
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER
MATERIALS,
FEED-WATER HEATERS,
Table showing the Units of Heat required to Convert
One Pound of Water, at the Temperature of 32°
Fah., into Steam at different Pressures.
STEAM-JACKETS.
Loss OF PRESSURE IN CYLINDERS INDUCED BY LONG
STEAM-PIPES.
PRIMING IN STEAM-CYLINDERS.
OILS AND OILING, |
Table of Coefficients of Frictions between Plane Sur-
aces.
GRATE-BARS.
CHIMNEYS.
Table showing the proper Diameter and Height of
Chimney for any kind of Fuel.
SMOKE.
MENSURATION OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE,
ETC,
CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES AND DEFINI-
TIONS.
THE CIRCLE.
Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and
Areas of Circles, and the Contents of each in Gal-
lons, at 1 Foot in Depth.
15
CONTENTS.
LOGARITHMS.
Table of Logarithms of Numbers from 0 to 1000.
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. |
Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms,
Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and
Areas of Circles from ;, of an Inch to 100 Inches,
RULES FOR FINDING THE DIAMETER AND SPEED OF
PULLEYS.
GEARING.
BELTING.
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS AND PATCHING
STEAM-BOILERS. 5
NON-CONDUCTORS FOR STEAM-PIPES AND STEAM-CYL-
INDERS.
How To MArK ENGINEERS’ OR MACHINISTS’ TOOLS.
To PouisH BRAss,
SOLDER.
Table showing Weight of different Materials.
JOINTS.
THE INVENTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-
ENGINE.
re
16
: HAND-BOOK
} OF THE
Oe Cy NEO TE Nar.
INCLUDING THE
CONSTRUCTION, RUNNING, AND MANAGEMENT
OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Fully illustrate,
BY
STEPHEN ROPER, Encrneerr,
Author of
“ Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s Catechism
of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines,” ‘“Roper’s
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘ Roper’s Hand-Book of
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” ‘“Roper’s Handy-Book
for Engineers,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer's
Own Book,” “Roper’s Use and Abuse of
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘‘ Questions for
Engineers,” etc.
PHILADELPHIA:
a EDWARD MEEKS.
; , ao | . 17
ROPER’S HAND-BOOK
LHE LOCOMOTIVE:
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS,
Scientific American, New York.
The author of this work very truly believes that in a book,
ss ina clock, any complication of its machinery has a tendency
to impair its usefulness and affect its reliability. Hence, in pres
paring a book which is intended to be a guide for the practical
locomotive engineer, he avoids “mathematical problems and
entangling formule,” and offers a pocket volume, full of in-
formation, theoretical as well as practical, succinctly and clearly
condensed. There are chapters on heat, combustion, water, air,
gases and steam; others on the construction of the locomotive
and of its various parts, entered into with considerable details;
instructions for the care and management of boilers and engines,
tables of strength of materials, and useful practical hints for
the guidance of the engineer. In brief, the volume is, as its *
name indicates, a hand-book to which the locomotive mechanic
can turn for information regarding almost every branch of his
trade. It is neatly illustrated and bound in morocco, in conve
nient pocket-book form.
North American and United States Gazette, Phila.
Mr. Roper asserts as a preliminary qualification for his task,
that he has had more than thirty years’ experience with all
18
ROPER’S HAND-BOOK OF THE LOCOMOTIVE,
classes of steam-engines and boilers. The object of the work ia
to convey practical knowledge of all that appertains to the loco-
motive engine and boiler, in a practical manner.. Stationary
and marine engines are omitted, because other treatises furnish
all that need be known of them. Mr. Roper seems to know
exastly what the class for whom he writes require, and what they
ean comprehend and employ. His opinion, as expressed in his
work, is the highest compliment ever paid to those in question,
and to the railways of this country, by which this skill has been
ereated and is sustained and promoted. The mechanical and
dynamical equivalents of heat and its molecular force are treated
in a clear and lucid manner. Chemical equivalents, the lique-
faction and dilatation of gases, superheated steam, tractive and
evaporative power, combustion, mensuration, incrustation, and
similar subjects are discussed. The strictly mechanical infor-
mation is fully and lucidly set forth, to an extent that would
gain a degree in any of our schools, But beyond the rudi-
ments, and beyond their combinations and applications, there
is the pervading idea that the American engineer aims to know
the effect by its cause—seeks philosophical knowledge as a part
of his employment, and not only seeks, but, as a whole, has mas-
tered so much that he deserves a standard in pure science very
few have supposed. No higher compliment could be paid, and
it could be paid nowhere else. The treatise apparently omits
nothing, expresses clearly though compactly, furnishes tables,
and is a fine tribute to the practical ability of the country. If
contains suitable illustrations, and is appropriately ; refaced with
a portrait of M. W. Baldwin.
19
CONTENTS,
INTRODUCTION.
THE LOCOMOTIVE.
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS.
THEORY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE,
W ATER,
AIR.
COMPARATIVE SCALE OF ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GER-
MAN THERMOMETERS.
THE THERMOMETER.
ELAstTic FLUIDS AND VAPORS.
CALORIC.
HEAT.
COMBUSTION.
GASES,
STEAM.
Table showing the Velocity with which Steam of Differ-
ent Pressures will flow into the Atmosphere or into
Steam of lower Pressure.
Rule for finding the Superficial Feet of Steam-pipe re-
quired to Heat any Building with Steam.
Table showing the Temperature of Steam at Different
Pressures from 1 pound per Square Inch to 240
pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced from
a Cubic Inch of Water, according to Pressure.
HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-ENGINES,
Rule for finding the Horse-power of Stationary En-
gines,
THE POWER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
20
=
r
a ae ee ee eee
CONTENTS.
Rule for finding the Horse-power of a Locomotive.
Rules for calculating the Tractive Power of Locomo-
tives.
Table of Gradients.
Adhesive Power of Locomotives.
Proportions of Locomotives, according to best Modern
Practice.
Proportions of Different Parts of Locomotives, accord-
ing to best Modern Practice.
Table showing the ‘Travel of Valve and the Amount
of Lap and Lead for Different Points of Cut-off, and
the Distance the Steam follows the Piston on the
Forward Motion.
RULES.
LoOcoMOTIVE BUILDING.
CONSTRUCTION OF LOCOMOTIVES.
SETTING THE VALVES OF LOCOMOTIVES.
DEAD WEIGHT IN LOCOMOTIVES.
Table showing the number of Revolutions per minute
made by Drivers of Locomotives of different Diam-
eters and at different Speeds.
STEAM-PORTS.
BRIDGES.
ECCENTRICS.
Eccentric Rops.
Formula by which to find the Positions of the Eccen-
tric on the Shaft.
THE SLIDE-VALVE.
FRICTION ON THE SLIDE-VALVE.
LAP AND LEAD OF VALVE.
BALANCED SLIDE-VALVE.
Table showing the Amount of Lap and Lead on the
21
CONTENTS,
Valves of Locomotives in Practice, on thirty-five of
the principal Railroads in this Country,
THE LINK.
ADJUSTMENT OF THE LINK.
STEAM AND SPRING CYLINDER PACKING FOR Loco-
MOTIVES,
Rule for finding the size of Piston- and Valve-rod
Packing, j
BRASSES FOR DRIVING-AXLES OF LOCOMOTIVES.
LATERAL MOTION.
SPEED INDICATORS.
LocoMOTIVE BOILERS.
PROPORTIONS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER, FROM THE
BEST MODERN PRACTICE.
WAGON-TOP AND STRAIGHT BOILERS.
THE EVAPORATIVE POWER OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.
HEATING SURFACE, STEAM ROOM, AND WATER SPACE
IN LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.
HEATING SURFACE TO GRATE SURFACE IN STEAM
BOILERS.
Rule for finding the Heating Surface in Locomotive
Boilers.
Rule for finding the Heating Surface in the Tubes of
Locomotive Boilers.
Rule for finding the Heating Surface in Stationary
Boilers.
PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLES FOR THE SEAMS OF
LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.
MACHINE AND HAND RIVETING FOR LOCOMOTIVE
BOILERS.
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE
RIVETED BOILER SEAMS.
22
CONTENTS.
FURNACES OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.
PROPORTIONS OF FIRE-BOXES, FROM THE BEST Mop-
ERN PRACTICE. |
STRENGTH OF STAYED SURFACES IN THE FURNACES
.OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS.
STAY-BOLTS.
CROWN-BARS.
TUBES.
CoMBUSTION OF FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE FURNACES.
SMOKE-BOX.
SMOKE-STACKS.
EXHAUST-NOZZLE.
SAFETY-VALVES.
Tablé showing the Rise of the Safety-valves.
STEAM-GAUGES.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF
LOcoMOTIVE BOILERS.
FIREMEN ON LOCOMOTIVES.
FIRING.
THE INJECTOR.
SIGNALS.
Wreckina Toots.
RULES FOR FINDING THE ELASTICITY OF STEEL
SPRINGS.
CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL Forces AND D£FINI-
TIONS.
Table containing Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas
of Circles, etc.
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-RPOILERS.
BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF LOCOMOTIVES,
23
HAND-BOOK
OF MODERN
STEAM FIRE-ENGINES.
INCLUDING ‘THE
RUNNING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM
FIRE-ENGINES AND FIRE-PUMPS.
BY
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER,
AUTHOR OF “ ROPER’S CATECHISM OF HIGH PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING
STEAM ENGINES,” “ROPER’S HAND*BOOK OF LOCOMOTIVES,”
‘+ ROPER’S HAND-BOOK OF LAND AND MARINE
ENGINES,” ETO,
Second Fdition, tuith Lllustrations.
REVISED AND CORRECTED BY H. L. STELLWAGEN, M. E,
PHILADELPHIA :
EDWARD MEEKS,
1012 WALNUT STREET,
1889,
CONTENTS.
THE STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
FIRE.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRES.
WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF FIRE.
MEANS OF PREVENTING FIRES.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES.
FIRE-ESCAPES.
FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS.
LOSSES BY FIRE.
AHRENS’ STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
AIR.
Table showing the Weight of the Atmosphere in Pounds,
Avoirdupois, on 1 Square Inch, corresponding with
different Heights of the Barometer, from 28 Inches to
31 ‘Inches, varying by Tenths of an Inch.
Table showing the Expansion of Air by Heat, and the
Increase in Bulk in Proportion to Increase of Tempera-
ture.
ELASTIC FLUIDS.
AIR-VESSELS.
CLAPP AND JONES’ STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
WATER.
Table showing the Boiling point for Fresh Water at differ-
ent Altitudes above Sea-level.
Table showing the Weight of Water at different Tempera-
tures.
Table showing the Weight of Water in Pipe of various
Diameters 1 Foot in Length.
Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences; and
Areas of Circles, and the Contents of each in Gallons, at
1 Foot in Depth. Utility of the Table.
SILSBY ROTARY STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
METHOD OF WORKING THE STEAM IN THE SILSBY ROTARY
ENGINE,
DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH APERTURES,
25
CONTENTS.
Table showing the Theoretical Discharge of Water by
Round Apertures of various Diameters, and under differ-
ent Heads of Water Pressure.
Table showing the Actual Discharge by Short Tubes of
various diameters, with Square Edges and under differ-
ent Heads of Water Pressure, being ;°; of the Theoreti-
cal Discharge.
Table showing the Discharge of Jets with different Heads.
Table showing the Number of Gallons of Water discharged
through different Size Apertures, and with different
Heads, in One Minute and in Twenty-four Hours.
RULES.
STEAM FIRE ENGINES.
NAMES OF PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURERS OF STEAM FIRE-
ENGINES IN THIS COUNTRY.
AMOSKEAG STEAM FIRE- ENGINE.
EARLY FORMS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES.
FLOATING STEAM FIRE-ENGINES.
THE BUTTON STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
TRIALS OF STEAM FIRE- ENGINES.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM
FIRE-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
ENGINEERS.
FIREMEN.
USEFUL INFORMATION FOR ENGINEERS AND: FIREMEN.
PAID AND VOLUNTEER FIRE DEPARTMENTS.
FIRE-ALARMS.
THE GOULD STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
ROUTINE OF BUSINESS IN PAID FIRE DEPARTMENTS.
FIRE-HOSE.
HOSE-COUPLINGS.
DIMENSIONS OF FIRST- AND SECOND-CLASS aryl age FIRE-
ENGINES.
HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY MODERN STEAM
FIRE-ENGINES.
PERPENDICULAR HEIGHTS THROWN BY MODERN STEAM-
FIRE- ENGINES.
THE LA FRANCE STEAM FIRE-ENGINE.
HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING STEAM-ENGINES--
FIRE, LOCOMOTIVE, AND STATIONARY.
POWER OF THE STEAM ENGINE.
26
:
CONTENTS.
FOREIGN TERMS AND UNITS FOR HORSE-POWER.
Table of Factors.
THE POWER OR HORSE-POWER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
RULES FOR CALCULATING THE TRACTIVE POWER OF Loco:
MOTIVES.
Table of Gradients.
HOLLOWAY CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINE.
SELF-PROPELLING STEAM FIRE-ENGINES.
WASTE IN THE HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING
STEAM-ENGINES.
TABLE COMPARING DuTy oF MODERN HIGH-GRADE
ENGINES.
DIFFERENT PARTS OF STEAM ENGINES—THE CRANK.
Table showing the Angular Position of the Crank-pin cor-
responding with the various Points in the Stroke which
the Piston may occupy in the Cylinder.
Table of Piston Speeds for all Classes of Engines—Station-
ary, Locomotive, Fire, and Marine.
Table showing Position of the Piston in the Cylinder at
different Crank-angles, according to the length of Con-
necting-rod.
Table showing Length of Stroke and Number of Revolu-
tions for different Piston Speeds in Feet per Minute.
THE ECCENTRIC.
THE SLIDE-VALVE.
PROPORTIONS OF SLIDE VALVES.
LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE.
Table showing Amountof ‘‘ Lap’’ required for Slide-valves
of Stationary Engines when the Steam is to be Worked
Expansively.
LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE.
FRICTION OF SLIDE-VALVES.
BALANCED SLIDE-VALVES.
COMPRESSION.
CLEARANCE.
AUTOMATIC CUT-OFFS.
SETTING VALVES.
How To SET A SLIDE-VALVE.
SETTING OUT PISTON PACKING.
How To REVERSE AN ENGINE.
DEAD CENTRE.
27
CONTENTS,
How TO PuT AN ENGINE IN LINE.
PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES ACCORDING TO THE BEST
MoDERN PRACTICE.
Table showing Proper Thickness for Steam Cylinders of
different diameters. :
THE INVENTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM:
ENGINE.
SIGNIFICATION OF SIGNS USED IN CALCULATIONS.
DECIMALS.
Decimal Equivalents of Inches, Feet and Yards.
Decimal Equivalents of Pounds and Ounces.
Useful Numbers in Calculating Weights and Measures, ete.
Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gallon
or an Inch.
UNITS.
THE METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
Metric Measures of Length.
Metric Measures of Surface.
Metric Measures of Capacity.
Metric Weights.
PUMPS.
STEAM-PUMPS.
BLAKE’S SPECIAL STEAM FIRE-PUMP.
WRIGHT’S BUCKET-PLUNGER STEAM FIRE-PUMP.
Dimensions ofthe Bucket-plunger Steam Fire-pumps.
PROPORTIONS OF STEAM FIRE-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF BOILER FEED-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF MARINE-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF WRECKING-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF MINING-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF AIR-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF TANK-PUMPS.
PROPORTIONS OF BREWERS’ AND DISTILLERS' PUMPS.
Table showing the Proportions of Steam-pumps demon-~
strated by Practical Experience to be the best adapted
for the Various Purposes for which they are used.
THE KNOWLES’ STEAM FIRE-PUMP.
EARLE’S STEAM FIRE-PUMP.
DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS,
THE ATLAS STEAM FIRE PUMP.
OuNDE’S CHALLENGE STEAM FIRE-PUMP.
28
CONTENTS.
HOLLY’sS ROTARY STEAM FIRE-PUMP.
PROPER METHOD OF LOCATING STEAM FIRE-PUMPS.
THE INJECTOR.
Table of Capacities of Rue’s ‘‘ Little Giant ’’ Injector.
THE PULSOMETER.
THE HYDRAULIC RAM.
BOILERS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES.
CAUSES OF FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS.
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
RULES.
RULE FOR FINDING THE HEATING SURFACE OF STEAM
BOILERS.
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER MATE-
RIALS.
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers.
LONGITUDINAL AND CURVILINEAR STRAINS.
HEAT.
LATENT HEAT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.
Table of the Radiating Power of different Bodies.
Table showing the Effects of Heat upon different Bodies.
CALORIC.
COMBUSTION.
COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANTHRACITE COAL.
Table showing the Total Heat of Combustion of Various
Fuels.
Table showing the Nature and Value of several Varieties of
American Coal and Coke, as deduced from Experiments
by Professor Johnson, for the United States Government.
Table showing some of the Prominent Qualities in the
principal American Woods.
Table showing the Relative Properties of good Coke, Coal,
and Wood.
ENTIRE COAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE WORLD.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.
Table showing the Temperature at which different Com-
bustible Substances will Ignite.
STEAM.
ECONOMY OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY.
Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in connection
with the above Rule.
29
CONTENTS.
Table of Multipliers by which to find the Mean Pressure
of Steam at Various Points of Cut-off.
Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the Cyl-
inder from 4 to 75, commencing with 25 Pounds and
advancing in 5 Pounds up to 15 Pounds Pressure.
Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the Cylin-
der from 4 to 4, commencing with 80 Pounds, and ad-
vancing in 5 Pounds up to 130 Pounds Pressure.
Table showing the Temperature of Steam at different
Pressures, from 1 Pound per Square Inch to 240 Pounds,
and the Quantity of Steam produced from a Cubic Inch
of Water, according to the Pressure.
EXPLANATION OF TABLE.
Table of the Elastic Force, Temperature and Volume of
Steam from a Temperature of 32° to 457° Fah., and
from a Pressure of 0.2 to 900 inches of Mercury.
Table showing the Temperature and Weight of Steam at -
different Pressures from 1 Pound per Square Inch to 300
Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced from 1
Cubic Inch of Water, according to Pressure.
CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES AND DEFINITIONS.
MENSURATION OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, ETC.
PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE.
Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and
Areas of Circles from 7; of an Inch to 20 Inches, advanc-
ing by 7; of an Inch up to 10 Inches, and by 3} of an
Inch from 10 Inches to 20 Inches.
LOGARITHMS.
Table of Logarithms of Numbers from 0 to 1000,
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS.
Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms,
RULES FOR FINDING THE ELASTICITY OF STEEL SPRINGS.
Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought-iron at
Various Temperatures.
Table deduced from Experiments on Iron Plates for
Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Table showing the result of Experiments made on different
Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology, Hoboken, New Jersey.
30
CONTENTS.
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from 3 to 13
Inches in Diameter.
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates per Super-
ficial Foot as per Thickness.
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes, 1 Foot in
Length, from 4 Inch to 1} Inches thick, and from 3 to
24 Inches Diaweiss
Table oe. the Weight of Boiler-plates 1 Foot Square
and from =. Inch to an Inch thick.
Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron, from 3 inch
to 6 Inches Square, 1 Foot long.
Table showing the Weight of Round-iron from } Inch to 6
Inches Diameter, 1 Foot long.
How To MARK ENGINEERS’ OR MACHINISTS’ TOOLS.
To PoLIsH BRASS.
SOLDER.
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINYTS _AND PATCHING
STEAM-BOILERS.
JOINTS.
RELATIVE VALUE OF FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES
MONEY.
Table showing the Load that can be Carried by Man and
Animals.
Man or Animal Working a Mechine.
Table of Coefficients of Frictions between Plane Surfaces.
Table of Friction Coefficients for different Pressures up to
the Limits of Abrasion.
The Prevention and Removal of Scale in Steam Boilers.
31
A CATECHISM
OF
High-Pressure or Non-Condensing
STEAM-HNGINES;
INCLUDING
THE MODELLING, CONSTRUCTING, RUNNING, AND MAN-
AGEMENT OF STEAM-ENGINES AND
STEAM-BOILERS.
With Paluable illustvations,
BY
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER,
Author of
“Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s Catechism
of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines,” “Roper’s
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “Roper’s Handy-Boeok
for Engineers,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s
Own Book,” “ Roper’s Use and Abuse of
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘Questions. fur
Engineers,” etc.
PHILADELPHIA;
EDWARD MEEKS.
35%
ROPER’S CATECHISM
STHAM HNGLN ES.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS,
From the North American and United States Gazette,
A Catechism of High-Pressure Steam En-
gines, by Stephen Roper. Mr. Roper, himself
@ practical engineer, has undertaken to furnish his
fellow-engineers with the information experience has
shown him to be most valuable. A number of tables
of constant utility are furnished, and many rules and
much practical advice. The work is plain rather than
scientific in its language, and, claiming to be the only
one expressly calculated for engineers, cannot fail to
find quick demand and be of great value.
From the Scientific American,
A Catechism of High-Pressure or Non-Con-
densing Steam Engines, by Stephen Roper, En-
gineer. This isa valuable book on the steam engine
It contains much needed general information for en-
gineers, as well as a description of many American
improvements and specialties in steam engineering
33
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
THE STEAM-ENGINE.
WATER.
AIR.
HEAT.
THE THERMOMETER.
Comparative Scale of English, French, and German
Thermometers.
STEAM.
Table showing the Temperature of Steam at different
Pressures.
THE ENGINEER.
THE STEAM-BOILER.
Cylinder Boilers.
Flue Boilers.
Tubular Boilers.
Double-Deck Boilers.
Locomotive Boilers.
Mud-Drums.
Boiler-Heads.
Boiler-Shells.
Steel Boilers.
Internal and External Pressures.
Rules.
Table of Internal Pressures.
Foaming in Steam-Boilers. Rust.
Patent Steam-Boilers.
THE SAFETY-VALVE.
FEED-WATER HEATERS.
FUEL.
CHIMNEYS.
34
CONTENTS.
SMOKE.
GRATE-BARS.
]JUTIES OF AN ENGINEER IN THE CARE AND MANAGE
MENT OF THE STEAM-BOILER.
STEAM-ENGINES.
Table showing the Average Pressure of the Steam upon
the Piston throughout the Stroke.
Lap on the Slide- Valve. ;
Table showing the Amount of “ Lap” required for
Slide-Valves when the Steam is to be worked ex-
pansively.
Lead on the Slide- Valve.
* Cushion.”
Setting Valves.
Size of Steam-Port.
Size of Steam-Pipe.
Size of Piston-Rod.
Material for Different Parts of Engines.
Proportions of Engines.
Reversing an Engine.
Putting an Engine in Line.
Setting up Engines.
RULES FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE
_ S§TEAM-ENGINE.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF ENGINES.
KNOCKING IN ENGINES.
VACUUM.
THE INDICATOR.
THE GOVERNOR.
THE INJECTOR.
STEAM-PUMPS.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.
85
CONTENTS.
NOoIsELESS BoILER FEED-PUMP.
Directions for Setting Up Steam-Pumps..
Table containing the Diameter, Circumferences, and
Areas of Circles, and the Cubical Contents of Cyl.
inders, in Gallons.
PisToN-Rop PACKING.
INCRUSTATION,
BoILER EXPLOSIONS,
STEAM- AND FIRE-REGULATOR.
CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES,
MENSURATION.
Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, ete.
BELTING.
Leather Belts.
Lacing Belts.
Horizontal Belts.
Perpendicular Belts.
Greasing Belts.
Rules for finding the Proper Width of Belts.
RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS,
A BrieF HIsTORY OF THE STEAM-ENGINE.
History of the Different Parts of the Steam-Engine in
Detail.
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS as applied to Differ-
ent Parts of Steam-Engines and Steam-Boilers.
PROPORTIONS of Steam-Engines according to the best
modern practice.
CEMENT for making Steam-Joints and patching Steam-
Boilers.
How to mark Engineers’ or Machinists’ Tools.
To polish Brass,
Non-Conpuctors for Steam-Pipes and Cylinders,
€ 86
oe
re eo
AS pe wes
ie Sg ee ae
we
THE
ENGINEER’S HANDY-BOOK.
CONTAINING
A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, AND [ITS
USE AND ADVANTAGES TO ENGINEERS AND STEAM USERS.
WITH FORMULZ FOR ESTIMATING THE POWER OF ALL
CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES; ALSO, FACTS, FIGURES,
QUESTIONS, AND TABLES FOR ENGINEERS WHO WISH
TO QUALIFY THEMSELVES FOR THE UNITED
STATES NAVY, THE REVENUE SERVICE, rHE .
MERCANTILE MARINE, OR TO TAKE
CHARGE OF THE BETTER CLASS OF
STATIONARY STEAM-ENGINES.
With illustrations,
BY
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER,
Author of
*Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s Catechism
of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-HEngines,” ‘“Roper’s
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “Roper’s Handy-Book
for Engineers,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s
Own Book,” “Roper’s Use and Abuse of
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘Questions for
Engineers,” etc.
PHILADELPHIA:
EDWARD MEEKS.
4 37
This Book treats on every branch of
Steam Engineering
AND
Sieam-Engines of Every Description
In use at the present day,—
CONDENSING, NON-CONDENSING,
SIMPLE, AND COMPOUND,
for Whatever Purpose Employed,
whether for
Engineering, Manufacturing, Pumping, Loco-
motion, Mining, Hoisting, or Propulsion,
AND IS MORE FULLY ILLUSTRATED THAN
ANY OTHER WORK EVER HERETOFORE
PUBLISHED ON THE SAME SUBJECT.
38
OE a ee ey ee = ees ee
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS
ON
Roper's Engineer's Handy-Book.
The Manufacturer and Builder, New York.
AN ENGINEER’s Hanpy-Boox.—Mr. Roper, the writer
of this work, is well known to many of our readers as the
author of a number of useful reference books relating to steam-
engineering, which have become deservedly popular by reason
of their plain, intelligible style, and their freedom from un-
necessary and confusing mathematical technicalities. We
would be glad to see Roper’s hand-books largely multiplied
and distributed in every workshop, for it is only out of books
of this kind that the average workman will be able to master
the principles of his handiwork.
Millstone, Indianapolis, Ind. <
“THp ENGINEER'S Hanpy-Boox,” by Stephen Roper
Engineer, is a practical treatise on the management of the
steam-engine. The author says the book was “not written
for the purpose of instructing engineers how to design or
proportion steam-engines or boilers, but rather to inform
them how to take care of and manage them intelligently.”
The declaration is carried out in the plainest and most sys-
tematic manner.
As a text-book for students in mechanical engineering, it
will be found of great value. Its illustrations and tabulated
matter are zmportant features, and printed in excellent style
29
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
National Car-Builder, New York.
Roper’s ENGINEER’S HAnNDy-Boox.—This compact and
comprehensive little volume contains a vast amount of in-
formation relative to the care and management of every class
of steam-engines. It is profusely illustrated, and abounds
in facts, figures, rules, tables, questions and answers, formule,
etc., that are exceedingly valuable to engineers, and of easy
reference by means of a copious and well-arranged index.
The various subjects are discussed with brevity and clearness,
and with a freedom from technicality which enables the
reader to get at the pith of the matter without fishing it out
from an ocean of words. A prominent feature of the book is
a full explanation of the steam-engine indicator, and its use
and advantages to engineers and others.
Leffel’s Illustrated News, Springfield, Ohio.
ENGINEER’S Hanpy-Boox: By Stephen Roper, Engineer.
—The author of the valuable series of hand-books which we
have before referred to, has just issued the above-named work,
which must find ready way into the hands of engineers and
steam-users throughout the entire land. It contains a full
explanation of the steam-engine indicator, its uses and ad-
vantages, with formulee for estimating the power of all classes
of steam-engines; also facts, figures, questions, and tables for
engineers who wish to qualify themselves for the United
States navy, the revenue service, the merchant marine, or
the better class of stationary engines.
The American Engineer, Chicago, Ill.
THE ENGINEER'S Hanpy-Book.—We are in receipt of
the above work, which contains a description of the various
forms of engines now in use, and supplies interesting and
useful information as to the care, management, and remedy
of defects of steam machinery and its appendages, with tables
for calculating the power of engines.
40
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
American Machinist, New York.
Roprer’s ENGINEER’s Hanpy-Boox.—The subjects in
this work have been treated in a brief and comprehensive
way, therefore the reader is not required to read a number
of chapters in order to acquire a little knowledge. The use
of the indicator is’ treated in a plain, practical way, so that
it may be readily understood. Abstruse formulas have been
omitted and simple arithmetic used, thus avoiding the usual
vexations among practical men who are uneducated in the
higher mathematics. The author has in this book given the
results of his own practical experience, which extenus over
a period of thirty years and upwards, and the work will
deubtless be read with pleasure and profit by very many
practical mechanics.
Engineering News, New York.
An “ ENGINEER'S HANDY-Boox.”—Asa writer on subjects
relating to steam and steam-engineering, Mr. Roper is now
too well known to need any further introduction. In this,
his latest contribution to steam-engineering literature, Mr.
Roper has aimed to present to his brother engineers a “ handy
book ” that will be to them what Trautwine’s “‘ Pocket-Book”
is to civil engineers, and in duing this he has spared no labor
in collecting and editing his materials. Some idea of the
completeness of the work may be gathered from the state-
ment of the publishers that it contains nearly 300 main sub-
jects, 1316 paragraphs, 876 questions and answers, 52 sugges
tions and instructions, 105 rules, formule, and examples, 149
tables, 164 illustrations, 31 indicator diagrams, and 167 tech.
nical ierms; over 3000 different subjects.
Boston Journal of Commerce.
Mr. SterpHEen RopER is well known as the author of several]
other handy-books that treat on steam, steam-boilers, and
engines. This new work is, in our judgment, his best.
4% Al
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
The Scientific American, New York.
A WELL made pocket-book of practical information for me:
¢, anical engineers, particularly those of limited education,
ard such as may wish to qualify themselves for service in
the U.S. Navy or the mercantile marine. The more impor-
tant engines in use are clearly described, and formule are
given for estimating their power. Particular attention is
paid to the steam-engine indicator, its use and advantages.
The author has had much experience in this class of work,
and writes clearly and plainly.
The Locomotive, Hartford, Conn.
Roper’s ENGINEER’S HAnpy-Boox.—This last work of
Mr. Roper is of special value to all who have to do with
steam-hoilers and engines, and it will be found a valuable
shop companion for the mechanic. There are a great many
facts collated that are not easily reached except through ex-
pensive books and libraries. These will be found of service
to all classes of men, whether in trade or manufacturing.
We commend it heartily, and believe it will have a large sale.
Forest, Forge, and Farm, llion, N. Y.
ENGINEER’s HANpby-Book.—We have received a book
with the above title, by the well-known author and engineer,
Stephen Roper, who has written a number of works on the
subject of engineering. The eminent reputation of the
author is a sufficient guarantee that the book is both inter-
esting and useful. Mr. Roper has had an experience of over
thirty-five years with all kinds of engines and boilers, and
thoroughly understands locomotive, fire, marine, and station:
ary engines.
42
CONTENTS.
THE ENGINEER.
FACTS THAT SHOULD BE BORNE IN MIND BY ENGI:
NEERS.
STEAM-ENGINEERING AS A SCIENCE.
EXAMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR CADET ENGI-
NEERS IN THE U. S. Navy.
INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO PREPARE FOR. EXAMINATION
FOR ENGINEER IN THE U.S. NAVY AND REVENUE
SERVICE,
INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO OBTAIN AN ENGINEER’S Li-
CENSE IN THE MERCANTILE MARINE SERVICE.
INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO PROCURE A LICENSE TO TAKE
CHARGE OF STATIONARY ENGINES IN ANY STATE
OR CITY REQUIRING IT.
THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR; ITs CoNsTRUC-
TION AND UTILITY.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF INDICATORS.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INDICATOR.
TECHNICAL TERMS EMPLOYED IN CONNECTION WITH
THE INDICATOR.
How To ATTACH THE INDICATOR.
MOTION OF THE PAPER ON THE DRUM OF THE IN:
DICATOR,
43
CONTENTS.
Most CorreEcT METHOD OF ADJUSTING THE INDICA:
TOR.
Most RELIABLE PARTS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE TO
WHICH TO ATTACH THE INDICATOR.
How To ACCURATELY TEST THE ATTACHMENTS OF
THE INDICATOR.
THE INDICATOR DIAGRAM.
THE EXPLANATORY DIAGRAM.
THE THEORETIC DIAGRAM.
THE AcTuAL DIAGRAM.
ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAM,
ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAM SIMPLIFIED,
ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAM MADE EFAsy.
DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF EN:
GINES.
DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM THROTTLING ENGINES.
DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM COMPOUND ENGINES.
DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM SIMPLE ENGINES.
DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM LOCOMOTIVES.
DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM CONDENSING ENGINES.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING AN ANALYSIS OF DIA-
GRAMS.
INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO SPACE THE ORDINATES.
THE THEORETICAL EXPANSION CURVE. i
APPLICATION OF THE ‘THEORETICAL EXPANSION
CURVE.
How To DRAW THE THEORETICAL EXPANSION CURVE.
How To LOCATE THE THEORETICAL TERMINAL PRESS-
URE.
How TO CALCULATE THE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESS:
URE.
44
CONTENTS.
How To CALCULATE THE THEORETICAL ECONOMY BY
THE DIAGRAM.
How To CALCULATE THE THEORETICAL RATE OF
WATER CONSUMPTION BY THE DIAGRAM.
How TO MAKE ALLOWANCE FOR CUSHION AND
CLEARANCE,
How To ESTIMATE THE EFFECTIVE COMPRESSION.
WHat INDICATOR DIAGRAMS SHOW.
THE PLANIMETER.
STEAM.
SUPERHEATED STEAM.
TEMPERATURE OF STEAM.
VOLUME OF STEAM. .
SURCHARGED STEAM.
EVAPORATION OF STEAM.
RE-EVAPORATION OF STEAM.
LATENT HEAT OF STEAM.
SENSIBLE HEAT OF STEAM.
HEAT NECESSARY TO GENERATE STEAM.
THE QUANTITY OF WATER NECESSARY TO CONDENSE
A CERTAIN QUANTITY OF STEAM.
TABLES OF VOLUMES OF STEAM FOR DIFFERENT
PRESSURES.
WEIGHT OF STEAM.
EFFLUENT VELOCITY OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESS
. URES.
STEAM WORKED EXPANSIVELY.
STEAM-J ACKETS.
STEAM-DOMES.
STEAM-JETS.
STEAM-CHIMNEYS.
CONTENTS,
RELATIVE VOLUME OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESS-
URES.
RELATIVE VOLUME OF STEAM TO THE WATER FROM
WHICH IT WAS GENERATED.
RELATIVE QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED TO CoNn-
DENSE STEAM.
STEAM GENERATED FROM FRESH AND SALT WATERS.
CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN STEAM-CYLINDERS AND
PIPES.
QUANTITY OF STEAM REQUIRED FOR HEATING PUR-
POSES.
STEAM AS A MEANS OF PUTTING OUT FIRES,
THE EXPANSIVE PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
STEAM-ENGINES.
PECULIARITIES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
THE ENGINES OF THE DIFFERENT LINES OF
STEAMSHIPS PLYING BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT
PoRTS OF THIS COUNTRY AND THOSE OF OTHER
PARTS OF THE WORLD, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF
THE SAME,
PECULIARITIES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF
ALL THE DIFFERENT AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF STA-
TIONARY ENGINES OF THIS COUNTRY, WITH DE-
SCRIPTIONS.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF
AND THROTTLING ENGINES.
THE ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINES
OVER THROTTLING, AND VICE VERSA.
THE ADVANTAGES OF LARGE STEAM-ENGINES OVER
SMALL ONES, AND VICE VERSA.
THE ADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL ENGINES OVER
VERTICAL, AND VICE VERSA.
46
CONTENTS.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE
DIFFERENT STEAM-ENGINE CUT-OFFS, VIZ:, THE
AUTOMATIC, POSITIVE, ADJUSTABLE, AND RIDING.
A DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE CUT-OFFS IN USE ON
STATIONARY AND MARINE ENGINES AT THE
PRESENT Day.
THE ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT CUT-OFFS OVER
EAacH OTHER.
THE Causes Most LIKELY TO INDUCE SOME STEAM-
ENGINES TO DEVELOP LESS POWER THAN THEY
OUGHT TO DO, WHILE OTHERS WOULD DEVELOP
MORE.
PROPORTIONS OF ALL THE DIFFERENT ENGINES IN
UsE AT THE PRESENT Day, ACCORDING TO AC-
CURATE SCALE.
THE Two CLASSES OF ENGINES IN Most GENERAL
USE IN THE WORLD.
THE ADVANTAGES OF THE CONDENSING OVER THE
Non-CONDENSING ENGINE, AND VICE VERSA.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLE AND COMPOUND
ENGINES, THEIR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVAN-
TAGES. :
How THE POWER OF ANY STEAM-ENGINE MAY BR
INCREASED WITHIN CERTAIN LIMITS.
THE QUANTITY OF FUEL IT WILL REQUIRE TO DE-
VELOP A HorSE-POWER IN DIFFERENT ENGINES,
THE QUANTITY OF WATER THAT WILL PRODUCE A
HorsE-POWER IN THE MOST IMPROVED STEAM:
ENGINES, AS WELL AS THE QUANTITY REQUIRED
FOR THOSE OF INFERIOR TYPE.
THE DIFFERENCE IN PoINT OF ECONOMY BETWEEN
CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING ENGINES.
AT
CONTENTS.
THE DIFFERENCE IN First Cost, Cost or MAINTEN:
ANCE BETWEEN CONDENSING AND NoN-CONDENS
ING ENGINES.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FAST AND
Stow SPEED ENGINES.
WHY CERTAIN TYPES OF ENGINES HAVE BEEN ABAN:
DONED, AND OTHERS ADOPTED.
HiGH-PRESSURE COMPOUND ENGINES.
LOW-PRESSURE COMPOUND ENGINES.
SCHEMES FOR REVOLUTIONIZING THE ECONOMY OF
STEAM-ENGINES. |
STEAM-ENGINE ECONOMY.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLACING STEAM-ENGINES IN
STEAMSHIPS, TuG- AND FERRY-BOATS.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETTING Up, LINING, AND RE-
VERSING STATIONARY STEAM-ENGINES.
RuLES FOR ESTIMATING THE POWER OF STEAM-
ENGINES BY FORMULZ, AND BY INDICATOR Dt-
AGRAMS.
RULES FOR FINDING THE RIGHT SIZE ENGINE TO DO
A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF WORK.
RULE FOR FINDING THE SIZE OF THE CYLINDER FOR
AN ENGINE OF ANY POWER, WHEN THE PRESS-
URE AND TRAVEL OF THE PISTON ARE KNOWN,
RULE FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF STEAM ANY
ENGINE WILL REQUIRE.
RULES FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF ALL
CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES,
STEAM-ENGINE GOVERNORS.
SLIDE- VALVES,
LAP ON THE SLIDE- VALVE,
LEAD ON THE SLIDE-VALVE.
48
CONTENTS,
How To TELL THE AMOUNT OF LAP AND LEAD OR
A SLIDE-VALVE WITHOUT OPENING THE STEAM-
CHEST.
TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF LAP REQUIRED
FOR ANY DESIRED CUT-OFF,
RULE FOR FINDING THE AMOUNT OF LAP NECESSARY
FOR ANY DESIRED CUT-OFF.
How To Set A SLIDE-VALVE ACCURATELY.
FRICTION OF SLIDE- VALVES,
BALANCED SLIDE- VALVES,
PuPPET-V ALVES,
DouBLE-BEAT VALVES.
THROTTLE-V ALVES,
RELIEF-V ALVES.
RoTAaRY- V ALVES,
SEMI-ROTARY OR OSCILLATING- VALVES.
BASKET-VALVES.
GRIDIRON- V ALVES,
VALVE-GEAR.
KELEASING VALVE-GEAR.
INDEPENDENT VALVE-GEAR.
KXPANSION VALVE-GEAR.
REVERSING VALVE-GEAR.
WHOLE-STROKE VALVE-GEAR,
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APP) ,.£D
TO
THE DIFFERENT PARTS °F THE VALVE-G&AR OF
STEAM-ENGINES.
Srop-Cocks, VALVES, AND PIPES FOR WHATEVER
PurRPosE EMPLOYED IN CONNECTION WITH
STEAM-ENGINES,
Brp-PLATES AND Hovusinas,
STEAM-CYLINDERS.
5 49
CONTENTS.
OYLINDER-HEAD BOLts.
STEAM-PISTONS.
SPRING-PISTONS.
PIsTON-Rops.
STUFFING- BOXES.
STEAM- AND EXHAUST-PIPES,
ROcK-SHAFTS.
Cross-HEADS.
EccENTRICS.
CRANKS.
CRANK-PIN BEARINGS.
CRANK-SHAFT JOURNALS.
Keys, JIBS, AND STRAPS.
ELY- WHEELS.
THE LINK FULLY ILLUSTRATED AND EXPLAINED.
SHIFTING LINKS.
STATIONARY LINKS.
CONDENSERS, SURFACE, AND JET, :
PROPORTIONS OF CONDENSERS.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT
CONDENSERS,
RELATIVE QUANTITIES OF WATER REQUIRED FOB
THE Two METHODS OF CONDENSATION.
THE INJECTOR CONDENSER.
KortTING’s JET-CONDENSER.
THE VACUUM.
How THE VACUUM 18 MEASURED.
How THE VACUUM IS MAINTAINED.
How THE VACUUM Is PRODUCED,
Tne EFFECT OF THE VACUUM.
AIR-PUMPS.
50
¥
CONTEN'SS.
CAPACITY OF AIR-PUMPsS ACCORDING TO BEST Mon
_ ERN PRACTICE.
RELATIVE PROPORTION OF AIR-PUMP CYLINDERS TO
THE CYLINDERS OF MODERN STEAM-ENGINES.
CIRCULATING PUMPS.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CIRCULATING PUMPS.
RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CIRCULATING PUMPS.
MARINE PUMPS.
WRECKING PUMPS.
THE SALIOMETER.
BAROMETER GAUGES.
THERMOMELERS,
MARINE-ENGINE REGISTERS.
Sprinc, Mercury, SYPHON, AND VACUUM GAUGES,
TABLE OF RHOMBS, OR POINTS OF THE COMPASS,
TECHNICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS USED IN NAvV-
IGATION.
TABLES OF KNOTS AND MILES AS MEASURED BY
VARiIous NATIONS,
TABLE OF LEAGUES AND MILES.
LENGTH OF THE DAY AT DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
WorLD.
SAILING DISTANCE IN GEOGRAPHICAL MILES FROM
New YORK TO DIFFERENT POINTS ON THR
GLOBE.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF DIFFERENT PLACES.
MARINE SIGNALS.
MARINE BELL, WHISTLE, AND LIGHT SIGNALS,
RAILROAD SIGNALS,
PuMPs.
-FEED-PUMPS: THEIR CAPACITY, ETC.
INJECTORS: THEIR CAPACITY, EFFICIENCY, ETO,
51
CONTENTS.
SCREW-PROPELLERS.
THE SCREW AS A MEANS OF PROPULSION.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SCREW-PROPELLERS.
THRUST-BLOCKS.
STERN-TUBES.
PADDLE-W HEELS.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF PADDLE-WHEELS.
COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF SCREW-PROPELLERS
AND PADDLE- WHEELS.
Arr: Irs WEIGHT, HEIGHT, EFFECT, ETC.
TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE
AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES ABOVE SEA LEVEL.
TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE OF THE WIND.
TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE VOLUME OF AIR AT
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.
FUEL.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL: THEIR COMPARATIVE
VALUE, ETC.
THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS
OF FUEL.
HEAT.
EFFECTS OF HEAT.
CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT BODIES FOR HEAT,
DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIR-
CLES.
METALS AND ALLOYS.
MARINE BOILERS. ’
DIFFERENT KINDS OF MARINE BOILERS.
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO.
DIFFERENT PARTS OF MARINE BOILERS.
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO
DIFFERENT PARTS OF MARINE ENGINES.
52
CONTENTS.
SuPER-HEATERS.
FEED-WATER HEATERS.
FUNNELS.
SMOKE-STACKS.
AIR-CASINGS.
BLAST-PIPEs,
SPANNER-GUARDS.
MEANING OF THE TERM MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE,
MEANING OF THE TERM AVERAGE PRESSURE.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEAN EFFECTIVE AND AVER-
AGE PRESSURE.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILER PRESSURE AND PRESS-
URE PER GAUGE.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILER AND CYLINDER PRESS-
URES. ;
CAUSES OF DECREASE OF PRESSURE BETWEEN BOIL-
ERS AND CYLINDERS.
CAUSES WHY BOILER PRESSURES DO NOT REPRESENT
CYLINDER PRESSURES.
THE PROBABLE AVERAGE PRESSURE IN ANY STEAM-
CYLINDER AS COMPARED WITH THE BOILER
PRESSURE,
Wuy BorLerR PRESSURES CANNOT BE REALIZED IN
THE OYLINDERS OF STEAM-ENGINES.
MISTAKES IN EMPLOYING BOILER PRESSURES IN Es-
‘TIMATING THE POWER OF STEAM-ENGINES.
TABLES OF CIRCUMFERENCES, DIAMETERS, AND ARBAS
OF CIRCLES FROM 4 TO 100 INCHES.
TABLES OF LOGARITHMS FROM 0 TO 1000.
TABLES OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS,
Use oF LOGARITHMS.
UtirstTy OF LOGARITHMd
5* 53
CONTENTE.
GEOMETRY.
‘tT RIGONOMETRY.
MENSURATION,
NAVIGATION.
GEOGRAPHY.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
AXIOMS.
THEOREMS.
PROPOSITIONS.
SOLUTIONS.
COROLLARIES.
TABLES OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND CUBE-RooTs
NUMBERS FROM 1 To 1000.
MEANING OF THE TERM “ CUBED.”
MEANING OF THE TERM “SQUARED.”
MEANING OF THE TERM “ QUOTIENT.”
MEANING OF THE TERM “ PRODUCT.”
ADDITION,
SUBTRACTION.
MULTIPLICATION.
DIVISION.
PROPORTION.
CoMMON FRACTIONS.
DECIMALS.
‘TRIANGLES.
EQUILATERAL.
[SOSCELES,
SCALENE,
ACUTE.
OBTUSE.
RicgHt ANGLE, EY.
54
OF
CONTENTS.
THE CENTENNIAL CORLISS ENGINE,
WRIGHT’s AUTOMATIC CuT-OFF ENGINE.
THE Wooppury, BootH & PRYOR’s AUTOMATIC
CuT-OFF ENGINE.
DOUBLE-SLIDE VALVES.
SEMI-ROTARY VALVES.
THE BROWN AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE.
THE HARRIS CORLISS ENGINE.
MARINE ENGINES. ;
MODERN MARINE COMPOUND ENGIIES,
SECTIONS OF MARINE COMPOUND ENGINES.
SECTION OF SLIDE-VALVE ENGINE.
TEE WoopRUFF & BEACH AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF
HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE.
EXPANSION GEARS.
THE PUTNAM MACHINE COMPANY’s AUTOMATIC
CuT-OFF ENGINE.
THE GREEN AUTOMATIC CuT-OFF HIGH-PRESSURE
ENGINE.
THE DOUGLASS AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE.
THE BABBITT & HARRIS STEAM-PISTON.
PISTON, CONNECTING-ROD, AND CRANK-CONNEC-
TION.
THe REYNOLDS CORLISS ENGINE.
Tuoi CRANK.
THE LINK.
VALVE-GEARS. s
THE WATERTOWN AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE.
THE WATERS GOVERNOR.
THE SHIVE GOVERNOR.
REVERSING-GEAR FOR STEAM-ENGINES.
DIAGRAMS OF SLIDE-VALVE.
55
CONTENTS.
WHEELOCK’S AUTOMATIC CuT-OFF ENGINE.
SECTION OF THE CYLINDER, PISTON, STEAM- AND
EXHAUST- VALVES OF WHEELOCK’S AUTOMATIC
CuT-OFF ENGINE.
POPPET VALVES.
SLIDE-V ALVES.
THE WELLS Two-PISTON BALANCE-ENGINE.
SECTION OF THE WELLS TWwo-PISTON BALANCE-
ENGINE.
THE WARDWELL VALVELESS ENGINE.
THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR.
SECTION OF THE INDICATOR.
THOMPSON’S INDICATOR.
RICHARDS’ PARALLEL MOTION /.W_U1laTOR.
THE ATLAS CORLISS ENGINE.
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS,
THE PLANIMETER.
DIAGRAM MEASURED BY THE -LANIMETER.
THE PoRTER-ALLEN HIGH-SpvED ENGINE.
END VIEW OF A SURFACE CONDENSER.
THE INJECTOR CONDENSER.
INDEPENDENT CONDENSER AND AIR-PUMP.
INDEPENDENT AIR- AND CIRCULATING-PUMP, WITH
AIR-PUMP AT ONE END, CIRCULATING-PUMP
AT THE OTHER, AND STEAM-CYLINDER IN
THE MIDDLE.
SECTION OF MARINE AIR-PUMP.
INDEPENDENT MARINE CIRCULATING-PUMP,
MARINE WRECKING-PUMP.
THE SALINOMETER.
THE HOTWELL THERMOMETER.
THE UPTAKE THERMOMETER.
56
CONTENTS.
MARINE STEAM-ENGINE REGISTER,
SPRING STEAM-GAUGES.
MARINE WHISTLE SIGNALS,
MARINE LIGHT SIGNALS,
MARINE BELL SIGNALS.
RAILROAD SIGNALS,
PUMPS.
WILLIAM SELLERS & Co.’s LIFTING INJECTORS.
SECTION OF WILLIAM SELLERS & Co.’s LIFTING
INJECTOR.
RvuE’s ‘‘ LITTLE GIANT”? INJECTOR.
FRIEDMAN’S INJECTOR.
THE KEYSTONE INJECTOR.
THE ECLIPSE INJECTOR.
THE CLIPPER ADJUSTABLE INJECTOR,
SECTION OF CLIPPER INJECTOR.
MACK’S FIXED-N0OZZLE INJECTOR.
THE INSPIRATOR.
THE EJECTOR OR LIFTER.
JAMISON’S STEAM WATER-EJECTOR.
WATER-TUBULAR MARINE-BOILER.
FIRE-TUBULAR MARINE-BOILER.
DIRECT FLUE AND RETURN TUBULAR MARINE-
BOILER.
METHOD OF BRACING MARINE STEAM-BOILERS.
THE BUCKEYE AUTOMATIC HIGH-PRESSURE CUT-
OFF ENGINE,
DIAGRAMS OF CIRCLES,
THE WETHERILL CORLISS ENGINE.
DIAGRAM OF STEAM-JOINTS.
THE FITCHBURG STEAM-ENGINE.
THE FITCHBURG GOVERNOR. .
57 .
CONTENTS,
THE ENGINEER’S HANDY-BOOK CONTAINS NEAR-
LY 300 MAIN SUBJECTS, 1816 PARAGRAPHS, 876
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, 52 SUGGESTIONS AND
INSTRUCTIONS, 105 RULES, FORMUL2, AND EXx-
AMPLES, 149 TABLES, 195 ILLUSTRATIONS, 31 INDI-
CATOR DIAGRAMS, AND 167 TECHNICAL TERMS;
OVER 3000 DIFFERENT SUBJECTS, WITH THE QUES-
TIONS MOST LIKELY TO BE ASKED WHEN UNDER EX-
AMINATION, BEFORE BEING COMMISSIONED AS AN
ENGINEER IN THE U.S. NAVY OR REVENUE SER-
VICE; BEFORE BEING LICENSED AS AN ENGINEER
IN THE MERCANTILE MARINE SERVICE, OR RE-
CEIVING A CERTIFICATE TO TAKE CHARGE OF A
STEAM-ENGINE OR BOILER IN LOCATIONS WHERE
SUCH CERTIFICATE IS NECESSARY. THERE IS NOT
A SUBJECT WITHIN THE WHOLE RANGE OF STEAM-
ENGINEERING ON WHICH IT DOES NOT TREAT.
WITH A GREAT VARIETY OF OTHER INFORMATION
NOT TO BE FOUND IN ANY OTHER BOOK EVER PUB-
LISHED ON THE SAME SUBJECT IN THIS COUNTRY
OR IN EUROPE, AND MORE FULLY ILLUSTRATED
THAN ANY OTHER WORK EVER PUBLISHED ON THIS
SUBJECT.
35
USE AND ABUSE
OF
THE STEAM-BOILER.
BY
SPrEPHEN ROPER) ENGINEER,
Author of
“Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Ropers Catechism
ef High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines,” “Roper’s
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “Roper’s Handy-Book
for Engineets,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s
Own Book,” “Roper’s Use and Abuse of
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘Questions for
Engineers,” ete.
PHILADELPHIA:
EDWARD MEEKS.
59
Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
Engineering News, Chicago, Ill.
Mr. RoPER is the author of several well-known hand-books
relating to the steam-engine, and steam machinery in general.
In this, his latest work, he states that his object is, ‘‘ simply to
show what the results of his thirty years’ personal experience
with all classes of boilers prove to be the safest and most dura-
ble materials for their manufacture; to show the absolute ne-
cessity of good workmanship in their construction, and to call
the attention of owners, engineers, and firemen to the rules that
limit their usefulness, safety, and longevity.” As in all his
other hand-books, the writer addresses himself to men of ordi-
nary intelligence,— those found in charge of steam-engines and
boilers,—and in consequence his book is written in the plainest
and most intelligible language that can be chosen. We have not
the time, nor possibly the necessary amount of practical knowl-
edge of all the latest improvements in steam-boilers, to criticise
slosely and intelligently the contents of the book, but in con-
nection with it we would call attention to the large number
of boiler explosions, attended with great loss of life, that have
recently occurred in this country and in England, and which,
upon investigation, have been proven to be the results of igno-
rance and carelessness on the part of attendants ; and we cannot
but think that steam-users would find it greatly to their advan-
tage if such plain handy-books as those of Mr. Roper’s were
placed in the hands of every attendant upon a steam-boiler or
engine, and his attention called to the advantage of making
himself familiar with its contents.
60
CONTENTS.
ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOILER
STEAM-BOILERS
DESIGN OF STEAM-BOILERS
FoRMS OF STEAM-BOILERS
THE PLAIN CYLINDER BOILEB
THE FLUE BOILER
THE TUBULAR BOILER
THE DOUBLE-DECK BOILER
THE DROP-FLUE BOILER
THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
FIRE-BOX BOILERS
TUBULOUS BOILERS
S1zE OF BOILERS
SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILERS
MARINE BOILERS
Table showing the Number of Square Feet of
Heating Surface to 1 Square Foot of Grate Sur-
face in the Boilers of noted Ocean, River, and
Ferry-boat Steamers
BOILER-HEADS
STEAM-DOMES
MUD-DRUMS
WATER-SPACE AND STEAM-ROOM INSTEAM-BOILERS
6 61
CONTENTS.
DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS AND
THICKNESS OF BOILER-PLATE
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS
EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS
CLAPP AND JONES’ VERTICAL CIRCULATING TUBU-
LAR BOILER
METHODS OF TESTING THE EVAPORATIVE EFFI-
CIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS
PROPORTION OF GRATE SURFACE TO HEATING
SURFACE
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM-
BOILERS
INTERNAL GROOVING IN STEAM-BOILERS
SILSBY’s VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILER
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF BOILERS
HEATING-SURFACE OF STEAM-BOILERS
Rules for finding the Heating-surface of Steam-
boilers
THE LATTA STEEL COIL-BOILER
HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-BOILERS
THE MOORHOUSE SAFETY SECTIONAL BOILER
SETTING STEAM-BOILERS
TESTING STEAM-BOILERS .
REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS
NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS
THE WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER
SAFE WORKING PRESSURE OF STEAM-BOILERS
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Steel Boilers.
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers.
THE ROGER’S AND BLACK BOILER
SELECTION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
PULSATION IN STEAM-BOILERS
Prerce’s RoTary TuRULAR BOILER
a>
CONTENTS,
LOcATION OF STEAM-BOILERS
THE HARRISON BOILER
BOILER-FLUES
Table of Squares of Thickness of Iron, and Con-
stant Numbers to be used in finding the Safe
External Pressure for Boiler-flues
Table of Safe Working External Pressures on
Flues 10 Feet long
Table of Safe Working External Pressures on
Flues 20 Feet long
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF W ROUGHT-IRON BOILER-
FLUES } INCH THICK
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF W ROUGHT-IRON BOILER-
FLUES ;; INCH THICK
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF WROUGHT-IRON BOILER-
FLUES $ INCH THICK
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF W ROUGHT-IRON BOILER-
FLUES 7 INCH THICK
THE SHAPLEY BOILER
BorLER TUBES
THE PHLEGER BOILER
Tables of Superficial Areas of External Surfaces
of Tubes of Various Lengths, Diameters in
Square Feet
Table of Superficial Areas of Tubes of different
Lengths.and Diameters from 23 to 8 Inches and
from 8 to 20 Feet
STEAM-BOILER CONNECTIONS AND ATTACHMENTS.
GAUGE-COCKS
STEAM-GAUGES
GuLAss WATER-GAUGES
THE BABCOCK AND WILCOX’s SECTIONAL STEAM:
BOILER
. 63
CONTENTS,
SAFETY-VALVES
Table showing the Rise of Safety-valves, in parts
of an Inch at different Pressures
Table of Comparison between Experimentai
Results and Theoretical Formule
RULES
WITTINGHAM’S TUBULOUS BOILER
FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS
PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF SCALE IN STEAM:
BOILERS
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS
EXPERIMENTAL BOILER EXPLOSIONS
THE Roor BoILeR
VAGARIES OF EXPERTS IN REGARD TO STEAM.
BOILER EXPLOSIONS
DEFECTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS,
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM-BOILERS
THE ALLEN BOILER.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING
DAMPERS
STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION
Rules for finding the Quantity of Water which
Boilers and other Cylindrical Vessels are capa-
ble of Containing
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL ON STEAM-
BOILERS
BoILER MATERIALS
STEEL
STRENGTH OF IRON BOILER-PLATE
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER
MATERIALS
64
CONTENTS.
PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLES FOR BOILER SEAMB.
Table showing the Strength of Welded Boiler-
plates
PATENT BOILERS
THE GALLOWAY BOILER.
_ STRENGTH OF RIVETED SEAMS
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE- AND DOUBLE-
RIVETED SEAMS
HAND- AND MACHINE-RIVETING
COUNTER-SUNK RIVETS
RIVETS
Table showing Diameter and Pitch of Rivets for
different Thicknesses of Plate
STRENGTH OF STAYED AND FLAT BOILER SURFACES
BOILER-STAYS
STAY-BOLTS
CALKING
TESTING-MACHINES
FEED-WATER HEATERS
Table showing the Units of Heat required to Con-
vert One Pound of Water, at the Temperature
of 32° Fah., into Steam at different Pressures
GRATE-BARS
CHIMNEYS.
Table showing the Proper Diameter and Height
of Chimney for any kind of Fuel
Table showing Heights of Chimneys for producing
certain Rates of Combustion per Square Foot
of Area of Section of the Chimney
SMOKE
CONTRIVANCES FOR INCREASING DRAUGHT AND
ECONOMIZING FUEL IN BOILER FURNACES
6* 65
CONTENTS.
Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought-
iron at various Temperatures
Table showing the Linear Dilatatiand of solide
by Heat
Table deduced from eperrnents on ion lates
for Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute,
Philadelphia
Table showing the Results i adnan heaiie
on different Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. . :
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from,
3 to 18 Inches in Diameter.
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates pax
Superficial Foot as per Thickness
Table showing the Weight of Round-iron oat s
an Inch to 6 Inches Diameter, One Foot Long.
Table showing the Weight of Boiler-plates One
Foot Square and from 7,th to an Inch Thick .
Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron from
4 an Inch to 6 Inches Square, One Foot Long.
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes,
One Foot in Length, from 3 Inch to 14 Inches
Thick, and from 8 to 24 Inches Diameter.
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various
Qualities of American and English Cast-iron .
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various
Qualities of American Wrought-iron. : 2
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various
Qualities of English bas a cea
To PoLisH Brass
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM- “JOINTS
STEAM-DAMPERS
INDEX
66
EDWARD MEEKS,
PHILADELPHIA,
Publisher of
Roper’s Hand-Book of the Locomotive, including the
Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management of
Locomotive Engines and Boilers. Fully Illustrated. By
STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. Eleventh Edition, Revised,
Enlarged and Corrected. 18mo, tuck, gilt edge, $2.50.
Roper’s Catechism of High Pressure or Non-Condensing
Steam-Engines, including the Modelling, Construction,
Running, and Management of Steam-Engines and Boilers.
With Illustrations. By StrepHEN Roper, Engineer. Twen-
tieth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 18mo, tuck, gilt
edge, $2.00.
Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines, includ-
ing the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Manage-
ment of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers, with the
latest improvements in the same. Fully Illustrated. By
STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. 600 pages. Tenth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. 16mo, tuck, gilt edge, $3.50.
Boper’s Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines, in-
cluding the Running, Care, and Management of Steam
Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps. With Illustrations. By
SrePHEN Roper, Engineer. It is the only book of the
kind ever published in this country, as it contains an
67
elaborate description of all Modern Steam Fire-Engines,
Boilers, and Fire-Pumps, and is free from formule or ultra
mathematical expressions. Fourth Edition. 16mo, tuck,
gilt edge, $3.50.
Boper’s Engineer’s Handy-Book. Containing a full expla-
nation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its use and
advantages to Engineers and Steam Users; with formule
for estimating the power of all classes of Steam-Engines ;
also, Facts, Figures, Questions and Tables for Engineers
who wish to qualify themselves for the United States
Navy, the Revenue Service, the Mercantile Marine, or to
take charge of the better class of Stationary Steam-En-.
gines. With Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised and
Enlarged. By StepHen Roper, Engineer. $3.50.
Reoper’s Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler, including
its Care and Management. With Illustrations. This is
the only book ever published in this country devoted ex-
clusively to Steam-Boilers. It contains illustrations of all
the different kinds of Steam-Boilers ‘now in use, whether
Stationary, Locomotive, Fire, or Marine; and also of
Sectional or Patent Boilers. By STEPHEN RopER, En-
gineer. Kighth Edition. 18mo, tuck, gilt edge, $2.00.
hoper’s Questions and Answers for Engineers. This little
book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be
asked when undergoing an examination for the purpose
of procaring a license, with the answers to the same,
couched in language so plain that any engineer or firemen
_can in a short time commit them to memory. Price $3.00.
68
Roper’s Simple Process for Estimating the Horse-Power of
Steam-Engines, from Indicator Diagrams, or the work an
engine was performing at the time the diagram was taken,
One of the most important devices ever employed in con-
nection with the Steam-Engine. 50 cents.
Roper’s Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and
Firemen. This little book is made up of a series of sug-
gestions and instructions, the result of recent experiments
and the best modern practice in the care of Steam-Engines
and Boilers. It is brimful of just such information as
persons of limited education having charge of steam mas
chinery need. It is written in plain, practical language,
devoid of theories or mathematical formule. $2.00,
Roper’s Care and Management of the Steam-Boiler. One
of the most practical works ever published on this subject,
as itembraces the following subjects: Care and Manage-
ment of Steam-Boilers, Horse-Power of Steam-Boilers,
Repairing Steam-Boilers, Incrustation in Steam-Boilers,
Steam-Boiler Explosions, Testing Steam-Boilers, Exter-
nally and Internally Fired Steam-Boilers, Design of Steam-
Boilers, Steam-Boiler Materials, Mud-Drums, Steam-
Domes, Cleaning Steam-Boilers, Different Types of Steam-
Boilers, Feed-Water Heaters, Fuel, Chimneys (area and
height), Draught, Smoke, Instructions for Firing, Com-
parative Efficiency of Different Types of Steam-Boilers,
with a great amount of other information of immense
value to owners of Steam-Boilers, Engineers, and Firemen,
expressed in plain, practical language. $2.00.
6* i
Roper’s Young Engineer’s Own Book, containing
an explanation of the Principle and Theories
on which the Steam-Engine as a Prime Mover
is based; with a description of different kinds of
Steam-Engines, Condensing and Non-Condensing,
Marine, Stationary, Locomotive, Fire, Traction,
and Portable; together with Instructions how to ,
Design, Proportion, Locate, Repair, Reverse, and
Rtun all Classes of Steam-Engines, with Tables
and Formulas for finding their Horse-Power;
also, Suggestions on the Selections, Care, and
Management of all Classes of Steam-Engines,
Boilers, Pumps, Injectors, ete., for the Use of
Educational Institutions where students are in-
tended to engage in Mechanical Pursuits, and
for the Private Instruction of Youths who show
an Inclination for Steam-Engineering. With 106
illustrations. By SrepHen Roper, Engineer,
Author of Roper’s Practical Hand-Books for
Engineers and Firemen. Second Revised Edition.
16 mo., tuck, gilt edge, $3.00.
70
Bilgram.—Slide-Valve Gears. A new graphical method for
Analyzing the Action of Slide- Valves, moved by eccentrics
link-motion, and cut-off gears. By Huco Brueram, M.i
16mo, cloth. $1.00. ;
Cooper.—A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Transe
mission of Power. With numerous illustrations of ap
proved and actual methods of arranging Main Driving
and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fastenings. Exam-
ples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and calcu.
lating the size and driving power of Belts, Plain, Particu
lar, and Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care,
and Management of Belts. Descriptions of many varieties
of Beltings, together with chapters on the Transmission
of Power by Ropes; by Iren and Wood Frictional Gear-
ing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and on the Ex-
perimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others.
Second Edition. By Jonn H. Cooper, M.E. 1 vol,
demy octavo, cloth. $3.50.
Grimshaw.—Saws. The History, Development, Action,
Classification, and Comparison of Saws of all kinds.
With Appendices. Concerning the details of manufacture,
setting, swaging, gumming, filing, etc.. Care and use of
saws. Tables of gauges. Log measurements. Lists of
saw patents and other valuable information. Second
Edition, with Supplement. Profusely Illustrated. By
RoBpERT GRIMSHAW. Quarto, cloth. $4.00.
Overman.—Mechanics for the Millwright, Engineer, Ma.
chinist, Civil Engineer, and Architect. By FREDERICK
OVERMAN. 12mo, cloth. 150 illustrations. $1.50.
71
Riddell.—The Carpenter and Joiner Modernized. Th>rd
Edition, revised and corrected, containing new matter of
interest to the Carpenter, Stair-Builder, Carriage-Builder,
Cabinet-Maker, Joiner, and Mason; also explaining the
utility of the Slide Rule, lucid examples of its accuracy in
galculation, showing it to be indispensable to every work
man in giving the mensuration of surfaces and solids, the
division of lines into equal parts, circumferences of circles,
length of rafters and braces, board measure, ete. The
whole illustrated with numerous engravings. By ROBERT
RIppDELL. 4to, cloth. $7.50.
Riddell.—_The New Elements of Hand Railing. Revised
Edition, containing forty-one plates, thirteen of which are
now for the first time presented, together with the accom-
panying letter-press description. The whole giving a
complete elucidation of the Art of Stair-Building. By
RosertT RippEtt, author of “The Carpenter and Joiner
Modernized,” ete. One volume, folio. $7.00.
Any of the above works will be sent to any part-of the
United States or Canada on receipt of list price.
Send money in Registered Letter, P. O. Order, or Postal Note,
EDWARD MEEKS, Publisher,
No, 1012 Walnut Street,
PHILADELPHIA, PA,
72
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