Vateratne eee tee acest 54 eck ae a va 4 ; " Hibs es Baia es S wa Ney een: Rett is io, Seed, Ay Seats = iE ae qi i is ii i "> ape hea Ont art ntti é i tore Ree a THE UNIVERSITY it phe a eo OF ILLINOIS 3 cS LIBRARY - Brom the library of Harry Harkness Stoek Professor of Mining Engineering 1909-1923 Purchased 1923. BE a ae g 553 ee . be iy Un31p Se ee ae ee € ewe gre G., : ; ¥ a Re - — A 3 . ay | 2 ‘ > ‘ ~~ y f 2 ~ ay " ks i Z ‘ ~* » wat . ey 3 Me »} a) a> - See My ae» ee aot SS Sypreasyey ne TURBO ; . ‘ 4 : : ee ew at, , “ LY LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, CENSUS OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C., September 24, 1884. Hon. H. M. THLLER, Secretary of the Interior. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith the tenth volume of the quarto series comprising the final report on the Tenth Census. The volume contains three reports, viz: (1) On the Production, Technology, and Uses of Petroleum and its Products, by S. F. Peckham; (2) on the Manufacture of Coke, by Joseph D. Weeks; (3) on the Building Stones of the United States and Statistics of the Quarry Industry, by George W. Hawes et al. The report on the building stones of the United States was originally confided to the late Dr. George W. Hawes, curator of the department of mineralogy and lithology in the National Museum, whose regretted death prevented its completion by himself. After his decease the work was continued on the general plan originally designed, and under the subsequent supervision of Mr. Henry Gannett was brought to completion. The names of the authors who assisted in its preparation are appended to such chapters or parts as were contributed by them. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. W. SEATON, Superintendent of Census. iii Re oat 562 yz 0 sagiuT c ~~ AVEHStiyY OF ILLINGIS aeie bil we! ‘ al | hah tek LE st . 7 mae ; EXD aN V5 Pf zi ~AT I » on , “aoe MS = 4 Bs as Pree ae ct th ~ > f agit WEW NORM OFFIGE, WA AKSSKU ST, AVTROTYRE PRINTING GO.. GKRORER, WAKES, (An Original Photograph.) A PETROLEUM FIELD. Me Lit de) dee Oe had, PRODUCTION, TECHNOLOGY, AND USES PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. ash, TERE) Sard Ge Sa es hy ve SPECIAL AGENT. a eH! A ee pees tHe Oy hia OUNur HEN S: LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL ..-u-- .---- wwewceseconce AAO ASCHER CISe San cee cent oo ween ee www ews cecece wees com ene come cone vecces cone Part I, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM, TOGETHER WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND SALE OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES, AND STATISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. CHAPTER I.—HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF PETROLEUM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY ......---- 2 SECTION 1.—-HISTORICAL NOTICE OF BITUMEN PRIOR TO THE YEAR 1800.............-.-.---- S Sesto ot ise dad ode eeac SECTION 2.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF BITUMEN FROM THE YEAR 1800 TO 1850 ...--- Beet Nae STU ee Sine wane lee Meese BECLION Mo“ LE ERISH: OK STHE, PARAREINE-Ol Li INDUSTRY sa ce sac aclerse cere LU cueiecjace Seece es cbcneilicsescsiecwclcete ihn SI SECTION 4.—HISTORICAL NOTICE FROM 1850 TO THE COMPLETION OF DRAKE’S WELL (AUGUST, 1859)..-.....-....----.- SECTION 5.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE THE COMPLETION OF PE ie een ES EEE LONI | ea ewan o's tig anna cisaw bed tp kas soos ty aaa tide aie ae's cede veghdanes dastwansss SECTION .0;—HISTORICAL NOTICE, OF THE: RUSSIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY ——LHEUPROXIMATE ANAL YSIS-OF (PETROLHUM su cs os cilees coc.ekis gnc cewicies ceeiecicoee soci Reta sure boride on, Se eee SECTION 3.—THE CHEMICAL ACTION OF REAGENTS UPON PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS .... .-ccce 202-2 nee eee ee enee ‘ CHAPTER V.—THE ORIGIN OF BITUMENS.....-.--.-.--------- ae SCO Sete ee aoc ee cetise acne oe eck ccaeee Sin eseree See ones SECTION 1.—INTRODUCTION ...--...----.- ae oe eee eee ae sea Seisitas eta ate ae leas oe Beis oe, NOR aeta Sele S aces eae cacens SECTION 2.—CHEMICAL THEORIES......-... Be eae seis obra issincinve oe eR ee ee ats ata oeminia ao Mis ata a eticlae obralaticiera cule een SECTION 3.—THE THEORY THAT BITUMEN IS INDIGENOUS TO THE ROCKS IN WHICH IT IS FOUND.........---.---------- SECTION 4.—THE THEORY THAT BITUMEN IS A DISTILLATE .....-.-...----- Ree etal Fhe cca oe pice eterna cets Be 5 Sk ae Se eee SECTION 5.—AN ATTEMPT TO INCLUDE OBSERVED FACTS IN A PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS....-..-..------- Seleca sh Mectejaacs CHAPTER VI.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL TERRITORY - 2... 20. eeceeeceeeee: lage et Sate, Se csc mapheats aetiics cicapsacissnls xecre’s 3 2 OWAPTUROV TL — HE PRODUCTION.OF OlL)-cccscccececlecccceuccess ees ec chos cae ed cecas Seem ae ER ES oe aise cesere i SO, de SECTION 1.—PRIMITIVE METHODS ....-- eee reeds a — iste LSS OSES tc AER. CHOP AS at eee Niet CM RS a “pases SECTIONG 2.-—ARTESIAN WHLLS— DHE (DERRICK). joes eG cet cscs cclec eccvcstslcccccans aie rae ene eteraatele stele atnieis ea sidtcie sraae oe Pes SROTIONMO | HECDRILIING-TOOLSE hs ceseee et cones cece cis ceo nce ces cdcen caceceicee’s REE -sccg SE ee ees Bee SECTION 4.—DRILLING WELILS....--...-.-- HEME ap BAL apa Fas Le Te eT te niger bios or chee bance ieee ne SECTION 5.—THE TORPEDO...... Bea era Sak te ene a IOS ce cial ete ats bho ccc 2 a SS eS eh SS Pl oa ae SILA ne =, See ge SECTION 6.—LOCATION OF WELLS..... ee ee ee eee Pen NER eth force eh os coe ates dine tistta aa tonian nw e¥ emeaen SECTION 7.—THE OIL-SAND...-.. Se cE ASS HGScE Ee SEE AE See Sepa Se pelts k cmise oe eee ee st oat daze maeia 3 <0 ot Aa See SECTION 8.—THE MANAGEMENT OF WELILS.......---.---- tim Sec te 2a RS ne RS ee WG ciate nick has are eaten Se alrow et BECTIONE YG = LIELDIONEWELUSitccc ce cccsiccc cccscdccucccene. PRM ee ite neath ats cor aes iat cts se pe wena aa Ase So antesisee « SECTION 10;—FLOODING ..ccc0 cocc cocccsns once DECC asa cer avenescicc ch esos cOhies ewaldip's Cujeactlo sian eusialeecia'es.es smisinw= sis 1 1-18 3-5 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. CHAPTER VIII.—TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF PETROLEUM ........-------------- ioe cals Soleeiake bees passable cotins ce ctieeee 92-102 SECTION 1.—EARLY HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION ....-- weceaeeccisesce oases seeem ese Lous samaenee vabeneceme Resa ree ae 92 NECTION: 2.— PIPELINED (sescticn vise aeeiee eee ee oo bce marie oie ne cia ee sae eee Se aa Fae cee ety een oe Ceisew voor 93-95 SECTION 3.—CONCERNING IRON-TANK FIRES......-..--------------- Soe cece te rite eee cee ad eae emewe eas cer te 2 te Bae 95-98 SECTION 4:—CONCERNING THE STORAGE OF OIL AND ACCUMULATED! STOCK ene ce. bene sabe ee ce caciese ans ceceesineeeieeee 98-101 SECTION 5.—STATISTICS OF THE TRANSPORTATION OF OIL DURING THE CENSUS YEAR....-.-.-.------- s-nece veces ccnce- 101, 102 CHAPTER? 1X.—PETROLEUM ‘IN COMMERCE. Jac --ncowen os Soepas aeee ae ee ae ee Se eee ee Rieee eae aoe Se cuee heist stewsen uments 103-133 SECTION 1.—COMMERCIAL! VARIETIEB (23 oo scloe aa ~ eines Saisie tele ciao eee es tate ete epee sists ia Sua raeeie tia stasis ate ete eis ened ee 103, 104 SECTION 2.—THE MANAGEMENT OF PIPE-LINES.........-..-.-.--------e-- RE eae ee Sei DAH SSM Er ARR ees ees 105 SECTION 37—BROKERAGE owe oe ceo ee eee cee ee eee se Ce Ee ce eee ne Saeeye cine Sen os eee Bocas cae oceeeee 106, 107 SECTION 4.—PETROLEUM AS AN ARTICLE OF FORNIGN) COMMERGH cys oc set bee cee ee eo sue ceenee ee ce cee eaet sees «--ce LO7-110 TABLE OF EXPANSION OF THE) WEST: VARGINIAS NATURA OILS iss ao cies eateries ee ees ee eee 111-115 TABLES FOR THE RAPID AND EXACT COMPUTATION OF THE NUMBER OF GALLONS CONTAINED IN ANY GIVEN WEIGHT OF OIL OR OTHER LIQUID LIGHTER THAN WATER, WITHOUT MEASURING OR GAUGING ..-.--..---- 116-118 TABLES OF) COMPARATIVE, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, OF Ole ecisc se ee eices wee comonn ae oe eae a os ae see eae 118-132 TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY CORRESPONDING TO EACH DEGREE OF BAUMK’S HYDROMETER; ALSO, THE * NUMBER OF POUNDS CONTAINED IN ONE UNITED STATES GALLON AT 60° F .... 2.22222. 2 2. ee. eee 133 CHAPTER X.—PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE CENSUS YEAR.......----------.------- comer 134 SECTION .1:—THE ‘CONDITIONS/ OF. THE: PROBLEM: ca. +2 occa seeeee cee ere eee See tea aie Bet ee ence meee oe eee 134-137 SECTION 2,—WHELLSTOGKS: , HTROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS: IN THE: MANUFACTURE OF IRON | ..2- 0220 cco meade cceicen woes coeccatececs s--- 249, 250 SCHILD eS) VRS ret teste acl cts ia Se eee ele eel iola ease nie a wicle cis ome ce leisieis ona) bet cidieis\ ec ele 2 =clae sles tal ca ealn een co eea cas ite deers 250, 251 PRONE NE VITO CHT ACN US mAb bk OA Ll ON Mite wisi. io :cidies summchee mines icisee seca awe a wis aye, cicle wie Serlene mnaus o casas coeccelscsccs 251 CHAP hee — Lit RUS hOFOn ere hOROLEUMAIN -MEDICINEo.-o-2 8200-2 of occ seco pence aa cide cciedmcse ceceweercuee Dis Giatele ee ile atl a outers 252-256 SECTION 1.—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS.... ..---5 .--2ce oe ce ne ence coe ceca cs ceceee 252 BECLIONG SEN TROLEUM AND?! ['THePRODUCTSFASTEHERAPEUTICS:. 2. <2 Jo ce es .cco ce ds osc) ocbetacddacls wo elela cadetec lewclscterte 253 SECTIONFG:—LHARMACHEULTICAL PREPARATIONS? OF FPETROLEUM®! s.. 222 clecee cans ccnk cone coen Sole see mcces'st econ actescae ce 253-256 CHAPTER VI.—MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS..-.---.----- eeiais aia an Sen emaie Sie niaciees cstaane tile ce> 257-260 iermuer ie i Li vetNe we NCI: OH PHTROLMUNEIIPON CLVILIZATION |< cce- cence ct nneicce cwrreciccec cose ceceetums clas doscecesueccwe 2OL-280 WHAPTER +ViLLi.—LHE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BITUMEN) AND ITS ‘RELATED SUBJECTS « .. 252. cc cccs cece oc cbee wesc nicciocesieceece once 281-301 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ‘FRONTISPIECE: A PETROLEUM FIELD (AN ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPH). ‘Map J.—SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF BITUMEN THROUGHOUT THE WORLD.. .- S. ---- -- 22 oo on oc oc oe oo oe ee en ce co ce ee 33 II.—SHOWING THE AREAS THAT PRODUCED BITUMEN IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA ....-.. ..-.------ eee 1 III.—SHOWING THE DEVELOPED OIL FIELDS OF WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW YORK....---..---.---------- 21 IWV2— Bey OLCAN OOLEERHGLONS Ob VW ES DEVIRGINIA: tadatts chao ocewiSe css ci we cms bec cice cule ome wisisine Seteienwe, < Se cele 51 Vi TH OreeRhGLON GL ORBICEN TLUCIEYTAN De LEN NESSEE es on ote ce cnc c co cne ce sues coc sac debt Oeba den nloc wesecus, owes 25 VI.—BITUMEN-PRODUCING LOCALITIES IN SOUTHERN OHIO, WEST VIRGINIA, AND KENTUCKY ...--..----.-------- 24 Vall SHOmINGE BSL UMENTSERINGSHEINE LEX AS SAND i OUISEAN Ames c cuts foo cel oclace. os mosses clolelsc owe) crc.ebiclale selec’ 26 VIII.—SHOWING LOCALITIES IN MICHIGAN AND CANADA THAT HAVE PRODUCED BITUMEN ...--. -------.---+------- 27 ‘CHART I.—SHOWING THE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM, AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL DISTRICTS IN THE OL, RUGION OF) PENNSYLVANIA AND. SOUTHERN NEW YORK ~.-o.60 <2 oe :cce.0 es ce cece case ooaceetpencce 149 IJ.—PROPORTIONAL PRODUCTION OF THE OIL REGION OF PENNSYLVANIA AND SOUTHERN NEW YORK, AND THAT ORSTHRAINDIVIDUAI DISTRIOUS sso. sefitemecs..eesc oe es Bete ae hare ne ete ra a cee ewEsiet s ccocuwen eee *149 IIJ.—SHOWING THE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE OIL REGION OF PENNSYLVANIA AND SOUTHERN NEw YORK, SINCE ITS DISCOVERY, WITH THE VALUES OF THE PRODUCTION IN CURRENCY AND IN GOLD..- 150 ‘(PLATE J.—PIECE OF THE HURONIAN SHALE INCLOSING THE ALBERTITE VEIN IN NEW BRUNSWICK....--.--.----------- 73 II.—PORTION OF THE SURFACE OF A HORSE OF SANDSTONE FOUND INCLOSED IN THE GRAHAMITE VEIN, RITCHIE COUNEY WV ESTE URGINIA $10. cece a taswns bh aces saaeceisscin w ccd eciee Seen cs Ceoe sa ackh certs sane fenmiseciciaecace 74 III.—PROFILE THROUGH AXIS OF WEST VIRGINIA ANTICLINAL FROM OHIO RIVER TO LITTLE KANAWHA RIVER... 48 IV.—SECTIONS ON THE OHIO RIVER ABOVE MARIETTA, AT HORSE NECK, WEST VIRGINIA, AND BETWEEN LAUREL PORKEDUNOTLONSAN DEE TR OLMUM MW MSI VIRGIN Accemerscacs se coais namaste cease sect cop's ware sieiteecie cnn c/acee 49 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. PLATE V.—VERTICAL SECTION OF WHITE OAK ANTICLINAL, WEST) VIRGINIA .- occa cece niasu sens cieieaeereeen ess. cceee : VI.—Fia. 1. PUMPING WELL, 1861.—F1G. 2. PUMPING WELL, 1868.—F1G. 3. PUMPING WELL, 1878.—Fia. 4. FLOWING WELL, 1880.—F1G. 5. DRILLING WELL AND FULL STRING OF TOOLS ........-.---..---- en ese celta Macees VII.—GENERALIZED GEOLOGICAL SECTION FROM BLACK Rock, NEW YORK, TO DUNKARD CREEK, PENNSYLVANIA.-- VIII.—GENERALIZED VERTICAL SECTION FROM THE TOP OF THE UPPER BARREN COAL MEASURES DOWN TO THE CORNIFEROUS LIMESTONE, TO SHOW THE VARIOUS OIL HORIZONS OF CANADA, NEW YORK, AND PENNSVLVANIA.- IX.—SECTION OF BITUMINOUS ROCKS ON BIGG@’S RANCH, SANTA BARBARA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA [FIG. 1, PAGE 21] --) BITUMEN AT SELENITZA, ALBANIA [FIG. 2, PAGE 32] .-.--..----.- Des cee Sse eee ees Lhd gah MAP 2 50 X.—OLD OIL SPRINGS, PAINT CREEK, JOHNSON COUNTY, KENTUCKY [FIG. 3, PAGE 63. ]—SECTION ON LITTLE PAINT CREEK, JOHNSON COUNTY, KENTUCKY [FIG. 4, PAGE 63.]—CROW’s NEST, ON PAINT CREEK, JOHNSON COUNTY, KENTUCKY: [| HiG.:5, PAGE @3)] ie. oe ssacac cose eaeoe wasen estes Sas Sete oe aes ae Sees oueit ech se cca eeee XI.—SECTION THROUGH SULPHUR MOUNTAIN AND OJAI PLATEAU, VENTURA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA [FIG. 6, PAGE 68]... XII.—SECTION FROM BORYSLAW TO ScHODNICA, East GALICIA [F1G. 7, PAGE 72, ]—SECTION OF VEIN OF ASPHALTUM NEAR HAVANA) CUBA: | FIGES/PAGE 72] EF S2us 2 oo tesa cids sacs seal eat ena staleaeeieee seemee e Scab Soe ee ene BITUMEN IN: ALBANIA [FiGss 9/410; 1E) 12513 and 14 7RAGE 3 peacen seme cise ae Sec eee eee eo aes poole XIII.—FOUNDATION TIMBERS FOR RIG [F1G. 15, PAGE 79] ...-- Rea ste Sie a oats ane ees Geen Ae, NE REISE ee ee Sees XIV.—SIDE ELEVATION OF DERRICK AND ENGINE [F14. 16, PAGE 80] ..--....-.....--....--- a SA eS Se cae eee XV.—HORIZONTAL’ PROJECTION OF DERRICK_AND) ENGIN® [WIG 1G ePAGE OU) ao oeeee teceae eee cece reas es eae eee XVI.—END ELEVATION OF DERRICK [F1G. 18, PAGE 80) -..- <2. .-- con emcee sce EE tert ee seers encase t ow aee eee XVII.— INSIDE VIEW OF DERRICK AT NIGHT, SHOWING USE OF TEMPER-SCREW AND DERRICK-LIGHT [ FIG. 19, PAGE 81]... XVIII.—EIGHT-INCH BIT [ FIG. 20, PAGE 81. |—FIVE-AND-ONE-HALF-INCH BIT [F 1G. 21, PAGE 81. ]—AUGER STEM [FIG. 22, PAGE SE. )|—SINKER BAR’ [LEIG.24, PAGE 8),] <2 oo. -ccaese cose eee Saebense bac Wate be acini ee XIX.—Jars [Fia. 23, paGE 81. ]—ROPE SOCKET [FIG. 25, PAGE 81. ]—RING SOCKET [FIG. 27, PAGE 81]..---..----.----- XX.—TEMPER-SCREW [FIG. 26, PAGE 81. ]—WRENCH [FIG. 28, PAGE 81. ]—FIVE-AND-QNE-HALF-INCH REAMER [FIG. 29° PAGE. 81.—EIGHT-INCH. REAMER/ [P'14-130) PAGE Glijisceaee ene ae tacise ete sean e ce se. o 6 eee a eee XXI.—TORPEDO BEFORE EXPLOSION [FIG. 31, PAGE 85] ...--...--.-. EALMAS Fe NSE Rac leta's ols we qc oe ests Jab data cae ee XXII.—CROSS-SECTION OF PUMPING WELL, 1861—WOODEN CONDUCTOR [FIG. 32, PAGE 87. ]|—CROSS-SECTION OF PUMPING WELL, 1868—CAST-IRON. DRIVE-PIPE [.HIG.(33, PAGD G4) oe eccnae weleitee e teeayeetaele'= see iDebines) deste XXIII.—CRroOss-SECTION OF PUMPING WELL, WROUGHT-IRON DRIVE-PIPE, 1878 [F1G. 34, PAGE 87. ]—CROSS-SECTION OF FLOWING WELL, 1880 [F1G. 35, PAGE 87]. ..---.-----. -t---- pe ie Hi dg ee Bose alas sia se ee ap snlndiay ob cio ann XXIV:—SUCKER-ROD. MOVEMENT) HIG. 36, PAGE GS] Siaeee eee ean = ee eis ee eines eeta ae ste on 6s Cut ee XXV.—LATERAL VERTICAL SECTION OF CYLINDRICAL STILL [FIG. 37, PAGE 162. ]|—TRANSVERSE VERTICAL SECTION OF CYLINDRICAL STILL [P1G. 38; PAGE 162) te ca siete eee eee eee et ieen Se eee sere « since eee XXVI.—HORIZONTAL SECTION OF CHEESE-BOX-STILL SETTING [FIG. 39, PAGE 162. ]—VERTICAL SECTION OF CHEESE-BOX- STILL‘ SETTING [F'r@.:40; PAGH 162] cee a eaae ee aie eee remain ate caine ae pte cei cis ocala eee atte ee XXVII.—SECTION OF CONDENSING DRUM [F1G. 41, PAGE 162.]—SECTION OF STEAM-PIPE FOR STILL HEAD [ FIG. 42, PAGE 162.]—DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT FOR DISTRIBUTING DISTILLATES [FIG. 43, PAGE 163] .--.-.--.---- XXVIII.—RAMDOHR’S PARAFFINE FILTERING APPARATUS [FIG. 44, PAGE 174.]—RAMDOHR’S PARAFFINE FILTERING AP- PARATUS [FIG. 45, PAGE 174.]—RAMDOHR’S CHARCOAL PULVERIZING DRUM OR CYLINDER [Fias. 46 and 47, PAGBII75 ] ¢ os0 oc ce cede Sawee cdc ond bee vn ttt eee eee tke oles One etre en en ee, ; XXIX.—SALLERON-URBAIN TESTER [FIG. 48, PAGE 223.]—TAGLIABUEF’S OPEN TESTER [F1G. 49, PAGE 224.]—SAYBOLT’S TESTER [FiG. 50, PAGE 224. |—ABEL’S TESTER [FIG. 51, PAGE 224. ]—TAGLIABUE’S CLOSED TESTER [FIG. 52, PAGE 224, |—TAGLIABUR’S CLOSED TESTER [| FIG) 53, PAGE 224) 50. oe ce see alee aie os oo bl eite eae = = ae ee . XXX.—PARRISH’S NAPHTOMETER [FIG. 54, PAGE 224.]—ENGLER’S TESTER [FIG. 55, PAGE 225.]—ENGLER’S TESTER [FIa. 56, PAGE 225.]—VERTICAL SECTION OF EAMES’ PETROLEUM FURNACE [FIG.57, PAGE 250]........----- 5 2908 LHETTHR OF TRANSMITTAL. PROVIDENCE, R. I., October 6, 1882. Hon. C. W. SEATON, Superintendent of Oensus. Sir: I herewith submit my report as special agent for collecting the statistics of the mining and manufacture of petroleum for the year ending May 31, 1880. The statistics of mining were gathered, as stated in the chapter devoted to their consideration, by personal interviews with those parties who handled the oil, and from a careful examination of the localities producing it. The statistics of manufacture were obtained by means of a printed schedule of questions, which was addressed to each firm or corporation engaged in manufacturing petroleum. The answers to the questions contained in these schedules were consolidated into the separate items as given in the report. An examination of the literature of petroleum revealed a very large number of articles and references, some of which were of even classical antiquity, but the larger number of which had been published within the present century. Very few bound volumes have been devoted to the general consideration of the subject; and none of these, while each valuable as presenting some of its particular aspects, were to be considered as embracing the results of a comprehensive research with reference to all of its varied details. It was therefore thought advisable to make this report an authority upon the subject of which it treats, as embodying the results of a careful examination of the entire literature of petroleum, as well as a careful use of all other available sources of information. The three aspects of the subject—the natural history, technology, and uses of petroleum and its compounds—were each considered under its several appropriate divisions, these forming the subjects of separate chapters. Each of these several chapters, in turn, represents a special research and constitutes a separate independent essay. This arrangement, it is hoped, will facilitate the use of the report for all the varied purposes for which it may be sought. Any further details will, I think, be readily apparent upon an inspection of the work itself. I wish herewith to express my great obligations to all of those from whom I have solicited assistance in the collection of the statistical material for this report. Without the cordial co-operation of the officers of the great corporations which produce, distribute, and manufacture petroleum, together with a very large number of private individuals, my labors would have been in vain; and I make this statement, appreciating the fact that this assistance in a great number of instances involved a large amount of perplexing labor, gratuitously rendered from an appreciative estimate of the work upon which the Census Office has been engaged. When hundreds of persons throughout the country, engaged in the production, transportation, and manufacture of petroleum, uniformly _ rendered all of the assistance in their power, it is both difficult and unfair to make distinctions. I had rather repeat what I have said privately: that the patience, forbearance, and uniform courtesy with which I have been met by all parties representing the petroleum interest has been extremely gratifying. In securing information other than statistical Iam under great obligations to Professor J. P. Lesley and his assistants, of the second geological survey of Pennsylvania, particularly Mr. J. F. Carll, of Pleasantville, Pennsylvania. Beside the obligation involved in extensive quotation from Mr. Carll’s published reports, his personal assistance in the way of introduction to both persons and places throughout the oil-producing section proved invaluable. I feel that whatever value the report may possess in reference to the geology of West Virginia is due to Mr. F. W. Minshall, of Parkersburg, West Virginia, who, in addition to furnishing the geological sections, rendered me further assistance in introductions and information involving a long correspondence. : vii vill LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. In collecting the statistics of foreign localities I am under special obligations to Mr. Boverton Redwood, of London, England; Mr. E. W. Binney, of Manchester, England; Dr. Ferd. Roemer, of Breslau, Silesia; M. P. E. De Ferrari, of Genoa, Italy; Rev. J. N. Cushing, of Prome, Burmah; Dr. James Harris, of Yokohama, Japan; and. William Brough, esq., of Franklin, Pennsylvania. To all of these gentlemen I am indebted for the careful collection of statistics and private correspondence. The extent and value of my researches upon the literature of petroleum have been largely due to the assistance that I have received from the librarians of Brown University, Harvard College, the Boston Public Library, and the American Philosophical Society, and especially to Professor J. D. Whitney, whose valuable private library was generously placed at my disposal. With the exception of a few Kast Indian publications, these libraries. enabled me to verify all of the references with which I came in contact. Mr. J. ©. Welch, of New York, whose statistics and reports bear such a deservedly high reputation for reliability, has rendered me much varied and valuable assistance not otherwise available. I wish further to express my obligations to Miss Laura Linton, who has assisted me in the preparation of this. report, and to whose varied accomplishments I am indebted for many of the translations and illustrations that add completeness and embellishment to the work; also to the officials of the Census Office, to whose uniform courtesy I am indebted for assistance in a somewhat arduous and perplexing undertaking. Very respectfully, S. F. PECKHAM A oe A ML, Special Agent. are SHE UB ARY eS ere es OF He ie wet ar WHIKERSILY AF (LINGUS £ — * : ; S- iS : % “ * me fh ae ae © - « Sirs . > @é 7 “A 4 ' ay r "ee x in) sd 4 . LIDS ate teat _ ont / ‘ 3 hae ee . WA ,) \ \ Ay § / Areas where Bitumen occurs. ME A205 of more or less productive wells NOTE.— The large area includes the localities that have produced Petroleum east of the Missis- sippi River, but is not intended to indicate a ‘region over Which BiTuMEN is-uniformly dis- tributed. . no? Bl ihe 713° 1) ies 109° 107° PSU Be 100 200 Pe eat a = a o Bee LAY —showing the areas that have — ~ -==PRODUCED BITUMEN —- __ -IN THE — UNITED STATES: — -AND— ~~ GANADA,— ooo 89° C7 > PAG le THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM, TOGETHER WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND SALE OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES, AND STATISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. 1 Y oe ee | THE, LiBBAaT | OF THE DWIVERSITY AF ALARMS, Te Ag eel b: CuHapTeR I.—HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF PETROLEUM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. SECTION 1—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF BITUMEN PRIOR TO THE YEAR 1800. The word petroleum means rock-oil, and in its present form it is adopted into English from the Latin. Its equivalents in German are Hrdol (earth-oil) and Steindl (stone-oil) ; in French and the other languages of southern Europe the word is Pétrole—equivalent to petroleum. Within a few years the Germans have also used the word “petroleum”, Petroleum is one of the forms of bitumen, and cannot be discussed historically except in connection with the other forms. These are: Solid: Asphaltum.—German, Asphalt, Erdharz, or Erdpech; French, Asphalte. Semi-fluid: Maltha.—French, Goudron minéral; Spanish, Brea. Fluid: Petroleum; Volatile: Naphtha.—German, Naphta, from Persian Nafta or Neft gil. Gaseous: Natural gas.—Of burning springs. . The word Nafta appears to have been used by the Persians, and its equivalent, Naphtha, has been frequently used in European literature to designate what is now called petroleum, and not the most volatile form of fluid bitumen occurring in nature. Solid bitumen is to be distinguished from coal in the manner of its occurrence, and _also by the action of various solvents, especially benzole and carbon disulphide, which dissolve asphaltum, but have no action upon coal. Bitumen has been known and applied to the uses of mankind from the dawn of history. Its very wide distribution has led to its frequent notice by observers of natural phenomena, and the records of such observations have been as widely extended as the occupation of the earth by civilized man. Herodotus wrote of the springs in the island of Zante as follows: I have myself seen pitch drawn up out of a lake and from water in Zacynthus; and there are several lakes there; the largest of them is seventy feet every way, and two orgy@ in depth; into this they let down a pole with a myrtle branch fastened to the end, and then draw up pitch adhering to the myrtle; it has the smell of asphalt, but is, in other respects, better than the pitch of Pieria. They pour it into a cistern dug near the lake, and when they have collected a sufficient quantity they pour it off from the cisterns into jars. (a) The springs called Oyun Hit (the fountains of Hit) are celebrated by the Arabs and Persians, the latter calling them Cheshmeh Kir (the fountain of pitch). This liquid bitumen they call Nafta ; and the Turks, to distinguish it from pitch, give it the name of Hara sakir (black mastic). Nearly all modern travelers who went to Persia and the Indies by way of the Euphrates before the discovery of the cape of Good Hope speak of this fountain of bitumen. Herodotus mentions that “eight days’ journey from Babylon stands another city called Is, on asmall river of the same name, which discharges its stream into the Euphrates. Now this river brings down with its water many lumps of bitumen, from whence the bitumen used in the wall of Babylon was brought”. (D) The people of the country have a tradition that when the tower of Babel was building they brought the bitumen from hence. At the pits of Kir ab ur Susiana bitumen is still collected in the same manner as related by Herodotus. (¢) He says: At Ardericca is a well which produces three different substances, for asphalt, salt, and oil are drawn up from it in the following manner: It is pumped up by means of a swipe, and, instead of a bucket, half a wine skin isattached to it. Having dipped down with this, aman draws it up, and then pours the contents into a reservoir, and, being poured from this into another, it assumes these different forms: the asphalt and the salt immediately become solid, but the oil they collect, and the Persians call it Rhadinance; itis black, and emits a strong odor. a Herodotus, i, 119, iv, 195; B.S.G.F., xxv, 62; J.S.A., vii, 639. b Ibid., i, 179; J.S.A., vii, 639, 640. ¢ Ibd., vi, 119. 3 4 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Strabo (a) mentions the occurrence of bitumen in the valley of Judea, and describes the commerce carried on in this article by the Arab Nabathenes with the Egyptians for the purpose of embalming; also the manner of its occurrence, rising during or after earthquake shocks to the surface of the Dead sea and forming masses resembling islands. Diodorus, of Sicily, describes the lake Asphaltites and the manner in which the savage inhabitants of the country construct rafts, and continues: These barbarians, who have no other kind of commerce, carry their asphalt to Egypt and sell it to those who make a profession of embalming bodies, because, without the mixture of this material with the other aromatics, it would be difficult for them to 7 Pons them for a long time from the corruption to which they are liable. (6) This bitumen, with that from the springs of Hit, on the Euphrates, of which Eratosthenes has given such interesting details, and which served to cement the bricks of Babylon, is also used for coating ships, (¢c) and is still used in our own time for coating boats on the Euphrates. (d) The semi-fluid bitumen was used in the construction ef Nineveh and Babylon to cement bricks and slabs of alabaster, and the grand mosaic pavements and beautifully inscribed slabs used in the palaces and temples of these ancient cities, many of which were of enormous size, were fastened in their places with this material. It was also used to render cisterns and silos for the preservation of grain water-tight, and some of these structures of unknown antiquity are still found intact in the ancient cities of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The naphtha is more highly valued than the solid bitumen, the most fluid varieties being used in lamps. The Persians. also manufacture dried dung in long sticks, which are dipped in naphtha and burned for lights, and it is also used for cooking and heating; but in order to avoid the unendurable smell a peculiar kind of chimney is carried into each room. Cotton wicks are also used in naphtha to some extent. The white or colorless naphtha, which is most rare, is used by the apothecaries. (e) Aristotle, Strabo, Plutarch, Pliny, and others describe at some length deposits of bitumen occurring in Albania, on the eastern shores of the Adriatic sea, (f) and similar notices of petroleum springs and gas wells in China occur in the earliest records of that ancient people. Pliny and Dioscorides described the oil of Agrigentum, which was used in lamps, under the name of “ Sicilian oil”. The soft bitumen in the Euphrates valley is that of which we have the earliest mention. (g) The word translated slime in the English version of Genesis xi, 3, is dcgaAtos in the Septuagint and bitumen in the Vulgate, and this is what is meant. The great abundance of petroleum at Baku, on the Caspian sea, and the remarkable sight presented by the flaming streams of oil and discharges of gas, have been the subject of many descriptions. The fire temple at Baku has had a special interest in connection with India, not only from its general similarity to that of Jawalamahki, near Kangra, in the Punjab, (h) but also from the circumstance that the Baku temple has for a long time and down to the present day been, like the other, a place of Hindoo pilgrimage. The great conflagrations of oil upon the ground have not been constant, and hence many travelers do not mention them. Marco Polo describes the great abundance of the discharges of oil at Baku, and says that people came from a vast distance to collect it. (?) Baku is described by Kaempfer, who was there in 1684.(j) In 1784 it was visited by Forster, on his journey from India to England, who has given an account of the place and of the Hindoo merchants and mendicants residing there. Between Kaempfer and Forster came Jonas Hanway, who gives a description of Baku, the fire temple, and the Hindoos, and the great quantities of oil obtained at that time, chiefly from certain islands in the Caspian sea. Descriptions are given by other travelers, ancient and modern, of this oil region,(k) of the copious discharges of white and black naphtha, the streams of flaming oil on the hillsides, the gas and the fire temple, and the explosive effects of the ignition of the gas mixed with atmospheric air. (1) A tradition is preserved in Plutarch that a Macedonian who had charge of Alexander’s baggage is said to have dug on the banks of the Oxus: “ There came out, which diffired nothing from natural oile, having the glosse and fatness so like as there could be discovered no differense between them.” (m) a Tome XVI, ch. ii. b Tome I L, II., cap. xxix. e Strabo, I, xvi, cxii. d Lartet, B. B1G.E,cXiv, 'p. 12. e Ritter’s Erdkunde, IL, 578. f Strabo, VI, 763; Pliny, N. H., VII, 13; Josephus, B. I., IV, 8, 4; Tacitus, Hist., V, 6; Mandeville, Iacahon! etc. Plutarch: Life of Sylla; Dion ashe Rom. Hist. ec. XLI; Bilian Variez Hist., XIII, 16; quoted in B. S. G. a XXV, 21. g Herod, I, 179; Philostr. Apoll. Toe Lie kee D’Herbelot, Biblioth. Or. 0. v. Hit. h G. T. Vigne, Travels in Cashmir and Little Thibet, 1842, p. 138. i Book I, ch. III (vol. I, p. 46, Col. Yule’s ed., 1871), note in Marsden’s ed. j Amoenit. Exot., p. 224. Colburn’s Nat. Libr., i, 263. k Wonders of the East, by Friar Jordanus, p. 50 (Colonel Yule’s note) ; Keppel’s Journey from India to England, 1824; A Journey from London to Persepolis, by J. Usher, 1865; Morier’s Journey; Kinneir’s Persia; Some Years’ Travels, by Tho. Herbert, 1638. 1 I am indebted for many of the preceding facts and references to an excellent article on “Naphtha” by M. C. Cooke, J. S. A., vii, 688; also, Colonel R. Maclagan, on the ‘‘Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and Allied Products”, P. B. A. A. S., 1871, 180. m Sir 'Thomas North’s translation of Plutarch’s Lives, ed. 1631, p. 702. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. D The occurrence of petroleum in North America was noticed by the earliest explorers, as the Indians dwelling in the vicinity of the great lakes applied it to several purposes, and thus brought it to the attention of those who went among them; but the earliest mention that has come under my notice is of 1629. A Franciscan missionary, Joseph de la Roche D’Allion, who crossed the Niagara river into what is now the state of New York, wrote a letter, in which he mentions the oil-springs and gives the Indian name of the place, which he explained to mean, ‘There is plenty there.” This letter was published in Sagard’s Histoire du Canada, 1632, and subsequently in Le Clerc. Peter Kalm published in Swedish about the middle of the last century a book of travels, in which was a map, on which the springs on Oil creek were properly located. This book has been translated into English, and an edition was published in London in 1772. In the first volume of the Massachusetts Magazine, published in 1789, appears the following notice: (a) In the northern part of Pennsylvania is a creek called Oil creek, which empties into the Allegheny river. It issues from a spring, on which floats an oil similar to that called Barbadoes tar, and from which one may gather several gallons in a day. The troops sent to guard the western posts halted at this spring, collected some of the oil, and bathed their joints withit. This gave them great relief from the rheumatism with which they were afflicted. The water, of which the troops drank freely, operated as a gentle purge. The earliest records of voyages and travels among the Seneca Indians who occupied northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York contain observations respecting the reverence paid the oil-springs of Oil creek and the contiguous valleys by this people, not only using it for medicinal purposes, but also in religious observances. -»The French commander of Fort Duquesne in the year 1750 writes as follows to General Montcalm: I would desire to assure you that this is a most delightful land. Some of the most astonishing natural wonders have been discovered by our people. While descending the Allegheny, fifteen leagues below the mouth of the Conewango and three above the Venango, we were invited by the chief of the Senecas to attend a religious ceremony of his tribe. We landed, and drew up our canoes on a point where a small stream entered the river. The tribe appeared unusually solemn. We marched up the stream about half a league, where the company, a band it appeared, had arrived some days before us. Gigantic hills begirt us on every side. The scene was really sublime. The great chief then recited the conquests and heroism of their ancestors. The surface of the stream was covered with a thick scum, which, upon applying a torch at a given signal, burst into a complete conflagration. At the sight of the flames the Indians gave forth the triumphant shout that made the hills and valleys re-echo again. Here, then, is revived the ancient fire-worship of the East; here, then, are the children of the Sun. (b) In 1765 the English government sent an embassy to the court of Ava, in Burmah. In the journal of that embassy, by Major Michael Symes, may be found a description of the petroleum wells in the neighborhood of Yenangyoung (Earth-oil creek), a small tributary of the Irrawaddy. For an unknown period the whole of Burmah and portions of India have been supplied with illuminating oil from this source, particularly those regions that are reached by the Irrawaddy and its tributaries. On page 261 of Symes’ Journal we read: After passing various lands and villages, we got to Yenangyoung, or Earth-oil creek, about two hours past noon. We were informed that the celebrated wells of petroleum which supply the whole empire and many parts of India with that useful product were five miles to the east of this place. The mouth of the creek was crowded with large boats waiting to receive a lading of oil, and immense pyramids of earthen jars were raised in and around the village, disposed in the same manner as shot and shell are piled in an arsenal. This is inhabited only by potters, who carry on an extensive manufactory and find full employment. The smell of the oil is extremely offensive. We saw several thousand jars filled with it ranged along the bank; some of these were continually breaking, and the contents, mingling with the sand, formed a very filthy consistence. Late in the last century springs of petroleum were noticed in West Virginia, in Ohio, and in Kentucky, as explorers and settlers began to penetrate the country west of the Alleghany mountains. SrcTion 2.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF BITUMEN FROM THE YEAR 1800 TO 1850. In Europe, early in the present century, chemists examined the bitumen of the Val de Travers.(c) The gas springs of Karamania, noticed by Ctesias more than two thousand years before, again attracted attention, (d) and the asphalt deposits of Albania, mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, were again described by Pouqueville. (e) In 1811 Dr. Nicholas Nugent visited the West Indies, and on his return to England wrote an account of the famous pitch lake of Trinidad, near the mouth of the river Orinoco. (f) He described the wonderful beauty of the tropical island, with its more wonderful lake of solid yet plastic bitumen, on which were pools of water containing fish and islands of verdure thronged with brilliant birds. From 1820 to 1830 remarkable activity was manifested in the investigation of the nature and occurrence of bituminous substances. The Hon. George Knox read a communication to the Royal Society of Great Britain, in which he noticed the wide distribution of these substances in nature, and the fact that even so-called eruptive rocks a Am. Orble ae Y d Beaufort: Survey of the Coast of Karamania, 1820, p. 24. b Henry’s Early and Later History of Petroleum, p. 11. e Voyage en Gréce, 1820, 1, 271; B. 8. G. F., xxv, 22. c De Saussure, A. C. N. P. (2), iv, 314, 620, 308. fa Le Gress (Lis Oos 6 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. were rarely found entirely destitute of bitumen as an ingredient. This paper attracted much attention. (a) In 1824 Reichenbach discovered paraffine in the products of the destructive distillation of wood, (b) and in the following year Gay-Lussac analyzed it. (c) . In 1826 the British government sent a second embassy to Ava, and in the journal of that embassy the ambassador, Hon. John Crawfurd, again describes the petroleum wells of Rangoon, and furnishes many details respecting the method of their operation and the amount of their product. (d) Boussingault investigated the bitumen of Pechelbronn, on the lower Rhine, and compared its peculiarities with those of bitumens from other localities. His work on these substances became very celebrated, and has been very widely quoted. (e) These researches created a lively interest in France, and led to much experimenting upon both solid and liquid bitumens, with a view to ascertaining the purposes to which they might be applied. During this period the first well was bored in the United States that produced petroleum in any considerable quantity. As the first well bored or drilled for brine was the legitimate precursor of all the petroleum wells in the country, an historical account of it is introduced here, taken from a paper written by Dr. J. P. Hale, of Charleston, West Virginia, for the volume prepared by Professor M. F. Maury, and issued by the State Centennial Board, on the resources and industries of the state. He says: It was not until 1806 that the brothers, David and Joseph Ruffner, set to work to ascertain the source of the salt water, to procure, if possible, a larger supply and of better quality, and to prepare to manufacture salt on a scale commensurate with the growing wants of the country. The Salt Lick, or ‘‘ the Great Buffalo Lick”, as it was called, was just at the river’s edge, 12 or 14 rods in extent, on the north side, a few hundred yards above the mouth of Campbell’s creek, and just in front of what is now known as the ‘‘ Thoroughfare Gap”, through which, from the north, as well as up and down the river, the buffalo, elk, and other ruminating animals made their way in vast numbers. to theilicki 7) > In order to reach, if possible, the bottom of the mire and oozy quicksand through which the salt water flowed they (the Ruffner brothers) provided a straight, well-formed, hollow sycamore tree, with 4 feet internal diameter, sawed off square at each end. This is technically called a ‘“‘gum”. This gum was set upright on the spot selected for sinking, the large end down, and held in its perpendicular position by props or braces on the four sides. A platform, upon which two men could stand, was fixed about the top; then a swape was erected, having its fulcrum in a forked post set in the ground close by. A large bucket, made from half of a whisky barrel, was attached to the end of the swape by a rope, and a rope was attached to the end of the pole, to pull down on, to raise the bucket. With one man inside the gum, armed with pick, shovel, and crowbar, two men on the platform on top to empty and return the bucket, and three or four to work the swape, the crew and outfit were complete. After many unexpected difficulties and delays the gum at last reached what seemed to be rock bottom at 13 feet. Upon cutting it with picks and crowbars, however, it proved to be but a shale or crust about 6 inches thick of conglomerated sand, gravel, and iron. Upon breaking through this crust the water flowed up into the gum more freely than ever, but with less salt. Discouraged at this result, the Ruffner brothers determined to abandon this gum and sink a well out in the bottom, about 100 yards. from the river. This was done, encountering, as before, many difficulties and delays. When they had gotten through 45 feet of alluvial deposit they came to the same bed of sand and gravel upon which they had started at the river. To penetrate this they made a 34-inch tube of a 20-foot oak log by boring through it with a long-shanked auger. This tube, sharpened and shod with iron at the bottom, was. driven down, pile-driver fashion, through the sand to the solid rock. Through this tube they then let down a glass vial with a string, to catch the salt water for testing. They were again doomed to disappointment. The water, though slightly brackish, was less salt than that at the river. They now decided to return to the gum at the river, and, if possible, put it down to the bed-rock. This they finally succeeded in doing, finding the: rock at 16 to 17 feet from the surface. As the bottom of the gum was square and the surface of the rock uneven, the rush of outside water in the gum was very troublesome.. By dint of cutting and trimming from one side and the other, however, they were at last gotten nearly to a joint, after which they resorted to thin wedges, which were driven here and there as they would ‘do the most good”. By this means the gum was gotten sufficiently tight to be so bailed out as to determine whether the salt water came up throngh the- rock. This turned out to be the case. The quantity welling up through the rock was extremely small, but the strength was greater than any yet gotten, and this was encouraging. They were anxious to follow it down, but how? They could not blast a hole down there- under water; but this idea occurred to them: They knew that rock-blasters drilled their powder holes 2 or 3 feet deep, and they concluded they could, with a longer and larger drill, bore a correspondingly deeper and larger hole. They fixed a long iron drill, with a 24-inch. chisel bit of steel, and attached the upper end to a spring pole with a rope. In this way the boring went on slowly and tediously, till on. the 1st of November, 1807, at 17 feet in the rock, a cavity or fissure was struck, which gave an increased flow of stronger brine. This. gave new encouragement to bore still further; and so, by welding increasing length of shaft to the drill from time to time, the hole was: carried down to 28 feet, where a still larger and stronger supply of salt water was gotten. Having now sufficient salt water to justify it, they decided and commenced to build a salt furnace, but, while building, continued. the boring, and on the 15th January, 1808, at 40 feet in the rock and 58 feet from the top of the gum, were rewarded by an ample flow of strong brine for their furnace, and ceased boring. Now was presented another difficulty: how to get the stronger brine from the bottom of the well, undiluted by the weaker brines. and fresh water from above. There was no precedent here; they had to invent, contrive, and construct anew. A metal tube would naturally suggest itself to them; but there were neither metal tubes, nor sheet metal, nor metal workers, save a home-made blacksmith, in all thisregion, and to bore a wooden tube 40 feet long, and small enough in external diameter to go in the 23-inch hole, was impracticable. What they did do was to whittle out of two long strips of wood two long half tubes of the proper size, and, fitting the edges carefully. together, wrap the whole from end to end with small twine. This, with a bag of wrapping near the lower end, to fit as nearly as. practicable, water tight, in the 24-inch hole, was cautiously pressed down to its place, and found to answer the purpose perfectly, the- brine flowed up freely through the tube into the gum, which was now provided with a water-tight floor or bottom to hold it, and from, which it was raised by the simple swape and bucket. a Pedy, L820; A.C. eG Pe (2) xx Vy lacs d Journal of an Embassy to the Court of Ava, 1834. b P. M. (2), 1, 402. e Constitution of Bitumens, P. J. (2), ix, 487. co A. C. et P. (2), 1, 78. aS THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. i Thus was bored and tubed, rigged and worked, the first rock-bored salt-well west of the Alleghanies, if not in the United States. The wonder is not that it required eighteen months or more to prepare, bore, and complete this well for use, but, rather, that it was accomplished at all under the circumstances. In these times, when such a work can be accomplished in as many days as it then required months, it is difficult to appreciate the difficulties, doubts, delays, and general troubles that then beset them. Without preliminary study, previous experience, or training, without precedents in what they undertook, in a newly settled country, without steain-power, machine-shops, skilled mechanics, suitable tools or materials, failure rather than success might reasonably have been predicted. * * * For interesting facts in this history of the boring of the first well I am indebted to a MS. by the late Dr. Henry Ruffner, and for personal recollections and traditions I am indebted to General Lewis Ruffner, Isaac Ruffner, W. D. Shrewsberry, Colonel B. H. Smith, Colonel L. I. Woodyard, W. C. Brooks, and others, and my own experiences for the last thirty years. * * * Other important improvements were gradually made in the manner of boring, tubing, and pumping wells, ete. The first progress made in tubing, after Ruffner’s compound wood-and-wrapping-twine tube, was made by a tinner who had located inCharleston. * * * He made tin tubes in convenient lengths, and soldered them together as they were put down the well. The refinement of screw joints had not yet come, but: followed shortly after, in connection with copper pipes, which soon took the place of tin, and these are recently giving place to iron. In the manner of bagging the wells, that is, in forming a water-tight joint around the tube to shut off the weaker waters above from the stronger below, asimple arrangement, called a ‘‘seed-bag”, was fallen upon, which proved very effective, and which has survived to this day, and has been adopted wherever deep boring is done as one of the standard appliances for the purpose for which it is used. This seed-bag is made of buckskin or soft calfskin, sewed up like the sleeve of a coat or leg of a stocking, made 12 to 15 inches long, about the size of the well hole, and open at both ends; this is slipped over the tube and one end securely wrapped over knots placed on the tube to prevent slipping. Some six or eight inches of the bag is then filled with flaxseed, either alone or mixed with powdered gun tragacanth; the other end of the bag is then wrapped like the first, and the tube is ready for the well. When to their place—and they are put down any depth to hundreds of feet—the seed and gum soon swell from the water they absorb, till a close fit and water- tight joint are made. * *. * In 1831 William Morris, or “ Billy ” Morris, as he was familiarly called, a very ingenious and successful practical well-borer, invented a simple tool, which has done more to render deep boring practicable, simple, and cheap than anything elsesince the introduction of steam. This tool has always been called here ‘‘slips”, but in the oil regions they have given it the name of ‘‘jars”. It is a long double- link, with jaws that fit closely, but slide loosely up and down. They are made of the best steel, are about 30 inches long, and fitted, top and bottom, with pin and socket joint, respectively. For use they are interposed between the heavy iron sinker, with its cutting chisel-bit below, and the line of auger poles above. Its object is to let the heavy sinker and bit have a clear, quick, cutting fall, unobstructed and unincumbered by the slower motion of the long line of auger poles above. In the case of fast auger or other tools in the well, they are also used to give heavy jars upward or downward, or both, to loosen them. From this use the oil-well people have given them the name of “jars”. Billy Morris never patented his invention, and never asked for nor made a dollar out of it; but as a public benefactor he deserves to rank with the inventors of the sewing-machine, reaping-machine, planing-machine, printing cylinders, cotton-gin, etc. This tool has been adopted into general use wherever deep boring is done, but outside of Kanawha few have heard of Billy Morris, or know where the slips or jars came from. * * * ; The Kanawha borings have educated and sent forth a set of skillful well-borers all over the country, who have bored for water for irrigation on the western plains, for artesian wells for city, factory, or private use, for salt water at various places, for oil all over the country, for geological or mineralogical explorations, etc. Nearly all the Kanawha salt-wells have contained more or less petroleum, and some of the deepest wells a considerable flow. Many persons now think, trusting to their recollections, that some of the wells afforded as much as 25 to 50 barrels per day. This was allowed to flow over from the top of the salt cisterns to the river, where, from its specific gravity, it spread over a large surface, and by its beautiful iridescent hues and not very savory odor could be traced for many miles down the stream. It was from this that the river received the nickname of ‘Old Greasy”, by which it was for a long time familiarly known by Kanawha boatmen and others. At that time this oil not only had no value, but was considered a great nuisance, and every effort was made to tube it out and get rid of it. It is now the opinion of some competent geologists, as well as of practical oil men, that very deep borings, say 2,500 feet, would penetrate rich oil-bearing strata, and possibly inexhaustible supplies of gas. In Ohio salt was manufactured at the “Old Scioto salt works”, in Jackson county, as early as 1798, from brine obtained from dug wells. In 1808, after the successful boring of the Ruffner well on the Kanawha, bored wells were substituted for dug wells very successfully, and salt-wells were soon in operation in other localities. The valley of the Muskingum from Zanesville to Marietta soon became noted, and the valley of Duck creek, since the center of the Washington county petroleum fields, was first famous for its salt-wells. The following description is from an article in the American Journal of Science (1), xxiv, 63, by Dr. 8. P. Hildreth, of Marietta: Since the first settlement of the regions west of the Appalachian range the hunters and pioneers have been acquainted with this oil. Rising in a hidden and mysterious manner from the bowels of the earth, it soon arrested their attention, and acquired great value in the eyes of these simple sons of the forest. Like some miraculous gift from heaven, it was thought to be a sovereign remedy for nearly all the diseases common to those primeval days, and from its success in rheumatism, burns, coughs, sprains, etc., was justly entitled to all its celebrity. It acquired its name of Seneca oil, that by which it is generally known, from having first been found in the vicinity of Seneca lake, New York. From its being found in limited quantities, and its great and extensive demand, a small vial of it would sell for 40 or 50 cents. It is at this time in general use among the inhabitants of the country for saddle bruises and that complaint called the scratches in horses. It seems to be peculiarly adapted to the flesh of horses, and cures many of their ailments with wonderful certainty and celerity. Flies and other insects have a natural antipathy to its effluvia, and it is used with much effectin preventing the deposit of eggs by the “blowing fly” in the wounds of domestic animals during the summer months. In neighborhoods where it is abundant it is burned in Jamps in place of spermaceti oil, affording a brilliant light, but filling the room with its own peculiar odor. By filtering it through charcoal, much of this empyreumatic smell is destroyed and the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance. It is also well adapted to prevent friction in machinery, for, being free of gluten, so common to animal and vegetable oils, it preserves the parts to which it is applied for a long time in free metion; where a heavy vertical shaft runs in a socket, it is preferable to all or any other articles. This oil rises in greater or less abundance in most of the salt-wells of the Kanawha, and, collecting as it rises, in the head on the water, is removed from time to time with a ladle. * * * * * * * * 8 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. On the Muskingum river the wells afford but little oil, and that only during the time the process of boring is going on; it ceases -goon after the wells are completed, and yet all of them abound more or less in gas. A well on Duck creek, about 30 miles north of Marietta, owned by Mr. McKee, furnishes the greatest quantity of any in this region. It was dug in the year 1814, and is 475 feet in depth. ; The rocks passed were similar to those on the Muskingum river above the flint stratum, or like those between the flint and salt: deposit at McConnellsville. A bed of coal 2 yards in thickness was found at the depth of 100 feet, and gas at 144 feet, or 41 feet above the salt-rock. The hills are sandstone based on lime, 150 or 200 feet in height, with abundant beds of stone-coal near their feet. The oil from this well is discharged periodically at intervals of from two to four days, and from three to six hours duration ateach period. Great quantities of gas accompany the discharges of oil, which for the first few years amounted to from 30 to 60 gallons at each eruption. The discharges at this time are less frequent, and diminished in quantity, affording only about a barrel per week, which is worth at the well from 50 to 75 cents a gallon. A few years ago, when the oil was most abundant, a large quantity had been collected in a cistern holding 30 or 40 barrels. At night, some one engaged about the works approached the weil-head with a lighted candle. The gas instantly became ignited and communicated the flame to the contents of the cistern, which, giving way, suffered the oilto be discharged down a short declivity into the creek, whose waters pass with a rapid current close to the well. The oil still continued to burn most furiously; and, spreading itself along the surface of the stream for half a mile inextent, shot its lames to the topsof the highest trees, exhibiting the i Ms er spectacle of a river actually on fire. It is probable that wells were drilled for salt in the neighborhood of Tarentum, on the Allegheny river, above Pittsburgh, about 1810. These wells were all comparatively shallow, but in many of them small quantities of petroleum often interfered more or less with their successful operation. Salt-wells were bored along the Big Sandy river and its tributaries across Kentucky and into Tennessee, and in many of them petroleum appeared in sufficient quantity to be troublesome. In 1818 or 1819 a well was bored on the south fork of the Cumberland river, in Wayne county, Kentucky, that produced petroleum in such quantities that it was abandoned for brine and was almost forgotten for more than thirty years. This well has acquired some notoriety under the name of the Beatty well, and is still yielding small quantities of oil. Farther west, in Barren and Cumberland counties, Kentucky, along the Cumberland river and its tributaries, numerous salt-wells were bored, and in many of them petroleum appeared. In 1829 the famous American well was bored near the bed of Little Rennox creek, near Burkesville, Kentucky. The following account of the phenomena attending its completion is to be found in Niles’ Register (3), xiii, 4: Some months since, in the act of boring for salt water on the land of Mr. Lemuel Stockton, situated in the county of Cumberland, Kentucky, a vein of pure oil was struck, from which it is almost incredible what quantities of the substance issued. The discharges were by floods, at intervals of from two to five minutes, at each flow vomiting forth many barrels of pure oil. I witnessed myself, on a shaft that stood upright by the aperture in the rock from which it issued, marks of oil 25 or 30 feet perpendicularly above the rock. These floods continued for three or four weeks, when they subsided to a constant stream, affording many thousand gallons per day. This well is between a quarter and a half mile from the bank of the Cumberland river, on a small rill (creek), down which it runs to the Cumberland river. It was traced as far down the Cumberland as Gallatin, in Sumner county, Tennessee, nearly 100 miles. For many miles it covered the whole surface of the river, and its marks are now found on the rocks on each bank. About 2 miles below the point on which it touched the river it was set on fire by a boy, and the effect was grand beyond description. An old gentleman who witnessed it says he has seen several cities on fire, but that he never beheld anything like the flames which rose from the bosom of the Cumberland to touch the very clouds. Referring to this article and the well, a correspondent of the Burkesville Courier, C. L. 8. Mathews, esq., under date October 11, 1876, says: This well, from the long continued yield of oil, is one of the most remarkable wells in America. When first struck, oil flowed from it at the rate of 1,000 barrels per day, and for many years, in fact, until the year 1860, it yielded a plentiful supply of oil. We have been informed by several old citizens, who witnessed the burning of the oil on the surface of the river, that the oil burned down the river about 56 miles, and that for miles all the vegetation and foliage along the river bank was destroyed. Some years after this strike was made several individuals took charge of the well, saved the oil, and put up several hundred thousand bottles, which they sold all through this country and some parts of Europe as the ‘‘ American Medicinal Oil, Burkesville, Kentucky”. During the decade from 1830 to 1840 the attention of the most distinguished French chemists was directed to the investigation of bitumens. Boussingault continued his general researches, and in 1837 published a classical paper on the subject. (a) Virlet d’Oust propounded the first theory regarding the origin of bitumens in 1834, (b) and the asphalt of the Dead sea, (c) of Pyrmont, (d) and near Havana, Cuba, were examined. (e) Hess wrote on the products of dry distillation (/) and was reviewed by Reichenbach, (g) who, with Laurent, (h) continued his researches upon paraffine. In 1833 Professor Benjamin Silliman, sr., contributed an article to the American Journal of Science (1), xxiii, 97, in which he describes the celebrated oil-spring of the Seneca Indians near Cuba, New York, as follows: The oil-spring, or fountain, rises in the midst of a marshy ground; it is a muddy and dirty pool of about 18 feet in diameter, and is nearly circular in form. There is no outlet above ground, no stream flowing from it, and it is, of course, a stagnant water, with no other circulation than that which springs from changes of temperature and from the gas and petroleum which are constantly rising through the pool. We are told that the odor of petroleum is perceived at a distance in approaching the spring. This may not improbably be true in particular states of the wind, but we did not distinguish any peculiar smell until we arrived on the edge of the fountain. Here its a A.C. et P. (2), xiv, 141. e Taylor & Clemson, P. M., x, 161. b-B.S. Gas Gl) sav, 3l2e f Pog. An., xxxvi, 417, xxxvii, 534. ce Journal des Savants, 1855, 596. g Jour. fiir Okonom. Chem., viii, 445. d Rozet, B. 8. G. F. (1), vii, 138. h Laurent, A.C. et P. (2), liv, 392, Lxiv, 321. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 9 peculiar character becomes very obvious. The water is covered with a thin layer of petroleum or mineral oil, giving it a foul appearance, .asif coated with dirty molasses, having a yellowish-brown color. Every partof the water was covered by this film, but it had nowhere the iridescence which I recollect to have observed at Saint Catharine’s well, a petroleum fountain near Edinburgh, in Scotland. There the water was pellucid, and the lines produced by the oil were brilliant, giving the whole a beautiful appearance. The difference is, however, easily accounted for. Saint Catharine’s well is a lively, flowing fountain, and the quantity of petroleum is only sufficient to cover it partially, while there is nothing to soil the stream; and in the present instance the stagnation of the water, the comparative abundance of the petroleum, and the mixture of leaves and sticks and other productions of a dense forest, preclude any beautiful features. There are, however, upon this water, here and there, spots of what seems to be a purer petroleum, probably recently risen, which is free from mixture, and which has a bright, brownish-yellow appearance, lively and sparkling; and were the fountain covered entirely with this purer production it would be beautiful. They collect the petroleum by skimming it, like cream from a milk-pan. For this purpose they use a broad, flat board, made thin at one edge like a knife; it is moved flat upon and just under the surface of the water, and is soon covered by a coating of the petroleum, which is so thick and adhesive that it does not fall off, but is removed by scraping the instrument upon the lip of a cup. It has then a very foul appearance, like very dirty tar or molasses, but it is purified by heating and straining it while hot through flannel or other woolen stuff. It is used by the people of the vicinity for sprains and rheumatism and for sores on their horses, it being in both cases rubbed upon the part. It is not monopolized by any one, but is carried away freely by all who care to collect it, and for this purpose the spring is frequently visited. I could not ascertain how much is annually obtained; the quantity must be considerable. It is said to rise more abundantly in hot weather than in cold. I cannot learn that any considerable part of the large quantities of petroleum used in the eastern states under the name of Seneca oil comes from the spring now described. I am assured that its source is about 100 miles from Pittsburgh, on Oil creek, which empties into the Allegheny river in the township and county of Venango. It exists there in great abundance, and rises in purity to the surface of the water; by dams, inclosing certain parts of the river or creek, it is prevented from flowing away, and it is absorbed by the blankets, from which it is wrung. The petroleum sold in the eastern states uuder the name of Seneca oil is of a dark brown color, between that of tar and molasses, and its degree of consistence is not dissimilar, according to the temperature; its odor is strong and too well known to need description. In an article entitled ‘Observations on the bituminous coal deposits of the valley of the Ohio” Dr. S. P. Hildreth, in 1836, notices the occurrence of petroleum on the Little Kanawha. (a) The decade trom 1840 to 1850 was remarkable for the number of travelers who, in different parts of the world, noticed the occurrence of bitumen, and also for several elaborate researches upon the geological occurrence and chemical constitution of its different varieties. Travelers visited the far east, and even China, (b) and gave glowing descriptions of the naphtha springs of Persia, (¢) the fire-worshipers of Baku, and the fire wells of China. (d) The naphtha springs of Persia are nowhere else described in such detail as in Ritter’s Erdkunde, published in 1841. (e) Boussingault (7) continued his researches in France, and in our own country, Percival, (g) in Connecticut, and Beck, (h) in New York, called attention to the fact that bitumen was of frequent occurrence in thin veins traversing the metamorphic and eruptive rocks of Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. In 1842 E. W. Binney first called attention to the occurrence of petroleum in the Down Holland Moss, which may be said to have been the first step toward the great paraffine oil industry of Scotland. (7) SECTION 3.—THE RISE OF THE PARAFFINE-OIL INDUSTRY. This decade witnessed the rise of the paraffine-oil industry in’ Europe and the United States. The success of the manufacture of shale oil at Bathgate, Scotland, by E. W. Binney & Co., from so-called Boghead coal, has been more popularly known through Mr. James Young, one of Mr. Binney’s associates. The lessening supply of sperm and whale oils, and their consequent advance in price, led to various attempts to invent or discover a cheaper substitute, and as a consequence the oils manufactured at Bathgate were eagerly sought in the market, especially when lamps were formed that would burn them with complete success. Mr. Binney claims to have first called these oils paraffine oils, but those used for illumination have been more widely known as kerosene. (7) In the United States experiments were commenced in the winter of 1850-51 by Luther and William Atwood near Boston, which resulted in the establishment in 1853 of the United States Chemical Manufacturing Company at Waltham, Massachusetts. This company manufactured from coal-tar an oil called ‘Coup oil”, which was used, mixed with cheap animal and vegetable oils, for lubricating machinery. In 1854 Mr. Joshua Merrill became connected with this company, but in 1855 he left it and became connected with the Downer Kerosene Oil Company of Boston, with which he has remained to the present time. These three gentlemen were the pioneers in the manufacture of paraffine oils in the United States. In 1857 the Downer Kerosene Oil Company commenced the manufacture of hydrocarbon oils from the Albert coal (a kind of asphaltum), obtained from New Brunswick, and they had works in Boston, Massachusetts, and in Portland, Maine. William Atwood had charge of the works in a A. J.S. (1), xxix, 121. - f A.C. et P. (2), Ixxiii, 442. b Pottinger; W. Robinson; Ainsworth. : g A. J. S. (3), xvi, 130. ec Kinnier: Persia. Bods Ss (1), xiv, 335; d Humboldt: Asie Centrale, ii, 519; Cosmos, 1, 232; Bohn 1, i Papers read before the Manchester (England) Geological 221. Society, 1842-43. e Die Erdkunde von Asien, vols. vii, viii, ix, x, and xi. j Communication from Mr. Binney to S. F. P. Notre.—The claims of Selligue as the original inventor of paraftine oils distilled from shale are stated elsewhere. I think the paraffine-oil industry took its rise at this time. 10 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Portland, Joshua Merrill of those in Boston, and Luther Atwood of a large establishment belonging to the New York. Kerosene Oil Company near Brooklyn, Long Island. Before these gentlemen left Waltham they had “experimented. upon bituminous coals, bituminous shales, asphaltum, and petroleums—petroleums and bitumens from nearly all the known sources, and many different varieties of coals and shales. ‘They succeeded in producing what they regarded at that time as a good lubricating oil from each of those sources”. (a) Previous to going to Portland Mr. William Atwood spent about eighteen months on the island of Trinidad attempting to produce crude lubricating oils from the asphalt of the celebrated Pitch lake. Meantime, parties in New Bedford, Massachusetts, who had been engaged in the manufacture of whale and sperm oils, commenced the manufacture of paraffine oils from the Boghead mineral of Scotland, which they imported for that purpose. The rich cannel coals of West Virginia and Kentucky soon attracted attention, and works for the manufacture of paraffine oils from them were established at Cloverport, Kentucky, and at Newark, Ohio. On the Allegheny river,in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, the Lucesco works were the largest in the country in 1859, having a capacity for producing 6,000 gallons of crude oil per diem. At Canfield, Mahoning county, Ohio, was another, and at Cannelton, West Virginia, was another with refining works at Maysville, Kentucky. By 1859 Luther Atwood had introduced his method of downward distillation, in which a tower was. filled with 25 tons of coal or Boghead mineral and a fire kindled on the upper surface by means of anthracite coal or pine wood. (b) A downward draft was created by a steam-jet in the pipe leading from the base of the tower,. and the heated products of combustion, descending through the coal, expelled the volatile materials at the lowest possible temperature. . In a recent letter, Mr. E. W. Binney, of Manchester, England, who, as before stated, was associated with Mr. James Young, at Bathgate, Scotland, tells me that when Mr. Young, in his celebrated patent lawsuit, testified. that he obtained paraffine oil from petroleum before he resorted to coal, and it became known on this side of the Atlantic, the American firms licensed under their patent refused to pay any more royalties and went to work. manufacturing petroleum. This is doubtless true as a statement of fact, but it conveys a wrong impression. The fact is that an inadequate supply alone prevented the use of petroleum in this country prior to 1859, and really Mr. Young and those on this side of the Atlantic were then in precisely the same situation as regards petroleum " but at the end of 1859 the situation in America became revolutionized, while that in Scotland remained as before.. SEcTION 4.—HISTORICAL NOTICE FROM 1850 TO THE COMPLETION OF DRAKE’S WELL (AUGUST, 1859). While Mr. Everett was engaged in making oil from cannel coal at Canfield, Ohio, Dr. J. S. Newberry sent him some petroleum from Mecca, Ohio, which was pronounced ‘‘as good or better than crude oil from coal”. Oil had been gathered along Mill creek, in Erie, Pennsylvania, since 1854, and had been sold to druggists for a dollar a gallon. At Oxbow hill, not far from Union City, Erie county, Pennsylvania, Mr. P. G. Stranahan and his brothers dug out a spring about 1845 from which oil has flowed ever since. William ©. and Charles Hyde were engaged in lumbering on Oil creek, near the present village of Hydetown,,. from 1845 to 1850. The former, being well acquainted at that time with the oil-springs near Titusville, went to Pittsburgh and inquired of R. Robinsou & Co., grocers, for a cheap oil for lighting mills, and got a half-barrel of amber oil, called “ rock-oil”, which was used in a vessel resembling a tea-kettle, the wick projecting from the nozzle, and burned much better than the green oil of Oil creek. The latter had long been collected from curbed. pits, in which the oil arose and floated upon the water. Blankets were spread upon the water, which absorbed the oil, which was then wrung from them. Mr. J. D. Angier contrived a series of pits, one above another, and allowed the water to flow out from beneath the oil, and in this way he obtained what was then considered a large amount— six gallons a day. From 1845 to 1855 parties were actively engaged in manufacturing salt at Tarentum, on the Allegheny river, above Pittsburgh, among them a Mr. Kier, whose son, Samuel M. Kier, was a druggist in Pittsburgh. Mr. Kier bored a well for brine at Tarentum and obtained oil that looked like brandy with the water, and this was allowed to. flow into the canal leading to Pittsburgh. Mr. Samuel M. Kier’s wife was sick, as was supposed, with consumption, and her physician prescribed “‘ American oil”. It helped her, and her husband was led to compare it with that obtained from his father’s well. Concluding, as they possessed the same odor, that they were the same thing, he submitted them to a chemist, who pronounced them identical. Mr. 8. M. Kier soon after commenced to bottle American oil for sale, and after a few years, supposed to be about 1855, in company with Mr. McKuen, he first refined petroleum from his father’s wells at Tarentum. The oils were treated like the crude oils obtained from coal, and were made into burning oils and heavier oils, that were sold to the woolen factory at Cooperstown for cleansing wool, for which they were found very valuable. This refinery created a demand for crude petroleum, and led people: to reflect upon the possibility of procuring it in larger quantity. While Kier was at work in Pittsburgh, the firm of Brewer & Watson were engaged in a large lumbering and general merchandise business at Titusville, on Oil creek. In the summer of 1854 Dr. F. B. Brewer, whose a Testimony of William Atwood in case of Merrill vs. Youmans. b Antisell, page 135, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. ie father was at the head of this firm, visited relatives at Hanover, New Hampshire, and carried a bottle of petroleum to Professor Crosby, of Dartmouth College, of which institution the doctor was a graduate, and Mr. A. H. Crosby, a son of the professor, and now a physician in Concord, New Hampshire, became greatly interested in his representations respecting the petroleum and the oil-springs. At this time Mr. George H. Bissell, also a native of Hanover, and a graduate of Dartmouth, was on a visit to his old home, and was induced by the others to join an enterprise for forming a stock company for procuring petroleum on Oilcreek. Mr. Bissell was then engaged in the: practice of law in New York as a member of the firm of Eveleth & Bissell. After some time spent in negotiation, during which Dr. Crosby had visited Oil creek and advised boring as a means of obtaining the oil in larger quantities, an arrangement was effected with Messrs. Brewer & Watson, under which Messrs. Eveleth & Bissell proceeded to organize a company. Under date of November 6, 1854, these gentlemen informed Dr. Brewer that they “had forwarded several gallons of the oil to Mr. Atwood, of Boston, an eminent chemist, and his report of the qualities of the oil and the uses to which it may be applied was very favorable. Professor Silliman, of Yale College, is giving it a thorough analysis, and he informs us that, so far as he has yet tested it, he is of opinion that it contains a large proportion of benzole and naphtha, and that it will be found more valuable for purposes of application to the arts than as a medicinal, burning, or lubricating fluid ”. The first deed from Brewer, Watson & Co. was dated November 10, 1854, and conveyed to George H. Bissell and Jonathan G. Eveleth, of New York city, 105 acres of Jand on what was known as the “ Watson flats”, embracing the island at the junction of Pine and Oil creeks. It was on this island that Mr. Angier’s pits were. dug, and also where the first well was drilled five years later. As a result of this purchase, the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company was incorporated on the 30th of December, 1854, under the laws of the state of New York. In order to satisfy several residents of New Haven who took an interest in the enterprise in consequence of Professor Silliman’s report, which was made in April, 1855, the property of the company was purchased by Messrs. Ives & Pierpont, and was leased by them to a new company bearing the. same title and organized under the laws of Connecticut, the official residence of the company being transferred to. the city of New Haven. By the 23d of March, 1857, the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company had leased the property on Oil creek to the New Haven stockholders, who organized under the name of ‘“‘ The Seneca Oil Company ”, and: HE. L. Drake was engaged the following spring to go out to’Titusville and drill an artesian well for oil. Mr. Drake, called Colonel Drake on Oil creek, arrived in Titusville about May 1, 1858. At that time Titusville- was a lumbering village, and the nearest point at which tools and machinery could be obtained was Erie, Pennsylvania,. nearly 100 miles north, or Pittsburgh, still farther south. Drake commenced operations by attempting to sink a shaft. in one of the old timbered pits once supposed to be of prehistoric origin, but hatchets of French manufacture have- been discovered in or about these pits. His idea appears to have been at first to sink a shaft or ordinary well by digging; but water and quicksands continually thwarted him, and he finally resorted to the expedient of driving an iron pipe from the surface to the solid rock. This device is supposed to have been original with Drake; but if it was, he never attempted to reap any advantage from it, although it has been of great value ever since in artesian boring. He appears to have prepared for boring during the season of 1858 by driving his pipe 36 feet to the rock and getting his engine, tools, and pump-house in order; but the men he had engaged to drill early in the season had secured another job, and the work was suspended until the following season, when Mr. William Smith and his two sons were engaged, they having had large experience on salt-wells. These men arrived at Titusville about the middle of June, bringing with them all the necessary tools for drilling. After many vexatious delays, they were, fairly under way by the middle of August and had drilled 33 feet, when, on the 28th of August, 1859, the drill struck a crevice, into which it fell six inches. The following day being Sunday, Smith visited the well in the afternoon and found the drill-hole full to within a few feet of the top, and on fishing up a small quantity in a tin cup it was found to be petroleum. Such is the story of the first petroleum well. (a) As soon as Mr. Watson heard the news he sprang upon a horse and hastened down Oil creek to lease the farm on which the McClintock spring was situated; but Drake telegraphed to Mr. Bissell, who thereupon bought up all the stock of the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company that he could get hold of, and, immediately visiting Oil creek, leased large tracts of land that afterward yielded abundantly. Secrion 5.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. SINCE THE COMPLETION OF DRAKE’S WELL (AUGUST, 1859). The territory over which operations were conducted was for a long time. confined to the valleys of the Allegheny river and its tributaries, on the supposition that the present configuration of surface was related to the strata containing the oil. For this reason wells were drilled in the valley of Oil creek from Titusville to Oil City, on French creek from Union City to Meadville and Franklin, and on the Allegheny at Tidioute. Although the coal-oil manufactories all over the country, with scarcely an exception, commenced to work petroleum instead of a Iam indebted to Henry’s Early and Later History of Petroleum, which is indorsed by Mr. Bissell, and to many conversations with residents of Titusville and the vicinity, for the facts contained in the above narration. i PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. coal, the production was so enormous, as compared with the demand, that the market was soon glutted and the price fell to almost nothing. An extended demand, and the partial exhaustion of the territory then being worked, led to better prices in 1865, and the immediate result was the boring of wells over an immense extent of country, from Manitoulin island to Alabama, and from Missouri to central New York. In Europe companies were also formed, and wells were put down wherever an oil-spring existed. In the United States the result was the permanent development of a small territory in southern Kentucky, another still larger in West Virginia and in Washington county, Ohio, and another in Trumbull county, Ohio, at Mecca. In Pennsylvania oil was found at Smith’s Ferry, on the Ohio river, in Beaver county, and the hill region lying in the angle formed by Oil creek and the Allegheny river from Tidioute across to Titusville was explored and several localities of great richness were opened up. Henry, in Early and Later History of Petroleum, pages 109 and 110, says: The total daily product of all the wells in June, 1860, was estimated at 200 barrels. By September, 1861, the daily production had reached 700 barrels, and then commenced the flowing-well period, with an addition to the production of 6,000 or 7,000 barrels a day. The price fell to 20 cents a barrel, then to 15, and then to 10. Soon it was impossible to obtain barrels on any terms, for all the coopers in the surrounding country could not make them as fast as the Empire well could fill them. Small producing wells were forced to cease » operations, and scores of operators became disheartened and abandoned their wells. The production during the early part of 1863 was scarcely half that of the beginning of 1862, and that of 1864 was still less. In May, 1865, the production had declined to less than 4,000 barrels per day. Commencing at Titusville in 1859, the tide of development swept over the valley of Oil creek and along the Allegheny river above and below Oil City for a considerable distance; then Cherry run, in 1864. Then came Pithole creek, Benninghoff and Pioneer run; the Woods and Stevenson farms, on Oil creek, in like succession, in 1865 and 1866; Tidioute and Triumph hill in 1867, and in the latter part of the same year came Shamburg. In 1868 the Pleasantville oil-field furnished the chief center of excitement. While this great activity was being displayed in Pennsylvania, the old salt and petroleum region in the valley of the Muskingum, in Ohio, and on the Little Kanawha, in West Virginia, was bored for petroleum, and several wells of great productiveness were obtained. In 1860 an old brine well at Burning Springs, West Virginia, that had yielded petroleum, was cleaned out, the water tubed off, and about fifty barrels of oil per day secured. In the following winter the Llewellyn well was struck at about the depth of 100 feet, and it flowed over 1,000 barrels a day. Several other good wells were secured, when, during a confederate raid, the property was destroyed and the operators were driven away. In 1864 operations were resumed, deeper wells producing a large amount of oil, and speculation and excitement ran to a high pitch. In 1865 operations were successfully undertaken at White Oak, which resulted in developing the most extensive and best known West Virginia territory. From 1860 to 1865 wells were successfully drilled on Cow run and at other localities in Washington county, Ohio. For more than a century bitumen had been known in southern California between Santa Barbara and Los Angeles, and had also been observed floating upon the sea in the Santa Barbara channel between the islands and the mainland. Early in 1864 this region was visited by an eminent eastern chemist, who was so far misled by false local representations and by gross deceptions practiced upon him as toinduce him to make a report upon this as a petroleum- producing region of great richness. This report, and others of a similar character, led to the formation of mining companies representing stock to the value of millions of dollars, all of which, it is needless to add, was lost to the bona fide investors. Several hundred thousand dollars were spent in boring wells, but few of them produced sufficient petroleum even to serve as a specimen, and none, so far as I am informed, paid the cost of boring. A few years of effort found the companies with depleted treasuries and no oil, and with a large amount of land and apparatus on their hands. On one estate 5,000 barrels in shooks, shipped from New York, were rotting down in a huge pile before a drop of petroleum had been obtained from beneath its surface. While these magnificent enterprises were becoming magnificent failures, more humble efforts were achieving a measure of success in driving tunnels into the steep mountain sides upon the petroleum-bearing rock. The total production of this region, however, never reached above a few thousand barrels of inferior quality per year, and the San Francisco market continued to be supplied almost exclusively with Pennsylvania petroleum shipped around cape Horn. (a) From 1870 to 1880 the region between Tidioute and Oil creek has constantly become relatively of less importance when compared with the entire area of producing territory in Pennsylvania. At the beginning of this decade the production of this region had considerably lessened, and a number of new and very successful wells farther down the Allegheny river were attracting attention in that direction. Wells had been put down near the junction of the Clarion and Allegheny rivers as early as 1863 and 1864, but very little notice had been taken of them at the time; and it was not until 1868 that a successful well on the hill above Parker’s landing attracted the attention of the bolder operators and led to the development of what is termed the “lower country”, lying in Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion counties. In 1867 Mr. C. D. Angell had developed a very productive oil property on Belle island, in the Allegheny river, 25 miles below Oil City. While carrying forward his work he was busily investigating the occurrence of petroleum by studying the relative position of the most productive wells. He had observed in the “ upper country” that a narrow belt extending across from Scrubgrass, on the Allegheny river, to Petroleum Center, on Oil creek, included many of the best wells in that region. In the “lower country” he a Advices from the Pacific coast indicate that during the years 1880 and 1881 a petroleum interest that promises some local value has _ been developed in a portion of the state further north than that here referred to. , THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 13 projected a similar belt, lying in a direction nearly parallel with the first, and extending from Saint Petersburg, in Clarion county, through Parker’s landing, to Bear creek, in Butler county. A glance at the map (III) accompanying this report will show how Angell’s so-called “ belt theory” corresponded to the facts as shown by subsequent developments. As is usually the case, the majority of operators scoffed, while a few listened, and, after listening, went to work. The results have shown that the oil rock lies in belts or in long and narrow areas, having a general northeast and southwest extension, often not more than 30 rods in width, but several miles in length; that the sand rock is thickest and most productive along the axis of the belt, thinning out toward its borders, the upper surface being level and the under surface curved upward from the center; that the present configuration of the surface has no relation to the form, extent, or direction of the “belt”. These facts established, and their successful application abundantly demonstrated by the remarkable success attending Angell’s operations, have given a certain degreo of accuracy to the development of oil territory that it never possessed before. On the other hand, they have led to very exaggerated views, some enthusiasts affirming their belief that the line of north 16° east, upon which Angell achieved his first success, governed the direction and extent of territory containing oil from Canada to Tennessee. I shall again refer to the facts upon which Angell’s theory is based in my chapter on the “ Origin of Bitumens”. (a) Angell kept his own counsel at first, and obtained a sufficient number of leases on favorable terms to insure his financial success ; but the plan upon which he worked became apparent from the character of his operations, and others followed, or attempted to follow, his example, and wells were drilled across the country to the southwest of Parker’s landing into Butler county, and often miles in advance of any territory hitherto proved profitable, until a tract was more or less clearly outlined about five miles in breadth and thirty-five miles in length, the principal axis of which lay in the general direction north 22° east. Other less extended belts lying generally paraliel to this will be noticed by glancing at the map (III). During the early years of this decade, when Angell’s efforts and sagacity were being rewarded in the lower country with success in a most substantial form, other operators struck out from the ‘upper country” of Oil creek in a general northeast direction, some on a line north 16° east, others north 224° east, and others on still other lines, often traced over the forest-covered hills of that region with a compass, and located their wells in the expectation of finding other sand-bars of the ancient sea from which the oil would rush to the surface. They finally reached the town of Bradford, in McKean county, a locality which some thought could never produce oil. It was not the first attempt at well-drilling that obtained oil in the neighborhood of Bradford. In 1862 the old Bradford well, since known as the Barnsdall well, was drilled to a depth of 200 feet with a spring-pole and then abandoned. In 1866 the citizens of the village of Bradford concluded to club together and sink the Barnsdall well deeper, and it was drilled to a total depth of 875 feet, or to within 150 feet of the Bradford producing sand. In 1865 F. E. Dean and brothers drilled a well in the valley of Tuna creek, on the Shepherd farm, near the present site of Custer City, 160 feet of drive-pipe being used, and the hole being drilled to 900 feet, but it was abandoned when over 200 feet above the top of the oil-sand. The next well was drilled by the Dean brothers on the Clark farm, at Tarport, and drilling was stopped at a depth of 605 feet, or over 400 feet above the top of theoil-sand. All of these wells were drilled with the expectation of finding the Venango county oil-sand at about the same depth below water-level as at Oil City, but they were all failures. : The first well sunk to the Bradford sand was drilled by Mr. James E. Butts and others, under the name of the Foster Oil Company, on the Gilbert farm, 2 miles northeast of Bradford. ‘Slush oil” was found at a depth of 751 feet, and in November, 1871, producing sand was struck at 1,110 feet. The daily production was 10 barrels, and from the time this well was struck to December, 1874, no wells were drilled to amount to anything. On December 6, 1874, Messrs. Butts and Foster struck the oil-sand on the Archy Buchanan farm, 25 miles northeast of Bradford. This well started off with a daily production of 70 barrels, and was really the first that attracted attention to the possibility of finding a profitable oil district in the county. In December, 1878, four years from the completion of the Butts well, the average daily production of crude oil was 23,700 barrels, or about four-sevenths of the total daily production of the state of Pennsylvania, while in December, 1880, two years later, and six years from the completion of the first well, out of a total average daily production for the Pennsylvania oil-fields of 72,214 barrels, 63,000 barrels were yielded by the Bradford field alone. During the year 1879 there were 475 wells drilled to the Venango sands in the counties of Warren, Venango, Clarion, and Butler. Of this number 122 were dry holes, or produced no oil, being 25.7 per cent. In the Bradford or northern district there were during the same year 2,536 wells drilled to the Bradford oil- sand, of which number but 76 were dry holes, or only 3 per cent., being nearly 23 per cent. less than in the Venango or western district. The average daily production for the first month of the wells drilled in the Bradford sand was about 20 barrels, while for the wells in the Venango sands it did not attain that amount. Some of the wells drilled to the Venango third-oil sand have produced from 2,000 to 3,000 barrels of oil per day, while the largest well ever found in the a See page 70. 14 . PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Bradford district has not exceeded as many hundred. The largest individual wells have been located in the western district; the largest average wells in the northern district. Since the beginning of the year 1875, when the Bradford oil horizon was discovered, there have been 6,249 wells drilled in the district, of which 236 were dry holes, or 3.77 per cent. From the most authentic statistics which I can gather in the western district, about one-fourth of the wells that have been drilled in the Venango sands, since their discovery in 1859, have proved dry. When we take these facts into consideration, we can readily understand why there should bave been 2,536 wells drilled in the northern district to only 475 in the western in 1879. (a) During 1880, as undrilled territory became more scarce in the Bradford field, what are termed “ wild-cat” or test wells were drilled both to the northeast and to the southwest of Bradford, and the result has determined two areas, one near the city of Warren, and another around Stoneham, both in Warren county, Pennsylvania. To the northeast an area not yet outlined has been determined around Richburg, Cattaraugus county, New York. Forty-five years ago M. C. Read, esq., now of Hudson, Ohio, lived in Mecca, on the east side of Mosquito creek. It had been observed for along time that petroleum gushed out when stones were removed from their places along the bank of the creek, and as it frequently appeared in wells it was considered a nuisance. In the spring of 1860, when there was great excitement in eastern Ohio over the oil in Pennsylvania, Mr. Read mentioned to some persons what he knew about the oil-springs in Mecca, and it was only a few days thereafter before property was being leased in that place on a royalty of from one-tenth to one-quarter, and in a year all available property on the west side of the creek and some on the east side had been taken up. . Wells were bored rapidly, yielding from 10 to 20 barrels, and in some cases were so near together that one sucked -air from the other when pumped. Thousands of barrels of oil were taken out yearly for a few years, when a large part of the wells became exhausted, many of them were abandoned, and the excitement subsided. In 1864 it was renewed for a short time, and Pennsylvania parties bought up all the land on the east side of the creek and obtained a few good wells, but they soon failed. Since that time a few persons have been engaged in drilling new wells and pumping the old ones, for the most part spending what they got on good wells in drilling others which produced nothing. In the opinion of those best qualified to judge, Mecca oil operations have netted nothing, or more probably have resulted in a loss. The operators now make a living, all money earned over and above being spent in putting -down new wells. Near Power’s Corners there was in early times an old shaft which tradition credited as the work of a prehistoric ‘race. Such an origin is not probable. At Belden, in Lorain county, Ohio, it is reported that one Reuben Ingersoll sunk a well for salt in 1818 or 1819 on the Root farm, but so much oil came with the brine that the well was soon abandoned. ‘The oil for a long time was skimmed off and sold as a medicine. Many years afterward, in sinking a hole for the post for a flood-gate to a mill, petroleum appeared at the bottom, and occasionally it appeared in other excavations. It is claimed that the first well was bored here for oil in 1858, but on what authority I do not know. Itis said to have been bored 500 feet deep by a Mr. Harper and to have struck oil at 50 feet. In 1860 a Mr. Gardener sunk Harper’s well to 1,200 feet and abandoned it. Other wells were put down soon after, and one of them—the old Crittenden well—in 1862 pumped by hand, wind-mill, and steam-power 65 barrels. A few wells at Liverpool have a similar history. A’Mr. Thoms in 1850 gathered oil from holes dug in the sand on a bar of the Ohio river near the mouth of Little Beaver creek, Beaver county. The first well was the Fenton well, drilled in 1860, close to the mouth of Dry run. This well was 170 feet deep, and yielded 14 or 15 barrels of heavy lubricating oil. They then went down along the river 575 feet and on Island run 600 feet, and reached a fine, close sand. Some wells were carried down 1,100 or 1,200 feet to the second sand, yielding a little oil. Wells in this section have never been drilled 1,500 to 1,600 feet to the third sand. This territory is between three and four miles square. Some oil has also been obtained at Beaver creek and Rochester, in the same county; but the principal development in this section is confined to a small territory immediately north of Smith’s ferry, and has occurred since 1878. SECTION 6.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE RUSSIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. There are five foreign oil-fields that have attracted attention and that have produced more or less oil in commercially valuable quantities. They are the region of the Caucasus, Galicia, Canada, Japan, and Peru. Of these, the first mentioned is altogether the most important so far as present information indicates. Next may be placed Canada; but as regards the relative importance of the others it would be difficult to decide. The Russian fields lie in two districts, one at either extremity of the Caucasus. The western, on the Black sea, is the Kouban, on a river of the same name; the eastern is the Baku district, on the peninsula of Apscheron, extending into the Caspian sea, and on which the city of Baku stands. The Kouban district is situated on the northwestern slope of mount Oshten, which is the most western peak of the Caucasus, 9,000 feet in height. Its area is about 250 square miles. Operations were commenced here in 1864 a Iam indebted for the major portion of this statement in reference to the Bradford field to two papers by Charles A. Ashburner, esq.—the first read at the Baltimore meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, February, 1879; the second read before the American Philosophical Society, March 5,1880. P. A. P. S., xviii, 419; T. A, I. M, E., 1879; P. A. P. S., 1880. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. | 15 by the Russian colone: Novosiltsoff, who had a monopoly of the petroleum industry of that region for more than twelve years. He sunk his first well at Peklo, near the coast of the Black sea, and after many borings, with varying success, in different parts of the district, he became so heavily involved that to save him from bankruptcy the government placed the petroleum interests under a curatorship. From these exploitations of varying depth, large quantities of excellent petroleum of specific gravity from 38° to 48° Baumé have been obtained. The most remarkable well was obtained at Kandako in 1866. Ata depthof only 40 feet from 10 to 12 barrels of oil per day were yielded. At a depth of 123} feet the first flow of oil appeared and yielded 125 barrels of oil per day, throwing it 14 feet high. The well was mismanaged and choked, and when finally reopened and sunk to 182 feet, a flow of oil rose to 40 feet high, and gave 250 barrels per day. It was again choked and finally deepened to 242 feet, when the oil again flowed with great power and violence, yielding several thousand barrels per day, and continued its spontaneous action for eighteen months. (a) This management came to an end in 1877, on the breaking out of the last Russo-Turkish war, when the whole district of the Kouban was abandoned. In 1879 the larger portion of the district, amounting to 1,500,000 acres, was leased to Dr. H. W. C. Tweddle, with private estates amounting to 90,000 acres additional. During the years 1879 and 1880 great activity has prevailed in preparation for an extensive development of oil with all of the appliances in use in Pennsylvania for obtaining, handling, and refining petroleum. Concerning the history of petroleum production at Baku, Consul Dyer wrote, on August 10, 1880, as follows: From time immemorial oil has been known to exist at Baku, and for generations the natives have taken it for greasing their vehicles, preparing skins for wine, etc., and for use in the southern countries for embalming the dead, and even in some cases for illuminating purposes. Their wants were, however, small, and the surface production was sufficient. The wells were rather receptacles for the surface oil than otherwise, as they were simply holes dug a few feet deep in the earth. From the time of the Russian occupation of the country in 1723 down to 1825 this industry remained almost neglected. From 1813 something was done, but nothing of importance, and the total revenue to the government arising from it was less than $40,000 per year. From time to time private persons took the privilege, and at times the crown worked them to some extent. The price charged for the oil was as high as 4 rubles per pood, and thus the industry was destroyed. (b) It was about 1832 that the industry began to assume anything like business proportions; but even then it was managed so badly that it remained very insignificant. A few wells were dug (as wells for water are dug), and the government even refused permission for an enterprising lessee to work with any kind of boring tools, the officer replying that such things had been tried, but that they had not succeeded, and consequently could not be tried again at Baku. In 1850 the government gave a monopoly and limited the selling price of crude oil to 45 kopecks the pood, and received the sum of 200,000 rublesfor the privilege. This monopoly was farmed out every four years to the best * * * bidder. In 1868 a commission was formed to take into consideration the industry. In 1872,in pursuance of ms recommendations, the territory upon which there were surface _ indications was divided into plats of 25 acres each, and sold to the highest bidder by sealed proposals. By this time the field had attracted much attention, and the parcels were disposed of in some instances for enormous prices. In most cases, purchases were made by persons who had not the means to work their possessions, nor the experience had they possessed the capital. They, however, held on to their lands, and capital and experience were thus kept away, and the industry was worked in the most crude and unsatisfactory manner. The product of the refineries was so bad, and the market so small, that there was not energy enough engaged to bring on a crisis in the industry. The government had placed an excise tax, which, under the circumstances, was unbearable, and for a time previous to 1878 the operators were upon the verge of ruin. No work was done except to fill contracts previously made. At Nishni-Novgorod there was in store more than one and a half millions of poods, almost 200,000 barrels, unsold, and the price had gone down from 3.50 to 1.30 rubles per pood. The government then removed the excise tax, and now there remains only a small tax collected by the town of Baku. The real birth of the industry may be said to be the year 1872, when the lands passed into private hands. There have been since that time great but insufficient energy and activity displayed. The operators have no relations with each other. a 4 a Many small owners, for want of means to work their property, have been obliged to sell, and some capitalists have entered simply as refiners, buying the crude oil for that purpose. Some of these refineries have grown to large proportions, and the principal ones are now making such improvements and changes as to make them first-class establishments, capable of enormous and thorough work. He states further, as follows: The territory now worked does not exceed six square miles. The principal field is at Balaxame, 94 miles northeast of Baku, covering a territory of, say, 34 by 14 miles. Two miles south of Baku is a small field at Bébéabat, on which there are some 25 wells. This is a very small territory, say three-fourths of a mile square. Ten miles southeast from Baku is an island. It is certain that oil exists there, but in what quantitiesis not known. Within a radius of 50 miles there are constant surface indications, and even some small wells. In 1850 there were in all 136 wells. In 1862 there were 220, and in 1872 there were 415. These were wells dug as water wells are. In 1871 the first well was bored. In 1872 there was 1; in 1874, 50; in 1876, 101; in 1879, 301 bored wells in the district. The other wells had entirely ceased to be worked. During the year 1879, and so far in 1880 (August), there has been very much work done, but the exact figures are not attainable. The business is in a most confused condition now, in consequence of the changes that are being made. Many new wells have been commenced, and a very large number of those previously worked are being drilled deeper. If the figures given may be relied upon, that is, 301 wells up to 1879, it may now, perhaps, be said that on the lst of July, 1880, about 500 wells had been commenced. Many of them are not completed, and some have been abandoned. I have purposely omitted reference to the more or less highly colored accounts of the Baku ‘ field of fire” and the “ Persian fire-worshipers and their temples”. The “field of fire” is described by Gruner (c) ‘as a broad expanse filled with fissures, from some of which inflammable gas escapes, and from others naphtha”. Another speaks of it as a “wonderful sight; of green fields and waving corn, in the midst of which the removal of a foot or two of earth will reveal a jet of gas that will raise an enormous blaze if set on fire”. (a) a Consular Reports No, 1, October, 1880. c Ann. Génie Civil, ‘iv, 845. b Ruble, $0.56; pood, 36 pounds. d Churchill, British consul to Resht, Persia. 16 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. SEcTION 7.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF GALICIA. The petroleum fields of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Galicia lie upon the southern, eastern, and northern flanks: of the mountain system that incloses Hungary from Russia and the plains of the Danube. This system embraces. the Transylvanian Alps, the Siebenbiirgen, and the Carpathians. Oil springs have flowed in this region from time immemorial, and the oil has been collected and used by the inhabitants of the country and devoted to many of the rude and uncultivated wants of a people remote from the centers of civilization. In1810 Josef Hecker and Johann Mitis obtained petroleum in Drohobycz district, and made a trial of the distilled and crude oil, which was obtained from dug wells and afterward treated in stills; but having worn out their still in 1818, their works were closed. In 1840, in the Stanislow district, there were 75 dug wells and 6 establishments for the manufacture of wagon-grease. In 1853-64 Schreiner boiled down petroleum and made a very superior article of grease, and his successor condensed the distillate and used it for illuminating purposes.. The industry since that time, although conducted in a small way, had steadily increased until 1860-65. (a) Since 1860 a great deal has been written on the Galician oil-fields, and several spasmodic attempts have been made to find remunerative employment for capital in their development. This was especially the case in 1865, when the expansion of the production of Pennsylvania led to so many enterprises of a more or less experimental nature all over the world. There are three localities particularly noted for their petroleum product. These are the neighborhood of Sandecer, in west Galicia; that of Bobrka, near Dukla, Sanoker, and Samborer, in middle Galicia; and Boryslav, in east Galicia. The latter locality is also celebrated for its production of ozokerite. The localities in Roumania that are now principally associated with petroleum are Sarrata, Bacan, Dimbovitsa, Prahova, Burzen, Moniezta, Plojezti,. and Baikoi. The oil was originally collected, as in other localities, from the water of the springs, with which it flowed from the crevices in rocks. It was afterward obtained from wells or shafts that were dug, and in Galicia and Roumania it is at present obtained in that primitive manner. Later the shafts were connected by galleries, forming what are called ‘“‘ complex mines” (complex Gruben) in Galicia. The exploitations for oil at Mraznica consist of about 70 shafts in the upper part of the valley of Tiesmienka,. the lowest row of shafts lying on both sides of the declivity of the Bachspiegels, with a second and a third row above them. They consist of the “old” complex mines, consisting of about 40 shafts, and the “new” complex mines, consisting of about 30 shafts. The older ‘‘complex mine” is going on 12 years old, having originated when the oil fever agitated Galicia. The firstshafts were sunk by a Jewish company near an oil-spring to a depth of 100 meters (328 feet) with very satisfactory results, in consequence of which, and in order to control the production, they sunk many other shafts in the immediate neighborhood as soon as possible, and thus copied the Boryslav method of operation in the most destructive manner. The consequence was that they finally obtained from about 40 shafts the same quantity of oil that they could have had from 10 exploitations. A second oil-level, not yet reached, is- supposed to exist, but the shafts have only penetrated 100 to 150 meters (328 to 492 feet). The largest yield from a single shaft is said to have amounted to 40 barrels of erude oil per week. Through ten years the most of the shafts have had an average flow of about 4 barrels per week; yet a single shaft is said to have yielded a net profit of 200,000 gulden ($100,000), and has yielded petroleum for ten years up to 1878. After a period of ten years the yield of oil decreased to such an extent that the enterprise became unprofitable. This caused the projector of the Jewish enterprise to attach the new “ Gruben complex”, consisting of 30 new-dug shafts, which likewise lay near each other in a compact mass, to the immediate upper half of the old shafts. In November, 1878, these shafts were sunk 20 to 50 meters (65 to 164 feet); yet they yielded no traces of petroleum particularly worthy of note. The extensive development of gas of the ‘‘old complex” was also entirely wanting. This failure is explained by assuming that the new shafts happened to lie within the circle already exhausted by the “old complex”. Hence the petroleum industry in Mraznica must come to an end; yet, toward the close of 1878, 5 shafts still yielded about 14 barrels weekly. The long duration of the flow from these shafts is remarkable (ten years), while other springs in Galicia only flow an average of five years. (b) Mraznica is in east Galicia. The facts set forth by Herr Walter explain why Consul-General Weaver reports. December 30, 1880, that, of the yearly product of 100,000 barrels, produced in Galicia, two-thirds are at present obtained in west Galicia, in the vicinity of Grybow, where, during the census year, Mr. James Corrigan succeeded in establishing an American refinery. In a letter dated October 9, 1881, Mr. Corrigan states that a new weil, yielding 75 barrels daily, had been struck at Slaboda, near the boundary of Bukowina (east Galicia), and that consequently great excitement prevailed. a Ost. Zeit. f. Berg- und Hiittenwesen. b Abstract of a portion of an article by Bruno Walter on “‘ The chances of a petroleum production in Bukowina”. J. K. K. G. R., xxx, 115 (1880). THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. re SroTIon 8.-HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY OF CANADA. The productive oil-fields of Canada lie in the county of Lamberton, in the western part of the province of Ontario, and principally in the township of Enniskillen. From the earliest settlement of the region “a dark oily substance had been observed floating on the surface of the water in the creeks and swamps. No matter how deep the wells were dug, the water was brackish and ill-smelling, and in some localities totally unfit for use; while a surface of black, oily slime frequently arose an inch thick, as cream rises on new milk. Here and there in the forest the ground consisted of a gummy, odoriferous tar-colored mud, of the consistence of putty. These places were known by the name of ‘gum-beds’, and in two or three instances were of considerable extent”. (Henry’s Harly and Later History of Petroleum, p. 1390.) Operations were commenced there as early as 1857 by one Shaw, who dug an ordinary well, as for water, and after several days of digging struck a tremendous flow of oil, which ran in a stream into the creek. The usual phenomena attending such a discovery followed; land was bought and leased, more wells were dug, and oil flowed ; they gathered what they could and wasted the remainder; fortunes were made and lost, and after a time, in 1864, the town of Oil Springs contained 3,000 inhabitants. Flowing wells were struck here in 1862, and some of them proved the most prolific on record, rivaling those of the region around Baku. These great wells were exceptional, and the average yield has been comparatively small. The region over which borings have proved the existence of oil in paying quantities is about 50 miles north and south by 100 miles east and west, and within this range Petrolia, Bothwell, and Oil Springs have produced nearly all of the oil. The latter had the largest wells, though the former now produces more than nine-tenths of the amount at present obtained. Petrolia is about 16 miles southeast of the outlet of lake Huron, Oil Springs 7 miles south of Petrolia, and Bothwell about 35 miles from Oil Springs. The petroleum of Canada contains sulphur and is difficult to refine, but its production has been fostered, and it supplies a large demand throughout the British provinces. Section 9.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE JAPANESE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. The knowledge of rock-oil in Japan is of great antiquity. In B.S. Lyman’s reports (1877) appears the following: It is said in the Japanese history called Kokushiriyaku (I am told) that rock-oil (or “burning water”) was found in Echigo (in Niphon) in the reign of Tenjitenno, which was 1,260 years ago, or about A. D. 615; and that was probably at Kusédzu, where there are very old natural exposures as well as dug wells. The name of the place, Kusédzu, is the name given in the country to rock-oil, and means stinking water; and the very fact that the word is by contraction so much changed from its original form, Kusai midra, shows of itself considerable antiquity. In the Miyéhéji and Kusédzu oil region there are (beside a much larger number of old, abandoned wells) about 178 productive wells, which altogether yield about 43 barrels a day, making an average of about 1 gallon a day for each well. The best well is at Machikata, and yields about half a barrela day. The best of the former wells was at Kitakata, and for fourteen days (in 1871) it yielded a daily average of 19 barrels, but after that only about 8 barrels a day. The deepest productive well of the region is 122 fathoms deep. Reviewing all the Echigo oil-fields, we find that there are in all 522 productive wells, of which the deepest is 122 fathoms (732 feet) deep, the greatest yield is about 1.2 barrels a day, and the total yield about 26 barrels a day, giving an average of about 2 gallons a day for each well. Such a yield, if kept up through the whole year, summer and winter, would amount for all the wells together to 9,500 barrels a year, worth, at 12 gallons to the dollar, $31,650. At Shinano, on the other hand, the yield is far smaller. There are in that province, in spite of the numerous traces of oil and gas, only 22 productive wells, of which the deepest is 57 fathoms (342 feet) deep, and the best has a yield of 2} barrels a day; and the total yield is a little over 5 barrels a day, or an average of 94 gallons a day to each well; or, in a year, 1,900 barrels altogether, worth about $6,250. The whole yield of the two provinces, then, is about equal to that of two average Pennsylvaniaoil-wells. Yet two or three cases have occurred in Echigo of a yield of 15 to 19 barrels a day for a few days when the wells were new. At Miydhdéji they talk of having had a profit of $70,000 to $80,000 from a single well; and the general estimate of the yield of that field has been high. Such was Mr. Lyman’s (geologist of Japan) estimate of the product of the most fruitful oil-fields of Japan in September, 1876. Many other localities have been explored for petroleum with similar results; but the introduction of American refined oil at present prices has nearly destroyed the domestic trade, and has completely arrested the production. In the very elaborate report made by Consul-General Van Buren in 1880 no mention is made of any domestic production of petroleum, although Consul Stahel, of Hiogo, shows that the imports of American refined petroleum into Japan have increased from about 1,000,000 gallons in 1872 to nearly 18,000,000 gallons in 1880. Hiogo has been one of the most important centers of the native petroleum trade, it having had a refinery. SECTION 10.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE PERUVIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. Previous to the outbreak of the war between Chili and Peru the prospect of a large development of petroleum in Peru was very flattering. The following statement of operations there has been widely copied, but I cannot vouch for its accuracy, as I have not been able to verify it: Mr. Prentice, the Pennsylvania oil operator, in 1867, paid Peru a visit. A well was put down near Zorritos. At the depth of 146 feet a volcanic formation was reached: by the drill, and oil was found. The well pumped 60 barrels a day. A second well was put down. Oil was reached at a depth of 220 feet. The yield rapidly declined from 12 barrels to 7 barrels a day. Mr. Prentice was satisfied that the VOL. IX 2 18 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. region would prove productive, but he held his own counsel. In 1876 he succeeded in securing the control of the entire estate for the purpose of producing oil. In that year the second well mentioned above was drilled to the depth of nearly 500 feet. The tools struck a vein of oil-bearing sandstone, and immediately sank 10 feet. This was the first finding of the sandstone. The strike was followed by a column of oil that filled the 6-inch casing and was thrown 70 feet in the air. In attempting to control the great flow by inserting tubing in the well the inexperienced employés let the tubing drop to the bottom. The side caved in soon afterward and stopped the flow. The well is still plugged. Mr. Prentice says its capacity will be 1,000 barrels a day. Another well of his near the above has been in use for three years. It has never yet been torpedoed or recupped, It yields 600 barrels a day. Mr. Prentice’s experiments have proved that the deeper the wells are sunk the larger the yield is. At 600 feet he declares that a well in his Peruvian regions will pump 5,000 barrels a day. Back in the mountains some of his men have struck a vein of petroleum by merely digging a pit 28 feet deep. Several of these pits have been dug. Oil accumulates in them in paying quantities. Mr. Prentice has a refinery at Zorritos. Its capacity is 200 barrels; this he is now enlarging. There were shipped from the Pennsylvania oil regions in 1870, 1,085,615 gallons of oil to Peru, Chili, and Ecuador. Refined oil brings 25 cents a gallon in Peru and its neighboring states. I have been informed that since the outbreak of the war nothing has been done in reference to this industry. Section 11.—HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE ITALIAN AND OTHER PETROLEUM INDUSTRIES. I am indebted to Professor P. E. DeFerrari, C. E., of Genoa, for the following statement concerning the petroleum interests of Italy. His letter was dated Iglesias, Sardinia, December 22, 1881, and in it he says: There are in Italy two large districts with petroleum-bearing strata: one in the north, on the southern borders of the Po valley; the other in the south of Italy. Unfortunately, in spite of extensive workings and a considerable amount of money employed in searching for mineral oil, no satisfactory result was obtained. The chief localities where petroleum and its allied products are met with are—Po valley: Rivanazzano, province of Voghera; Riglio, province of Piacenza; Miano, in the Caro valley of Parma; Sapuolo, in the Secchia valley of Modena. South Italy: San Giovanni Incarico of Caserta; Coco, in the Pescara valley of Chieti. In the first district the oil is of a very good quality, very pure, largely diffused in the rock, but occurs in strata chiefly of clay and argillaceous sand, which, because of their little permeability, do not permit the free exit of the oil when wells are dugin the ground. The geological range of the strata is the Miocene and Pliocene periods. Some geologists believe that below the above-mentioned strata there may be other strata which would yield large quantities of petroleum when pierced through with wells. It must be stated that these strata have not been found, even in those places where borings of 250 and even 400 meters have been opened (820 to 1,312 feet). Six different societies have worked the petroleum springs of North Italy from the year 1866 to 1874, but without success. Several wells reached the depth of 200 meters (656 feet), but no large veins of petroleum were met with, and the works were abandoned. In the valley of Pescara, South Italy, there are also petroleum springs, with bituminous products. At Coco borings of great depth have shown the existence of some oil veins, but of little importance. At San Giovanni Incarico several veins of some hundred liters every twenty-four hours were found, but they have no industrial importance. Lately an Italian and French society, with large capital, and Canadian workmen and machinery, explored the ground at Rivanazzano and at Coco. They opened four wells 200 meters deep in the north; one 400 meters in the south (Coco); but the working was given up for deficiency of money. The whole product of petroleum in Italy does not exceed 300 tons a year, and it is chiefly collected in large and shallow wells by the country people, and used on the spot. No machinery worth mentioning, but small pumps, are used, and in most places the work is done simply by hand. At Sapuolo and Salsomaggiori the gas which comes from crevices in the ground is collected and burned for industrial purposes. In the south of Italy bituminous clay is distilled and petroleum condensed in small quantity. The annual importation of petroleum into Italy is 50,000 tons, and its value is 14,500,000 frances. This letter states the condition of the petroleum industry as related to modern methods of exploitation, and prices as governed by the enormous supply furnished at present by the United States; but petroleum has long been known in the valley of the Po, and many of its smaller towns have-been lighted by it. The exceptionally fine quality of the petroleum of that region made it possible to use it without refining. The earliest mention of petroleum from this region is by Frangois Arioste, who cured men and animals afflicted with itch with petroleum which he had discovered in 1460 at Mont-Libio, in the duchy of Modena. (4) Agricola also mentions it in the middle of the sixteenth century. (b) Many other localities will be enumerated in the succeeding chapter as furnishing petroleum, but those mentioned are the only ones that have furnished petroleum to the commerce of civilized nations. The historical development of the petroleum industry may be summed up as follows: In many regions, and for immemorial periods, petroleum gathered from natural springs and dug wells has been used in medicine, and in a rude way as an illuminating agent. In China artesian wells have been bored for brine and for natural gas, and the latter was used to boil brine for centuries before the Christian era. In the United States artesian borings made for brine had furnished petroleum in enormous quantities thirty or forty years before any use was known for such a supply. The development of the coal-oil industry between 1850 and 1860 led to experiments upon petroleum as a substitute for the crude oil obtained from coal, and with the success of those experiments (1859) came a demand for petroleum that led to Drake’s attempt to procure the oil directly by boring. The success attending the oil industry in Pennsylvania during the first four years of its existence led to the organization of companies all over the world for the purpose of drilling test-wells wherever springs of petroleam were accessible. In some localities they were successful; in others only partially so; while in the majority of ‘instances they were failures, or were found inferior to the primitive dug wells. The continuously increasing and enormous production of the United States, and the consequent depreciation in value of all the products manufactured. from petroleum, has led to the almost complete control of that trade by American manufacturers, Galicia and the Caucasus at the present time being their only competitors, and they only to quite a limited extent. rc Se a His book was published in 1690 by Jacob Oliger; Comptes-Rendus, ix, 217. b Comptes-Rendus, ix, 217. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 19 CHAPTER I].—THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM AND | OTHER FORMS OF BITUMEN. SEcTION 1.—THE OCCURRENCE OF BITUMEN IN THE UNITED STATES. The following chapter has been prepared for the purpose of showing the localities upon the earth’s surface at which bitumen occurs, and great care has been taken to secure the most accurate information regarding the United States. For this purpose letters of inquiry have been addressed to the state geologists of all the states with which I am not personally acquainted, and to the geologist incharge of the geological survey of the United States. To these official sources of information has been added a large amount of personal inquiry and correspondence. The map of the world (I) has been prepared to show the location of the areas producing bitumen. These areas are unavoidably exaggerated in size, and many localities of minor importance are omitted. The map of the United States (II) shows the localities within the United States that have produced bitumen of any kind. Many of these areas are also unavoidably exaggerated in size. The large map (IIL) shows the areas in Pennsylvania and New York that have proved commercially valuable. This map has been prepared from actual surveys, many of which were undertaken expressly for parties engaged in producing oil. The areas tinted yellow are believed to be substantially correct as regards both location and outlines. Thestreams were plotted with every attention to accuracy, and are believed to indicate the water-shed and lines of greatest elevation. The dates beneath the names of towns indicate the period at which the locality was ‘ yielding its maximum production. The red lines indicate the main pipe lines, and the broken blue lines indicate in a general way the outline of territory over which wells or natural springs have yielded petroleum or gas, but in most instances not a sufficient amount of petroleum to be profitable. Map IV represents the areas at the White Oak district, West Virginia, drawn from actual surveys. Map V shows the location of oil-wells in the valley of the Cumberland river in Kentucky and Tennessee, drawn from actual surveys. Map VI represents in a general manner the localities in southern Ohio, West Virginia, and Kentucky that have produced bitumen. Map VII represents in a general manner the localities in Louisiana and Texas that have produced bitumen. Map VIII represents the localities in Michigan and Canada that have produced bitumen. STATES AND TERRITORIES FROM WHICH NO BITUMEN HAS BEEN REPORTED. Maine. _ Maryland. Mississippi. Montana. New Hampshire. Virginia. Arkansas. Idaho. Vermont. North Carolina. Iowa. Washington. Massachusetts. South Carolina. Wisconsin. Oregon. Rhode Island. Georgia, Minnesota. Nevada. Delaware. STATES AND TERRITORIES IN WHICH SOLID BITUMENS OCCUR. CoNNECTICUT.—In the valley of the Connecticut river solid bitumens have been observed filling thin seams and veins in eruptive rocks. (a) NEw York.—In the eastern portion of the state, in the region of eruptive and metamorphic rocks, veins occur similar to those reported from Connecticut.(b) In some of the cavities of the New York limestones the crystals which line them are covered with a substance, black and shining, with the fracture and appearance of anthracite. » NEw JERSEY.—Veins are reported in the trap of New Jersey filled with a bituminous mineral. (c) WEsT VIRGINIA.—In Ritchie county, West Virginia, on McFarland’s run, a small tributary of the south fork of Hughes’ river, which enters the Little Kanawha, is found a vein of bituminous material, called asphaltum, which is without doubt closely related to petroleum and other forms of bitumen, but in precisely what manner has been a subject of much controversy. This vein cuts the nearly horizontal sandstone almost at right angles and stands vertical to the horizon. Very extensive mining operations were commenced upon the vein, but the mass was soon worked down to the lower level of the sandstones, and was found to pinch out in the shales beneath. It presented all of the appearances of an eruptive mass. The material was found to be exceedingly a J.C. Percival on “Indurated Bitumen”, Geol. of Conn., A. J. S. (3), xvi, 180. b L. C. Beck, A. J. 8S. (1), xlv, 335. ec J. C. Russell, A. J. S. (3), xvi, 112. 20 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. valuable for enriching gas, for which it was chiefly used; but a thickness of several hundred feet of shale, in which it was almost entirely wanting, prevented continuous working. Other smaller but otherwise similar veins occur in the neighborhood. (a) TEXAS.—Near the mouth of the Brazos river and in other parts of Texas beds of asphaltum occur, evidently resulting from the decomposition of petroleum; but so far as I have been able to learn they have no commercial value. NEw MEXICO AND ARIZONA.—In these territories beds of asphaltum are reported. They have no other than a local value. Uran.—In this territory, in the Sanpete valley, southeast of Salt lake, is said to be a deposit containing ozokerite similar to that foundin Galicia. Also on the banks of the Green river veins are said to occur resembling the grahamite found in West Virginia. Although I have seen specimens which were said to have come from both of these localities, I have never met any detailed description of them. Neither deposit has yet any commercial value. ; ; CALIFORNIA.—This state includes a large area which furnishes asphaltum, much the larger proportion being the product of the decomposition of petroleum, while the remainder occurs in veins that are evidently eruptive, (0) the former occurring in beds of greater or less extent on hillsides or gulch slopes below springs of more fluid bitumen. These deposits are scattered over the country between the bay of Monterey and San Diego, but are chiefly observed west and south of the coast ranges between Santa Barbara and the Soledad pass. In the aggregate there are thousands of tons of asphaltum scattered over this region of every possible degree of purity; but it isso difficult to handle, and so little is concentrated in one place, that little use has thus far been made of it. The case is quite different, however, with the deposit at Hill’s ranch, on the coast above Santa Barbara. Here eruptive masses that have been very fully described by Professor J. D. Whitney and myself (see note D) occur in such quantity that it has been obtained in cargoes for use in San Francisco. The asphaltum of this locality is solid and homogeneous in appearance, but it really contains 50 per cent. of sand, so fine and in such complete admixture as to make the material superior for pavement to any artificial mixture that can be produced. I have never been able to obtain even an approximate estimate of the quantity that this locality has furnished. KENtTUCcKY.—Asphaltum is reported in Johnson county, on the tributaries of the Big Sandy river. Ihave never seen any of this asphalt, but I am inclined to think it is also more closely related to the gum beds of Canada, above mentioned. ‘ TENNESSEE.—Asphaltum is reported in cavities and prisms in the Trenton limestone in middie Tennessee in small veins rarely an inch in thickness. The amount is insignificant. OTHER LOCALITIES.—Asphaltum is also reported from other localities, in Missouri and Kentucky, but I have never seen any of the material, and from ali that I have been able to learn regarding the deposits they resemble the so-called gum beds of Canada, which really consist of a mass of mud or soil saturated with petroleum, rather than of pure and solid asphaltum. Such mixtures of oil and mud are often met around oil-wells in any of the productive districts where the waste oil has soaked the ground about the derricks. STATES AND TERRITORIES IN WHICH SEMI-SOLID BITUMEN (MALTHA) OCCURS. This material issues from so-called tar-springs, and is found almost or quite exclusively within the southwestern portion of the country. I have seen but a single specimen from one of the interior counties of Texas. A letter of inquiry, addressed to the secretary of state of Texas, was referred to Mr. N. A. Taylor, who replied: The tar-springs in Burnet county discharge a good deal of petroleum. The wagoners gather it to grease their wagon wheels. It is probable that borings there would get a good supply of oil. It appears on the surface of nearly all the springs at Sour lake. In days past it has evidently exuded from the ground at that place in great quantity, for there are some acres just below the lake almost completely covered with the consolidated stuff, or asphalt, the thickness of which I don’t recollect, but no doubt it is very thick in some places. An attempt was made there to bore for the oil, but after penetrating the ground to some distance a great explosion occurred, and the fellow was afraid to try it again. I think some borings have also been made in Nacogdoches county. There is also a small lake in Marion county, where oil covers the water, and where there is also a good deal of asphalt. These counties are in northeast Texas. Burnet county is in the southern central portion of the state. These tar-springs, which yield a semi-fluid, maltha, are often called oil or petroleum springs by those who do not understand the aiteneeed in the value of these different although in some respects similar substances. In New Mexico, not far from Albuquerque, tar-springs are reported; also in Arizona and southern Utah; but the exact localities I have been unable to learn or verify. In southern California, throughout the same region in which asphalt i is found, maltha occurs in great abundance, oozing from springs on the hillsides and in the beds of water-courses in cafions, and after exposure to the elements becoming hardened into asphaltum. In consistence it passes by insensible gradations from a material scarcely to be distinguished from heavy petroleum to solid asphalt. It varies in specific gravity from 0.9906 to 1.100, the heavier material, though heavier than water, still remaining plastic like mortar. Springs near the old stage-road between a Lesley, J. P., P. A. P. S., ix, 183; A. J. S. (2), xli, 139; H. Wurtz: Report, 1865; S. F. Peckham, A. J. 8. (2), xlviii, 362, Nov.. 1869; A. G. J., Xi, 164. b J. D. Whitney: Geology of California. Geology, I, 182; S. F. Peckham, A. J. 8. (2), xlviii, 368. t = 7 T - neg ST acces f £ / ry : J . NS, ' : / CANANDAIGUA ) . ji A) } dl / / hw YY 8 M Ne Ge \ es } GAINESVILLE? 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SST > Sy SS wit cox]! = \ 7 4 ) “e o aU) iF : Ne H 8 ee way LoLEOHAL \ Gg y BUS Nem fs g , seh EWTO cB mr ali LPH OS NL Ne a 1Y ~1O\GIAS! “hs KI \ iy rate a S = << © STERUING y See te | fait &y ai ie ! } MI istone pared or L: lor > ms i Ng? \ pee is =. UI O We oe a ee |RAYMETON <7 AG ee ee, 7 BeNEZeTT oe) ene ee) ps] Pest oS So ~— ‘ Grant sville, pei pi idle ler) STN, eA S jal (\ ol : Sx ? REGIONS Or e Ot! Seeps 0/0. oreutAmencan well, yielding ot! tor over thirty years 0 §=6Oi/ Producing Wells, the best being distinguished thius:— now ritted up with tools, flowed fully stodv 61s betore. pumpiny ot Mathews well, 262 Tt. deep. 42° gravity. off Stranye well, Light colored vil Buttlers well, 600 Ft. deen of2. Sherman well, 276 tt. great producer. 05 Glass well, 196 Tt. deep 0/3. Veeder wel7 i ha arb pe! 04 Od Garnett well of, helps well, lubricating. 47 ft. deep, yreat producer gh: 23! > Onl has gererally been struck ina granulated liinestoire 06. Cosmopolitan well, lubricating. The gravity varies trom 251024 "for lubricating and 37 to 42° 0% AG Hbert well, pumping 1800 barrels ror luminating. All oils found tin the Cumberland conmty of Hnylish well, 719/ rt. flowed 7200 barrels pur day. eg Durrett well are tree fromthe nauseous order that pertains to the Lfeyd Creek. Barren County vtls ih Pc * REELSBORO SL, by > 7 iy Fail ” A sil Noe : 4G Zn INNS cw as “1h [ERIN LAN KARROWGONE tS VU, aves vu ai? en NAW ANU yaw wwe aN a cia er Ne Wf a : iN NG \ (Ny F wall i y, Ate ww ae \ \ NY fil HIS ; ila a NS Ohne a iw ay + SCOTTSVILLE % ey s ALBANY fe By es ss TPS Hrs’ i S 5 (\ ¥) Mitche?7; Cn. NY My yy My, will wh / ji Wl ill pil , My iy ‘ LMM wy, A te : Wer a: Z Zs : TE. fie \ Sst Suu Wh S a LiviNesTONE ck NY] Swaiil: AMS se NTN | Uw: “yin » ‘Ly, = \ ANS 4 Wily We ‘ & 7 Wa is AO Un ey Nw leg Oo “iN hens i" Rx S : ‘ i, . ~ is = ) | oe vue \ \\} 3 a See OAS (OS ; aM i ie SS Caney aah a ae , Mak tno BEN, Ap , - sh G a 7] _ . RF FI SBORO ’ . of ‘ THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 25 certain and largest yield of oil that has ever been obtained for the same cost in any locality. At the same time, probably a larger proportion of the oil produced was wasted than has been the case anywhere else in the United States, as it is supposed that 50,000 barrels from the American well ran down the Cumberland river before any attempt was made to save it. The oil near Burkesville, Cumberland county, has a peculiar, offensive odor and a specific gravity of 37° Baumé. Amber oil of a lower specific gravity was obtained from other wells in small quantity, and a larger amount was yielded by wells on Oil fork of Bear creek (east of Burkesville), which was of a black color, with a specific gravity of 26° Baumé. The oil here appears to be in a sort of marble at 90, 190, and 380 feet from the surface. On Boyd’s creek, near Glasgow, Barren county, Kentucky, oil has been obtained for several years in commercial quantities, the wells being in the bed of the creek and on the adjoining hills. A few thousand barrels per year are obtained here. Wells have also reached oil on Beaver creek north of Glasgow. t Tt -Wasary- OF Ths / | URIVERSY GF iLaincig 3 (oi (a ' , | ‘2 - . ‘ a 5 +5 } z ae . € 120 139 140 150 160 170 180 170 160 150 140 C in SN ae | | WAS Dd 5 lew Siberia ERO: ‘ Wy . eg —~< ee => ~ oO G mn 70 + a a ha vi — Z (§ \ P AR ? Matthew, : LA Can Ce a Sp f / : MTCHAT KAAS EA 1 {VG ; | WN i » * | Lb Knons | y wT & as iy pa ii | S EIA Le Eee cule vi ov Re } ie Mtge ested: te 2 ‘ x L 8 ye . | ~S Beet ar | _ - y| } : i ( \ * Bonin Tabs y s ae [ SF 2 | - |Seantwiek s | ee = : 2 Meri ue iF | * hoe | - Ledgone Ls | - * [Soviely 4} 5 > | ook Tas. ermadee ds H | | | ‘Tasmania one a | | Van Dremen Dah LA ' | | | (B60 4 4+ he 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 170 1e€0 150 Map showing the Distribution 0! x on 2FON DLAND. = ae) ma .) % fadeira a Se Zrabe ee: is a Z RaW Sak we ‘s B ACK Saal Cupe Verde Islands tan DAcunh rs Bitumen throughout the World. / p A -_ 7 L + *¢ Ciba ") St 1_Aiyanxa > Uf Langereyicey =a Ib sy Maldi Islan Za TR é ‘ zat se id. | ee: > | f “Heard |ld. | | | ao 70 vO 90 — Cy | EST —4— 5 , AUSTRALIA “a oo a oe ft) ¢ | THE LipRery GE Te URIVERSITY GE TLAIRPIS THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 33 in the thickest places. The bitumen is almost always of very great purity, and generally consists of compact, very homogeneous masses, very black, brilliant, tarnished upon the surface, very friable, with a resinous fracture, softening by percussion or heat, and with a pronounced asphaltic odor. * The ancient workings have caved in, making their exploration no longer possible. It appears, to judge by tradition, and, above all, from the ancient workings, now overgrown with oaks many centuries old, that the exploitation reaches b: he to a time anterior to Strabo; because we read in that author that, following Bodoni the bituminous earth, which he calls ampelites, was a reneny against the worms that eat the vines, the worms by this means being destroyed before they had ascended the trunk to the young sprouts. This method appears to have been practiced until lately, and perhaps it is to-day, because the greater part of the bitumen of Albania was exported to Smyrna, where it was used for the preservation of vines, and more frequently for the calking of ships. Some of the springs of water rising from the formation containing the bitumen of Albania are accompanied with maltha, but in insignificant quantity. RouMANIA.—The Roumanian oil-fields lie in the northeast part of Wallachia and the southern part of Moldavia, in the valleys of the streams that drain the eastern slopes of the Siebenbiirgen. The Wallachian oil district lies on the southern slopes of the Transyivanian Alps, and is more extensive than that of Moldavia. The wells are from 6 to 12 miles north of Plojeschti, a station on the Roumanian railroad. In Bakoin the inhabitants use the inflammable gas which issues from the ground to cook their meals. The manner of obtaining the oil is very primitive, the wells being dug as for water, the landlord receiving a tenth of the net produce as rent. A part of the crude petroleum is refined at Sarati and Plojeschti, and part is sent by rail to Vienna, Pesth, and Odessa. The Moldavian petroleum fields occupy a triangle bounded by the rivers Taslen and Trotusch, not far from Adschud station, on the Roumanian railroud. The wells near Morneschti do not exceed 120 meters (394 feet); those near Salante and Comonesti 50 to 70 meters (164 feet to 230 feet) in depth. Like the Wallachian wells, they are worked in the most primitive manner, and the proprietors here receive as rent one-third of the gross produce. The cost of the petroleum at the well’s mouth does not exceed 4 francs per 100 kilograms (20 cents per 220 pounds). The Moldavian petroleum is darker than that of Galicia, and remains fluid at a temperature of 20° Celsius —4° F.(a) GALIcIA.—Petroleum is found in many localities on the Hungarian side of the Carpathians, but its exploitation is of little or no importance. In Galicia there are three principal localities that yield petroleum and ozokerite: the region around Sandecer, in west Galicia; that around Bobrka, near Dukla, in middle Galicia; and that around Boryslaw, in east Galicia, and Basco, on the confines of Moldavia. This region is said to be in general outline 400 miles long by 40 miles wide. Although ozokerite is found associated with petroleum wherever it occurs in both Galicia and Roumania, its production is principally confined to the east Galician district, in the neighborhood of Boryslaw and Stanislow. Itappears from statistics that I have met with that the fields of east Galicia were at first much the most important; but while the total production of Galicia has decreased, the relative production of west Galicia has increased. The exploitation has been conducted in a very rude manner, largely by Polish Jews, who occupy that country, and all attempts at innovation by the introduction of meter both for boring and for refining, have been resisted with great pertinacity. The development of oil territory by shafts has been encouraged by the amount of ozokerite that almost everywhere accompanies the oil and that cannot be obtained by other methods of exploitation. Wells have been bored, however, which in some instances have been productive and in many others have failed. The great importance of the ozokerite industry, which will be referred to in detail in a subsequent chapter, will prevent the complete substitution of borings for shafts. RusstA.—Petroleum is reported to have been observed in northern Russia, in the province of Archangel, on a streamlet that runs into the river Betchora; also at “some NEES from Oecbee ”, on the Ural river, Hitt the exact locality was not given. In official reports the Russian petroleum fields are divided as follows: Government of Tiflis —Mirsanski, Schirorski, Eldarski. Government of Baku.—Bakinski, Derbentski, Kaitags-Tabarsaranski. Kuban district.—Kady genski, Kudako. Terek district—Gronenski, Maisha-Kajevski, Karabulakaki, Brajimavski, Benojevski. Daghestan.—Berikaki, Djernikentaki, Naflutanski, Bashlinski, Tupsu-Kutanski, Ghiak-Salgavy, Kukinski, Napkutanski. A reference to map I will show that these districts are embraced in a triangle, the apex of which is at ie mouth of the Kouban river, near the entrance to the sea of Azof, extending eastward to the Caspian sea, and embracing that portion of its western coast lying between the mouths of the rivers Terek and Kura, and eiraces the flanks of the Caucasus and the valleys of the principal rivers that drain them. There are also indications of petroleum across the Crimea that have attracted some attention. The Kouban oil-fields proper begin at Taman, situated on the strait which connects the Black sea with the sea of Azof, and extends along the foot-hills of the western extremity of the Caucasus mountains to the river Balah, a distance of about 250 miles. a Dr. H.E. Ginth, Oester, Monatschrift f. d. Orient, 1878; John Fretwell, jr., J. 8S. A., xxvi, 481. 34 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The Apscheron oil-field as at present worked lies within a radius of 20 miles of the city of Baku; but the larger portion of the oil has been obtained at Balachany, 12 miles north of Baku, where naphtha has been produced from the most ancient times, and from Sabonutchi, which was explored in 1873. This first part contains (1880) forty-seven wells, of which twenty-eight are productive, yielding 6,192,000 pounds daily of an average specific gravity of 0.8675, while the second part yields 6,622,000 pounds per day of the specific gravity of from 0.820 to 0.860. The specific gravity is very variable in the same well, and in general diminishes with the depth, being greatest near the surface, from loss of gas. The light oil contains volatile products of a specific gravity of 0.62, of which no use is made. The illuminating oil varies from 15 to 85 per cent., the average being between 35 and 40 per cent.(a) On the outskirts of the field a colorless oil is obtained that can be burned without refining. This oil soon thickens and becomes asphalt. The oil seems to lie in a sort of quicksand, irregularly interstratified with clay, as fine, loose sand rises with the oil and collects around the wells so that it has to be shoveled away. This oil has been known tv spout from an 8-inch hole from 50 to 60 feet high; yet there is no regular stratum of sand yielding the oil, and no particular depth at which it may be struck. One well in the Kouban yielded oil of 46° at from 8 to 10 feet in depth. This oil does not contain paraffine. The Bebeabat field is below Baku on the coast of the Caspian sea, and produces oil resembling that of Baku; but it deteriorates by keeping, and is often run up on a salt lake near by and set on fire. On the island of Tchillekin, or Naphtha island, on the eastern shore of the Caspian sea, a well was drilled which produced a small quantity of oil of a better quality than that of Baku, and one well at about 140 feet yielded oil, and at 200 feet yielded hot water. Ozokerite and “living earth”, which is a mixture of soft asphalt and pulverized shells, abounds along this shore. (b) The Caspian sea is dotted with numerous islands, which produce yearly a large quantity of naphtha (petroleum), and it has been no uncommon occurrence for fires to break out in the works and burn for many days before they could be extinguished. In July, 1869, owing to some subterranean disturbances, enormous quantities of petroleum were projected from the wells and spread over the entire surface of the water, and, becoming ignited, notwithstanding every precaution, converted the sea into the semblance of a gigantic flaming punch-bowl many thousands of square miles in extent; but the fire burnt itself out in about forty-eight hours, leaving the surface of the water strewed with the dead bodies of innumerable fishes. Herodotus mentions a tradition that the same phenomenon was once before observed by the tribes inhabiting the shores of the Caspian sea. There is practically no limit to the amount of oil to be obtained at Baku, but with the exception of the Caucaso- Carpathian region the petroleum production of Europe is only of local importance. The production of maltha is insignificant, but the deposits of asphaltum and asphaltic limestone are of great and increasing importance. No region except the Caucasus has made any approach to rivalry in European markets with the petroleum products of the United States. ASIA MInorR.—Many of the localities furnishing bitumen in Asia are extremely difficult to locate with exactness; but gas-springs are said to occur on the coast of Karamania, (c) which is that portion of Asia Minor bordering the northeast portion of the Mediterranean sea. Bitumen is also reported in Armenia near lake Baikal, and in southern Siberia near Derabund; (d) asphaltum near Iskardo (e) and near Cashmere; petroleum in Assam (f/) and Pegu; (g) also near Kohat. (hk) Gas-springs accompanying mud volcanoes are also reported in Kerman. (?) The authorities for these localities are nearly all to be found in works published in India, to which I have not had access. ‘¢The asphalt of the Dead sea and its vicinity has been noticed by Strabo and other ancient writers, and many conjectures have been made by both ancient and modern authors respecting its origin. It seems to be a well- established fact that the asphalt rises in such large masses during or after earthquakes as to remind one of islands floating on the sea. While this asphalt, having a density of 1.1040, floats on the water of the Dead sea, which has a density of 1.1162, it would sink in the water of the ocean. The rocks in the neighborhood of the sea are often bituminous cretaceous limestones, containing a large quantity of asphaltic material. This is particularly to be observed in several of the ravines that border it, where the dolomitic limestones are highly charged with bitumen, and, being broken up and carried down into the sea by the winter torrents, the bitumen becomes disengaged, and is cast upon the shore.” (j) In one of these ravines, on the eastern borders of the sea, M. Lartet describes pebbles of silex cemented into a pudding-stone by bitumen and stalactites of asphalt produced by the liquid bitumen slowly dripping from the bituminous cretaceous limestones. This, too, is washed into the sea and cast on shore. The amount received by the sea in this manner, however, is not sufficient to account for the islands of bitumen seen floating on the surfact. (*) On the western border of the valley of the Jordan similar deposits occur at the same level, and in many localities throughout Judea and Arabia Petra from immemorial periods asphalt and maltha (slime) have been obtained from springs and shallow pits. a M. Goulichambaroffwwour. Rus. Phys. and Chem. Soc., xii, 5; Nature, xxiii, 42. f Report Geo. Surv. of India, I, pt. 2, p. 55. b Communication from J. R. Adams, of Oil City, Pennsylvania to 8. F. g Lt. Duff: Peguoil gas. Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, 1861. Peckham. h E. Thornton: Oil-spring near Kohat, Gazetteer of India, 1862. ec Beaufort : Survey of the Coast of Karamania, 1820. i H. Pottinger: Petroleum of Kerman, 1840, dG. T. Vigne: Rock Ow, near Derabund, Kabul 1842. j Lartet, B.S, G, F., xxiv, 12. eG. T. Vigne: Travels in Kashmir and Little Thibet, 1842. k Ibid. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 30 Deposits of bitumen have been described as occurring near Zaho, in Kurdistan, 440 miles above Bagdad, on the Tigris. From the description I should conclude that this material is asphaltum. It was used successfully in 1874~75 on the steamer Mosul for making steam, and also for the manufacture of gas. Several other outcrops of bitumen occur nearer Bagdad, and liquid petroleum occurs at many points upon the road from Ribamich to Bagdad, and also between Bagdad and Mosul, in the valley of the Tigris. (a) PERSIA.—Persia abounds in bitumen springs, which have been noticed and described by travelers and historians from Herodotus to the present time. One of the most noted springs of water yielding bitumen is situated five German miles from Suza, at Ardericca. Others are located on the plateau of Iran, near Durr, in the valley of of Jerabi, and also at Chusistan, not far from a volcano that was active in the second century. The bitumen wells Kerkuk or Tuzkurmati, four days’ march southward from Arbela, are also celebrated. They may be known at a great distance through their odor, their sulphur vapor producing headache, on which account they are unendurable in summer time. Other localities of minor importance in the mountains that separate Persia from Kurdistan and the valley of the Tigris are mentioned. The naphtha springs of Van Kalesi were inclosed in the walls of a castle, where they flowed from a niche. Another castle is described as belonging to Sassanite times, situated upon a crag above a naphtha spring that was arched over with great blocks of freestone—perhaps from very ancient times. Bitumen in its various forms has been used in the valley of the Euphrates and adjoining regions from the earliest times. (b) HiInpDostTan.—Natural gas furnishes the material burned in a number of Hindoo temples in Thibet and northern India. Petroleum wells are reported in Cashmere and Thibet, but I have been unable to learn anything concerning their exact localities. A locality occurs in the Punjab that has attracted some attention, but it has not yet been proved to be of importance. It lies in the corner between Cashmere and Cabul, and is nearly 100 miles by 90 in extent, being mostly between the Indus and Jhelum, in what is called the Sind Sagur Doab (two rivers), and is mainly in the mountainous or hilly part (Kohistan) of the Doab. The oil-springs are in the northern slopes of the Salt range that lie upon the southern border of this region, or in the Choor hills that lie upon its northern border. Oil, maltha, and asphaltum occur at these springs. Borings have been made at Gunda, and yielded at first 50 gallons a day, which gradually decreased. This oil is dark-green in color, is of a specific gravity of 25° Baumé, and has been used by the natives for burning with a simple wick, resting on the side of an open dish. (¢) BuRMAH.—In a letter from Rev. J. N. Cushing, dated Toungoo, September 14, 1881, appears the following in relation to the wells in this country: There are only two places in all Burmah where petroleum is produced to any extent, viz: Arracan and Yenangyoung, in upper Burmah. The production of the wells in Arracan is very small. Within a few years a company has been formed to work them as an experiment, but I have never seen any statement of the results, and think they must be inconsiderable. Yenangyoung (Earth-oil river) is a large town on the Irrawaddy about 400 miles north of Rangoon, and the oil-wells lie about 3 miles east of the town, among some low and very barren hills, the chief vegetation of the unproductive soil being several varieties of cactus. There seemed to be a good deal of light, soft, sandstone, through which here and there ran layers of a dark rock resembling granite. The roads were in some places worn into the hills to a depth of 10 feet, the fierce torrents formed during the rain washing out all loose soil. When I visited the wells they were about 200 in number, although some were not yielding oil. . These were upon ground as highly elevated as any, and occupied an area of about 100 acres. They were of various depths, the deepest being about 160 cubits (240 feet). I do not think that the number of wells has greatly increased since my visit, for before that petroleum had been found only in that locality, although search had been made for it in adjacent localities. What might be found by the skilled labor of the far West using the scientific knowledge which gives it success I do not dare to say. CuinAa.—There do not appear to be any wells in China that are made for the purpose of procuring petroleum ; -but from the communications made by M. Imbert to the French Academy, and also by L’Abbé Hue, it appears that petroleum is obtained in wells bored for salt, as it often is in this country, and that the oil is often accompanied by inflammable gas. The Chinese call the latter Ho-tsing (fire-wells), and use the gas for a variety of purposes, such as boiling brine and for domestic fuel, the gas being conveyed long distances in bamboo tubes, terminating in a clay or porcelain burner. In his Travels in the Chinese Empire, chapter vii, L’Abbé Huc says: When a salt-well has been dug to the depth of a thousand feet, a bituminous oil is found in it that burns in water. Sometimes as many as four or five jars of 100 pounds each are collected ina day. This oil is very fetid, but it is made use of to light the sheds in which are the wells and caldrons of salt. The mandarins, by order of the prince, sometimes buy thousands of jars of it, in order to calcine rocks under water that render navigation perilous. Specimens of this petroleum sent to France were submitted to a committee of the French Academy for examination. (d) The wells are described by L’Abbé Hue as occurring in the province of Sse-tchouen, which is the largest province of China, and borders upon Thibet. Petroleum is also reported from the northern province of Shansi. .a@ L. Mongel: Ann. des Mines (7), vii, 85; Proc. Inst. of Civil Engineers, 1875, p. 307. b Ritter’s Lrdkunde, ix, 147, 177, 519, 555; xi, 191; x, 142. ec B. S. Lyman, Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., xv, 1. d Comptes-Rendus, xxii, 667. 36 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. JAPAN.—The petroleum fields of Japan lie in the southern part of Yesso and the northwestern part of Niphon, and have already been noticed in chapter I, page 17. JAVA.—Mineral oils are found in many of the islands of the Indian archipelago, and are there known under the name of Minjak Lantoeng at Java, or Minjak Linji at Sumatra; and as they are much used by the natives, they are regularly collected and sold in the markets of the principal villages and towns. The localities where these oils rise spontaneously in natural fissures or artificial excavations are ordinarily surrounded by warm or saline mineral springs. A specimen of oil from Palantoengan, in the residency of Samarang, has the consistency of tar and a density of 0.955 at 169 C. A specimen from Tjiakijana, in the district of Porbolingo, in the residency of Banjoemas, is as liquid as water, with a deep green color by reflection, and has a density of 0.804 at 16°C. Spontaneous evaporation produces a mass of the consistency of yellow butter; distillation yields 40 per cent. of paraffine. (a) Von Baumhauer, the distinguished chemist, examined and reported upon six specimens of petroleum from as many different localities in the Dutch East Indies: from Amdénchay, in Borneo; Bodjoinegoro, in Rembang; Madjalengka, in Cheribon; in Soerabaga; Lematang-Ilir, in Palembang, Sumatra; and Iliran and Banjoesin. His examination shows that the petroleums of Rembang and Cheribon are of very excellent quality, while the others are of a viscous consistency. He remarks that petroleum in this region is very abundant, and is easily obtained at a depth of 250 meters (820 feet), and recommends boring, considering the oil as of great importance to the country. (0). : AUSTRALIA.—Petroleum is reported as occurring in Australia and New South Wales, and crude paraffine near Gisborne, in New Zealand. AFRIcA.—Petroleum is reported from Egypt, as examined by Frederick Weil, with a density of 0.953, but on distillation it did not yield naphtha or illuminating oil with a density of 0.800. It was considered a superior lubricator, and is especially adapted to heating marine boilers and in the manufacture of gas. (¢) It is also reported as having been discovered in Algeria, in the Dahra-oraisaic, the region occupied by the tribe of Beni-Zarouel, in that part of the chain that overlooks the plain of Chiliff. A spring of glutinous petroleum here indicates a suitable place for exploitation, the product having the ordinary properties of maltha. (d) A more complete examination of Africa will doubtless reveal other localities which yield bitumen. An examination of map I will show that bitumen occurs on the American continent along a line extending from Point Gaspé, in Canada, to Nashville, Tennessee, and in Europe-Asia along a line extending from Hanover, on the North sea, through Galicia, the Caucasus, and the Punjab. These are the principal lines. In America it also occurs on the Pacific coast from the bay of San Francisco to San Diego; again from northern Nebraska to the mouth of the Sabine river, on the Gulf of Mexico; again from Havana near the western end of Cuba, through San Domingo and the circle of the Leeward and Windward islands, to Trinidad; thence westward on the mainland to the Magdalena river, and southward from that point to cape Blanco, in Peru. In Europe-Asia bitumen occurs on the lower Rhine and in the valley of the Rhone; from northern Italy, following the Apennines, to southern Sicily; along the eastern shores of the Adriatic, through Dalmatia and Albania, into Epirus; again along the depression in which lies the Jordan and the Dead sea; again along the mountains that border the valley of the Tigris in the east ; again from western China through Burmah, Pegu, Assam, Sumatra, and Java; and lastly in Japan. It will be observed that these lines are for the most part intimately connected with the principal mountain chains of the world. a Bleekrode, Rep. de Chem. Appl.; C. N., v, 158; Le Technologiste, xxiii, 402. b Arch. Neerland, iv, 299; Mon. Sci., 1870, p. 53; W. B., 1878. c Mon. Sci. 1877, p. 295. d Les Mondes, xxxvi, 318. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. ot CHAPTER II1.—THE GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF BITUMENS. SECTION I1—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The relation of geology to the occurrence of bitumens has been very liberally discussed during the last half century. In attempting to review the literature of this subject one is impressed with the fact that for the most part the opinions expressed may be said to be provincial, inasmuch as they are based on observations made over a comparatively limited area, and from these limited observations generalizations are often made to include all of the varied conditions under which bitumen occurs in different parts of the world. My intention has been to compile this chapter from the papers of professional geologists who have directed their attention to the subject, and it is while attempting this work that the provincial character of the materials that I have to compile and the great lack of uniformity of opinions among eminent geologists who have written upon the subject have been most forcibly impressed upon me. Again, when comparing the earlier and the later authors, there is a lack of uniformity in nomenclature that renders the task of one seeking information extremely difficult. Deposits of bitumen in different parts of the world have been described by persons whose knowledge of geology is often of an extremely elementary character, yet almost every author who has mentioned a tar or petroleum spring endeavors to inform his readers respecting the age of the rocks from which it issues and discusses the origin of bitumens. A clearer comprehension of the geological occurrence of petroleum can be had without particular reference to the political divisions of the earth’s surface, and I shall therefore consider the subject only with reference to geological sequence. It has been frequently remarked that petroleum occurs in all geological formations from the Silurian up to the Tertiary, and while this is true as a general statement, it is misleading, for bitumen is not uniformly distributed through all formations, but occurs principally in two epochs of geological history, the Silurian and the lower half of the Tertiary. The vast accumulations along the principal axis of occurrence in the western hemisphere are found in Silurian and Devonian rocks; but the most productive axis in the eastern hemisphere lies in the Eocene of the Carpathians and the Caucasus. An examination of the geographical occurrence of bitumen east of the Mississippi river shows that it has been reported from localities which describe an ellipse upon the border of the Cincinnati anticlinal, which is really an elevation of Silurian rocks extending from central Kentucky to lake Erie, with Cincinnati nearly in its center, and sloping beneath the newer formations in all directions. Starting with Great Manitoulin island on the north, petroleum is reported at Port Huron, Michigan; Chicago, Illinois; Terre Haute, and in Crawford county, Indiana; Henderson, Cloverport, Bowling Green, and Glasgow, Kentucky; and in the region around Nashville, Tennessee, extending southeast to Chattanooga, where the Silurian rocks again reach the surface. Turning northward, the line extends almost unbroken from Burksville through the eastern counties of Kentucky into Ohio and West Virginia, and into Pennsylvania and New York, but how far has not yet been determined. The ellipse is completed by the petroleum fields of Canada. A portion of this territory is covered with the carboniferous formation, beneath and within which petroleum has often been found. At Great Manitoulin island petroleum was obtained in the Trenton limestone. At Chicago and at Terre Haute the drill penetrated the Niagara limestone before reaching oil. The failure of the wells to reach oil in southern Indiana is attributed by Professor E. T. Cox to the fact that they were abandoned before they reached the corniferous and the Niagara limestones. (a) Professor Shaler appears to regard the great Devonian black shale as the source of the oil of Kentucky.(b) The oil in that state is found saturating sandstone at Glasgow, and in crevices at Burksville and other points on the Cumberland, in many instances, as I am informed by those who reside in that vicinity and are familiar with the subject, beneath the black shale. In the neighborhood of Nashville, where the Lower Silurian rocks reach the surface, petroleum occurs within geodes that are inclosed within the solid mass of the blue limestone under such circumstances as to admit of no question as to whether the oil originated in the rock where found. As the occurrence of petroleum is studied in localities lying northeast of Nashville, the present location of the oil is found to be in rocks that lie in a continually ascending series. Around Burksville it is found in crevices, in a so-called marble in the Upper Silurian, immediately beneath the Devonian black slates. Further north it lies in the Devonian and subcarboniferous sandstones, and is held in the region in Johnson county partly in rocks that are now above the drainage level of the country. (¢) In Professor J. P. Lesley’s elaborate report upon this region he says: ‘A conglomerate age or horizon of petroleum exists; this is the main point to be stated.” (d) Leaving Kentucky and entering Ohio, we find the so-called oil break of West Virginia and Ohio furnishing petroleum in sandstones that lie within the coal measures. Still further to the northeast, in Pennsylvania and New York, the oil sands are all found beneath the coal measures in the Upper Devonian, and in Canada they again descend to the Lower Devonian. re ee es a Geological Survey of Indiana, 1872, p. 139. b Geological Survey of Kentucky, N.S., iii, 107. c¢ Lesley, P. A. P. S., x, 33. d Ibid. 38 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. At Belden, Ohio, the oil is found in crevices in the Berea grit which covers a wide expanse of country in Lorain and Medina counties. At Mecca, in the neighborhood of Power’s Corners, the oil saturates the Berea grit, which lies within 80 to 100 feet from the surface. Water is pumped from the wells, bringing the oil with it. These wells are often used for water at the same time that they yield petroleum. The geology of the trans-Mississippi localities producing petroleum has never been studied in any comprehensive or satisfactory manner. Professor G. C. Swallow says the petroleum of western Missouri and eastern Kansas comes from the coal measures, the well in La Fayette county, Missouri, passing through ‘sandstone, shale, coal, and limestone”, and Professor Aughey reports the oil in the well at Ponca, Dixon county, Nebraska, as coming at a depth of 570 feet from the Lower Carboniferous. ‘The boring passed through the Cretaceous (Dakota) group, then through the Upper Carboniferous into the Lower Carboniferous, and obtained only a very small quantity of oil.” Mr. 8S. F. Emmons says: “It (petroleum) exists in the Cretaceous rocks which extend along the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains from British Columbia to Mexico, and in many of the interior valleys.” The outcrops mentioned in the last chapter as occurring in Wyoming and Colorado arise probably from the Cretaceous. 1 have no information respecting the geology of the outcrops in Texas. The bitumen of the Pacific slope of Mexico, the West Indies, and South America is doubtless Tertiary Miocene in California and Eocene in Trinidad. In England the small quantity of petroleum that has been observed has sprung from the coal measures. In the valley of the Rhone and Savoy the bitumen is in Jurassic limestones. The bitumen of the Apennines, of Dalmatia and Albania, issues from rocks that are Eocene; also that of Roumania, Galicia, and the Caucasus. But little is known respecting the geology of the bitumen of Syria, Judea, and Persia. The Punjab is Eocene, and the little that is known of the deposits yielding petroleum in Burmah and the Hast India islands indicates that they are of the same age. From these statements it will be seen that there is a vast area in the valley of the Mississippi, estimated at 200,000 square miles, over which petroleum has been obtained, the formations of which are nowhere newer than the coal measures. Another vast area, extending from California through Mexico to Peru, and including the West India islands, yields petroleum from Tertiary rocks, while on the eastern continent a belt of country extends from the North sea to Java, the bitumen-bearing rocks of which, so far as is known, are Tertiary. I shall have occasion to refer to many of the details of these localities in the fifth chapter. At present the bulk of the petroleum produced issues from rocks older than the Carboniferous, while the formations in by far the greater number of localities yielding bitumen are of Eocene age. Section 2.—THE GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. The geological occurrence of petroleum in the United States has been discussed with reference to whether it has all primarily issued from the Silurian limestones and has accumulated in the crowns of anticlinals. This view has been forcibly argued by Professor T. Sterry Hunt, of Montreal. The question has also been discussed with reference to whether petroleum, having originated in deep-seated strata, has not collected in crevices which have resulted from faulting and movement of the overlying strata. The late Professor KE. B. Andrews was perhaps the leading exponent of this view. Again, it has been urged that the oil, having originated in the lower rocks of deeply-seated strata, is held neither in crevices nor beneath the crowns of anticlinals but by capillary attraction in the interstices and cracks of porous sandstone. This view has been advocated by Professor J. P. Lesley. Dr. Hunt observed: in Canada, Professor Andrews in West Virginia, and Professor Lesley in Pennsylvania and Kentucky, and from a careful examination of the facts to be observed in a summer’s trip through the oil region from Olean, New York, to Nashville, Tennessee, and also from a careful collation of statements made by many oil producers and others, I conclude that each of these gentlemen is correct as regards his own locality. There is no question but that petroleum has originated in the Silurian rocks, and that the finding of oil in the Niagara limestone at Chicago and at Terre Haute was a strong confirmation of the opinions expressed by Dr. Hunt in his famous essay on the history of rock-oil, when he says, referring to a previous paper reported in the Montreal Gazette : I asserted that the source of the petroleum was to be sought in the bituminous Devonian and Silurian limestones. Beside the corniferous limestones (Devonian), we have shown that both the Niagara and Trenton (of Upper and Lower Silurian age) contain petroleum. (a) There is no question that petroleum occurs in West Virginia along an anticlinal, as has been advocated by Professor Andrews. The hypothesis that petroleum occurs in huge fissures or cavities which have been represented by sections, in which water, oil, and gas are arranged according to their specific gravities, has not been sustained by later and more careful study of the subject. It is beyond question that the oil of Pennsylvania does not occur beneath anticlinals, nor in crevices, nor is it anywhere near the Silurian limestones; yet there is no doubt that at Gaspé and in Ontario the springs of petroleum occur along the crests of gentle anticlinals, as.so carefully described by Dr. Hunt. a C.N., vi, 5,16, 35; C. Nat. (1), vi, 245; A. J. Ph. (3), x, 527. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 39 In 1867 Professor C. H. Hitchcock contributed an article to The Geological Magazine, which has been very widely quoted, particularly as to the conclusions therein reached. These conclusions appear to have been obtained from a collation of the writings of Professors Hunt, Andrews, and Lesley ;(a) and an address given by Dr. Hunt at a meeting of the Société Geologique de France, in which he made a general application of his views, based on his Canadian experience, to the occurrence of petroleum in the United States, appears to have been very widely quoted in Europe. ()) In the article above mentioned Professor Hitchcock enumerates fourteen different formations from which petroleum has been obtained in North America (exclusive of the West Indies), and generally in commercial quantities. These are: a. Pliocene (c) Tertiary of California. This has been known for a century. b. Cretaceous in Colorado and Utah, near lignite beds. Not yet explored. e. Trias of North Carolina and Connecticut, in small amounts. (d) d. Near the top of the Carboniferous rocks in West Virginia. Most of the producing wells of this state are from this horizon. e. Shallow wells near Wheeling, West Virginia, and Athens, Ohio, not far from the Pittsburgh coal. f. Four hundred and twenty-five feet lower, near the Pomeroy coal-beds. g. At the base of the coal measures, in conglomerates or millstone grit. kh. Small wells in the Archimedes limestone (Lower Carboniferous) of Kentucky. i. Chemung and Portage groups—certainly three different levels—in western Pennsylvania and northern Ohio. j. Black slate of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, or the representatives of the New York formation from the Genesee to the Marcellus s. This is near the middle of the Devonian. k. Corniferous limestone and the overlying Hamilton group in Canada West, extending to Michigan. This is largely productive. l. Lower Helderberg limestone at Gaspé, Canada East. This is Upper Silurian. m. Niagara limestone near Chicago, and awaits development. (e) 4 n. In the equivalents of the Lorraine and Utica slate and Trenton limestone of the Lower Silurian in Kentucky and Tennessee. One well in Kentucky in these rocks was estimated to have yielded 50,600 barrels. (f) Developments since 1867 have added little, if anything, to the above as a general statement. With particular reference to the three localities in Canada, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, which practically yield the petroleum product of North America, I shall endeavor to show the manner in which nature has stored and yields such vast accfimulations of material, and to present the ascertained facts without bias for any theory. Dr. Hunt has been a frequent contributor to the literature of this subject during the last twenty vears, and from his articles in the American Journal of Science for March, 1863, (g) and November, 1868, (h) I make the following extracts, which embody his views upon the geological occurrence of petroleum in Canada: The natural oil-springs which occur in various parts of western Canada are upon the outcrop of the corniferous limestone or of the overlying Hamilton shales, and are along the line of a broad and low anticlinal, which runs nearly east and west through the district. In the township of Dercham, where small quantities of oil rise to the surface in several places, the corniferous formation is overlaid by about 40 feet of clay and sand, after sinking through which the limestone was bored to the depth of 36 feet. From this opening a few barrels of petroleum were obtained. Oil-springs abound for several miles along the Thames about 60 miles to the westward of Dercham, and borings into the limestone beneath have furnished considerable quantities of oil, although not sufficient, perhaps, to be of great economic importance. The principal oil-wells of Canada occur in Enniskillen, about 20 miles to the northward of the last. Here numerous oil-springs are found, and the thickened petroleum, mixed with earthy and vegetable matters, forms layers of considerable extent at the surface of the ground and around the roots of growing forest trees. Two of these layers have together an area of more than two acres, and a thickness which varies from a few inches to 2 feet. They are locally known as gum beds. In sinking a well in the vicinity of an oil-spring in this region there was found beneath a depth of 10 feet of clay and reposing upon 4 feet of gravel a layer of bituminous matter like that just described from 2 to 4 inches in thickness. It is easily separable into thin lamine, which are so soft as to be flexible, and show upon their surfaces the remains of leaves and of insects which have become imbedded during the slow accumulation and solidification of the bitumen. This little deposit, which is mingled with a considerable proportion of earthy matter, is instructive as showing the manner in which beds ef bituminous rock may sometimes be produced from previously-formed sources of petroleum. The corniferous limestone in Enniskillen is overlaid by about 200 feet of marls and soft shales, abounding in the characteristic fossils of the Hamilton formation. To this succeed from 40 to 60 feet of Quaternary clays and sands of fresh-water origin, through which the scanty natural oil-springs rise. On sinking wells there is generally found reposing immediately upon the shales a layer of coarse gravel holding large quantities of petroleum, which is the oil of the so-called surface wells,and has accumulated beneath the clays. It is darker and thicker than that obtained directly from the rock below, on boring which fissures orseams are met with, from which petroleum issues in abundance, and often with great force, sometimes attaining the surface and often rising above it, constituting the flowing wells. These oil-bearing veins are met with at depths varying from 40 to 100 and 200 feet in the rock, and in borings near together the oil, is often met with at very unequal depths. Adjacent borings sometimes appear to be connected with the same vein and to affect each other’s supply. The deepest well in this region was estimated to yield, when first opened, 2,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, and, at present, where it is allowed to flow for some time, the supply in many of the neighboring shallower wells is found to fail. The facts observed in this region seem to show that these veins are fissures running obliquely downward to the great reservoir of petroleum, which is probably in the underlying corniferous limestone. The oil-wells in this township are confined to two districts, the more abundant one being about 6 miles south of the other. From the results of an unsuccessful boring made on an intermediate point, it appears that these two districts are on two slight anticlinals subordinate to the great axis already mentioned. This anticlinal structure appears to be a necessary condition of the occurrence of abundant oil-wells; the petroleum, being lighter than water, accumulates in porous strata, or in fissures in the higher part of the anticlinal, and, in obedience to a hydrostratic law, rises through openings to heights considerably above slate Ges Ns: Gyo; 16,130» C. Nat. (1), 6, 245; A. J. Ph. (3), 10, 527. e Since shown in Niagara limestone at Terre Haute, Indiana. DB. S..Ge Ee, xxiv, 570. f The Geol. Mag., iv, 34. e Since determined to be Miocene. g A. J. S. (2), xxxv, 169. d Professor Kerr, state geologist of North Carolina, reported that h Ibid (2), xlvi, 356. no petroleum was known in that state. 40 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the water level of the region. Large quantities of light carburetted hydrogen gas are found in the paleozoic rocks of the vicinity, and seem to be in many cases accumulated in the subterranean anticlinal reservoirs, since borings sometimes yield both gas and oil, or gas alone. Water sometimes, but not always, more or less saline often accompanies the petroleum, and frequently replaces the latter in wells that have been for some time wrought. I do not conceive that the gas has any necessary connection with the oil, since large quantities of it are found in rocks which underlie the corniferous limestone. If, however, as is not improbable, portions of it were generated and now exist in a condensed state in the oil-bearing strata, its elasticity would help to raise the petroleum to the surface. The accumulation of the petroleum along lines of uplift, and its escape through the fissures accompanying this disturbance, must evidently date from a remote geological epoch. Porous beds, like the Devonian sandstones or the Quaternary gravels, have, however, served as reservoirs in which the oil has accumulated, while argillaceous and nearly impervious strata, like the marls of the Hamilton group and the fresh-water clays which overlie the gravels in western Canada, have in a great measure prevented its escape. Hence it would appear that the Devonian sandstones of Pennsylvania and northeastern Ohio are filled with oil which has risen from the limestone beneath, while over a great portion of western Canada this limestone was ages ago denuded, and has lost the greater part of its petroleum. (a) * x * * * * * * There exists in southwestern Ontario, along the river Saint Clair, an area of several hundred square miles underlaid by black shales in the counties of Lambton and Kent, of which only the lower part belongs to the Hamilton group. These strata are exposed in very few localities, but the lower beds are seen in Warwick, where they were many years since examined by Mr. Hall, in company with Mr. Alexander Murray, of the geological survey of Canada, and were by the former identified with the Genesee slate forming the summit of the Hamilton group. They are in this place, however, overlaid by more arenaceous beds, in which Professor Hall at the same time detected the fish remains of the Portage formation. The thickness of these black strata,as appears from a boring in the immediate vicinity, is 50 feet, beneath which are met the gray Hamilton shales. * * * * The Hamilton shale, which in some parts of New York attains a thickness of 1,000 feet, but is reduced to 200 feet in the western part of the state, consists in Ontario chiefly of soft, gray marls, called soapstone by the well-borers, but includes at its base a few feet of black beds, probably representing the Marcellus shale. It contains, moreover, in some parts beds of from 2 to 5 feet of solid gray limestone holding silicified fossils,and in one instance impregnated with petroleum, characters which, but for the nature of the organic remains aud the underlying marls, would lead to the conclusion that the Lower Devonian had been reached. The thickness of the Hamilton shale varies in different parts of the region under consideration. Frem the record of numerous wells in the southeastern portion it appears that the entire thickness of soft strata between the corniferous limestone below and the black shale above varies from 275 to 230 feet, while along the shore of lake Erie it is not more than 200 feet. Further north, in Bosanquet, beneath the black shale, 350 feet of soft gray shale were traversed in boring without reaching the hard rock beneath, while in the adjacent township of Warwick, in a similar boring, the underlying limestone was attained at 396 feet from the base of the black shales. It thus appears that the Hamilton shale (including the insignificant representative of the Marcellus shale at its base) augments in volume from 200 feet on lake Erie to about 400 feet near to lake Huron. Such a change in an essentially calcareous formation is in accordance with the thickening of the corniferous limestone in the same direction. The Lower Devonian in Ontario is represented by the corniferous limestone, for the so-called Onondaga limestone has not been recognized, and the Oriskany sandstone, always thin, is in some places entirely wanting. The thickness of the corniferous in western New York is about 90 feet, and in southeastern Michigan it is said to be not more than 60 feet, although it increases in going northward, and attains 275 feet at Mackinac. In the townships of Woodhouse and Townsend, about 70 miles west from Buffalo, its thickness has been found to be 160 feet; but for a great portion of the region in Ontario underlaid by this formation it is so much concealed that it is not easy to determine its thickness, In the numerous borings which have been sunk through this limestone there is met with nothing distinctive to mark the separation between it and the limestone beds which form the upper part of the Onondaga salt group or Salina formation of Dana, which consists of dolomites, alternating with beds of a pure limestone, like that of the corniferous formation. The saliferous and gypsiferous magnesian marls, which form the lower part of the Salina formation, are, however, at once recognized by the borers, and lead to important conclusions regarding this formation in Ontario. In Wayne county, New York, the Salina formation has. a thickness of from 700 to 1,000 feet, which, to the westward, is believed to be reduced to less than 300 feet, where the outcrop of this formation, crossing the Niagara river, enters Ontario. * * * * Apart from the chemical objections to the view which supposes the oil to be derived from the pyroschists above the corniferous limestone, it is to be remarked that all the oil-wells of Ontario have been sunk along denuded anticlinals, where, with the exception of the thin black band sometimes met with at the base of the Hamilton formation, these so-called bituminous shales are entirely wanting. The Hamilton formation, moreover, is never oleiferous, except in the case of the rare limestone beds already referred to, which are occasionally interstratified. Reservoirs of petroleum are met with both in the overlying Quaternary gravels and in the fissures and cavities of the Hamilton shales, but in some cases the borings are carried entirely through these strata into the corniferous limestone before getting oil. Among other instances cited in my geological report for 1866 may be mentioned a well at Oil Springs, in Enniskillen, which was sunk to a depth of 456 feet from the surface, and 70 feet in the solid limestone beneath the Hamilton shales, before meeting oil, while in adjacent wells supplies of petroleum are generally met with at varying depths in the shales. In a well at Bothwell oil was first met with at 420 feet from the surface and 120 feet in the corniferous limestone, while a boring at Thamesville was carried 332 feet, of which the last 32 feet were in the corniferous limestone. This well yielded no oil until, at a depth of 16 feet in this rock, a fissure was encountered, from which at the time of my visit 30 barrels of petroleum had been extracted. At Chatham, in like manner, after sinking’ through 294 feet of shales, oil was met with at a depth of 58 feet in the underlying corniferous. limestone. We also find oil-producing wells sunk in districts where the Hamilton shale is entirely wanting, as in Maidstone, on the shore of lake Saint Clair, where, beneath 109 feet of clay, a boring was carried through 209 feet of limestone, of which the greater part consisted of the water-lime beds of the Salina formation, overlaid by a portion of the corniferous. Ata distance of 6 feet in the rock a fissure was struck, yielding several barrels of petroleum. Again, at Tilsonburg, where the corniferous limestone is covered only by Quaternary clays, natural oil-springs are frequent, and by boring fissures yielding petroleum were found at various depths in the limestone down to 100 feet, at which point a flowing well was obtained, yielding an abundance of water, with some 40 gallons of oil daily. The supplies of oil from wells in the corniferous limestone are less abundant than those in the overlying shales and even in the Quaternary gravels, for the obvious reason that both of these offer conditions favorable to the retention and accumulation of the petroleum escaping from the limestones beneath. * * * * The conditions under which oil occurs in these limestones in Ontario are worthy of notice, inasmuch as they present grave difficulties to those who maintain that petroleum has been generated by an unexplained process ef distillation going on in some @ A, J.8.) (2), XXXV, 169; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 41 underlying hydrocarbonaceous rock. Numerous borings in search of oil on Manitoulin island have been carried down through the Utica and Lorraine shales, but petroleum has been found only in fissures at considerable depths in the underlying limestones of the Trenton group. The supplies from this region have not hitherto been abundant, yet from one of the wells just mentioned 120 barrels of petroleum were obtained. The limestone here rests on the white, unfossiliferous, chazy sandstone, beneath which are found only ancient crystalline rocks, so that it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that this limestone of the Trenton group is, like those of the Upper Silurian and Devonian age already noticed, a true oil-bearing rock. (a) Although the discussion of the subject as presented in these two extracts procceds in a somewhat disconnected manner, the opinions held by Dr. Hunt are plain, viz: that the oil comes from the limestones at the base of the Devonian formation, that it is indigenous in those rocks, and has accumulated under the crowns of anticlinals. According to the latest published researches, I conclude that the geological formations in western Pennsylvania from which petroleum has been obtained belong to the Chemung and perhaps later groups of the Upper Devonian, and consist of shales and marls, interstratified with sandstones. The sandstone varies in character from a coarse- grained, uncemented sandstone to a pebble conglomerate, composed of worn pebbles of white or slightly-colored opaque quartz overlaid by marls and slates, often highly silicated, forming very hard and impervious crusts. This pebble conglomerate consists of two varieties, occupying separate horizons, in one of which the pebbles are nearly spherical, and in the other flattened. Between these beds of sandstone or conglomerate that contain the oil are beds of shale, often of great thickness, with which are thin beds of sand and “shells”. The latter are thus described by Professor J. P. Lesley : The hard ‘‘shells” or crusts of white flint found at different depths in this and many other wells, and broken with the auger-bits only with extreme difficulty, are deserving of particular investigation. They seem to form impervious sheets of precipitated silica effectual barriers against any general movement, upward or downward, of the underground drainage. ()) The sandstones and conglomerates are of quite uniform structure over wide areas; for instance, the Venango third sand consists of smooth, rounded pebbles, while the Bradford third sand is a porous sandstone. The latter has been examined microscopically by Professor C. W. Hall, of the University of Minnesota, who, in a private communication, says: The sandstone in the flame turned to a light gray, almost white, color through the burning out of the bituminous matter, Thin sections disclose the presence of numerous fluid cavities in some of the grains. Small as these grains are, they protected intact the fluid contents of the cavities from the penetrating effects of the petroleum which had percolated through the mass of the sandstone. A bed of shale several hundred feet in thickness and very rich in remains of fucoids outcrops along the shores of lake Erie through Erie county, Pennsylvania, and Chautauqua county, New York, and wells drilled at Erie, Pennsylvania, to a depth of over 600 feet in this shale have yielded petroleum, but have failed to reach the underlying formation. These shales dip toward the southwest. At Union City, in the southern part of Erie county, sandstone overlies the shale in the summits of the hills and furnishes the quarry rock for the valley of French creek. This sandstone often exhibits traces of bitumen, and when freshly quarried and exposed to the sun becomes covered with an exudation of thick oil. Farther south and east the rocks alternate between shales, sandstones, and pebble conglomerate, each of which dips south and west, and disappears under newer and higher members that succeed them on thesurface. In the neighborhood of Titusville, Crawford county, the shales of Erie county have passed far below the surface, and new sandstones have appeared on the hills which border the deep and narrow valleys through which the Allegheny and its tributaries flow. No clearer statement has been made of the relations of these rocks than that given by Mr. J. F. Carll in his reports to the geologist in charge of the second geological survey of Pennsylvania. He says: In the first oil development by artesian wells nothing was known about the sands. Wells were drilled until indications of oil appeared, without regard to the character of the strata pierced. But experience soon proved the sand rocks to be its source, and then commenced deeper drilling for other sands, which, in the valley of Oil creek, resulted in the discovery and classification of ‘‘ three sands ”— these being all the oil-bearing sands found in that locality, even after several wells had been sunk much deeper in quest of others. In the progress of development locations for wells were selected on higher ground. The drill passed now through four or five other and higher definite sand rocks before reaching the geological horizon of the first sand of Oil creek, and when this fact was made clear it became customary among drillers to throw out these upper sands from their well records. They were called the ‘mountain sands”, and were also numbered 1, 2, 3, ete. The drillers commenced their count of the oil-rocks with that one which they found at the depth at which they supposed the first sand of Oil creek to lie; but in so doing many errors occurred, resulting from a want of accurate observation, first, as to the surface elevation of the wells drilled on high ground, and, second, as to the dip of the oil-bearing strata, which materially affected the comparison of elevations, even when these were accurately known. A third source of error may be found in the fact that a thick stratum of sand lying single and solid in one place is often split into two, or, in other words, isrepresented by an equivalent of two sands with shales intervening in another place, perhaps only a short distance from the first. For several years after the discovery of oil the drilling of wells was almost exclusively confined to the ‘ flats” bordering the principal streams. The impression prevailed that there was some connection, some parallelism, between the streams on the surface and the ‘‘ oil veins” beneath; but many failures to strike oil along the streams gradually led to locations on higher ground and upon lines between good wells. This method has been pursued so long and so thoroughly that we can now affirm that the drill has traced the great oil leads of the country from point to point regardless of any and all topographical features of the surface.(c) * * * We use the word “ belt”, not as employed by some to designate a narrow, continuous line of sand rock, which may be unerringly traced for miles with an instrument on a certain degree of the compass circle, but only as a convenient term for expressing the general trend of the oil-bearing rocks from point to point, even although interrupted by ‘‘ dry ” and unproductive intervals. aA. J.S8. (2), xlvi, 356, et seq. Dy eeAG eS: XetO. ¢ Report I, p. 10. 42 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The base-line run from Pleasantville to Tidioute—from the commencement of the Colorado district to the Allegheny river—passes through what has been one of the best and most continuous oil-producing belts of the region. Along and contiguous to this line, and to the north of it, the deeply-eroded valleys of Pine creek and Dennis run expose the basset edges of the whole series of slightly-inclined rocks (uplifted toward the north) underlying the Great Conglomerate (No. XII, the base of the productive coal measures) to a (geological) depth of 850 feet, bringing us down to within about 100 feet of the third or lowest oil-bearing sands. (a) This exposure (along Ping creek and Dennis run), taken in connection with the well records along the route, enables us to form a tolerably correct idea of the stratification of the rocks to that depth. The whole series is found to consist of bands of sandstones and conglomerates and sandy and muddy shales and slates, varying locally in character, composition, and relative order, when studied in detail, but, as a whole, lying one above another in nearly horizontal parallel planes. The local variability of stratification is particularly noticeable (at least in the southeastern part of the district) in the strata next beneath the Conglomerate No. XII, and to a relative depth of from 600 to 650 feet. These strata have never ES aia oil in Venango county. We may therefore call them the ‘‘barren oil- measures” of Venango, or the ‘‘mountain-sand group” Beneath the division of mountain sands another series, with a thickness of from 350 to 400 feet, and similar to the above in structure, but rather more regular in stratification, will include the three sands of Oil creek; and, as we believe it can be shown that no oil has ever been obtained in the district except from rocks of this series, it may properly be bifold the “petroleum measures” of Venango, or “division of the three sands”. Some of the first wells drilled evidently obtained their oil above the first sand, and the old oil-pits of French and Oil creeks and Hosmer run were above it also. But the oil, without doubt, came really from the first sand, its close proximity tothe surface in these places having admitted of the percolation of surface water into its crevices, which, by hyatdulie pressure, forced the oil upward. It isa noticeable fact that any first sand below the surface is generally full of water veins, whether it be an oil-bearing or a mountain sand. If the oil sands lie deep, they seldom (especially in new territory, before the water is let down by the drill) contain much water. In the shallow wells at Tidioute, along the Allegheny river, and on French and some parts of Oil creek, considerable water was always pumped with the oil; but in the deep wells at Pleasantville there was not found at first one per cent. of water, and that, being salt, must have come commonly from the second sand. As the oil was exhausted the water increased. (b) * * * * * * * * A comparison of records of wells on Oil creek, where the three leading sands of the petroleum measures lie with considerable regularity, both as to their thickness and the intervening distances between them, results in an average record about as follows: First sand, 40 feet thick; interval, 105 feet. Second sand, 25 feet thick; interval, 110 feet. Third sand, 35 feet thick. Total, 315 feet. In addition to these three regular sands, there is found in many of the wells a fine-grained, muddy, gray sand, known among drillers as the ‘stray third”. This lies from 15 to 20 feet above the regular third, and is from 12 to 25 feet thick. In some localities this rock assumes a pebbly character, and produces oil which is always darker than the third-sand oil, sometimes being nearly black. At different points on Oil ereek—at East Shamburg and other places—wells in close proximity to each other have produced, some of them black oil, some green, and some a mixture of both. The ‘‘ black oil” of the Pleasantville district has all been derived from the ‘‘ stray third”, which, in this district, is universally called the fourth, or ‘‘black-oil sand”. But here the character and composition of the two sands (third and stray) are reversed. The stray is a coarse pebble or conglomerate; the third, a fine, micaceous, muddy, gray sand, only 15 to 20 feet in thickness, but always showing traces of green oil, and sometimes furnishing an abundance of gas. We believe it can be shown also that Pithole, Cashup, and Fagundus, although producing an oil of a lighter color than Pleasantville, drew their supply from the same stray sand, and the proef will be offered farther on. A noticeable peculiarity of these two sands (stray and third) is that on the northwestern outline of the oil-tield, where the third shows itself in greatest force, the stray is seldom an oil-producing rock. As we proceed southeastward the stray bags to get its pebbly constitution and to yield oil over broader areas than the third, the Jatter becoming more fine and compact and gradually thinning away. A marked difference will be noted also on comparison of specimens of the two sands. In the oil-producing stray the pebbles are of a yellowish-brown color, and in shape generally spheroidal. In the third the pebbles are white, often brilliant, and in shape lenticular. These distinguishing characteristics, we believe, hold good universally. On the northwesterly line above mentioned the second sand lies in a massive stratum, 30 feet or more in thickness. Toward the southeast, as in a part of the Pleasantville district, at Bean farm, Pithole, Cashup, and Fagundus, it is split into two well-defined sands, with from 15 to 30 feet of slates or shales intervening. It is this that has given rise to the erroneous appellation of fourth-sand oil at Pleasantville. The drillers began to number rightly on the first; and called the split (second) sand next below it second and third, and then called the stray the fourth. This, of course, made the third sand of the Oil creek wells, which was still lower, fifth in the series. In some localities they went still farther in their zeal to prove their territory better than Oil creek, by showing a greater number of sands. Finding the stray and third in three divisions, instead of two, they announced at once the discovery of a sixth sand. The first eand, as far as we have examined it, appears to lie with more uniformity than the second, but further investigation may show changes of character and of level similar to the others. Little oil has been produced from the first and second sands in the particular field under review. Their best development as oil- bearing rocks is along the Allegheny river from West Hickory to the Cochran farm, and on French creek and Two-mile run, near Franklin, to which our detailed survey of 1874 did not reach. We speak of them above as they are found on the green-oil range, and without a closer knowledge of the peculiar structural differences which they may be found to exhibit in the places above named on the Allegheny river and French creek. Assuming, then, that all the oil from this country has been deduced from the “ group of the three oil sands”, consisting of the first, second, stray, and third, with their intervening slates, shales, and mud rocks, and that the trend of the oil-producing belt is marked by no saints indications to point out its direction or drift, we will proceed, on the principle of a general parallelism of strata, to trace the sands by means of the levels run, combined with the yeoords of wells, through some of the main oil centers of the district, with a view of ascertaining the direction of the dip of the series and the fall, in feet, per mile. The Venango petroleum district, or ‘upper oil belt”, as it is now generally called, in contradistinction to the Butler county district, may be said to commence a short distance east of Tidioute. From thence southwestward it is marked by an almost unbroken band of wells through Dennis run, Triumph, the Clapp farms, New London, the Ware farm, and Colorado, a distance of about 9 miles. Between this, its southwest end, and the commencement of the Shamburg district, near the National wells, no paying third-sand wells are found, except, perhaps, within a limited area on the Benedict farm, west of Enterprise, the exact geological relations of which to the Colorado “lead” has not been fully determined. a Report I, p. 11. b Ibid., p. 13. , THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 43 Beneath this unproductive district the third sand is found in all the wells drilled, having a thickness of from 30 to 45 feet, but apparently too fine-grained and closely compacted with mud to produce oil. Between Shamburg and Petroleum Centre, on Oil creek, occurs another unproductive interval; but from Petroleum Centre the oil- belt has been traced with considerable continuity, crossing the Allegheny river at Reno, again at Foster’s, and terminating at Scrubgrass, This line of development, it will be noted, leaves Tidioute in a direction of about south 80° west, gradually sweeping around toward the south, and ending with a bearing of only about south 20° west. The belt above described, it should be understood, is the green-oil or third-sand belt. It appears to be much narrower and more sharply defined than others. At many places a distance from the center line toward the north or toward the south of merely a few rods sufiices to guarantee a “dry hole”. From levels taken along the surface line above described, combined with such records of wells as were obtained, the elevation of the top of the third sand in the several localities named is ascertained to be as follows: Feet above tide. PATRIOT EL TOUL Geter ree arte rey Oe eee ere re era ee, eee ee ee eee ws ee rey (8) ye ee) A ee) ak, od ONS ts os 995 PATO U A ee arco a Gi cicka aba et teraraters Oe crate nie Sian tee eee aie eae he te pratoeia helste ctule cisieb eos dideteacees onus coach aeaets es se 840 RRR CRA TTCiL Leet_ so) ee te ete en oe ee are eee EES Pe eee Gree fie anetatads & « __ oe oe oy, ee { ‘ : i — ¥ Ss < % ” L * - \ of i . i oy ‘ 5 ‘ THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 45 ee The following table, compiled from those prepared by Mr. Carll, shows the elevation above tide-level, the fall, distance, and rate of fall per mile of the top of the third oil-sand in Warren, Venango, Clarion, and Butler counties. Dogtown is at the same level above tide-water as Clintonville, one mile northeast of Turkey City (see map IIT): ae Ae Course. | Fall. Miles. Rate. us | ty f ee : Feet. | | Feet. Feet. Along axis of Venango belt: } | 1,008 | Tidioute to— Mimnrantionyy lamlone line ols COvOlopm clits sxe oc os can sei a aoe c cosec ace Hein bona te wennitics Lunes eneotees Tipe 42, 23 18. 42 RM EE 2 ne a cee A ed a we UE ee a ae ak Re Bg, Way MNase terarhe ca) 39.50 | 19.70 Along axis of Butler-Clarion belt : | 230, Dogtown to— Saumeierman station along line of dovelopment....s....ce--srccods sesccewetececesticucaccdecacecelecccescuecescculs 648 | 29. 83 21.72 1 TEE. Ee OY es ER a eb er ef Wk Sa le ing Lee I a les Ale aire On BelloLWae itcasscsatanet ase | 28. 25 22. 94 370 | Shippenville to— —418 | Herman station— aE IERL OEY CO Lee aegis onc ae ele ater ie oe ee ee ee ee ots ee coco ee Sel eee e es cock whe bee ie ee diewee 788 37. 49 21. 02 ee IRSTSTL NIMS GALLON (os) Rene eee ra trea eae aee sec eae Soe oe ied See re ee eos bats 8, 21° W. | 1,426 | 62. 00 23. 00 * Reports, ITI, p. 144. These figures show that the top of the third Venango oil-sand dips to the southwest in the 62 miles between Tidioute, in Warren county, and Herman station, in Butler county, at the average rate of 23 feet to the mile. The first paying oil-well on the Butler-Clarion belt was obtained on the Allegheny river at Parker’s landing in the fall of 1868, and operations spread out but a short distance from that point during the years 1869 and 1870. In 1831 the somewhat unexpected measure of success attending the test wells, which were advancing toward the northeast into Clarion county, and also those toward the southwest into Butler county, led to developments in both these directions which resulted in pretty thoroughly outlining within the next three years the main or central belt. Subsequently side lines of development were run, and the district was found to widen out in many places and to contain side belts and pools, with oil sometimes in the fourth sand, sometimes in the third, and in some localities even in rocks above the third sand, all of which aided very materially in augmenting the production. * hy si In 1874 the maximum development of this district was reached during the great fourth sand or ‘‘ cross-belt ” excitement. (a) * * * * * * * * At Parker’s landing the oil came from the lowest member of the oil group, the representative of the Oil creek third sand, and so the rock was very properly called, not the fourth sand, butthe third. In Clarion county, however, and likewise in Butler, the oil first obtained came from a rock higher in the series. But the drillers of the early wells did not notice the change from one horizon to another, and consequently supposed that they were still getting the oil from the Parker third sand. After the development had reached Modoc and Petrolia, it began to be suspected that there might be two oil horizons, instead of only one, and then commenced the experiment of deeper drilling at Petrolia and elsewhere, which finally resulted in the development of the ‘‘cross-belt”, which was also called the ‘‘fourth-sand belt”. (b) * * * * * * * When Bradford first began to give signs of promise as an oil-field, the map of western Pennsylvania being consulted, the embryo development was found to be on a nearly direct continuation of the Clarion county oil belt. Immediately several transit lines were started by different parties and run through from the old to the new ground. Each surveyor had his own particular angle of deviation from the meridian to run by; and each one, as far as possible, carefully kept the exact bearing and location of his line a secret. A statement was published at that time and much quoted as a proof of the unerring exactness of this method of tracing an oil belt, provided the bearing of the ‘‘lead” had been properly calculated. As the story went, a ‘‘belt-line expert” ran one of these lines 65 miles through an almost unbroken forest, employing an engineer who had never been over the country before, and who knew absolutely nothing about the work beyond the bald fact that he was traveling by a designated degree of the compass. Nevertheless the line thus run conducted its fortunate projector out of the woods, down the mountain side, into the valley of Tunangwant creek, to astation within a few feet ef the largest well at that time known in the Bradford district. And this termination of the line was considered by many as a conclusive proof that all the lands through which that-line passed were “on the oil belt”. ; The profile section (Plate VII) and the vertical section (Plate VIII) have been prepared for the purpose of exhibiting the fallacy of such views, and to enable the reader to see at a glance what some of the fundamental features of the sedimentary structure of the oil region especially are. The profile section (Piate VII) follows a line upon the map drawn from Black Rock, on the Niagara river, in Erie county, New York, to Pittsburgh, and thence to Dunkard creek oil-field, in Dunkard township, Greene county, Pennsylvania, close to the West Virginia state line. From Black Rock to Pittsburgh the bearing of this line is 8. 20° W.—distance about 175 miles. From Pittsburgh to Dunkard creek its bearing is 8. 3° E.—distance 50 miles. Starting at Black Rock, the line crosses the foot of lake Erie and strikes the southeasterly shore at Lakeview, in Erie county, New York. Thence it runs through, or very near to, the following places: Jamestown, New York; Youngsville, on Broken Straw creek, in Warren county, Pennsylvania; Tidioute, on the Allegheny river, in Warren county ; President, on the Allegheny river, in Venango county; Foxburg, on the Allegheny, in Clarion county; Parker’s Landing, on the Allegheny, in Armstrong county; and Petrolia, Millerstown, and Great Belt City (or Summit), in Butler county. Thus it may be said to follow the Butler oil belt very nearly along its line of best development. It is evident that, as this alignment of the profile section coincides geographically so nearly with the trend of the Butler and Venango oil-sands, there can be no trouble in properly locating upon it the Venango oil-sand group. : The Warren oil development, however, lies some 8 miles to the east-southeast of our line, and the Bradford oil development some 30 miles from it, in the same direction. a Reports, III, p. 146, § 336 and 337. b Ibid., p. 147, § 340. 46 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. . Now, it is a remarkable and important fact that in no boring in Pennsylvania has the Warren group of oil-rocks (unmistakably developed) been seen directly beneath the Venango group. It is equally a fact that in no boring has the Bradford “third” sand been seen directly below the Warren group. Im other words, we have not a single direct oil-well measurement between these several groups, and therefore we must trust to some pretty nice and difficult calculations when we try to determine the thickness of these intervals; that is, when we attempt to place the Warren and the Bradford oil-rocks in their proper places in our profile section. But whatever inaccuracies of detail may thus creep into the section, it will still suffice to show the relative positions of such oil horizoris as have been profitably worked in different parts of the country. It will certainly demonstrate the folly of drilling on so-called belt lines, run from one producing district to another, regardless of the age or equivalence of the rocks to be connected. a * * * * * * * The lowest horizon in our country from which oil in paying quantities has been obtained is that of the corniferous limestone formation, the home of the Canadian oil. This rock can be unmistakably identified at Black Rock, in New York; and therefore Black Rock has been selected as the northern end of our profile section (Plate VII). The next and only other point at which the elevation of the corniferous limestone can be fixed is in the Coburn gas-well, at Fredonia, Chautauqua county, New York, for in our own state, as far as is known, it has never been reached by the deepest borings. The average pitch of the corniferous limestone toward the southwest can be calculated from its elevation at Black Rock and at Fredonia, allowing us to judge approximately of the thickness of the measures between it and the Venango oil group. At Black Rock, as shown by the quotations below, the exact thickness of the rock is not known. We have assumed the top to lie about 52 feet above the surface of lake Erie, or 625 feet above ocean level, which cannot be far wrong. In the Coburn well at Fredonia it is said to have been struck at a depth of 1,050 feet, which (the elevation of the well mouth being 735 feet) puts it 315 feet below ocean level at that, place. The distance from Black Rock to Fredonia is about 38 miles in a direction S. 35° W., and this gives an average slope or dip of about 25 feet per mile. But along our section line (S. 20° W.) the average dip of the limestone ought to be stronger than 25 feet per. mile, because the line runs more nearly in the direction of the line of greatest dip, as calculated from other strata which admit of more accurate tracing; and this inference is strengthened by the fact that no limestone is reported in Jonathan Watson’s deep well near: Titusville. The distance from Black Rock to Watson’s well is about 100 miles; direction, S. 26° W.; elevation of well mouth, 1,290 feet above ocean; depth of well, 3,553 feet. On an average slope of 25 feet per mile the limestone should have been found at 1,875 feet below ocean, level, or 3,165 feet from the surface; but as no limestone was seen in the well, we must conclude either that it is absent in that locality (which is hardly probable), or that it has a greater average dip slope than 25 feet per mile in that direction. As the well stopped at 2,263 feet below ocean level, an average of 29 feet per mile would put the limestone at 2,275 feet, or 12 feet beneath the well. A hard rock was reported, however, just as the utmost limit of drilling cable forced a suspension of the work at a depth of 3,553 feet from the surface. A number of other deep wells are shown on the profile, but it will be seen that none of them have gone deep enough to reach the corniferous limestone. The Watson well is not only the deepest boring ever made in western Pennsylvania, but it is also deeper geologically than any other. It is greatly to be regretted, therefore, that so little can be known of its history. A person unacquainted with the laws of sedimentary deposition and with the methods of preparing a profile section might inadvertently be led to suppose, from an examination of the profile section (Plate VII), that the different strata represented there spread out continuously and universally in every direction under the oil regions; that a well failing to produce oil in the Venango group might be put down 400 or 500 feet deeper and pump oil from the Warren group, and then 500 feet deeper and renew itself in the Bradford ‘ third” sand; but such has not been the experience of oil producers. The several groups of oil-producing rocks are locally well defined under certain areas; but they have their geographical as well as their geological limits, and as far as at present known the geographical limit of one group never overlaps that of another. If we take a map and outline upon it the limits of the Smith’s Ferry and Slippery Rock oil-producing district, and then the Butler, Clarion, and Venango, and then the Warren, and then the Bradford, we shali see that each has its own particular locus, and that the different districts are separated from one another by areas (of greater or less extent) which have been pretty thoroughly tested by the drill and proven to be unproductive, It must have been true in all ages that every deposit of sandstone in one locality must have been represented by contemporaneous deposits of shales in other localities. Hence it happens that in tracing rocks long distances the sandstones disappear and shales come in at the same geological horizon. It may not then be presumed that each particular sandstone, or its oil, will be found in every locality where its horizon can be pierced by the drill, or that a measured section of the rocks in one place can be precisely duplicated in detail in another. The vertical section (Plate VIII) is intended to show that oil has been produced from ten or twelve different geological horizons in the earth’s crust, ranging through a thickness of about 4,500 feet of sedimentary strata; and the most skillful oil producer, the most expert geologist, cannot tell how many other oil horizons may exist at intermediate depths eect the surface (i. e., in the scale of the formations), but which, being good only within certain geographical limits, have as yet escaped the oil-minevr’s drill (she Plate V). VERTICAL SECTION. SUMMARY SKETCH OF THE FORMATIONS EXHIBITED IN THE VERTICAL SECTION (Plate VIII).—This generalized section extends from the surface rocks in the upper barren coal series of Greene county, Pennsylvania, down to the corniferous limestone, the Canadian oil-rock, and will enable any one to distinguish and locate the several oil horizons thus far discovered and profitably worked in these measures. It, is in fact an enlarged representation of the features presented in the profile section. (Plate VII.) GROUP No. 1. UPPER BARREN COAL MEASURES B.—‘‘ Greene county group ;” thickness, 600 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From surface to top of Washington upper limestone. COMPOSITION.—Shales, sandstones, thin beds of limestone, and coal. ExposuREs.—The highlands of central and southwestern Greene county, Pennsylvania. AUTHORITY.—Professors J. J. Stevenson, Report K, p. 35, and White and Fontaine, Report PP, Pennsylvania Survey. UPPER BARREN COAL MEASURES A.—‘‘ Washington county group;” thickness, 350 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From top of Washington upper limestone to top of Waynesburg sandstone. COMPOSITION.—Shales, sandstones, limestones, and thin beds of coal; but carrying also the ‘‘ Washington coal-bed”, from7 to 10 feet. thick. In Washington county six beds of limestone compose about one-third of the mass, but in Greene the limestones are thin and less frequent. ExposuREs.—In the highlands of Washington and Greene counties (see Report K, p. 44, Pennsylvania Survey). ‘J Plate Vl. / 00° Upper Barren Coal Measurve wR” i 350° Opper Barren Coal Measures “4” Waynesburg Sandstone A: Coal ro Are Upper Productive Coal Measures Freeport Sandstone Ferriferous Timestone Homewood Sandstone Pithole Grit RERIESEIES LILES Me) 50" Crawvtord Shales 1 Sandstone BPE: Sandstone Soa 37%: Sandstone beryl Teed j 3000350" to 00 Shales and Thin bedded Sandstones OLLIE Hl X80" Bradfrd 3r¢- Oil Sand Generalized Vertical Section Irom the top of the Opper Barren Coal Measures doun to the Cornierous Limestone to show the various Oil Horizons of : Canada, New York and Pennsylvania Compiled by SF, Carl lor the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania drawn by Laura Linto oa ay ; = ced Canada Oil Rack Way mn y Ao OO Cornilérous Limestone cale ag a it 400 300 200 100 4,0 400 600 Tet | Total 6980 feet 2 /600' Devonian Slates and Shales a ee el ac Ri YORE Pete. 4 F fis ae he: fui a) Md re E aN as a +) lees wena : fais Ves i i a — = ee niles es Pa eat : 7 ny * = > ? N = . ‘ * . an Cel at . THE pe | neh sp 0S VavEaAns q s a a ten, iy a aa 2 4 : : tf" . i : eho pene + : : r ; 7 AS vow ae nae = 5 plat = ahs be f : yore &. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 47 GROUP No. 2. UPPER PRODUCTIVE COAL MEASURES.—Thickness, 475 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From top of Waynesburg sandstone to base of Pittsburgh coal. CoMPOSITION.—Shales and sandstones, with three thick bands of limestone and several thick coal-beds, of which the Waynesburg and the Pittsburgh are the most important. ExposureEsS.—Throughout Washington, Greene, and Allegheny counties (sce detailed section in Professor Stevenson’s Report K, p. 57). GROUP No. 3. LOWER BARREN COAL MEASURES,—Thicknegs, 500 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From base of Pittsburgh coal to top of Mahoning sandstone. COMPOSITION.—Shales and sandstones, with some thin beds of limestone and coal. EXposurRES.—Partially geen in Washington and Allegheny counties and in the highlands of southern Butler, but better developed in Beaver county, where Mr. White’s detailed section of these measures was taken (see Report K, pp. 75, 76). GROUP No. 4. LOWER PRODUCTIVE COAL MEASURES.—Thickness, 400 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From top of Mahoning sandstone to top of conglomerate No. XII. COMPOSITION.—Sandstones and shales, with several good and persistent coal seams and two important beds of limestone—the ‘‘Preeport” and the ‘‘Ferriferous”. EXPOSURES.—This series is exposed over a large extent of country in Butler, Armstrong, Clarion, Beaver, Lawrence, and Venango counties (see Mr. Chance’s detailed section, Report V, p. 16). Professor Stevenson states (Report K, p. 392) that the Mahoning sandstone, the top member of this group, is the central and principal oil-bearing rock of the three sands found in oil-wells on Dunkard creek, Greene county. It also appears to be an oil-producing rock in Westmoreland county, where @ number of oil- and salt-wells have been sunk through it. The Ferriferous limestone of this group is the great limestone of Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion counties, and the oil-miner’s ‘ key- rock” in sinking oil-wells in these sections. It is from 5 to 25 feet in thickness, and lies from 30 to 80 feet above the Homewood sandstone, the top member of conglomerate No. XII. GROUP No. 5. MOUNTAIN SAND SERIES, including the Pottsville conglomerate No. XII, and probably in some localities some of the sandstones belonging to the Upper Pocono sandstone No. X (No. XI being either thin or wanting); thickness from 350 to 425 feet, say 375 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.-—From top of Homewood sandstone to the base of the Olean-Garland-Ohio conglomerate, or second-mountain sand of the Venango oil-wells. COMPOSITION.—A group of variable conglomerates and sandstones interstratified with shales and inclosing sporadic beds of iron-ore and coal, two of the coal-beds, the Mercer and Sharon, being of great importance. It also carries in some localities two thin bands of limestone (the Mercer Upper and Lower). : ExposureEs.—In the highlands of Mercer, southern Crawford, Venango, Forest, Warren, and McKean counties. The lower members of this group produce heavy oil at Smith’s Ferry, in Beaver county, and on Slippery Rock creek, in Lawrence county, and the upper conglomerate is said to be the source of some oil in Kentucky (also in Johnson county, Kentucky). GROUP No. 6. CRAWFORD SHALES.—Thickness, from 400 to 500 feet, say 450 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From the base of the mountain-sand series to the top of the Venango oil group. COMPOSITION.—Shales and slates, inclosing the Pithole grit, near the center of the mass. In some localities 100 feet or more of the lower part is composed of red shale; in others no red appears. The upper part in some sections contains quite important beds of sandstone. } EXposurRES.—Only favorably seen in cliffs bordering the streams in parts of Forest, Venango, Mercer, Crawford, Warren, and McKean counties, its northern outcrop being always obscured by drift. ' The horizon of the Pithole grit appears to furnish the light-gravity amber oil at Smith’s Ferry and Ohioville, in Beaver county, with traces of the same on Slippery Rock creek, in Lawrence county. It also probably yields the heavy lubricating oil of the Mecca district, in Trumbull county, Ohio. GROUP No. 7. VENANGO OIL GROUP.—Thickness, from 300 to 375 feet, say 350 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—F rom the top of the first oil-sand (the ‘‘second sand” of the driller in Butler county) to the bottom of the third oil-sand (called the ‘‘ fourth sand” in Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion, and the “fifth sand” in some parts of Venango county). CoMPOSITION.—A group of variable sandstones, in some places conglomeritic, and locally divided into several members by irregular beds of slates and shales, some of which are red. EXPOsSURES.—These rocks, as a group, lie with a remarkable uniformity of slope and general structure in a comparatively narrow belt, from Herman station, in Butler county, to Tidioute, in Warren county. They make no conspicuous outcrops to the northwest, but appear to lose their sandy characteristics before reaching the surface. At Tidioute the deep gorges of Dennis run and the Allegheny river expose the first and second oil-sands, and as far up as Warren it is quite probable that we see the upper portion of the group exposed in the river hills. These are the only localities where a portion of the group in even an approximately normal condition may be seen above water-level. Its horizon is cut through by many of the ravines of McKean county, but it has there become so changed in its physical aspects that it disappears or becomes unrecognizable when the proper range for its outcrop is reached. These are ‘the oil-sands of Tidioute and Colorado, Warren county ; Fagundus, Forest county; Church run and Titusville, Crawford county; and of all the well-known oil centers in Venango, Clarion, Armstrong, and Butler counties. They produce oil in different localities from the members of the group, ranging from 30° to 52° in gravity, and varying greatly in color: 48 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. green oil from the third sand on Oil creek ; black oil from the stray sand. at Pleasantville; amber oil from the second sand in many places; and dark, heavy gravity oil from the first sand at Franklin. There are also occasional local deposits of oil, shading from a light straw color to almost a jet black. GROUP No. 8, INTERVAL BETWEEN THE VENANGO AND THE WARREN OIL GROUP.—Thickness, 300+ feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—F'rom the base of the Venango third oil-sand to the top of the Warren oil group. ComposITION.—Soft shale of a bluish-gray color, but containing some beds of green, purple, and red, with irregular bands of thin- bedded bluish-gray sandstones. The wells at Warren, even when favorably located, do not pass through the Venango group in its normal condition, nor do the wells on the Venango belt, when sunk to the proper depth, as many of them have been, find the Warren oil shales and sands with oil ; consequently no direct measurement of this interval can be made in oil-wells. In the section we have assigned a thickness to the mass which places the Venango and Warren oil groups as near as may be in their proper relative positions vertically at Warren. GROUP No. 9. WARREN OIL Group.—Thickness, about 300 feet. VERTICAL RANGE AND COMPOSITION.—This group may be viewed as including the so-called second, third, and fourth sands of Warren; but its composition is so variable in different parts of the district that it does not afford any persistent bands of sandstone by which to define either its upper or its lower limit. At North Warren the upper part is shaly, and the largest wells, it is claimed, flowed from these shales, while others got their oil from the ‘third sand”. At Warren the ‘second sand” is fairly developed, but the oil generally comes in the “third sand”. At Stoneham a lower sand, the ‘‘ fourth”, produces the oil. Thus the North Warren shales are represented at Stoneham by more sandy measures which contain no oil, and the Stoneham “ fourth sand” is poorly developed at North Warren, and is unproductive. The group, then, may be said to extend from the top of the North Warren shales to the bottom of the Stoneham sandstone, covering an interval, as nearly as may be calculated, of about 300 feet. GROUP No. 10. INTERVAL BETWEEN THE WARREN OIL GROUP AND THE BRADFORD ‘‘ THIRD SAND”.—Thickness, from 400 to 450 feet, say 400 feet. VERTICAL RANGE.—From the Stoneham oil-sand to the Bradford oil-sand (‘‘ third”), CoMPOSITION.—Slates and shales, generally of a bluish color, but sometimes inclined to red or brown, interstratified with thin bands of bluish-gray micaceous flaggy sandstones. The sand pumpings show this interval to be very fossiliferous. Similar difficulties are encountered in estimating the thickness of this group to those mentioned in No. 8. A large number of wells have been sunk between Bradford and Warren, but the rocks are so variable in composition and the well records have been so imperfectly kept that no completely satisfactory identification of the rocks of the Warren oil group, with their equivalents at Bradford, or of the Bradford ‘‘third sand”, with its corresponding stratum at Warren, can yet be made. The interval between the two oil horizons, however, appears to be in the neighborhood of 400 feet, as above given. This interval holds the Bradford ‘‘ second sand”, which has yielded oil in many of the McKean county wells, and also the sandy shale horizon producing ‘‘slush oil” along the Tuna valley. GROUP No. 11. BRADFORD THIRD SAND.—Thickness, from 20 to 80 feet. ComposITION.—A fine-grained, light to dark brown sandstone, containing pebbles the size of pin-heads in some localities, while in others it is little more than a sandy shale. It appears to be rather thin and irregularly bedded, is frequently interstratified with thin layers of gray, slaty sandstone, and contains many fossil shells and fish bones. The constitutional peculiarities of the rock, its color, its composition, and its structure, insure its ready recognition by the driller in any locality where he may find it in even an approximately normal condition. But this rock, like all others, has its geographical limits, outside of which its geological horizon can only be traced by the exercise of the greatest of care and the best of judgment in keeping and studying the well records. It is seldom, however, that good records of wells on debatable territory are kept. The well-owner always starts the drill on the presumption that the oil-rock will be found. He calculates in his own way its approximate depth from the surface, and makes a contract to drill so many feet. Confident of success, he urges on the drill, making no particular note of the character of the upper rocks; but when the supposed horizon of the sand is reached, and the evidences of its presence do not appear as anticipated, he discovers, too late, that he has nothing to check by to ascertain whether the oil-rock is actually wanting or only so changed in character as to be scarcely recognizable, or whether there may not have been some mistake in calculating its position in the well. Thus it often happens that wells of this class are abandoned after drilling:in doubt for a few days without having been sunk to the proper depth, while others are carried on down many feet below the horizon of the sand they are in quest of, and much valuable information is lost which a little prudent foresight might have secured. The Bradford ‘‘ third sand” may be satisfactorily located in the Wilcox wells, near the southerly line of McKean county. At Tidioute, in Warren county, 35 miles nearly due west from these wells, the base of the Venango group is well defined. Between these two points, the nearest geographical approximation that can at present be made, both groups evidently undergo rapid and radical changes in composition, and the well records are vague and unreliable; hence no absolute determination of the thickness of the mass of shales lying between the two groups can here be made. Somewhat better facilities are afforded for a study of these measures by carefully tracing the rocks from Tidioute to Warren (15 miles), and then from Warren to Bradford (25 miles); but even along these lines the structure is so obscure that mistaken identifications are quite likely to be made. ‘ These facts are stated to explain why there is yet some uncertainty regarding the thickness of the vertical interval between the Venango oil group and Bradford “third sand”. The figures cannot differ materially, however, from those given in the vertical section, Plate VIII. ) HS Opel ALT See im, SEPSIS RAT ITTLE KANAW: Sere eS Sia YRT PISO Peg | cERESES TOME] TM POL Plate //T. LaNY YO { FaN LUG, “YTUDLT BAY JUD * eV ERS RY ECT, AEN FLL Hoa ISL Tee TY § & 4, i Ba a f ‘3 Fe 7A POU oA sayy ws bpp kur \) any udy bung tif i / | Hl, i 1 il iT | Wf ! lid ||! re {8 | i & a) 8] SS ey a i > Ce ree i} \ Aoi tel es i} f ti t Hl ( i il ! ! i I ; | Hl i ‘ ic} 8 ma ONT SUIT Ft Pi ot g tl =i YAO] SAONOOC] ! | | tii {[! 49 28009 Jo BEL UMRT eADD Wingy doy AL uma iy young ob.o,J ( YAOT YOuT fo POFL = UL PUNO (| une AO YOO BLY M4 LOPOT Yrmg snyuoy ] ———= ! i] i i i I U | i 1 I | { | | I i Ohio River Level Coal N°. Fos Lime_, Y4OY YSILO-T \AWHA RIVER. / yes Né UR to LITTLE KAD LINAL from OHIO R C Profile through AXIS of W.Va. ANTI ByW.E. Minshall. Horizontal Scale Imileto 2inches. 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WIPUd SA “2 NOILO3S ONIAT OLY) Y / ‘uUnY SPUR >} > ‘UN 877IMaAT > “1 NOILOAS AL PREVT THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 49 GROUP No. 12. INTERVAL BETWEEN THE BRADFORD ‘‘ THIRD SAND” AND THE CORNIFEROUS LIMESTONE, commencing in the Chemung and including the Portage and Hamilton groups of the New York geological survey. Thickness, 1,600+ feet. CoMPoOSsITION.—In the imperfect records of wells that have been sunk into these measures in various parts of the country we simply find recorded ‘‘shales, slates, and soapstone, with occasional sand shells”. The upper part for 200 or 300 feet appears to contain considerable sandy material, and some of these sand-beds produce oil along the Tuna valley, in the vicinity of Limestone, Cattaraugus county, New York. Below this the drillings show principally slate and soft-mud rocks. Noimportant bands of sandstone and no oil have been reported. The thickness of this interval must be left questionable for reasons previously stated. We have no means of tracing the corniferous limestone south of Fredonia, New York, except approximately by its slope. The distance from Fredonia to Bradford is about 48 miles; direction about south 45° east. A dip of 20 feet to the mile would be required to place the limestone at Bradford as shown in our section. GROUP No. 13. THE CORNIFEROUS LIMESTONE, probably shown in the vertical section, Plate VIII, in conjunction with the ONONDAGA LIMESTONE.— The composition of this group has already been referred to in the quotations given from Geology of New York, It is the oil-producing rock of the Canadian oil regions, but at Fredonia, New York, yields neither oil nor gas. We may not presume, therefore, that it will ever be found to be an important oil horizon in Pennsylvania, and even if it should prove to be productive here the great depth at which it lies beneath the surface must be a very serious obstacle in the way of its development. (a) An illustration of the persistence of the Venango oil group as a geological formation is found in the circumstances attending the drilling of well No. 1 by the Brady’s Bend Iron Works Company in 1865. Professor J. P. Lesley was asked to give an opinion upon the probable depth at which oil would be reached on their property, and as he was familiar with the rocks of that locality, and had made a careful study of their dip and superposition, he readily made the computation and reported that “if the Venango sand extended under ground as far as Brady’s bend it ought to lie at 1,100 feet beneath water-level”. The well was drilled and struck the oil stratum at 1,120 feet. During 1877 the so-called grasshopper excitement occurred near Titusville, occasioned by the discovery of oil in a layer of superficial gravel beneath a sheet of clay. The wells were simple pits or shafts, from which the oil and water were pumped. The area was comprised within a few acres, but was quite productive for a time, yielding several hundred barrels of oil. The oil evidently arose from deeper sources with water, and accumulated in the gravel beneath the impervious crust of clay. The geology of the ‘* West Virginia Oil Break” has been recently subjected to a very careful study by F. W. Minshall, esq., of Parkersburg, West Virginia. Mr. Minshall has been connected with the petroleum industry of this region for many years, and has carefully collated the records of many wells located along the line of development in Ohio and West Virginia. His sections are considered accurate by those most familiar with the facts and best qualified to judge of their value, and are found to conform strictly to such observations as I was able to make during a hurried trip through the region. I introduce here in illustration a series of sections compiled and drawn by Mr. Minshall and generously placed at my disposal for use in this report. The section on Plate iii extends along the axis of the anticlinal from the Ohio river opposite Newport, in Washington county, Ohio, to the Little Kanawha river, in Wirt county, West Virginia. Section 1 on Plate IV crosses section on Plate III at a point on or near the Ohio river in Washington county, Ohio. Section 2, Plate IV, crosses section on Plate II at Horseneck, Pleasants county, West Virginia. Section 3, Plate IV, crosses section on Plate III on the line of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad from Laurel Fork Junction to Petroleum, Wood county, West Virginia. Plate V is a vertical section of the rocks yielding petroleum along the anticlinal. Map IV shows the territory that has produced oil in the White Oak district which lies along the anticlinal between Goose creek and Walker’s creek, Wood county, West Virginia. The following description of the occurrence of the formations along the line of the White Oak anticlinal is taken from a series of articles published by Mr. Minshall in the summer of 1881 in the State Journal at Parkersburg, West Virginia: In Wood, Pleasants, Ritchie, and Wirt counties the rocks, from the river level to the tops of the hills, belong to the upper barren measures, excepting only the line of territory known as the ‘‘oil break”, which passes through these counties. Although we are very nearly in the center of the great Allegheny coal basin, we have no workable veins of coal above drainage in the above-named counties. The Allegheny basin is a veritable basin in form, which not only contains many valuable veins of coal, ore, and potter’s clay, but also vast quantities of natural gas, petroleum, and brine. On account of our situation near the center of the Allegheny basin, all the riaceal wealth of its rocks is sunk beneath the river level. Here at Parkersburg, barely above the river, may be seen a thin vein of coal with an underlying vein of gray limestone. This we will call coal No. 11, and take it for our dividing line between the upper barren and upper productive coal measures. From the river to the top of fort Boreman, at the mouth of the Little Kanawha, we have an exposure of about 300 feet of the upper barrens. Examining them in detail, we will find them composed of alternate layers of red shale and compact, fine-grained sand rocks. The sand rock is of considerable value as a building-stone, being the same ledge as that which is extensively quarried between Belpre and Harmar, some parts of it furnishing grindstone grit and others the ‘‘Constitution” building-stone. If, commencing at our coal No. 11 (see Plate V), we should sink a well, we would pass through the following strata: At about 150 , feet we would reach the level of coal No. 10, the first vein of the upper productive measures, which has a thickness of from 4 to 6 feet a Reports, III, p. 156. VOL, 1x——-4. 50 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. on Duck creek, in Washington county, Ohio ; at 250 feet we should find coal No. 9, the limestone vein of Duck creek, and the equivalent of the Sewickly vein of Pennsylvania; at 350 feet we should pass the level of coal No. 8, the Federal creek vein of Athens county, Ohio, and the Pittsburgh vein of Pennsylvania, which is the last vein of the upper productive coal measures. We next pass through the red and variegated shales of the lower barren measures, until at 500 feet we reach the crinoidal limestone. At 600 feet we will pass into a soft, pebbly sand rock, the first oil-rock of Cow run, Ohio; at 700 feet we should strike a hard, black, flinty limestone, several feet of very black shale, with white fossil shells and coal No. 7; at 730 feet, coal No, 6; at 800 feet, coal No. 5; at 850 feet another cherty limestone, probably the ‘‘ Putnam hill” of the Ohio survey; at 880 feet, coal No. 4; at 900 feet we find another soft pebbly sand rock, the second oil-rock of Cow run, Ohio; at 1,000 feet, coal No. 3; at 1,070 feet, coal No. 2; at 1,200 feet coal No. 1; and at 1,300 feet, the top of the carboniferous conglomerate—the oil-rock of Lick fork and Tate run, in the White Oak district. (a) These are the rocks through which we ought to pass in our Parkersburg wells. This prediction is based upon the fact that the uplift of the ‘‘oil break” brings this whole series of rocks above the level of the Ohio river in such a way that any one can examine them at his leisure and verify the intervals for himself. Going back to our coal No. 11, with its underlying gray limestone, we will cross over into Ohio and trace it up the river on that side. At Marietta we find it coming up from the bed of the Muskingum near the ‘‘Children’s Home”. Keeping back from the Ohio river about two miles we see it in the bed of Duck creek at the old Robinson mill, in the bed of the little Muskingum at the mouth of Long run. We find very little change in the level of the stratum we are tracing till we are opposite the mouth of Cow creek. Here we find it gradually rising higher above the river as we go up the Ohio until, at the mouth of Newell run, on the Ohio side, we find it at the summit — of the hill. Since it is evident that a farther rise will take it away from us, we must take our barometer and measure down the hill to coal No. 10; but instead of the 6-foot vein of Duck creek, we have here barely 2 feet; in fact, this vein thins rapidly southward from the maximum thickness at the upper line of Washington county, Ohio. Having at the mouth of Newell’s run substituted coal No. 10 for No. 11, we will go a little farther east until, opposite the mouth of French creek, we find coal No.10 on the summit of mount Dudley. On mount Dudley we are standing on the axis of the anticlinal called the West Virginia oil break. Measuring down the face of the hill 100 feet from coal No. 10, we find coal No. 9, the limestone vein. Measuring again from coal No.9 down the hill about 100 feet, we will find the proper horizon of coal No. 8, the Pittsburgh vein of Pennsylvania and the Pomeroy vein of Ohio. It is true that we will not succeed in finding any coal at this point; the overlying sand rock, a little fire-clay, and the underlying gray limestone are all we can find here; but before reaching the end of our journey we will find the coal putting in an appearance. The horizon of this vein is exposed from the Ohio river to the Little Kanawha along the axis ot this anticlinal for a distance of about 30 miles, in which distance the coal increases from nothing to 20 inches. Measuring down from No. 8,150 feet, we will find the crinoidal limestone of the lower barren measures lying about 40 feet above low-water mark. To show that. we are upon the axis of the anticlinal, we will trace the limestone eastward along the face of the hill. For about a quarter of a mile we will find it running level, then dipping gradually to the east, until it disappears beneath the river. Returning, we trace it westward, and, after running level for the same distance, it dips to the west and goes under the river. At no other point in Washington county can this limestone be seen. (See Section 1, Plate IV.) Having thus satisfied ourselves that we have reached the axis of ‘‘ the break”, our purpose is to follow this axis to the point where it crosses the Little Kanawha above Burning Springs, West Virginia. Starting out from mount Dudley (see Plate III), we bear several degrees west of south, cross the Ohio a little below French creek, in Pleasants county, cross McElroy run at Ned Hammett’s, and strike the north hillside of Cow creek near the residence of Hugh McTaggart, esq. In a hollow north of the house, and about on a level with it, we find the crinoidal limestone. Continuing our course, but bearing more nearly south, we cross Cow creek below the old ‘‘ Willard” mill, the head of Calf creek, near William Nash’s, and reach a high point on the north side of Horseneck. Onthe very summit, by searching carefully, we will find, as though it had been placed there for our especial benefit, the crinoidal limestone about 580 feet above the river. To satisfy ourselves that the anticlinal maintains its form, and that we are still upon its axis, we trace the limestone westward till it dips beneath the bed of Calf creek, near the new school-house, and eastward into the bed of Sled fork of Cow creek; and we notice that the dip is getting steeper on the sides as the axis rises, but no signs of faulting or displacement of the strata are to be found. (See Section 2, Plate IV.) Our crinoidal limestone, which was 500 feet below the river at Parkersburg, is now 580 feet above, having risen 1,080 feet, and, like coal No. 11, having reached the summit of the highest hills, will soon be beyond our reachif the axiscontinnestorise. We willtherefore take the precaution to measure down tosome of the lower strata. One hundred feet below the crinoidal lime we find another massive sand rock similar to the one which lies over coal No.10. Like that, it is a true conglomerate, with layers of quartz pebbles somewhat similar and whiter than those of No.10. It is the first oil-sand of Cow run and Macksburg, in Washington county, of Buck run, in Morgan county, and of Federal creek, in Athens county, Ohio, easily identified by the interval being about 100 feet in all of the above-named places. At its outcrop at the head of Calf creek it forms a bold ledge, which at one point is broken into huge cubical blocks of about 30 feet in thickness, forming a ‘‘ rock city ” similar to the one near Olean, in New York. Below this sand rock, and about 200 feet below the crinoidal lime, we find coal No.7. Although the coal is only 18 inches thick, this vein becomes interesting because of its surroundings. Just over the coal is a stratum of very black shale, about 10 feet thick, filled with fossil shells. Over the shells is a black, flinty limestone, which we will find increasing in thickness southward until it becomes the well- known flint vein of Hughes river and Flint run. From Horseneck we resume our course, crossing Bull creek near the celebrated mineral well of Judge Borland, In the bed of the run, a short distance above Judge Borland’s well, we find the crinoidal limestone. Careful inspection shows us that we are still following the axis of the anticlinal, and that it has come down on the south of Horseneck even more rapidly than it had risen on the north. This will, when examined, prove to be a regular dip along the axial line, without any indications of faulting, and the dip continues until the gray limestone of No. 8 is brought down to the bed of the run; then the dip is suddenly reversed, and the axis rises again to the southward. From this point to Sand hill, on Walker’s creek, the rise is very rapid, bringing to the surface in regular succession the rocks above described down to the yellow limestone. This we follow in its upward course till it reaches the top of the high point near the Saint Ronan wells of White Oak district. Looking around us from this vantage-ground we will notice that although the distant hills preserve their graceful outlines the surrounding hills are mostly cone-shaped peaks, bristling with an unnatural kind of timber, the rig timber of the oil-seeker. In prosperous times, when clouds of smoke were pouring forth from hundreds of sooty craters and the clang of tools rivaled the din of old Vulcan and his cyclopic helpers, some genius, in a moment of inspiration, christened the place Volcano. On the top of the high peak near Saint Ronan’s well we will examine the limestone, which lies within 25 feet of the summit. We have assumed this vein to be the equivalent of the ‘‘ Putnam hill” vein of the Ohio survey; it is also the only vein we will find which might be taken to represent the ‘“‘ Ferriferous limestone” of Pennsylvania; it lies here a few feet above coal No. 4. Examining the a Also of Johnson county, Kentucky. Corestitutron Stone Opper Barrere. ~ FE ae Oo f pein a spe ewanage oto i ct 3 SS Se SS a SS Macks burg Conglomerate. Opper Productive i Oue Level of Cowhun&Duck Cr: Crinotdal Limestone. EAR GIaGe > poss so ————————— o Fle? Sle Ou = ———SSS Sees pees DA my TR OS a a. Mahoning Sandstone. Yields OllatMacksburg. Cow Rin. gee: 10 Sand) Newells Rury ©? a | + Crirotdal Lramestone. ‘ Datum Line. eo Lerel of Burning Sprs. [59] Lower Barrer eat Black Flint. ederal Athens Ca, uchliurn Morgar CoO VY O09-O00F Lee febble Sand. 2° 0 Sard{CowRun (Washg. \Macheburg| Cox i0: ‘24 OOOL — 008 bes orse Tech. 1“O1Sand< Burning Spr { A Van wg/ies Riv 2° Ol Sand at Burning Spr, W.Va. Lower Productive C.M. Yellow Limestone % Ore, Level of Horse neck. 6007z, Level of WAtte Oak. Levelt of Sand Hill. 2 OOEL é d. Co al Measure Conglomerate. 7*°Oxl Sand at White Oak WVa. 3 » » Burning Spr. «+. e, Vespertine Conglomerate 7“ Ovl Sand at Sand Hill. | 2 a ” » White Oak.{ W. Va. “GI00GL—OFSEL jk Pebble Sand. 2% Oi Sand at Sand Hill.) Pe, White ae Weve: 3% Ou Sand (MacheBarg, Was hig. CoO. Gas Dexter, Noble. Co.,0. VERTICAL SECTION Lower Carb. Limestone. CEE ee Figures denote Coal Beds. Scale 8007t. tothe inch OF WHITE OAK ANTICLINAL - WEST VIRGINIA. Comptled by F'W. Minshatl, Marietta O. OF THE VOLCANO OIL REGION OF WEST VIRGINIA SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENTS UP TO THE YEAR iord é) THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. ol structure of the vein, we find thatit is deposited in large, round bowlders, from one to three feet in diameter. The upper layers are heavily charged with iron, showing, when exposed to the weather, a very rusty yellow. A peculiar feature of the ore-bearing bowlders is their formation in regular concentric layers. If one of them be broken through the center you may see, from center to circumference, the rings as regular as the rings of a cross-section of a tree. As the bowlder becomes oxidized these rings peel off successively, leaving its form unchanged. The identification of this vein as the equivalent of the ‘Ferriferous” would be of great value to us for the purpose of comparing the geological level of our oil-bearing rocks with those of Pennsylvania. Resuming our measurements from this limestone downward we will find, 30 feet below it, coal No. 4; 160 feet below the lime, coal No. 3; and 230 feet below the lime, coal No. 2. With this vein is a hard, black slate, about a foot thick, which is always piled in masses around the mouth of the mine, and is sometimes called ‘ bone-coal”. These measurements can be made to the best advantage by going down the south side of the hill into the hollow on the Saint Ronan lease, in which coal No. 2 is mined, all the points of exposure being on the central axis and as nearly vertical as is possible to find them. In order to get a good exposure of the limestone for examination, we came beyond the highest point in the axial line. We will therefore retrace our steps for about a mile northward. ‘This will bring us to ‘‘Sand hill”. Here we find coal No. 2 about 170 feet above Walker’s creek, and the horizon of coal No. 1 about 40 feet above the bed of the stream. In lieu of coal we shall have to content ourselves with the thick bed of fire-clay, which is a persistent accompaniment of it in Ohio. Assuming the bed of Walker’s creek at this point to be 250 feet above the level of the Ohio river, we have, from the river level up to coal No. 1, 290 feet, plus interval from coal No. 1 to yellow limestone, 360 feet, plus interval from yellow lime to crinoidal lime, 350 feet, plus interval from crinoidal lime to coal No. 11, 350 feet, equal to 1,500 feet, the total amount of uplift to the highest point. Add to this 500 feet of the upper barren measures, which may be seen in the surrounding hills, and deduct the 250 feet which lie below the bed of Walker’s creek, and we have 1,750 feet of coal-measure rocks fairly exposed within an area of a few miles, which any student of geology may study at his leisure. We will now go back to Sand hill and resume our journey seuthward (see Map IV). Crossing White Oak fork of Walker’s creek above Volcano, we keep along the ridge, with Coal Bank run and Rogers gulch on our right and Oil Spring run, with its branches, ‘on our left, till we come to the dividing ridge between Lick fork and Tate run; here we halt and look around us. From Sand hill to this point we have passed through the center of the White Oak producing territory, a strip along the central axis of the break about four miles long and one mile wide, on which there are something like 600 wells now working. The southern end, at which we have stopped, is now the busiest part. Glancing down at our feet we will see that we are standing upon a soft, yellow sand, filled with pebbles about the size of a pea; some of them have a delicate blue tinge, but most of them are of a very clear white, almost translucent. This is the second oil-sand of Cow run, Ohio, from which a single well has produced $200,000 worth of oil. * * # * * * * * * Here there is just as much attention paid to the oil-rock proper as in any other territory. The only peculiar feature about the territory is the fact of its being located on the crest of a well-marked anticlinal, and whether you will find an accumulation of gas, oil, or water in the rock depends upon the comparative level of the point at which you strike a fissure. The statement which Professor Stevenson makes concerning the form of the ‘‘ break” at Hughes’ river along the Staunton pike is accurate and true for the whole length of the line; ‘‘there is no evidence of faulting on either side. Thesuccession from the inner portion of the abruptly-tilted strata outward to the horizontal strata is unbroken and perfectly clear. Within the ‘break’ the rocks are almost horizontal and not much broken. They describe a flattened anticlinal”. That this statement is true of the most disturbed portion of the whole line we may see for ourselves, Starting from the point at which we halted, we will go down on to Lick fork. From this point the stream runs nearly west to its junction with Laurel fork. About 40 feet above the bed of the stream we will find coal No. 2 lying horizontal. Following it westward down the run, we find that it soon begins to dip gradually, and in the course of a few rods comes down to the bed of the stream. Just before it disappears we see that it is beginning to dip at a much steeper angle, but shows no displacement. As we continue down the stream we find that we are passing over the upturned edges of the strata, but everything is in its proper place. Coal No. 3, the pebbly sand-rock that lies above it, the yellow limestone, the black flint, the crinoidal limestone, and the gray limestone of the Pittsburgh vein, each is seen in its legitimate position, the intervals being comparatively the same as when we measured them vertically. Laurel fork, from the mouth of the Lick fork to the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, runs very nearly parallel with the axis of the break. Placing the compass upon the upturned edge of the crinoidal limestone, where it is exposed in the bed of the run, we see that it runs straight as aline 8. 10° W. Being only 18 inches in thickness, it serves us admirably as an indicator of the course of the break. The black flint and the gray limestone, when tried by the compass, show the same course. From the mouth of Lick fork to the railroad this gray limestone of the upper productive coal group may be traced. Standing almost vertically, it crosses the railroad in the bed of the stream between Laurel junction and the first cut to the west. In this cut the double vein of coal No. 9 of the upper measures shows dipping at a sharp angle to the west. At the west end of this cut the dip becomes more gradual, but continues until the rocks of the upper coal group, including our No, 11, are brought down to the level of the railroad. If we should go eastward from Laurel junction to Petroleum we should find the same state of facts existing that we have just enumerated ; in the beds of Oil Spring run and Goose creek all of our well-known rocks, from coal No. 2 to coal No. 11, dipping to the east complete the symmetry of the anticlinal. (See Section 3, Plate IV.) From the head of Lick fork the axis of the break commences to dip southward. Following the axial line we cross the northwestern branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad about midway between Laurel junction and Petroleum, cross the head of Ellis run and along Dry ridge to William Sharpneck’s, on the north side of Hughes’ river. Near the school-house on Dry ridge may be seen a fine exposure of the crinoidal limestone, here 350 feet above the bed of Hughes’ river, showing a southern declination of about 580 feet between this point and the highest point of the axis at Sand Hill. About 200 feet below the crinoidal limestone is the flint vein. The same black shale, filled with white fossil shells, that underlies it at Horseneck is found here, affording a sure means of identification. Resuming our journey southward, we cross Hughes’ river near the old Walton Wait well, climb the steep hill on the south side, and keep along the ridge with the waters of Island run on the west and of Flint run on the east, until we come to the head of Wilson’s branch of Parish fork. From Dry ridge to this point we find the crinoidal limestone lying about level; from this point it commences to dip southward. We follow the course of Wilson’s branch down to within a few rods of the old Parmenter well, then over the ridge, cross Parish fork above the residence of Mr. Fred. Bailey, cross oil-rock near the old ‘‘ Orchard” well and the main branch of Standing Stone creek at the Fisher farm. Here we find the crinoidal limestone just 30 feet above the bed of the creek. Total southern dip from Sand hill to Standing Stone, 850 feet. The dip has now been sufficient to bring the soft pebbly sandstone which lies over coal No. 10 into the hills. Going westward down the creek, we may see this ledge of rock, about 40 feet thick, rnanning like a wall from the bed of the stream to the top of the hill. At Standing Stone the south dipis reversed and the axis rises. Following the line, we cross Dever’s fork at David Dever’s, where we find the crinoidal limestone 150 feet higher than at the Fisher farm. Continuing our course, we cross the head of Chestnut run, keep along the ridge with the headwaters of Upper Burning Spring run to the east and Nettle run to the west of us, and strike Lower Burning 52 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Spring run near the Newberger and Braidon well. Here we find the crinoidal limestone 125 feet above the Little Kanawha river, making 800 feet in geological level between this point and the head of Walker’s creek at Sand hill. The bed of the stream at Walker’s creek being 200 feet higher than the bed of the Little Kanawha makes the difference in drilling for any given rock about 600 feet. * * * At Burning Springs the axis again commences to dip southward, and at the point where it crosses the Little Kanawha, a short distance above the mouth of Spring creek, the crinoidal limestone is 60 feet below the bed of the river. Our investigation shows that the White Oak anticlinal or ‘‘oil break” is a fold or wrinkle in the bottom of the great trough called the ‘‘Allegheny coal basin”, extending from a point about 4 miles north of the Ohio river to a point about the same distance south of the Little Kanawha at Burning Springs; that there are undulations in the axial line which divide the line into three sections, which, had there been no erosion of the surface, would have presented three peaks of different altitudes; that of Horseneck would have been about 500 feet higher than that of Burning Springs, and that of White Oak about 300 feet higher than that of Horseneck, and the summit of the White Oak peak would have been about 2,000 feet above the level of the Ohio river. Under each of these peaks the rocks lie in the form of a table, say four miles long and from three-fourths to one mile wide. From the ends and sides of these tables the rocks dip at certain angles. Taken as a whole, the rocks form inverted basins, with flat bottoms and sloping sides. In these inverted basins nature for thousands of years had been collecting gases as the chemist collects them in inverted bottles over the pneumatic cistern. At Burning Springs the accumulation of gas became so large that it forced its way through the fissures of the overlying rocks to the surface, forming a natural gas-spring, which often became ignited and burned for days on the surface of the water through which it was escaping. All of the work done in this region prior to 1864 was done without recognizing the fact that the territory was confined to the crest of an anticlinal, and large sums of money were expended in the purchase of territory and drilling of wells along the margins of other streams inthe neighborhood. The operators also remained ignorant of the fact that two of the producing rocks of White Oak lay beneath the conglomerate. The escape of the gas at the summit of the other inverted basins drew the attention of operators to Horseneck and White Oak (from Burning Springs). Aboutthe year 1865 General A. J. Warner and Professor E. B. Andrews, of Marietta, became interested in White Oak territory, and these gentlemen soon began to draw geological inferences which led to an abandonment of the old policy of following the beds of the streams and to a recognition of the fact that the oil was confined to the crest of an anticlinal ; hence the White Oak section, and that alone, has been thoroughly and systematically worked. After it had been clearly recognized that the oil territory was confined to*the crest of the anticlinal, it was somewhat hastily inferred that the crest would be valuable territory for its entire length, and many test wells were drilled on the strength of this inference. These test wells showed such a large percentage of failures that, three years ago, the writer undertook to account for them by making a careful level along the entire length of the axis. The undulations of the rocks shown by the profile (Plate IIL), taken in connection with the known laws of hydrostatic pressure, satisfactorily account for the failures, and — show that part of the crest of the anticlinal is filled with an accumulation of water, and also what part must contain the accumulation of oil and gas. Taking into consideration our position in the trough of the Allegheny basin, and the fact that on all sides of us the conglomerate is filled with brine, as on the Allegheny river above, at Pomeroy and Charleston below, on the Big Muskingum to the west, and the head of the Little Kanawha to the east, at all of which points il lies at a higher level than it does in the counties through which we have passed, we may safely conclude that the productive oil territory of West Virginia must be confined to the summit of the anticlinals or local rolls similar to the White Oak line. The question has been raised by some of the Pennsylvania geologists as to whether rocks lying below sea-level can be expected to contain an accumulation of oil. In 1878 the writer drilled a well at Dexter, Noble county, Ohio, in which he struck a sand-rock about 700 feet below sea-level, containing a large accumulation of dry gas, and in the succeeding year George Rice, esq., obtained at Macksburg, Ohio, a flowing well from the same rock at the same level. The writer’s well at Dever’s fork, in Wirt county, also contains a large accumulation of gas and some oil in the Vespertine sandstone 300 feet below sea-level. This question is mentioned here because all of the Pennsylvania oil-bearing sands, if here at all, would lie several hundred feet below tide-water, even on the crest of our White Oak anticlinal. CONCLUSIONS. i have quoted Mr. Minshall’s work in great detail, and have introduced all of his sections, for the purpose of showing the facts from which his conclusions have been drawn. His facts were ascertained after many a mile of tramping and careful barometrical measurement; a work far more laborious and valuable than that of collating the records of wells, which, though sometimes correct, are more often defective through ignorance or inattention. Mr. Carll has tramped over the hills and through the forests of northwestern Pennsylvania to gain personal knowledge of the region, and his work has high value in the eyes of the oil producers. Both Mr. Minshall and Mr. Carll have learned the geology of petroleum at the edge of the drill, barometer in hand, both of them seeing and handling what they: describe. Assuming that Messrs. Hunt, Carll, and Minshall have observed correctly and stated their observations correctly, petroleum occurs in crevices only to a limited and unimportant extent. It occurs saturating porous strata and overlying superficial gravels; it occurs beneath the crowns of anticlinals in Canada and West Virginia, and does not occurin Pennsylvania; but in the latter region it occurs saturating the porous portions of formations that lie far beneath the influence of the superficial erosion, like sand-bars in a flowing stream or detritus on a beach. These formations or deposits, taken as whole members of the geological series, lie conformably with the inclosing rocks, and slope gently toward the southwest. The Bradford field in particular resembles a sheet of coarse-grained sandstone, 100 square miles in extent by from 20 to 80 feet deep, lying with its southwestern edge deepest and submerged in salt water and its northeastern edge highest and filled with gas under an extremely high pressure. It is further to be concluded that, from whatever source the petroleum may have originally issued, it now saturates porous strata, not of any particular geological age, but runs through a vast accumulation of sediments from the oldest to the newest rocks, in Pennsylvania and West Virginia embracing all of the rocks between the Lower Devonian and the Upper Carboniferous. : 7 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. D3 CHAPTER IV.—THE CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM. SECTION 1.—THE CHEMISTRY OF CRUDE PETROLEUM. ‘The wide distribution of bitumen in nature has already been noticed. As early as 1823 the Hon. George Knox called attention to its prevalence in rocks and minerals, and showed that, along with lithia and fluorine, it had been overlooked in their analyses. (a) The following year Vauquelin published a notice, with an analysis of the bitumen contained in the sulphur of Sicily.(b) In 1837 Boussingault published the results of an examination of the bitumen of Pechelbronn and other bitumens of southern Europe, which for many years was considered a classic upon the subject. (¢) In 1853, Dr. C. Vélekel examined the asphalt of the Val de Travers. (d) These analyses of solid bitumens were mainly attempts to determine the constitution of these materials by ultimate analysis, and were very valuable at the time they were made. The first research upon fluid bitumen or petroleum was made by Vauquelin in 1817 upon the naphtha of Amiano, which at that time was used in street lamps in the small towns of the duchy of Parma. (e) In 1857, Engelbach examined the petroleum sand of the Luneberger heath, in Holstein, which has lately been attracting so much attention; (f/) and Warren de la Rue and Hugo Miller worked on several tons of Rangoon tar or Burmese petroleum, and distilled the oil with steam at 100° C. and with steam superheated to 200° C., and examined the distillate. (q) ¥ American petroleum was examined by Professor Benjamin Silliman, sen., in 1833, (hk) and by Professor B. Silliman, jr., in 1855, who published his results in his celebrated report on the petroleum of Venango county. (¢) Since petroleum became an article of commerce innumerable examinations from all parts of the world have been made for technical purposes. These examinations have been chiefly made with reference to determining the amount of distillate available for illuminating purposes. In the earlier period of, the commercial production it was assumed that petroleums from different localities were identical, except in specific gravity, and that therefore the distillate of the same specific gravity possessed the same properties. Professor B. Silliman, jr., and myself examined the petroleums of California;(j) H. St. Claire Deville and others those of Java, Pennsylvania, and Russia; (k) Raveset examined Trinidad pitch, (/) Waller the petroleum of Santo Domingo, (m) and Silvestri the petroleum-like constituents of the lavas of Etna.(n) The distillations essential to these analyses were often conducted in an ordinary glass retort, or with an alembic. Of the two, the alembic is very much to be preferred, as its use prevents the cracking of the oils. In 1868 Dr. H. Letheby contrived an apparatus for this purpose, which is described in the London Journal of Gas Lighting, xii, 653. In 1866 Dr. John Attfield published a description of another, (0) and the following year I described an apparatus of my own invention for the technical analysis of petroleums or solid bitumens, either with or without pressure. (p) The ultimate analysis of petroleum early showed it to consist of carbon and hydrogen. It was for a long time assumed that crude petroleum contained an equal number of atoms of these elements, but my own examination of Californian and other petroleums in 1867 and 1868 (q) showed that the first named variety contained from 0.5645 to 1.1095 per cent. of nitrogen; that Mecca (Ohio) oil contained 0.230 per cent., and oil from the Cumberland well, West Virginia, 0.54 per cent. of the same element. Determinations of the hydrogen and carbon in several samples of petroleum showed that the proportion of carbon increases with the density. The following table shows the percentage of composition of the several different varieties: (r) | | Hydrogen. Carbon. Nitrogen. Sioconwelluaw Estavarginiad, eseesscwecos eee cciassccssss6 as 12. 929 86; 622 silesee oatciexate® ore Cumberland well, West Virginia.................--.---.- 13, 359 85. 200 0. 5400 MECCCE OMiOzets sotccaite c'secns seistats Cotes aU cwelccs cetecashs 13. 071 86. 316 0. 2300 Hayward Petroleum Company, California.......--...-.. 11. 819 86. 934 1.1095 ICO SDE a Aul OLMAe eee neealseanbaleaaaae ceca sanace clallesdcte = aca.cq'cl cecawsiseccms ew 1, 0165 Cannas Lae. Cal lormid cca. ste xc rear cc ccesac sda wisccats «| sae. 5's rsige eet emjacea see wa'e ae 1. 0855 MSIE AM Nn Cl CORI OTN deaseds saintseds adeacen esses tas355nsen ea calieaenm=asccace nn 0. 5645 a Phil. Trans., 1823; Phil. Jour., ix, 403; A. J.S. (1), xii, 147. k L’A. 8. et Ind., 1871, 146. b Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (2), xxv, 50. U Jour. de VE. au gas, 1872; A. Chem., ii, 316. c Ibid., lxiv, 41; New Ed. Phil. Jour., 1837. ; m Am. Chem., ii, 220. d Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., 1xxxvii, 139. , nm Gaz. Chim, Ital., vii, 1. e Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (2), iv, 314. o Chem. News, xiv, 98. : f Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., ciii, 1. p A.J. 8. (2), xliv, 230; C. N., xvi, 199. g Phil. Mag. (4), xiii, 512. q Rep. Geo. Surv. Cal.: Geology, II, Appendix, pp. 84, 89. h Am. Jour. Sci. (1), xxiii, 97. r Ibid., p. 89; Am. Chem., vii, 327. The methods of analysis i Am. C., ii, 18. used to meet the peculiar difficulties presented by these jg A.J. 8. (2), xxxix, 341}; (2), L, xliti, 242;.C. N.; xvii,.257; substances is fully described in both the works referred Geo. Surv. of Cal.: Geology, ii, Appendix, p. 49. to.—S. F. P. 54 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Delesse notes 0.154 per cent. of nitrogen in elalerite and 0.256 per cent. in the bitumen from the pitch lake of Trinidad. (a) O. Hesse has shown the presence of sulphur in Syrian and American asphalt to the amount of 8.78 and 10.85 per cent., respectively, and one sample of California petroleum examined by myself contained a sufficient amount of sulphur to form a deposit in the neck of the retort. Itis well known that Canada petroleum contains sulphur, but the Pennsylvania and West Virginia oils are remarkably free from it. A qualitative test for sulphur in petroleum is described on page 181. An oil is described from the Kirghish steppe said to contain 1.87 per cent. ot sulphur and to be purified with great difficulty. According to Mr. John Tunbridge, gold may be found in the ashes of crude petroleum and in the refuse of petroleum stills, and he is reported to have extracted $34 worth of gold from a ton of residuum, the source of which is not given. (b) In general, it may be stated that the ultimate analysis of petroleum shows it to consist of carbon and hydrogen, with a very small proportion, in some instances, of nitrogen, sulphur, and perhaps oxygen. Metallic arsenic is said to condense in the goose-neck of the retorts in which the bituminous limestones of Lobsan are distilled. (¢) SECTION 2.—THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF PETROLEUM. In 1824 Reichenbach published his researches upon paraffine and eupion, (d) and ten years later published a paper upon petroleum or rock-oil; (e) and he appears to have been the first chemist who attempted a separation of the definite chemical compounds that are mixed together in petroleum and similar liquids. Further attempts were made at their separation by Laurent, (7) but, as might be expected, they were only partially successful, as the eupion and other liquids obtained by Reichenbach and Laurent were for the most part mixtures still. In 1863 Schorlemmer, in England, and Pelouze and Cahours, in France, published researches upon American petroleum, which were really the first successful attempts to isolate any number of the constituents of this complex mixture of substances. Schorlemmer showed that American petroleum contained in the portion boiling below 120° C, the same hydrides as are obtained from the distillate from cannel coal, (g) but Pelouze and Cahours determined American petroleum to consist of the homologues of marsh-gas. The lowest determined by them was hydride of butyl, CgHyo, which boils a little above 0°C., while the highest had a composition of CyH;. They considered paraffine a mixture of still higher terms, and regarded the small quantity of benzole and toluole alleged to have been obtained by Schorlemmer to have been due to destructive distillation of the petroleum. (h) At the same time that the researches just mentioned were being carried on in Europe, C. M. Warren, alone and associated with F. H. Storer, was engaged on a similar research in this country.(i) The results obtained by them were published in 1865 and 1866, and while in the main confirmatory of those previously obtained, they were in many respects superior in point of definiteness and accuracy, from the fact that Warren used an apparatus for separating his material greatly superior to any hitherto employed. (j) In discussing the identity of the compounds obtained by himself and MM. Pelouze and Cahours, Warren remarks that he considers vapor density and analysis as corroborative evidence with boiling point; but aside from such evidence, he regards the superiority of his process of distillation as a paramount means of securing pure products for analysis, and therefore entitled to great consideration. (k) Warren succeeded in isolating fourteen different liquids in quantities of several hundred cubic centimeters, and so pure that the whole quantity might be distilled from an ordinary tubulated retort within a range of temperature of 1° C. He was consequently enabled to determine their boiling points with great accuracy, and hence the difference in their boiling points, to analyze them and‘ determine their vapor density and establish their formule. The composition assigned by him to the fourteen compounds is given in the following table: FIRST SERIES. SECOND SERIES. THIRD SERIES (not completed). Formula. anee Formula. aoe Formula. erg Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. CiBiouecccnsseere 05.09 Caliitiee. «set cece 8-9 C10 E90 eas 2.9 bs oere 174.9 CrHiieescrsccecer 380. 2 Cs 19)2 cen n ccna | 37.0 OTP EL Ne ee ee 195.8 OBE Ig aeeceee scree 61.3 Celia cue ncscsccns 68.5 CisHiad s2 so 5 cee 216. 2 Orig aes sess 90. 4 CrHiteesee ones ns 98.1 Calis. Saececteecicc 119.5 Celtis eee oncecn ee 127.6 CoHa0s/imececclosso 150. 8 i a Del Azote et des Matiéres dans l’ Ecorce Terrestre. f Ann. Chim. et de Phys. (2), xiv, 321. Paris, 1861, pp. 172, 173. g Proc. Manchester Phil. Soc., March 11, 1863; A. J. 8. (2), xxxvi, 115. Did midis Ley CLR Ls Os h Ann. C. et P. (4), i, 5. c Ann. des Mines (4), xix, 669. i Mem. Am. Acad., N.S., ix; Am. J. Sci. (2), xl and xli. d P, Mag. (2), i, 402. j Mem. Am. Acad., N.§., ix, 121; A. J. 8. (2), xxxix, 327. e Schweig. Seid. Jour., ix, 133; P. Jour., xvi, 376. k A. J. 8. (2), xlv, 262. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 5d I have changed the atomic value of 12 given in Warren’s memoir to that of carbon=6, as at present used, in order that these formule may be more readily compared with others. Warren does not give the specific gravity of his compounds, nor does he give any hint regarding the relative proportions of these compounds in crude petroleum, and his work was qualitative as regards the crude oil. Messrs. Warren and Storer also examined Rangoon petroleum, with the following result: Deg. C aay enos Cro klsp OLIN Sure DOUSm ec taste ne cia cigh emis anid n isia om a vc ce Nene lalc see oc ose pcin aa otal bictvrevacie ae eneunate 175 Mian ALYIOUOs: (7) Figs; i DOLIN OFA 0 a DOUGg eres. anges tos adc eae nee Go accede eee el Nk Mdat esa aae cesta eee e 195 auny ones Crgitse, DOMINO ALADOU LC eee. cose sete cee aeieee Mee see ane send ge le melee wale eae ess gees Semele 215 pO wune Cia tia OMING ALADOUU ee cites ies anlekae cess ldltalcctaidaa Jou veleclee saescalatcbcelceedse yacelbcbudecone ede 235 Naphthalin, CioHs Saealsnts saath dn ce alae pie elaiah cn sine onta's a clave dalsiamiad o simtieula &alws¢ateleanie © acieic se avele + cll eiaidb o Motae mew ala — Also, probably, pelargonene = CoHjs, boiling at about 155°, and members of one or both the series of hydrides (from American petroleum), it being a fair presumption that we have had in our hands hydrides of cnanthyl (C;Hig), of capryl (CsHis), and of pelargonyl (CyHo.). Our experiments also indicate the probable presence of xylole and isocumole. (a) The latter, with naphthaline, are found in coal-tar. It will be noted that these researches were had only upon the more volatile portions of the petroleum, without regard to the more dense portions with high boiling points, and that they established the fact that the more volatile portion of American petroleum contained principally the homologues of marsh-gas, with the general formula C,Hon42, and also the homologues of olefiant gas, with the general formula C,H>,, and that the corresponding portion of Rangoon petroleum contained principally the homologues of olefiant gas, the benzole series, and probably some of the higher members of the marsh-gas series. An examination of paraffine and its chemical relations showed that it was one of the higher homologues of marsh-gas, hence the English chemists have called the whole series paraffines, including the solid, liquid, and gaseous members. During 1865 E. Ronalds isolated butyl hydride from American petroleum and described it as a liquid with a specific gravity of 0.600 at 32° F.; vapor density, 2.11, colorless, and of a sweet taste and agreeable odor. Alcohol of 98 per cent. dissolves from eleven to twelve times its volume. (Db) The same year Tuttschew discovered the homologues of olefiant gas (C,H,,) in illuminating oil from Galician petroleum. (c) Since 1865 up to 1880 the paraffines of American petroleum have been the subject of a vast amount of research, particularly by English chemists. Goldstein, (d) Stenhouse,(e) Odling, (7) Herman, (g) Morgan, and Schorlemmer (h) have all contributed to the mass of knowledge relating to this subject that is now the possession of chemists. Pre-eminent, however, among these investigators is the name of Schorlemmer; but it would be impossible to give here a résumé of his results that would be understood by the general reader ; in fact, many of his most elaborate researches are of a purely scientific nature. His numerous papers will be found in the Philosophie Transactions and the Journal of the Chemical Society. Very little has been done upon Canadian petroleum. Schorlemmer has shown that the benzole series is present in it.(?) Russian petroleum has been examined by Beilstein and Kurbatow(j), and they found that the more volatile products of Caucasian petroleum consist of the additive compounds of the benzole series, having a higher specific gravity for the same boiling point than the compounds constituting American petroleum and containing more carbon. Further experiments, undertaken to ascertain if American petroleum contained these bodies in small proportion, yielded negative results, all of the derived compounds showing the presence of the alcohol radicals (C,H»,,2), and not of benzole or its additive compounds. The relation which these additive compounds sustain to benzole may be inferred from the following formule: SGI ZO Ge oiatieiy eee cee . (j) Berthelot has shown that the action of chromic acid on ethylene and its homologues at a temperature of 120° produces aldehyde and its homologues. (k) In 1870 KE. Willigk treated paraffine at a high temperature with nitric and sulphuric acids, and obtained products that belonged to the series of the fatty acids. (l) In 1873, M. Champion subjected parafiine for sixty hours to the action of nitro-sulphuric acid, hyponitrie acid vapors were given off, and an oil having been formed with an acid reaction, combining readily with alkalies, of which the formula is Cys;H2g.NOy;0, he proposed for it the name paraffinic acid. (m) In 1874 M, A. G. Pouchet published a paper in relation to the action of nitric acid upon a For references see page 60 et seq. h P. Am. P.S., x, 460; Geo. Surv. of California: Geology, b C. Rendus, liv, 387. Appendix II, 86. CMM Am. ACH ss No vSey lL Xa ahd dah Anr aaa) sexe Os 4 Am. Chem., v, 359. d Jour. Pharm. Chem. (4), xxii, 241. 4 B.S. C, P., 187782, 3853 B. D.C: G. B., x, 451. e C. N., xxxvi, 140. kJ. C.S8., xxxvi, 907. f Rus. Chem. Soc., June, 1877. UB. D.C. G. B., 1870, 138. g J. f. P. C., xciii, 394. m J. de Pharm. et de Chimie, Aug., 1872. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. a9 paraffine and the divers products that result from it. (a4) He obtained in solution the fatty acids, chiefly caproic, but also butyric, caprylic and capric, and paraffinic acid insoluble. He regards paraffinic acid as having the formula O4,H,;03,HO, and paraffine as a definite compound with the formula C,,H;, and not a mixture of different carbides of hydrogen, a conclusion that does not follow, unless he has shown that paraffines from all sources have the same composition and produce the same paraffinic acid. In 1868 M. Grotowski, of Halle on the Saale, studying the effects of sunlight on illuminating oil, (b) exposed various kinds of oils in glass flasks to the rays of the sun for a period of three months, and found that they invariably absorbed oxygen and converted it into ozone. The air was ozonized even in well-corked vessels, the effect being, however, in some degree dependent upon the color of the glass. The respective results of these experiments were noted after a lapse of three months. American kerosene from petroleum, which had been exposed to the light in white uncovered glass balloons, had become so strongly ozonized that it scarcely burned, and the original bluish-white oil had assumed a vivid yellow color, the specific gravity being found to have increased 0.005 ; but American kerosene which had been kept in the dark for three months did not show any ozone at all, and burned satisfactorily. The oils were exposed from April to July, 1868. Those oils which had become strongly ozonized had also suffered a distinct change in odor, and the corks were bleached as if attacked by chlorine, while the others had remained unchanged in these particulars. These results are fully confirmed by the experience of the consumers and dealers in these oils, who all avoid obtaining “old oil”, as it is called. It appears that redistillation with quicklime and clean iron nails restores the oils to their original state and properties. It is well known that the best illuminating oils, when allowed to stand for a long time in unused glass lamps, become yellow in color, less mobile, and of greatly impaired quality. Dr. Stevenson Macadam, having investigated the action of petroleum on metals, concludes that it exerts a solvent action upon lead, zinc, tin, copper, magnesium, and sodium.(c) Engler refers to these experiments, and maintains that these metals are attacked by petroleum only under the influence of air or oxygen, when acid compounds are formed. Petroleum washed in caustic alkalies and distilled in carbonic acid has no solvent action on metals. (d) CHAPTER V.—THE ORIGIN OF BITUMENS. SECTION 1.—INTRODUCTION. The origin of bitumens has been a fruitful subject of speculation among scientific men during the last half century. These speculations have been pursued along several quite different lines of investigation, and have been influenced by several different classes of experience. Generally speaking, they fall into three different categories, embracing those who regard bitumen as a distillate produced by natural causes, those who regard bitumen as indigenous to the rocks in which it is found, and those who regard bitumen as a product of chemical action, the latter class being subdivided into those who regard bitumen as a product of chemical change in natural products, of which carbon and hydrogen are constituents, and those who advocate a purely chemical reaction between purely mineral or inorganic materials. I propose to examine these theories in the inverse order in which they have just been stated. Suction 2.-CHEMICAL THEORIES. The argument for a purely chemical origin of petroleum was first brought to the serious attention of scientific men through the publication of a somewhat noted paper by the distinguished French chemist Berthelot in 1866, whose conclusions are stated as follows: If, in accordance with an hypothesis recently announced by M. Daubré, it be admitted that the terrestrial mass contains free alkali metals in its interior, this hypothesis alone, together with experiments that I have lately published, furnishes almost of necessity a method of explaining the formation of carbides of hydrogen. According to my experiments, when carbonic acid, which everywhere infiltrates the terrestrial crust, comes in contact with the alkali metals at a high temperature, acetylides are formed. These same acetylides also result from contact of the earthy carbonates with the alkali metals even below a dull-red heat. Now the alkaline acetylides thus produced could be subjected to the action of vapor of water; free acetyline would result if the products were remoyed immediately from the influence of heat and of hydrogen (produced at the same time by the reaction of water upon the free metals) and the other bodies which are found present. But in consequence of the different conditions the acetylene would not exist, as has been proved by my recent experiments. a C. Rendus, 1xxix, 320; Dingler, cexiv, 130; C. N., xxx, 154. oT. Pos. E. (3); vii, 465 50. C2 S., xxxiv,,oo00. b N. Jahrbuch f. Pharm., xxxvii, 187; Chem. C. Bl., 1872, 588. d B. D. C. G. B., 1879, 2186; C. N., xli, 284. 60 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. In its place we obtain either the products of its condensation, which approach the bitumens and tars, or the products of the reaction of hydrogen upon those bodies already condensed ; that is to say, more hydrogenated carbides. For example, hydrogen reacting upon the acetylene, engenders ethylene and hydride of ethylene. A new reaction of the hydrogen either upon the polymeres of acetylene or upon those of ethylene would engender formenic carbides, the same as those which constitute American petroleum. An almost unlimited diversity in the reaction is here possible, according to the temperature and the bodies present. We can thus imagine the production by a purely mineral method of all the natural carbides. The intervention of heat, of water, and the alkali metals, together with the tendency of the carbides to unite with each other to form matters more condensed, are sufficient to account for the formation of these curious compounds. Their formation could thus be effected in a continuous manner, because the reactions which give birth to them are continually renewed. This hypothesis is susceptible of further development, but I prefer to dwell within the limits authorized by my experiments without wishing to announce other than geological possibilities. (a) Continuing the same line of experimentation and argument, in 1869 M. Berthelot thus concludes another article : In the preceding experiments wood, charcoal, and coal are changed into petroleum. * * * If one accepts either origin for petroleum that I have just mentioned, he is led to conceive the possibility of an indefinite formation of these carbides, whether they be relegated to an organic origin, and in consequence to the enormous mass of débris buried at an inaccessible depth, or whether they be relegated to a purely mineral origin, and in consequence to the incessant removal of the generative reactions. (b) He further applies this hypothesis to the origin of the carbonaceous matter in the meteorite of Orgueil and other meteorites. (c) In 1871 M. H. Byasson read a paper before the French Academy, which he concludes as follows: The question of the origin of petroleum has already produced four or five differeht theories. In a research that certain considerations have led us to undertake, we have, by causing carbonic acid and water to react under very simple conditions, obtained a small quantity of an inflammable liquid nearly indifferent to sulphuric acid, and with an odor analogous to that of the carbides of petroleum. * * * The substances that we cause to react upon each other being widely distributed upon the globe, it will perhaps be possible to formulate a new theory of the formation of petroleum, to correllate it with the elevation of mountains and volcanic eruptions, and to St together several important facts prominent in the history of the earth. (d) M. Byasson causes steam, carbonic acid, and iron at a white heat to react upon each other, and provides the requisite conditions in nature by assuming that sea-water penetrates the terrestrial crust and comes in contact with metallic iron at a white heat and at great depths beneath the surface. In 1877 Messrs. Friedel and Crafts produced the hydrocarbides and acetones by a complex. reaction, in which chloride of aluminum performed the essential part. (é) On the 25th of February, 1877, M. Mendeljeff read a paper on the origin of petroleum before the Chemical Society of Saint Petersburg, which has been very widely noticed. I give below a translation of a résumé which appeared in the correspondence of the Chemical Society of Paris, and which is printed in its bulletin: The appearance of springs of petroleum at the surface of the earth shows the tendency of those mineral oils to traverse by infiltration the different strata of the earth in reaching the surface, a natural consequence of their lower density as compared with water. The place where petroleum originates ought then to be situated beneath the strata where the springs themselves are found. The beds furnishing the mineral oil belong in general to several very different formations of the earth’s strata. Thus in the Caucasus the petroliferous zone is formed in the Tertiary; in Pennsylvania, in the Devonian, and even Silurian. The place of the formation of the petroleum ought then to be sought in older strata. The sandstones impregnated with petroleum have never exhibited the carbonized remains of organisms. In general, petroleum and carbon are never found simultaneously ; but it is difficult to suppose that petroleum resulted from the decomposition of animal and vegetable organisms, because it would be then impossible to represent the origin of petroleum without a corresponding formation of carbon. On the other side, it is impossible to imagine the existence of great quantities of organisms in the epoch preceding the Silurian and Devonian. These reflections have led the author to the supposition that petroleum is in no place of organic origin. In speaking of the hypothesis of La Place upon the origin of the earth, in applying Dalton’s law to the gaseous state in which all the elements constituting the terrestrial globe ought to be found, and taking into consideration their relative densities, M. Mendeljeff recognizes the necessity of admitting a condensation of metals at the center of the earth. Among these it is natural to presume iron would predominate, because it is found in great abundance in the sun in meteorites and basalt8. Admitting further the existence of metallic carbides, it is easy to find an explanation not only for the origin of petroleum, but also for the manner of its appearance in the places where the terrestrial strata, at the time of their elevation into mountain chains, ought to be filled with crevices to their center. These crevices have admitted water to the metallic carbides. The action of water upon the metallic carbides at an elevated temperature and under a high pressure has generated metallic oxides and saturated hydrocarbons, which, being transported by aqueous vapor, have reached those strata where they would easily condense and impregnate beds of sandstone, which have the property of imbibing great quantities of mineral oil. This explanation of the origin of petroleum finds support from the following facts: The predominance at the surface of the earth of elements having a small atomic weight; the appearance of petroleum in directions corresponding to great circles; the relation remarked by several naturalists, particularly by M. Abich, between petroleum and volcanic manifestations. In order to make this question clear, it is indispensable to study the different transformations of petroleum, its decomposition into marsh-gas and non-saturated hydrocarbons; of determining the chemical nature of mineral oils of different origin; also that of the saline water that ordinarily accompanies petroleum, Researches of this kind, in connection with profound geological studies, can alone rencer justice to the hypothesis stated above. (f) In 1877 Mr. Cloez succeeded in obtaining hydrocarbons resembling certain constituents of petroleum as a result of the action of dilute sulphuric acid on a carbide of iron and manganese (spiegeleisen). The next year, by a Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Dec., 1866. ec C. R., lxvii, 849. eC. R., Ixxxv, 74. BiB, SO; Pa xieso, d C. R., xxiii, 609. Sf B.S. C. P., 1877, 501. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 61 using a carbide richer in manganese, he succeeded in producing the reaction with boiling water and obtained the oils as before. In concluding his paper on the subject he regards his results as a sufficient basis for an hypothesis by which to account for the origin of petroleum. (a) In 1878 M. Fr. Landolph succeeded in obtaining these oils by an exceedingly complex process, in which he used fluoborates, affirming that “it is the great energy (affinity) of boron for the elements of water that ought to provoke those classes of reaction and permit us to obtain synthetically a great number of carbides of hydrogen with great facility ”. (b) These chemical theories are supported by great names, and are based on the most complete and elaborate researches; but they require the assumption of operations nowhere witnessed in nature or known to technology. I Privte here a passage which I wrote in 1867, soon after M. Berthelot’s original article, above quoted, first appeared : The theory of M. Berthelot appears to me to derive less support from observed facts than any which has been proposed. It was doubtless formed with reference to the petroleums of Pennsylvania, which are among the purest mineral hydrocarbons of any found in large quantities. The very small proportion of nitrogen existing in these oils might perhaps be accounted for as an accidental constituent of the limestone, or as being mechanically mingled with the watery vapor. Neither supposition is at all probable, since nitrogen possesses such slight affinities. It adds nothing to its support to admit that the alkali metals do exist in the interior of the earth in the free state.(c) The very great difference observed between the varieties of petroleum (d) cannot be explained upon any hypothesis that regards them as the results of the same process acting upon like materials; neither should it be expected that a process yielding an almost “unlimited diversity” of products, under slightly varying circumstances, would furnish a uniform result over a very wide area. Samples of Pennsylvania petroleum of the same density, when gathered from widely separated localities, furnish identical (e) results upon analysis ; so, too, do California petroleums, though gathered from localities 50 miles apart; and yet the two varieties of oil are exceedingly unlike. ‘‘It is, moreover, altogether erroneous to attempt to explain the causes of geological facts by the aid of supposed analogies with the complex apparatus of physical cabinets, whose existence in nature could scarcely be conceived by the boldest and most unrestrained imagination.” (/) The most conspicuous advocate of the theory that petroleum is a product of chemical reaction, by which marsh- gas is converted into more condensed hydrocarbons, appearing as fluid, viscous, and solid bitumens, is M. Coquand, who has so fully written upon the occurrence of bitumen in Albania and Roumania. He found mud volcanoes associated with the occurrence of petroleum in Sicily, the Apennines, the peninsula of Taman, and the plains of Roumania, and concluded that mud volcanoes produced petroleum and other forms of bitumen by converting marsh- gas into more condensed hydrocarbons. The following passage gives a summary of his opinions: If the Carpathians have snown me only mineral oils in the state of naphtha more or less charged with tarry matters, and sometimes, but rarely, glutinous bitumen, that is to say, in the first stage of its existence and transformation, Selenitza ought to show me the same phenomena brought to the extreme limit of exhaustion; that is to say, bitumen reduced to a solid substance, incapable of spontaneous decomposition and of engendering new derivative products. It is rational to conclude that the history of that substance consists of two distinct evolutions, of which the first has for the principal theater of its active life North America and the Carpatho-Caucasian region, and the second the coasts of the Black sea and lower Albania, and as occupying an intermediate position between the two extreme states, which represent birth and death, we will mention glutinous bitumen, an intermediate and unstable substance through which petroleum passes, having lost its primitive fluidity and acquired that consistence which ought always to preserve it, which might be called the period of old age and decrepitude. (9) M. Grabowski, in an article on ozokerite, having advanced similar opinions with reference to marsh-gas, says: Very little is known about its formation. It appears to me to be very probable that it has to be considered as a product of the oxidation and condensation of the petroleum hydrocarbons. * * * By this hypothesis the formation of petroleum may be reduced to an oxidation of marsh-gas, and thus the close connection between ozokerite, petroleum, and coal be explained in the most simple manner. (h) No adequate representation of the reaction is given. C. H. Hitchcock has supported similar views. (7) It may be said, in reference to this theory, that, in so far as it expresses the fact that maltha represents an intermediate stage in the transformation of petroleum into asphaltum and recognizes the chemical relation existing between marsh-gas and the petroleum compounds, it is entitled to consideration; but in the chemical processes of nature complex organic compounds pass to simpler forms, of which operation marsh-gas, like asphaltum, is a resultant, and never the crude material upon which decomposing forces act. a C.R., lxxxv, 1003, Ixxxvi, 1248; J.C.S., xxxiv, 481, 716. b C. R., 1xxxvi, 1267. Professor A. Wurtz has produced some of the constituent hydrocarbons of petroleum by the action of zine ethyl on iodide of allyl, but with great forbearance he refrains from assuming that these reagents are found in the interior of the earth. C.R., liv, 387. ec This statement is equally true of spiegeleisen, etc. d See Chapter IV. e The word identical will not apply to the present condition of the Pennsylvania region as it did in 1867, but should be replaced by similar. f P.A.P.S.,x, 445. Quotation from Bischof: Chemical ‘and Phy ysicatl Geology ; Cav. Soc. ed., i, 243. Pl SPCR NES F. ) XXV, 35. h Hiibner’s Zeitschrift, 1877, 83; Am. Chaat vii, 123. i The Geo. Mag., iv, 34. my 62 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. SECTION III.—THE THEORY THAT BITUMEN IS INDIGENOUS TO THE ROCKS IN WHICH IT IS FOUND. The opinion that petroleum is indigenous to the rocks in which it occurs has been maintained with great vigor by Dr. T. S. Hunt and Professor J. P. Lesley, these gentlemen basing their views upon their observations in Canada, West Virginia, and Kentucky. Dr. Hunt, having found the fossiliferous limestones impregnated with petroleum, which is particularly abundant in the fossils themselves, therefore concludes : The facts observed in this locality appear to show that the petroleum, or the substance which has given rise to it, was deposited in the beds in which it is now found at the formation of the rock. We may suppose in these oil-bearing beds an accumulation of organic: matters, whose decomposition in the midst of a marine calcareous deposit has resulted in their complete transformation into petroleum, which has found a lodgment in the cavities of the shells and corals immediately near. Its absence from the unfilled cells of corals in. the adjacent and interstratified beds forbids the idea of the introduction of the oil into these strata either by distillation or by infiltration. The same observations apply to the petroleum of the Trenton limestone, and if it shall hereafter be shown that the source of petroleum (as distinguished from asphalt) in other regions is to be found in marine fossiliferous limestones a step will have been made toward a knowledge of the chemical conditions necessary to its formation. (a) In a paper published some years later the same gentleman says: In opposition to the generally received view, which supposes the oil to originate from a slow destructive distillation of the black pyroschists belonging to the middle and upper divisions of the Devonian, I have maintained that it exists, ready formed, in the limestones. below. All the oil-wells of Ontario have been sunk along denuded anticlinals, where, with the exception of the thin black band some- times met with at the base of the Hamilton formation, these so-called bituminous shales are entirely wanting. ‘The Hamilton formation, moreover, is more oleiferous, except in the case of the rare limestone beds, which are occasionally interstratified. Reservoirs of petroleum are met with both in the overlying quaternary gravels and in the fissures and cavities of the Hamilton shales, but in some cases the berings. are carried entirely through these strata into the corniferous limestone before getting oil. A well was sunk at Oil Springs to a depth of 456 feet from the surface and 70 feet into the solid limestone beneath the Hamilton shales before meeting oil. (b) He says further, in support of this opinion: In this (the Trenton) we meet for the first time with petroleum, though in much less abundance than in the higher rocks. In the: township of Packenham, the large orthoceratites of the Trenton limestone sometimes hold several ounces of petroleum in their chambers, and it has been met with under similar conditions in Lancaster. It has also been observed to exude froin the fossil corals of the Birdseye: limestone at Riviére & la Rose (Montmorency). The limestones of this group, which are generally more or less: bituminous to the smell, are peculiarly so in some parts of the county of Montmorency, and not only give off a strong odor when struck, but when burned for lime evolve an abundant bituminous vapor on the first application of heat. The lithological represe:tative of the Trenton group next appears in the corniferous formation, composed, like the former, of pure limestones, with chert beds, silicified fossils, and petroleum. ~ “4 44 It is in the Lower Devonian limestone, or corniferous formation, that the greatest amount of petroleum occurs, although Mr. Hall observed that the dolomites of the Niagara formation in Monroe county, New York, frequently contain mineral pitch, which is sometimes so abundant as to flow from the rock when this is heated in a lime-kiln. Concretionary nodules holding petroleum have also: been observed in the Marcellus and Genesee slates, while the higher Devonian sandstones in New York and Pennsylvania are often impregnated with petroleum, and from these and from still higher strata issue the oil-springs of those regions. It is probable, however, that the source of the oil in these superior strata is to be found in the corniferous limestone, from which the petroleum of western Canada is undoubtedly derived. 3 * * In the township of Rainham, on lake Erie, the shells of Pentamerus aratus are sometimes found to have an inner cavity, lined with crystals of calcite and filled with petroleum. Coralline beds impregnated with petroleum are found at Wainfleet and in Walpole, in the latter instance immediately beneath a layer of chert; but I have more particularly examined them in the township of Bertie, which is on the Niagara river opposite Buffalo. Here in a quarry are seen massive beds, slightly inclined, composed of a solid, crystalline, encrinal limestone, which appears not only destitute of petroleum, but, from the water by which it is impregnated, to be impermeable to it. In some of the beds are large corals of the genus Heliophyllum, the pores of which are open but contain no oil. Two beds, however, one of 3 and one of 8 inches, which are interstratified with these, are in a great part made up of species of Heliophyllum and Favosites, the cells of which are full of petroleum. This isseen in freshly-broken masses to be absent from the solid limestone, which forms the matrix of the corals, and resembles in texture the associated beds. As the fractured surfaces of the oil- bearing beds become dry, the oil spreads over them, and thus gives rise to the appearance of a continuous band of dark oil-stained rock, limited above and below by the lighter limestone, from which, however, it is separated by no planes of bedding. The layer of 3 inches: was seen to be twice interrupted in an exposure of a few feet, thus presenting lenticular beds of the oil-bearing rock. Beside the occasional specimens of Heliophyllum without oil disseminated in the massive limestone, a thin and continuous bed of Favosites is met with, which is white, porous, and free from oil, although beds above and below are filled withit. It was in the weathered outcrop of one of these that was obtained the specimen in the cells of which was found the infusible and insoluble product of the oxidation of petroleum. When the oil-bearing beds are exposed in working the rock the oil flows out and collects on the water of the quarry. The facts observed in this locality appear to show that the petroleum, or the substance that has given rise to it, was deposited in the bed in which it is now found at, the formation of the rock. In the easternmost part of North America, and at the extremity of the peninsula of Gaspé, petroleum is again met with issuing from: sandstones which belong to the base of the Devonian series. Beds of thickened petroleum, like those of Enniskillen, are here met with. Near to cape Gaspé there is a remarkable dike of amygdaloidal trap, 10 or 12 yards in breadth, the cavities of which are often lined with chalcedony or with crystals of calcite and quartz. Many of these cells are filled with petroleum, which in some cases has assumed the hardness of pitch. (¢) Petroleum occurs saturating a stratum 35 to 40 feet thick about midway in the Niagara formation at Chicago, Illinois, the rock being so filled with petroleum that blocks of it which have been used in buildings are discolored by the exudations, which, mingled with dust, form a tarry coating upon the exposed surfaces. Though thus discolored, when freed from the bitumen, this rock is a nearly white, crystalline dolomite. An illustration of the effect of this exudation was to be noticed in one of the largest churches in Chicago before the great fire. a@A.J.58. (2), xxxv, 168. b Lbid., (2), xlvi, 361. . ¢ A. J.S. (2), xxxv, 157. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 63 Dr. Hunt estimated the amount of oil held in the Niagara limestone of Chicago, and found it to be 4.25 per cent., an amount rather beneath the average. He continues: A layer of this oleiferous dolomite, 1 mile (5,280 feet) square and 1 foot thick, will contain 1,184,832 cubic feet of petroleum, equal to 8,850,069 gallons of 231 cubic inches, and to 221,247 barrels of 40 gallons each. Taking the minimum thickness of 35 feet assigned by Mr. Worthen to the oil-bearing rock at Chicago, we have in each square mile of it 7,743,745 barrels, or, in round numbers, 7,750,000 barrels of petroleum. * * * With such sources existing ready formed in the earth’s crust, it seems to me, to say the least, unphilosophical to search elsewhere for the origin of petroleum, and to suppose it to be derived by some unexplained process from rocks which are destitute of the substance. (a) In reply to a letter of inquiry, Professor James M. Safford thus writes regarding the occurrence of petroleum in the neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee: In the limestone rocks of Nashville, representing those of the Silurian basin of middle Tennessee, and of course Silurian (lower), geodes or geode cavities in certain horizons are quite common. They are mostly calcite geodes, or cavities lined with crystals of calcite. Sometimes there is nothing but the calcite crystals within; then we have a lining of calcite crystals with dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite, often cleavable, and occasionally fluorite within. I have seen all of these minerals in one. Imperfect quartz geodes lined with quartz erystals occasionally occur. Barite and celestite and baryto-celestite occur together, and sometimes fluorite occurs with these. In a certain horizon there are many geode cavities lined with calcite crystals and containing within beautiful crystals of celestite, white and beautifully blue. Cavities occur containing celestite which are not lined with calcite crystals, and it is not uncommon to meet with geode cavities in our limestones lined with calcite crystals and containing more or less petroleum. I have seen as much as half a pint or even more in them. There appears to be little room to doubt that the petroleum in these geodes is indigenous to the Nashville limestone. The Clinton limestones of Ohio, lying immediately above the Cincinnati group and over the whole northern border of the Cincinnati anticlinal, contains petroleum in small quantities, but nowhere sufficient in amount to be of economic value. (d) In the description of the method of ‘the existence of the petroleum in the eastern coal-field of Kentucky” Professor J. P. Lesley says: At Old Oil Springs, on the south fork of Paint creek, a black reservoir of tar-like oil here occupies the center of a sloping bog, and is kept always full from a spring at its upper limit, near the top of the slope and foot of the cliffs, about 20 feet above the level of the stream. Fig. 3 shows the conformation of the ground, a the spring, b the reservoir, c the bed of Paint creek, d conglomerate No. XII. (c) A mile farther down the stream, but on the opposite or right bank, and apparently 35 or 40 feet above the water, on a steep slope close under the projecting cliffs, is a similar spring, which has not produced any extensive bog for want of a level receptacle, but has yielded ‘‘large quantities” of oil in past years, and from which petroleum continues to run slowly all of the time. Fig. 4 shows the contour of the ground and the overhanging cliffs at two places near the spring. Three miles farther down the stream, and within a mile or less of its junction with the north or Open fork at Lyon’s well, the oil is to be seen coming from the edge of the coal and ore-shales, just under the cliffs, which here tower to an amazing height. Fig.5 represents in a formal manner this section and a pile of conglomerate crag called the Crow’s Nest, between 100 and 200 feet high. There are here, immediately underneath the lowest plate of conglomerate (20 feet thick), 5 feet of shales, then 2 feet of yellow sandstone, then 14 to 3 inches of ball ore, then black and blue slates to the creek level. A mile or two up the creek there are in these black slates two distinct beds of coal, 6 feet apart, the upper 10 inches, the lower 24 inches thick; and oil flows from them continually in small quantities. At Davis, where the road crosses Paint creek, just below the mouth of Little Glade run, the conglomerate being here 230 feet thick and the streams flowing from the bottom of it between straight vertical walls, the black petroleum is perpetually welling out, not only from under the conglomerate, but from crevices in the bare faces of the rocks, accompanied, as elsewhere, by yellow peroxide of iron. It is evident from the description given above—and the same description will answer for a large number of similar springs in the numerous gorges through which the Licking waters find their Way westward into the Blue Grass country of middle Kentucky—that the petroleum of the oil-springs of Paint creek (d) has had its home in the great conglomerate at the base of the coal measures; still has, we may say, for it is still issuing in apparently undiminished quantities from the same. A conglomerate age or horizon of petroleum exists. This is the main point to be stated, and must be kept in view, apart from all other ages or horizons of oil, whether later or earlier in order of geological time. The rock itself is full of the remains of coal plants, from the decomposition of which the oil seems te have been made. J noticed in the great rock pavement at Lyon’s well, over which the creek water flows, many sections of tree branches and stems mashed flat, each section being, say, 6 inches long by one-eighth of an inch wide in the middle, and when a jack-knife was thrust down into the slit, so as to clear it of mud, the black tarry oil would immediately exude and spread itself over the water. A pointed hammer spalling off flakes of the rock on each side showed not only that the slit itself was full of thick oil, but that the whole rock was soaked with it, except along certain belts (an inch or less wide and very irregular), which for some unexplained reason remained free from oil. Some of the great blocks of rock that have fallen from the cliff too recently to be as yet decomposed are literally full of the marks of the broken macerated driftwood of that period. For hundreds of square miles this vast stratum of ancient sea sand is a thick packed herbarium of coal-measure plants. If the loose sands of the bank of Paint creek, derived, as they are, from this sand-rock, can at the present day receive and retain vast quantities of petroleum in spite of the perpetual washings to which they are subjected, we can easily conceive of the wide, flat, sandy shores of the coal islands of the ancient archipelago of the coal era becoming completely charged with the decomposed and decomposable reliquiz of both the plants of the land and the animals of the sea. (e) * * * * * * * It is as yet beyond our ability to distinguish the several original sources of the petroleum obtained at different depths from any ene well. The specific gravities of the oil, decreasing with the increase of depth, is a fact which shows conclusively that a chronic evaporation ov distillation of the whole mass of oil in the crust of the earth (within reasonable reach of the surface) has always been, and is still, going en, converting the animal and plant remains into light oils, the light oils into heavy oils, the heavy oils into asphalt or albertite, the process being accompanied at every stage with the liberation of gas. .Therefore the quantities of lubricating oil coming out from the aA. J.S. (3), i, 420. d Professor Lesley appears to regard thename ‘‘ Paint creek”, as suggested b Professor Edward Orton in a communication to S. F. by the iridescent film of petroleum floating on the water. Peckham. Bee Asn bat Sigek Oo. OPo Ay PIS., Xs 38. 64 : PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. conglomerate along the valleys of Paint creek prove the existence of immense quantities back-from the cliff in the rock itself under all the highlands. And for the same reason the heavy oils obtained first from Lyon’s and Donnell’s and Warner’s wells, followed by lighter oils from a greater depth, prove the existenve of yet uncalculated quantities of still lighter oils at still greater depths, and of a world of gas-pressure which ought to make its presence known whenever there have been rents in the crusts, down-throws, fallings-in, or serious slopings of the stratification; in a word, any sort of natural vent. (a) The paper from which these extracts are taken was read before the American Philosophical Society, April 7, 1865. It expresses the opinion of which Professor Lesley has been one of the strongest advocates, that the petroleum of the Appalachian system is indigenous to the rocks in which it is found. It is to be inferred, however, that his views as related to the origin of the petroleum found in northwestern Pennsylvania have become somewhat modified, although in precisely what manner is not clear. In the introduction to Report HI of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, p. xv, Professor Lesley says: The origin of petroleum is still an unsolved problem. That it is in some way connected with the vastly abundant accumulations of Paleozoic sea-weeds, the marks of which are so infinitely numerous in the rocks, and with the infinitude of coralloid sea animals, the skeletons of which make up a large part of the limestone formations which lie several thousand feet beneath the Venango oil-sand group scarcely admits of dispute, but the exact process of its manufacture, of its transfer, and of its storage in the gravel beds is utterly unknown. That it ascended rather than descended into them seems indicated by the fact that the WRRe sand holds oil, when those above do not, and that upper sands hold oil when they extend beyord or overhang the lower. If I understand Professor ‘Lesley, these later statements, as well as that quoted regarding the chronic distillation that has always been, and still is, going on, express his opinion respecting the changes that convert the original petroleum content of the rocks into the different varieties of petroleum now met with, rather than the origin of the petroleum itself. Professor T. Rupert Jones examined the asphaltic sand or rock of Trinidad, and found that when it is boiled several times in spirits of turpentine “it loses its bitumen and resolves itself into loose orbitoides and nummukne, with a few other foraminifera, and (when cleaned by acid) a small proportion of green-black sand and a very few rounded grains of quartz”. (dD) In a paper on the “Geology of a part of Venezuela and Trinidad” Mr. G. P. Wall describes the occurrence of bitumen as follows: The asphalt of Trinidad is almost invariably disseminated in the upper group of the ‘‘ Newer Parian”.(¢) When in situ it is confined to particular strata, which were originally shales containing a certain proportion of vegetable débris. The organic matter‘has undergone a special mineralization, producing bituminousin place of ordinary anthraciferous substances, This operation is not attributable to heat, nor to the nature of distillation, but is due to chemical reaction at the ordinary temperature and under the normal conditions of the climate. The proofs that this is the true mode of generation of the asphalt repose not only on the partial manner in which it is distributed in the strata, but also on numerous specimens of the vegetable matter in process of transformation and with the organic structure more or less obliterated. After the removal by solution of the bituminous material, under the microscope a remarkable alteration and corrosion of the vegetable cells becomes apparent, which is not presented in any other form of the mineralization of wood. A peculiarity attending the formation of the asphalt results from the assumption of a plastic condition, to which property its frequent delivery at the surface is partly referable; where the latter is hollow or basin-shaped, the bitumen accumulates, forming deposits such as the well known Pitch lake. Sometimes the emission is in the form of a dense oily liquid, from which the volatile elements gradually evaporate, leaving a solid residue. Mineral pitch is also extensively diffused in the province ef Maturin, on the main (the other districts of the llanos were not sufficiently examined to determine its existence, which, however, is generally affirmed), and in still larger quantities near the gulf ot Maracaibo, on the northern shores of New Granada and in the valley of the Magdalena, where it probably is a product of the same Tertiary formation. (d) Iu England petroleum has been observed in a peat bog, and the lower layers of the peat were compacted into a sort of bituminized mass, which has been described by E. W. Binney as follows: The only remarkable feature connected with the upper bed of peat at Down Holland Moss is the western portion of it being covered up with a bed of sand, and being probably sometimes subject to an infiltration of sea-water. * * * These circumstances, added to the fact of petroleum being found most plentifully at the edge of the sand, lead to the conclusion that it is produced by the decomposition of the upper bed of peat under the sand. The chemical process by which such singular effects have been produced is a subject more fitted for the consideration of the chemist than the geologist, but the author supposes that petroleum is the result of slow combustion in the peat, and has been produced by a process partly analogous to that which takes place in the distillation of wood in closed vessels, when, owing to a total absence of oxygen, the combination of hydrogen and carbon in the form of hydrocarbons is effected. (e) Petroleum has also been observed dripping from shales overlying a highly bituminous coal; (/) also in limestone containing remains of crustacea. (g) Concerning the origin of the petroleum of Shropshire, Arthur Aiken says: The thirty-first and thirty-second strata are coarse-grained sandstone entirely penetrated by petroleum ; are, both together, 15} feet thick, and have a bed of sandy slate-clay about 4 feet thick interposed between them. These strata are interesting as furnishing the supply of petroleum that issues from the tar-spring at Coalport. By certain geologists this reservoir of petroleum has been supposed to be sublimed from beds of coal that lie below, an hypothesis not easily reconciled to present appearances, especially as it omits to explain how the ip Ay IR AB RP e Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., iii, 136. bQ. J. G. S., xxii, 592. fT. G.S8. L. (2), v, 438. ce A South American Tertiary group. g Ibid. (1), ii, 199. e dQ. J.G.8., xvi, 467. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 65 petroleum in the upper of these beds could have passed through the interposed bed of clay so entirely as to leave no trace behind. It is also worthy of remark that the nearest coal is only 6 inches thick, and is separated from the above beds by a mass 96 feet in thickness, consisting of sandstone and clay strata, without any mixture of petroleum. (a) The observations of Wall in Trinidad appear to establish beyond a doubt that the bitumen of that locality has been and is being produced from a peculiar decomposition of woody fiber. Bright and Priestwich both regard the petroleum of England as indigenous in the limestones and shales, and the testimony of Binney is conclusive as to its production from the decomposition of peat on Down Holland Moss. Professor A. Winchell says: It seems to have become established from recent (1866) researches that the petroleum of the Northwest not only accumulates in several different formations, but also originates from materials stored up in rocks of different geological ages from the Utica slate to the coal conglomerate, and perhaps thé coal measures. (b) Professor J. D. Whitney has suggested that the infusoria, the remains of which are so abundant in certain sedimentary rocks, are the original source of the petroleum occurring in them, and says: In conclusion, it may be remarked that the marine infusorial rocks of the Pacific coast, and especially of California, are of great extent and importance. They occur in the coast ranges from Clear lake to Los Angeles. They are of no little economical as well as scientific interest, since, as I conceive, the existence of bituminous materials in this state, in all their forms, from the most liquid to the most dense, is due to the presence of infusoria. (¢) SEcTION 4.—THE THEORY THAT BITUMEN IS A DISTILLATE. Humboldt, in 1804, observed a petroleum spring issuing from metamorphic rocks in the bay of Cumana, and remarked : When it is recollected that farther eastward, near Cariaco, the hot and submarine waters are sufficiently abundant to change the temperature of the gulf at its surface, we cannot doubt that the petroleum is the effect of distillation at an immense depth, issuing from ' \those primitive rocks beneath which lie the forces of all voleanic commotion. (d) The researches of Reichenbach led him to suggest, in 1834, that “‘when we remember that coal is so filled with the remains of plants that its origin has been attributed entirely to the destroyed vegetables of an early period, it must appear probable that petroleum was formed from such plants as afford these oils, and, in one word, that our mineral oil is nothing but turpentine oil of the pines of former ages; not only the wood, but also the needle-like leaves, may have contributed to this process, which is not a combustion, but is, I believe, simply the result of the action of subterranean heat.” (e) French writers generally have expressed their conviction that bitumens have resulted from the action of heat -on strata containing organic matter. In 1835 M. Rozet read a paper before the Société Géologique de France, in which he discussed the occurrence of -asphaltic limestone at Pyrmont. . He represents it as a mass of limestone not stratified, but crossed with fissures in all directions, and contains 9 to 10 per cent. of bitumen and pure carbonate of lime. The limestone is accompanied by a molass or a sort of breccia, consisting of gravel of quartz and schistose rocks cemented with asphalt. The molass contains from 15 to 18 per cent. of asphalt, but the bitumen extracted from the limestone and molass is identical. He continues: — The bituminous matter is found equally in the calcareous rock and the molass that covers it. It is evident that the action that introduced it into the two rocksis posterior to the deposition of the latter. The manner in whichit disistributed in great masses, which throw their ramifications in all directions, joined in such a manner that the superior portions contain generally less bitumen than the remainder -of the mass, indicate that the bitumen has been sublimed from the depths of the globe. * * * The nature of the bituminous rocks (molass, cretaceous limestone, and calcareous schist) admit perfectly of this sort of action. The molass and the limestone are so porous that they easily absorb water and the calcareous schist sticks to the tongue. Thus these rocks could have been easily penetrated by the bituminous vapors, which probably penetrated all three of them at the same time. The epoch of the introduction of the bitumen into the preceding rocks being necessarily posterior to the deposition of the molass, it aay be presumed that it corresponds to that of the basaltic eruptions which many facts prove to have been often accompanied with bituminous material. * * * It may be objected that such basaltic rock does not appear in all the extent of the Jura. To that I reply that they are found in the neighborhood, in Burgundy and in the Vosges; and further, that in the changes in the surface of the soil, whether occasioned by fractures or by the disengagement of vapors, the plutonic rocks do not necessarily appear at the surface. Perhaps in the deep valleys of the Jura the basalts are at avery slight depth. * * * In the Val de Travers, near Neufchatel, similar phenomena are observed. (/) In 1846 Mr. 8. W. Pratt described the occurrence of bitumen at Bastenee, a small village in the south of France, 15 miles north of Orthez. The surrounding country is formed of small conical hills 200 or 300 feet high, separated by a coarse sandy limestone belonging to the cretaceous system. The upper part consists of variously colored sands and clays from 50 to 60 feet thick, the whole covered by gravel and sand, which in all directions » a T.G.S. L. (1), i, 195. b A. J.S. (2), xli, 176. e Bul. Acad. Sci. San Francisco, iii, 324. Dr. J. 8. Newberry has lately erroneously attributed this theory to 8. F. Peckham, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., ti, No. 9. d Humboldt’s Travels, III, 114, Bohn’s ed. e Schweigger Seidel’s Jahrbuch, ix, 133; Ph. Jour., xvi, 376. Pte Atel (1), vil) 138, ; VOL. IX 5 66 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. extends for many miles. These sands and clays are usually horizontal, but are occasionally disturbed and highly inclined. This is occasioned by the protrusion of igneous matter, which is there found in connection with them.. The bitumen is worked in three localities near each other, and occurs in beds from 5 to 15 feet thick, which vary much in character, the upper part consisting of looser and coarser sand, with a less proportion of the bitumen, while the lower part is more compact, containing finer sand, and being chiefly composed of bitumen. The sands and clays contain no fossils except occasional pieces of lignite and bitumen, and are generally free from extraneous: matters, except in two localities, where numerous shells are found which may be referred to the Miocene period. In one of these localities, where the bitumen bed is from 10 to 12 feet thick, the shells are disposed in numerous. layers a few inches apart, those of the same kind generally forming distinct layers, though sometimes, where the: layer is thicker, many species are found together; and where the mass has been cut through vertically the appearance is very striking, bright, white lines appearing on a black bed of bitumen. The shells are neither broken nor: disturbed, but are perfectly preserved, nor are the valves separated; but, owing to the loss of animal matter, on being exposed to the air they fall into powder. Perfect casts may be readily procured, as they easily separate from: the sandy mass. The bitumen has evidently been forced into them when in a soft or liquid state, as the smallest cavities are filled, and this must have taken place after their deposition in the sands in which the animals lived.. The date of this formation, as indicated by numerous species, may be referred to the Miocene era; and as the eruption of bitumen is evidently connected with the appearance of the ophite, an igneous rock which hae produced such great changes in the Pyrenees, a limit may thus be obtained for these changes. (4) In a notice upon the occurrence of asphalt in the environs of Alais, published in 1854, M. Parran makes the following statements: Whatever be the origin of these substances, whether they be due to interior emanations from fissures of dislocation or to circumstances exterior and atmospheric, it is evident that there was during the Tertiary period an asphaltic epoch (époque asphaltique} in relation to which it is convenient to recall the numerous eruptions of trachytes and basalts which characterize that period and have. probably acted by distillation upon the masses of combustibles hidden in the bosom of the earth. He further remarks that asphalt occurs between Mons and Auzon, and continues: The lacustrine formation, of which we have studied the bituminiferous part, is deposited in a vast depression of the secondary~ formation (terrains), represented here by the lower cretaceous and chloritic formations (néocomienne et chloriteés). M. Parran econeludes as follows: Emanating by distillation from beds of combustible material inclosed in the inferior Cretaceous (néocomienne) formation or perhaps in» the Curbanitecots if, as is probable, they extend to that place, the bitumen is raised in the midst of the fresh-water limestones rape al @eau douce); there it is fixed by imbibition. Hot springs and sulphur springs abound in the vicinity. (0) In 1868 M. Ch. Knar published an article on ‘The theory of the formation of asphalt in the Val de Travers, Switzerland”. His conclusions are: 1. Asphalt (limestone impregnated with bitumen) is due to the decomposition in a deep sea of beds of mollusks, the decomposition taking place under a strong pressure and at a high temperature. 2. The free bitumen is formed also by the decomposition of certain mollusks or crustaceansin a sea of little depth, ata high temperature,. but under an insufficient pressure to make this bitumen impregnate the oyster shells (pour former ce bitume a imprégner les coquilles- Vhuitre). 3. Petroleum is due to the decomposition under water of mollusks, a decomposition which has taken place at a temperature too low to transform it into bitumen (asphalt), but under a pressure more or less considerable. 4. The beds of white limestone formed also by the accumulation of fossil oysters, and which contain neither asphalt nor petroleum, . have been formed under such conditions that the products of the decomposition of animal organic matter have been evaporated. 5. Finally, combustibles only, or pyroschists (bitumés fixes), have been formed by the decomposition of plants, while all the preceding are of animal origin. (c) In 1872 M. Thoré published a paper on the “ Presence of petroleum in the water of Saint Boés (Basses- | Pyrénées)”, in which he says “petroleum floats on the water of the springs, and the rocks are saturated with it”, and continues: The comparison of observations seems to indicate in the department of the Basses-Pyrénées between the lower and middle Cretaceous. formations a considerable impregnation of petroleum, due probably to igneous action or an eruption of ophite. The more this origin is examined the more one is convinced, because the greater part of the deposits of petroleum which prove valuable to the countries in which they are found are evidently related to the rocks of igneous origin, which may be considered as being the principal cause of its formation, or, at least, of the appearance of mineral oil. (d) In 1837 M. Dufrenoy showed that the change from colored to white marble in the Pyrenees was due to the- expulsion of bitumen by heat. (e) It is also maintained that jet is a distillate. (/) a Q. JG. §.5.11, 80, b dnn. des Mines (5), iv, 334, (CpSO4)2 + C3 = (CaCO). + COz2 + 82. The hydrogen of the bitumen also becomes oxidized and H;8. is formed. ce Mon. Sci., 1866, 381. d L’ Année Sci. et Ind., 1872, 251. e B.S.G. F. (1), ix, 238. f Simpson. San Franciso Min. and Sci. Press, 1874, 246. ; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 67 One of the most noted papers on petroleum that has appeared in the United States was published by Dr. J S. Newberry in 1859. In this paper he says: The precise process by which petroleum is evolved from the carbonaceous matter contained in the rocks which furnish it is not yet fully known, because we cannot in ordinary circumstances inspect it. We may fairly infer, however, that it is a distillation, though generally performed at a low temperature. We know that vegetable matter—and the same may be said of much animal tissue when the conservative influence of life has ceased to act—if exposed to the action of moist air, is completely disorganized by a process which we call decay, which is in fact combustion or oxidation. This change takes place slowly, and without evolution of light and heat, the usual accompaniments of combustion, in a degree appreciable by our senses. When, however, carbonaceous organic tissue is busied: in moist earth or submerged in water oxidation does not at once ensue, or at least takes place to a limited extent, measured by the amount of oxygen present. In these circumstances bituminization takes place. This process consists mainly in the union of hydrogen, from the tissue itself or its surroundings, with a portion of the carbon, to form carbureted hydrogen, which perhaps escapes, and the hydrocarbons constituting the bitumen, which usually remains as a black, pitch- like mass, investing the fixed carbon. By this process peat, lignite, and coal are formed, which are solids, and doubtless some liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons whicli escape. Now, when we heat these solid bitumens artificially at a sufficiently high temperature, if in contact with oxygen, combustion ensues, and water and carbonic acid are formed from them. At a lower temperature they are converted into gaseous hydrocarbons; still lower to oils. (a) In an article published by Professor E. B. Andrews in 1861 he calls attention to the fact that the town of Newark, Ohio, has been for several years lighted by the uncondensed gas from the coal-oil manufactories, and infers that in the spontaneous distillation of bituminous substances a large amount of gas must be generated along with the oil. He refers to the theory which had been recently brought forward by Dr. Newberry, and says The chief objection to it is the fact that the coal, cannel and bituminous, in our oil regions gives no evidence of having lost any of its full and normal quantity of bitumen o1 hydrocarbons. For example, at Petroleum, Ritchie county, Virginia, where strata have been brought up by an uplift from several hundred feet below, seams of cannel and piorens coal appear, which, if judged by the standard of Nova Scotia or English coals, have lost none of their bituminous properties. * * The other theory, that the oil was produced at the time of the original bituminization of the vegetable or animal matter, has many difficulties in its way. If the oil were formed with the bitumen of the coal, we should expect that wherever there is bituminous coal there would be corresponding quantities of oil. This is not so, in fact; for there is no oil, except in fissures in the rocks overlying the bituminous strata. * * * Again, upon this theory, it will be difficult to explain the anne quantities of inflammable gas always accompanying the oil. If it is generated exclusively from the oil, then we should expect to find the quantity of the oil least where the gas-springs have for ages been most active, but at such places fhe oil, instead of being wasted, is most abundant. (b) The distinguished French geologist, Daubrée, had published the previous year his Studies upon Metamorphism, in which he had discussed the relation of bituminous substances to metamorphism as follows: Bitumens and other carbides of hydrogen, according as their state is solid, liquid, or gaseous, whether impregnating beds, flowing as petroleum, escaping from the soil, as in salses, mud volcanoes, burning springs, ete., are in general only the vent-holes (évents) of deposits of bitumens. The different deposits of bitumen present as general or at least remarkably frequent characteristics: 1. Association with saline formations. 2. Being situated in the neighborhood of deposits of combustible minerals, or strata charged with vegetable débris. 3. Being associated with igneous accidents, ancient or modern; that is to say, with volcanoes or irruptive rocks, or with dislocated strata. 4, Frequently accompanying thermal springs, often sulphurous, and deposits of sulphur. (c) Several of my experiments account for these relations. In submitting fragments of wood to the action of superheated steam I have changed it into lignite, coal, or anthracite, according to the temperature, and I have also obtained liquid and volatile products resembling natural bitumens and possessing the characteristic odor of the petroleum of Pechelbronn. It is thus that the presence of bitumen in certain concretionary metalliferous veins is accounted for; as, e. g., Derbyshire, Camsdorf, and Raibl, in Carinthia. Finally, bitumens are probably derived from vegetable mibetanced? as it appears not to bea brnar product of dry distillation, but to have been formed with the concurrent action of water, and perhaps under pressure, graphite being only the most exhausted (épuisé) product of these substances. These divers compounds of carbon are incident, then, to certain transformations which take place in the interior of the rocks, apparently under the influence of an elevated temperature. The activity and even the violence, at times capable of producing slight earthquakes, with which carbureted hydrogen has sometimes been associated in the Tauride, on the borders of the Caspian sea, and in the environs of Carthagena, in South America, prove that the action that has sometimes disengaged bitumen continues to the present time. (d) Section 5.—AN ATTEMPT TO INCLUDE OBSERVED FACTS IN A PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS. The studies which I have made upon petroleum, extending now over a period of more than twenty years, and especially those which I have made in preparing this report, lead me to the conclusion that as yet very little is known regarding its chemical geology. As no one has studied the chemical properties of different varieties of petroleum in relation to their geological occurrence in any effective manner, it would be extremely rash for any one to dogmatize with reference to the origin of bitumens. I am, however, led to state the conclusions that a careful survey of our available knowledge of the subject has enabled me to reach. Iam convinced that all bitumens have, in their present condition, originally been derived from animal or vegetable remains, but that the manner of their derivation has not been uniform. I should therefore exclude both classes of chemical theories ; the first as a Rock Oils of Ohio; Ohio Ag. Rep., 1859. BeAy Is 9+ (2), Xx x11, 85: cI have omitted the numerous illustrations. d Etudes sur le Métamorphisme, p. 73. M. Daubrée adds in a note: ‘Graphite and bitumen are associated in Java in proximity to volcanic formations and a Tertiary lignite, from which jets of carbureted hydrogen escape.” 68 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. impossible, the second as unnecessary. There remains the hypothesis that bitumen is indigenous in the rocks in which it is found and that which regards all bitumens as distillates, but whichever of these hypotheses be accepted, the modifying fact remains that there are four kinds of bitumen: 1. Those bitumens that form asphaltum and do not contain parafiine. 2. Those bitumens that do not form asphaltum and contain parafiine. 3. Those bitumens that form asphaltum and contain paraffine. 4. Solid bitumens that were originally solid when cold or at ordinary temperatures. The first class includes the bitumens of California and Texas, doubtless indigenous in the shales from which they issue. It is also probable that some of the bitumens of Asia belong to this class. I have described the conditions under which bitumens occur on the Pacific coast of southern California in great detail in the reports that I have made to the geological survey of that state, (a) the forms found there being almost infinite in gradation, from fluid petroleum to solid asphaltum; but I have been unable to obtain any information from the parties who are operating in Santa Clara county other than that contained in newspaper reports, which are too unreliable to be used in this connection. In Ventura county the petroleum is primarily held in strata of shale, from which it issues as petroleum or maltha, according as the shales have been brought into contact with the atmosphere. The asphaltum is produced by further exposure after the bitumen has reached the surface. These shales are interstratified with sandstones of enormous thickness, but I nowhere observed the petroleum saturating them, although it sometimes escaped from crevices in the sandstone; nor was the bitumen held in crevices of large size nor under a high pressure of gas, as the disturbed and broken condition of the strata, folded at very high angles, precluded such a possibility. The relation of the asphaltum to the more fluid materials became a question of great importance to those engaged in prospecting for petroleum in that region in 1865 and later, and having made the solution of this problem a constant study for months, I finally came to the conclusion expressed above. My opinions were based on the following facts: a quantity of petroleum from the Catada Laga spring remained in an open tank for fifteen months fully exposed — to the elements, and increased 0.035 in specific gravity. Maltha has been obtained in wells so dense as to lead to their abandonment. Three attempts were made by the Philadelphia and California Petroleum Company to drill a well on the San Francisco ranch, and the greatest depth reached was 117 feet; but at that depth the maltha was so dense that it could not be pumped out, nor could it be drawn out with grappling-hooks, and was so tenacious as to clasp the tools so firmly as to prevent further operations. These wells were located near an asphalt bed on a gently sloping hillside, where the strata were very much broken and easily penetrated by rain-water. The Pico spring, yielding petroleum issuing from shales, overlaid with unbroken bands of thick sandstone, was only a short distance beyond in the same range of hills, and still further were several other localities, all yielding more or less fluid maltha from natural springs, wells, and tunnels. The density of the bitumen, however, was in every case in direct proportion to the ease with which rain-water could percolate the strata from which itissued. On the plains northwest of Los Angeles an artesian boring that penetrated sandstones interstratified with shale yielded maltha at a depth of 460 feet. Perhaps that portion of the sulphur mountain lying between the Hayward Petroleum Company’s tunnels in Wheeler’s cafion and the Big Spring plateau on the Ojai ranch furnishes the most striking illustration of the occurrence of bitumens in this region. A section of the strata at this point is given in Fig. 6. From this section it will be perceived that there is a synclinal fold in the shale forming the mountain, and that the strata dip into the mountain on both sides. The belt of rock yielding petroleum on the south side, in which the tunnels are driven, is fully protected by from 700 to 800 feet of shale, while the mountain side is nearly perpendicular. On the opposite side, however, the belt comes to the surface, presenting the upturned edges over a nearly horizontal area. These tunnels yielded the lightest petroleum at that time obtained in southern California, while the maltha in the Big Spring that issued from the detritus covering the shale was so dense in December, 1865, that it was gathered and rolled into balls, like dough, and removed in that condition. (b) The topography and stratigraphy of the coast ranges of Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties are very complex. The Santa Barbara islands are voleanic, and lava-flows are described as having formed cascades over cliffs of sedimentary rocks as they descended into the sea. On the mainland no lava appears to have reached the surface, although between Las Posas and Simi, along the stage-road leading from San Buenaventura to Los Angeles, on an eroded plateau surrounded by low mountains, fragments of scoriz are scattered over the ground. The coast ranges here appear to have been produced by parallel folds, each successively higher, by which enormously thick beds of sandstone, interstratified with shale, were thrust up at an angle of about 70°, producing parallel anticlinals. These anticlinals were subsequently eroded in such a manner as in many instances to produce valleys and plateaus, where the sandstones are broken through to the softer shales beneath. This is the case with the western extremity of the fold which, commencing at point Concepcion, extends eastward to Mount San Bernardino. West of the Sespé the sandstone crest has been completely removed and the shales cut away, until, at the Rincon, east of Santa Barbara, the erosion reaches the sea-level, and beyond, to the westward, the upturned edges of the shale form the bed of the ocean. The narrow plain on which Santa Barbara stands, lying between the a Report Geological Survey of California: Geology, II. Appendix, pp. 48-90. b 8. F. Peckham, Ame C., iv, 6. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 69 Santa Ifiez mountains and the sea, consists of Pliocene and Quaternary sands and gravels resting upon the eroded shales. East of the Rincon and mount Hoar the table-lands lying in the trough of the anticlinal gradually ascend until at the Sespé the sandstone caps the high mountain to the eastward, said to be the highest in that region. This range extends eastward, occasionally broken by transverse cailons, until, near the headwaters of the Santa Clara river, at the Soledad pass, it becomes merged in the San Rafael range, beyond the San Fernando pass. Between point Concepcion and point Rincon, where the stratum of sand occurs saturated with maltha, (a) the latter has risen and floated on the sea and attracted the notice of travelers ever since that coast was known to Europeans. At point Rincon, where the anticlinal recedes from the coast, maltha rises and saturates.the Quaternary sands. As the ascending plateau passes farther inland, we find in the line of hills east of mount Hoar and in the Santa Iiez mountains a line of outcrop of the bituminous strata on the east and west sides of the basin. East of the San Buenaventura river the local synclinal fold in the shale forming the sulphur mountain gives four lines of bituminous outcrop, shown on the section, Fig. 6b. In the cafions east of the Sespé, wherever the bituminous strata have been reached by erosion, tar-springs and asphalt beds are the result. The deeply eroded narrow valleys which cover the cquntry east of Santa Barbara and south of the coast range present ina distance of a few miles the greatest lithological variations, and expose the bituminous strata under the greatest possible diversity of conditions. For this reason we meet here every possible form of bitumen in every possible degree of admixture, with pure sand, soil, detritus, and animal and vegetable remains. The exceedingly unstable character of these petroleums, considered in connection with the amount of nitrogen that they contain and the vast accumulation of animal remains in the strata from which they issue, together with the fact that the fresh oils soon become filled with the larvze of insects to such an extent that pools of petroleum become pools of maggots, all lend support to the theory that the oils are of animal origin. (d) The second class of petroleums includes those of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. Theseoils are undoubtedly distillates, and of vegetableorigin. The proof ofthis statement seems overwhelming. Pennsylvania petroleum was examined in 1865 by Warren and Storer (c) in this country, and in 1863 by Pelouze and Cahours in France,(d) who found the lighter portion to consist of a certain series of hydrocarbons, identical with those obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, bituminous shales, and wood when the operation was conducted at low temperatures. Messrs. Warren and Storer also discovered that the same series of hydrocarbons could be obtained by distilling a lime soap prepared from fish-oil. (e) The experience of technology has shown that if coals or pyroschists are distilled at the lowest possible temperature, particularly in the presence of steam, a black tarry distillate is obtained, along with a considerable quantity of marsh-gas and very volatile liquids, that cannot be condensed except at low temperatures. If these distillates are redistilled, the second distillate may be divided into several different materials, beginning with marsh-gas and ending with very dense oils, heavily charged with paraffine. It is impossible to conduct this primary or secondary distillation without producing marsh-gas, but the amount and the density of the fluid produced will depend on the temperature at which the distillation is carried on and the rapidity of the process. The use of superheated steam is found to increase the quantity of the distillate, and to prevent overheating and the formation of other hydrocarbons than those belonging to the paraffine series. The section compiled by Mr. Carll shows the Devonian shales above the corniferous limestone and below the. Bradford third oil-sand to be 1,600 feet in thickness. This shale outcrops along lake Erie, between Buttalo, New York, and Cleveland, Ohio. It is for the most part the surface rock in the neighborhood of Erie, Pennsylvania, and southward to Union City, and no one can examine it without noticing the immense quantity of fucoidal remains that it contains. Professor N.S. Shaler discusses in much detail the extent and character of the Devonian black shale of Kentucky, and estimates it to cover 18,000 square miles at an average depth of 100 feet, and to yield on distillation 15 per cent. of fiuid distillate. It is not necessary to follow him in his calculations of the enormous bulk of this distillate as represented in barrels; the important point in this connection is that it is a very persistent formation, being revealed by borings over a very wide area, and doubtless extends beyond the boundaries of Kentucky, eastward beneath the coal measures which contain the petroleum. (/) If, however, the Devonian black shales are inadequate, both on account of extent and position, as a source of supply, we may descend still lower in the geological series to the Nashville limestone and other Silurian rocks that underlie that region. Professor Safford, in a recent letter, writes : The Lower Silurian limestone in the basin of middle Tennessee is about 1,000 feet thick. I have divided it in my Geological Report into the Lebanon limestone (or division) and the Nashville, each about 500 feet, the Nashville being the upper division. Including the Upper Silurian limestones, the whole thickness of the limestones, in which are found occasionally little pockets or geodes and cavities of petroleum, is not far from 1,200 feet. Feet. URES [cota sett hee eee ee ete Tee a CU eens ee tees Seat a Sn Salo k MG cleo ns nie ca'e, anict acl sicieiss deo ble alem ae wb idcione seams ome 200 Lower Silurian (Trenton) : MA Hat LORI e SLO nec tneennn a aeaerants Cetera eae SPE NC OM Ete eo ics oooh s tec siek sins des aicimnic weiss aaa mene 500 Bop ANOneliiMesponeKene seen a ene eee were fet ee eaten Fe ie Ate cose be oe os Se ueeba ee ee eee aeons 500 The most of the petroleum has been found in the upper part (the Nashville) of the Lower Silurian, as, for example, the larger cavities near or on the upper Cumberland river, in the neighborhood of the Kentucky line, both within Kentucky and Tennessee. ss — a See page 21. ce Mem. Am. Acad. N. Si., ix, 176; A. J.S.,(2), xli, 139. e Mem. A. A. N. S., ix, 177. 6 8. F. Peckham, P. A. P.S., x,452. d Ann. C. et P. (4), 1, 5. Sf Rep. Geo. Survey, Kentucky, N.S., iii, 109. 70 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. These limestones underlie the whole petroleum region of southeastern Kentucky and middle. Tennessee. The objection urged by Professor Andrews, that the coals in the measures of West Virginia and Ohio among which these oils occur have lost nothing of their volatile content, is without force here. Professor Shaler (Report of the Geological Survey of Kentucky, new series, iii, 171) says: . The condition of the beds that lie below the black shale in the Cincinnati group or in the Niagara section show that there has been no great invasion of heat since the beds were deposited. Clays, which change greatly under a heat of 1,000° F., are apparently exactly as they were left by the sea, and beds retain their marine salts just as when they were deposited. Any great access of temperature in this deposit of the Ohio shale would have been attended by an almost equal rise of temperature in the coal-beds which lie within a few hundred feet above; but these coal-beds are free from any evidences of distillation or other consequences of heat. We have already seen reasons for supposing an erosion of some 3,000 or 4,000 feet of strata from this section; if we could reimpose this section we should probably bring up the temperature of these rocks by the rise in the isogeothermals, or lines of equal internal heat, about 60°. * * * We are not able to suppose that the accumulation of strata would have elevated the temperature above the boiling point of water. The hypothesis which may be found to account for the formation of this coal-oil must take into consideration the impossibility of its generation at another point and its removal to this set of beds and the impossibility of supposing that it has been in any way the result of high temperatures. The range of temperature between “the boiling point of water” and 1,000° F.”,; which is here allowed, is ample for all purposes of explanation. Mendeljeff objects that “the sandstones impregnated with petroleum have never exhibited the carbonized remains of organisms. In general, petroleum and carbon are never found simultaneously”. These three objections— first, that the supply of organic matter is inadequate; second, that there are no evidences of the action of heat upon the rocks holding the oil; third, that there are no residues of fixed carbon observed in the rocks holding the oil—are those which have appeared to satisfy those who do not accept the hypothesis that regards petroleum as a distillate. I think the first has been already answered. The second and third I shall now examine. It is not the effects of heat, as represented by volcanic action, that have produced petroleum, although in one notable instance parafiine and other constituents.of petroleum have been found in the lava of Etna.(a@) A comparison of the analyses of the gaseous emanations of volcanoes with those of gas and petroleum springs shows that the former consist mainly of carbonic acid and nitrogen, while the latter consist mainly of marsh-gas. Bitumens are not the product of the high temperatures and violent action of volcanoes, but of the slow and gentle changes at low temperature due to metamorphic action upon strata buried at immense depths. The extent of the Paleozoic formations of the Mississippi valley and the general conformation of the bottom of the ancient seas has been fully described by Professor James Hall, who says: (bd) In all the Lower Silurian limestones we trace the outcrop to the west and northwest from the base of the Appalachians, in New York or in Canada, to the Mississippi river, and thence still in the same northwesterly direction. * * * Instead of finding the lower Helderberg (Upper Silurian) strata in lines parallel with those of the preceding rocks, the relative direction of the main accumulation and the principal line of exposures is diagonally across the others. * * * Theline of outcrop and of accumulation has been from northeast to southwest, and they occur in great force far to the northeast in Gaspé, on the gulf of Saint Lawrence. * * * The greatest accumulation of material in the period of the Hamilton, Portage, and Chemung groups (Lower and Middle Devonian) lies in the direction of the Appalachian chain. * * * In Gaspé there are 7,000feetof strata, * * * while in western New York the whole together would scarce exceed 3,000 feet. We have therefore the clearest evidence that the strata thin out in a westerly direction. * * * In considering the distribution of the masses of the formations which we have here described we find that the greatest accumulations have been along the direction of the Appalachian chain. The material thus transported would be distributed precisely as in an ocean traversed by a current like our present Gulf Stream, and in the gradual motion of the waters during that period to the west and southwest the finer material would be spread out in gradually diminished quantities, till finally the deposit from that source must cease altogether. * * * LThave long since shown that * * * the portion of the Appalachians known as the Green Mountain range is composed of altered sediments of Silurian age. * * * The evidences in regard to the White mountains, to a great extent, are of newer age than those of the Green mountains, or Devonian and Carboniferous. * * * The statements of Sir William Logan in regard to the great accumulation of stratain the peninsula of Gaspé, together with the observations of Professor Rogers in the Appalachians of Pennsylvania, lead to the inevitable conclusion that the sedimerts of this age must everywhere contribute largely to the matter forming the metamorphic portion of the Appalachian chain, as well as to the non-metamorphic zone immediately on the west of it. Reference to Map III shows the manner in which the outlined areas that have yielded petroleum correspond to the trend of these deposits of sediment as described by Professor Hall. It is not necessary here to discuss the nature or origin of métamorphic action. It is sufficient for our purpose to know that from the Upper Silurian to the close of the Carboniferous periods the currents of the primeval ocean were transporting sediments from northeast to southwest, sorting them into gravel, sand, and clay, forming gravel bars and great sand-beds beneath the riffles and clay banks in still water, burying vast accumulations of sea weeds and sea animals far beneath the surface. The alteration, due to the combined action of heat, steam, and pressure, that involved the formations of the Appalachian system from point Gaspé, in Canada, to Lookout mountain, in Tennessee, involving the carboniferous and earlier strata, distorting and folding them, and converting the coal into anthracite and the clays into crystalline schists along their eastern border, could not have ceased to act westward along an arbitrary line, but must have gradually died out farther and farther from the surface. a Silvestri, Gaz. Chim. Ital., vii, 1; Chem. News, xxxv, 156; B. D., C. Ge, 1877, 293. b Nat. Hist. N. Y., Paleontology, iii, 45-60. * ‘THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. - 71 The great beds of shale and limestone containing fucoids, animal remains, and even indigenous petroleum, “must have been invaded by this heat-action to a greater or a less degree, and that ‘chronic evaporation” of Professor Lesley must have been the inevitable consequence. Too little is known about petroleum at this time to enable any one to explain all the phenomena attending the -occurrence of petroleum on any hypothesis; but it seems to me that the different varieties of petroleum, from Franklin dark oil, near the surface, to Bradford and Clarendon amber oil, far beneath the surface, are the products --of fractional distillation, and one of the strongest proofs of this hypothesis is found in the large content of paraffine in the Bradford oil under the enormous pressure to which it is subjected. So, too, the great pools of oil in southern Kentucky are without doubt distilled from the geode cavities beneath and concentrated in superficial fissures of the rocks near the surface, The oil of the American well is very different in many respects from Pennsylvania oil; and that from the Phelps well, on Bear creek, Wayne county, Kentucky, has an odor identical with that of the petroleum -of southern California, in that respect totally unlike the petroleum of West Virginia, and evidently an oil of animal -origin that has not been subjected to destructive distillation. If this hypothesis. which embraces all the facts that have thus far come within my knowledge, really represents ‘the operations of nature, then we must seek the evidences of heat action at a depth far below the unaltered rocks in which the petroleum is now stored. We ought to expect to find the coal in its normal condition. Weshould not -expect to find the carbonized remains of organisms in the rocks containing petroleum. As the metamorphic action took place subsequent to the carboniferous era, we should expect to find the porous sandstones of that formation an certain localities saturated with petroleum. We should expect a careful observer like General A. J. Warner to write concerning them: , Now, while these several sand rocks when they come to the surface contain calamites, stigmaria, and other fossil plants of the lower coal measures, they contain nothing from which petroleum could possibly have been derived. (a) Moreover, we should expect to find these coal-measure sandstones and conglomerates on-the western border of the heated area, where the thinning out of the deposits brought down the coal measures nearer the Devonian shales and Silurian limestones, first saturated with petroleum, and then, through ages of repose, gradually cut down by erosion into the cantons of Johnson county, Kentucky, and exhibiting all of the phenomena described by Professor Lesley The inadequacy of the scattered remains of plants in the coal-measure sandstones as a source of the petroleum ‘that saturates them is shown by the following calculation : ‘Should the Mississippi send down one tree a minute for a century, with an average length of 40 feet and a foot in diameter, and “these be laid together side by side at the bottom of the sea in a single stratum, they would only cover a space of 200 acres. Were it possible, which it is not, to compress and crystallize these lignites into one stratum 6 feet thick, they might then constitute a coal-bed covering 20 eacres. All the forests of the Mississippi valley could not furnish to the sea from their river spoils during a hundred thousand years -one of the anthracite coal-beds of Schuylkill county. (0) M. Coquand gives the following réswmé of the geological formations represented in Roumania: The Tertiary formation in connection with the clays of the steppes constitutes a continuous and concordant system, in which may be distinguished at the base the nummulite beds representing the great Paris limestone. 1. The Superior Eocene, composed at its base of rock-salt, gypsum, saliferous slates, bituminous schists, and marls with menilites; and above of the ‘‘Flysch formation” properly speaking, consisting of alternations of micaiferous sandstones (macigno), of limestones (albérese), and of argillaceous schists (galestri), this superior part being characterized by Chondrites Targioni, intricatus, furcatus, and by -alveolinus, the ensemble corresponding to the fucoidal Flysch of Switzerland, the Apennines, Algeria, Sicily, the gypsums of Montmartre, -and the saline and sulphurous gypsum of Sicily; also the rock-salt of the high plateau of Algeria. 2. The Miocene stage, which is the first level of petroleum in the Carpathians. The inferior part comprises at its base sandstones and saline slates, with Cyrena convexa and sandstones corresponding to those of Fontainebleau, the superior part of sandstones, slates, and limestones corresponding to the molass of Carry and Syracuse; also to the gypsum and rock-salt of Volterra, in Tuscany, and the province of Saragossa, to Marinen Tegelund Sand (néogoéne ot M. Haidinger); to the terrain tertiaire miocéne marin of M. Abich; to the terrain tertiaire inférieur -of M. de Verneuil. The superior part comprises slates and the grés d congéries with lignites, amber, and asphalt, and is characterized by Paludina, Achatiformis, Congeria subcarinata, Cardium, Souriétié, ete., corresponding to the Congerientschisten of MM. Haidinger and Hauer {partie supérieure de leur terrain tertiaire néogene), to the terrain tertiaire supérieur of M. de Verneuil, and to the Pliocene of M. Abich. 3. Pliocene stage, which is the second level of petroleum in the Carpathians. It comprises conglomerates and pudding-stones at its base, and above black slates, producing the steppe formation of Moldavia and Wallachia. It corresponds to the superior marine sub-Apennine formation, to the steppes of tbe Crimea and the Caucasus, to the desert of Sahara, and the marine deposits of Kertsch oe Ostrea lamellosa, Brocchi; Chama gryphina, Lani; Calyptrea sinensis, and Linni. 4. The recent formations comprising the earthy deposits in the environs of Buséo and the recent alluvium of the Danube. It is noted further, according to M. Coquand, “that the petroleum of Wallachia is in the inferior Tertiary, with ‘mud volcanoes and rock-salt; that the ‘‘ Flysch a Fucoids” is the horizon in Moldavia corresponding to the formation . in which it occurs in the Crimea, Transylvania, Galicia, Volterra of Tuscany, the Apennines, Sicily, and Algeria, being everywhere rich in fucoids”, who further remarks “that it is only in the slates that it preserves its liquid state, -and when it had been brought in contact with permeable rocks, such as sandstones, those rocks imbibed the mineral -oil and were changed into asphalt. He accounts for this by assuming that in the porous strata the oil loses by evaporation its volatile principles. He further remarks that the petroleum is not in the rock-salt, but in the slates contiguous to it, rich in fucoids and the remains of marine animals. (c) aA. J.S8. (3), ii, 215. b J. P. Lesley: A Manual of Coal and its Topography, page 49. ce B.S8.G.F. (2), xxiv, 505. 72 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. In Galicia the petroleum is found saturating coarse and fine sandstones in zones or horizons, the lighter oils being found deepest. This sandstone is abundantly permeated with limestone; yet in all fissures and on almost all surfaces the products of dry distillation are plainly recognizable, as also earth-wax and tough black maltha, and particularly asphalt. These products of distillation in many places. extendeven up to the surface, particularly in the northwestern part of the oil-bearing formations. The cavities of asphaltum were known in ancient times, and the thick fluid earth-oil which oozed out upon the surface was sometimes used as a lubricant for the axles of wheels. (a) The largest yield of petroleum has not been found in the neighborhood of asphalt beds, but farther east, where gas-springs called attention to the probability of reaching petroleum below the surface. It was remarked that the’ harder the sandstone the greater the pressure of gas and the deeper the source of the oil. Fig. 7 gives asection from Boryslaw, in east Galicia, to Schodinea. It exhibits a synclinal of schists, standing, where exposed, nearly perpendicular and flanked with sandstones. The wells are sunk in the schists. It resembles. a section of the sulphur mountain in California. (See Fig. 6, page 68.) The conclusions reached by geologists regarding the occurrence of petroleum in Galicia show that the central core of the Carpathians consists of metamorphic rocks, on the flanks of which lie the members of the cretaceous- and tertiary formations, consisting of limestones, sandstones, and shales, the latter being, for the most part, rich in organic matter, both vegetable and animal, such as fossil fucoids and fish. In east Galicia and Bukowina heavy beds of black bituminous shales are particularly noticeable. (b) These formations lie in folds, the petroleum occurring under the arches of anticlinals rather than in the troughs of the synclinals. The facts to be obtained regarding the occurrence of the petroleum of Asia are very few. It appears to be: generally conceded that the formation from which the petroleum in the neighborhood of the Caucasus arises is- Tertiary, but so far as I can ascertain it issues rather from erratic beds of sand in superficial clays than from any well-defined formation. Lartet appears to regard the bitumen of the Dead sea as of voleanic origin.(¢c) The petroleum of Java lies in the Tertiary beneath alluvium, which flanks the volcanic core of the island. (d) Granting that the petroleum of the Niagara limestone at Chicago is indigenous, the invasion of that limestone by steam under high pressure would cause the petroleum to accumulate in any rock lying above sufficiently porous. or fissured to receive it. The mingling of oils that contain paraffine and oils that produce asphaltum, and the occurrence of paraffine in large masses in porous strata filled with the remains of fucoids and marine animals that flank the core of crystalline metamorphic schists in Roumania and Galicia, offers the strongest support to this hypothesis. The fact that the eruptive rocks of lake Superior and the metamorphic rocks farther east prevail to such an extent that that vast inland sea has been supposed to be the crater of an extinct voleanic lake lends the strongest support to an hypothesis that regards the vast accumulations of petroleum in western Canada as due to the invasion of strata on the borders of this heat-center, in which the petroleum is indigenous, by a sufficiently elevated temperature to cause its distillation. It appears to me that mud volcanoes and hot springs are properly regarded as the phenomena attending the gradual subsidence of metamorphic action in the crust of a cooling earth, and that petroleum or maltha is but the accident of such phenomena, when strata containing organic matter are still invaded at a great depth by a temperature sufficient to effect the distillation of their organic content. Gas-springs may also own the same origin, or the gas may escape from deep-seated reservoirs, the product of a distillation long since completed. The fourth class of solid bitumens occur in great variety. The universal distribution of bituminous material in rocks was noticed in 1823 by the Hon. Geo. Knox, in a paper read before the Royal Society of Great Britain. (e) The occurrence of disseminated bitumen in metamorphic rocks at Nullaberg, in west Sweden, supposed to be Laurentian, has been described; (f) also in the Lower Silurian of south Scotland, (g) in Trap, near New Haven, Connecticut, (d) and in northern New Jersey, (i) all of which are manifestly the result of the action of heat upon the organic matter in stratified rocks. The occurrence of bituminous limestones in France and the valley of the Rhone, and the almost unanimous opinion of the French geologists that they are the result of igneous or metamorphic action, has already been mentioned. There remain the phenomena attending the occurrence of iarge veins of solid bitumen in Cuba, West Virginia, and New Brunswick, for which no adequate explanation has been proposed that does not Poona them as a product of distillation from deep-seated strata, which has been projected into a fissure formed by the sudden rupture of the earth’s crust. Dr. R. C. Taylor examined the vein which occurs in metamorphic rocks near Havana, and gives a section (Fig. 8) of the vein as it is exposed in the working of the mine. He says: It was evidently originally an irregular open fissure, terminating upwards in a wedge-like form, having various branches, all of which have been subsequently filled with carbonaceous matter, as if injected from below, and that not by slow degrees, but suddenly . and at once. (j) a J.K.K.G.R., xviii, 311. f L. J. Inglestrom: The Geo. Mag., iv, 160. b ie Walter, J. K. KGa Sock. g Quar. Jour. Geo. Soc., xi, 468. Ups bat. SRL Ihe, tr AL S28: (1), Xexvi, 114; (3), xvi, 112. y ene C. N., v, 188. 4A. J.8. (3), xvi, 130. e Phil. Trana., 1823. j Phil. Mag.,x, 161. unl a BRST GF HLINGIS. — 4 s i 7 ra ag , DRAWING OF A PIECE OF THE HURONIAN SHALE ENCLOSING THE ALBERTITE VEIN IN NEW BRUNSWICK, SHOWING THE MANNER IN WHICH THE ALBERTITE CLEAVES FROM THE ENCLOSING ROCK. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 73 In 1869 I made the origin of albertite and allied substances the subject of a paper, (a) in which I discussed the views held by others regarding it and compared them with the observations made in New Brunswick and West Virginia by Jackson, Wetherell, Lesley, Wurtz, and others, with my own observation of a vein on the coast of California. This latter vein is exposed on the coast west of Santa Barbara, and stands vertical, cutting the Pliocene and recent sands. With this vein are associated lenticular masses, extending horizontally, from which a sort of talus projects vertically into the sands beneath. The eruptive origin of these deposits is beyond question. Similar deposits are described by M. Coquand as occurring in Albania, as follows: The bitumen at Sélenitza does not lie in regular beds, but in masses, in the midst of the sandstones and conglomerates that preserve a sort of parallelism, each mass consisting essentially of a central portion of considerable thickness, which gradually thins out in all directions to zero. In no case does the bitumen penetrate the roof above the mass, but was evidently injected from below. Fig. 2 (0) shows a deposit that has furnished an enormous quantity of bitumen. These deposits occur as if during the sedimentation of the rocks at the bottom of the tertiary area the bitumen in a viscous state had filled the depressions in which it has accumulated, remaining pure or being incorporated with the slaty materials with which it is contaminated. A section of the mass corresponds in many cases to a flask filled with solidified water. The aligned basins appear to have been filled successively from the overflow of one into the other. It is evident that the masses, in spite of their irregularity, are parallel with the stratification. Generally the bitumen consists of compact, very homogeneous matters, and next to this variety the bituminous breccia should be mentioned. This consists of beds of gray slate of varying thickness, inclosing angular fragments of bitumen, separated from each other, but which are easily obtained by soaking in water the slate which serves to cement them. This breccia is represented by Fig. 9, often overlying a bed of asphalt, into which it passes by insensible gradations, and seems to form the upper portion of a liquid bath, into which the slate plunged and afterward regained the surface before its entire solidification. Exactly as in a blast-furnace, the slag becomes mingled with the metal in the last products of the tapping, producing a species of magma. More rarely the bitumen rolls itself upon itself (Fig. 10), thus producing spheres analogous to those which invest viscous matters when rolled in water or dust. The structure of them is concentric, resembling pea-stone, but is destitute of any nucleus so far as observed. These envelopes might result from progressive desiccation, the result of which leaves the bitumen divided into thin pellicles, like certain basalts, in which, on cooling, spheres of variable volume are produced composed of concentric coats. The globules are for the most part isolated in the midst of the slate, and are about one-third of an inch in diameter. Another curious form is shown in Fig. 11. It consists of an infinite number of threads crossing each other in all directions, producing a sort of stockwork. Fig. 12 shows a form which differs from the preceding in that the threads instead of being scattered in a capricious plexus are vertical and parallel. The contraction of the sandstone havingpopened these vertical and parallel vents, the bitumen following filled them, but from above downward. Sometimes the bitumen, as indicated by Fig. 13, is molded in cup-like depressions, which are terminated by a capillary tube. At other times ellipsoidal masses are introduced, some of which are as large as acannon-ball. They are aligned in positions parallel to the plane of the beds in which they repose. Masses of sandstone are sometimes met inclosed within the bitumen. Such are sometimes observed in beds of coal. It is to be observed that the threads that sometimes connect the masses of bitumen spring from the side and not from the top of them—a fact that is explained if we assume the ascending mass overflowed horizontally in this particular locality. A great many bivalves, especially Cardium, were observed filled with bitumen. He also discovered a very large Planorbis and other species with the interior filled with bitumen. After showing that the material could not have entered the rocks in a fluid state, he says: ‘It is then in the condition of glutinous bitumen that the maltha primarily entered the formation at Sélenitza. There is no evidence of the phenomena of salses, nor solfataras, nor volcanoes, which distinctively characterize the occurrence of petroleum properly so called.” M. Coquand states that there exists at present at one point in the ancient excavations a sort of crater that emits smoke and a great heat, but he assumes that the fire was lighted by the hand of man, which, as in burning collieries, slowly pursue their work of destruction. The clays from which the volatile products are expelled become a sort of brick, sonorous and red, and the sandstones are converted into porcelainites and quartzite, and break at the least shock into a thousand fragments. Fig.14 represents a section of the rocks in which the bituminous strata occur. . M. Coquand mentions in connection with the bituminous strata solfataras and mud volcanoes, both active and extinct, with which was associated more or less fluid maltha, which is at first very liquid, but soon becomes sirupy, and is finally added to the accumulations of the bituminous cone. The volcanic phenomena assume three forms: First, when inflammable gas escapes through the soil; second, when they escape with water and petroleum, forming craters of bitumen; third, volcanoes emitting hot water (volcan ardent). (c) From the foregoing it will appear that solid bitumen occurs in great abundance, filling variously-formed cavities in the Pliocene strata of Albania, and that maltha accompanies the water of springs from deep-seated strata, often in close proximity to active or extinct volcanic action of the mild forms observed as solfataras, mud volcanoes, or salses. The great similarity in the occurrence of intruded tertiary bitumens in Albania and California is very remarkable. No hint is given by Dr. Taylor respecting the age of the rocks inclosing the bitumen vein in Cuba, as at the time he wrote (1837) all metamorphic rocks were called primary. There is little doubt, however, that the vein in a A.J.S. (2), xlviii, 362. b See page 32. cB. 8. Q. F., (1), xxv, 35. The precise volcanic phenomenon designated by M. Coquand as volcan ardent is not clear. In one case it appears to be an ordinary volcano emitting lava, and in the present case a hot-water volcano; -but he afterward remarks that the Tertiary formations in the valley of the Vojutza do not contain the least trace of volcanic action, nor is there a volcanic or thermal spring in the whole country. I presume he refers in this latter sentence to outflows of scorie and lava, and does not include in the phrase volcanic action the mud volcanoes and solfataras, which he describes at some length. 74 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. New Brunswick and in West Virginia originated at nearly the same time and subsequent to the Carboniferous era, and it is certain that subsequent to that eraa great convulsion caused an upheaval that in collapse produced the White Oak anticlinal. Very near the southern end of this anticlinal the vein of grahamite occurs, cutting the horizontal sandstones of the coal measures vertically, but those who mined the vein declare that the material must have welled up from beneath into the fissure the instant it was formed, numerous fragments of the wall-rock being found imbedded in the asphaltum only 12 or 15 feet below the cavities from which they fell, with all their edges and angles sharp and exactly fitting each other. Curious curved lines, resembling those produced when a stone is dropped into mortar, are formed on these horses, suggesting the probability that they fell into a plastic mass that rolled upon them, producing lines of unequal pressure and adhesion that remain after the asphaltum has cleaved from them or the inclosing walls. Moreover, these walls of porous sandstone have not absorbed the bitumen to the thickness of a piece of paper. The significance of these facts was more forcibly impressed upon my mind when I found among a set of specimens from the albertite vein of New Brunswick a piece of the inclosing Shale, marked with the mineral in forms almost identical with those observed on the sandstone in West Virginia. Plates I and II are very carefully drawn from specimens from the two localities. It should be borne in mind that while this subject is one of speculation, pure and simple, it is one that has its valuable consideration outside the domain of scientific inquiry or curiosity, as affecting the sources and duration of supplies of petroleum, its profitable development, and commercial permanence. If petroleum is the product of a purely chemical process, we should not expect to find Paleozoic petroleums of a character corresponding with the simple animal and vegetable organisms that flourished at that period, and tertiary petroleums containing nitrogen, unstable and corresponding with the decomposition products of more | highly organized beings, but we should expect to find a general uniformity *. the character of the substance, wherever found, all over the earth. A mass of polypi undergoing decomposition upon a beach would doubtless saturate the sand with about the same kind of decomposition products as an equal bulk of alg; but when a mass of animal matter, consisting not only of the muscular tissue, but of all the non- nitrogenous substances entering into animal organisms, was thus subjected to decomposition, submerged in water, the product could not fail to be a nitro-hydrocarbon, which upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen would undergo a second decomposition into a greater or less number of the following-named products: carbon, hydrocarbons, ammonia or free nitrogen, carbonic acid, and water. The petroleums of southern California, issuing primarily from Miocene shales, are of precisely this unstable character. (a) The advocates of the chemical theory affirm that they provide for a process the conditions of which are perpetually renewed. It is thus continuous and at present active. On the contrary, if petroleum is the product of, metamorphism, its generation is coexistent only with that of metamorphic action; an action which we have no reason to believe has been prevalent on a large seale during the recent period. If we accept this hypothesis, the generation of petroleum is then practically: ended. M. A. Riviére has published a paper on the origin of combustible minerals. (b) His opinions are based on his observations of the effect on soil and organic matter in the soil of the leakage of illuminating gas from the pipes in which it is conducted. The effects which he attributes to marsh-gas are, however, due to the condensation of the tarry matter that is dissolved in the escaping gas, the coal-tar products produced at a high temperature not being constituents of petroleum to any great extent. The experiments of Professor Sadtler indicate the presence of minute quantities of benzole in the Bradford oil of Pennsylvania, (c) but it was not found by Warren and Storer in the Oil creek oils, its presence in the Bradford oil furnishing an additional reason for supposing it to be a fractional distillate produced under great pressure, and consequently at a comparatively high temperature. as. Fo Peckham, PaAl PS. x, 450. b C. R., xvii, 646. ec Communication to 8, F. Peckham. ; DRAWING OF A PORTION OF THE SURFACE OF A HORSE OF SANDSTONE FOUND ENCLOSED IN THE GRAHAMITE VEIN RITCHIE CO. W.V4 SHOWING THE MANNER IN WHICH THE GRAHAMITE CLEAVES FROM THE ENCLOSING ROCK. THe {GRAY , > «OF THt WAIVERSITY se HELIRGES: = ~] Or THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. CHapreR VI.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL TERRITORY. In 1858 and 1859, just before Drake obtained oil in his well, the region now kuown as the “ oil region” was an almost unbroken forest. Here and. there along the valleys of the Allegheny and its tributaries the bottom-lands had been broken into farms, but on the hills, excepting in the neighborhood of the larger towns, there were but few cultivated tracts. The landscape along these winding streams was very beautiful. The towns were but little more than lumbering camps and trading stations, with few churches or school-houses, and the stores were for the most part kept by those engaged in the lumbering business, who employed nearly the entire population. This population traded a large proportion of the value of their earnings at the stores, and when the yearly settlements came they found a small balance due them. Those who were not engaged in rafting the lumber to Pittsburgh worked their small farms in summer and raised the small amount of produce required in the country, but in the winter lumbering was the engrossing occupation. Off the valleys of the main streams the roads were few and wretchedly poor. A few farms on the bluff southwest of Titusville had been occupied since 1798, and yet no public road had been built until some time after 1860. After Drake’s well was drilled, a demand arose for barrels and teams to haul the oil to points of shipment. ‘This quiet and secluded region was invaded by adventurers from every direction, and the production of oil increased in volume so much more rapidly than the means of gathering and transportation that, although the production for the whole year of 1861 was only 1,035,668 barrels, less than the production of two weeks in 1880, the price fell in the fall of that year to 10 cents per barrel, and sales were reported as low as 6 cents per barrel. The influx of such an immense population into the villages and hamlets of this region taxed its agricultural resources to the utmost, and the construction of countless derricks, and the towns that were springing up like mushrooms along Oil creek and the Allegheny river, the making of tanks and thousands of barrels for storing and transporting the oil, gave a home market for the lumber of the country and stimulated an activity in business before unknown. Land along the creek supposed to be favorable for drilling purposes commanded fabulous prices; everybody had an interest in an oil-well; fortunes were suddenly made in one day and recklessly lost in another; and although railroads were pushed toward Titusville as rapidly as possible, the oil reached the surface faster than it could be disposed of, and was floated down the Allegheny river to Pittsburgh in bulk barges, many of which were broken up in the accidents of such navigation and the contents poured upon the stream. The valley of Oil creek became filled with derricks, and by 1863 the oil territory was supposed to be defined, when a daring prospector, having drilled a “ wild-cat” well on the hilis that border the valley, got oil, and wells were then spread over the hill country between Titusville and Tidioute. Meantime trunk lines had reached the valleys of the Allegheny and Oil creek, and the oil was moved out of the country. The development of oil territory had mean time acquired a habit which has become well defined, and has been repeatedly exemplified during the last fifteen years. Commencing with the sinking of test or “ wild-cat” wells outside the limits of any proved productive territory, the progress of such wells is eagerly watched, not only by those who pay for them, but also by many others who hope to profit by the experiment. While the experiment is in progress frequently all sorts of devices are resorted to to deceive others, not only to enable those engaged in the experiment to secure all the adjacent territory at favorable prices or leases, but also to prevent others from doing the same thing. The striking of oil in a new well is the signal for a grand rush, as those who have territory to dispose of express extravagant opinions regarding the yield of the wells and the extent of the territory. A quiet country village at once becomes the center of a large business. Teams come pouring in with oil-well supplies, lumber, and provisions ; a narrow-gauge railroad is projected and built with astonishing rapidity ; corner lots are sold at fabulous prices; a speculative population floats into the place, the individuals of which come and go; and a common laborer to-day becomes a month hence a foreman, and in six months the owner of a well, and after a year is a gentleman of fortune. ‘The quiet country town, too, with its modest school-houses and churches, takes on metropolitan airs and vices, and farmers become money-changers, the lucky ones who ‘strike ile” and do not lose their heads usually gathering together their thousands and leaving the overgrown village for New York or some other city. Some few remain -and help to permanently improve the home of their childhood. Titusville, Oil City, Tidioute, Franklin, and Bradford -are all examples of. such towns. After a time the speculative phase is succeeded by that of settled and steady development, and the oil territory becomes outlined, the sagacious having secured control of the profitable tracts, and the floating population having by this time passed on to a new field, while their places have been filled by a more solid element, largely the moderately successful, because less reckless, who have come to stay. The influence of the floating and unsettled class is seldom saiutary. In one instance that has been brought to my notice the most reckless system of public improvements was undertaken. School-houses greatly larger and more expensive than 76 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. were necessary were built, and instead of being paid for by taxes levied on the oil that was then being taken fron» the ground, bonds were issued, payable at some future day, and left as a burden upon a community the extraordinary resources of which have long since been removed. The development of the oil territory proceeds, after its existence has been demonstrated, without regard to any other interest. The derrick comes like an army of occupation. In the towns a door-yard or a garden alike surrender its claims. The farms, fields, orchards, or gardens alike are lost to agriculture and given to oil, and on, the forest-covered hills the most beautiful and valuable timber is ruthlessly cut and left to rot in huge heaps. wherever a road or a derrick demands room. Pipe-lines are run over the hills and through the valleys, through door-yards, along streets, across streets and railroads, and here and there the vast storage-tanks stand, a perpetual. menace to everything near them that will burn. Nothing that I ever beheld reminded me so forcibly of the dire destruction of war as the scenes I beheld in and around Bradford at the close of the census year; and nothing else but the necessities of an army commands such a complete sacrifice of every other interest or leaves such a scene of ruin and desolation. But the wave of desolation passes over, and nature changes the scene in the same manner as she gathers and restores the ruins of battle-fields. Along Oil creek, for the most part, the derricks haye disappeared, and the brambles and the young forest are fast removing even a trace of their former presence. A visit to the famous. Pithole City, which in 1865 was, next to Philadelphia, the largest post-office in Pennsylvania, showed a farmer plowing out corn where the famous Shearman well had been, a waving field of timothy where the Homestead well had been, the site of the famous United States well hardly to be found by one who had known it all through its career, and of the city there remained but fifteen or twenty houses, rapidly tumbling to decay, but not an inhabitant. The country around this scene of so much activity fifteen years ago is growing up to forest, and is. not now valued at an amount equal to a year’s interest on the valuation of that time. Between the period of active development and absolute exhaustion comes the period of decay, when the derricks are rotting and falling to wreck, when property that has ceased to be productive has been sold at an extravagant price, and after accumulating debts has been abandoned. No one dares to claim the engine, boiler,. and other tools, for fear he may become liable for the debts. Fine-engines go to ruin, and boilers are eaten with rust; small boys and idle men throw tools and pebbles in the well, and finally the vender of old iron comes along and carries off the junk to the foundery. At other times theowners of the well have made strikes somewhere else;. and the well is then “ pulled out” andall the machinery is carried to another field. Enormous quantities of material were carried from Oil creek to Clarion and Butler counties, and from there to the Bradford district. The Oil creek region has now returned to the condition of an agricultural and manufacturing community,. in which the production of oil is no longer the absorbing topic of conversation and the paramount interest. On the lower Allegheny, in Clarion and Butler counties, the production of oil has become much lessened in importance, and the wreck of abandoned derricks in many localities presents a dismal picture. The Bradford field. is now in fully developed activity, and the destructive subordination of every other interest, and of all other considerations of ordinary value, is everywhere painfully apparent. With all this there is an evidence that so- called public improvements are only of a temporary character. The towns that are the result of the production of oil are scarcely more substantial than a military camp, and from lack of orderly arrangement, neatness, and sanitary regulations are far less inviting in their appearance. The railroads remind one forcibly of those built around Petersburg during the war, although they possess the elements of permanency to a greater degree, and the: destruction of so much valuable timber produces a melancholy aspect. The Allegheny district in New York is just opening up around Richburg, and all the phenomena Pea to the: first stages of an oil excitement are to be observed there. It is not to be inferred, however, that any of the sections into which the oil regions have been divided have: ceased to produce oil. Thera are wells now producing in sight of the spot where Drake drilled the first well; but large tracts of country cease to be the centers of speculative investment, and old wells to be remunerative, and the new wells no longer hold the possibilities of a grand lottery prize. It is the opinion that large areas in the Oil creek district will be redrilled and will produce in the aggregate large quantities of oil if the price ever reaches $2 a barrel. At present prices, the pumping wells of that district cannot successfully compete with the flowing wells. of McKean county. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 77 CHAPTER VII.—THE PRODUCTION OF OIL. SEcTION 1.—PRIMITIVE METHODS. Oils and malthas appear to have been obtained in Persia from a very early period, but the methods employed were extremely simple. Most frequently the basin of the spring appears to have been surrounded by astone coping, and sometimes it was covered with some sort of a niche or building, but often the oil was simply skimmed from the surface of the water which it accompanied. Herodotus describes the manner in which, by means of myrtle branches, the bitumen was obtained from the springs in Zacynthus, now Zante. It is, however, by means of dug wells or shafts that petroleum has been usually obtained in regions where the art of drilling artesian wells was unknown. In Japan from a very remote period wells have been dug and tunnels have been run into hillsides for oil, Some of these abandoned drifts have caved in and large trees are growing upon them. In relation to the manner of working these wells, B.S. Lyman, in his Reports on the Geology of Japan, 1877, says: The present mode of working is very simple, a method that has probably grown into its present form in the course of centuries of experience, and is now apparentiy practiced in all the oil regions with little or no variation. The digging is all done by two men, one of whom digs in the morning from nine o’clock until noon, and the other from noon until three. The one who is not digging works the large blowing machine or bellows that continually sends fresh air to the bottom of the well. The blowing apparatus is nothing but a wooden box about 6 feet long by 3 wide and 2 deep, with a board of the same length and widtu turning in it upon a horizontal axis at the middle of each long side of the box, and with a vertical division below the board between the two ends of the box. The workman stands upon the board and walks from one end of it to the other, alternately pressing down first one end and then the other. At his first step on each end he gives a smart blow with his foot, so as to close with the jerk a small valve (0.3 foot square) beneath each end of the board, a valve that opens by its own weight when the end of the board rises. The air is therefore driven first from one end of the box, then from the other into an air pipe about 0.8 foot square, provided at top, of course, with a small valve for each end of the blowing-box, made of boards in lengths of about 6 feet, and placed in one corner of the well. The well is, besides, timbered with larger pieces at the corners and light cross-pieces, which serve also as a ladder for going up and down, though at such a time, in addition, a rope is tied around the body under the arms and held by several men above the mouth of the well. The earth or rock dug up is brought out of the well in rope nets by means of a rope that passes over a wheel 1 foot in diameter, hung just under the roof of the hut, about 10 feet above the mouth of the well, and is pulled up by three men, one at each corner of one side of the well, and the third in a hole two or three feet deep and a foot and a half wide dug along side of the well. My Hs “ Wells are dug in this manner to a depth of from 600 to 900 feet, a depth at which great difficulty is experienced in securing sufficient light to carry on the work, which is often prosecuted only from nine a. m. to three p. m. These wells are dug about 34 feet square. One well 900 feet deep is reported to have cost only about $1,000. The oil is skimmed from the surface of the water and drawn up in buckets. In a letter dated Toungoo, British Burmah, September 14, 1881, Rev. J. N. Cushing, D. D., says: At Yenangyoung the construction of the wells is after the most primitive method. The wells are dug about 5feet square. A native spade for loosening the soil and a basket for conveying it from the well are the implements used. As fast as the well is sunk it is planked up with split, not sawed, planks. There are generally three or four men engaged in the work of digging, each one taking his turn. A man remains below with a large rope fastened about him. A small rope attached to a basket is used to draw up the earth, which is saturated with oi], and is often quite warm to the touch. Sometimes the gas is so strong as to prevent a person from remaining below more than a couple of minutes, and occasionally a man is drawn up quite insensible. The usual time of remaining down is about twenty minutes, when the man gives the signal that he wishes to be drawn up by jerking the rope. The yield is seldom very rapid, as I have never heard of any petroleum rising to the surface. Still some of the wells yield a large amount and then dry up. A windlass is built upon a frame over the well at a height of about 5 feet from the mouth. Overthis windlass a rope is placed having a bucket at one end. The rope is not much longer than the depth of the well. The other end is fastened around the waist of a man ora woman, who generally has two or more half-grown boys or girls to help pull. As soon as the bucket fills, these persons start on a run down a well-beaten path until the bucket has come up so that the person standing by the well can empty it. The work is done by a class of people whose families have been allotted this work from time immemorial by the royal law. They are not slaves, but do not have permission to remove, and are considered as bound to work for the production of the royal monopoly. In Galicia wells were dug as for water, and in some instances congeries of wells were united at the bottom by galleries, into which the petroleum filtered from the rock. The digging of these wells and shafts was frequently attended with considerable danger of suffocation with gas. M. Coquand mentions that at Damanostotin, in Moldavia, the pits or wells were dug 40 meters (131.2 feet) deep, and lined with sticks, woven in a manner resembling a military gabion. The petroleum is obtained in a bucket, to which a stone is attached for a sinker. This bucket is drawn up by a rope. (a) Petroleum was also obtained for many years in the valley of the Po from wells that were dug. In the United States several different methods for obtaining oil were employed before wells were drilled. It is reported that shafts were found in the Mecca (Ohio) oil district, of the sinking of which all record or tradition has been lost. ° Since the curbed pits on Oil creek, Pithole creek, and other tributaries of the Allegheny have been proved to be of French origin, it is not unlikely that the old shaft at Mecca was also made by the French. An unsuccessful attempt to obtain oil in this way was made at Mecca about 1864, and another attempt to sink a shaft to the Venango oil-sand was made in 1805 in the bend of the Allegheny river, on the east side, below Tidionte. It was about 16 feet square and a little over 100 feet in depth. It was a failure in respect to obtaining oil, for just before it was deep enough to reach the third sand, or oil-producing rock, an accident occurred which resulted in its abandonment. The foreman, who was an experienced miner, was seated over the mouth of the shaft, which was covered, in company with one or two of his laboring men, ss — = ; é GUbe So Gh ocx tvecols, 78 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. eating their dinner. As they lighted their pipes it was suggested that a lighted paper be dropped into tle shaft to see if any gas was there. It was done, and an explosion followed which killed the foreman and some of bis men. It [the well] was immediately closed, and work was never resumed. (a) Other shafts were sunk on Oil creek, but as none of them were successful in reaching the Venango third sand, they were abandoned. Professor Silliman, sr., in 1833, thus described the method employed for obtaining Seneca oil at the famous spring at Cuba: A broad, flat board, made thin at one edge, like a knife; it is moved flat upon and just under the surface of the water, and is soon covered by a coating of petroleum, which is so thick and adhesive that it does not fall off, but is removed by scraping on the edge of a cup. (b) Near Burning Springs, West Virginia, the oil was collected early in this century “‘ by digging trenches along the margin of the creek down to a bed of gravel a few feet below the surface. By opening and loosening with a spade or sharpened stick the gravel and sand, which is only about a foot thick, the oil rises to the surface of the water, with which the trench is partially filled. It is then skimmed off with a tin cup and put up in barrels for sale. In this way from 50 to 100 barrels are collected in a season”. (¢) Professor J. P. Lesley thus describes the method employed for collecting oil on Paint creek, Johnson county, Kentucky : Here are to be seen the old ‘stirring places”, where, before the rebellion broke out and put an end to ail manner of trade in Kentucky, Mr. George and others collected oil from the sands by making shallow canals one or two hundred feet long, with an upright board and a reservoir at the lower end, from which they obtained as much as 200 barrels per year by stirring the sands with a pole. (d) J.D. Angier, of Titusville, worked the springs on Oil creek for some years prior to 1859. He found the springs logged up 6 to 8 feet square and as many feet deep. He arranged a sort of sluice-box, with bars, that held the oil while the water flowed on beneath. In this way he obtained from 8 to 10 gallons a day of 36° specifie gravity, which he sold at Titusville for medicine and for lighting saw-mills and the derricks of salt-wells. Seneca oil was obtained for many years and in many localities by saturating blankets with oil and wringing it from them. SECTION 2.—ARTESIAN WELLS—THE DERRICK. ARTESIAN WELLS. The Jesuil missionaries to China found there artesian wells in full operation. ‘These wells were drilled for brine and natural gas, the Jatter being frequently accompanied by petroleum. The following extract from L’Abbé Hue’s celebrated travels in China describes their method of drilling very deep wells: They [the wells] are usually from 1,500 to 1,800 (French) feet deep, and oniy 5 or 6 inches in diameter. The mode of proceeding is this: If there be a depth of 3 or 4 feet of soi] on the surface, they plant in this a tube of hollow wood, surmounted by a stone, in which an orifice of the desired size of 4 or 5 inches has been cut. Upon this they bring to work in the tube a rammer of 300 or 400 pounds weight, which is notched and made alittle concave above and convex below. A strong man, very lightly dressed, then mounts on a scaffolding, and dances all the morning on a kind of lever that raises this rammer about 2 feet and then lets it fall by its own weight. From time to time a few pails of water are thrown into the hole to soften the mater.al of the rock and reduce it to pulp. The rammer is suspended to a rattan cord not thicker than your finger, but as strong as our ropes of catgut. This cord is fixed to the lever, and a triangulat piece of wood is attached to it, by which another man, sitting near, gives it a half-turn, so as to make the rammer fall in another direction. At noon this man mounts on the scaffold and relieves his comrade till the evening, and at night these two are replaced by another pair of workmen. When they have bored 3 inches they draw up the tube, with all the matter it is loaded with, by means of a great cylinder, which serves to roll the cord on. In this manner these little wells or tubes are made quite perpendicular and as polished as glass. * * * When the rock is good the work advances at the rate of 2 feet in twenty-four hours, so that about three vears are required to dig a well. (e) The first artesian well drilled in the United States, in 1809, has already been described, as also the gradual improvements in tubing wells and in stopping off the surface water with a seed-bag (page 6). Prior to 1858 a great many wells had been drilled for brine in the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries, with such additional improvements as rendered them very effective for this purpose. Steam-, horse-, and hand-power had been employed‘in drilling with equal success, the tools and general manipulation of the well being essentially the same. The drilling of wells with hand-power was accomplished by means of a spring-pole. For this purpose a straight tree, forty or fifty feet in length, was selected. After the branches were removed, the butt was secured in the ground in such a position that the pole extended at an angle of about 30° over the spot at which the well was to be bored. To the smaller end the tools were attached, and by the elasticity of the pole, as it was alternately pulled down and allowed to spring back, they, were lifted and made to strike at the bottom of the well. The drilling of wells for oil has long since outgrown the spring-pole age, the figures on Plate VI showing the successive steps by which this has been accomplished. THE DERRICK. When the location of a well has been decided upon a derrick or “rig” is built. This consists of the derrick itself and a small house for an engine, with the necessary foundation for both. For this purpose masonry is not used, but instead a very heavy foundation of timber. The owner of the well owns the rig, boiler, and engine. The contractor who drills the well owns the cable, bit, blacksmith’s and other tools, and supplies fuel for the engine and the blacksmith. a Letter of W. \\. Hague, ‘of Tidioute, to 8. F. Peckham. _ d P. A. P. g., x, 40, a he s ant A ‘ Em bd DOA) Se (1), xxii, 995 e Travels in the Chinese Empire, 1,300, Harper’s ed., 1855, ¢ 8S. P. Hildreth, A. J. 8. (1), xxix, c6. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 79 The following list of rig-timbers embraces, first, the foundation timbers, which are frequently hewn, and, second, sawed timber. field, where the The plan of foundation timbers (Fig. 15) is drawn for square timber, but in a region like the northern ° \y : ° : j wells are chiefly located in forests, these timbers are often hewn from the trees around the well: HEWED RIG-TIMBERS. Inches. Feet long. PENGHC OR USSD OLUCC cn ele ca late aa Aosta ne eter cise eer rate ee esc nines ae cinscesee ees ee oen ee 12 21 Paden GicEsts le mS DOCUCMs nap ae ke co cen ete se sic sae ee ee ince cle coat ec clan oe eee as ae kh Soe toe Ba 10 21 EE MLS RILLOLL 4 fe tik). pug As wane Mt ea a gC SER ee nce Web cub atv a ais hbase s pts Bek uin ae 12 Q1 PAN RI CARIL SLO bE Os cle sere clot oik Cee cictoec ate om cielo matawd Stites cia aoe ae eT’ ee Bae 10 Q1 SUPREME IAOOU. 204422. ciscw nina a ta cedeccmenes 4uwaee © ot sibs wette yeandd ec fuce we eats oloete eee: 16 20 "STGP SUA DRS a Ve) 200 Ue a See PS A a Arent eg eel ry Sen el pe al cae A el ahs Be TN e erie eh lly z 16 12 PEMMet SAUALO coo.) woe amtu wa cass stleaee esis anne dancer adhe owt = Wy eistersit ations Mees oa 5 Beatle Beet 18 by 18 30 Hh Spl STM ERS ECE TEND beet ode colette a ehh ME Ree Saal Spl bay enh So MAE al gee aa oS hs oa eR ee ed 18 by 18 14 Eee NCUGLCU tac. eee ia sea canta wetsnmaleey 144 UL REOHS ps gain Ebene a6 Ao SL DES DOO? Se S05 SASSO TES CN Berea yes onr se OSeiA esc sess aeait a ee lem 14 by 12 by 16= 96 IR TEN SUAS ia Sa ghee etun ers shal Te rise sie se bh nie(s wel Dae wlelne oi. a cine) e594 and wih eis sei maples eke nat 2 by10by16= 480 PRI BOS dine ae liom feb ataclel coal aba's o'niais Joes nedoes Hr eis ab seeeghn aes CES o cue ae an BeBe Se eeeagee 2 by 8by16= 384 EEC 8, oy Od ook easels dias BGA OSA 5 CHEER EDO ASE EE COSINE Reet EL a RES aE afin SE Sie A eee 2 by 6 by 16= 96. em OO oe aoe Rea Gam acini d sigh fate oe Seta sls ass cass Seaa cs ven tins bees se dderasdece Suse s 2 by 4by 16= 267 MCCS ee ra hactiamle ambos cee che SS ae hse e kien ag stewie « fe Mele wiatatete seta gain ately aa wiota sia zeit sas a4 2 by 6 by l4=— 56. UM BLGOe Ae eetee cre ea eta nis ose pens ema a rae nad afasicin's «(oeisit alt Gaia vis\etelniawien elt aaselaenlalsic-ale, soo 1' by 12 by 16= 320 UU EUR ae oo tae aesho eddie da Seb Spe stion SasSeSice ness decrasranoer Sop Sac era edness ponpeenorr LS by 8 Dyo1 6 =e BO ele eeiy nite emis Nae walanivv a ciu'a ss dese ea civilian «teint sin c’ne ys a4 2824 wens suman. deese> nes os 1 by 7 by 14= 245 PemrC Met gece 0 LAOUMOM Garten eee e Sots eS Cacia csincica es econ Bae re ee eee Nance eee cate che ol ree Sree ne 800. mee OCT seme roe umLOl a lemertee ecient a teete es cciciele ta) cick fe sere tacts Cae ae ate ee 7 4 Atiger-stom {2.0 ob Coweek seen dock beso nee s Pee can ven see cee cite ee ee mah pee te base are eee ee S04} Coenter-Dite oo arcs Sc ic nina Lieve ces S odie we etejeciciom peace bee ele selec ee Sope e clekee ie stesso arte Stet Smaart eh ae ra 3 3 62 1 The wings of the temper-screw are 14 inches by 3 inch, and 4 feet 6 inches long. The screw is 1? inches in diameter and 4 feet long, with two square threads to the inch. The weight of the string of tools is as follows: Pounds Fig. .25.--ROpGe60CKOU 50258 sec nc cisnss ence wene,to esac seewes sha uasl nb resin =s wet aehs bese deems kates alee ae 80 Fig.'24\—Sinker-barySeAneh 2 30 cus oceanic cmesisie nae s'ew cums) wseiaelee sae fetuile ole «aie eal ee sateen ai ee ne ener 540 Pigs 23. Jars; Os -LUGh fate ai Seo cee aaa cee sete cmau wise easels 5 ei ne metee's aifecietem eieiaise tanates seni oer ee ates 320 Pig 22.—AUPOUSPRMIy tic cet wehie ce a wae eacciee ued shlewen su wmiele se amidicisiet a ceissis ly esta eee Uedtette tt eet eae eee 1, 020 Fig. 21. Bit 257 00 yt nse din ne Cae ietw san eles acwes.ceen sobre ns coed pete eit anette uke s bie bias akin nny a 140 2,100 The other tools weigh as follows: Pounds. Fig. 26.—Temper-screw .... ---- ------ eee ee eee ne eee e cee cee ce ene tee eee ce geen cee cece ee cere eee eee 145 Pig. 23.) ara, 8-1c Dyes secmicsenen/sloe Seen eee sa peels ees tee tetie n= seen elaceneees ese pe es eee Ot Oe Oe 565 Fig. 2.—Two bits, Sanoli.,. cospecen tre een cate ee nonce saad eee > we Ss anc need oe eaene eee een ee 320° * Fig. '30;— Reamer’: 522-22. cesteophics See peminwscss scaseacccticncs suns Cactice sascl oe e eiate te Sees eats eee 180 Fig. 21:—T wo. bits; Sg-1nely. Sasser an Seeies = + owe ne coe whom oe eo dast sscnetaacw en sea eo site ce Ee eee eee 28 Fig. 29.—Beamer; 5sine cigu eway aeewlsemens e+e = nese ashe saps adencen ann decsemeo ns eget emees seen 140 Fig. 27,—Ring-s0ck¢h 2 ons srace aa aher deere nine ee eyes deans ane atoed «earns © Hay San glenn ige cal eae eee 50 Big. 26.—T'wo Wrentheg jncnnn secadn ccm arb eanenkta se ae oc cnnaes nas cemeen naps sae hee ee 210 1, 890 Total weight of 860.400 sve cen se ete eee aReaE orc ons soa pan onsen auuide neck ccm ne anette arses eer e 3, 990 Totalicost.of pet: 2s Se eta a cob easecs Sou cuseseuies peak as. bee de eee et ele ee Cee eee $700 Driller’s’‘completeouthit, including cable;.costs about. -< ---\-~ contours backiethast passes a mwatee cele ames aes 900 These tools are made of the best of steel and Norway iron. SECTION 4.—DRILLING WELLS. By reference to Chapter I, page 6, it will be observed that the Ruffner Brothers “ provided a straight, well-formed, hollow sycamore tree, with 4 feet internal diameter, sawed off square at each end”. This was placed on end, and by digging out beneath it was gradually sunk to the bed-rock. This device was in time replaced by a smaller conductor, that was placed in the center of a sort of shaft or well that was dug (when practicable) to the bed-rock. This conductor was made of two-inch plank spiked together, 6 or 8 inches square on the inside, and placed in position vertically beneath the center of the derrick floor, as shown in Fig. 1, Plate VI, and Fig. 31. When the bed-rock is below a depth to which it is practicable to dig, an iron pipe is driven to the rock (shown in Fig. 3, Plate VI, and Fig. 33). When the “drive pipe” is to be inserted a “mall” and “guides” must be provided. This mall is made of any tough, hard log that will dress 15 to 18 inches square and 10 or 12 feet long. Two sides only are dressed, one end being encircled by a heavy iron band, to prevent its splitting, the other having a strong staple driven into it, in which to tie the cable. Two pairs of wooden pins are put into each of the dressed sides, one pair near the top, and the other near the bottom. They are two inches apart and two inches long, the guides fitting between them. The guides consist of two 2-inch planks, placed perpendicularly upon a line drawn through the center of the well at right angles to the walking-beam, and 15 or 18 inches apart. They are securely stayed and strengthened by having narrower plank nailed on both sides of them, leaving their edges projecting 2 inches toward each other, to enter between the pins on the mall. | | ~ . ., ry - . i ve - ‘ ¥ r Dy 7 , A netr 2 ee era Nn a iver OE eee babes «ieee sis clit esc alow au ed naios Lachue J, ie | a SI lane CHL Or tt) = Banely oi0i * S ea rnd 3) S ny HyL 30 ; 1 SH SRG SoBe 302 rie pp Derrick 8D y gu ome WSs oe Aho pew Gay roils" NOILOAS 3OV4YNS (9) 04 —_SYaqOQanaav ts y baat) Rel 94 ic o o lo | le) D i ny BIN 4) Sa | I Blaerano ed AM AOA IAS arn ar WH GasPipe Sei <2 Sa a %. xe) OUD can iviean Net UOWIAS AFONG Pic ga ay aN “isp reg mel g re Nena Hoya y , 0 geal 1650 QO8) i ies 2) x sy Lpe Drive » Bottorn of yh wy Reo 0 aie oranasiel / (CQ os ng mcoPSt/N)) NOILOAS J3did 3A i d}o Ya 40 WOLLOa ie il “in| SOND Cho jDoe Dds gia! Draped ; Wiese By {i D Spay H il Ay VULNS ! Ts Nolloas ONISVO JO WOLLOS | jill Dn Bottom of Casirn /> Ch 1 aC sts habatared 2 PLO ING yg) Re ane (2 (ol) AN o aw. Od Oe S64 git ose. FQ a4yuUad OO. MT Casing === {Bottom of 77%"hole otto mot 59g ce 0 § EAOiel ihe 89 0 yw : q DS a0'o| s \ (ee ys Bs SLATE OR SHALE SLATE OR SHALE ptt SaaS “cS ~ D> \ Ose Ya (( e (s aon uonoag adh y aay sO UW Re gl ‘7 Saas ihe a) dane Rock = = Bod 3 fae —. i | uoKnoes bug porae K RA Ae ert Kio Ses (3 eet of Seu, of OMe NG ey DOD rood Say BN O20 o ay af ia eotibeses etn iy SCAN GOao 0 Of UOTNIAS WOT od 0U goo Oo | Slate or Shale PUMPING WELL. Seed Bag. on Casing UAHIOS bog pees i ARN AS Ly REO nS 7 (SUSI, THES Vacs Qo Gas UAW ate) ASE & HOPOCOD 8 UORIIG MORO gO aa af _ ¥ on Tubing Style) Old. Vv so eens (WEw OS Wy Ue eencns 0°00) an =f ny eSB 00 53 Se) rs Q Uy (ojos Oo oh Bo! Rp) $0 sy Slate So PUMPING WELL. Slate or Shale PUMPING FLOWING WELL. 1880. DRILLING WELL AND FULL STRING OF TOOLS. la7é. 1861. WELL. Ou. Scale. ° G2 Ds = =| 6 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 85 ‘The well is started by spudding. To do this’a short cable is run up over the crown pulley in the top of the derrick. One end is attached to the ring-socket (Fig. 27) and screwed to the auger-stem; the other is passed around the bull-wheel shaft two or three times and the end left free. The bull-rope is now put on and the engine started. A man in front of the bull-wheels seizes the free end of the rope coiled around the shaft, a slight pull causes the coils to tighten and adhere to the revolving shaft, and the auger-stem rises in consequence, until it hangs suspended on the derrick, when it is swung over the spot where the well is to be started. The engine is kept running and the bull-wheels continue to revolve, but the man holding the shaft-rope has full control of the tools. When he pulls on the rope the coils at once “bite” the revolving shaft and the tools rise; but when he gives his rope slack they fall, and so long as the coils remain loose upon the shaft it revolves smoothly within them and communicates no motion. Thus, by alternately pulling and slacking the rope, this animated substitute for a walking-beam raises and drops the tools as much of as little as may be required, while the driller turns the drill to insure a round hole. After spudding awhile to prepare the way for the drive-pipe, the drill is set aside, and the pipe to be driven, armed at the bottom with a steel shoe, as shown in Fig. 3, Plate VI, is put in place. The following graphic description of the drilling of a well is given by J. F. Carll, in Report III, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, page 306: The mall is attached to the spudding cable and let down between the guides, where it is alternately raised and dropped upon the easing or drive-pipe by the man at the bull-wheels, precisely the same as in spudding. The casing used is of wrought-iron, screwed together in thimbles the same as tubing. A heavy cap of iron is screwed in the top when driving, to prevent its being injured by the blows of the mall. When two or three hundred feet of pipe are to be driven, as is frequently the case in some of our northern valleys, it requires a great deal of skill and judgment to put it in successfully. In these deep drivings, after a sufficient depth has been reached to admit of the introduction of a string of tools, they are put in and operated by the walking-beam in the usual way; the cable (a short one, furnished for the purpose) being coiled upon one end of the bull-wheel shaft, while the other end is left free to work the mall-rope on. To facilitate the necessary changes, which must be made every time the drill is stopped and pipe driven, the lower part of the guides are cut and hung on meee some 10 or 12 feet above the derrick floor, and when not in use may be swung up overhead out of the way of the workmen. When a sufficient depth has been reached by spudding to admit of the introduction of a full ‘“ string of tools”, the spudding machinery is abandoned. Now the coil of drilling cable is rolled into the derrick and set upon end. The free end in the center of the coil is tied by a connecting eord to the rope just detached from the ring-socket, and by it drawn up over the crown-pulley and down to the bull-wheel shaft, where it is fastened; the bull-rope is put in place, the engine started, and the men carefully watch and guide the cable as it is wound, coil after coil, smoothly and solidly upon the shaft. When this is done the end of the cable depending from the crown-pulley is secured to the rope- socket, and the full set of tools is attached and swung up in the derrick. After carefully screwing up all the joints (the bull-rope having been unshipped), the tools(Fig.5, Plate VI) are lowered into the hole by means of the bull-wheel brake cc, shown in Fig. 16. The band-wheel crank is then turned to the upper center; the pitman is raised andslipped upon the wrist-pin, where it issecured by the key and wedges ; the temper-screw is hung upon the walking-beam hook; the slack in the cable is taken up by the bull-wheels until the jars are known to be in proper position; the clamps are brought around the cable (after a wrapper has been put on it at the point of contact) and securely fastened by the set-screw ; the cable is slacked off from the bull-wheels, and the tools are now held suspended in the well from the walking- beam instead of from the top of the derrick, as before. Some fifteen or twenty feet of slack cable should be pulled down and thrown upon the floor to give free movement to the drill. When the drill is rotated in one direction for some time the slack coils around the cable at the well mouth; if it becomes pron biseatat, the motion is reversed and it uncoils. Only by this constant rotation of the drill can a round hole be insured. Having now rade all the necessary connections, it only remains to give the engine steam, and the drill will rise and fall with each revolution of the band-wheel and commence its aggressive work upon the rock below. From this point downward the daily routine of “the work is very monotonous unless some accident occurs to diversify it. Day and night the machinery is kept in motion. One driller and one engineer and tool-dresser work from noon until midnight (the ‘‘ afternoon tour”), and another pair from midnight until noon (the ‘morning tour”). Up and dewn goes the walking-beam, while the driller, with a short lever inserted in the rings of the temper-screw, walks round and round, first this way, then that, to rotate the drill. He watches the jar, and at proper intervals lets down the temper- screw as the drill penetrates the rock. When the whole length of the screw has been ‘run out”, or the slow progress of the drill gives warning that it is working in hard rock and needs sharpening, he arranges the slack cable upon the floor so that it will go up freely without kinks, and informs the engineer that he is ready to ‘‘ draw out”. After attending to the needful preliminaries, the driller throws the bull-rope upon its pulley, and quickly steps to the bull-wheel brake, while the engineer commands the throttle of the engine. The walking-beam and the bull-wheel are now both in motion, but at the proper moment one man stops the engine and the other holds the bull-wheels with the brake just when all the slack cable has been taken up, and the weight of the tools is thus transferred from the temper-screw to the crown-pulley. This is a performance requiring experience ard good judgment, for should any blunder be made a break-down must certainly result. To loosen tlre clamps on the cable and unlock the pitman from the wrist-pin and lower it to the main sill is but the work of a moment. Dropping the pitman raises the end of the walking-beam with the temper-screw attached to it and throws them back from their former perpendicular over the hole, so as to allow the cable and tools to run up freely without interference with them, Steam is now turned on again, and the tools come up. When the box of the auger-stem emerges from the hole the engine isstopped. A wrench isslipped on the square shoulder of the bit, and the handle dropped behind a strong pin fixed for that purpose in the floor; another wrench is put on the shoulder of the auger-stem; a stout lever is inserted in one of the series of holes bored in the derrick floor in a circle having a radius a little less than the length of the wrench-handle, and it is brought up firmly against the upper wrench-handle, thus making a compound lever of the wrench and greatly increasing its power. . Both men give a hearty pull on the lever, which ‘ breaks the joint”, or, in other words, loosens the screw-joint connecting the bit with the auger-stem, so that the bit can be unscrewed and taken off by hand after it has been brought up above the derrick floor. The wrenches are then thrown off, steam is let’ on again, and the bit rises from the hole. Now the driller throws off the bull-rope by operating a lever with one hand, while with the other he catches the bull-wheel with the brake, holding 84 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the tools suspended a few inches above the derrick floor. At the same instant the engineer shuts off the steam, or else, suddenly relieved of its heavy work by unshipping the bull-rope, the engine would “run away” with lightning speed. It only remains now to hook the suspended tools over to one side of the derrick, and the hole is free for the sand-pump. While the driller is sand-pumping the engineer unscrews the worn bit and replaces it by one newly dressed, so that there may be no delay in running the tools into the well again when sand-pumping is ended, The “line” to which the sand-pump is attached (as before described) passes up over a pulley near the top of the derrick, and thence down to the sand-pump reel, which is operated from the derrick by means of hand-lever v and connecting levers u and t. While sand- pumping the pitman remains disconnected, the bull-rope lies slack on its pulleys, and the band-wheel is kept constantly in motion. A slight pressure on lever v brings the friction-pulley w in contact with the band-wheel, and the pulley immediately revolves, the slack gand-pump line is quickly wound up, and the sand-pump, which is usually left standing at one side of the derrick, swings out to the center and commences to ascend. Just now the lever is thrown back, and the connection between the friction-pulley and the band-wheel being thus broken, the sand-pump commences to descend into the we]l by its own gravity. If it be likely to attain too great speed in its descent, a movement of the lever to bring the pulley either forward against the band-wheel or backward against the brake-post will quickly check it, and thus the speed may be regulated at will. As soon as the pump strikes bottom additional steam is given to the engine, and the lever is brought forward and held firmly, while the sand-pump rises rapidly from the well. The sand-pump is usually run down several tines ‘after each removal of the tools, to keep the bottom of the hole free from sediment, so that the bit may have a direct action upon the rock. After the hole has been sufficiently cleansed, the sand-pump is set to one side, the drilling tools are unhooked, and, swinging to their place over the well mouth, are let down a short distance by the brake, the wrenches are put on, and the lever is applied to “set up” the joint connecting the replaced bit to the auger-stem. Then removing the wrenches, the tools are allowed to run down to the bottom under control of the bull-wheel brake. Connections are now made as before, the driller commences his_circular march, the engineer examines the steam- and the water-gauges and the fire, and then proceeds to sharpen the tool required for the next “run”, and thus the. work goes on from day to day until the well is completed. The derrick and other apparatus here described is that employed in the oil regions of Pennsylvania, where the wells are deep and the tools required for drilling them are heavy. In the Franklin, Mecca, and Belden districts the shallow wells require a comparatively simple and inexpensive apparatus, the derricks being often not more than 30 feet in height, and the entire cost of a well only about $300. In West Virginia and southern Ohio the “light rigs” of the early time are still largely used, but are gradually being replaced by the higher derricks, in which heavier tools and long lengths of pipe can be conveniently handled. SECTION 5.—THE TORPEDO. In 1862 Colonel E. A. L. Roberts, then an officer in the volunteer service, conceived the idea of exploding torpedoes in oil-wells, for the purpose of increasing the production. Having applied for a patent, in the fall of 1864 he constructed six torpedoes, and early in 1865 he visited Titusville to try his first experiment. Therisk of damaging the wells prevented their owners from allowing the tests to be made; but Colonel Roberts finally persuaded Captain Mills to allow him to operate on the Ladies’ well, on the Watson flats, near Titusville. The explosion of two torpedoes caused this well to flow oil and paraffine. This result produced great excitement, and led to the filing of several applications for patents and as many lawsuits for infringement, which were all finally decided in favor of Roberts. The complete success of the torpedo was not established, however, until December, 1866, when Colonel Roberts exploded one in the Woodin well, on the Blood farm. This well was a “dry hole”, and had never produced any oil. The first torpedo caused a production of 20 barrels a day, and the second raised it to 80 barrels. This established the reputation of the torpedo on a firm basis. (a) The following notice of the decision of Judge Strong, sustaining the patent of Colonel Roberts, explains the method of using torpedoes and the opinion of the inventor regarding their action: The patent consists in sinking to the bottom of the well, or to that portion of it which passes through the oil-bearing rocks, a water- tight flask, containing gunpowder or other powerful explosive material, the flask being a little less in diameter than the diameter of the bore to enable it to slide down easily. This torpedo or flask is so constructed that its contents may be ignited either by caps with a weight , falling on them or by fulminating powder placed so that it can be exploded by a movable wire or by electricity, or by any of the known means used for exploding shells, torpedoes, or cartridges under water. When the flask has been sunk to the desired position, the well is filled with water, if not already filled, thus making a water tamping and confining the effects of the explosion to the rovk in the immediate vicinity of the flask and leaving other parts of the rock surrounding the well not materially affected. The contents of the flask are then exploded by the means above mentioned, and, as the evidence showed, with the result in most cases of increasing the flow of oil very largely. The theory of the inventor is that petroleum or oil taken from wells is, before it is removed, contained in seams or crevices, usually in the second or third stratum of sandstone or other rock abounding in the oil regions. These seams or crevices being of different dimensions and irregularly located, a well sunk through the oil-bearing rock may not touch any of them, and thus may obtain no oil,though it may pass very near the crevices; or it may in its passage downward touch only small seams or make small apertures into ‘the neighboring crevices containing oil, in either of which cases the seams or apertures are liable to become clogged by substances in the well or oil. The torpedo breaks through these obstructions and permits the oil to reach the well. Judge Strong, in delivering the opinion of the court, said: While the general idea of using torpedoes for the purpose specified is not patentable, the particular method of employing them invented by Mr. Roberts is patentable; therefore he is entitled to protection. a Abridged from Henry’s Early and Later History of Petroleum, p. 257. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 85 The material used now in the Pennsylvania oil regions is nitro-glycerine, which is manufactured for the purpose by the ton. This was first used in quantities of from 4 to 6 quarts (133 to 204 pounds, equal to from 108 to 162 pounds of gunpowder). This amount was gradually increased to 20, 40, 60, 80, and even 100 quarts. When the well is ready to be “ shot”, word is sent to the torpedo company, and the canisters are prepared in sections of about 10 feet in length and 5 inches in diameter. These sections are made conical at the bottom, so that they will rest securely on top of each other. The nitro-glycerine is carried in cans that are placed in padded compartments in a light spring wagon, which is often driven over the roughest mountain roads with great recklessness. Arrived at the well, one of the sections of the canister is suspended by a cord that passes over a pulley and is wound upon a reel. The nitro-glycerine is poured into the canister until it is filled, and then it is lowered by the cord to the bottom of the well. Another section is filled and lowered in like manner until the proper amount is put in place. Then the cord is drawn up.and a piece of cast-iron weighing about 20 pounds, and made of such a form that it will easily slide down the bore, is allowed to drop down upon the cap, which is adjusted to the last section that was lowered. At a depth of 2,000 feet no sound reaches the surface, although 80 quarts of nitro-glycerine, equal to 2,160 pounds of gunpowder, may have been exploded by the hammer. After from three to ten minutes has elapsed a gurgling sound gradually approaches the surface, and the oil, welling up in a solid column, filling the bore-hole and mounting higher and higher, falls first like a fountain, and then likea geyser, and forms a torrent of yellow fluid, accompanied by the rattle of small pieces of stone and fragments of the canister, in a shower of oil-spray 100 feet in height. In five or ten minutes it is all over; 25 or 30 barrels of oil have been thrown to the winds, and the derrick has been saturated with it, so that in a short time it becomes as black as ink and as combustible as tinder. In some instances but little oil escapes from the well, and sometimes none at all. The position of a torpedo just before explosion is shown in Fig. 31. While not disputing that in some instances the theory of the action of torpedoes formulated by Colonel Roberts may explain such action, I am forced to the conclusion that when a torpedo is exploded in such rock as the Bradford oil-sand the crushing effect of the explosion is comparatively limited. The generation of such an enormous volume of gas in a limited area, the walls of which are already under a very high gas pressure, and which is held down by a motionless column of air of 2,000 feet (the use of water tamping has been abandoned), must be followed by an expansion into the porous rock that drives both oil and gas before it until a point of maximum tension is reached. The resistance then becomes greatest within the rock, and, reaction taking place, oil and gas are driven out of the rock and out of the well, until the expansive forces originally generated by the explosion are expended, By this reaction the pores of the rock are completely cleared of obstructions, and the pressure of the gas within the oil-rock continues to force the oil to the surface until it is no longer sufficient for that purpose. It is found that in shallow wells of only a few hundred feet in depth, like those of West Virginia, nitro-glycerine is not as efficient as gunpowder, the violent action of the nitro-glycerine throwing the column of air or water out of a well of that depth, while gunpowder is held down. The expense incurred by using torpedoes in wells under the Roberts patent has led to many attempts to escape it, and many parties manufacture nitro-glycerine in the oil regions and explode it in wells by stealth. Such torpedoes are called ‘“‘moonlighters”. Another and more safe method is to purchase two-thirds or three-fourths the amount of nitro-glycerine required of outside parties, say 40 quarts for a 60-quart charge, and then engage the torpedo company to put in the other 20 quarts and fire it off, thus avoiding the payment of the royalty on the 40 quarts. These are called ‘ setters”. The value of torpedoes in individual cases is unquestioned; but, as a whole, their value to the oil interest is doubtful. Some very remarkable instances are on record where the yield of a well has been greatly increased by their use. The Mathew Brown well No. 6, in Fairview township, Butler county, Pennsylvania, is said to have yielded an increased production of 300 barrels the first twenty-four hours, and this from a charge of only 4 quarts. Another instance is on record where a torpedo in one well increased the flow in a second well 80 rods distant so that the yield did not run down to its former amount for six months. It is, however, the opinion of those whose long experience well qualifies them to judge that, especially in close sand, torpedoes are of very little use. By some they are uo longer employed. It is manifestly a destructive method of operation that yields quick results, attended with great waste. SECTION 6.—LOCATION OF WELLS. The production of petroleum is in a general sense a speculative business. It may, however, be couducted asa regular business, involving the sagacious use of capital in such a manner as experience and judgment would dictate, with due account as to its elements of uncertainty. Conducting their affairs on such a basis, there are large corporations and individuals who command large capital and who control large tracts of proved productive territory either in fee or under leases. There are also many adventurers, who, either alone:or in company with others, drill wells as they might purchase lottery tickets, losing little if they prove dry and reaping a rich reward if they prove valuable. This latter class operate almost exclusively under leases. It would be impossible to give details of the varied conditions incorporated in leases, as they are cunningly drawn in favor of the lessee or 86 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. lessor. The lease generally provides that the lessee shall drill a certain number of wells within a certain time and pay to the lessor, as a royalty, a certain proportion of the oil obtained, varying, according to circumstances, from one-tenth to one-fourth. As the reputation of territory improves, the undeveloped portion of a tract held under lease is subleased for a larger royalty or on a bonus, sometimes both. nse ee chin CC Sil | Jaap 0. 62 | 12, 025 | 741. 677 | 459. 84 459. 84 Total barrela’,tisc% pscucnacenssuscceeeeoeeees | 1, 607, 189. 80 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 99 Second. Quantity of crude petroleum which was received by said company during the month of March, 1881, 159,874.51 barrels. Third. Quantity of crude petroleum which was delivered by said company during the month of March, 1881, 145,699.68 barrels. Fourth. Quantity of crude petroleum for the delivery or custody of which said company was liable to other corporations, companies, associations, or persons at the close of the month of March, 1881, 1,607,189.80 barrels. Fifth. Amount of such liability which was represented by outstanding certificates, accepted orders, or other vouchers, 1,325,400 barrels. Amount of such liability which was represented by credit balances, 281,789.80 barrels. Sixth. All the provisions of the act above referred to have been faithfully observed and obeyed during the said month of March, 1881. No refined petroleum was in the custody of said company during the month of March, 1881, nor was said company liable during the month for the delivery of any refined petroleum. D. B. STEWART. B. F. WARREN. COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA, County of Crawford : Before me, a notary public within and for said county, duly authorized by law to administer oaths, personally came D. B. Stewart, having charge of the books and accounts of the Tide-Water Pipe Company, limited, and B. F. Warren, having charge of the pipes and tanks of said company, who, being each duly sworn, depose and say that they are familiar and acquainted with the business and condition of said company and with the facts set forth in the above report, and that the statements made therein are true to the best of their knowledge, information, and belief. Subscribed and sworn before me this 9th day of April, 1881. JOHN O'NEILL, Notary Public. At the close of the census year the accumulation of gross stocks in the tanks of the United lines, according to their published statement, was 10,306,078.79 barrels, and of this 454,193.73 barrels was estimated to be “ sediment and surplus”. At the same time the tide-water pipe-line report gross stocks in tanks at 978,183.30 barrels and 18,657 barrels “water and sediment”. Concerning this surplus Mr. Scheide writes : Our ‘‘surplus” is the amount in which our gross stocks exceed our liabilities of all kinds, and we estimate that it is large enough to enable us to deliver all the oil we owe with a safe limit. We keep it at from 3} to 4 per cent. of our liabilities by monthly purchases. Every year we make a careful inspection of the contents of our tanks. By an instrument called a ‘‘thief” we can take samples from any depth in the tank through four gauge-hatches in the roof. These samples, when not clearly merchantable oil, are carefully heated in white-glass bottles having leveled bottoms. The heat completely separates the oil from the water, dirt, and paraffine, which last settles in time into a compact mass at the bottom. There being a clear line of separation, the percentage of oil in the sample is thus readily obtained. In our calculations of the value of our ‘‘B. 8S.” we usually make a further reduction of from 10 to 50 per cent. to cover the expense of the separation. This can only be determined by experts. In addition to the annual inspection, there are two experts engaged every day in inspecting the tanks to see whether the water or “‘B. S.” is accumulating, which is about the only way we have of finding small leaks in the roof. It is impossible to give any idea as to how fast ‘‘B. 8.” is formed. The quantity formed differs in the widest manner in adjacent tanks; with rain carefully excluded, its formation, after that naturally in the oil (there is asmall percentage in almost all fresh oil) had settled, would be commercially insignificant. We have enormously reduced its formation by the careful attention we have for two years been giving our tank roofs. I think that 3 per cent. is an ample surplus on a stock exceeding 20,000,000 barrels, but the percentage would have to increase rapidly if the stock was materially reduced. _ The total net stock in tanks June 1, 1880, was estimated to be 11,737,890 barrels, exclusive of the Franklin pipe- line, the Smith’s Ferry Transportation Company, and the West Virginia Transportation Company, all of which handle oils that do not enter the general trade, and also exclusive of the oil in well tanks throughout the Pennsylvania region. The condition in which much of this vast quantity of oil actually is can only be determined when it is drawn out of the tanks, in which some of it has been stored for years, although the larger portion of it is not allowed to remain more than two or three years without being changed. Oil soon loses the more volatile portion by evaporation, and increases in density, becoming more difficult to refine, but in other respects remains unchanged in quality. ‘“ Formerly, when stills were run slowly, and the product desired was the greatest possible percentage of illuminating oil, age was an advantage, and for many years oil of 45° gravity and under was worth one-half cent a gallon more than lighter oil; indeed, by a rule of the New York produce exchange, no oil of over 47° was merchantable except at a cut. For several years the greatly increased value of the other products of distillation has completely changed this rule.” The oils in the tanks are therefore kept as new as possible. William T. Scheide, in a private communication, says: Oil is steamed in winter to free it from snow and ice and in cases to make it more limpid, as oil from very ‘‘ gassy ” territory thickens rapidly in the cold and will not run through any long line without warming. Orders are that the oil shall not be heated above 80° or 90° F., and not run warmer than 65° to 70°; but these figures are, no doubt, frequently exceeded. There is a great loss in this steaming, both to the producer because of the evaporation and to the pipe-line because of the condensed steam held in the oil. Many merely blow steam in and do not usually heat with a coil, as they should. The United Lines deduct from the amount shown by the gauge one-tenth of 1 per cent. for each degree F. that the temperature of the oil run stands above the temperature of the oil in three iron tanks at either Tarport or Oil City (according as the run is made in the upper or lower country), which are held untouched for this purpose. B. F, Warren, of the Tide-Water Pipe Company, has made a very careful study of the effects of steaming oil, and has reached some conclusions, which are embraced in the following communication : Inclosed find a tabulated statement of some results which I obtained in experiments in the field with steamed oil. You will notice some wide variations and apparent discordance in the results. These are mainly due to the imperfections of the tanks. You will understand that the tanks are of wood, and the action of steam is apt to make them leak, so much so that we almost invariably are obliged to ‘‘ drive hoops” on tanks at the end of the steaming season. Some careful laboratory work gave me a rate of increase for each degree of heat from 40° to 80° F. at 0.000465; below 40° the rate of increase or decrease was noticeably less, although not measurably so, with the facilities which I was possessed; above 80° the rate seems to increase rapidly. 100 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. COMPARATIVE RESULTS OF STEAMING OIL, FROM TESTS MADE IN THE BRADFORD OIL-FIELD. ee —= 3 COLD. STEAMED. S : Owner. District. g é Q 8 fs Fharease Rate of oO oO j : aE Gauge. FE Gauge E Ee gf rolume aaah. increase,|" cach 5 Pa Fa Bae egree. Deg. F.| Ft. In. | Barrels. || Deg. F. Ft. In. | Barrels. | Deg. F. Deg. F. 292 | jatitee oumocisneestaleste weleyere Bradford........ 30.7 6 11g 235. 52 77.0 7 45 248. 91 46.3 13. 39 9. 62 1. 64 0. 0002u 811 | W. Chambers..-...----- West Branch...| 37.8 6 11g 229. 59 103. 8 Team 234, 41 66. 0 4. 82 9. 41 | 4. 82 0. 00036 30 Robbing =3. s-- 6. Dallas ceases ate 26.0 Coll 223. 58 86. 0 7 4 235. 91 60. 0 12. 33 1. 25 | 10. 08 0. 00072 48 | Ford & Weaver........ Sam O: een ccteates 31.0 5 6 181. 58 80. 0 5 94 190. 66 49. 0 O08 il stars e155 5 «i'll siete w.s = emia eee 380 | Knapps Creek Comp’y.| Rixford......... 28.0 if 236. 92 85. 0 V6 246. 90 57.0 9. 98 9. 26 0.72 0. 00006 450 =| Larmouth-c..20--.ss Dallas's=sece- 252 26. 0 eel 229. 72 100. 0 tRY en's 245. 70 74.0 15. 98 2. 50 12, 52 0. 00074 O77 Ds A Wray.eee. nee Coleville.-....-. 40.0 14 64 761. 36 63.0 14 103 778.13 23.0 16. 77 19.51. j\oj00sie eo ete Sages 703 | Evans & Houtz..-....-. Se eG on stcta terete 83. 0 4 105 169. 91 94. 0 5 1 176. 89 61.0 6.98, | cc cinc teen swim abla aera 740 | Evans & Thompson....| Bordell ......... 34.0 10 i 549. 59 || 84.0 11 04 571. 38 50. 0 21.79 5. 94 15. 85 0. 00058 S30 wileee see CO cossseeweaseciss wessQO wessesecces 30. 0 10 8t 537, 34 90. 0 | 11 4 565. 10 60. 0 27. 76 11. 95 18. 71 0. 00055 969 | Union Oil Company....|.--.do ........... 32. 0 6 7% 214. 80 82. 0 6 is 224. 11 50. 0 9, 31 5. 58 3. 73 0. 00035 S10 Mien ce C0 Besscpueees ces els BO Uwe ae eat sie 40.0 6 94 216. 03 85. 0 i 04 223, 22 45.0 7,19 | tec se ts ose seine 0. 00074 1020 Bien te COs sto casacscecces| seins CO wanna’ bees 32.0 yy Ebd 199. 76 85. 0 6 3 210. 22 53. 0 10. 46 4. 57 5. 99 0. 00056 LOT yareiaine CO... 2itavestexeecucel seer OO cnc 40.0 7 3h 260. 36 92. 0 7 74 271. 27 52. 0 10. 91 0.70 10. 21 0. 00075 | AV OPAL 5 cise be Geshe as cele cn emis < sapien swctipeas eee socseningsfecnsa nics sais] |ninie cu oemidlewm mamas cole temas oie wets s ates ae oats arene iene ee 0. 00058 % - E COOLING. cane a SH oupee a & Gauge 5 Owner. District. Bs & 3 |Decrease|4 Rate : rhen bos. Remarks. = =a] Gauge. ae jot volume °° aie OF | I £ = £ jinbarrels. a 5 & a gree. Deg. F.| Ft. In. | Barrels. | Deg. F. Deg. F. Ft. In 202.) blidsan ckisleaoa ee sees Bradford_....-.. 43.0 vf 2 241. 88 34.0 7. 03 0. 00085 7 2 811 | W. Chambers.......--- West Branch ...| 90.7} 6 1138} 230.08} 13.0 4. 33 0. 00150 shar } } bie small increase Sf ee eae os 30 Robbins....-..-- Paling 0.5 Jahn 68.0} 6 11% 224.83 | 18.0 11. 08 0. 00273 6 lade te tank: 48 | Ford & Weaver........ SatesGlO) s8icic.cine n= 66. 0 5 8% 188. 07 14.0 2. 59 0. 00096 5 8 | Water not drawn. 380 | Knapps Creek Comp’y.| Rixford...-..-.-.. 70. 0 7 1 234, 41 12.5 2.51 0, 00085 6 94 | Contained an excessive amount of water. 459 |) Larmouthin-.seeeaeee ee Dallas. 3..:-:.-.. 68. 0 ti wo 239, 72 32.0 5. 98 0. 00078 7 4 677 | Dv A.W rayteesee steers ; Coleville........ 60.0 | 14 103 776. 28 3.0 1. 85 0. 00081 14 5 703 | Evans & Houtz.....-.-. pea tes Ss ee 70. 0 b.0 174. 10 24.0 2. 79 0. 00066 5 0 | Water not drawn. 740 | Evans & Thompson....| Bordell ....----- 70.0} 10 11 565. 45 14.0 5. 93 0. 00075 10 «© 9% B38 Wile ee es dO: 25:52 clecnemc reels COO items res ciao 71.0! 11 2 557. 84 19.0 7. 26 0.00070 |} 10 il 969 | Union Oil Company. .-- POO weacrceen sis 62. 0 6 104 221. 63 20. 0 2. 48 0.00056 | 6 84 O70 ei eeaace GON SS1 2, PRS ee EUG Peet snes oe 65. 0 6 1h 221. 43 20.0 1.79 0. 00042 6 114 | Water not drawn. 1025 Sileas cee GO sictiesies SRE eeal EERO eee ape sica 67.0 6 2 207. 61 18.0 2. 61 0. 00070 6 04 O27 A Semele 0 frssemasece setae SaROO. cas casera se 68. 0 Gi eal 215. 32 22. 0 2. 97 0.00060 || 6 10 1059. Fez see OO nvvocecdosneasaisl same CO ceecassennc 60. 0 6 1143 248. 09 25.0 2. 23 0. 00040 6 114} Water not drawn. TOGO ieee oe dO 2eossmesvecte sealer Cie a Aoresece 58.0 Ts 272. 69 27.0 5.02 | 0. 00067 7 64 L064 loses Di eeeaeme eee er etete 10 aeees cn 72.0 Cie: 267. 61 28.0 4. 35 0. 00060 7 54 | Water not drawn. LOGS Slee steer CO cerae arama ss ae se le PaO en eee 54. 0 ein Ot, 251.28 | 34.0 11. 22 0. 00130 6 104 | Tank probably leaked some. L074 ieeee a GO e steceose nse sel 4 Sap O aioe tee cee 60. 0 7 5} 266. 50 20.0 2. 94 0. 00060 i 53 | Water not drawn. LOTS Meese e Get Bacoaaaales vals Re peacoat aoe: 64. 0 6 43 227. 21 21.0 4.45 0. 00090 6 4 L010 bese aee CO's sce seecee cele Ja:Q10 srneateaare ta 66. 0 6 5f 230. 60 24. 0 3. 71 0. 00066 6 43 LOZ G0 Meee CO aise casenegacesle P20 \wcsecneeuee 78.0 ff 64 268. 48 14. 0 2. 79 0. 00060 7 6 AVECTAZO 2-220 22s | cece ew ene e ee cence fee ene e [ene eee cee e ee twee e nena n len eee ecelecee ne enee 0.00085) js 0s... - + was increased from 43 to 40°, in the other decreased from 40 to 42.5° Baumé. NotEe.—The quality of the oil does not appear to be affected by steaming. Except in two cases the gravity was not sensibly changed; in one case the gravity The variation between the apparent increase and decrease is due to the fact that all oil at temperatures below 40° F. contains varying proportions of water when it comes from the wells, and will not settle until the temperature is raised. There is also a portion of the oil destroyed by the action of steam, forming so-called B. S. ' The problems in hydraulics presented in the construction and management of pipe-lines, particularly those lines that may be denominated trunk lines out of the oil regions, are many and intricate, and required great courage on the part of those who projected the first line to meet and surmount them. problems and experience met in laying pipes for water to guide them. These problems dealt with a homogeneous These men had only the quite different re THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 101 fluid, flowing through pipes, laid permanently on curves of large diameter, flowing slowly under a low pressure and delivered slowly. This water pressure seldom exceeded from 40 to 50 pounds per square inch. The pipe-line problems dealt with a fluid varying in density with the temperature, flowing easily in summer and with difficulty in winter through pipes of small diameter, laid hurriedly and frequently changed, often on sharp curves or at right angles, for rapid movement and delivery, and at high pressures to compensate in part for the friction due to long distances and rapid transmission and small diameter of pipe, as well as at much greater elevations than are found in water-mains. The pipes used in pipe-lines are all tested to 2,000 pounds per square inch. The small sizes, 2-inch, 3-inch, and 4-inch, are worked under a pressure of 1,600 pounds, and the 5-inch and 6-inch at 1,000 pounds per square inch. Elaborate governmental and other experiments have been made in Europe with reference to the storage and transportation of petroleum and its products. These have been mainly directed toward storing the oil under water, either in barrels or submerged cisterns, or toward a method of solidifying the petroleum or its products. The most successful plan for storing oil in submerged cisterns appears to be that of Ckiandi, an engineer of Marseilles, and consists of a cistern of masonry, provided with an inverted bell resembling a gasometer, beneath which the oil is held over water. (a) At Saint Ouen, near Paris, floating reservoirs of iron of an approximate capacity of 100 barrels have been used for along time. Fourteen of these reservoirs were constructed in 1877, with a total capacity of 900,000 gallons. They were made of -%;- to 4-inch iron, and weighed in the aggregate 151 tons. (b) The so-called process for solidifying petroleum has been very widely noticed. It consists in producing with the petroleum a little water and saponaria root, an emulsion which is considered harmless for transportation. To recover the oil a little pure carbolic acid or strong acetic acid is added, and the constituents again separate. As saponaria is a product of the Levant and a drug of considerable value, this and other similar methods are rendered too expensive if their inconvenience was not an insurmountable obstacle to their employment. Such experiments furnish curious but impracticable results. Concerning the proposed transportation of oil in bulk, the following from the Oil and Drug News presents the latest aspect of the question: The report from Philadelphia that the steamer Vaderland, of the Red Star line, had been purchased by a number of capitalists for the purpose of transporting petroleum in bulk has attracted considerable attention at the various commercial exchanges. The transportation of oil in bulk is not entirely an experiment. A number of sailing vessels have already been fitted up for this purpose, and have, to a certain extent, demonstrated the practicability of the idea. ‘This is the first time, however, that a steamer has been constructed solely with the view of transporting safely large quantities of petroleum in bulk. The advantages of the system are, first, that it enables a steamer to carry a much greater amount of petroleum than it could if stored in barrels; and, second, it saves the expense of the barrels, each one of which costs exactly as much as the refined oil it contains. Not only this, but it also saves the expense of returning the barrels from Europe for use again. Inquiry among petroleum men and shipping merchants in this city elicited the general opinion that the idea is not considered practicable. Said one well-known oil inspector: ‘‘It is my opinion that the system will not work. It has been tried three times on sailing vessels during the past eight years, and each time the vessel was lost. The captain of one of them, who was saved from the wreck of his vessel, said to me that the difficulty was that the oil seemed to move quicker than water, and in rough weather, when the vessel was pitched forward, the oil would rush down and force the vessel into the waves much the same as improperly stored bulk grain does sometimes in stormy weather. It may be that by stowing the oil in small compartments it could be transported with safety, but I doubt it. Besides, what is the advantage of the system any way? The vessel must return in ballast, and it might as well bring back barrels, which under the present system are used over and over again, but under the proposed method would not be needed in the export trade.” Messrs. Slocovich & Co., the well-known shipping merchants, state that about eight years ago one of their vessels was fitted up with tanks for transporting oil in bulk. She proceeded on her journey and was never heard from. Her loss was undoubtedly due to her mode of carrying petroleum. Another shipping merchant stated that he believed the idea to be impracticable. It might be possible to make the tanks strong enough to prevent the escape of the vapor of the oil, but all previous experiments had proven failures, and there was no reason to suppose that this would succeed. An experiment to transport molasses in bulk has been tried within two or three years, and two vessels were fitted up for the purpose to run between Cuba and Boston. The experiment, however, proved a failure, and the project had been abandoned. The Vaderland is an iron screw steamship, built at Yarrow-on-Tyne, in England, in 1872, and was extensively repaired last year. Her capacity for cargo is 2,001 tons. She is owned in Antwerp. The “ oil in bulk” movement does not meet with favor among practicalexporters. They say that it cannot be carried out successfully. It would seem, however, that oil might be transported in vessels in that way as well as grain, and the day will no doubt come when a means to that end will be devised. SECTION 5.—STATISTICS OF THE TRANSPORTATION OF OIL DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. Statistics have been received from the following-named pipe-lines that were engaged in business during the whole of the census year : United Pipe Lines. Tide-Water Pipe Company, limited. West Virginia Transportation Company. Franklin Pipe Line. Smith’s Ferry Transportation Company. Octave Oil Company Pipe Line. a Engineering, xv, 279. b London Inst. Civ. Engineers, 1,200. Nouv, Ann. de la Construction (3), ii, 83. 102 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Fox Farm Pipe Line. Sheffer and Charley Runs Pipe Line. Tidioute and Titusville Pipe Line. TOS Ove There were also four other pipe-line companies doing business at the beginning of the census year that went — out of business during that year, of which such statistics are incorporated with those of the other lines as can be obtained from their printed statements. These lines are: Pennsylvania Transportation Company. Chureh Run Pipe Line. Cherry Tree Run Pipe Line. Emlenton Pipe Line. Beside these lines, there were a number of small private lines, particularly in the lower country, of which no reports are published, and from which it was impossible to obtain statistics, except at an unwarranted expenditure of time and labor, if, indeed, they could be obtained at all. These statistics, if obtained, would not materially change the significance of the figures here presented. The total amount of capital invested in the ten pipe-lines above mentioned was $6,347,930, and the total amount paid in wages during the year was $769,641. The greatest number of hands employed by them during the census year was 1,381; the average number 1,107, of whom 1,098 were males above sixteen years, 6 were females above fifteen years, and 3 were children. The hours of labor constituting a day were in general ten, but some of the operations of pipe-lines require constant oversight, and therefore in some instances the labor is performed by men who work in “tours” of twelve hours each, extending from twelve o’clock at midday to twelve o’clock at night, and from twelve o’clock at night to twelve o’clock at midday. The ten lines in operation at the end of the year were in operation throughout the year. The average wages of skilled workmen varied from $1.75 to $3.33 per day and from $70 to $75 per month; that of ordinary laborers from $1.25 to $2.50 per day. A marked difference in the rate of wages is found to exist in different sections of the oil-producing country. This difference is no doubt determined to some extent by the magnitude of the operations of the lines and the responsibility attaching to the labor performed. The total amount expended for fuel by these ten lines (not including the value of a vast quantity of natural gas, of which no account was taken) was $127,058. The total amount received for transporting (piping) oil was $1,381,328. The total number of boilers used was 216, having an estimated horse-power of 4,301; of pumps on main lines, with a diameter of cylinder varying from 3 to 344 inches, and a length of stroke varying from 4 to 36 inches, 383; of pumps used in collecting oil (for the most part small portable pumps), 511; of iron tanks, 646, with a total capacity of 12,958,385 barrels; and of wooden tanks, 383, with a total capacity of 239,587 barrels. “The total miles of pipe controlled by pipe-lines was: Miles 12-inch pipe, several hundred feet. Cinch ¥piperss- 6s ee Se ok Sal oes te bicrecic lates coeie oe Se pier ates ae teers tete eae matter Sen eiaaisle epee 121. 66 H-IMONEPIpSisace some cos ss cele es aos ve vw ep ssienmins @ cals aleitnalnteettesi= 6.x ame ieteior et ate akera tear eee ee ee 7.75 A-INGh! PIPC acai -sercjse cane bc en ou soutgis vio semielela cieie nism time or ome tee aie I a nea 123. 73 J-ANCH PUPS ere Wcics nue are 6 alae a wien ewe inlaws es ain claisteae ees nine rem bie m aleie ee mee ies one ane ae 289. 65 Q-INCh*plpOle stecciecece! cee s ss kctoms, cam peice ace ole akinesia ae alan eee eects oo Cee ores sie ee nee ene 16. 00 Pinel’ PlpG see ss jose ese sein. Sekiccee deb ueelne be dete aw eeWiepiee ss.cUpnels so ke emee eam atamn cot ones a kneareene 1, 716. 23 14-Inch pipe se ee sant Sy ER eS es eawc ces Pelt co tees oe Mean 6 5 Ere cnt ne See ae eae 2.78 L-inch pipes. 22665 SelB oe. Goes ae NIE Piece pe Oe cheats ae mite bles du ni cie eae ek ete eee ere ne 9. 05 Total Dates Of TDG te oe peck Pcie a glape «amen ee eee ci dite’ 5 sw) netndsle eh Ses ates eee et a 2, 286. 85 Barrels. The stock of oil on hand in tanks and pipes June 1,.1879, was .--....-5--- ---e2ee- eure ueneccjocee sivas els 6, 753, 909. 02 Inthe other four lines 2s. cse-c sere cee teas cety cee cece se eee ee cee ae eee ae nee te el 28, 795. 33 Total .o.ov0cinag hevninen ce gcemdviemh< koma ssp aieeeeieae eee Ua mmc sai aes outs be peng ee eee ne ene 6, 782, 704, 35 The amount run into these lines during the census year was.-......--. --.-----2. 2-22 -2e--- eee nese De, 516, 676. 27 Into the. other four lines< 27) pease eee ee tee ee eee ee eee Cen ane ae Soa age S gk Oe 2 NPS we oe 370, 110. 96 Total : cn se lewew cel onde eee ce ewe eer nee Sed a eee oe ee 22, 886, 787. 23 The stock on hand in tanks and pipes May 31, 1880, was...--. .--202 2-222. --0ceecene cpeeee cons eecece it; 239, 555. 73 In the other four: lines: 2225 Sco Se ee ee ee Se eee ete eee eee ee Sool: 18, 022. 31 11, 257, 578. 04 The amount transported through the pipes during the year was.......---.. .---0- -- +222 ee eee eee wees 18, 411, 913.54 There were 36 racks belonging to these lines, at which 561 tank-cars could be loaded at one time, and 287 tanks on cars, having an aggregate capacity of 30,230 barrels. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 103 CHapTEr [X.—PETROLEUM IN COMMERCE. SECTION 1.—COMMERCIAL VARIETIES. Few persons are aware that there is more than one variety of petroleum, and those who know that some petroleums are relatively heavy and are used for lubrication suppose the light oils to be of one definite quality. The petroleum of Oil creek in early days was known to be inferior for many purposes to the amber oil of the lower Allegheny. During the first ten years of its development the oil produced in Pennsylvania was practically one thing, and the light oils of West Virginia and southern Ohio were not particularly different. The wonderful expansion of the lower Allegheny field, which commenced in 1872, was accompanied by a corresponding decline in the Oil Creek district in such a manner that the bulk of the production was shifted from the green oil of Oil creek to the amber oil of Armstrong and Butler counties. It was soon discovered that this amber oil was of superior quality for refining purposes, so superior, in fact, that refiners would secure it if possible. When, in 1876, the production of the Bradford district assumed importance, it was discovered that it was the least valuable variety of petroleum for refining yet discovered in large quantities. The price of oil from these different sections has, however, been uniformly the same, irrespective of quality, and has been the ruling price in commerce. At the same time the heavy oil of Mecca has been sold at from ten to twenty times the price obtained for the light oils of other districts. Those of Belden, Ohio, and West Virginia have been graded according to their density and the effects of cold upon them. The Smith’s Ferry oils have been sold for about three times the value of the light oils, and the Franklin oil at five to six times the value of the same. The West Virginia Transportation Company divides the oil which it handles, which embraces the larger portion of the production of West Virginia and a part of that of Washington county, Ohio, into seven grades, as follows: A, 37.1° Baumé and lighter. B, 33° to 37° Baumé, inclusive. , C, 31.6° to 32.99 Baumé, inclusive. D, 30.6° to 31.5° Baumé, inclusive. E, 29.6° to 30.5° Baumé, inclusive. F, 28.6° to 29.5° Baumé, inclusive. G, 28.5° and heavier. . Grades from C to G, inclusive, are also separated into “ cold-test” and ‘ weak” oils, zero being the standard. In order to establish these grades an inspector is appointed, who stands between the producers and the transportation company or the purchasers. These oils are for the most part quite dense, and their value varies greatly with the density ; the more dense they are the greater the amount of water which they will hold mechanically and the more difficult it is to separate it. The inspector has an office near the central portion of Volcano, and has there instruments for accurately estimating the specific gravity, the water or other sediment, and the temperature at which it will thicken above zero, Fahrenheit, in accordance with the following directions : In receiving and making delivery of oils shipped by the company, the water and sediment contained therein shall be determined by mixing an average sample with an equal quantity of benzine, and subject the mixture to 120° F., in a graduated glass vessel, for not less than 6 hours; after which the mixture cools and settles, not less than two hours for light grade, three hours for A grade, four hours for B grade, six hours for C grade, eight hours for D grade, and eighteen hours for heavier grades. The inspector certifies to the amount of water in the oil upon the back of the receipt issued by the company. This company has also incurred the expense of a very elaborate research upon the coefficient of dilation of oils of different density for each degree of temperature from 0° to 130° F., with the unit at 60°. The compilation was made by Mr. Julius Schubert, of Parkersburg, West Virginia. The tables, through the kind permission of M. C. C. Church, esq., secretary of the company, are given on pages 111-115. In relation to them Mr. Schubert writes: In regard to the expansion table you mentioned in your letter, please let me state that the experiments were made according to a method given by Gay-Lussac, and the formula used for the calculations was also given by the same author. Where— P = weight of the fluid before heating it. = weight of the fluid after heating and after the apparent expansion has been removed. 1 = change of temperature. k = coefficient of expansion of the glass=0.000026. a = coefficient of expansion of the fluid. 104 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The glass used was a liter-bottle with a narrow neck. Instead of finding p, the apparent expansion P—p was directly ascertained by weighing the amount of oil taken out of the bottle. A small pipette was used for removing the oil, and in order to avoid cleaning the pipette so often the following expansion was added to the first one: (P—p) +(P—p1) + (P—ps) + (P—ps), ete. For every 10° of temperature the expansion of the oil was weighed. The heating was done in a large water-bath very slowly, and the temperature of the water held for some time at the point of the test, so as to be sure that the fluid inside the bottle had reached the same temperature as the water surrounding it. In the calculation of the table, as sufficient for all practical purposes, I took the coefficient of expansion to be equal or the same during 10° of temperature. As, for instance, in 30° Baumé oil the table shows : 0° temperature, 0, 980330 volume, when it should be 0. 980330 volume. 293 287 1° temperature, 0.980623 volume, when it should be 0. 980617 volume. 293 289 2° temperature, 0.980916 volume, when it should be 0. 980906 volume. 293 290 3° temperature, 0.981209 yolume, when it should be 0.981196 volume. 293 291 4° temperature, 0.981502 volume, when it should be 0. 981487 volume. 293 292 5° temperature, 0.981795 volume, when it should be 0.981779 volume. 293 294 6° temperature, 0.982088 volume, when it should be 0. 982073 volume. 293 295 7° temperature, 0. 982381 volume, when it should be 0. 982368 volume. 293 296 8° temperature, 0. 982674 volume, when it should be 0. 982654 volume. 293 297 9° temperature, 0.982967 volume, when it should be 0. 982961 volume. 293 299 10° temperature, 0.983260 volume, when it should be 0. 983260 volume. 306 300 11° temperature, 0.983566 volume, when it should be 0. 983560 volume. 306 301 12° temperature, 0.983872 volume, when it should be 0.983861 volume, I deemed it necessary to call your attention to this fact. From these experiments it appears that the expansions of the oils increase very perceptibly with the rise of the temperature and also with the decrease of specific gravity ; that is, lighter oils expand more readily than heavier oils. The cold-test oils do not seem to differ in this respect from oils which do not stand the cold. . These tables have been found sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, and are very valuable in handling the great variety of oils produced in that region. On pages 116 to 133, inclusive, will be found another set of tables, compiled by Dr. S. A. Lattimore, of the University of Rochester, New York, for the use of the Vacuum Oil Company of Rochester, and kindly furnished by those gentlemen for publication. These tables show first the quantity of oil in gallons corresponding to a given weight of oil of different degrees of Baumé’s hydrometer, all computed for 60° of temperature. By the use of the first set of tables the volume of a gallon of oil at any temperature between zero and 130° F. can be ascertained if the specific gravity is known at 60° F., while by the use of the second set the number of gallons in a barrel or car of petroleum can be ascertained by weighing if the specific gravity is known at 60° F. The temperature at which natural petroleums will congeal or become partially solid is an important item in their value for purposes of lubrication, the oils of the Mecca and Franklin districts being particularly valuable in this respect. Great diversity of quality in this particular is observed in the oils of West Virginia, wells in immediate proximity furnishing oils as unlike as possible. The cause of this difference has never been properly investigated, and is only a matter of conjecture; at the same time it is one of the most important questions connected with the heavy-oil trade. Many of the wells of eastern Kentucky yield heavy oils of remarkable and uniformly excellent quality in this respect. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 105 SECTION 2.—THE MANAGEMENT OF PIPE-LINES. The bulk of the petroleum trade at the present time is conducted through the pipe-lines and their certificates. The entire product of the Belden and the Mecca districts is handled in barrels in small lots. A considerable portion of the Franklin heavy oil and a small part of that of West Virginia is also handledin thesame manner. 0.18 0.14 0.14 2 | 0. 25 | 0. 25 0. 25 | 0. 25 | 0.26} 0.26 (. 26 0.26| 0.26 0.26, 0.27; 0.27 0.27 0. 27 3 | 0. 37 | 0. 38 | 0. 38 | 0. 38 0.38 0.39 0.39} 0.39 0.39 0.40, 0.40) 0.40 0. 40 0.41 4 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.52) 0.52) 0,53 0.53 0.53 0. 54 0.54 0. 54 5 | 0. 62 | 0.63 0. 63 | 0. 63 | 0.64) 0. 64 0.65| 0.65) 0.66) 0.66) 0.66 0. 67 0. 67 0. 68 | | | 6 | 0.75 | 0. 76 0.76 | 0.76 | OT) ee age 0.78} 079| 079| 0.80! 080) O8f 0. 81 7 | 0. 87 0. 88 | 0. 88 | 0.89 | 0. 89 0. 90 0.91| 0.91) 0.92 0.92 0. 93 0.94) 0,94 | 0.95 8 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.01 | 1. 02 | 1.02} 1.08 D0 fen cL044 0005 tS 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.08 9 1.12 | 1.13 | 1.13 | 1.14 1.45 Vo S016 Aer CATA LAT nalts 1.20} 1.20 1.20| 1.214 1. 22 10 | 1. 24 | 1.25 1.26 | er 1.28; 129] 1380| 1.30.) Lal) 183). 1-88.) avadel gas 1.35 | | | | | | 20 | 2.49 2. 50 | 2.52 | 2. 54 2.56; 267) 258; 261 2. 62 2. 64 2. 66 2.68, 2.69 2.71 30 | 3.73 3.76 | 3. 78 | 3.81 3.83 | 3.86 3.88} 3.91 3.94 3. 96 3.99 4.01) 4.04 | 4. 06 40 | 4.97 | 5.01 | 5. 04 | 5. 08 | Bat | en ts |. 18 Aner oe 2k 5.25] 5.28 5&81| 5.35) 5.88) 5.42 50 6. 22 | 6.26 6.30 6.34 6.39) 6438) 476.588 6.56 6.60 664) 669) 673) 6.77 60 | 7.46 7. 51 | 7. 56 | 7.61 | 7. 67 7.72 TAT | O82) BT 7.92| 7.97 803} 8.08 8.13 | | | | | | 70 70 8.76 8, 82 | 8. 88 | 8.94; 900) 906) 912 9.18 9. 24 9.30) 9.36 9, 42 9. 48 80 | 9.95 | 10. 01 10. 08 | 10. 15 10. 22 10. 29 10.36 10.43 10.49| 10.56| 10.63} 10.70 10.77 10. 84 90 | 11.19 11. 27 | 11. 34 | 11.42} 11.50 11. 58 11. 65 11.73 | 11.81 11.98 | 11.96) 12.04 12. 12 12.19 100 | 12. 43 12, 52 | 12. 61 12.69| 12.78 12. 86 12.95{ 13.08] 18.12 13. 21 13.29 | 18.38 13. 46 13. 55 200 | 24. 87 25. 04 | 25. 21 25.38) 25.55 | 25.72 | 25. 84 26.07 26.24| 26.41 26. 57 26. 75 26. 92 27.10 300. 37. 30 37. 55 | 37. 81 38. 07 38.33} 38.58| 3884| 39.10 39. 36 39. 62 39.86} 40.13 40. 38 40. 64 400 | 49.73 30. 07 | 50. 42 | 50. 76 51.11 51.45 | 51.79 52, 13 52. 47 52. 82 53.15 53. 50 53. 85 54.19 500 | 62.16 | 62. 59 | 63. 02 63.45 63.88} 64.31 64. 74 65. 16 65.59 | 66. 08 66, 45 66.88 | 67.30 67. 74 1,000} 124.32 125.18} 126.05 126, 90 127.76 | 128.61) 129.47] 180.33; 181.18] 132.05| 182.87] 183.76| 134.61 135. 48 2,000} 248. 65 250.36 | 252.09} 258.80| 255.53 | 257.22 | 258.94 | 260.66] 262,.37| 264.10| 265.73 | 267.52) 269,22 270. 96 3,000} 372.97| 375,54 378. 18 380. 69 383.29 | 385.84 | 388.42) 390.99! 393.55) 396.15 | 398.60| 401.28] 403.83 406. 43 4,000} 497. 29 500. 71 504. 18 507. 59 511.05 | 514.45] 517.89| 521.31 | 524.73] 52820] 531.47) 535.03) 538.45 541. 91 5,000) 621.61 | — 625.89 630.23 | 634. 49 638.81 | 643.06 | 647.36 | 651.64 655.92 | 660.25 | 664.34! 668.79 | 673.06 677. 39 10,000 | 1,243.22} 1,251.78 | 1,260.46 1,268.99 | 1,277.63 | 1,286.12 | 1,294.72 | 1,303.29 | 1,311.84 | 1,320.50 | 1,328.67 | 1. 337.58 | 1,346.11 | 1,354.78 20,000} 2,486.45 | 2,503.57} 2,520.92 | 2,537.97 | 2,555.26 | 2,572.24 | 2, 589. 43 | 2, 606. 58 | 2, 623, 67 | 2, 641.00 | 2, 657.35 | 2,675.15 | 2,692.22 | 2, 709,56 ‘ f 1, 000 2, 000 3, 000 | 4, 000 | 5,000 | 10, 000 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. DEGREES OF BAUME’S HYDROMETER—Continued. 117 29°, 30°, | 319. 32°, 38°, 34°. 35°. ) 36°. 87° 38°, 39°. 40°. 41°, 420, | Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. 0.14 0.14 | 0.14 0.14 | 0.14 0.14] 0.14) 0.14 0.14| 0.14 0.14 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 0,27 | 0.27 | 0. 28 0. 28 0, 28 0.28) 0.28/ 0.28|/° 0.29; 029; 0.29 0. 29 Q, 29 | 0. 29 0. 41 0.41 | 0. 41 0. 42 0. 42 0. 42 | 0. 43 0. 43 0. 43 0. 43 0. 43 0, 44 0, 44 | 0. 44 0. 55 0. 55 0. 56 0. 56 | 0. 56 | 0. 56 0. 57 0. 57 0. 57 0. 58 0. 58 0. 58 0.59 | 0. 59 0. 68 0.69, + 0.69 0. 69 | 0.70} 0.70 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.72] 0.78 0.73 | 0.74 | | 0. 82 0. 82 | 0. 83 0. 88 0. 84 | 0, 84 0. 85 0. 85 0. 86 0. 86 0. 87 0. 88 0. 88 | 0. 89 0. 95 0. 96 0. 97 0. 97 | 0. 98 | 0. 98 0. 99 | 1. 00 1.00 1.01 1, 01 1, 02 1. 03 1. 03 1.09 | 1.10 | 1.10 vege itt 1: 12, | 1.13 1.138 1,14 1.15 LaLD: 1.16 iY ns 1 a 1.18 1, 23 | 1.24 1. 24 125 1. 26 1. 27 1, 27 1. 28 1.29 1.30 1.30 | 1, 30 | 1.32 | 1. 33 1. 36 | 1.87 | 1. 38 1.39 | 1.40 1. 40 1.41 1. 42 1. 43 1, 44 1.45 1. 46 | 1. 47 | 1.47 2.73 | 2.74 2. 76 2.78 | 2.80; 281 2. 83 2. 85 2. 87 2, 88 2.90! 2.92] 2.93 | 2.95 4.09 4.12 4.14 4.17 4.19 4, 22 4, 25 4, 27 4,30 4, 32 4.35 | 4.37 | 4.40 4,42 5.45 | 5. 49 5. 52 5.56 | 5. 59 5. 63 5. 66 5. 69 5.73 5. 76 5. 80 | 5. 83 5. 86 5. 90 6. 82 6. 86 6, 90 6. 94 | 6. 99 7.03 | 7. 07 | 7.12 7.16 7.20 7.24 | 7.29 7. 33 7. 37 8.18 8. 23 8. 28 8. 33 8.39 | 8. 44 | 8. 49 | 8. 54 8. 60 8. 64 8. 69 | 8.75 8. 80 8.85 | | | | 9. 53 | 9. 60 9. 66 | 9.72 9.78 | 9. 84 9.91 | 9, 96 10. 03 10. 08 10, 14 10, 20 10. 26 10. 32 10. 91 10. 97 11, 04 at 11.18 11. 25 11. 33 | 11. 39 11. 46 | 11, 52 11, 59 11. 66 11.73 11. 80 12. 27 12. 35 12. 42 12. 50 | 12. 58 12. 66 12. 73 12. 81 12. 89 | 12. 96 13. 04 | 13. 12 18. 20 13. 27 18. 63 13. 72 13. 20 13. 89 13. 98 | 14. 06 | 14. 15 | 14, 23 14. 33 14, 40 14. 49 | 14. 58 14. 66 14. 75 27.27 27. 44 | 27. 61 27.78 27.95 | 28. 12 28. 30 | 28. 47 28. 65 28. 81 28. 98 | 29. 16 29. 32 29. 50 40. 90 41.15 41. 42 | 41. 67 41. 93 | 42.19 | 42, 45 42. 70 | 42. 98 43. 21 43. 46 43.73 43. 98 44. 24 54.53 | 54. 87 55. 22 55. 56 | 55. 91 | 56. 25 | 56. 60 56. 93 | 57. 30 57. 62 57. 95 | 58. 31 58. 65 58. 99 68. 16 68. 59 69. 02 69. 45 69. 88 70. 81 70. 74 Tatra 71. 63 | 72. 02 72. 44 | 72. 89 72. 31 73. 74 136, 33 137.18 138. 05 138. 91 139. 77 | 140, 62 141.48 | 142.34 1438. 26 144. 04 144, 88 145. 77 146. 61 147. 48 272. 65 274. 36 | 276.10 | 277. 81 | 279. 54 281.24 | 282.97 284.67 | 286.51 288. 09 289.76 | 291. 55 293. 23 294. 96 | 408. 97 411. 54 414, 14 | 416.71 | 419. 30 421.87 | 424.44 | 427. 02 | 429.78 | 432.12 434, 64 437. 31 439. 84 | 442. 44 545, 30 548. 72 | 552. 19 555. 62 | 559. 07 562. 49 565.92 | 569.36) 573.04) 576.16 579.52 | 583.09 586. 46 589. 92 681. 63 685. 90 | 690. 24 694. 52 | 698.84 | 703.11 707.41 | 711. 68 | 716.29 | 720. 24 724, 41 | 728. 86 733. 07 737. 40 1, 363. 25 1, 371. 81 1, 380. 49 1, 389. 05 ¢ 1, 397. 68 ; 1,406. 21 | 1, 414. 83 | 1, 423. 36 | 1, 4382.58 | 1, 440.47 | 1,448.81 | 1,457.73 | 1,466.15 | 1, 474. 80 2, 726. 50 2, 743. 63 2, 760. 98 2, 778. 10 | 2, 795. 36 | 2, 812.42 | 2, 829.65 | 2, 846.73 | 2, 865.16 | 2, 880. 93 | 2, 897. 63 | 2,915. 45 | 2,932.29 | 2,949. 59 43°, 44°, 45°, 46°, 47°. 48°. 49°. 50°. | DICT eee ose. 53°. 54°. 55°. 56°. me om weet . a Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. | Gallons. 0.15 0.15 0.15 | 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0. 16 0. 16 0.16 0.16 0. 30 0.30 | | 0. 30 0. 30 0. 30 0. 31 0. 31 0. 31 0. 31 0, 81 0.31 0. 32 0. 32 0. 32 0. 45 0. 45 0.45 0. 45 0. 46 0. 46 0. 46 0. 46 0. 47 0. 47 0. 47 0. 47 0. 48 0, 48 0. 59 0.60 | 0. 60 | 0. 60 0. 61 0. 61 0. 61 0. 62 0. 62 | 0. 62 0. 63 0. 63 0. 64 0. 64 0. 74 0.75 | 0.75 | 0. 76 0. 76 | 0. 76 0.77 0.77 0.78 | 0. 78 0. 79 0. 79 0.79 0. 80 0. 89 0. 89 | 0.90 | 0. 91 0.91 0. 92 0. 92 0. 93 0. 93 | 0. 94 0. 94 0. 95 0. 95 0. 96 1. 04 1. 04 | 1. 05 | 1. 06 1. 06 1.07 1. 07 1. 08 1,09 1.09 1.10 1,10 Deki 1.12 1.19 1.19 1. 20 20 1,21 1, 22 1. 23 1. 24 1, 24 1, 25 1, 26 1. 26 1.27 1, 28 1. 34 1.34 1.35 | 1. 36 1. 37 1. 37 1. 38 | 1.39 1. 40 1.40 1,41 1, 42 1, 43 1.44 1.48 1. 49 | 1, 50 1.51 1. 52 1. 53 | 1. 538 1. 54 1.55 | 1. 56 1. &7 1. 58 1.59 1.59 \ | 2. 97 2. 98 3. 00 3. 02 3. 04 3. 05 | 3.07 3. 09 3.10 | 3.12 3.14 | 3.16 3.17 3.19 4.45 4.47 | 4.50 | 4. 53 4. 55 4,58 4. 60 4. 63 4. 66 | 4. 68 4.71 4.73 4. 76 4.78 5. 93 5. 96 6.00 | 6. 04 6. 07 6. 11 | 6.14 6.17 | 6 21 6, 24 6. 28 6. 31 6. 35 6. 38 7.41 7. 45 7..50 4 7, 55 7.59 7. 63 7. 67 7. 72 7.76 | 7. 80 7. 85 7.89 7.93 7.97 8. 90 8. 94 9, 00 9. 05 9.11 9. 16 9, 21 9. 26 | 9. 31 9, 36 9, 41 9. 47 9. 52 9. 57 | | 10. 38 10. 43 | 10. 50 10. 56 | 10. 62 10. 68 | 10. 74 10. 80 | 10. 86 10. 92 10. 98 11. 04 11.10 11.16 11, 87 | 11. 92 12. 00 12. 07 12.14 12. 21 12. 28 12. 35 12. 42 12. 48 12, 55 12. 62 12. 69 12. 76 13.35 13. 41 13, 50 13. 59 13. 66 13. 74 13. 81 13. 89 | 18. 97 14, 04 14.12 14. 20 14, 28 14, 35 14. 83 14, 91 15. 00 15. 09 15. 18 15. 26 | 15. 35 | 15. 43 | 15. 52 } 15. 61 15. 69 15. 78 15. 86 15. 95 29. 67 29. 81 30. 00 30.18 80. 36 30. 52 80. 70 30. 87 | 31. 04 31. 21 31. 38 | 31. 56 31.73 31. 90 44. 50 44. 72 45.01 | 45. 27 45. 53 45. 79 46. 04 46. 30 | 46. 56 46. 82 47.07 | 47. 33 47.59 47. 85 59. 34 59. 62 60. 02 | 60. 36 | 60. 71 | 61. 05 61. 39 | 61. 74 62. 08 | 62, 42 62. 76 | 63.11 63. 45 63. 80 74.17 74. 53 75. 02 75. 45 75. 88 76. 31 76. 74 CHEN E / 77. 60 | 78. 03 78. 45 78. 89 79. 31 ‘ 79. 75 148. 34 149. 05 150. 04 150. 91 151. 77 152. 62 163. 48 154. 384 |“ 155. 20 156. 05 | 156. 91 157. 77 158. 63 159. 49 296. 67 298. 11 300. 08 301. 82 | 303. 56 305. 24 306. 95 308. 69 310.40 | 312.10} 313.81 | 315. 55 317. 25 318, 98 | | | \ ! | | 445. 02 447.16 450. 13 | 452. 73 | 455. 30 457. 85 460. 43 463. 03 465. 60 468. 15 |} 470. 72} 473.32 475. 88 478. 47 593. 35 596.22 | 600. 17 | 603,64 | 607.07} 610.47 | 613.91 | 617.38 | 620.80 | 624.20} 627.63 | 631.09| 634.51 637. 96 741. 69 745, 27 750. 21 | 754, 55 758.84 | 763.09 | 767. 38 771. 72 776. 01 | 780, 25 784, 54 788. 87 793. 13 797.45 1, 483. 37 1, 490. 58 1, 500. 42 1,509.09 | 1,517.68 | 1,526.18 | 1,534.75 | 1, 543.45 | 1,552.02 | 1,560.50 | 1,569.07 | 1,577.74 | 1,586.27 | 1,594. 90 2, 966. 74 2, 981. 07 | 38, 000, 84 8, 018. 18 8, 035. 56 | 3,052.36 | 3, 069.51 | 3, 086.90 | 3,104.05 | 3,121.00 | 3,188.14 | 3,155.47 | 3, 172. 53 3, 189. 79 aoe PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. DEGREES OF BAUME’S HYDROMETER—Continued. Pounds. _ bw 100 | 200 300 | 400 500 1, 000 2, 000 | 3, 000 4, 000 5, 000 10, 000 oF ! | 20, 000 | Gallons. 0.16 | 0. 32 0. 48 0. 64 0. 80 96 12 28 44 . 60 Saat at pa POH 2 Rw Se) Ns So a 160. 320. 481. 03 641. 37 801. 72 | 1, 603. 44 3, 206. 87 58°. 59°, 60°. | 61°. 520. 63°, 649. 65°, 70°. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. 0.16, 0. 16 0.16 0. 16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 0. 32 0. 32 0, 32 0. 33 0. 33 0. 33 0. 33 0. 38 0. 34 0. 35 6. 48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0. 50 0. 50 0. 50 0. 51 0. 53 0. 65 0. 65 | 0. 65 0. 66 0. 66 0. 66 0. 67 0. 67 0. 69 0.70 0. 81 0.81 | 0, 82 0. 82 0. 82 0. 83 0. 83 0.84 |, 0. 86 0. 88 0.97 | 0.97 | 0. 98 0. 98 0.99 1. 00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1. 66 1.13 1.13 1.14 1,15 1.15 1.16 1.16 or 1.20 | 1, 28 1,29 1.30 1.30 1.31 1.31 1, 82 1.33 1.34 1.37 1.41 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.50 1, 54 1,58 1.61 | 1. 62 | 1. 63 1. 64 1. 65 1. 65 1.66 1. 67 ~1.72 1.76 | \ 3.22 3.24 3, 24 | 3. 28 3.29 3.31 3. 33 3. 34 3.43 3. 52 4, 84 | 4. 86 4. 89 | 4, 91 4.94 4. 96 4.99 5. 02 5.14 5. 28 6.45 | 6.48 | 6. 52 6. 55 6.59; 6.62 6. 65 6. 69 6. 86 7. 08 8. 06 8.10 | 8.15 8.19 8. 23 8.27 8. 32 | 8. 36 8.67.) |) (Bone 9. 67 | 9.72 | 9.77 | 9. 83 | 9. 88 9 93 9. 99 10. 03 10. 29 10. 55 11. 28 | 11.34 | 11. 40 | 11. 46 11.53 | 11.58 | 11. 64 11. 69 12. 00 12. 31 12.90 | 12. 96 13. 03 13. 10 13. 16 13. 24 13.31 | 13. 38 13,72 14.07 14. 51 | 14, 58 14. 66 14. 74 14, 82 14,89 | 14. 97 | 15. 05 15.43} 15.88 16, 12 | 16. 21 16. 29 16. 38 16. 47 16. 55 16. 64 | 16.72 17.15 17.59 32. 24 32. 41 | 32. 58 32. 76 32. 93 33. 10 33. 27 33. 44 34. 30 35.17 | | 48, 36 | 48.61 48. 87 | 49. 13 | 49. 40 49. 65 | 49. 90 50. 16 51. 44 52. 76 64. 48 64. 82 | 65. 16 65.51 65. 86 66. 20 66. 54 66. 88 68.59 70.34 80. 60 81. 03 | 81. 46 | 81. 89 | 82. 33 82.75 83.17 83. 60 85.74 | 87.98 161.21; 162.05 162. 91 163. 78 164. 66 165. 49 | 166. 35 | 167. 20 171.48 | 175.86 322. 41 | 324.11 323.82 | 827.56 | 329.31 | 330.99 332. 69 | 334.40) 342.95) 351.72 | | | ) 483.60 | 486.16 | 488.73 491. 34 493. 97 496. 48 499. 03 510. 60 514.43 | 527.58 644.82 | 648.21 | G51. 64 655. 11 658. 62 661. 98 665. 38 668, 81 685.91 | 703.44 806.02; 810.27 814. 56 818. 89 823. 28 827. 47 831.73 836. 01 857.38 | 879. 30 1, 612. 05 | 1,620.54! 1,620.12] 1,637.79 | 1,646.55 1,654.94] 1,663.45| 1,672.02 1,714.77 | 1,758.59 3, 224. 09 | 3,241.07 | 3,298.24 | 3,275.57] 3, 293. 10) 3,309.88] 3,826.90 | 3,344.03 3, 429. 53 | 3, 517.18 | i | TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL. 15° GRAVITY. ] { | ii \ ; | | Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. _ Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds | Gallons. 1 Pounds. Gallons. 238 | 35.8 | 318 39.5 348; 43.8 | arg 47.0 | 408 50.7 239 | 35.9 || 319 | 39.7 || ~ 349 43.4 || 379 47.1 | 409 50.9 290 36.1 320 39.8 || 350 | 43.5 || 880 47.3. | 410 51.0 291 36, 2 321 39.9 || 351 43.6 381 47.4 411 51.1 292 36.3 322 40.0 || 352 43.8 382 47.5 412 51.2 293 36.4 | 323 40.2 | 358 43.9 || 383 | 47.6 Pye ne 294 36.6 || 324 40.3 || 354 44.0 384 47.8 | 414 51.5 295 36.7 325 40.4 || 355 44.1 385 47.9 || 415 51.6 296 36.8 326 | 405 || 356 44.3 386 48.0 | 416 51.7 297 36.9 |} 327 | 40.7 | 887 44.4 || 887 | 481 417 51.8 298 37.1 328 | 40.8 || 358 44.5 || 388 | 48,3 | 418 52.0 299 37.2 329 40.9 359 | 44.6 389 48.4 || 419 | 82.1 300 37.3 330 41.0 360 44.8 || 390 48.5 || 420 | 52.2 301, 37.4 331 41,2 361, 44.9 301 48.6 || 421 52.3 302 87.6 | 332 | 41.3 | 362 | 45.0 || 392 48.7 10) eae 52.5 303 37.7 || 933 | 414 || . 868 | 45.1 | 393 | 48.9 || 428 52.6 B04 | 487.8 yp e884 Vat ot ees 45.3 || 394 ; 49.0 || 424 52.7 305 | 87.9 885 | r4L7 || 365 | 45.4 |) / 895 49.1 || 425 52.8 306 38.1 || 336 | 41:8 366 | 45.5 || 396 49.2 || | 426.) 58.0 so7 | 302 || aa7 | 419 | 367 | 456 397 49.4 |] 427 | 58.1 308 | 383 || 338 | 42.0 368 45.8 | 398 49.5 || 42 58. 2 309 | 38.4 | 339 42. 2 369 | 45.9 || 399 49.6 || 429 53.3 310 | 38.5 |} 340 | 428 370 | 46.0 400 49.7 430 53.5 811 | 387 341 | 42.4) 871 | 46.1 401 49.9 431 53.6 312 | 38.8 342 42.5 372 46.3 402 60.0 | 432 53.7 313 | 38.9 343 | 42.6 373 46.4 | 408 50.1 || 438 53. 8 314 39.0 344 | 42.8 374 46.5 404 50.2 |) 434 53.9 | = 815 39.2 345 | 42.9 375 46.6 405 50.4 || 435 54.0 | 316 39.3 346 | 43.0 376 46.8 406 50.5 436 64.2 | 317 39.4 347 43.1 377 46.9 407 50. 6 437 54.3 75°. 80°. | 85°. Gallons. | Gallons. 0.18 0.18 0. 86 0. 37 0. 54 0.55 0.72 0. 74 0.99 0.92 1. 08 1.11 1.26 1.29 1.44 1.48 1. 62 | 1. 66 1.80 | 1. 84 3. 60 3. 69 5. 40 5. 53 7. 20 7. 37 9. 00 9. 22 10. 80 | 11. 06 12. 60 | 12. 90 14.41 | 14.75 16. 21 16. 59 18. 01 18. 44 36. 01 | 36. 87 54. 02 55. 31 72. 08 73. 74 90. 04 92. 18 180.07 | 184.36 360. 14 368. TL 540. 21 553. 06 720, 28 737. 42 900. 35 921.77 1,800.70 | 1,843.55 3,601.40 | 3, 687. 11 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. 20° GRAVITY. Pounds. Gsipea| | Pounds.'| Gallons. | Pounds. | / Gallons. a Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. Gallons. | —| | | : -| | 280 36.0 || 310 39.9 340 43.7 370 47.6 | 400 | 51.5 281 36.1 |] 311 40.0 || 341 43. 9 371 47.7 401 51.6 282 36.3 312 40.1 || 342 44.0 | 372 47:8 | 402 51.7 283 36.4 | 313 40.3 343 44.1 || 373 48.0 |! 403 51.8 284 36.5 || 314 40.4 344 44,3 374 48.1 || 404 52.0 285 36.7 || 315 40.5 345 44.4 |) 375 48.2 | 405 52.1 286 36.8 316 40.6 346 44.5 376 48.4 || 406 52. 2 287 36.9 || 317 40.8 347 44.6 | 377 48.5 || 407 52.4 288 37.0 318 40.9 348 | 44.8 378 48.6 408 52. 5 280 37.2 || 319 41.0 349 | 44.9 379 48.7 409 52.6 290 37.3 || 320 41.2 350 | 45.0 380 48,9 || 410 52.7 291 37.4 321 41.3 351 45,1 381 49.0 || 411 52.9 292 37.6 | 322 41.4 352 45,3 382 49.1 412 53.0 293 37.7 |) 323 41.5 358 45.4 383 49. 3 413 53.1 294 37.8 | 324; 41.7 | 354 | = 45.5 384 49.4 || 414 53. 3 295 | 37.9 | 325 41.8 || 355, 45.7 385 49.5 || 415 | 53.4 296 38.1 || 326 41.9 356 | 45.8 386 49.6 416 | 53.5 O77) | 88.2) 327 42.1 357 45.9 387 49. 8 417 53.6 208 | 38.3 | 328 42.2 358 46. 0 388 49. 9 418 53.8 299 38.5 | 329 | 42.3 359 46, 2 389 50.0 419 53.9 300 38.6 | 330 | 42.4 360 | 46,3 390 50.2 420 54.0 301 38.7 | 331 42.6 361 46. 4 391 50.3 || 421 | 54.2 302 38.8 | 332 42.7 362 46. 6 392 50.4 || 422 | 54.3 sus | 39.0 || 333 | 42.8 363 46.7 393 50.6 || 423 | 84.4 304 39.1 |; 334 | 43.0 || 364 46.8 || 394 50.7 424 54, 5 305 39.2 | 335 | 48.1 || 365 46.9 395 50.8 425 54.7 306 39.4 || 336 43.2 || 366 | 47.1 396 50. 9 426 | 54.8 307 39.5 || S37 ah aaeS Bia | YAS 397 51.1 427 54.9 308 39.6 | 338 43.5 || 368 47.3 398 51.2 428 55.1 309 39.7 || 339 43.6 | 369 47.5 399 51.3 429 55.2 21° GRAVITY. 278 | 35.9 | 308 | 39.9 } 338 43. 8 368 47.7 398 51.5 279 36.1 | 309 | = 40.0 339 43.9 369 47.8 399 Siar 280 36.2 || 310 | 40.1 340 44, 0 370 47.9 400 51.8 281 36.3 || 311 | 40.3 341 44.2 371 48.0 401 51.9 282 36.5 || 312 | 40.4 || 342 44,3 372 48.2 402 | 521 283 36.6 | 318 | . 40.5 || 343 44.4 373 48.3 403 52.2 284 36.7 || 314 | 40.7 || 344 44.5 374 48. 4 404 52.3 285 36.9 | 315 | 40.8 345 44.7 375 48. 6 405 52.4 286 37.0 | 316 | 40.9 346 | 44.8 376 48.7 406 | 52.6 287 37.1 || 317 | 41.1 347 44.9 377 48.8 407 52.7, 288 37.2 || 318 | 41.2 | 348 45.1 378 48. 9 408 52.8 289 87.4 |i 319 | 41.3 349 45.2 379 49.1 409 | 53.0 290 87.5 | 320 | 41.4 350 45,3 380 49. 2 410 53.1 291 37.6 || 321 | 41.6 351 45.4 381 49, 3 411 53. 2 292 37.8 |i Soma ley 352 | 45.6 382 49.5 412 53. 4 293 37.9 | 323 | 41.8 ||] 353 45.7 383 49. 6 413 53.5 294 38.0 | 324 41.9 || 354 | 45.8 384 49.7 414 53. 6 295 38.1 H 325 42.1 |) 855 | 46.0 385 49, 9 415, 53.7 296 38.3 || SG ba) 356 | 46.1 386 50. 0 416 53.9 207 | 384 | 327 42.3 || 357 46. 2 387 50.1 417 | 54.0 298 38.5. || 32 42.5 || 358 46. 4 388 50.2 418 54.1 299 38.7 329 42.6 || 359 46.5 389 50. 4 419 54.3 300 | 38.8 | 330 | 42.7 | 360 46. 6 390 50.5 420 54.4 301 39.0 || 881 | 42.9 |! 361 46.7 391 50. 6 421 54.5 302 39.1 332 43. 0 | 362 46.9 392 50.8 422 54. 6 303 39. 2 333 43.1 || 363 47.0 393 50.9 423 54.8 304 39. 4 334 43. 2 364 47.1 394 51.0 424 54.9 305 39.5 335 43.4 || 365 47.3 395 1.1 425 55. 0 306 39. 6 336 43.5 366 47.4 396 51.3 426 55.2 807 39.8 337 43.6 367 47.5 397 51.4 427 55.8 119 ho PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. 229 GRAVITY. Pounds. | Gallons. } Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. i | i joie, DS 2.23 St Ree laiad ee ile 275 | 35.8 || 305 39.8 | 335 43.7 | 365 47.6 || 395 51.5 276 | 36.0 | 306 | 39.9 | 336 43.8 | 366 47.7 396 51.6 277 | 86.1 307 40.0 | 337 | 43.9 | 367 47.8 | 397 51.7 278 36.2 || 308 | 40.1 | 338 44.1 368 48.0 | 398 51.9 279 36.4 || 309 | 40.9 | 339 44,2 | 369 48,1 399 52.0 280 36.5 310 40.4 | 340 44.3 | 370 48.2 400 52.1 281 36. 6 311 | 40.5 | 341 44.4 | 371 48. 4 401 52.3 2g2 | 36.8 312 40.7 342 | 44.6 372 48.5 402 52.4 283 36.9 | 313 40.8 343 44.7 878 | 48.6 403 52.5 | "984,11 87.0 314 | 40.9 || 344 44.8 374 | 487 || 404 | 527 285 | 97.2 || 815 | 41.1 || 845 450 || 3875 | 489 || 405 | 528 286 37.3 sie | 41.2 | 346 45.1 || 376 49.0 | 406 | 52.9 287 | 37.4 a17 | 41.3 347 45.2 || 377 49.1 || -) 407 | 58.0 288 | 37.5 318 | 41.4 | 348 45.4 | 378. | 43.8 | = tos || B82 289 | 87.7 |] SIO Mies ING ih 349 45.5 I 379 | 49.4 || 409 53.3 | He tabo *| RBS oi hcargen Sih rat 94 350 45.6 || 380 | 49.5 410 53. 4 291 | 37.9 | 301 | 418 | 5) | 5 Co 411 53.6 293 e/Bal 4 3,32 ie 0 352 45.9 | 382 49.8 412 53.7 293 | 382 | 328 | 42.1 353 46.0 || 383 49.9 | 413 53.8 094 | 383 || 324 | 42.2 354 46.1 | 384 | 50.1 | 414 54. 0 295 | 385 || 325 | 424 355 46.3 | 385 | 50.2 415 54.1 296 | 386 326 | 42.5 356 46.4 336 | 50.3 | 416 54.2 297 | 387 327 | 42.6 357 46.5 | 387 | 50.4 | 417 54.3 396) PBB i Bes era B 358 46.7 388 | 50.6 418 54.5 209 | 39.0 || 329 | 42.9 359 46.8 | gs | 50.7 | 419 54.6 300 | 391 || 330 | 43.0 360 46.9 | 390 ~—s-550.8 420 54.7 S01 8a.8 lees as 361 47.1 | 391 51.0 421 54.9 302 39.4 1 332 | 43.3 | 362 47.2 | 392 51.1 422 55. 0 303 -39.5 |) 838 | 48. 4 363 47.3 393 51.2 423 55.1 304 39.6 | 334 | 43.5 364 47.4 | 394 51.4 424 55.3 239 GRAVITY. 274 36.0 || 304 | 99.9 334 43.8 364 47.8 394 51.7 275 36.1 || 305 | 40.0 335 | ° 44.0 | 365 47.9 395 51.8 276 36.2 || 306 | 402 336 | 44.1 | 366 48.0 | 396 52.0 277 36.3 || 307 | 40.3 337 44.2 367 48, 2 397 52.1 278 36.5 | 308 | 40.4 338 44.4 368° | 483 | 398 52.2 279 266 it F809. hs aos! 339 44.5 369 48. 4 399 52.4 230 | 36.7 | 310 | 40.7 340 44.6 370 48.5 400 52. 5 281 36.9 || 311 | 408 341 44.7 371 48.7 401 52. 6 282 | 87.0 | 312 | 40.9 342 44.9 372 48.8 402 52.7 288 | 97.1 | a8 41.1 343 45.0 373 48.9 | 403 52.9 284 | 37.3 || aid 41.2 344 45.1 374 | 49.1 | 404 | 53.0 285 37.4 || 315 | 413 345 45.3 375 49.2 | 405 | 531 286 | 37.5 || 316 | 415 || 346 | 45,4 376 49.3 | 406 | 53.3 2e7 | 87.7 | = BIT |S 41.6 | 847 45.5 377 49.5 407 53.4 288 | 37.8 || 318 41.7 || 348 45.7 378 49. 6 408 | 53.5 | 289 37.9 || 319 | 419 || 349 45.8 379 49.7 409 53.7 290 33.1 | 320 2.0 | 350 45.9 380 49. 9 410 53.8 ‘g01 | «382 | aan 421 | 351 | 46.1 381 50. 0 411 53.9 992 |. 383 | 9322] 42:2 | 52 46.2 || 382 50.1 412 54,1 293 38. 4 328 42.4 353 46.3 383 50.2 413 54.2 294 | 38.6 324 42.5 354 46.5 384 50.4 | 444 54. 3 295 | 38.7 | 325 42. 6 355 46.6 385 50.5 415 54. 4 296 38.8 | 326 42.8 356 46.7 386 50.6 || 416 54.6 207 | $9.0 || 327 | 420 1 “ss7 46.8 387 50.8 || 417 54.7 298 39.1 | 328 43.0 358 47.0 388 50. 9 418 54,8 299 39.2 | 329 43. 2 359 47.1 389 51.0 || 419 55.0 300 | 39. 4 330 43.3 360 47.2 390 51.2 420 55.1 301 39.5 331 43.4 361 47.4 391 51.3 421 55.2 302 39. 6 332 43.6 362 47.5 392 51.4 422 55.4 303 89. 8 833 43.7 363 47.6 393 51.6 423 55.5 - THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. 24° GRAVITY. Gallons. Pounds. Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. Pounds. | Gallons. a} | 1 we eas wa 272 | ° 35.9 | 302 39.9 332 43. 8 362 273 36.1 308 40.0 333 44.0 | 363 274 | «36.2 | 304 | 40.2 || 334 44.1 364 275 | 36.8 805 | 40.3 | 335 44.2 365 276 36.4 306 40.4 || 336 44.4 366 277 | 36.6 307 | 40.5 || 387 44.5 367 278 | 36.7 308 40.7 || 388 44.6 368 279 36.9 309 40.8 | 339 44.8 369 280 37.0 || 810 40.9 || 340 44.9 370 281 87.1 || all 41.1 |) 341 45.0 || 371 282 37. 2 312 1.2 | + 90 45.2 372 283 37.4 818, |) 41.8 |] 343 45.3 373 | 284 87.5 314 41% || 344 45.4 374 285 87.6 || 815 | 41.6 | 345 | 45.6 375 236 | 37.8 || 316 41.7 | 346 45.7 || 376 287 37.9 317 41.9 | 347 45.8 377 288 38.0 || 318 | 420 || 348 46. 0 378 289 38.2 || S19)) 42.1. f} 349 46.1 379. 290 38. 3 a20 | 942.3 || 350 46.2 380 | 291 38. 4 321 42.4 || 351 46.4 381 292 38.6 322 42. 5 352 46.5 382 293 38.7 323 | 42.7 353 46.6 383 204 | 38.8 324 42. 8 354 46. 8 384 295 | 39.0 325 | 42.9 355 46.9 385 206 | 39.1 | 326 | 43.1 | 356 47.0 386 297 39. 2 oy ae eae a 357 47.1 387 | 298 | 30.4 | 329 | 433 | 958! 473 388 299 39.5 || 329 | 43.5 | 359 47.4 389 300 89.6 | 330 | 43.6 | 360 47.5 390 301 | 39.8 331 | 43.7 || 361 47.7 391 25° GRAVITY. on | 36.0 | 301 | 40.0 || 381 44.0 361 272 | 36.1 | 302 40.1 || 382 44.1 | 362 273 | 36.8 | 303 40.38 || 383 44.3 | 363 274 36.4 | 304 40.4 334 44.4 364 275 36.5 || 305 40.5 335 44.5 365 276 36.7 || 306 40.7 336 44.7 366 277 | 36.8 307 | 40.8 337 44,8 367 278 | 369 || 308 40.9 || 338 44.9 368 o79 | . 37.1 | 309 41.1: || 889 45.1 369 280 87.2 | 310 41.2 || 340 45.2 370 281 37.3. | 311 41.3 | 341 45.3 371 282 | 87.5 312 41.5 | 342 45.4 372 283 | 37.6 313 41.6 | 343 45.6 873 284 87.7 a4; 41.7 344 45.7 874 285 | 37.9 315 41.9 345 45.8 || 375 286 | 380 || .316 42.0 346 46.0 || 376 | 287 738,00} 17 42.1 347 46.1 | 377 | 288 | 38.3 || 318 42.3 || 348 46.2 378 289 38.4 319 42.4 || 349 46. 4 379 290 38.5 || 320 42.5 350 46.5 380 | 1] 887 | sal} 47 | | BBL 46. 6 381 | 292 ; 888 | 822, 428 | 382 46.8 | 382 203 | 889 | 323 42.9 || | 353 46.9 | 383 204 39.1 || 324 43.1 || 864 47.0 | 384 ~ 295 89.2 || 825 | 482 || 855 47.2 385 296 39. 3 326 | 433 || 356 47.3 386 297 39.5 327 | 48.5 || 887 47.4 387 298 39.6 | 328 43.6 | 358 47.6 388 | 299 39.7 329 43.7 || 359 47.7 389 300 39.9 330 43.9 360 47.8 390 48.0 48.1 48. 2 48. 4 48.5 48.6 48.8 48.9 49. 0 49, 2 49.3 49. 4 49. 6 49.7 49. 8 50. 0 50.1 50. 2 50. 4 50. 5 50. 6 50. 8 50.9 51.0 51.2 51.3 51.4 51. 6 51.7 51.8 Pounds. 392 393 394 395 396 397 393 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 Gallons. oO gee oo 53. on SCAATENYNHK CAMANARrRWNO HO ono Be Ho 54.3 54.4 54.5 54.7 54. 8 54.9 55.1 55. 2 55. 3 55. 5 59. 6 52.0 52.1 52.2 52. 4 52.5 52. 6 52. 8 52.9 53. 0 53. 2 53.3 53. 4 53. 6 53.7 53. 8 54. 0 54.1 54. 2 54.4 54. 5 54. 6 54.8 54.9 55. 0 55.1 55. 3 55.4 55.5 55. 7 55.8 121 122 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. 269 GRAVITY. Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. a a 269 36. 0 299 40.0 || 329 | 440 || 369 48. 0 389 270 36.1 300 40.1 330 | 44.1 || 360 48. 2 390 271 362 || 301.| 403 | 381 | 443' || 361 48. 3 391 272 | 364 || 302 | 40.4 || 332 44.4 | 362 48. 4 392 273 36.5 || 308 40.5 4) 333 | 445 || 363 48. 6 393 274 | 367 | 304 | 407 || * 384 | 447 | 364 48.7 394 275 | 36.8 305 | 40.8 || 3835 | 448 |) 365 48. 8 395 276 36.9 306 | 40.9 336 44.9 366 49,0 396 277 37.1 307 411, | 387 45.1 || ge7 |’ 49.1 397 278 37.2 308 41.2 || 338 45.2 || 368 49. 2 398 279 37.3 309 41.3 | 339 45.3 369 49. 4 399 280 87.5. ||) B1O.| 425 340 | 45.5 || 3870 | .40.5 400 281 B7.6° il, /y Bi 41.6 341 | 45.6 371 | 49.6 401 282.) 87.7)» Bie 41.7 342 45. 8 372 49.8 || 402 He O88 Po i8a9 313 | 41.9 343 45.9 373 | 49.9 403 284 38.0 314 42.0 344 | 9 46.0 | 374 | 50.0 404 285 88.1 || 815 42.1 345 | 46.2 375 | 50:2 405 286 | 383 316 42.3 346 46. 3 376 50.3 406 287 38.4 || 317 42.4 || 347 46.4 377 | 50.4 407 288 | 885 || 318 42.5 || 348 46. 6 378 | 50.6 || 408 289 | 38.7 || 319 42.7 349 46.7 379 50.7 || 409 | 290 88.8 4) 820 42. 8 350 46.8 || 380 50.8 || 410 54.8 291; 389 || 3821 42, 9 351 47.0 || 381 51.0 | 411 55.0 292 | 39.1 22 | 43.1 352 | 47.1 382 51.1 412 55.1 | 203 | 30.2 || 8% | 422 353 47.2 | 383 51.2 413 56.2 | 294 39.3 |) 324 43.4 354 47.4 | 384 51.4 414 55.4 | 295 | 39.5 || 825 43.5 355 47.5 385 | 651.5 415 55.5 | 296 | 39.6 | 326 | 486 || 356 |, 47.6 || 388 51.6 416 55.6 | 297 | 39.7 | 327 | 43.8 357 47.8 || 387 61.8 || 417 55.8 | 298 | 39.9 | 828 43. 9 358 47.9 } 388 5L9 || 418 55.9 | | U I u | 27° GRAVITY. | i | 267 35.9 || 297 40.0 || 327 | 440 || 357 48.1 387 52.1 268 36.1 || 208 | 40.1 || 328 44.2 || 358 48.2 || 388 52.2 269 36.2 || 209 | 40,3 || 329 44.3 359 48.3 || 389 52.4 270 36.3 | 300 40.4 | 330 44.4 360 48.5 || 390 52.5 271 $6.5 || 301 | 40.5 || 381 44. 6 361 48.6 | 391 52. 6 272 36.6 || 302 40.7 | 382 | 447 362 48.7 || 392 52.8 273 | 36.7 || 308 40.8 | 333 | 448 || 363 48.9 || 393 52.9 274 36.9 || 304 40.9 || 384 45.0 364 49.0 | 394 | 53.0 275. | 87.0 || 805 41.1} 3851 45,3 365 49.1 || 395 53. 2 276 | 87.2 || 806 41.2 | 336 45.2 366 49.8 || 306 | 53.3 277 | 87.8 || * 90% | 41.3. | | 887 45.4 367 49.4 |) 397 | 84 | avs | 37.4] ~ g08 | 416: |] ses; 455 368 | 49.5 || 398 | 53.6 279 87.6 |} 809 | 41.6 || 339 45.6 369 49.7 399 53.7 280 | 37.7 310 41.7 | 340 45. 8 370 49. 8 400 | 53.9 } 21 | 88 | ak | ato | 45.9 || 371 4.9 | 401 | 54.0 | 282 | 380 } 312 | 420 || 342 46. 0 372 50.2 || 408 |) BL 283 221 | . 318 42.1 || 348 46. 2 378 50.2 | 403 | 543 | 284 8.2 || 314 | 423 || 344 46.3 374 50.3 || 404 | 54.4 285 | 384 | 315 42.4.| 845 46.4 || 375 | 50.5 | 405 54.5 | 2p 4 2865} eB B Not 816 42.5 346 46. 6 876 | 80.6 | = 406 | 4.7 | 287 +| 386 || 317 42.7 || . B47 46.7 || 377 50.7 407 54.8 288 | 388 | 318 42.8 | 348 | 468 || 378 | 509 || 408 54. 9 289 38, 9 319 42.9 || 349 47.0 || 879 | 510 409 | 55.1 290 39. 0 320 43.1 350 47.1 380 B12 || 410 | 55.2 291 | .39.2 321 43.2 | 351 | 47.8 381 | 61.8 | 4 | 5538 292 39.3 || 322 43.3 352 47.4 | 382 51.4 412 | 65.5 293 39.4 323 43. 5 358 | 47.5 | 3838 | LG | | 413 | 55.6 294 39. 6 324 43. 6 354 47.7 | 384 | 5L7 || 44 55.7 295 39.7 325 43.7 355 47.8 || 88 | 518 || 415 | 55.9 296 39.9 326 | 43.9 356 47.9 386 | 62.0 | 416 56. 0 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 123 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. 28° GRAVITY. 1] | Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | Pound. | Gallons. } | 265 | 85.9 295 40.0 325 | 44.0 355 48,1 385 | 52.1 266 | 36.0 296 40. 1 326 44.2 356 48. 2 386 | 52.3 267 | 36.2 297 | 40.2 327 44. 3 357 48. 4 387 52.4 268 36.3 298 40. 4 328 44.4 358 48.5 || 388 | 52.6 269 36.5 || 299 40.5 329 44.6 359 48.6 || 389 | 52.7 270 36.6 |) 300 40. 6 330 44.7 360 48. 8 390 52.8 271 36.7 || 301 40. 8 331 44.8 361 48.9 || 391 53.0 272 lee 630.9 302 40.9 332 45.0 362 49.0 |! 392 | 53.1 278 37.0 || 303 41.1 333 45.1 363 49.2 |! 393 | 53.2 274 87.1 || 304 41.2 334 45.2 364 49.3 394 «53.4 275 37.3 || 305 41.3 335 45.4 365 49.5 || 395 53.5 276 37.4 306 41.5 336 45.5 || 366 49.6 396 | 53.6 277 37.5 307 41.6 337 45.7 367 49.7 397 | 53.8 278 37.7 308 | 41.7 338 45.8 368 49.9 | 398 53.9 279 | 37.8 309 | 41.9 339 45.9 || 369 50.0 | 399 | 54.1 280 | 937.9 310 42.0 340 46.1 | 370 50.1 400 | 54.2 231 | 381 311 42.1 341 | 46.2 | 371 50.3 401 | 543 282 | 382 312 42.3 342 | 46.3 || 372 50.4 402 54.5 283 | 38.4 313 | 42.4 343 | 46.5 || 373 50. 5 408 | 54.6 284 38.5 314. 42.5 344 46. 6 374 50.7 404 54.7 285 38.6 315 | 42.7 345 46.7 375 50. 8 405 54.9 286 38.8 || 316 42.8 346 46.9 376 | 50.9 406 55.0 287 38.9 || 317 42.9 || 347 47.0 377 51.1 407 55.1 288 39.0 || 318 43.1 348 | 47.1 378 51.2 408 | 55.3 289 | 39.2 || 319 43,2 349 | 47.38 379 | 51.3 409 | 55.4 290 39.3 320 43.4 || 350 47.4 380 5L5 410 | 55.5 291 39.4 | 321 43, 5 351 47.6 381 51.6 411 55.7 i 292 39. 6 322 43.6 352 47.7 || 382 | 61.8 412 55. 8 298} 389.7 323 43. 8 353 47.8 383 51.9 ° 413 56.0 294 39.8 324 43.9 354 48.0 | 384 52.0 414 56.1 \ | 299 GRAVITY. er ee) | | 6 Te ae 263 35.9 || 293 | 40.0 323) 44.0. "|| 353 | 48.1 383 52.2 264 | 36.0 294 40.1 324 44,2 | 354 48.3 | 384 | 52.4 265 36.1 295 40.2 325 44.3 355 48.4 385 52.5 266 36.3 296 40. 4 326 44.5 356 48.5. || 386 52.6 267 | 36.4 | 297 40.5 327 44.6 357 48.7 BST DoS 268 | 36.5 298 40.6 328 44.7 ' 358 48.8 388 52.9 269 36.7 299 40.8 329 44.9 || 359 49.0 389 53. 0 270 ! 36.8 300 40.9 330 45.0 360 49.1 390 53. 2 271 36.9 301 41.0 331 45.1 361 49, 2 391 53.3 272 | 87.1 302 41.2 332 45.3 362 49.4 392 53.4 273 | 87.2 303 41.3 333 45.4 363 49.5 393 53.6 o74 | 37.4 304 41.5 334 45.5 364 49.6 || 394 53.7 275 37.5 305 41.6 335 45.7 365 49.8 || 395 53.9 276 | 37.6 306 41.7 336 45.8 366 49.9 || 396 54. 0 277 | 37.8 307 41.9 337 45.9 367 50.0 |; 397 54.1 278 37.9 308 42.0 338 46.1 368 50. 2 398 54.3 279 38.0 309 25 te 339 46, 2 369 50.3 |) 399 54.4 280 38.2 | 310 42.3 340 46. 4 370 | 50.4 | 400 | 54.5 281 38.3 311 42.4 341 46.5 371 50.6 | 401 54.7 282 38.5 312 42.5 342 46. 6 372 50.7 || 402 54. 8 283 38.6 313 42.7 343 46.8 373 50.8 | 403 54.9 284 38.7 314 42.8 344 46.9 374 51.0 404 55.1 285 38.9 315 42.9 345 47.0 375 51.1 405 55. 2 286 | 39.0 || 316 43.1 346 47.2 376 51.3 || 406 55. 4 287 39.1 317 43. 2 347 47.3 377 51.4 || 407 | 55.5 288 39.3. || 318 43.4 348 47.4 378 51.5 408 55.6 289 39.4 319 43.5 349 47.6 379 51.7 409 55.8 290 | 39.5 320 43. 6 350 47.7 380 51.8 410 55.9 291 39.7 321 43.8 351 47.9 381 52.0 || 411 | 66.0 292 39.8 322 43.9 352 48.0 382 52.1 412 | 56.2 | 124 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OJL—Continued. 30° GRAVITY. | Pounds. Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | ae | rare) ie : re ites Ny Se ar 262 35.9 292 40.1 322 44,2 352 48,3 382 52.4 263 36.1 293 40.2 323 44,3 353 48.4 383 52.5 264 | 36.2 | 294 40.3 324 | 44.4 || 354 | 48.6 384 52.7 265 | 36.4 295 40.5 | 325 | 44.6 || 355 48.7 385 52.8 266 | 36.5 296 40.6 |) 326 | 44.7 |i 356 48.8 386 52.9 267 36.6: || 297 40.8 || 327, 44.9 |) 357 | 49.0 | 387 53. 1 268 36.8 | 298 40.9 328 , 45.0 358 | 49.1 388 58, 2 269 | 36.9 |} 299 41.0 329 45.1 || 359 | 49.3 389 53.4 270 | 87.0 | 300 | 41.2 330 | 45.8 360 49, 4 390 ‘53. 5 271. |." 87.2 || 301 | 41.3 || 33] 45.4 || 361 | 49.5 | 391 53. 6 o7o | *5u7. 85 302 41.4 || 332 45.5 || 362 49.7 392 53. 8 273 | 87.5 | 303 | 41.6 333 | 487 || 363 | ° 49.8 398 | 953.9 274 | = 37.6 || 304 41.7 || 334 | 45.8 364 49.9 394 54. 1 275 | 87.7 305 41.8 335 46. 0 365 50.1 395 54. 2 276 37.9 || 306 | 420 || 336 | 461 || 866 50.2 || © 996 | 543 277 | 38.0 || 307 | 42.1 || 337 | 462 | 367 | 60.38 || 397 | 5645 278 38.1 308 42,3 338 46.4 | 368 | 50.5 398 | 54.6 279 38.3 || 309 | 42.4 339 | 46.5 369 50.6 || 399 54.7 280 38.4 10 | 42.5.) 340 | 46.6 370 50.8 |, 400 54.9 281 | 386 311 | 42.7 || B41) Weg 371 50. 9 401 55. 0 282 | 38.7 312 42,8 342 | 46.9 372 51.0 402 55.1 eet ane. & Ti 313 | 42.9 Bis |) 47.2 | 373 51.2 403 55.3 284 | 39.0 314 43.1 | 344 | 47.2 || B74: wi EBIOB 404 | 55.4 285 39.1 315 | 43.2 | 345 | 47.3 375 51.4 405 55. 6 286 39.2 | 316 | 43.38 346 47.5 376 51.6 || 406 | 55.7 O87. bY ego.4 il 317 | 43.5 347 47.6 | 377 51.7 407 55. 8 . 288 39.5 318 43.6 | 348 47.7 378 51.9 408 56. 0 289 39.7 || 319 43.8 349 | 47.9 379 52.0 409 56.1 290 | 930.8 || 320 | 43.9 || 350 | 48.0 | 380 52.1 410 56. 2 291 39.9 | 321 | 44.0 | 351 48.2 | 381 | 52.3 | 411 56. 4 31° GRAVITY. | | | | | | 260 | 35.9 || 290 40.0 || 320 44.2 || 350 48.3 380 52.5 361 | 360 || 201 | 402] 321 44.3 | 351 48.5 381 52.6 262 | 362 || 292 | 40.8 | 399 4.5 || 352 48. 6 382 52.7 263 | 363 | 293 | 40.4 323 44.6 || 358 48.7 383 52.9 264 | 365 | 294 | 40.6 324 44.7 || 354 48.9 | 384 53.0 265 | 36.6 || 295 40.7 || 825 44.9 355 49.0 385 | 53.2 266 | 367 | 296 | 40.9 || 326 45.0 356 49.2 386 53.3 267 | 349 || 297 | 41.0 | -3a7 45,2 357 49.3 387 53. 4 2s | 37.0 || 208 | 41.1 | gs | 458 | 368 49. 4 388 53.6 269 37.1 209 | 41.3 |) 329 45. 4 359 49. 6 889 | 58.7 270 , 87.8 300 | 414 || 330 | 456 || 360 49.7 390 | 53.8 271 | . 37.4 301 4.6 | 381 45.7 || 861 49, 8 391 54.0 272 | 37.6 | 302 | 417 || | 332 45.8 362 50.0 392 54.1 273 37.7 303 | 41.8 || 338 | 460 | 368 50.1 393 54.3 274 | 37.8 soa | 42.0 || a4 | 401 || 364 50.3 || 394 54.4 275 | 38,0 305 42.1 || 335 46. 3 365 50.4 395 | 54.5 o7¢6 | 381 || 306 42.3 || 836 46.4 |b 366 50.5 396 | 84.7 277 | 38,2 307 | 42.4 || 337 | 46.5 367 50.7 397 54. 8 278 38.4 308 | 42.5 || 338 | 46.7 368 | 50.8 398 54, 9 ‘79 | «385 || 309 | 427 | 339 | 468 || 369 | 50.9 || 300 | 55.1 280 | 38.7 310 42.8 | 340 |) 46.9 370 51.1 || ~ 400 55.2 oe1 | pes fei | dao ft yea 47.1 s71. | be |} © 401} Ba 282 38. 9 312 43.1 || 342 47.2 372 p14 || 402 55.5 233 | 391 || 318 43,2 343 47. 4 373 | 51.5 403 55.6 284 | 39.2 a4 | 43.4 344 47.5 374 | 51.6 || 404 55.8 285 39.3 315 43.5 345 47.6 375 51.8 405 55.9 286 39.5 316 | 43.6 || 346 47.8 376 | 51.9 406 56.1 287 39.6 317 | 43.8 || 347 47.9 377 52.1 407 56.2 288 39. 8 318 43.9 348 48.0 378 52.2 408 56.3 289 39.9 319 44.0 349 48,2 379 52.3 409 56.5 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL--Continued. 32° GRAVITY. Pounds. Gallons. 258 35.8 259 36.0 260 36.1 261 | 363 262 | 36.4 263 | 36.5 264 | 36.7 265 | 36.8 266. | 36.9 267 | 87.1 268 | 37.2 269 37.4 270 | = 87.5 271 37.6 272 | 87.8 273 | 87.9 274 38.1 275 38.2 276 38.3 277 38.5 278 38.6 279 38.8 280 38.9 281 39.0 282 | 39.2 283 39.3 284 39.5 285 39. 6 286 39.7 287 39. 9 257 -35.9 258 36.1 259 36.2 260 36.3 261 36.5 262 36. 6 263 36.8 264 36.9 265 | 37.0 266 37.2 267 | 37.3 268 37.5 269 37.6 270 37.7 271 | 37.9 272 | °38.0 273 38.2 274 38.3 275 38.4 276 38.6 217 | = 38.7 278 38.9 279 39.0 280 39.1 281 39.3 282 39.4 283 39.6 284 39.7 285 39. 8 286 40.0 + . | Gallons. Gallons. || Pounds. Pounds. 288 40.0 318 44.2 348 289 40.1 319 44.3 349 200 | 40.3 320 44.5 350 291 | 40.4 321 44.6 351 292 | 40.6 322 44.7 352 293 40.7 328 44.9 || 358 394 40.8 324 45.0 354 295 | 41.0 325 45.1 355 296 | 41.1 326 45.3 356 297 41.3 327 45.4 | 357 298 | 41.4 328 45.6 } 358 299 | 41.5 329 45.7 + 259 300, 41.7 330 45.8 | 360 301 41.8 331 46.0 361 302 | 42.0 332 46.1 362 308 42.1 333 46.3 363 304 42,2 334 46. 4 364 305 42,4 335 46.5 || 365 306 42.5 336 46.7 || 366 307 42.6 337 46.8 | 367 308 42, 8 338 47.0 || 368 309 42.9 339 | 47.1 369 310-} 43,1 340 | 47.2 370 311 43,2 341 47.4 371 312 43.3 342 47.5 372 318 43.5 343 47.7 372 314 43.6 44. | 47.8 || 874 315 | 43.8 345 | 47.9 375 316 43.9 346 48.1 376 317 44.0 347 48.2 377 33° GRAVITY. 287 40.1 317 44.3 347 288 40.3 318 44.5 348 289 40.4 319 44.6 349 290 | 40.5 320 44.7 350 291 40.7 321 44.9 351 292 40.8 322 45.0 352 298 41.0 323 45.2 353 294 41.1 324 45.3 354 295 41.2 325 45.4 355 296 41.4 326 45.6 356 297 41.5 327 45.7 357 298 | 41.7 328 45.9 358 299 41.8 329 46.0 359 300 | 41.9 330 46.1 360 301 | 421 331 | 46.3 361 302 42.2 332 | 46.4 362 303 42. 4 333 | 46.5 363 304 42.5 334 | 46.7 364 305 42.6 335 | 468 365 306 42. 8 336 47.0 366 307 42. 9 aa7 | 47.1 367 308 43.1 338 | 47.2 368 309 43.2 339 | 47.4 369 310 | 43.3 840 | 47.5 | 370 811 | 43.5 B41 | 47.7 | 371 312 | 43.6 a42 | 47.8 || 372 313 | 43. 8 348 | 47.9 || 878 314 | 43.9 44 | 481 || 374 315 | 44.0 345 | 48.2 375 316 | 44.2 346 | 48.4 376 { | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | 48.3 378 52.5 48.5 379 | 52.6 48.6 380 | 52.8 48.8 || 381 | 52.9 DeecHey il 382 53.1 | 49.0 |] 383 53.2 49.2 384 53.3 49,3 385 53.5 49.4 |) 386 53. 6 49.6 | 387 | 53.8 49.7 || 388 53.9 49.9 389 | 54.0 50. 0 390 54.2 | 50.1 391 54.3 | 60.38 392 54.5 | 50.4 393 54.6 | 50.6 394 54.7 50.7 || 395 54.9 50.8 396 55. 0 51.0 || 397 55. 1 51.1 | 398 | 55.8 B18 || 999 | 56.4 51.4 | 400 55.6 51.5 401 55.7 51.7 402 55.8 51.8 403 56. 0 52. 0 404 56.1 52.1 405 56.3 52.2 406 56.4 52. 4 407 56. 5 48.5 377 52.7 48. 6 378 52.8 48. 8 379 53.0 48.9 380 53.1 49.1 381 53.3 49. 2 382 53.4 49.3 383 53.5 49.5 384 53.7 |; 49.6 || 385 53. 8 49.8 386 54.0 49.9 387 54.1 | 50.0 388 54,2 50. 2 389 54.4 50.3 390 54.5 50.5 391 54.7 50. 6 392 54.8 50.7 393 54.9 50.9 394 55.1 51.0 395 55. 2 51.2 || 396 55.4 51.3 397 55. 5 51.4 398 55. 6 51.6 399 55. 8 51.7 400 55.9 51.9 401 56.1 52. 0 402 56. 2 52.1 403 56.3 52.3 404 | 56.5 52. 4 405 56. 6 52.6 406 56.8 125 126 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continned. 34° GRAVITY. Pounds. | Gallons. |} Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. Gallons. 255 35. 9 285 40.1 815 44.3 345 48.5 375 52.7 256 36. 0 286 40. 2 316 44.4 346 48.7 376 52.9 257 | 36.1 287 40.4 317 44.6 347 48.8 377 53. 0 258 36. 3 289 40.5 318 44.7 348 49.0 378 | 53. 2 259 36.4 | 289 40.6 319 44.9 349 49.1 379 53. 3 260 36. 6 290 40.8 320 45.0 350 49, 2 380 53. 4 261 36.7 291 40.9 321 45.1 351 49.4 381 58. 6 262 36. 8 292 41.1 322 45.3 352 49.5 382 53.7 263 37.0 293 41.2 323 45.4 | 353 49.6 383 53.9 264 37.1 294 41.3 324 45.6 354 49.8 384 54.0 265 37.3 295 41.5 325 45.7 355 49.9 385 54.1 266 37.4 296 41.6 326 45.8 356 50.1 386 54.3 267 37.5 297 41.8 327 46.0 357 50. 2 387 54.4 a 37.7 298 41.9 | 328 46.1 358 50. 4 388 54.6 269 | 37.8 299 42.1 329 46.3 859 50.5 389 54.7 270 | 38.0 300 42.2 330 46.4 || 360 50. 6 390 | 54.9 271 | 38.1 801 42.3 331 46.6 | 361 | 50. 8 391 | 55.0 272 38. 2 802 42.5 332 46.7 862 50. 9 392 | 55.1 273 38.4 303 42.6 333 46.8 363 61.1 393 | 55.3 274 38.5 304 42.8 334 47.0 364 51. 2 394 | 55. 4 275 | 38. 7 805 | 42.9 335 47.1 865 §1.3 395 | 55. 6 276 38. 8 306 | 43.0 336 47.3 366 61.5 396 | 55.7 - 277 38. 9 307 | 43. 2 337 | 47.4 367 51.6 397 | 55. 8 278 39.1 308 43.3 338 | 47.5 | 368 51.8 398 | 56. 0 279 | 39. 2 309 43.5 339 47.7 369 51.9 399 | 56.1 280 | 39. 4 310 43.6 340 47.8 370 52.0 400 | 56. 3 281 | 39. 5 311 | 43.7 341 48.0 871 52.2 401 56. 4 282 | 39.7 312 43.9 342 48.1 872 52.3 402 | 56.5 283 | 39.8 313 | 44.0 343 48. 2 373 52.5 403 56. 7 284 | 39. 9 314 44,2 344 48.4 374 52.6 404 | 56. 8 35° GRAVITY. 254 35.9 284 40.2 314 44.4 344 48.7 374 52.9 255 36.1 285 40.3 315 44.6 345 48.8 375 53.1 256 36.2 286 40.5 316 44.7 346 49. 0 376 53.2 257 36.4 287 40.6 317 44.9 347 49.1 877 53.4 258 36.5 288 40.8 318 45.0 348 49, 2 378 53.5 259 | 36.6 289 40.9 319 45.1 349 49.4 379 53.6 260 86.8 290 41.0 320 45.3 350 49,5 380 53. 8 261 | 36.9 291 41.2 $21 45.4 351 49.7 381 53.9 2631) eT 292 41.3 322 45.6 352 49, 8 382 54. 1 263 87.2 293 41.5 323 45.7 353 50. 0 383 54.2 264 | 87.4 294 41.6 324 45.9 354 50, 1 384 | 54.4 265 | 37.5 295 41.7 325 46.0 355 50. 2 885 | 54.5 266 | 37.6 296 41.9 | 326 46.1 356 50. 4 386 54. 6 567- | M87. 8 297 42.0 327 46.3 357 50. 5 387 | 54.8 268 | 37.9 || ‘298 42.2 | 328 | 46.4 358 50.7 388 | 54.9 269 | 38.1 299 42.3 | 329 46.6 359 50, 8 389 | 55.1 270 | 38.2 300 42.5 330 | 46.7 360 50.9 390 | 55.2 271 38.4 301 $2.6. 0) SARL BMG 8 361 51.1 391 | 55.8 272 38.5 202 | 42.7 | gs2. | 47.0 | 362 51.2 302 | 55.5 275.2") SRA ONT 308 2.9 | 833 | 47.1 || 363 51.4 || 898 | 65.6 274 | 388 || 304 | 43.0 $34, 47.3 || 364 | 515 || 394 | 55.8 275 | 388.9 305 | 43.2 335 | 47.4 | 365 | 51.7 395 55.9 276 | 39.1 306 43.8 336 47.6 366 51.8 396 56.0 277 39. 2 307 43.4 | 337 7.7" 367 51.9 397 56.2 278 39.3 | 308 43.6 338 47.8 || 368 52.1 398 | 56.3 279 39. 5 09 43.7 339 48. 0 369 52,2 399 56.5 280 39. 6 310 43.9 | 340 48.1 370 52.4 400 56. 6 281 39. 8 311 44,0 341 48.3 871 52.5 401 56.7 282 | 39.9 312 44.1 342 48.4 379 52.6 || 402 56.9 283 40.1 313 44.3 348 48.5 373 52. 8 408 57.0 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OJL—Continued. 40° GRAVITY. Gallons, | Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. i Pounds, Gallons. -—| sea een - — 246 35.9 276 | 40.2 306 44.6 — 336 49.0 | 366 (53.4 247 36.0 277 | 40.4 307 | 44.8 |] 337 49.1 || 307 | 53.5 248 36. 2 278 | 40.5 308 44.9 | 338 49,3 368 53.7 249 36.3 279 | 40.7 309 | 45.0 | 339 | 49.4 || 369 53.8 250 36.5 280 | 40.8 310 | 45.2 || 340 | 49.6 || 370 53.9 251 36. 6 281 | 41.0 at fy hee 8 1 341 49.7 | 371 54.1 252 36.7 282 | 41) 312 45.5 | 342 49.9 372 54.2 253 36.9 283 | 41.3 | 313 45.6 || 343 50.0 | 373 54.4 254: 37.0 og | 414 | 814 | 45.8 || 344 50.1 || 374 | ‘545 255 37.2 285 41.6 | 315 45.9 || 345 50.3 || 375 54.7 256 37.3 286 | 41.7 316 46.1 || 346 50.4 | 376 54.8 257 37.5 287 | 41.8 S17) 48a | 347 50.6 | 377 55. 0 258 37. 6 288 42.0 | 318 | 46.4 | 348 | 50.7 || 378 55.1 259 37.8 289 | 42.1 319 46.5 |) 349 | 50.9 379 55.2 260 37.9 290 | 42.3 320 46.7 | 350 | 51.0 || 380 55. 4 261 38.1 291 43. 4 321 46.8) 351 | 512 | 381, 55.5 262 38.2 292 42.6 322 46.9 | 352 | 51.3 382 55.7 263 38.4 293 42.7 328 | 47.1 |, 353 | 515 383 55. 8 264 38. 5 294 42.9 324 47.2 354 51.6 384 56. 0 265 38. 6 295 43.0 325, 47.4 1 355 51.8 385 56.1 266 | 38.8 296 43, 2 326 | 47.5 | 356 51.9 386 | 56.3 267 38.9 297 43.3 327 | 47.7 | 357 52.0 387 | 56.4 268 39.1 298 43.5 328 47.8 || 358 52.2 || 388 56. 6 269 39. 2 299 43. 6 329 48.0 || 359 52.3 | 389 56.7 270 39.4 300 43.7 330 48.1 || 360 | 525 | 300 | 56.9 271 39.5 301 43.9 | 331 | 48.3 | 361 52.6 | 391 | 57.0 272 39.7 302 44.0 332 48.4 || 362 | 52.8 || 392 57.1 273 39. 8 303 44.2 333 | 48.5 | 363 | 52.9 || 393 | 657.3 274 39.9 304 44.3 834 | 48.7 || 364 53.1 || 394 | 57.4 275 40. 1 305 44.5 335 48.8 | 365 53.2 || 395 57.6 43° GRAVITY. —__—— 242 35.9 272 40. 4 302 44.8 332 | 49.3 362 53.7 243 36.1 273 40.5 303 45.0 338 | (49.4 363 | 53.9 244 36.2 274 40. 6 304 45.1 334 | 49.5 364 | 54.0 245 36.3 275 40.8 | 305 45.2 335 | 49.7 | 365 54.1 246 36.5 276 40.9 306 45.4 336 49.8 | 366 54.3 247 36. 6 277 41.1 307 45.5. | 337 50.0 || sey | 54.4 248 36. 8 278 41.2 308 45.7 || 338 50.1 || 368 54. 6 249 36.9 279 41.4 309 45.8 339 | 50.3 || 369 | 54.7 250 37.1 280 41.5 dio |} 46.0 4) “840 +] 504 I) 870 4 USA 9 251 37.2 281 41.7 B11 aw 46.1 4 341) 50.6 || 871 | 55.0 252 37.4 282 | 41.8 312 46.3 | 342 | 50.7 || 372 | 55.2 253 37.5 283 | 42.0 313 46.4 jj 343 | 50.9 || 873 | 55.3 254 37.7 284 42.1 314 | 46.6 | 344 | 51.0 || 374 | 55.5 255 | 7.8 285 42.3 B15 a 46.7 345 51.2 || 375 55.6 256 38.0 286 | 42.4 316 46.9 | 346 51.3 || 376 55. 8 257 38.1 287 | 42.6 Srv a7. 0. wl 347 51.5 | 377 55.9 258 38. 3 288 42.7 318 47.2 348 51.6 378 56.1 259 38. 4 289 42.9 319 47.3 349 | 51.8 || 379 | 56.2 260 | 38.6 290 43. 0 320 47.5 350 | 51.9 || 380 | 56. 4 261 38.7 291 43,2 | 321 47.6 351 | 52.1 381 | 56.5 262 38.9 292 43.3 322 47.8 352 | 52.2 382 | 56.7 263 39.0 293 43.5 323 | 47.9 | 353 | 52.4 383 | 56.8 264 39.2 294 43.6 | 324 | 48.1 354 52.5 384 | 57.0 265 39.3 295 43. 8 325 48, 2 355 | 52.7 385 | 57.1 266 39.5 296 43,9 326 48. 4 356 | 528 386 | 57.3 267 39. 6 297 44,1 327 48.5 | 357 | 53.0 387 | 57.4 268 39. 8 298 44,2 328 48.7 358 (53.1 388 57.6 269 39.9 299 44,4 329 48.8 359 | 53.8 389 57.7 270 40.1 300 44.5 330 49. 0 360 53.4 390 57.9 271 40.2 301 44.7 381 49.1 361 53. 6 391 58. 0 127 128 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OJL—Continued. 449 GRAVITY. Pounds. 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 Gallons. 35. 8 35. 9 36. 1 36. 2 36, 4 36.5 36. 7 36. 8 37.0 37.1 37.3 37.4 “37.6 ale 37.9 38. 0 38. 2 38, 3 38. 5 38. 6 38. 8 38. 9 39.1 39, 2 39. 4 39.5 39. 6 39.8 39.9 40.1 36. 0 36. 2 36.3 36.5 36.6 36.8 36.9 37.1 37.2 87.4 37.5 37.7 37.8 38. 0 38.1 38.3 38.4 38. 6 38.7 38.9 39.0 39. 2 39.3 39. 5 39.6 39.8 39. 9 40.1 40.2 40.4 | | || 1} 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 234 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 Gallons. 40. 2 40. 4 40. 5 40. 40. 41. 41. 41. ~ OrPRWwWrRronoNtarNnrHFONAnNwWNCTHONHN OQH OH OO ~_ - © Oo OS Pn a ol a cos RF dS al sepia rail pea se ial seek tee teen alts ARP wrHonra ~_ hk Pk Pk PP PNNHNNHNN WE FoMmamnmwnoasos ~ Co nw | Pounds. poser OCS || Le Sa 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 45° GRAVITY. 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 829 T Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. | | 44.7 || 330 49.2 || 360 53.7 44.9 || 331 49.3 | 361 53.8 45.0 332 | 49.5 362 54.0 45.2 || 333 49.6 || 363 54.1 45.3 || 334 49.8 || 364 54.3 45.5 335 49.9 || 365 ' 54.4 45.6 336 50.1. || 366 | 54,6 | 45.8 337 50.2 367 | 54.7 | 45.9 338 50. 4 368 | 54.9 46.1 339 50.5 || .. 369 55.0 46.2 340 50.7 | 370 | 55.2 46.4 341 | 50.8 | 371 55.3 46.6 |} 942 | o61.@ || -' 972 55.5 ge Rds 1 SLE 373 55. 6 46.8 || 344 51.3 374 55.8 A709 345 | BLA | 875 55.9 | 47.1. | 346 | 51.6 376 56. 0 47.3 347 | -Bie7 377 56. 2 47.4 | 348 51.9 378 56.3 47.6 349 52.0 379 56. 5 47.7 350 52.2 380 56. 6 47.9 351 52.3 381 56.8 | 48, 0 352 52.5 382 56. 9 48.2 353 52. 6 383 57.1 48.3 354 52. 8 384 57.2 48.5 355 52.9 385 57.4 48. 6 356 53.1 386 57.5 48.7 357 53. 2 387 57.7 48. 9 358 53. 4 388 57.8 49.0 359 53.5 389 58.0 45.0 330 49.5 360 54.0 45,2 331 49.7 361 54,2 45.3 || 332 49. 8 362 54.3 45.5 333 50. 0 363 54.5 45.6 334 50.1 364 54.6 45.8 335 50.3 365 54.8 45.9 336 50.4 366 54.9 46.1 337 50.6 267 55.1 46.2 338 50.7 368 55.2 46.4 339 50.9 369 55. 4 46.5 340 51.0 370 55.5 46.7 341 51.2 371 55.7 46.8 342 51.3 372 55. 8 47.0 343 51.5 373 56.0 47.1 344 51.6 374 56.1 47.3 || 345 51.8 375 56.3 47.4 346 51.9 376 56. 4 47.6 347 52.1 377 56. 6 47.7 348 52.2 378 56.7 47.9 349 52.4 379 56.9 48.0 || 350 52.5 380 57.0 48.2 351 52.7 381 57.2 48.3 || 352 52.8 382 57.3 48.5 353 53.0 383 57.5 48. 6 354 53.1 384 57.6 48.8 355 53.3 385 57.8 48.9 356 53.4 386 57.9 49. 1 357 53.6 387 58.1 49. 2 358 53.7 388 58,2 49, 4 359 53.9 389 58.4 VOL. Ix——9 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Centinued. 46° GRAVITY. >? ae] Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds.\| Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | 238 35. 9 268 40.4 | 298 | 45.0 328 49.5 358 239 36.1 269 40. 6 299 45.1 329 49.7 359 240 36. 2 270 40.7 300 45.3 330 49.8 360 241 86. 4 271 40.9 301 45.4 331 50. 0 361 242 36.5 272 41.0 302 45.6 332 50.1 362 243 36.7 273 41.2 303 45.7 333 50. 3 363 244 36. 8 274 41.3 304 45.9 334 50. 4 * 364 245 37.0 275 41.5 305 46.0 335 50. 6 365 246 37.1 276 41.7 306 46.2 836 50. 7 366 247 ~ 37.3 277 41.8 307 46.3 337 50.9 367 248 37.4 278 42.0 308 | 46.5 338 51.0 368 249 37.6 279 42.1 309 | 46.6 339 §1.2 369 250 37.7 280 42.3 310 46.8 340 51.3 370 251 37.9 281 42.4 311 46.9 | 341 51.5 371 252 38. 0 282 42.6 312 47.1 342 51.6 372 253 88. 2 283 42.7 313 47.2 343 51.8 373 254 38.3 284 42.9 314 47.4 344 51.9 374 255 88.5 285 43.0 315 47.5 |} 845 52.1 375 256 38. 6 286 43.2 316 47.7 | 346 §2. 2 376 257 38.8 287 43.3 317 47.8 || 347 52.4 377 258 38.9 288 43.5 318 48.0 348 52.5 378 259 89.1 289 43.6 i 319 | 48.1 849 52.7 379 260 39. 2 290 43.8 320 48.3 350 52.8 380 261 39. 4 291 43.9 321 48.4 351 53. 0 381 262 39.5 292 44.1 322 48. 6 352 63.1 382 263 39. 7 293 44.2 323 48.7 353 53.3 383 264 39. 8 294 44.4 324 48.9 354 53. 4 384 265 40.0 295 44.5 825 49.1 355 53. 6 385 266 40.1 296 44.7 326 49. 2 356 53.7 386 267 40.3 297 44.8 327 49.4 357 53.9 387 479 GRAVITY. 236 35.8 266 40.4 296 44.9 326 49.5 356 237 36. 0 267 40.5 297 45,1 327 49.6 357 238 36.1 268 40.7 298 45.2 328 49.8 358 239 36. 3 269 40.8 299 45.4 329 49.9 359 240 36. 4 270 41.0 300 45.5 330 50.1 360 241 36. 6 271 41.1 301 45.7 331 50. 2 361 242 36.7 4|- 272 41.3 302 45.8 332 50. 4 362 243 36. 9 273 41.4 303 46.0 333 50. 5 363 244 37.0 274 41.6 304 46.1 334 50. 7 364 245 37. 2 275 41.7 805 46.3 * 335 50. 8 365 246 37.3 276 41.9 306 46.4 836 51.0 366 247 37.5 277 42.0 307 46.6 337 51.1 367 248 37.6 278 42.2 308 46.7 338 51.3 368 249 37.8 279 42.4 309 46.9 339 61.5 369 250 38. 0 280 42.5 310 47.1 340 51.6 370 251 38.1 281 42.7 311 47.2 341 51.8 371 252 38. 3 282 42.8 312 47.4 342 51.9 372 253 38. 4 283 43.0 313 47.5 343 52.1 373 254 38. 6 284 43.1 314 47.7 344 52.2 374 255 38.7 285 43.3 315 47.8 845 52.4 375 256 38.9 286 43.4 316 48.0 346 52.5 376 257 39.0 287 43.6 317 48.1 347 52.7 377 258 39, 2 288 43.7 318 48.3 348 52.8 378 259 39. 3 289 43.9 319 48. 4 349 53.0 379 260 39.5 290 44.0 320 48.6 350 53.1 380 261 39. 6 291 44,2 321 48.7 351 53.3 881 262 39.8 292 44.3 322 48.9 352 53.4 382 263 39.9 293 44.5 323 49.0 853 53.5 383 264 40.1 294 44.6 324 49.2 854 53.7 384 265 40. 2 295 44.8 325 49.3 355 53.9 385 54. 0 54. 2 54.3 54. 5 54.6 54.8 54.9 55. 1 55. 2 55. 4 55. 5 55.7 55. 8 56. 0 56.1 56, 3 56. 4 56. 6 56.7 56. 9 57.0 57. 2 57.3 57.5 57.6 57.8 57.9 58.1 58.3 58. 4 54. 0 54.1 54. 3 54.5 54. 6 54, 8 54.9 55. 1 55. 2 55. 4 55. 6 55. 7 55. 8 56. 0 56. 2 56. 3 56.5 56. 6 56. 8 56. 9 | 57.1 57.2 57.4 57.5 57.7 57.8 58. 0 58.1 58. 3 58.4 Gallons. 129 130 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. , 50° GRAVITY. Slee aS ae an eet aed Pounds. | Gallons. |) Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. |} Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallens. 234 36.1 264 40.8 294 45.4 824 50. 0 354 54. 6 235 36. 3 265 40.9 295 45.5 825 50. 2 355 54.8 236 36. 4 266 41.1 296 45.7 326 50. 3 856 55. 0 237 36. 6 267 41.2 297 45.8 327 50. 5 357 55.1 238 36.7 268 41.4 298 46. 0 328 50. 6 358 55.3 239 36.9 269 41.5 299 46. 2 329 50. 8 359 55.4 240 37.0 270 41.7 800 46.3 330 50. 9 360 55.6 241 37. 2 271 41.8 801 46.5 331 61.1 361 55.7 242 37.4 272 42.0 302 46. 6 832 51.2 362 55. 9 243 37.5 273 42.1 803 46.8 333 51.4 363 56. 0 244 37.7 274 42.3 804 46.9 334 51.6 864 56. 2 245 37.8 275 42.4 305 47.1 835 61.7 365 56. 3 246 38. 0 276 42.6 306 47.2 336 51.9 366 56.5 247 38.1 277 42.8 807 47.4 337 52.0 367 56. 6 248 38. 3 278 42.9 i 308 47.5 338 52. 2 368 - 56. 8 249 38. 4 279 43.1 309 47.7 339 52.3 369 57.0 250 38. 6 280 43. 2 310 47.8 340 §2.5 370 57.1 251 38. 7 281 43.4 811 48.0 | 341 52. 6 371 57.3 252 38.9 282 43.5 312 48. 2 342 52.8 372 57.4 253 39.1 283 43.7 313 48.3 343 52.9 373 57.6 254 39. 2 284 43.8 314 48.5 344 53.1 874 57.7 255 39. 4 285, 44.0 315 48.6 345 53. 2 875 57.9 256 39.5 286 44.2 316 48.8 346 53.4 376 58. 0 257 39. 7 287 44.3 317 48.9 347 53. 6 377 58. 2 258 39. 8 288 44.5 318 49.1 348 53. 7 378 58.3 259 40.0 289 44.6 319 49. 2 349 53. 9 879 58.5 260 40.1 290 44.8 820 49.4 350 54. 0 380 58.7 261 | 40.3 291 44.9 321 49.5 351 54. 2 881 58. 8 262 40.4 292 45.1 322 49.7 352 54.3 382 59. 0 263 40. 6 293 45. 2 823 49.9 353 54.5 383 59.1 60° GRAVITY. 220 35. 8 250 40.7 280 45.6 310 50. 5 840 55. 4 221 36.0 251 40.9 281 45.8 311 50.7 341 55. 6 222 36.1 252 41.1 282 45.9 812 50. 8 342 55.7 223 36.3 253 41,2 283 46.1 313 51.0 343 55.9 Py 224 36.5 254 41.4 284 “46.3 314 51.2 344 56.0 225 36. 6 255 41.6 285 46.4 315 51.3 345 56. 2 226 36. 8 256 41.7 286 46. 6 316 51.5 |I, 346 56. 4 227 37.0 257 41.9 287 46.8 317 51.6 347 56. 5 228 37.1 258 42.0 288 46.9 318 51.8 348 56.7 229 37.3 259 42. 2 289 47.1 319 52.0 349 56.9 230 37.5 260 42.4 290 47.2 820 52.1 350 57.0 231 37. 6 261 42.5 291 47.4 321 52.3 351 57.2 232 37.8 262 42.7 292 47.6 322 52.4 352 57.3 233 38. 0 263 . 42.8 293 47.7 323 52.6 353 57.5 234 38.1 264 43.0 |/* 294 47.9 324 52.8 354 57.7 235 38.3 265 43. 2 295 48.1 325 52.9 355 57.8 236 38.5 266 43.3 || 296 48,2 326 53.1 356 58. 0 237 38. 6 267 43.5 297 48.4 327 53. 3 357 58. 2 238 38.8 268 43.7 298 48.5 328 53. 4 358 58.3 239 38.9 269 43. 8 299 48.7 329 53.6 | 359 58.5 240 39.1 270 44.0 800 48.9 330 53. 8 360 58. 6 241 39.3 271 44.1 || 301 49.0 331 53. 9 861 58.8 242 39.4 272 44.3 302 49. 2 332 54.1 362 59. 0 243 39. 6 273 44.5 803 49. 4 333 54.3 363 59.1 244 39.8 274 44.6 304 49.5 334 54.4 364 59.3 245 39, 9 275 44.8 805 49.7 335 54.6 865 59.5 246 40.1 276 45.0 306 49.9 336 54. 7 366 59. 6 247 40. 2 277 45.1 307 50. 0 337 54.9 367 59. 8 248 40.4 278 45.3 308 50. 2 338 65.1 868 59. 9 - 249 40.6 | 279 455 309 50. 3 339 55. 2 369 60.1 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 131 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL—Continued. 63° GRAVITY. Pounds. | Gallons. } Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. i 217 35. 9 247 40.9 277 45. 8 307 50. 8 337 55. 8 218 36. 1 248 41.0 278 46. 0 308 51.0 338 55.9 219 36. 2 249 41. 2 279 46.2 309 51.1 339 56.1 220 36.4 250 41.4 280 |. 46.3 310 51.3 | 340 56. 3 221 36. 6 251 | 41.5 281 46.5 311 51.5 341 56. 4 222 36.7 | 252 41.7 282 46.7 312 51.6 342 56. 6 223 36.9 253 41.9 283 46.8 313 51.8 343 56. 8 224 37.1 254 42.0 284 47.0 314 52. 0 344 56. 9 225 37.2 | 255 42.2 285 47.2 315 | 52.1 345 57.1 226 37. 4 | 256 42.4 286 47.3 816 | 52.3 346 57.3 7H | 37. 6 257 42.5 287 47.5 317 52. 5 347 57.4 228 37.7 258 42.7 288 47.7 318 52. 6 348 57. 6 229 37.9 259 42.9 289 47.8 319 52. 8 349 57. 8 230 38. 1 260 43.0 290 48. 0 320 53. 0 350 57. 9 231 38, 2 261 43. 2 291 48.2 321 53.1 351 58.1 232 38. 4 262 43,4 292 48.3 322 53.3 352 58.3 233 38. 6 263 43.5 293 48.5 323 58.5 353 58. 4 234 38. 7 264 43.7 294 48.7 324 53. 6 354 58. 6 2385 88.9 265 43.9 295 48.8 325 53. 8 355 58. 8 236 39.1 266 44.0 296 49. 0 326 54.0 356 58.9 237 39. 2 267 44.2 297 49, 2 327 54.1 357 59.1 238 39. 4 268 44,4 298 49.3 328 54.3 358 59. 2 239 39.6 269 44.5 299 49.5 329 54.5 359 59.4 . 240 39.7 270 44.7 300 49.7 330 54.6 360 59. 6 241 39. 9 271 44.9 301 49. 8 331 54.8 361 59. 8 242 40.1 272 45, 0 302 50. 0 332 54,9 362 59. 9 243 40. 2 273 45, 2 303 50. 2 333 55.1 363 60.1 244 40.4 274 45.3 304 50. 3 334 55. 3 364 60. 2 245 40.6 275 45.5 305 50.5 335 55. 4 365 60. 4 246 40.7 276 45.7 306 50. 7 336 55. 6 366 60. 6 65° GRAVITY. 214 35. 8 244 40.8 274 45. 8 304 50. 8 334 55. 9 215 36. 0 245 41.0 275 46.0 305 51.0 335 56. 0 216 36.1 246 41.1 276 46.1 306 51, 2 336 56. 2 217 36. 3 247 41.3 277 46.3 307 51.3 337 56. 4 218 36.5 248 41.5 278 46.5 308 51.5 338 56.5 219 36. 6 249 41.6 279 46. 6 309 51.7 339 56. 7 220 36. 8 250 41.8 280 46.8 310 51.8 340 56. 9 221 37.0 251 42.0 281 47.0 311 52. 0 341 57.0 222 37.1 252 42.1 282 47.2 312 52.2 342 57. 2 223 37.3 253 42.3 283 47.3 313 52. 3 343 57.4 224 37.5 254 42.5 284 47.5 314 52. 5 344 57.5 225 37. 6 255 42.6 285 47.7 315 52.7 345 57.7 226 37.8 256 42.8 286 47.8 316 52. 8 346 57.9 227 38. 0 257 43.0 287 48.0 317 53. 0 347 58. 0 228 38. 1 258 43.1 288 | 48.2 318 53. 2 348 58. 2 229 38. 3 259 43.3 289 48.3 319 53. 3 349 58. 4 230 38. 5 260 43.5 290 48.5 320 53. 5 350 58.5 231 38. 6 261 43.6 291 48.7 321 53. 7 351 58.7 232 38. 8 262 43.8 292 f 48. 8 322 53.8 352 58. 9 233 39. 0 263 44.0 293 49. 0 323 54. 0 353 59. 0 234 39.1 264 44.1 294 49. 2 324 54, 2 354 59. 2 235 39.3 265 44.3 295 49.3 325 54.3 355 59. 4 236 39.5 266 44,5 296 49.5 | 326 54.5 356 59. 5 237 39. 6 267 44.6 297 49. 7 327 54.7 357 59. 7 238 39. 8 268 44.8 298 49. 8 328 54, 8 358 59.9 239 40. 0 269 45. 0 299 50. 0 329 55. 0 359 60. 0 240 40. 1 270 45.1 300 50. 2 330 55. 2 360 60. 2 241 40.3 271 45. 3 301 50.3 | 331 55. 4 361 60. 4 242 40.5 272 45. 5 302 50. 5 332 55. 5 362 60. 5 243 40.6 | 273 45. 6 | 303 50.7 | 333 55. 7 | 363 60. 7 if ! t ~ 132 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OJL—Continued. "790 GRAVITY. Pounds. , Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. || Pounds. | Gallons. 210 36.0 240 41.2 270 46.3 300 51.4 211 36. 2 241 41.3 271 46.5 301 51.6 212 36. 4 242 41.5 272 46.6 302 51.8 213 36.5 243 41.7 273 46.8 303 52.0 214 36.7 244 41.9 274 47.0 804 §2.1 215 36.9 245 42.0 275 47.2 805 52.3 216 37.1 246 42.2 276 47.3 306 62.5 217 37.2 247 42.4 277 47.5 307 52. 6 218 37. 4 248 42.5 278 47.7 308 52. 8 219 37.6 249 42.7 279 47.8 309 53.0 220 37.7 250 42.9 280 48.0 310 53. 2 221 37.9 251 43.0 281 48. 2 811 53. 3 222 38.1 252 43.2 282 48.4 312 53.5 223 38. 2 253 43.4 283 48.5 313 53.7 224 88. 4 254 43.6 284 48.7 314 53.9 225 38. 6 255 43.7 285 48.9 315 54. 0 226 38. 8 256 43.9 286 49.1 316 54. 2 227 38.9 257 44.1 287 49.2 317 54.4 228 39.1 258 44,2 288 49.4 318 54.5 229 39.3 259 44,4 289 49.6 319 54.7 230 39. 4 260 44.6 290 49.7 320 54.9 231 89. 6 261 44.8 291 49.9 321 55.0 . 232 39. 8 262 44.9 292 50.1 322 55. 2 233 40.0 263 45.1 293 50. 2 823 55. 4 234 40.1 264 45.3 294 50. 4 324 55. 6 235 40.3 265 45.5 295 50. 6 325 55.7 236 40.5 266 45.6 296 50.8 326 55.9 237 40.6 267 45.8 297 50. 9 327 56.1 238 40.8 268 46.0 298 $1.1 328 56. 2 239 41.0 269 46.1 299 61.3 329 56. 4 85° GRAVITY. 195 36.0 225 41.5 255 47.0 285 52.5 196 36.1 226 41.7 256 47.2 286 52.7 197 36. 3 227 41.9 257 47.4 287 52.9 198 36.5 228 42.0 258 47.6 288 53.1 199 36.7 229 42.2 259 47.8 289 53.3 200 36.9 230 42. 4 260 47.9 290 53.5 201 37.1 231 42.6 261 48.1 291 53. 6 202 37. 2 232 42.8 262 48.3 292 53.8 203 37.4 233 43.0 263 48.5 293 54.0 204 37.6 234 43.1 264 48.7 294 54. 2 205 37.8 235 43.3 265 48.9 295 54.4 206 38. 0 236 43.5 266 49.0 296 54. 6 207 38.2 237 43.7 267 49. 2 297 54.8 208 38. 4 238 43.9 268 49.4 298 54.9 209 38.5 239 44.1 269 49. 6 299 55.1 210 38,7 240 44.2. 270 49.8 300 55.3 211 38.9 241 44.4 271 50.0 301 55. 5 212 39.1 242 44.6 272 50.1 302 55.7 213 39. 3 243 44.8 273 50. 3 303 55.9 214 39.5 244 45. 0 274 50.5 304 56.1 215 39. 6 245 45. 2 275 50. 7 305 56. 2 216 39.8 246 45.4 276 50. 9 306 56. 4 217 40.0 247 45.5 277 51.1 307 56. 6 218 40.2 248 45.7 278 61.3 308 56.8 219 40.4 249 45.9 279 ] 51.4 309 57.0 220 40.6 250 46.1 280 51.6 310 67.2 221 40.7 251 46.3 || 281 51.8 311 57.3 222 40.9 252 46.5 282 52.0 312 57.5 223 41.1 253 46.6 283 62.2 313 57.7 224 41.3 254 46.8 284 52.4 314 57.9 Pounds 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 . | Gallons. 56. 6 56.8 56.9 57.1 57.3 57.4 57.6 57.8 58.0 58.1 58.3 58.5 58. 6 58.8 59. 0 59, 2 59.3 59. 5 59.7 59. 8 60. 0 60. 2 60. 4 60. 5 60.7 60.9 61.0 61. 2 61.4 61.6 58.1 58.3 58. 4 58.6 58. 8 59. 0 59. 2 59. 4 59. 6 59.7 59.9 60. 1 60. 3 60. 5 60.7 60.8 61.0 61.2 61.4 61.6 61.8 62.0 62.1 62.3 62.5 62.7 62.9 63.1 63. 2 63. 4 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 133 TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY CORRESPONDING TO EACH DEGREE OF BAUME’S HYDROMETER; ALSO, THE NUMBER OF POUNDS CONTAINED IN ONE UNITED STATES GALLON AT 60° F. Baumé. | cEovity,| gallon, || Baumé. | SPecifle | In one Deg. Deg. Pounds. Deg. Deg. Pounds. 10 1. 0000 8. 33 43 0. 8092 6.74 11 0. 9929 8. 27 44 0. 8045 6. 70 12 0. 9859 8. 21 45 0. 8000 6. 66 13 0. 9790 8.16 46 0. 7954 6. 63 14 0. 9722 8.10 47 0. 7909 6. 59 15 0. 9655 8. 04 48 0. 7865 6. 55 16 0. 9589 7.99 49 0. 7821 6. 52 17 0. 9523 7. 93 50 0. 7777 6.48 18 0. 9459 7. 88 51 0. 7734 6.44 19 0. 9395 7. 83 52 0. 7692 6. 41 20 0. 9333 7.78 53 0. 7650 6. 37 21 0. 9271 reir 54 0. 7608 6. 34 22 0. 9210 7.67 55 0. 7567 6. 30 23 0. 9150 7. 62 56 0. 7526 6. 27 24 0. 9090 7. 57 57 0. 7486 6. 24 25 0. 9032 7. 53 58 0. 7446 6. 20 26 0. 8974 7.48 59 0. 7407 6.17 27 0. 8917 7.43 60 0. 7368 6. 14 28 0. 8860 7.38 61 0. 7329 6.11 29 0. 8805 7. 34 62 0. 7290 6. 07 30 0. 8750 i290 63 9. 7253 6. 04 31 0. 8695 7. 24 64 0. 7216 6. 01 32 0. 8641 7.20 65 0. 7179 5. 98 33 0. 8588 7.15 66 0. 7142 5. 95 34 0. 8536 Mendel 67 0. 7106 5. 92 35 0. 8484 7. 07 68 0. 7070 5. 89 36 0. 8433 7.03 69 0. 7035 5. 86 37 0. 8383 6. 98 70 0. 7000 5. 83 38 0. 8333 6. 94 75 0. 6829 5. 69 39 0. 8284 6. 90 80 0. 6666 5. 55 40 0. 8235 6. 86 85 0. 6511 5. 42 41 0. 8187 6. 82 90 0. 6363 5. 30 42 0. 8139 6.78 95 0. 6222 5.18 MEMORANDA. One United States gallon of pure water = 231 cubic inches, contains 58,318 grains (or 3779.031 grams) =8.331 pounds avoirdupois. One imperial gallon of pure water — 277.276 cubic inches, contains 70,000 grains (or 4536.029 grams) = 10 pounds avoirdupois. One cubic foot of pure water at 60° F. contains 1,000 ounces = 62.5 pounds avoirdupois. To reduce imperial gallons to United States gallons, divide by 1.2. To reduce United States gallons to imperial gallons, multiply by 1.2. To reduce United States gallons to cubic feet, divide by 7.5. To reduce cubic feet to United States gallons, multiply by 7.5. To find the number of pounds avoirdupois in one cubic foot of any substance, multiply its specific gravity by 62.5. To find the degree Baumé corresponding to any specific gravity: 140 sp. gr. — 130 =B.° To find the specific gravity corresponding to any degree Baumé: uo, 130 +B. — SP: 8 134 “PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. CuapreR X.—PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. Section I.—THE CONDITIONS OF THE PROBLEM. The localities which furnished the petroleum which entered the commerce of the United States during the census year were the region in northwestern Pennsylvania north and east of Pittsburgh; Mecca, in Trumbull county, Grafton, in Lorain county, and Washington county, Ohio; Pleasants, Wood, and Ritchie counties, West Virginia; Greene county, in southwestern Pennsylvania, and Glasgow, in Barren county, Kentucky. The actual production of petroleum in the United States cannot be accurately given for any period of time; but an approximate estimate has been made up from all available sources of information, which is believed to be as nearly correct as can be made. The reports of the pipe-lines are believed to be correct; but they do not necessarily represent the production of oil. The statistics of production are usually made up of the total amount of oil run into the pipe-lines, an estimated amount handled by private lines and tank-cars, and “dump oil” handled in barrels, to be modified by adding or subtracting the amount of oil added to or subtracted from the stock in private and well tanks during the year. . The receipts of the incorporated pipe-lines have been reported in accordance with the requirements of a law of the state of Pennsylvania, and are easily accessible. I have received estimates of the oil handled by private lines and “dump oil”, verified in some instances from independent sources, and, on the whole, I believe from well- informed and reliable parties. The estimation of the amount of oil held in tanks at wells is at all times a problem of great difficulty. This difficulty is due to the fact that the business of producing oil is conducted in such a manner that the owners of the wells themselves do not know how much oil is in their tanks; and further, that they do not, in the aggregate, care to have the production of their wells known. Again, if the owners were anxious to have a census of the oil in tanks taken, it would have to be done simultaneously, as the amount in the tanks is constantly changing; and such concerted action as would be necessary would be beset with practical difficulties if it were unanimously agreed upon. Mr. J. C. Welch is in constant communication with a number of those producers who conduct their business in the most systematic manner, and really know from actual measurement how much oil runs into their tanks from day to day. From this exact information, and much other scarcely less reliable in its character, he makes up his daily and monthly reports, which are much the most reliable of any furnished in reference to this subject. I shall therefore quote from his reports in reference to this matter. In his report for August, 1879, he writes: ‘ There is no accumulation of stocks at wells anywhere except in the Bradford district. In the Bradford district, as is well known, the stocks at wells are very large, generally and probably rightly estimated in the vicinity of 1,500,000 barrels. By my table, given above, of comparative stocks at wells of the same owners July 1 and August 1, I find on the Bradford stocks my returns show an increase of a little over 3 per cent. Taking this increase on, say, 1,400,000 barrels, and it would make about 45,000 barrels of July production as having gone into stocks at wells. This would be about 1,500 barrels per day, and, added to July Bradford pipe-runs, would make my estimate of the production of that district saved in July a daily average of 39,556 barrels. In districts other than Bradford I think the pipe-runs of July substantially represent the production. In the light of these facts, and bringing forward my estimate of June, I estimate the production out of the ground, with the exception of what was lost in the Bradford district in July (of which no intelligent estimate can be made), as follows: 5 uly. June. Barrels. Barrels. Butler & Armstrong...-.....-..-- 6, 569 7, 000 Clarion 22 Jeet) ase ee 5, 034 5, 100 Bullion; asec -<.cewee see esos 1, 086 1,100 | Of Caras Ree ee 3, 679 3, 900 Brediord cesses aeeaa = see eseme ene 389, 556 41, 600 55, 924 58, 700 | In his September report he says: My returns of the stocks at wells of the same owners in the Bradford district August 1 and September 1 show great uniformity. In his October report he writes : The Bradford stocks at wells October 1, compared with September 1, show a decline of 7 per cent. Taking this percentage from the presumed stocks at wells in the Bradford district September 1, 1,500,000 barrels, and it makes a decrease in September of 105,000, or 3,500 barrels a day going into pipe-runs. In November his returns from the owners of the wells showed a gain of over 5 per cent., giving 1,470,000 barrels as the stock November 1. Owing to the loss during that month, the reported stocks December 1 were 1,395,000 barrels, the same as on October 1. Referring to his reports from well owners for December, in that for January, 1880, he says: This shows a decline in the Bradford stocks I received of 17'per cent., and substantially no change in the stocks in Butler and Clarion. Assuming a stock at the Bradford wells, December 1, of 1,400,000 barrels, which in the general estimate is not far from being right, a decline of 17 per cent. would reduce them during December 238,000 barrels. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 135 In his February report he says: The decline in the Bradford district on the above stocks in January was 6 per cent., against a decline in December of the stocks I received of 17 per cent. His returns show a gain in February of 7 per cent., in March of 13 per cent., and in April of 145 per cent. In his May report he states: I have returns of 121,993 barrels of oil at 882 wells, May 1, making an average per well of 138 barrels. Taking the Bradford wells, May 1, at 6,600, it would make a total stock at those wells, May 1, of 910,800. * * * Drilling wells finished in May have been very considerable in number, and will show a high average of production, as the new territory now being operated upon between Bordell City and the Gray and Van Vleck wells has proved exceptionally rich. In his report for June, which brings up his statisti¢s to June 1, 1880, and closes the census year, he says: I have received returns of 988 Bradford wells, June 1, with stocks at them, exclusive of wells that had their well stocks burned in May. These 988 wells had stocks, June 1, of 167,694 barrels, an average of 171 barrels. Taking 7,000 wells as the number in the Bradford district, June 1, and with this average the total Bradford well stocks, June 1, were 1,197,000. The large amount of oil lost in the Bradford district makes estimates on the production there an uncertain thing. The amount lost now is estimated as high as 10,000 and 12,000 barrels daily. Mr. Welch estimated the average number of barrels per well for April as 138, and for May as 171; an increase in average well stocks during May of nearly 24 per cent. per well, and in total well stocks of over 31 per cent. In his report for August, 1880, he says: I have received returns from 1,443 Bradford wells, August 1, showing stock at them of 270,821 barrels. The average per well is 187.6. Of these 1,443 wells, 1,078 belong to companies that have 30 wells or more, with an average per well of 1874 barrels; the other 365 wells, from companies owning less than 30 wells, show an average per well of 188} barrels. This, I think, shows clearly that my average of 187.6 for the entire number of wells is not vitiated on account of the returns being mostly from the larger companies. I think this statement is good evidence of the general accuracy of Mr. Welch’s conclusions, as the 1,443 wells were about one-fifth of the whole number at that time in the Bradford district. In an editorial article, August 1, 1879, the Oil City Derrick remarks: There is a large extent of territory in the Bradford field, but it has now 4,700 producing well. In an article the following day the same paper remarks: The Derrick is generally able to back up its assertions with figures, and we have prepared a table of all wells completed in the Bradford region since drilling began in 1875, with their production each month. These figures have been carefully compiled from the monthly oil reports, and are as accurate as can possibly be obtained without visiting personally every well in the region. We believe the table below does not vary from the actual producing wells 100. I have completed this table from the files of the Derrick to September 1, 1880, and have added a column showing the average initial daily production per well for the productive wells drilled each month. TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF PRODUCTIVE WELLS DRILLED EACH MONTH, AND THEIR AVERAGE INITIAL DAILY PRODUCTION FOR EACH MONTH, FROM JULY 1, 1875, TO SEPTEMBER 1, 1880, IN THE BRADFORD DISTRICT. Productive | Initial dai i itial dai Month. vals’ drilled. sae rp AvexeEe Monte as drilled. cle errr Average. 1875. Number. Barrels. Barrels. 1878. Number. Barrels. Barrels. JUN Sse SSeS Spooner CooL Eee eres 6 174 29.00 | SS ANUALY: som sasierice staelemania tes =!saleiesie(e 105 1, 537 14. 64 COLIC A) in oR OSCR: SCRE EIEEE OC eaeiog 2 50 25. 00 PEO DEWAR Vie we stelemiioe nel sereiaa ate eee tal tale = 96 1, 508 15,71 MOPLOMDEL =< 2.2 nese cree ee wees ceeees 3 94 31. 33 March’ sujeecihacsessaeae sotiiem ashe be 110 1, 758 15. 98 MUPRUD EU meee eeices fehl soot le cc sew usin cs 8 160 20. 00 ACDVAL Eanes Ristemetcs eel ccaaaicesas'sns 220 3, 597 16. 35 DORMER Pia s-2> Osos ck as sae avancee 3 44 14, 67 Diy iia: tek Span dads « oottae Sabu etieneaee 346 5, 650 16. 30 DOBORMIVGL let cekawe sir casatunessenes 1 25 25. 00 PUNO: hep seater mnceinen ada tacinalsine 205 3, 264 15. 92 ae Teh Re EO WUY aes sotincenad yt tude sea stowane tes 151 2, 437 16. 14 ESP al ot at Bee pr Noe ee Ae alle Mampag ait it an Aoi, Ak byst 142 2, 632 18. 54 SOPLOMD Ol ate ae Calpe aisaiss ses ainsinis minia 122 1, 938 15. 89 1876. OCtODOIe sencean state euricies =a aeieeess 186 2, 572 13. 83 MPU AE ies ne acla\ee o=4 gf ava Te | JANUALyY <.-cece----- SWOT sta AR 110 2, 017 18. 33 BEBE a sh-p ava nen === --annann-nan a= > a b44 Re RO Nh) ‘weciehawre age UM) Cy Be yr hiL 107 2,525 | 23. 60 DULY oan 22- <2 <== 0240 0+sonnse sens sans Le: a SOB EM AkG te teeter, BS oooh hh ct 202 4,705 | 23, 29 RE cap aen == 29 412 14. 21 Mae RUSLAN 28 ey, Bone 355 8 559 24.11 DRDO ec atic ao 30-9 = oe pen eens ns 52 550 Hit Gee oa Pe SRR Se ea Cae ene 308 7.902 25. 66 Meteors 72-~ 2b 2-082: a ae Lia adie hak ie Gitar Lae ie eines 269 7, 291 27. 10 Ie a ea shat Peas aH Paha cee pte in Oe ee has ae 206 5, 939 28. 83 Thy jar Riss eae 357 5, 098 14, 28 Deptem pens ateeress seem ey oases ote 160 4, 639 28. 99 ae CUO O acme aie eerie sata aieret = ete w 167 4, 837 28. 96 NOVOMIDGEA. 22 4s8 ee 4s assis cee avsccniarce.¥ oes! wnaed casie.geniennpismere np éde dian esos 578, 670 a rere pea Pena areata Vem mreeias als aime sie hd ode eels e seins a\c00ene p6e ow eceuens eee cargoes cinhus 23, 988, 791 This oil was produced in— Barrels. Nara CUNMON LOLI Ons LWanicegtratelsctelaacete dite sistas as ate vniaaiolt = mele nib iaisje'cla cin ele clean atu \nmign\els wayntieis doe elneils 23, 835, 982 Po ponerCouiin ye Penns yy AUl a pce. meet stem) one Se ie ee ace icine Bais Dele aim ot yee nce tae sale So Sm sacs stile ses 3, 118 Ge CIA EG. WW BEDID PLON-COUMLY sg ODIO.» «niscmccs oeiee vs encinnd oon ben adas sander Gaencewecenesseweees 138, 325 See EMD San een gee nicea SOM Ren es chine deco cnle ade «28 wot saciised sweets ns pad ona debieden suber 5 a 5, 376 BUN om Fa ya cece sre cismwe nies aon ome sen o-00 nan bavisivin ne onsen sen oe noe Senn eciehin ssidinnsa ca cees tase | 2d; 900, 19k The second-sand oil is produced near Franklin, Pennsylvania, and embraces also the B, ©, D, and E grades of West Virginia oils. Of this oil there was produced in— Barrels. POeUPWITRUNG Joc cics cues acts. ses es BE SORE ES SO SoNOID EO SORE EEO EY ae TP CL tp ec Saree carey dee 68, 392. 88 Near Franklin, Pennsylvania ....... IQ8606 Son GgeHnGeo tab 50 Shaduee tened quenee anongde toe seb Bor BES LaSAce 105, 600. 00 SME UO SARTO eee oUt caw ang cn at wae fas eth ew aaa cmansorgassese sat eaneone sh aseesvid nnn wss manele ook 2,773. 00 eM ener tee eee ce Man eee dine sete aes Keane ond natives ssicndecgiaen os Se ss~e.dnwekle> sae 176, 765. 88 Four-fifths of the first-sand oil comes from the first oil-sand of the Venango group near Franklin, Pennsylvania. The oils of this class were produced in— Barrels. eran we CONSY IWAN be sa acs. cen sites bene esas ss cise ceseoce {AGS OAS OA GAS SASHES aber DOcnt se pears. 86, 857. 00 \WGEM WIS oo Seas tcost ooo Br bob moc aor QUUMO6 Ud Saad eaes oF BUBB EOE Sat: BL Seca Ce Soa eC SOR e. 12, 536. 00 Cras COUs OUI Raat gaat lows wae Rene see Aa seta as Noe ew cals oBic) a delaiee owls cle ae ew waciSsPalep eysinw cisecsasjensece 1, 386. 00 Mecca ON1G:s shee sca. see See pen eee satan ere a et ciereh ee Sie sikiwle. cela aise ool aa cie pe At wa ole AE DE o ee 2=- 5% 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 TS OL 0S ae ee eee 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 ON OTA ee rtewian —ciniaic woot oceee cesacees 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | 20 20 Petroleum Centre ............--.------- 45 43 43 43 40 40 40 40 40 40 | 40 40 oot Ts Ee ee 90 90 90 90 90 90 | 90 90 90 90 90 90 PC TGUMMUTO eS oo ais at capes oid st2.-= 22 = 750 700 680 680 660 650 650 650 635 6385 | 635 625 ES TIGIG fads emilee sisicicciissivicctéece 5-0 75 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 DAOC Gc of RA a re 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 BUENT ERPS eea Saree Ate seo caine cine soci we 115 115 115 115 115 115} 115 115 LIS eee Lote ae li 115 Witch 8 S855 (38a ane ee 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 105 105 105 130 SROPN 2 OSs eee 6,965 | 6,693 | 6,623 | 6,568 | 6,485 | 6,485 | 6,485] 6,460 6,272 | 6,322] 6,322 6, 000 WinGRGRte teers ce. oe ate ak eto. fa) ose Zoe 287 70 55 EE Me eeee 8 Caereises Shear aaG | RBS ale awed ete serine nae sche careers 320 eae eraser ret etal rete x etal Slalo'= i= alata ace fella ieee amie ime e'einta'e| 9,2) n\q ae e.cl| sia alatoteve's| a /ricicinwisie|| ales crarecel|(= sia gicie.-Baciejasies ls ic r ne ne|o = daleciae BON eeeisee rise enacts Wielis COMploted......s-..5..--scc}acosesns 110 26 23 45 16 45 59 38 34 32 211 REMERIOESOS tebe ba veces -'ssec}soaes = 397 96 78 128 16 45 84 B81; cccceats 32 531 PEE ALNS) neon omosiec conan = sicc|> ACCUMULATED STOCKS, JUNE 1, 1879. Barrels. Pipe-line: stocks, third sand... 003 2... 2-ass sss cote eee se et eee eae Sete sa ee eee eee ee ee 293, 474 Franklin ‘stocks, heavy: oil). 5.6). 22 ek gS 0 = oocc 5 mmeeininyciarmin aia pa ae ei ere tee 19, 898 Smith's’ Perryjas s. o/s 0c se cc ctesceces doses cc daaieee wae. so tepp ies amies teeta cle ere amese st ota ee eee 3, 200 West: Virginia and southern Ohio. - 22. 22 o<.02 cea ease asic nce hone apes ae iene haa aa te ee eee ar eanaters 79, 606 Graftonjand Mecca, Ohio, and Glasvow, Kentucky 2222 5-- sce ae 22 -ok gacieimeihomeriiete se oats ae leer ere 150 7 948, 352 ACCUMULATED STOCKS, MAY 31, 1880. Barrels. Pipe-line.tocks, third sand... 2.0. «210 dismes Bele aun 2, 036, 760 SL ee ity 2 doe hte Bee ines cap ne ne wae one eae cn suas s ues webb satale tds sine sacmn's 4,0 925, 800 POUR eee ees gies a abe nie te otis ae eee eee alert atic ne Mee be sae ae dis ae cela a Sein cle e coe ce~ melas 8, 280, 710 Returns from eight of the largest firms and corporations doing business in the oil regions, having more than 20,000 acres under development and operating over 600 wells during the census year, give an average of five acres to one well, and assign to the Jand a value of $300 per acre for oil purposes. Upon this basis they estimate a general average cost of the land at $1,500 per well, and of the well itself from $2,500 to $3,000. At $2,500 each, the cost of the 3,080 wells completed during the census year would be $7,700,000; at $3,000 each the same wells would cost $9,240,000. My estimate of $8,280,710 is therefore a fair average estimate, as based upon that of the owners, of about 10 per cent. of the wells that had been drilled in the Bradford district at the beginning of the census year. The approximate value of labor employed in building rigs was $316,440; in cutting wood, $272,160; in drilling wells, $2,160,000; total, $2,748,600. To this sum must be added the value of labor employed in operating and repairing wells already drilled, a service which requires the labor of a large number of men. Returns from the owners of 590 wells show that they employ 275 men in pumping and gauging, and 34 men as overseers; a total of 309 men. Apply this average to the 4,000 wells in the Bradford district at the beginning of the census year, and it gives, in round numbers, 2,000 men, earning $45 per month, or an aggregate of $1,080,000, which makes up a total labor account for the Bradford field of $3,828,600. The number of wells drilled in the lower country during the census year was 335. Their average depth has been placed at 1,400 feet, and the rigs and tools are the same as those used in the Bradford district, at the same average cost; but their lessened depth reduces the cost of both drilling and tubing. Three hundred and thirty-five rigs, at the average price of $362 50, would cost $121,437 50, and would require for their construction 5,695,000 feet of lumber, 3,015,000 of which would be sawed soft lumber and 2,680,000 hewn lumber. These wells would require for drilling 33,500 cords of wood, the cutting of which would cost $30,150. I estimate the cost of engines and boilers in this district as averaging $300 per well, which, for 335 wells, would give a valuation of $100,500. Estimating the average of 50 feet of drive-pipe per well at $3 per foot, casing at $210 and tubing at $200 per well for an average depth of 1,400 feet, the cost of casing and tubing the 335 wells drilled in the lower country would be as follows : Drive-pipe, 8-inch, 16,750 feet............-. Te ee eats en aneay cena aeate eta tae oo aaa cara dic eaten es $50, 250 Casing, 5§-inch, 100,500 feet......-..-- See pe oe apenas Onay hats caletc nie ait cmawaiin tas ent aba sos cae cede 70, 350 Ree mRrar ee Oe MC tO0 CUCU LOG besee tira te race ead to Na EN ae als an nica sow eiwins siaisisin anes aicinici do civiscuc case ss ce causae sans 67, 000 The drilling of 1,400-foot wells was worth during the census year 60 cents per foot, and at that rate the drilling of the 335 wells in the lower country cost $281,400. Summarized, these estimates foot up as follows: Eee OG DOU ORCH 7 ha. 4 ao tigiak rs Laman secistied se cae ses Sots wate acuwwss date Uda ses vacccciceset sd csasus $121, 437 Engines and boilers for 335 wells, at an average cost per well of $300 ..........-....--.-------- 022-20 ee ee 100, 500 335 wells, drilled 1,400 feet each, at 60 cents per foot..........-.-- ates sacistoce omc Sasa eres aoa ae ae 281, 400 USCS UY Ro cog aise ob SC OHKID Sh SGA DER OSS G0 OSB AOE DRE AGGDE BE AOS GHA AGA CE Aa OSB Di AAEE rr oe mI ees 56, 250 Re ete ee ewe ree Nn ele te ae ein ae Vat tiae a= cs Vela navies ovdsadeclcecues sate be (eee ida Seat 3 SORE Bese ial BE. aete ie: Wea oat Sees Roeremke ects ete tam tnleuere/asol lea sta wiele'a crate Sipe Sanaee warner aie | 25 Cost of raising oil: Flowing wells in the Bradford district, 6 to 8 cents per barrel; pumping wells in the lower country, 60 to 80 cents; pumping wells in Franklio district, $3 per barrel. 148 To this may be added the following table, showing the estimated number of wells at the beginning and the end PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. of the census year in the United States east of the Mississippi river : Ee ee mae hs naa number o number 0: complete Name of district. producing wells producing wells during Dry holes. June 1, 1879. May 31, 1880. census year. Bradford, Pennsylvania............ecccecccncee 4, 282 7, 362 3, 080 53 Lower country, Pennsylvania.........---.-.--- 6, 693 6, 322 335 79 Franklin, Pennsylvania..............---------- 400 500 120 15 Beaver county, Pennsylvania ........-...---..- 200 200 15 q Grafton, Ohio's. .....).-ssccesaceowesccscnaemeeen 20 20 9 q Mecck; Ohiovssressecessttere ace be ceemaae aes q 3 20 q West Virginia and southern Ohio.............. 500 600 120 q Glasgow, Kentucky .....- 002-10 csenscenqsiencoss 5 UP ee ea vison cscs, Ros soe MOtalccpcapsessaetescenae doer age ae teams 12, 100 15, 009 3, 690 147 SECTION 7.—GENERAL STATISTICS RELATING TO THE PRODUCTION OF THIRD-SAND PETROLEUM. In illustration of this section I have been so fortunate as to secure the accompanying diagrams, prepared by Mr. Charles A. Ashburner, of Philadelphia, especially for this work, from the statistical tables of Stowell’s Petroleum Reporter. No. Lis a graphic representation of the total production by years of the different districts, by which the date of discovery, expansion, and contraction of the production of the different districts is noted ; No. II shows the comparative volume of the total production of the different districts. No. III shows the comparative expansion and contraction of the total yearly production, with the total value in greenbacks and gold, from 1839 to 1880, inclusive. On pages 149, 150, and 151 are statistical tables from another source, which vary only slightly from the preceding in the aggregate, and present the matter in detail. On page 150 is a statistical statement, made by the United Pipe Lines, that offers its own explanation. On page 151 is a table giving some comparative miscellaneous pipe-line statistics that are included in the census year, taken from the Titusville Herald of April 11, 1881, except the averages for the census year. The following estimate of stocks in the oil region on the dates named is given for what it is worth, as the authority is unknown: Barrels. Barrels. February; 186852...c2 2 -cssciectiee ssa sheeetr ae 534, 000 February, 1874. 0.5, 2eseeeneaoceemeniee sen 1, 248, 919 February, 18690. -teceau tae senine feces 264, 000 February, 1875. ..2)--2eacnes sera ieee ee 4, 250, 000 February, L&V0ts 20 oe acecnioins = eae meas 340, 751 February, 1876.2 .¢/0.52 5, seeeennee nee ee sets 3, 585, 143 Kebruary, 1elicce se eseu eee. saree slenee se 537, 000 February; 1877.22 eoccs eeeeeesteeceseeee 2, 604, 128 Poebruary,. 18/2220 sn -cecesees si areraeeuces 623, 048 February, 1878.2, - ——————————— | ° 2.000.000 ¢ INI 2G Proportional production poe oes Bie or aera owt crt the Oz e 67 t- : - ‘ , " Sp Cerne Wisel Reuthars Stet. of the Ou Region of Pennsylvania and Southern New Fork Bradford Divisvor. : WaT, op ; SE age and that of the tndividual aistricts Pennsylvanta and ae Fee Cattaraugus and Allegare > Ouvl Creek Drvuszor. - Os Wew ork. “ LowerAllegheny Due Kee: : Shamburglleasantuille Enterprise heii pa thal ei Tenrango Co. ClarvonDrvisvor. Clarion Co ; i Central Allegheny Division. PrtholeDrvisvor, Z é (And beeen api eae ined CEP DIDI, ' re OF ago Co. Venango and ParrenCos BublionDivisron. _, Siaiths Ferry GZ p Fenango Co. Warren Division. Dzvisvton. Y Ui Y Ln Wearre72Co. Beaver Co. Z O 4 j La KZ Yj A ZA P Total production 1859 to 1880 44,574,921 BBIS 37342978 BRIS 35.517.297 BRIS. 20.381 088 Bats. 8.876.289 Bois. 6.182.900 Bhis 4.674. 845 BBis. 2.312.090. Beis 448.218 Bats 339,631 BBLs. tmclustve 156.590.3717 Bbdits. Scale. 1,000,000 BARRELS Comptled by Chas. A.Ashhuinenr ALS. Assistant,Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania Harry King. Dei. ZA BEELE>: CYKLA ttt 1879 Ge 1972 1874 1876 LP> Ci 1878 GZ Z Owl Creek Diviston Totat Peer eh ake of crude ott tn the Ovl Fre Penp- sylvanta and Southe ew torr, Total production 1859 to 1880 tmclustve 156.590.3117 Bbts. HarryXing. Dei. “Pittole Dev. G 1880 Bullion Dev. Ww Foster Dec.6 1874 Bradford M*Kean and “as Cattaraugus an Cos, We enango Co. Lin OD 44. ee 372.090. BRLS lion Divison. Smrvths Ferry Warren Division. Dzviston. WarrerCo. Beaver Co. Z a 448.218 BRIS 339, 037 Ebi, <= — ia » he Py ® " a ee ee a ee’ Se iS Sle lee ee se a — THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 149 STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF BARRELS OF OIL PRODUCED FROM AUGUST 26, 1859, TO DECEMBER 31, 1880, BY YEARS AND BY COUNTIES, IN THE OIL REGIONS OF PENNSYLVANIA AND SOUTHERN NEW YORK. Years. Patan 410 Nh 8 dey a 156, 153, 807 TSOOs eee eee sen ss Ieee ec cac.5 1, 000 fi mat ah ee 500, 000 CEs Aes saeeg ate ea 2,113, 609 Do. CT plied py te Pena a el 2, 056, 690 Do. COCR ORNs eee, Ae Sa ae 2, 611, 309 Do. ST pas leat 8 en ar 2, 116, 109 Do. MRM eee ert, eee ate ce at 2, 497, 700 AREA FL sep ccntaeceG ete tae 3, 597, 700 7 a PRA ap an Ra 3, 347, 300 Do. {RUGS 05 Pein eeo toe ck ness 3, 715, 700 Do. ABAG en eee cee 4, 215, 100 Do. 11 {WO ay SEES heh ata 5, 659, 000 5 Oy yea a RE AI conn SR 5, 202, 710 Do. is Oe eed 5, 985, 635 Do. ERTS ete vagina as cas 9, 882, 010 rf ee aS ee cre a eee 10, 920, 435 Do. Taree kee 8, 788, 470 Do. LCV ER Sie rid aco a 8, 952, 355 Do. Crab dec, ea gaanieanet ae 13, 129, 780 Do. BOTS ee T3002 cn days ata 15, 159, 180 Do. RID Parone oo hicn cea 19, 741, 755 Do. (TELUS Laelia aomee 25, 960, 260 Do. State and county. Venango county, Pennsylvania. Venango, Forest, Crawford, and Warren, Pennsylvania. Venango, with Clarion and Armstrong. Venango, with Cattaraugus county, New York. Venango, with Butler county, Pennsylvania. Venango, with McKean county, Pennsylvania. TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM IN PENNSYLVANIA OIL-FIELDS FROM 1859 TO DECEMBER 31, 1880, BOTH INCLUSIVE, DIVIDED INTO PRODUCING DIVISIONS AND DISTRICTS. Years. eee ee ee oe ee eee errs ee ees : : Central Lower eas : : Yearly Givieion, | district. | Allegheny | Allegheny | istrict, | division. | division, | district, | division. | divisvon: | t9tal of all Barrels. | Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. | Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. 35, 517,217 | 4,816,298 | 6,482,900 | 37,342,978 | 4,674,345 | 20, 381, 638 | 44,574,921 | 2,812, 190 448, 213 339, 631 || 156, 890, 332 ines ee ee ee oe ck ol, coc any dacdal tonlede Ba cbu peewee Saclaes | cu ov cdeohowoee etme 2, 000 aa Ree ete a See rem: | ae Ve riege sR nan dees alls piit nw ond apc lonn'e smn eneivn|oodp elon wpadeledapee gwar ariegaauaggeane 500, 000 te er ME |e Ree Re aC. a eve wen lnnckudn bongs tire as ePew cu alenawtrecce elec twentectes 2, 113, 609 PLR. gs hg en Sl a i ES ee Bene A ie Sea RMP Samy Ee | 3, 056, 690 er re ES NLS ere ca die ahs ns loin Gn ackin od nie wwe ale etewashsGantctoysonlenecue clues if ets tee 2, 611, 309 ae ee ee ese mee Seine ot tne eat nena lnew wea bcvmachonshingesade|eeaunhecsaeolieseps eens shan yea sama 2, 116, 109 1, 585, 200 Die em Se | Dee er ee, Me Ais oc ele imae parnocomd |v bovis nn deck Wicahawecy des [deus stesacaalsceemeeteaes 2, 497, 700 Pee aan MDI OC ot RE, has oye hg YES aisles. acids cadss|e nbenddcaleclecdsdaaetecclseeonreeerectheeateneeaees 3, 597, 700 2, 393, 300 sean Caines MEE, [2 Arh 5 POM sw baie ood Satie [nodes bes owe oma eernndgactceoees eawealctads oatmens 3, 347, 300 3, 072, 617 547, 500 GIRS lS) et EE GO ea el Pee eres ea BRE Aer | | Meee aoe ORNS ATES ws Ot 3, 646, 117 3, 762, 500 365, 000 22, 000 45, 000 20,000) teres toasters) tatoo senistaline wae tena alle dels ewe eswiccieee este senee | 4, 215, 000 3, 039, 528 173,585 | . 813, 150 918, 644 BIS BSS ie a ere Si ore ke a eee ewe eee | 5, 260, 745 2, 040, 263 182, 054 | 1,083,386 | 1,091, 458 497, 887 10: GR is: reed Beier NT oe, ae sadhana 5, 205, 341 1, 529, 685 145, 065 881,140 | 1,658, 080 847, 199 S90 Ogi tran rele Pe ee eins eee 5, 890, 248 1, 094, 389 119, 864 851, 934 | 4, 402, 563 On, Gas Tk bon Oat a le ee Oe ee) ian 9, 890, 964 734, 247 55, 770 564,978 | 5, 160, 265 S15: GOW AB O28) BT Deke en ek Noe eots oe ei aac eavacu nen 10, 809, 852 504, 639 35, 130 348,905 | 4, 712, 702 351,407 | 2, 821, 214 DOS DOOM peace was cen s cic w=. sae nel ooauleteetatete 8, 787, 506 611, 884 37, 450 833, 640 | 4, 755, 623 354, 284 | 2, 377, 700 382, 768 64, 220 OLS80 7 = peaaea sete 8, 968, 906 834, 858 60, 380 474, 262 | 5,431, 072 312,700 | 3,012,120 | 1,490,481 1,306, 442 151, 371 62, 085 13, 135, 771 686, 948 60, 000 363,710 | 4, 552, 815 308,780 | 2,276,408 | 6, 208, 746 505, 265 108, 300 92, 490 || 15, 163, 462 389, 400 36, 500 558, 652 | 2, 876, 787 227,900 | 1,438, 342 | 14, 096, 759 289, 591 45, 550 82, 100 20, 041, 581 335, 342 36, 500 166,143 | 1, 737, 969 168, 542 868, 984 | 22, 377, 658 146, 672 91, 655 102, 956 26, 032, 421 RECAPITULATION. Barrels. Oil Creek division, including Shamburg, Pleasantville, and Enterprise......-.----. --------+----+ --+++- 35, 517, 217 Pithole district, including Holderman, Morey, and Ball farms .........-....-----------+---+--------++5- 4, 816, 298 Central Allegheny division, including Scrubgrass to West Hickory ....-...----.-----.----------------- 6, 482, 900 Lower Allegheny division, including Butler and Armstrong counties...-....----.--------------------- -- 37,342,978 Tidioute district, including Economites, Henderson farm, etc ..---.-.----------- -++--+ +--+ +--+ --++- 4, 674, 345 Clarion district, including Clarion county ..-.-- 1.22. caqee: cade = eee cence coe et ce eee come ee seen ee sees 20, 381, 638 Bradford district, including McKean and Elk counties; also Cattaraugus and Allegany counties, New York. 44,574, 921 Bullion istrict, including Venango county ...-..------ ---- ------ eee eee eee e eee ee ee eee cece re teee 2, 312, 190 Warren division, including Stoneham, Clarendon, etc....-..-.--- -----+ -----+ ----++ ++ +222 eee eee eee eee 448, 213 Bab Sa ART i eee eh oie ae el ae PRS 339, 631 Beaver division, including Smith’s Ferry, ete Total production from all districts sew wes coc eee comet coe ses coe ces cose ces coe e es eee eee eee ees eee eee 156, 890, 331 150 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. STATEMENT, BY COUNTIES, OF THE NUMBER OF ACRES DEVELOPED IN THE OIL-FIELDS OF PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW YORK FROM AUGUST 26, 1859, TO DECEMBER 31, 1880. Venango county, Pennsylvania Crawford county, Pennsylvania Forest county, Pennsylvania Warren county, Pennsylvania Armstrong county, Pennsylvania Clarion county, Pennsylvania Butler county, Pennsylvania McKean county, Pennsylvania Cattaraugus county, New York State and county. ee er eee wee wee eeee Number of acres. 156, 380 STATEMENT MADE BY THE UNITED PIPE-LINES FROM THE BEGINNING OF APRIL, 1877, TO JULY 9, 1881. Month. Gross stocks, Hoptembersac.-ascpensaeeceaseeseses es OCtODED cos acckesonac-aee Sece abe cakes NOVOMDEN + coun verospececackeceneeeseeen Décemberiess dsteuscws vecseusaseasecaceesy J ANDRE ta alseciak ve sistas Howe Se watetete ames ee PF QWIUALY sc Sec ceseccnsacereealeeee te aeeees Heptempersk=-- = ..a a ae = = a — Maximum prokucttor of Pithole Devistor. So teel std we eee LS tj); == Se Central Allegheny Dev. commenced to pro@uce. = re ea Sac —— aoe inna sae - See Yi, eee = ee Lidioule Butler & Armstrong Divs commenced to produce. Po ‘i WI: ee | = sie Clarion Diviston commenced to produce. ce: WI yf a — Maximum productton of Out Creek Divistor. Maximum productior of Central Allegheny Dov. ty, SS Se eZ Maximum production of Lidioute Divisrore. Ps Sa LS f ff oS Se 1874 YE . = ee WY Bradford Owl Sand discovered December 6° 1874, X < A fo ae ae Bullcon and Warren Divistons commenced. t Pale Se eee a eee 1876 a ee eles) Rep ccee aes? 557) 16.953. 151.38 | aul 24.600. 637.84 TOTAL*324.920.265 . 55 Harry King. Del. 2.42 | 31.788. 323 Be 24 aan HEEL: LEE) WYUIU“Z _ALax rrr tata valee —— Sf SF. 788.323 dollars attained. eee of ovl fails rapidly im conseguence of the un parted fowth of ey Brac fred. a January 1 1879 specie payments resumed tn theUS. IIrr WIA: AE aang rege ca Mazimun. monthly average [495] of aretling wetis attaczed. pi Mh 7 A Mv. Legend. as ney : Seale. --~——-——~—-—--- falue of total production tn Greenhacks. _ ee wie bei oie . 4 Value of total production tn Gold. . ncaa Bacay Pree Ag ei hs a eho ube sain eete Total production of entire regtor, SS Se ——— — a - bk Notes. DOLLARS The total annual value was obtained by multiplying the total production by the average yearly price. The average yearly premium on gold was obtained by taking an average of the highest, Lowest, opening and clostng price of gold tn currency for each month tn each year. Compiled by Chas. A. Ashburner ALS. Assistart, Second Geological Survey of Perinsylvanta. | THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 151 MISCELLANEOUS PIPE-LINE STATISTICS FOR 1879 AND 1880. DAILY AVERAGE OF | AVERAGE DAILY RUNS | er eee zs za. _|| STOCKS IN PIPE-LINE TANKS. || ~ Month. aap ee Coat | Runs. Shipments. 1879. | 1880. 1879. |. 1880, |} 1879. 1880. || 1879. | 1880. 1879. 1880. Barrels. Barrels. || Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. || Barrels. | Barrels. Barrels. | Barrels. Average for the census year... GSU increas aa-aeiee GUE SBT calves ot ac SLSCOV GSLs |inaawisbic setae ss | 203, 378 | fad aad 79; 400 Votan ates “COU CS A eee 14, 800 18, 303 45,719 67,330 | 5, 064,693 | —-8, 520, 696 65,026 154, 034 216 118, 400 February ....-.-.......----.--------. 12, 200 20, 822 43, 105 62,671 || 5, 541, 683 8, 930, 508 || 52,182 | 125, 376 492 716, 057 Loh a i 27, 700 18, 954 48, 856 67,024 || 5,928,628 | 9, 369, 240 | 55, 421 167, 564 37 741, 062 PAE eteaeis as == 5------------4--00-- 47, 300 33, 567 63, 504 67, 8138 | 7,328,980 | 14, 713, 346 121, 303 169, 147 58, 054 97, 493 eo cc cc cscesccaus 44, 700 18, 231 | 60, 694 70,861 || 7,402,630 | 15, 114, 802 139, 883 185, 551 98, 889 129, 178 oo ft da - 46, 300 21, 730 || 60, 278 65,799 || 7,675,193 | 16, 756, 954 118,092 162, 269 97,366 121,978 Colle tet a eee 31, 300 | 21, 500 : 63, 722 57,749 || 8, 094,496 | 16, 616, 628 1} =.114,852 ) ~—-178, 125 99, 243 110, 659 SECTION 8.—THE PRODUCTION OF THE PACIFIC COAST, Concerning the petroleum production of the Pacific coast, I have to say that I have no official returns from any of the parties interested, no communication addressed to them having elicited any response whatever, and in consequence I have been forced to rely on such other sources of information as were available. My own experience in relation to the petroleum of that region led me to accept all reports published in the newspapers with great caution I addressed a letter of inquiry to the senior member of a firm long engaged in trade in refined oils upon the San Francisco market, and received the following reply, dated March 16, 1882: The consumption of this coast of eastern oils is 4,500,000 gallons of refined. The product of all the refineries of this coast does not exceed 400,000 gallons refined. It is of inferior quality, low test, and is principally sold to the Chinese trade at about 16 cents per gallon in cans, or less, by 6 cents per gallon, than the cheapest eastern oils. In addition, about 400,000 gallons of crude oil is sold here for making gas and fuel. The production seems to be decreasing, the wells being, as a rule, short-lived. The above is, I consider, reliable, and is the best information I can get. My firm sell considerable oil, both high- and low-test eastern. We have no demand for California production. Mr. J. C. Welch, in his report for February, 1880, says: My California correspondent writes, February 2, as follows: ‘‘In reference to the Californian production, I would state that since iny last letter there has nothing new been developed. It is very expensive and very difficult to drill wells in California, owing to the angle at which the rock stands, causing it to cave from the top to the bottom of the well. It requires four or five sizes of casing, telescoped from 12 inches to the smallest size that can be drilled through. In this way it requires about as much capital to case a well here as the entire expense of a well in Pennsylvania. The time required to drill is from three months to two years, it being very difficult to get the casing down, the rock caving atevery point. However, these obstacles would all be overcome if there was a class of men like Pennsylvania producers in this country to drill wells, but, fortunately for the producing interests of the United States, the monopoly in California is in the producing interest instead of in the refining and transportation interest, as in Pennsylvania. A syndicate of millionaires, led by C. N. Felton (who was first in the development of the Bonanza mines of Nevada), have been busily engaged for the last two years in purchasing in fee all the lands that show any indications of being oil territory, which, as the tracts of land in which the oil district is located were originally divided by the old Spanish grants containing hundreds of thousands of acres, it has been a comparatively easy matter for them to do, and they seem inclined to keep their oil in the ground until such times as Pennsylvania shall have exhausted her supplies and the product here is needed for the world’s demand. Although the same company have obtained all the necessary machinery, iron, and fixtures for the refinery (of which I wrote you recently), and have land secured in a favorable location, located on the bay and also connected with both systems of railroad, narrow and broad gauge, yet they have not actually commenced the erection of the works. It will require about ninety days from the time they break ground until the refinery can be completed. As I suggested in my former letter to you, these parties at present do not intend to produce more oil than is required for the Pacific coast trade, and for the next two or three years the California territory need have no influence whatever on the general petroleum market unless some unexpected strike should be made that now seems unlikely, as there are onty two or three wells being drilled. I do not know exactly what percentage of refined oil is obtained from California crude; but should not, from my experience, place the production at above 1,000,000 gallons, or 2,500 barrels. SECTION 9.—THE FOREIGN PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN COMPETITION WITH THE UNITED STATES. From various reports that have received my attention in reference to this subject I select the following as most entitled to confidence. The first which I offer, reviewing all of the European fields upon observations made during the census year, is from the February (1880) report of Mr. J. C. Welch. The second paper was prepared expressly for this report by William Brough, esq., of Franklin, Pennsylvania, 1. gentleman of large experience in the Pennsylvania oil regions, whose opinions are based upon a careful personal inspection of the Russian petroleum fields, they being really the only European fields likely to prove of more than local importance. Mr. Welch, in his report on Russia, says: The various oil territories of the world have, during the past year, been receiving some attention, and the chance of their supplying oil to meet more or less of the world’s needs is of course an important one to those whose interests are principally identified with that 152 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. supply being drawn from western Pennsylvania. The Russian territory on the Caspian sea has received the most attention, and it has a prolific yield; the two things that have militated chiefly against its being a competitor of importance of the Pennsylvania petroleum are in the character of the oil, only yielding about 33 per cent. of illuminating oil, and in the difficulty of getting it to the markets of the world through inadequate means of transportation. The opinion prevails among some that a percentage of illuminating oil can be got from it as great as that obtained from American petroleum, requiring, however, some different process of refining. This plan is to be tested soon by the erection of a refinery in Russia, the owners having sufficient confidence in their process to erect a refinery of sufficient size to be a complete test as to whether the process will be a success or not. ; Mr. L. Emery, jr., a well-known resident and producer of this region, has just returned from the Baku field, after having taken time to give it a critical examination. He estimates the production there during the past year to have been about 28,000 American barrels per day from 78 wells, showing the extraordinary average of 360 barrels. The depth of the wells is only about 500 feet. There were shipped from Baku last season about 1,230,000 gallons of refined oil. Oil is refined at Baku at 195 refineries, with a charging capacity of 28,000 American barrels. There are now in course of erection stills with a charging capacity of about 2,000 barrels, which will be ready for business with the opening of navigation in the spring. Some of these refineries are very small; others are owned by independent, corporations with large capital. From Baku oil is sent east, south, and west by canals and wagons, and by the Volga river to Kisan, and thence by cars it reaches the principal markets of Russia. Mr. Emery says it is estimated there are 25,000,000 poods (about 3,125,000 barrels) of crude oil in the vicinity of Baku held in excavations in the ground or lakes. Pipe-lines are being used from the wells to the refineries in the vicinity of Baku, a distance of 6 miles. Two 3-inch lines have recently been laid, one with pipes of American and one of English manufacture; and three more pipe-lines are in process of construction, one of 5 inches diameter, the other two of 3 inches diameter. A railroad also runs through the district. The price paid for pipeage is about 8 cents per American barrel, and oil is now a drug at 6 cents a barrel at the wells. Petroleum is found more or less on both sides of the Caucasian mountains; and oil is produced within the city limits of Tiflis, a city which is rated by the latest census as having 70,591 inhabitants. A railroad is in operation from the Black sea to Tiflis, a distance of 180 miles, and is in process of construction from Tiflis to Baku. Eighteen miles of this is already built, its construction having commenced last summer. The contract calls for its completion within three years of its commencement, with a forfeiture for every day over that time that it is not completed The contractor, however, states his expectation of completing the road within eighteen months from the beginning. The Russian government is the chief mover in the construction of the road, and the road is being built by a government contractor of large means. In this railroad, and in the possibility of a process of refining oil by which an increased percentage of illuminating oil can be eliminated, rests an apparent danger to the petroleum business of western Pennsylvania. With this railroad completed the Baku oil would be placed on tide-water navigation with a railroad haul of nearly 600 miles. The commerce of the Black sea is already very important, Odessa, located upon it, being one of the great grain markets of the world. Very considerable attention is now being turned toward territory in Europe that presents some aspects of being oil-bearing. The country south of the Caucasian mountains, of which Tiflis is the center, while belonging to Russia, is in Asia. Immediately north of the Caucasian mountains is the Kouban river, emptying into the Black sea. The following is from my New York daily report of March 12: ‘‘T have recently come more fully in contact with people having knowledge of the oil-producing territory on the Caspian sea than I had at the time of writing my February monthly report, and I now find the statement I made in that report is of much too favorable a character in regard to Baku production and getting the Baku oil to market. The railroad I spoke of as being constructed between the Black and Caspian seas has been constructed for some time from the Black sea to Tiflis, and a short piece has been built, say 12 miles long, on the Baku end, in the vicinity of the oil-wells. It is intended to go to work on the road east of Tiflis soon, but operations have not yet commenced, or had not recently. This distance is between 300 and 400 miles, and there are some uncertainties concerning its construction which may keep it delayed for along time. I am informed by merchants in this city, who have correspondents in that vicinity, that my information is at fault very considerably regarding the amount of production at Baku, and that it is very much less. — Taking into consideration what I am recently informed, the matters at Baku are not of a nature, I judge, that require them at present to be taken into account as having a bearing upon the prices of American petroleum.” Dr. Tweddle, formerly of Pittsburgh and Franklin, representing a French company, is drilling two wells upon this river, and has a small refinery at Taman, a city located near the mouth of the Kouban. He has secured enormous tracts of territory from the Russian ~ government. Five drillers and experienced well-men recently left Oil City to join Dr. Tweddle on the Kouban river. Mr. James R. Adams, of Oil City, experienced in oil matters, has been with Dr. Tweddle since last summer, having previously spent a year at Baku. The following is Mr. Welch’s report on Galicia and Germany: . Galicia, in Austria, has been producing some oil for a considerable time, and has now a production of about 500 barrels per day. This territory has been visited by Americans accustomed to drilling wells and refining oil, who had gone to inspect it, with a view of doing business there, and they came away unfavorably impressed with it as a place to locate in the oil business. . Drilling is difficult and expensive there, the strata of the rocks not lying horizontally, but being at an angle that causes them to cave after being drilled through. Much or most of the oil is taken from near the surface from wells dug down, and the oil then bailed out. The oil is unreliable in gravity even at considerable depths, and the heavier grades are a drug, not being treated in such a way as to make a satisfactory lubricating oil. The Galician field is situated on the north side of the Carpathian mountains, and extends a distance of about 200 miles, with a width of about 10 miles. In Hungary, on the south side of the Carpathian mountains, there are the same indications of oil that there are on the north side. An English-American company has secured 29 square miles here, and are now taking steps to operate it. There have been numerous cable reports published in the newspapers recently of oil discovered in Hanover, Germany. European petroleum circulars I have received since these reports were circulated make no mention of them, and I have as yet heard nothing from my European correspondents upon the subject, although I cabled Bremen about it, and it consequently appears to me that the European petroleum trade is not taking much notice of these reports. Some petroleum has been found not far from Bremen for the past two hundred years. While I was in Bremen one year ago I took some notes of what gentlemen I met hoped would prove to be an oil district. It is located 128 English miles southeast of Bremen. They had three wells then down, of different depths, as follows: 181, 242, and 680 feet. Of the first two they were getting a small quantity of oil, one yielding 5 and the other 30 per cent. of illuminating oil. The other well they were then beginning to test. I am informed since that it only produces a barrel and a quarter per day, and that it is of heavy gravity, These wells are near the small city of Peine. Wells recently cabled about to the newspapers are near Heide, in the northwestern portion of Holstein. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 153: The following is William Brough’s description of the Russian oil-belt: The Russian ‘oil belt” may be traced, at intervals more or less remote, from the island of Schily-Khany, near the eastern shore of the Caspian sea, westward over the promontory of Apscheron, and following the line of the Caucasian mountains into the valley of the river Kouban, which empties its waters through a lagoon into the Black sea; thence it may be traced in the same general direction across the Crimea and to the oil-fields of Galicia, in Austria. This belt is actively worked in the Crimea, in the valley of the Kouban, and on the promontory of Apscheron, near the city of Baku; it is only at the latter point, however, that the product is sufficiently large to induce the gathering of statistics. At all other points the petroleum produced, whether gathered from springs or obtained by well- boring, is entirely absorbed by local consumption. The following table gives the shipments of petroleum and its products from Baku for the years named, in barrels of forty gallons each: | Year. Refined. Residuum. Crude. | UBIOscacec dccwelcssteseterceieadeccaks 392, 977 150, 021 22, 137 | ity yee feae Pe checeR ta pact ole 5 ae ae 561, 236 232, 782 17, 169 by ee ee ee OR Bi ee ee 750, 218 388, 042 24, 699 LOO sestamecissen tanec cctuaeee aeteaenmea 828, 347 755, 688 38, 628 | ABEONTO POV ies ccm awe scciewc cas ete 376, 736 427, 953 24, 470 As the average yield of refined petroleum from Apscheron crude is about one-third, we may estimate the total crude product of that field’ for the year 1879 at 2,500,000 barrels, or 6,850 barrels per day. This oilis all consumed in Russia, a very little manufactured for lubricating excepted. The residuum is used for fuel, and is consumed nearly altogether by the steam vessels on the Caspian sea and the Volga river. As shown by the table, the product of the Apscheron field declined about 9 per cent. in the first half of the year 1880, and by the end of that year the decline was so serious that the price, which had ruled for two years with little variation at 24 cents per barrel, advanced in the autumn to between $1 and $2 per barrel; but in 1881 production was so increased that in August the price had fallen to: 2 copecks per pood for oil at the wells, equal to 8 cents per barrel. of 40 gallons. The Apscheron oil-field as at present worked lies within a radius of 20 miles of the city of Baku, but nine-tenths of the total product has so far been obtained from the deposit at Balachany, which covers an area of from 2,000 to 3,000 acres. This deposit has proved very rich. The oil is found in a loose, open sand, at a depth varying from 120 to 450 feet, and is brought to the surface in balers having check-valves in the bottom similar to the sand-pump used in the Pennsylvanian oil regions, the large amount of loose sand which comes up with the oil preventing the use of the ordinary suction-valve pump used in American wells. The largest well ever found in the Balachany district had been producing for six years in 1879, and had yielded during that time an average of 1,200 barrels per day—a production much in excess of that of any Pennsylvanian well. The diameter of the wells is from 8 to 12 inches; the capacity of the balers from 20 to 40 gallons. There are about 400 wells in the entire Apscheron district, the largest outside of Balachany giving about 10 barrels per day, and the average yield of the whole number, including Balachany, being about 20 barrels per day. Balachany is situated 12 miles north of Baku, and is connected with it by a railway. There are also two pipe-lines for the transportation of oil to the latter place, where the refineries are mainly situated, and which is the port of shipment. There is one other pipe-line from Balachany to Soorachany, 5 or 6 miles distant, and 10 miles northeast of Baku. At Soorachany a large refinery is located, in order to utilize as fuel the gas from gas-springs there; there, too, may still be seen an ancient temple of the fire-worshipers, where prayers are daily said to a jet of petroleum gas, whose flame is never permitted to expire. The development of the Apscheron oil-field has constantly been restricted by want of transportation facilities, the only outlet for the production from Baku to the markets of Russia being by way of the Caspian sea and the Volgariver. Beside this new business of petroleum, now thirteen years established, the general commerce of the Caspian has in the same time been steadily growing, and the number of sea- going vessels, though constantly increasing, is still quite inadequate to supply the demand for transportation. In 1878 there were 30 steamships plying this sea; and of these 12 were imperial, leaving 18 merchant ships, varying in size from 300 to 500 tons. Eleven more were added in 1879, making 29 merchant steamships in all. There are beside numerous sailing-vessels. The steamships are all of foreign build, mainly English, and having to pass through the canals connecting the Baltic with the Volga, their size is consequently limited thereby. Some of them have been floated through in two sections. As the depth of water in the delta of the Volga is ordinarily but 2 feet, it is only in the spring of the year, when the water is 9 feet deep there, that these vessels can enter the Caspian. The oil, both crude and refined, is conveyed by these vessels in bulk compartments, as well as in casks and barrels, steamers being used almost exclusively for refined and sailing-vessels for crude and for residuum. ‘The voyage is made from Baku to ‘‘ nine-foot” water, where the vessels anchor in open roads and deliver their cargoes to barges built expressly for the shallow waters of the delta. These barges convey the oil to Astrakhan, a distance of 330 miles. At Tzaritzin the facilities for unloading the barges, for storing oil, or delivering it to the railroad are modern in character, and are really copied from the American methods. They consist of pipes, pumps, and large iron storage-tanks. The railroad also is equipped with iron tank-cars similar to the American. Farther up the Volga the railway again connects with the river at Saratoy, at Syzran, and at Nijni-Novgorod, to all of which oil is shipped, the last named being the most northerly point of river shipment, and 1,400 miles trom Astrakhan. In January, 1880, the Russian government granted a concession for the building of a railroad between Baku and Tiflis, the capital of the Caucasus, which was already connected by rail with Poti, on the Black sea. When this road shall be completed, it will furnish an outlet for Baku oil to the markets of Europe, and will bring it into direct competition with American oil in those markets The work of building this road is, if measured by the Russian standard, progressing rapidly. In August, 1881, 120 versts (about 80 miles) between Baku and Adji-Kabul was finished and in running order, and it is expected that the whole road will be completed by August, 1882. Its oil-car equipment will have capacity to deliver at the Black.sea 1,000,000 barrels per year. As the harbor of Poti is exposed and unsafe, the railway will be extended 60 miles farther south to Batoum, recently ceded by Turkey to Russia, and the best harbor on the Black sea. The whole length of the railway will be 660 miles. The freight rate is uniform on all the railroads of Russia, being prescribed by the imperial government, and in 1879 was for petroleum 1 copeck per pood for 45 versts, or 94 mills for carrying one ton of 2,000 pounds 1 mile. At this rate the cost of transferring a barrel of petroleum from Baku to Batoum will be 88 cents. As the petroleum product of Apscheron has thus far been so steadily maintained above the carrying capacity of the vessels on the Caspian sea, we need not doubt that, with the opening of the Baku and Tiflis railroad, other deposits will be found along the line indicated. Indeed, the Russian oil man is fully alive to this conception, and is already prospecting along the whole line from Baku to Adji-Kabul, buying and selling, leasing and releasing, oil lands after the manner of his American prototype. But until this railroad is completed the Americans need not fear competition from that quarter. The high rates of freight on the Caspian, the delays and hazard 154 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. attending the discharge of cargo in open sea at ‘‘Nine-foot”, the double transfer, and the long voyage from ‘‘Nine-foot” to Tzaritzin, requiring the service of steam-tugs all the way, these, added to the fact that this only outlet is closed by ice from November until April, form a complete bar to such competition. Indeed, it is doubtful whether the Russian could now hold his place in his own market without the help of the duty imposed for his protection upon American petroleum. This duty is 9 cents per gallon, payable in gold. The gravity of Baku oil ranges from 26° to 36° B., there being very little of the latter grade, and the gravity of oil taken from pipe- line tanks, where the product of different wells is mixed, is about 30° B. This mixed oil gives a yield of 33 per cent. illuminating oil, and the residuum is used for fuel. No other fuel is used by steamers on the Caspian sea. Many of the steamers on the Volga also use it. It is also the only fuel used by the locomotives on the railway now building and partly completed from the eastern shore of the Caspian sea into the Turkoman territory recently acquired by Russia. The oil-fields of the Kouban valley and the peninsula of the Taman, on the Black sea, have been worked actively, with some intervals of comparative rest, since 1864. In that year a Russian nobleman, Count Novyosiltzoff, leased 1,500,000 acres from the ‘Cossacks of the Kouban” and began operations on an extensive scale. He employed American workmen, and extended his well-drilling over a stretch of country 150 miles in length. He also built a large refinery at Taman, on the straits of Enikale, near the western end of his territory. It is difficult now to ascertain what success attended his operations. At one point, Kudokko, it is said le obtained a very large well, some Cossack estimates putting it at 10,000 barrels per day; but we may rest assured that this is a greatly exaggerated statement. It may be doubted whether the well produced at any time 1,000 barrels per day, or for any considerable time even a hundred, for Noyosiltzoff failed to obtain oil enough from his wells to compensate him for his expenditures, notwithstanding that the price ruled very much higher then than now; and his enterprise finally failed, after sinking his original capital and involving him in an indebtedness of about 1,500,000 rubles. The Kudokko well is still producing; its yield in 1878 was about 23 barrels per day. The well was then four years old. It is pumped by steam-power, with a suction-valve pump. The oil is of good quality, olive-green in color, gravity 36° B., and yields when distilled 50 per cent. of illuminating oil. A small refinery on the estate works up the oil into lubricants and illuminants, and finds ready sale for the entire product in the Cossack community of the neighborhood. Twenty-eight other wells were drilled around this first well without increasing the total product; indeed, the Kudokko oil-field has been shrinking steadily since it was first opened, notwithstanding the occasional drilling of new wells, and its total product is now less than 20 barrels per day. In 1879 a French company, under American management, leased all the Novosiltzoff land except the 25,000 acres which form the Kudokko estate, and began operations in a vigorous manner. This company is still at work; it has in its employ skilled, practical workmen from the oil regions of Pennsylvania, and it has made several large shipments of well machinery from America. It also recently purchased here pipe and pumps for a pipe-line from Ilsky, where its most productive wells are situated, to the port of Novorossisk, on the Black sea, 65 miles west of sky. It is perhaps too soon to determine what success in finding oil will attend its operations; but the total yield of its wells is thus far about 80 barrels per day, and the greater part of this product is of inferior character, being a black bituminous oil. It may, however, be doubted whether any large deposit of petroleum will ever be formed within the limits of this field, taking Isky as its eastern boundary and including all the land westward which forms the peninsula of Taman, bounded on the north by the sea of Azov and the straits of Enikale and on the south by the Black sea. There has been a large amount of unsuccessful test-drilling done here in the last sixteen years, but no rock has yet been found which makes a suitable receptacle for petroleum. Wherever found, the oil is diffused through the whole strata of soil and near the surface, so that no mechanical ingenuity is required to reach it, but it can be obtained with the rudest well-boring implements. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the country has been worked for oil from remote times. The greatest depth at which oil has been found here is 400 feet, and deeper drilling has thus far given no promise of success. These remarks are equally applicable to the Crimean district, which is of the same character. Although illuminating oils manufactured in Russia from the native crude product compare favorably with the American oils, the latter have nevertheless been yearly imported into Russia, though in diminishing quantity; but the fact that these imports still continue seems to need some explanation, in view of the heavy duty of 9 cents per gallon imposed on American oil. A comparison of the burning qualities of the two oils shows that the American gives a slightly whiter flame, and that it is less liable to smoke than the Russian. In odor and color they are equal. The Russian oil burns with undiminished flame until the oil in the lamp is exhausted, while the flame of the American sinks when the oil becomes low in the lamps. The fire-test of the Russian oil is quite as good as of the best American, and the tendency to smoke of the Russian is easily overcome by a proper adjustment of the lamp-chimney. The Russians have lately introduced some new patterns of chimneys. These remarks apply only to standard oils of both countries found in open market at St. Petersburg, rejecting special brands and inferior or defective lots. The following table gives the imports of American refined petroleum into Russia for the years named, the figures being taken from Russian official records and transposed from ‘‘poods” into barrels of forty gallons each: Barrels. || Barrels. || Barrels. 1867/fo. chet eset mee eee G8; 316 34) US7S. seals N08; BOLI Bere eee eee ce Pewee 261,780 1869). 2a ane tae LUD Maza Mid Ora enn ee ee 379,481 W878 1h. eee 251, 227 1809 458. Se ce GM Cre re Pere ee ee ee 510) 981tieis70 Lei aea me re ee 188, 752 1870 chu h (acne DabtR8 386 AB TSse Weratennny Aka 308,05, 41680" 0. og Ssbewe ee 143, 154 1670S RE eS 217,658 dl Te76silpod; Mae lenses 277, 671 Tn conversation with Mr. Charles H. Trask, of the firm of William Ropes & Co., of 70 Wall street, New York, largely engaged in the Russian trade, he remarked that transportation from Baku to St. Petersburg was so expensive that a high gold duty, augmented by a depreciated currency, alone rendered the manufacture of Russian oils in St. Petersburg possible. Without this duty the oils could not compete with American, although the lubricating oils made from Russian crude do not chill and are superior to American lubricating oils. He said, further, that shipments of low-grade American oils to Russia had entirely ceased, but that high-test American oils were still sold there. As the tariff may be changed at any time, the business was somewhat uncertain both for those within and those outside Russia. , I have not been able to obtain any satisfactory statistics of the Canadian production. So far as I can learn, stocks had accumulated in Canada befcre 1879, but during that year and subsequently these stocks were drawn > down, so that the production of refined during the census year was no indication of the production out of the ground. I have not therefore made any attempt to estimate the Canadian production, which is only of local importance, as partially supplying the Dominion markets. Devens] Bed Bd a Be THEH TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. a ened AR AE Se CHAPTER I.—MIXTURES OF PETROLEUM. SECTION 1.—FILTERED PETROLEUM. Petroleum was prepared for use, particularly in medicine, by filtering, at a very early date in southern Ohio. Dr. Hildreth, as early as 1833, (a) mentions filtering petroleum through charcoal, by which much of its “empyreumatic smell is destroyed and the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance”. Since that time petroleum has been filtered through gravel and through both wood and animal charcoal, in order to remove all sediment from it, and at the same time to remove in part both its color and its odor; but since the methods of refining by distillation have been discovered, it is chiefly the more dense oils that have been treated in this way. These dense natural oils are often injured by distillation in the properties which render them valuable for lubrication, and filtering appears to furnish the only means of removing, even in a partial manner, the color and the often quite disagreeable odor. SECTION 2.—MIXTURES OF PETROLEUM. The mixtures into which petroleum enters are chiefly used for lubrication. They consist of petroleum and heavy products of petroleum mixed mechanically with animal and vegetable oils, tallow, resin, and allied materials, of the same mixed with mineral substances, and also of the same mixed with chemical compounds. The first class of compounds is made in very great variety ; in fact, there is scarcely a wholesale oil house in the country but has some formula of its own for compounding lubricating oils, into which petroleum or the products of petroleum enter as a constituent. Some of these are sold honestly as mixtures, while others are adulterations pure and simple. Some of these mixtures are prepared in the rudest manner, and are used only for the coarsest purposes; others are prepared with great care, the mixture being effected by heating and purified by straining or filtering the oil through various materials. The general purpose for which mixtures are prepared is to produce a lubricating material that will be quite as effective as animal or vegetable oils and at the same time be less expensive. A few mixtures are prepared and sold on their merits as preparations of a superior quality, while some dealers maintain that the larger the proportion of mineral oil the better. The oils used in preparing these mixtures are sperm, whale, and lard oils to a considerable extent, especially for lubrication. Neat’s-foot oil and castor oil are used in mixtures for dressing leather. Lard-oil mixtures have been used for oiling wool. In Germany a mixture is sold under the name of “ Vulcan oil”, which consists of a petroleum distillate of a specific gravity of from 0.870 to 0.890, treated with about 6 per cent. of sulphuric acid and well washed with water, and then mixed with 5 per cent. of rape oil. Another, called “opal” oil, consists of petroleum distillate of a specific gravity of from 0.850 to 0.870, similarly treated and washed, and mixed with 10 per cent. of rape oil. The mixture of petroleum products with mineral substances have only been invented quite recently, and are principally the so-called .plumbago oils manufactured in Rochester, New York. By a process which has been patented, reduced petroleum is apparently ground with graphite, as paints are ground in oil, resulting in a complete suspension of the graphite in the oil. It is claimed that these oils are very superior lubricators for railroad axles and steam cylinders, the latter becoming coated with a polished coat of graphite soft as silk. The Johnson Graphite Oil Company publishes a certificate showing that a car had made over 13,000 miles of mileage on one application. It has also been proposed to treat heavy reduced oils with powdered pyrophyllite. This mineral resembles talc, and when powdered is especially soft and greasy to the touch. The most striking example of chemical preparations of petroleum is perhaps found in the justly celebrated Galena oils, manufactured at Franklin, Pennsylvania. These oils consist of a lead soap dissolved in petroleum. A lead soap is prepared after the ordinary manner by boiling oxide of lead with a saponifiable oil, and the whole is dissolved in the natural heavy oil of the Franklin district. The oils thus prepared have great tenacity and endurance as lubricators, particularly for car-axles, for which purpose they are principally used. Mixtures of natural oils and tallow, natural oils and residuum, reduced petroleum, residuum from acid-restoring works, containing sulphur, pine tar, etc., are used on car-axles and for other heavy lubrication. aA. J.S8. (1), xxiv, 63. 157 158 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. CHAPTER II.—PARTIAL DISTILLATION. SECTION 1—SUNNED OILS. The thickening by evaporation of oils spilled upon the Allegheny river and its tributaries, by which an ordinary third-sand oil would become converted into a dense oil fit for lubrication, led to experiments upon the lighter first- and second-sand oils around Franklin that were too light for lubricators and too dense for profitable manufacture into illuminating oils. These experiments were first undertaken by Mr. William H. Brige, of Franklin, and consisted in an attempt to imitate the conditions observed on the river as nearly as possible. Mr. Brige first exposed the oil spread on the surface of water in a small pan 3 feet square. This pan was placed in the sun, and the light oils were allowed to evaporate until the desired consistence was reached. The method was found to be entirely successful. The plan, since adopted on a larger scale, is as follows: A wooden tank is provided, sunk in the ground nearly its entire depth, 60 to 70 feet long, 20 to 30 feet wide, and 1 foot deep. A flat steam coil is laid upon the bottom, and water is run in from 8 to 10 inches deep, upon which a layer of oil about an inch thick is placed. The water is heated by the coil to about 110° F., and the oil becomes very limpid. Every description of dirt, particularly minute particles of grit, that was held in suspension in the viscid oil is left free to fall to the bottom of the tank, and the specific gravity of the oil is reduced in a few days from 32° to 29° B. The oil loses by this treatment about 12 per cent. of its volume, and is increased in value from $5 to $12 per barrel. SECTION 2,.—REDUCED OILS. Throughout the entire region the observation has been made repeatedly that oil left in open tanks evaporates and decreases in specific gravity Baumé. Mr. George Allen, of Franklin, acting on such observations, patented a novel method of partially evaporating petroleum which produces a very superior quality of oil. He suspends sheets of loosely woven cloth vertically above troughs in a heated chamber and by a perforated pipe distributes the oil upon the upper border of the curtain in thin streams. The oil is thus distributed over a large surface in the heated _ atmosphere, and the thin film is rapidly evaporated, the light portion passing into the atmosphere, and the heavy portion dripping from the lower border of the curtain into the troughs, from which it passes into a receptacle. This method of treatment furnishes a bright green, odorless oil, entirely free from sediment of any kind, such impurities remaining attached to the curtain. These methods of partial evaporation are particularly valuable, as they preserve all the qualities of the natural oil, without any danger from the effects of overheating. Many thousands of barrels are reduced every year by partial evaporation in stills, either by direct application of heat or by the use of steam, the evaporation for this purpose being always so carefully conducted as to avoid overheating and “ cracking” or any approach to destructive distillation. The different grades of naphtha are usually run off, and then a sufficient amount of distillate is removed to reduce the portion remaining in the still to the required specific gravity. The amount of reduction depends upon the purpose for which the oil is intended, not only with regard to its density, but also with regard to the velocity and temperature at which the machinery is to be run. For use on large journals and those revolving at moderate speed the oil is reduced to a specific gravity of from 29° to 324° B., but for use on small journals moving with great velocity, and also in the interior of cylinders, where the temperature is very high, a still greater reduction is found necessary, and the oil is made more dense. At the same time it is made less volatile, having a specific gravity of from 26° to 29° B. A large proportion of the lighter grade oils of West Virginia and Ohio and the entire production of the Smith’s Ferry district are treated in this manner. The latter oil is very peculiar, having the color of pale sherry, without its transparency, and when freshly pumped has a specific gravity of 50° B., with a much less pronounced and less disagreeable odor than any other petroleum produced in commercial quantities in the United States. When — reduced with the aid of steam the distillate of suitable specific gravity for burning oil requires little or no treatment with acid or alkali, and the reduced oil from the still preserves its amber color and freedom from offensive odor, furnishing a lubricator of very superior quality and attractive appearance. Reduced oils are often filtered through animal charcoal, and are thereby greatly improved in color and odor. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 159 CHapreR I]—GENERAL TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM BY DISTILLATION. SECTION 1.—INTRODUCTION., Oils were first obtained for commercial purposes by distilling shales and coal early in the present century, but they had been thus produced in small quantities for experiment more than a century before. Gesner, in Coal, Petroleum, and Other Distilled Oils, 1861, page 8, says: As early as 1694 Eele, Hancock, and Portlock made ‘‘pitch, tar, and oyle out of a kind of stone”, and obtained patents therefor. * * * Tn 1781 the earl of Dundonald obtained oils from coals by submitting them to dry distillation in coke ovens. * * * Laurent, Reichenbach and others distilled the tars obtained from bituminous schists. These tars were purified in some degree by Selligne, and the oils subsequently obtained an extensive sale in Europe for burning in lamps and for lubricating machinery. * * * Patents were granted in England in 1847 to Charles Mansfield for ‘‘an improvement in the manufacture and purification of spirituous substances and oils applicable to the purposes of artificial light”, etc. Mr. Mansfield’s operations appear to have been chiefly directed to the coal tar of gas works, from which he obtained benzole. He was perhaps the first to introduce the benzole or atmospheric light, which is. described at length in his specifications. From a letter received from the eminent English geologist, E. W. Binney, I extract the following statement concerning the origin of the paraffine oil industry of Scotland: In 1847 Mr. James Young came to me to ask for information as to petroleum, he having agreed to work some at Riddings, near Alfreton.. I gave him all the information I possessed. In 1848 I went over with him to Down Holland Moss(a) and showed him the petroleum peat there and brought away samples for him. In the same year I went to Riddings and descended Mr. Oakes’ coal-pit and examined the petroleum as it came from the roof of the coal-seam. I then distinctly told him that the oil could be made from highly bituminous coal, distilled at a low heat in a something similar way as the peat and gas-coal yielded it. In 1850 Mr. Young and I became aware of the discovery of a highly bituminous coal at Boghead, in Scotland. We met at the British association, in Edinburgh, at the end of July. I went over to Bathgate, descended the pit where it was wrought, brought a sample of it, and showed it to Messrs. Young and Meldrum, who said they thought it would not make oil. I said that if they could not make oil from it I could. In a day afterward they asked me to join them in a patent to work the invention. Mr. Young was to take out the patent in his name, and Mr. Meldrum and I were to join him in owning and working it. I accordingly bought land, found money, and purchased 10,000 tons of Boghead coal. These works were carried on under the style or firm of E. W. Binney & Co. for fifteen years. I drew the specification of the Young’s patent and invented the name paraffine oil, which term was quite new. In 1856 I took out an American patent in Mr. Young’s name for the invention, and several parties took licenses in the United States to work it there, paying 2 pence per gallon royalty to us, they fetching Boghead coal from Scotland at a cost of £4 or £5 per ton when delivered. Breckenridge and some other American coals were also used, I believe: As some of these parties refused to pay their royalties, we went to law with them in the states, and their lawyers, having heard that our patent had been the subject of a trial in the court of Queen’s Bench, wrote to England for the history of Young’s patent, which was reported in the Jowrnal of Gas Lighting, in a trial at law, Young vs. Hydrocarbon Gas Company, June, 1854. In this trial Mr. Young gave in evidence that he obtained parafiine oil from petroleum before he resorted to coal to obtain it. That would be about 1860; and our American patent never yielded us another cent of royalty. Oil lamps for burning it having been invented in Europe, all was ready for the start of your vast petroleum trade. We always dreaded your native oil coming on us, but we did pretty well before it rushed out,. and our patent expired in 1864. There was no lack of information in this country respecting the properties of petroleum prior to 1860. Professor Silliman, sr., in 1833, wrote: I have frequently distilled it in a glass retort, and the naphtha which collects in the receiver is of a light straw color and much lighter and more inflammable than petroleum. On the first distillation a little water rests in the receiver at the bottom of the naphtha, from which it is easily decanted, and a second distillation prepares it perfectly for preserving potassium and sodium, the object which has led me to distill it. (b) In a communication made to the Bradford Hra of July 4, 1881, some one signing himself ‘‘ Old Salt Well” gives the following story of the first attempt to refine petroleum in northwestern Pennsylvania. Speaking of the salt-wells near Tarentum, Armstrong county, Pennsylvania, which, with the springs on Oil creek, at that time produced all of the petroleum of that region, he says: To my certain knowledge they only produced from three to five barrels per day, and I recollect distinctly there was but one well that produced oil only. The wells were pumped, the oi] mingling with the salt water. The wells were owned by a gentleman named Kier. When the wells first yielded oil it was placed in four-ounce vials and hawked about the country at 25 cents per bottle as Seneca or rock oil for medicinal purposes. In the year 1854 a small refinery was built at the corner of Grant street and Seventh avenue, Pittsburgh, the point of the old canal outlet into the Monongahela river and the same locality of the present railroad tunnel. It was there the first carbon oil was refined for illuminating purposes. The still did not have a capacity exceeding five barrels. It occupied a one- story building, in size about 12 by 24 feet. In the spring of 1855 I purchased a gallon of the oil, had it placed in a stone jug, and took it home for the purpose of illumination. The kind of lamp in which the oil was used was the same as what was then employed for a substance called burning fluid. The lamp had from one to five small tubes, and was made of britannia or pewter. To trim the lamps cotton-wick was drawn into the tubes, perfectly tight, and the wick was cut down closely until it ceased smoking, and then the lamp was nearly as perfect as any lamp of the period. Each one of those tubes produced a light equal to about two tallow candles. In the _ year 1876 or 1877 the still that was employed in this immense refinery was displayed at the exposition in Allegheny city, and was labeled as the first still ever used to refine petroleum. In its day it supplied the world’s demand for that kind of an illumination. The matter of where the first oil was produced I believe is not the question. Any of the old salt manufacturers about Tarentum can corroborate a On the coast north of the Mersey. GVA Si SCL), XXi, LOL, 160 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. what is here stated, and perhaps furnish many interesting details not contained in this brief article. These wells were located 18 miles from Pittsburgh, near the path of the old Penysylvania canal. Colonel Drake was not the first man to produce petroleum, but he was certainly the first person who drilled a well for the express purpose of finding oil. The questions of when and by whom the first oil was produced and refined can readily be established by indisputable proof. The Mr. Kier mentioned above was Mr, Samuel M. Kier, before mentioned in this report (see page 10), who, with his friend Mr. McKuen, carried on the enterprise as described. This statement is corroborated by a large amount of evidence from independent sources. It was not a lack of knowledge, but a lack of petroleum, that prevented its use by American manufacturers before 1860. Drake sold his oil to McKuen for 75 cents a gallon. The editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts in 1861 reviewed Gesner’s Coal, Petroleum, and other Distilled Oils, and says: The author recognizes the intimate relation of the manufacture of coal oils with the production in such increasing abundance of petroleum, destined to become a powerful competitor of the artificial product for economic use. It is instructive in this connection to recall the fact that the natural product (petroleum), which has been well known from the earliest records of human history, should have remained comparatively useless and almost neglected until the modern art of coal-oil distillation has shown its industrial value. It is quite possible that the future historian of the industrial arts may look back on the coal-oil distillation as only an episode in the history of the development of the use of petroleum. (a) In 1862 Isaiah Warren and his father, being in the lard-oil and candle trade in Wheeling, West Virginia, commenced the distillation of West Virginia petroleum in three 15-barrel stills, and Mr. Warren, sr., was apprehensive that they would glut the market, the price of refined oil then ruling at from 85 cents to $1 15 per gallon. SECTION 2.—EARLY METHODS. The stills in general use at this time were made in three parts, bolted or riveted together, and consisted of a cylindrical cast-iron body, to which was attached a boiler-plate bottom and a cast-iron dome and goose-neck. They held about 25 barrels, were heated from the bottom and bricked up upon the sides, and were sometimes protected from the direct action of the fire by fire-brick. These stills were charged with crude oil, the charge run off, the still cooled, and the coke cut out, often with a cold-chisel. When four-fifths of the oil had been run off the remainder was, when cold, as thick as pitch; at this point some refiners introduced steam, which mechanically expanded and carried over the last volatile portions of the charge, leaving a compact coke, while others distilled to coke without steam. The use of steam at a high pressure in the distillation of Rangoon petroleum and coal had been patented in England in 1857 by Mr. Bancroft, of Liverpool; and Mr. Wilson, a manufacturer of stearic acid, ip 1860 used superheated steam in the distillation of natural petroleums.(b) Steam under moderate pressure was also frequently used throughout the entire distillation, both above the charge and injected through it. In the latter case it becomes superheated as the boiling point of the oils rises above that of water; it was, however, considered preferable with the dense paraffine oils to superheat the steam before it entered the oil. Sometimes, after the charge in the retort was partly run off, it was the practice to allow a stream of fresh oil to enter the still about as fast as the vapors were condensed. In this way about twice the ordinary charge could be distilled and the residue of the whole run down to coke. The light naphthas were first taken off and were used for fuel or were allowed to run to waste, there being at that time little or no sale for these products. The distillate was then run to illuminating oil until the specific gravity reached 36° B. = 0.843, and the remaining charge run down till the distillate became of a greenish color. The illuminating oil was then placed in an, iron- or lead- lined tank and agitated for one or two hours with oil of vitriol washed, then with water, and afterward treated in the same manner with caustic soda solution of a specific gravity of 1.400 and again washed with water. Some refiners considered this successive treatment with acid and alkali sufficient; others subjected the treated oil to a second distillation, sometimes over solid caustic soda: but this distillation had to be conducted with great care. Some of the earliest and most successful refiners of petroleum on the Atlantic coast were formerly manufacturers of whale and sperm oil, and, having been accustomed to expose their animal oils to sunlight under glass roofs in shallow tanks, they adopted with uniform success the same method of treatment for the mineral oils. Both the color and the odor are improved by this exposure. The heavier naphthas and heavy oils were subjected to redistillation, either alone or with more crude petroleum, and all of the distillate of a proper specific gravity for illuminating oil was carefully separated. The remaining heavy distillate was treated with acid and alkali and sold as “ paraffine oil”. It was of a dark color and rank odor, and found its way into use very slowly, not only on account of its real inferiority, but on account of violent prejudice against it. SECTION 3.—DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION. The general method of manipulation just given was in very general use until about 1865, when the method of cracking or destructive distillation of the heavier oils was generally adopted. A great variety of chemical reagents were used in treating the oils. Solid caustic soda was used in the stills. The oils were washed with nitric acid : bichromate of potash was added to the sulphuric acid, and the combined action of sulphuric and chromic acids a A.J.S., 1861. b J. F. L, lxix, 338, 1860; Cosmos, Mar., 1860. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 161 was thus secured; and chloride of lime or bleaching powder in the proportion of 3 ounces to one gallon of oil has been used with hydrochloric acid, the oil finally being treated with lime water. Whatever reagents are used in treatment, it has been found necessary to bring the oil to a uniform temperature above 60° F. In the old form of agitator, when the mixture was effected by machinery, the injection of steam during agitation has been found beneficial both for bringing the oil to the required temperature and to facilitate the washing and settling of the acid and alkaline solutions. (@) In December, 1865, James Young, jr., of Limefield, took out a patent in England for an improvement in treating hydrocarbon oils that was noticed as follows in the Chemical News for August 31, 1866: This looks like a very valuable invention. The patentee submits the heavier hydrocarbon oils to distillation under pressure, and finds that thereby the heavier oils originally operated upon are converted into oils of lower specific gravity, possessing a higher commercial value. The process may be carried on in ordinary steam boilers (noétubular), which should be proved to 100 pounds; but it is not found necessary to operate much beyond a pressure of 20 pounds to the inch. The means of regulating the escape of the vapor, and of condensing it, can be easily imagined. The operation may be carried on with the crude products of the original distillation, or the lighter oils may first be separated by an ordinary rectification, and only the heavy oils submitted to this treatment. (b) At about the time that this invention was patented in England the same results were obtained in the United States by an entirely different method of manipulation. This method consisted in a slow and repeated distillation, which produced destructive distillation of the medium and heavy oils, converting them into oils of a density suitable for illumination with a production of gaseous products and deposition of carbon. In order to accomplish this result the brick casing was removed from the stills, and after that portion of the distillate suitable for illumination had been separated the fires were slackened and the vapors of the heavy oils as they rose into the dlome of the still were allowed to condense and drip back upon the hot oil below, which had meanwhile been heated to a temperature above the boiling point of the oil dripping upon it. This practically superheats the vapors of the oils and produces decomposition. The effect of distillation under pressure is precisely the same: the oils are distilled at a temperature above their normal boiling points. By this method of distillation the petroleum can be converted into naphtha, illuminating oil, and coke, with a certain amount of gas either escaping into the atmosphere or being burned as it escapes. The illuminating oil may be collected in one receptacle and be made of uniform grade, or that portion of the petroleum suitable for purposes of illumination can be separated from that produced by destructive distillation, thus furnishing two grades of illuminating oil which are quite different in composition and quality, the light oils in the crude petroleum being superior to ‘those produced by the decomposition of the heavier portions of the oil. This method of distillation had heen successfully pursued in treating the distillates from coal before the introduction of petroleum, but it was not generally applied to the treatment of petroleum, especially in very large stills, until about the time here indicated. Its successful introduction and general adoption was, however, the result of an accumulated experience, not only in the distillation, but quite as much in the subsequent treatment of the oil with acids and alkalies, especial regard being had to the temperature while undergoing treatment. The result of the adoption of this method of manipulating the oil by one distillation was the gradual separation of petroleum refiners, in a general way, into two classes: a small number who continued to manufacture a variety of products from petroleum, and a large number who manufactured principally illuminating oils. While the division thus made is correct in a general sense, it must not be understood as applying strictly to all the parties engaged in manufacturing petroleum. There are those who reduce petroleum and sell their light distillates; others who reduce petroleum and treat their own distillates; others who produce nothing but enormous quantities of crude naphthas, illuminating oils, and residuum, selling their crude naphtha to parties who redistill and fractionate the naphtha into several products—their illuminating oils to the general trade, and their residuum to manufacturers of lubricating oils; others who refine and fractionate crude naphtha; others who manufacture lubricating oils, using both crude petroleum and residuum for the purpose; others who manufacture in one _establishment nearly everything that can be made from petroleum; and still others who have special processes by which peculiar products are obtained. It is unnecessary to describe in detail all of these different methods of conducting the business of manufacturing petroleum ; it is sufficient for my purpose to describe carefully what may be termed two typical establishments, and then to describe a number of processes that are used for special purposes. SECTION 4.—DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS USED IN MANUFACTURING PETROLEUM. Before describing the process above mentioned, it will be necessary to describe in detail the apparatus which is in general use in such establishments. Locarion.—The largest petroleum refineries in the country are at, tide-water at Hunter’s Point and Newtown creek, Long Island; Bayonne, New Jersey ; Point Breeze, below Philadelphia, and at Thurlow, below Chester, on the Delaware; and near Baltimore, Maryland. At Bayonne, New Jersey, the Standard and Ocean refineries have piers 1,000 feet in length, with sufficient water to float the largest ships and facilities for loading from 6,000 to 7,000 barrels of refined oil daily. In western Pennsylvania and Ohio the refineries are usually located upon the side of a hill, the storage-tanks for crude oil being placed highest and the oil distributed by gravity so far as is possivle. a See Chemical News, vi, 230. b C.N., xiv, 108. VOL. Ix——11 162 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. BuILDINGS.—The buildings of refineries are in the greatest variety possible. In the older establishments, particularly in the Atlantic cities, the works are carefully inclosed with substantial buildings of brick and iron, while the other extreme is to be observed in newer establishments, either just going into operation or being rebuilt after destructive fires, when scarcely anything about the place except boilers, engine, and pumps is covered, the receiving-tanks being underground and the stills without any covering at all. The works of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, at South Boston, have always been very carefully inclosed iu valuable brick buildings, and no serious loss has occurred there for many years. Some of the immense refineries at and around Hunter’s Point, Long Island, are also fully inclosed; but the works of the Tide-Water Pipe Company at Thurlow, Pennsylvania, on the Delaware, only recently constructed, and said to be one of the most complete establishments of the kind, are almost as completely exposed to the elements as those of the smallest and rudest concerns in the oil regions. The boilers are placed in one building, the pumps in another, the office in another, all of which are of brick; but the stills and condensers are without any covering whatever. The distillate tanks are all underground; the agitating tank is isolated and uncovered; and the sunning and spraying tanks are in buildings made of rough boards, and are of little value. The works of the Acme Oil Company, at Titusville, Pennsylvania, built to replace those burned during the census year, appear to be built on a hillside from which fire has removed even the soil, and to be without a building or a covering of any description. TANKAGE.—The oil is received at the refineries either from pipe-lines or from the tank-cars of transportation companies, and in either case it is pumped into vast storage-tanks holding from 10,000 to 36,000 barrels each. The tank-cars are provided with gates or valves on the under side, to which hose may pe attaehed. and connections are made with a large pipe laid beneath the track, into which the oil rushes as soon as the gates areopened. This pipe discharges the oil into a tank, from which it is pumped to the storage-tanks. In these tanks from one to two per cent. of water settles, and from them the oil is pumped into the stills. STILts.—A great variety of stills are in use for different purposes, and the ereater the variety of products produced from the petroleum the greater will be the variety of stills in use as regards both size and form. In some establishments the old cast-iron, upright cylindrical still, with wrought-iron bottom, is still in use. To these have been added plain, horizontal wrought-iron cylinders of various sizes. One of these, as now quite generally used, is represented with the setting in the vertical section in Fig. 37, and a bank of three, as they are usually set, in Fig. 38. From these sections it will be observed that they are 12 feet 6 inches in diameter and 30 feet in length. The vapors rise into a dome 3 feet in diameter, from which they pass to the condenser through a single pipe 15 inches in diameter. No more simple form of still could be devised. The so-called cheese-box still, now in great repute, is shown with the setting in horizontal and vertical section in Figs. 39 and 40. It is 30 feet in diameter and 9 feet high, with a dome-shaped top, and works 1,200 barrels of crude oil. The bottom has a double curve, to allow of expansion; the sides are of five-sixteenths-inch wrought-iron and the bottom of five-sixteenths-inch steel, the whole inclosed in a sheet-iron jacket. The center is supported upon a cylindrical pier of brickwork, through which the products of combustion are led to the stack. The circumference is supported upon seventeen arches, in sixteen of which are fireplaces, the sides of which converge toward the center and discharge over a bridge-wall through four arches into the center of the pier just mentioned. Through the seventeenth arch passes the discharge- pipe from the bottom of the still. The vapors escape from this still through three pipes, two of which may be closed by cocks, into a sort of chest or drum (Fig. 41), from which 40 pipes 3 inches in diameter pass through to the condensing tanks. Steam is introduced into the heated vapors as they escape from both the cylindrical and cheese-box stills by placing a curved and perforated pipe of the form shown in Fig. 42 at the point where the vapors emerge from the still and enter the exit pipe. The use of steam in this manner is found to improve both the color and the odor, especially of “ cracked oils”. Several attempts have been made to produce continuous distillation; but I cannot learn that any of them have proved commercially successful, although an apparatus of the kind erected in Buffalo has been put in operation and distillates have been produced that were treated and sold. This apparatus was patented by Samuel Van Syckle, of Titusville, Pennsylvania, May 22, 1877, No. 191203. It consists of a series of stilis, in which the oil is maintained at a constant level by means of a tank, in which a float on the surface of the oil as it rises and falls automatically controls the flow. The first still is maintained at such a temperature that the naphthas and other light products are removed, and in the other two the illuminating oils are removed so effectually that residuum may be drawn off from the last still. I think this apparatus should be more thoroughly tested before its merits are finally judged, especially as to how far its value is modified by complexity and expense of manipulation. Another apparatus, evidently much more simple in construction than Van Syckle’s, but at the same time not calculated for handling the enormous quantities of oil refined in this country, has been patented in Germany by Herr Fuhst. (a) The deodorized lubricating oils, of which Mr. Joshua Merrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, was the inventor, have been prepared by him in a still of peculiar construction, especially adapted to the treatment of petroleum and kindred substances. An accident suggested the preparation of these oils to Mr. Merrill. In a Dingler, cevii, 293. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. | 165 November, 1867, the condenser to a still, in which a quantity of oil too heavy for illumination and too light for lubrication was being fractionated, became obstructed from some accidental cause, and the pressure became so great that the leakage caused the fires to be drawn and the whole thing to cool down. The still was started with 900 gallons, from which 250 gallons was found to be removed by the partial distillation. On removing the remaining oil, Mr. Merrill was surprised to find it different from any petroleum product he had ever seen before. ‘It had a bright yellow color, was clear, very nearly odorless, neutral, and dense. Further experiment showed this result to have been obtained by the removal of all the light odorous hydrocarbons without decomposing either the distillate or the oils remaining in the still; and that this had been accomplished by the moderate fire employed, and its gradual withdrawal.” (a) This mode of operating was immediately applied to other distillations, and in order to accomplish the result most effectually Mr. Merrill invented a method of superheating steam within the body of the oil itself. Within a still of moderate size, holding perhaps 1,000 gallons, he placed a steam coil, which terminated upon the exterior of the dome of the still. After attaching a valve, the steam-pipe is returned into the still and a perforated coil of pipe connected with it, which lies flat upon the bottom. The still is heated by direct heat, and as the temperature rises the steam, as it passes through the first coil, is heated and is distributed through the entire mass of oil as it escapes from the perforations in the second coil. The steam is regarded by Mr. Merrill as an important adjunct in this method of fractional distillation, as it acts mechanically by carrying forward the vapors into the condenser, and also prevents the overheating and “ cracking” of either the oils or the vapors. When the destructive distillation of petroleum commenced on a large scale, the slow distillation necessary to effect this decomposition led to an increase in the size of the stills until the enormous capacity of 2,000 barrels, or 80,000 gallons, was reached. ‘These immense stills were built without covering, were freely exposed upon their sides and tops to the elements, and were heated by numerous fires, placed at equal distances from each other upon the circumference of the still, after the manner of the setting of the cheese-box still. These excessively large stills are not now being used. Refineries lately put in operation are equipped with stills holding about 1,200 barrels each. Vacuum stills have been used to some extent, and have been ewployed especially in the United States by the Vacuum Oil Company, of Rochester, New York, in the preparation of the peculiar products of their manufacture. Of course the evaporation in these stills takes place rapidly and at the lowest temperature possible, insuring a fractional distillation, not a decomposition, of the oils. CONUDENSERS.—Large copper worms, similar to those used in distilleries, were at first used for petroleum stills. These were soon replaced by ordinary iron piping coiled in a cistern or tank of water, and still later very long, straight pipes were used with advantage inthe use of water for cooling. Refineries lately built are provided with condensers of moderate length, 50 by 20 by 8 feet, in which there are numerous separate pipes, which receive the vapors at one end and discharge the condensed oil at the other. A condenser thus constructed may consist of forty separate 3-inch pipes, each 45 feet in length, giving an aggregate length of 1,800 feet, the oil and vapors, instead of all traversing the entire length of 1,800 feet, being divided into small portions, each of which is made to traverse the 45 feet, and is condensed. The ratio of exposed surface to cubical content is very much increased by this arrangement over a shorter pipe of larger diameter. A very convenient arrangement for dividing distillates is shown in the section in Fig. 43. In this section a is the 2-inch pipe leading from the condenser, b is a pipe for uncondensed gases leading to the boiler furnace, ¢ is the trap for holding back the gas, @ is a wrought-iron box with a glass front 77, through which the flow of oil from the condenser can be observed. The glass front is on hinges, and can be opened for sampling the oils. From this box the oil passes into the pipes below, and is directed into one of the openings g, through which it enters the pipe hh, leading to the storage-tanks for distillate; e e are three-way cocks, and ff ordinary stop-cocks, by which the oil is directed to one of the six orifices g. By this arrangement, by simply opening or closing the cocks, the distillate can be directed to any one of six receptacles and be divided into as many different portions. AGITATORS.—The agitators used at first were small tanks lined with lead, in which various mechanical contrivances were used to effect the thorough mixing of the oil with the chemicals. These lead-lined tanks were replaced by wrought-iron ones, and finally the method of agitating by mevhanical means has been entirely superseded by agitation by means of injected air. The agitators in use in refineries lately constructed are high wrought-iron tanks of comparatively small diameter, holding several hundred barrels of oil,in which the most complete agitation is produced by a current of air injected by a blowing apparatus. Pumps.—The pumps used in refineries are many of them very powerful. Those used for pumping oil and water are of the Worthington or the Drake pattern, and consist of an engine and a pump combined. Some of these pumps are large enough to handle 2,500 barrels of crude oil an hour, but the majority are smaller. In addition, there are in use small blast-engines or air-pumps to force air into the agitators and into the acid-tanks. The latter are small lead-lined tanks, into which the acid is emptied from carboys or tank-cars. The acid is measured into the agitators by forcing it from the tank into the agitator under pressure of injected air. PACKING.—Manufactured oils of all kinds are distributed to wholesale houses all over the country in tank-cars, but for the jobbing and retail trade they are packed in barrels and in tin cans. The barrels used at present hold from —- 4 a 8. D. Hayes, Am. Chem., ii, 401; C. Cbl., 1871, 783; W. B., 1871. 164 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 48 to 50 gallons, and manufactured oils are estimated at 50 gallons to the barrel. The tin cans contain 5 gallons each, and are packed in wooden cases, each of which holds two cans. In the larger establishments the packages are filled by weight, as the bulk of the oil varies with the temperature and specific gravity of the oil, as may be seen at a glance at the table accompanying this report (see page 112). The filling of the 5-gallon cans is carried on at a square, revolving table. Ten cans are closely ranged along one side of this table and brought beneath ten funnels, which deliver oil to the cans until their weight stops off the oil by tipping a balance and closing a stop-cock. The ten cans are then swung out by giving the table a quarter revolution. While these cans were being filled another ten cans were placed upon the adjoining side of the table, and when the first were swung from under the funnels the second were brought into their places. While the second ten cans are being filled a third set are being placed upon a third side of the table, and a nozzle, with a cap that screws on and off, is placed in position for soldering over the orifice through which the first ten cans were filled. The table is again swung, the third set of cans are brought into position, and are then filled; the second set are supplied with nozzles, while the nozzles of the first set are soldered on and the fourth side is supplied with ten cans. Another swing of the table, and the fourth set are filled, the third supplied with nozzles, the second soldered, and the first removed, and a fifth set is put in their places. Several thousand cans can be filled in this manner at one of these tables in a single day. SECTION 5.—DESCRIPTION OF AN ESTABLISHMENT IN WHICH THE PRODUCTS ARE GENERAL. The plant consists of storage-tanks for crude material; stills, heated by fire, steam, and superheated steam ; agitators ; chilling-house for paraftline ; boilers, engines, pumps; alaboratory; cooper and tin shop. ‘The crude oil is delivered in pipes or tank-cars to the general storage-tanks and allowed to settle. From one to two per cent. of water separates. (a) About 300 barrels (12,000 to 13,000 gallons) of this oil are placed in a still and “live steam”, 7. e., at 212° F., is admitted, and the distillation carried on until the distillate marks 60° B. With crude petroleum of 45° B. the amount of this distillate will be from 12 to 15 per cent., divided as follows: A. Per cent. 1. Crude gasoline”, ‘to 80°; about... — 222.002. cc onea sa tee siecin eee eee se are sis le ea aie te tate eee $ 2. “C” naphtha, 80° to 68°; ‘about! ..--2 2. :-U occa tee sem eter icete ciate Smee eee ate are er 10 3.“ B” naphtha, 68° to 64°, about. 20... os. ewsicne\pocmseisceb ce tale wiclet settee siete == ates eet eens eee 2 to 24 4, “A” naphtha, 64°'to 60°, about..- 5.2. 2. cooccs se Sees oe eee net ae es we Cemere ee te e ee e eee 2 to 3 1 is redistilled by dry heat, and yields from 90° to 83° gasoline, which is not treated; 83° to 80° is returned to crude gasoline. 2 is treated with 4 ounces of oil of vitriol to the gallon and washed with caustic soda, all cold, and then redistilled by steam from an alkali solution. Its average specific gravity is 70°, and it is known in the trade as benzine- naphtha. 3 and 4 are also treated with acid and caustic soda. The average specific gravity of 3 is 65° to 66°, and of 4 62°, There remains in the still from 88 to 85 per cent. below 60°. This is transferred to cylindrical cast-iron stills with meniscus-shaped wrought-iron bottoms and distilled by direct heat, with 2 per cent. of soda solution of 14°. The distillate is thus divided: ‘ Per cent. 1. Crude burning oil, from 58° to 40°, abont. 2... 2.45. .c6 ccc eaee eerie eee ee ee ee 50 2 ‘B” oil, from 40° to 36°, “about, S200... +20 eaebank doe poeeein pha e Seinen cote Eien ene ane eee oe 20 3. From 36° downward, about \..2.05...42 22 sccacsc ccc Qauasum eeceee iree ene eee epee eee tee ee ee 25 4, Cokings or residwum 2... v.22. sl esedelcoe bs ae acoe ain Penance ee ee te ee eee eee te 3 5. L088... 22. cdi sae ccld st cslbw elena Sik Soule Gmelen cleUociehbm 5b aeetete a ee tener at aoe ee 2 100 1 is treated with 4 ounces of oil of vitriol to the gallon and is agitated for half an hour. It is then drawn off from the tarry residue, and after being washed with water is again agitated for an hour with 2 per cent. of alkali solution, and is then drawn off and next day washed with a large amount of water, pumped into a fire-still upon a solution of soda equal to 4 per cent. of 14°, and distilled as long as the color is good, the amount usually being about 80 per cent. This distillate is the equivalent of ‘ Downer’s standard kerosene”, and has a specific gravity of 45° and a fire-test of 125° F. The remaining 20 per cent. is run above 36° to crude burning oil (B1), and below 36° to ‘finished machinery oil” C, to chill and press for paraftine. 2. “B” oil is distilled like 1 on soda lye. Of the distillate, above 36° goes to crude [; below 86° to the machinery oil C, to chill and press for paraftine. a As high as 13 per cent. of water has been obtained from residuum exported to England. It is not a legitimate mixture. C.N., SRK A THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 165 3 goes to crude lubricating oil, and is treated with 4 ounces of acid to the gallon upon water at 212° F. for one hour, and is then distilled from a 2 per cent. solution of soda lye. Of this distillate above 40° goes to crude B1, from 40° to 36° to B 2, from 36° downward, as long as the color is good, to machinery oil C, to chill and press for paraffine. 4 goes to coking-tanks. C.—MACHINERY OIL, 36° AND DOWNWARD. This oil is twice distilled and chilled in barrels packed in an ice-house for a week with ice and salt at 26° F. The crystalline magma is pressed in an hydraulic press and yields: 1. Crude scale paraffine (I). 2. Pressed lubricating oil of a specific gravity of 32°, which is partly sold as “spindle oil”. 3. The portion not sold as spindle oil is placed in a still provided with coils for distilling with steam superheated within the oilitself. This stillis heated with direct heat until the temperature has reached 250° or 300° F, Steam is then passed into a coil, which is immersed in the body of the oil, and is then allowed to escape into the oil through another coil, which is perforated, thus distributing the steam throughout the oil at the same temperature as the oil itself. Twenty to 30 per cent. of the lighter products, with all those having an offensive odor, ranging in specific gravity from 50° to 32°, are lifted from the still by the steam. Of this distillate, that between 50° and 40° goes to B 1, that between 40° and 32° to ‘crude mineral sperm” (D), and the oil left in the still is equivalent to “ Merrill’s deodorized neutral hydrocarbon oil”, with a specific gravity of 29°. To remove fluorescence chromic acid is used instead of oil of vitriol. D.—MINERAL SPERM ILLUMINATING OIL. This is the trade-mark of a dense oil of 36° specific gravity, deprived of offensive odor, and adapted especially for light-house and locomotive lights. Any erude distillate from 40° to 32° is first treated with 4 ounces of oil of vitriol to the gallon, then washed with a solution of caustic soda, and distilled by direct heat over soda lye. It has a fire-test of 300° FI’. and but little odor, with a density of 40° to 34°, averaging 36°. Below 34° goes to machinery oil (C), to chill and press for paraffine. E.—CRUDE-SCALE PARAFFINE. The pressed scale equals three-quarters of a pound per gallon of the crude 32° machinery oil from the chilled mass described in C. ‘To refine this the crude scale is melted in an open tank by live steam, blown in, with 1 per cent. of caustic soda lye, from which it is carefully drawn and then well mixed with 25 per cent. of ‘‘C” naphtha and put aside for three or four days in shallow metallic pans in a cold place. It is then again cut, bagged, and pressed. No. 1 paraffine stock is remelted in ‘*C” naphtha on alkaline lye, crystallized and pressed three successive times, and yields large crystals of paraffine, melting at 130° F. No. 2 paraffine stock is treated in the same way, furnishing a product of less value in smaller crystals, melting at about 116° F., and is largely used by chewing-gum manufacturers. The oils expressed go to crude ‘‘C” naphtha F.—COKINGS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY 28°. These are iedistilled over a 2 per cent. alkali solution, and furnish— 20 per cent. above 40° goes to B 1. 15 per cent. 40° to 36°, goes to B 2. 50 per cent. 36° and downward, as long as the color is good, goes to C. 10 per cent. cokings. 5 per cent. loss. G.—SLUDGE (RESIDUES FROM WASHINGS). The waste ‘‘acid sludge”, 48° to 50°, is permitted to stand two days, and the oil rising upon it is drawn off (‘sludge acid oil”) and the acid disposed of. The sludge oil is then washed with the waste alkali and redistilled separately without fractions, yielding 80 per cent. of oil; coke and loss, 20 per cent. The coke is used as fuel, and the oil redistilled on alkali and fractioned as crude oil below 60°. H.—AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM CRUDE PETROLEUM OF 45° FROM NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, OR WEST VIRGINIA. Per cent. RRO CCN eta at feo acts n mn o vin Salis caw t m9 nisin aigis wn Smee wh mo niiminini so mim) ieee gine nmi =<) seiginin# sion 1.0 to 1.5 MOUS TAD MEU G os sia Pawn boc cme none mre ere n es tence din nnt seem ae see eanicmawns Basen cnecnscncedt ew emeces 10.0 to 10.0 ee Ee LO LE ce sos ai geeemte hee ade CHa AE EER enc test epaes cae pa det 2.5 to 2.5 COALS TR DIG A ee Nee ah ove omc w= coc w mans coe ens cent ens mans Sarees enaeen Hance ce ense t gens seaseancennn 2.0 to 2.5 16.5 RRUIPARIARIT ete ty cae gh ok ons shia bag Ven tema dae cap ves gael hades ah tacdea Ws cadens cae 50.0 to 54.0 Lubricating Oi]. 22. - 252-2 - 2 nee cece nie nnn ce enn on ene cee ne one ese cee ninn coc es en eeen sececnsnccere Zee Paraffine wax = 44 pounds per barrel...--..--- ------ ------ 2-03 eee ne ce cee enn eee eee eens eee eee ee 2.0 NURS on sete see cee as te enc c cans sceses se - a= alcos onclvin aces sacs sees scnwizewess|=seccnclscsc aneisey =~ - 10. 0 166 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The oils prepared by this process are all of the highest degree of excellence, and have commanded the confidence of consumers both in the United States and in all other civilized countries to a remarkable degree. There are two essential particulars in this process as a whole to which I desire to call attention. All destructive distillation is avoided so far as is possible, and great care is taken to render the different products pure as regards each other, and also as regards the effects of treatment. The products are essentially paraffine products, using that word in a generic sense to designate not only the paraffine wax, but the whole series of compounds to which it is related, from marsh-gas upward. The finishing of the burning oil by distillation over caustic soda is claimed, and I believe justly, to remove all of the substitution compounds of sulphuric acid that are only completely removed even by solution of caustic alkali when the oil is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of water. (a) SECTION 6.—DESCRIPTION OF A MANUFACTORY WHERE NAPHTHAS, ILLUMINATING OILS, AND RESIDUUM ARE PRODUCED. The following description is given after an inspection of one of the most complete establishments in the country, lately constructed and furnished throughout with an equipment of the most improved apparatus: The oil is received in tank-cars, and an entire train is discharged at once into a 12-inch pipe, which runs the length of the siding between the rails and beneath the sleepers, connection being made with cocks underneath the car-tanks by union joints and hose. This 12-inch pipe discharges into a tank, from which the oil is pumped by a Drake steam-pump, handling 2,500 barrels an hour, which throws the oil either to the stills or to the storage-tanks, of which latter there are four, holding 35,000 barrels each. ‘The capacity of this pump is not required for the storing of oil, but for the filling of the stills, of which there are nine, holding 1,200 barrels each. Three of these stills are cheese-box stills, and six are plain cylinder stills, 30 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, the former being set in one group, and the latter on a bench, side by side, like a bench of boilers. These stills are all covered with sheet-iron jackets, but are not otherwise protected or covered in any manner. The condensers are made in the manner described on page 163, with a large number of separate strands of pipe, which are immersed in a tank 50 by 20 by 8 feet. These strands enter a connecting pipe which emerges from the tank and enters a small building, where the discharge pipes from the nine stills are brought together side by side. Each discharge pipe terminates in a U-shaped gas-trap, and enters an iron box with a glass front, through which the flow of the oil from the pipe may be observed. The arrangement of the traps and the form of the boxes are shown in section in Fig. 43. The gas-pipés from the nine traps all connect with furnaces beneath the steam-boilers, where the gas, mixed with air, is burned after the manner of a Bunsen burner. The division of the distillates is effected by means of an arrangement of pipes and cocks shown in section in Fig. 43. Each of the nine boxes d (lig. 43) discharge through this set of pipes, by which the distillate may be divided into six different qualities. These six different pipes connect under ground with the distillate tanks, which they enter at the bottom, and are sealed by the contents of the tanks. These nine sets of boxes and pipes are placed in a small building, lighted at night by an electric light, placed upon a pole at some distance off on the outside. The petroleum is put into the stills, and the crude naphtha is run off. Then that portion of the petroleum is run off which is necessary to prepare the distillate for “high-test” oils having a fire test of from 120° to 150°, as may be required, and these latter oils having been run off, the residue in the still is in a condition for “cracking”. The fires are then slacked, and the distillation is run more slowly, a large amount of permanent gases being disengaged and burned under the boilers. Until the process of cracking is commenced the amount of gas disengaged is inconsiderable, so small in amount as to be scarcely worth the trouble of burning; but after cracking commences the gas generated is nearly sufficient to supply the fuel necessary for the boilers. The distillates are pumped into the agitating tank, which stands by itself, supported on a massive base of timber. It is about 40 feet in height and 12 feet in diameter. Twelve hundred barrels of distillate and 6,600 pounds of oil of vitriol are placed in this tank. The carboys of oil of vitriol are emptied into an air-tight, lead-lined tank, which is closed, and air is forced into it until a sufficient quantity of acid has been driven by the pressure into the agitator. The agitation is then carried on by forcing air into the agitator under a pressure of from 5 to 7 pounds. The acid being drawn off, the oil is thoroughly washed with water, then with a solution of caustic soda, and lastly with water containing caustic ammonia, the treatment with ammonia being supposed to complete the removal of the compounds of sulphuric acid. The oil is discharged from the agitator into settling and bleaching tanks, 40 by 5 feet, having a capacity of about 1,200 barrels each, through a perforated pipe standing perpendicularly in the center. By this process, which is called “spraying”, the oils, particularly those that have been cracked, are brought up to * test” by the evaporation of the small percentage of very volatile oils that are combustible at a low temperature. These huge tanks are exposed beneath sky-lights, where the color of the oil is improved by the sunning, every particle of water or sediment settling at the bottom. From them the oil is pumped to storage-tanks in the barreling and canning house, where it is barreled in glued barrels or filled into 5-gallon cans, two of which are packed in a wooden case for shipment. From the packing-house the barrels and cases are put on board ships that lie at the adjoining . al have drawn largely for this description upon Dr. J. Lawrence Smith in his report on petroleum to the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition. Rep. Judges of Group III. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 167 piers. This is the simplest process for manufacturing petroleum, consisting only of a single distillation; and the methods employed in the different manufactories throughout the country are either substantially that just described, or a combination with more or less of the processes described in the preceding section, or one or more of the special methods to be described in the section which follows, SECTION 7.—MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. REFINING CRUDE NAPHTHA.—There are several firms whose business consists mainly in refining crude naphtha, the larger portion of it being divided into gasoline and C, B, and A naphthas. In 1866 Dr. Henry J. Bigelow, of Boston, requested Mr. Joshua Merrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, to prepare the most volatile fluid possible to be obtained from petroleum. Mr. Merrill redistilled gasoline by steam heat, and condensed the portions that came over first with a mixture of ice and salt, obtaining 10 per cent. of the gasoline, equal to one-tenth of 1 per cent. of the original petroleum, in the lightest of all known fluids, having a specific gravity of 0.625 and a boiling point of 65° F. This fluid was named rhigolene by Dr. Digelow. Its evaporation at ordinary temperatures is so rapid that a temperature of 19° I’. below zero has been obtained by its use. Five or six hundred gallons have been prepared by the Downer company for use in surgical operations, but none was prepared by them during the census year. A similar material, called cymogen, has been prepared in a similar manner by other manufacturers, and has been used as the volatile fluid in ice-machines. The distillate separated as gasoline ranges in specific gravity from 90° to 80° B., and is used for the gas-machines that carburet air. “©” naphtha includes the distillate between 80° and 68° B., and is used for varnishes, sponge lamps, paint, and naphtha street lamps. It is sold under the name of “ benzine”. “ B” naphtha includes the distillate between 68° and 64° B., and is also used for varnishes and paints. ‘“‘A ” naphtha includes the distillate between 64° and 60°, and is used in the manufacture of floor-cloths and patent leather. Below 60° goes to illuminating oil. Each of the different grades of naphtha is deprived wholly or in part of its disagreeable odor by being filtered through beds of gravel and wood or animal charcoal. ‘*‘ MINERAL SPERM.”—This is an illuminating oil prepared originally by Mr. Joshua Merrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, and now chiefly manufactured by that company, and is obtained by partially cracking paraffine oils and fractionating the lighter from the heavier products in Merrill’s double-coil still or some similar contrivance. It has a fire test of 300° I’. and upward, is an illuminating agent of great power, and is as safe from ordinary combustion as sperm oil. This oil is used in manufacturing establishments and on ocean steamers, and is a very suitable material with which to light steamers and cars designed for the conveyance of passengers. The amount produced during the census year was 16,544 barrels. NEUTRAL LUBRICATING OILS.—These oils were also discovered by Mr. Merrill, as before described, and their superior quality soon led to their imitation and manufacture by other parties, although that gentleman protected his discoveries and invention by patent. Since the Downer company commenced the manufacture of these oils the general character of ail of the mineral lubricating oils in the market has been greatly improved. The paraffine oils manufactured prior to this discovery were dark in color and rank in odor, but Mr. Merrill produced oils odorless and tasteless. Five per cent. of sperm oil mixed with 95 per cent. of Merrill’s neutral oil could not be detected by either the odor or taste from pure sperm oil. An inspection of the tables representing the articles manufactured from petroleum during the census year will show that 79,465 barrels of paraftine oil are reported, all of which was greatly superior to the paraffine oil of 1865; of deodorized lubricating oils there were manufactured 70,415 barrels. These really superb oils are now being introduced into any manufactories by order of the insurance companies. The value of having a deodorized lubricating oil can be fully realized when it is stated that experiments have shown that when a heavy hydrocarbon containing so little as 1 or 2 per cent. of light offensive oil is employed in a warm apartment as a lubricator of machinery the entire atmosphere of the apartment will be impregnated by the pungent and disagreeable odors of these volatile products. Before the employment of these odorless oils this was a great inconvenience in factories. (@) Mr. Merrill prepares lubricating oils by subjecting an ordinary parafiine distillate, from which the paratline has been removed by chilling and pressing, to fractional distillation in his double-coiled still, but oils may be prepared that are similar, though not fully equal, to his in an ordinary still, provided care is taken not to crack them. FILTERED OILS.—A very superior quality of lubricating oil is prepared by reducing petroleum and filtering the reduced residue through beds of animal charcoal. The oil is reduced tu the proper degree of volatility and specific gravity and then filtered. These oils sustain a very high reputation, but precisely what relation they bear in quality to the neutral oils obtained by distillation and treatment I cannot state. a Loc. cit. Rep. of Judges of Group IL, p. 153. 168 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. VACUUM OILS AND RESIDUES.—Vacuum oils are also prepared in stills for a great variety of purposes. Those most dense and with highest boiling points are prepared for oiling the interior of steam cylinders; those less dense for journals; and a less dense oil is used extensively for oiling harness and harness leather. Very dense residues prepared in vacuum stills are filtered while hot and very fluid through beds of animal charcoal, the resulting product being an amber-colored material of the consistence of butter and nearly destitute of odor. These residues are largely used as unguents under the name of cosmoline, vaseline, petrolina, etc. The details of their manufacture are difficult to obtain, for the reason that the manufacturers are engaged in suits involving patent rights to peculiar processes of manufacture and peculiar apparatus for effecting the filtration, which necessarily must be carried on at a sufficiently high temperature to insure complete fluidity of the material. These preparations will be further noticed under the chapter devoted to petroleum in medicine. It is believed that but few, if any, general methods of any importance pursued in the manufacture of petroleum have been omitted in this chapter. It is a subject, however, embracing multitudinous details and carried on under conditions of great diversity, incident to the location of the business and the peculiar character of the crude oil used or the products which the manufacturer wishes to prepare. CHAPTER IV.—PARAFFINE. SECTION 1.—HISTORY. Wagner's Berichte for 1869, in an historical notice upon paraffine, says : The derztliche Intelligenzblatt, of Munich, contains the following notice: ‘The opinion universally held that the chemist Karl Freiherr von Reichenbach, who died in his eighty-first year, of old age, at Leipzig, January 19, 1869, was the first to investigate the paraffines, deserves the following corrections or amendments. In 1809 these bodies were observed by John Nep. Fuchs in Landshut in the petroleum . of Tegernsee, and in {819 Andrew Buchner, sr., produced them in a pure state from the oils. Buchner describes their peculiarities under the name of ‘mountain’ fats, whose identity with paraffine was established later (1835) by v. Kobell beyond doubt. Unqualified merit, however, belongs to Reichenbach as having first discovered paraffine in the products of the dry distillation of wood and other organic bodies.” Reichenbach remains the discoverer of paraffine notwithstanding the fact that, beside Fuchs and Buchner, Saussure and Mitscherlich investigated a fatty body found in certain petroleums and tars which after the discovery of paraffine proved to be identical with this body. In all of these conditions the discourse was upon paraffine as an educt, and not as a product. Technoiogy distinguishes the former from the latter through the name of Belmontin, He who first considered fossil paraffine can upon no condition lay claim to the honor of the discovery. In Moldau and in Galicia fossil paraftine has been used for centuries in making candles, as also on the Caspian sea and in the Caucasus, (a) It appears from this statement, which is in accord with numerous authorities, that fossil paraffine has been known in Europe from time immemorial, and also that paraffine, as a recognized constituent of certain bodies of organic origin, was discovered by Reichenbach in 1830, (b) and named by him from parwm and affinitas, indicating that paraffine is destitute of chemical affinity; in other words, that it is neutral, having neither acid nor alkatine properties. In the following year Christison, of Edinburgh, made known his discovery of paraffine in the petroleum of Rangoon. (c) He at first called it petroline, but after learning of Reichenbach’s discovery he admitted its identity with paraffine. In 1834, Gregory published an article on paraffine and eupion and their occurrence in petroleum, in which he says: It follows that there are some kinds of naphtha (petroleum) which contain paraffine and eupion, and are consequently the results of destructive distillation. (d) In 1835, Kobell independently mentions paraffine as a constituent of petroleum. (e) In 1833, Laurent showed that oil distilled from shale in the environs of Autun contained paraffine. (/) Although Reichenbach distilled coal in considerable quantities, and had at his disposal the resources of the immense establishment of ‘‘ mines, iron furnaces, machine-shops and chemical works, ete.,” on the estate of Count Salm at Blansko, Moravia, of which he was superintendent, he cannot be said to have produced paraffine on a commercially successful basis. This work was performed by Selligue, whose inventions formed the foundation upon which the technology of coal-oil and petroleum has been built. The following digest of the labors of Selligue is taken from the review of Dr. Antisell’s work on photogenic or hydrocarbon oils by Professor F. H. Storer: (9) In 1834 we find for the first time an article describing the process of Selligue, (hk) although it would appear from the statements of this chemist and of others that his attention had been directed to the subject of distilling bituminous shales several years earlier. a W. B., xv, 709, 1869. e Jour. f. Prak. Chem., v, 213. b Jour. fiir Chem. u. Phys. von Schweigger-Seidel, 1830, lix, 436. f Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., liv, 392. ¢ Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xiii, 118; Repertory of Patent g Am. J. S., xxx,. 1860. Inventions, 1835 (N.8.), iii, 390. h Journal des Connaissances Usuelles, Dec., 1834, p. 285; Dingler, d Ibid,, xiii, 124; Ibid. (N. S.), iv, 109. lvi, 40. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 169 * * * Tn 1834, 35, and 36 Selligue was principally occupied with his process for making water-gas.(a) * * * In the following year we again find Selligue before the academy, requesting that body to appoint a committee to examine the merits of his new system of gas-lighting ; his process of distilling bituminous shales on the great scale by means of apparatus, each one of which furnishes from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds of crude oil per day—this being about 10 per cent. of the weight of the shale employed, and being almost all that exists in the raw material; also of his process of separating various products from the crude oil, some of which are applicable to the production of gas, others to ordinary purposes of illumination, and others to different uses in the arts. (b) This petition was referred to a committee of three, Thénard, D’Arcet, and Dumas, who reported in 1840.(c) * * * In 1838 Selligue obtained a new patent ‘for the employment of mineral oils for lighting”, (d) which, it should be observed, claims only to be an improvement upon that of Blum and Moneuse. * * * On the 27th of March, 1239, Selligue specifies certain additions and improvements to the preceding patent. In alluding to the use of his oils in the treatment of cutaneous diseases he speaks of the three large establishments for the distillation of bituminous shale which he has erected in the department of Saéne et Loire, and mentions the fact that the oil (erude) is furnished at the rate of about 2 cents (10 centimes) per pound. (e) * * * The clearest of all Selligue’s specifications, however, is that of the patent granted him March 19, 1845, for the distillation of bituminous shales and sandstones. (f) After describing the various forms of apparatus used in distilling, into one of which superheated steam was introduced, he enumerates the products of distillation as follows: I. A white, almost odorless, very limpid mineral oil, somewhat goluble in alcohol, which may be used asa solvent, or for purposes of illumination in suitable lamps. II. A sparingly volatile mineral oil of specific gravity 0.84 to 0.87, of a light lemon color, perfectly limpid, almost odorless, never becoming rancid, and susceptible of being burned in ordinary lamps, of constant level (& réservoir supérieur), with double current of air, a slight modification of the form of the chimney and burner being alone necessary. This oil can also be mixed with the animal or vegetable oils. Oils thus prepared do not readily become rancid, nor do they congeal easily when subjected to cold. III. A fat mineral oil, liquid at the same temperature as olive oil. This oil contains a little paraffine; it is peculiarly adapted for lubricating macbinery, and has an advantage over olive and other vegetable oils, or neat’s-foot oil, in that it preserves its unctuosity when in contact with metals and does not dry up. It saponifies easily, and forms several compounds with ammonia. IV. From the oils I, II, and III I extract a red coloring matter which can be used in various arts. V. White crystalline paraffine, which needs but little treatment in order to be fit for making candles. This substance does not occur in very large proportion in the crude oil, and the proportion varies according to the different mineral substances upon which I operate. ‘There is but little of it in petroleum and in the oil obtained from bituminous limestone. I often leave a great part of the paraffine in the fat oil and in the grease, in order that these may be of superior quality. VI. Grease. This grease is superior to that of animals for lubricating machinery and for many other purposes, since it does not become rancid, aud remains unctuous when in contact with metals. VII. Perfectly black pitch—very ‘‘drying”—suitable for preserving wood, metals, ete. VIII. An alkaline soap obtained by treating the oils with alkalies. IX. Sulphate of ammonia. X. Manure prepared by mixing the ammoniacal liquor or the blood of animals with the crushed fixed residue (coke) of the shale. XI. Sulphate of alumina from the residue of the shale. In describing the methods of puritication proposed by Selligue we shall make no attempt to follow their various details, our limited space compelling us to content ourselves with only the broadest generalities. Selligue sets forth at length two methods: Ist. A cold treatment, which consists in agitating the oils with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. This agitation should be thorough, he says, and should be continued for a longer or shorter time, according to the nature and quantity of the matter treated. Here follows a description of his agitators. After several hours repose the oil may be decanted, except from muriatic acid, in which case more time and a larger amount of acid is required. After the oil has been thus separated from the deposit of tar, the acid remaining in it must be neutralized by means of an alkali. ‘f prefer,” says Selligue, ‘‘to employ the lye of soap-boilers marking 36° to 38°, since it is easy of application and produces a sure effect. I thus precipitate together the coloring matter and the tar, which would otherwise have remained in the oil. The oil is then decanted; if it is the first distillation of the crude oil, I do not allow the mixture to subside entirely, preferring to leave a portion of the alkali mixed with the oil and to distill off only three-fourths of the latter. * * * When the soda lye—in quantity slightly greater than is necessary to neutralize the acid—is added, the liquid must be agitated violently, in order that each particle of the oil may be brought in contact with the alkali; and this agitation must be continued until the color of the oil undergoes change. The oil becomes less odorous and less highly colored after each such ‘cold treatment’. After having been allowed to separate from the lye, the oil is decanted off; if it has not lost much of its color the process has been badly conducted. It must be stated that the oil must not be agitated several times with the alkali, for by so doing the dark color of the oil would be restored. * * * As for the residues of the soda treatment”, continues Selligue, ‘‘ they should be allowed to stand at rest during some days beneath a portion of oil, which will protect them from contact with the air. The clear lye at the bottom being then drawn off may be used for other operations, while the remainder is a soap containing excess of alkali. By adding to it a little grease a soap can be made, or by adding water grease may be separated. This grease is similar to that used for wagons.” 2d. A warm treatment that follows the cold, and consists of « series of fractional distillations—special operations for the purification of the “light stuffs” being resorted to. For the details of these we must refer to the original specification of Selligue—a truly classical document—which should be read by every one interested in the manufacture of coal-oils (or petroleum). (g) * * * As for paraffine, Selligue obtained it by subjecting the oil to a low temperature, in order that this substance might crystallize. The mixed oil and parafiine was then thrown on fine metallic filters, through which the oil flowed while the paraffine was separated. Or one may separate the oil, he says, by imbibition, but this occasions a great loss of oil, and also requires more labor. These successive patents, extending over a period of about fifteen years, show not only that Selligue was a complete master of this department of technology, on the general principles of which but little improvement has since been made, but also that, pricr to 1845, this industry had become important and extensive in France. In England no commercial importance appears to have attached to the paraftine-oil industry until 1850, when James Young and his BER OCLALES; Messrs. Binney and Meldrum, established the extensive works at Baaeaie, from a See 7 patents in events Piateehon ee ~69. Of ieee Nien two are dated 1834, two 1835, aaa three 1836. For a description of his process of gas-making, see also Bul. he @ Encouragement, Oct., 1838, p. 396, or Dingler, 1xxi, 29. b Comptes-Rendus, 1838, vii, 897. ¢ Ibid., x, 861, Dingler, 1xxvii, 137. d Brevets @ Invention, \xviii, 395. ¢ Comptes-Rendus, ix, 140; Ann. der Pharmacie, v. Wohler u. Liebig, xxxii, 123. f Brevets (Invention (N. S.), loi du 5 Juillet, 1844, iv, 30. : g A tolerably accurate English translation of this important patent may be found in the specification of A. M. B. B. Du Buisson, 1845, specification No. 10,726 of the English patent office. 170 PRODUCTION OF PhTROLEUM. the success of which has followed the Scotch paraffine and mineral-oil industry, which, in 1878, produced from 800,000 tons of 2,000 pounds each of shale 30,000,000 gallons of crude oil. From 8,040,000 gallons of this oil was made: (a) Value. 500,000 gallons napath as. coa = a.n\siniaye « mpalo'n: Sole =) Sul cigna aie srale feel aero 2. 392 CDSS nossa 8 tos AAG UDS OCR ES a See See ae eee pe 88 ASO BSC SE CORE A SN eet eich cies oe ee BE ee? 62. 392 FC a ae er eee NEE sR) A te are ol wte cipin cls aloo Sale a/d\u aele.c vin cela cle wis sislamicie wise Walaiaie ima S) <'e Sicls a, eel 4.197 99, 595 The watery matters and tar yielded: , Per cent. SRE AIT ETI oe Tn a ee IONE ey Ie We cee Risto as cin clace's cetae cei vcelsjeecniaagisle sel omsle wien ac ola sia. 3/iaryallln 0, 287 Seay 1G eee ee eee oa ee ane A SSL Seale nin male « Siein ew(ciee'a (p's cit Minolo = cwlaiee sain heures aia'nia viele oplelatanla 0. 207 INDIA 3, ASS Ae OSE GSOeS SON SAG 6 Cee BAREIS eS OCOU See Se SUC InNE SC OCREEs Sse irers Iai nic. eet Sn meine rcin 0. 140 Volatile products .... 2. 2222. ooo nn oa ane ee ne co sn cee ee ce nn teen eens cone mann ne cee ene cece cnc e cecnne 1. 059 EES attr ees een ee eR tt ee Lane Meera da )c ola elena pie aiaia| sala «aia leaic clave o\- iam io aimn/eaiaimwia ea ae 0. 125 a J. Grabowsky, Am. Chem., vii, 123. Hiibner’s Z., 1877, 83. b Various methods have been suggested for removing this paraffine from the pipes. It is only slightly soluble in benzine, and neither acids nor alkalies attack it, and other solvents are equally ineffectual. Metallic mercury has been used, which must act mechanically by its weight. A plan to burn it out of the pipes by supplying a stream of oxygen has been recommended, but what degree of success, if any, attended its use [ have not learned. The most common method pursued in the oil region is to pull up the pipes and blow out the plug of paraffine with steam. The pipes are often found plugged solid for hundreds of feet. 172 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Fifty tons of peat yielded 125 pounds of paraffine, an amount too small to admit of a profitable enterprise. (a) The peat of Hanover yields more than 300 pounds of paraffine to 50 tons. J. J. Beitenlohner gives the following results of the manufacture of paratfine from peat-tar. The locality of the peat is not given, nor is the amount of tar yielded: By fractional distillation : ; Per cent. Crude and chemically combined voul Soe se sec aa sinaafoe = wee ae a! ain =e im wen = ola at ial eae Soe ial ieere es elias eee 35. 3 Crude paraffine in Mass... 2222. se eee es cece ets coc ere cone sees pee ee cate wat cee wn es es sees ernment cone seen 48, 2 Coke j.se eis 8 Pee Ces ta ce vec eeee cemiteaeete Set seis wlclais me leticie «kas =e nieitiets =lttn ate ote ase etal miata ee ete ter anes 10. 4 Gass ee osc has Wace ce we inate = elem lelmatigea tele shel cis afecto cas sain in nls /ateraly © wfan dees) sessed slo suse duns oan aon eeNE er aRse sees nse ha ee ioe See eee 25.5 Parathine!s «cco. Sa ton ain seine ne ss ayaa ee ese eco oS e,'s 08. w/aic'qiis oie os mp aVeltale miata ease ate aren Be eee eet ne eee ete eee 66, 5 COkKe 6 oss eb ie ais soe wns msi emsiminalcle S win cle oie © «ole nin minim mele lm lye em Mee Eee eee eee eat Pe ee 2.6 Gas (ios. aclsn cee 2 bicwelewate sotibke saase caste cleans oc cels s/o cin wn a ole aca! geimin ete ett e ete tet eteinlntele ate orotate alate eee 5. 4 100. 0 The paraftine is then refrigerated and pressed, and from it are obtained : Per cent. Per cent. in winter. in summer. Cok@ges ease pete sesame sin setenate steele melee esas ant cleie) a nlx oe Ger a tele ete tee ete eee een ee 21.6 18, 2 OLS oon co kept een on ehMac mh aren hine oSCpcld see see caver 6 sabe Weuitew ee etd =e 75.3 78.3 JUOSS\ oS = oe autioe spare la rers earn eke ante nlnle ie] wliwials en's in ia, ¥in(~ alae) aa(a'a'm e\ale.e owe © ='o.a ie 6 claehe ale alent terete eater Serene 3.1 3.5 100. 0 100.0 This paraffine is then digested in fuming sulphuric acid, but remains soft and unctuous. (b) The distillation evidently cracks it. In an elaborate research upon the products of the dry distillation of Rhenish shale and Saxony and Thuringian brown coal, H. Vohl gives the following table, showing the comparative value of shales, brown coal (lignite), and peat as sources of parafline: (c) Jomo Gee | £ | = | ska [Ses fad) 2 | seme Raw material. | wane Eb Pe "3 SU Oe. On | Raw material. eek pre a S| s 325 (Hie See2) & Buu sea |\Gia esee! & & | 38s «An CE So Ss 2 | |}om “pm DFS oS 2 hoe Ey fea | Ay 4 io R i lpi a = Shale: P. cent.' P. cent.| P. cent.| P. cent.| P. cent.'|| Brown coal from—Continued. | P. cent. / P. cent. P. cent. | P. cent. | P. cent. Bin glinh | 23.4575 ois aes 24.285 | 40.000 | 0.120 | 10.000 | 25.595 Harbke, NovZeedsspaensesecse eet | 15.555 | 11.111 | 3.555 | 22.292 | 47.555 From the Romerickeberg mine...} 25.688 43.000 | 0.116 | 12. 030 | 19. 166 Harbke; Nomi eencee hep an eet 16. 666 | 11.765 2. 941 20.000 | 48. 627 From Westphalia.<22. so-2-2-2: | 27.500 13. 670 | 1.113 | 12.500 | 45. 300 Stockheim, near Diiren............ .| 17.500 | 26,630 | 3.260 | 16.900 | 36.710 From Oedingen on the Rhine .--..| 18.333 38.333 | 5.000 | 13.333 | 25.001 Bensberg, near Cologne..........-. | 16.360 | 19.535 | 3.463 | 13.173 | 47.461 Brown coal from—* | | | || Peat from— | | Aschersleben, No. 1...-....... ---| 33.500 , 40.000 | 3.330 | 18.100 , 5.070 | Celle. .cz< 6s orgeereccatecee> teen eras 34. 600 | 36.000 , 8.010 , 11. 540 9. 850 Aschersleben, No. II........-.--- 20.500 | 43.600 6.510 | 19.567 9. 823 Coburg (y-.ageaeeeiices etek eee | 20.625 | 26.578 | 8.125 17.190} 32. 482 Frankenhausen ..... (ee ate fe | 33.410 | 40.063 | 6.730 | 17.321 | 2.476 | Damme 22 Aer eee ee | 19.457 | 19.547 | 3.316 17.194 40.486 Miinden.......... Deane ac | 17.500 | 26.213 | 5.063 | 18.679 | 32. 545 | Neuenhaus, heavy ......-------- -- | 17.983 | 19.640 | 5.360 16.071 | 40.945 Oldislebenic2 is-c5es0 pat ee | 17.721 | 26. 600 | 4,430 | 17.526 | 33.722 | Neuenhaus, light .......-...-----.. 14. 063 | 18.230 | 5.209 | 18.750 | 43.748 Cassel UNG. Dic oecscsaresseeece tne | 16.428 27.142 4.286 | 14.290 | 37. 853 1 ZUYICN, = ca cise atee co eel ees eee -| 14.400 | 8.666 | 0.424 | 42.424 | 35.086 Cassel. BNO7 Eis ce.- cscs et nes eases | 16.666 21. 052 5. 263 | 13.163 | 43. 855 || Russia (Rostokina, near Pasjkina)..| 20.390 | 20.390 | 3,367 | 25,658 30.195 Bavaria (von der Rbon)..-.....--. | 10.625 | 19.375 | 1.250 | 16.900 | 51.850 | Bottross, in Westphalia........-...- 11.000 | 19.489 | 2.256 | 26.000 | 41.255 Tilleda:zes. Poach aceecamseevee ees | 16. 666 18.055 | 4.444 | 11.111 | 49. 722 | Neuwedel,, Prussiay-c---as-nse sees 14.180 | 18.266 | 3.102 | 28.260 | 36.241 * These ‘‘brown coals” are lignites, nearer peat than coal. a Frederick Field, J. S. A., xxii, 349, 411; Am. C., v, 169. b Jour. de VEclairage au Gas, 1872, No. 5, Am. C., ii, 315. c W. B., iii, 459. ” bon THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 173 The paraffine oil industry of Scotland has already been noticed. Its present success, notwithstanding the low price of petroleum products, is mainly due to the heavy oils and paraffine produced. While I cannot indorse all the claims that are made for Mr. Young as the first inventor, as the process which he patented corresponded to that used by Selligue many years before, there is no question that he deserves the credit of having placed the parattine industry on a solid commercial basis in Great Britain at a time when the discovery of petroleum in such vast quantities in Canada and the United States would seem to have rendered such an undertaking impossible. At the date (1860) at which petroleum was first an article of commercial importance, paraffine and paraffine oils were being produced in the United States and Great Britain from the so-called Boghead coal, albertite, and grahamite, together with several rich cannel coals. The deposits of the three minerals above mentioned have been worked out. The last establishment in the United States using anything but petroleum was the Union Coal and Oil Company, of Maysville, Kentucky, which was operated upon the rich cannel coal of Cannelton, West Virginia, on the Great Kanawha river. It ceased operations in 1867. The deposit of Boghead mineral was worked out in 1872, since which time the extensivé paraffine oil works of Scotland have been run on shale. On the continent of Europe, in Saxony, Thuringia, and Austria, an extensive and very valuable industry is conducted with shale and brown coal as the raw material. In the United States, beside our deposits of cannel and bituminous coals of enormous extent, we have thousands of square miles of shales that will furnish millions of barrels of distillate for use after our 200,000 square miles of petroleum fields shall have been exhausted. SECTION 3.—PREPARATION OF PARAFFINE. The preparation of paraffine from petroleum has already been described on page 165, and the treatment of the crude oils distilled from shale or coal is substantially the same, with the exception that more sulphuric acid and more numerous distillations are employed. While crude shale oils and petroleum are very similar fluids, the shale oil is much more impure and more expensive torefine. Distillation and treatment with sulphuric acid and soda lye are, with some variation in the details, the methods upon which the technologist in paraffine must rely. The subsequent treatment of the crude paraffine scales is subject to considerable variation, and an article quite variable in its properties is the result. The ordinary method of purification consists in dissolving about 2,000 pounds of crude paraffine in 80 gallons of ‘‘C” naphtha by heat, refrigerating in shallow metal pans and pressing; but this method is attended with considerable loss of naphtha, and some danger from accidental ignition. To obviate this a process was invented for treating the paraffine cold, by which it was either pulverized and then dissolved in naphtha, or the cake and naphtha were ground together into a paste and then pressed. After this grinding and pressing has been repeated a sufficient number of times, the solid wax is melted in a still with steam blown in until no naphtha comes over with the condensed water. From 3 to 5 per cent. of animal charcoal is then added, and while the mass is kept melted the charcoal is allowed to settle. As the finest particles of charcoal remain diffused through the wax, the whole is filtered hot through a wire-gauge filter, which is lined with flannel and filter paper,: the filtrate passing as colorless as distilled water. (a) The use of these successive solutions in naphtha is to remove the fluid oils from which the paraffine first crystallizes, which are more readily soluble in the naphtha than the paraffine itself. Mr. John Fordred in 1871 sought to accomplish the removal of these oils by kneading the paraffine with or in a slightly alkaline solution. After melting and clarifying a ton of paraffine and casting it into thin cakes of about ten pounds each, these cakes are placed in a bag, end to end, and warmed until they become plastic. The bag is then placed in a kneading machine, which is supplied with a solution of equal parts of soft soap and water at a temperature of about 100° F. On setting the machine in motion the oil and coloring matter are dissolved in the soap solution. Solutions of carbonated and caustic alkalies, both alone and mixed with soap, rosin soap, and even warm water its:If, are found to answer the purpose. (b) Another patent claims economy in operation and safety in the use of material. A tank 12 by 6 by 24 feet is provided with partitions, which separate it into V-shaped cells, 24 inches wide at the top and 2 inches wide at the bottom. These cells are 1 inch apart, and start 9 inches from the top of the tank and stop 2 inches from the bottom. Mado so. 222. eieb8 seen woke ec acies tees ce esr Maps ean PES SER oN ew eeye yee seer aU Tg eed 189, 511 Purchased i fo5 te. sence tet set ce nite Sonne eee rerecee sth eae eee eka 4, 845, 504 717, 400 Potala eee Ue Socata oes BA tS? troy anit sc 6, 452, 801 906, 911 The total number of all packages and their value was as follows: Barrels: 2th: vestatteee Feats arate. ete tea tes neon eck oe iatie tee eee one ocean 9,717,306 $11,618, 307 Cans Ae. rs SURE A dif. Gee SR Ei ae Oe eh eee 23, 841, 089 2,793, 997 Gasca je eae Se rer ere Meena Te a re or Shen he. 6, 452, 801 906, 911 Total packaged i.e oils: sibs see U eee re oe Sak Chace ieee nee See seat pears Leen 40, 011, 196 15, 319, 215 Where barrels are not made they are being continually repaired. The number of coopers employed was 2,062, and of tinsmiths, 353. The following is the total cost of materials: Value. Crade oil, 17,417,455 barrels +22... 522262-bes oe Ries bac ves ces mhebe s(bbee benees alee ae sa nere aaa mee ees $16, 340, 581 DOL) PPS SSeS Ge Eee Ce an Sree Se OO at 1a" Sets ae oe Se oe Bele miele e want een Selene eee 1, 319, 008 AGIE |. no nap es knee wen wind aes we dwn peels wae alma Sie HOR eee R= Bis vm Aesth es seve ae eeeeece ere rae aie ek 1, 206, 200 PAE) | eee eee eee ee Peer eee peer ey eT en oes a senor Fey nega se se 105, 770 Bone-blaclke oii e feces com sme x cree afm ne fe eee lel oy a meal rm wae tee 62, 815 Packages ou. Uti dokacleccs earnestness Soeves wok ime nceeanin ie ersles cnr 100 ene. een lee ee uae eine ae eee 15, 319, 215 Bangs, paint, hoops, glue, 6tG.... 262-2. -.n< ce segrine onsen =o == wpe ene! noes hone dee eee eee Bee 645, 412 Total 2.00. 22 ccn oe deeces cnet eu oss vocwnw hove scseideen sy wansfeae ele tem vde Views sate aiye aes ae ema ee 34, 999, 001 SEcTION 4.—THE PRODUCTS OF MANUFACTURE. There were manufactured of the volatile products of the distillation of petroleum of a specific gravity above 87° Baumé 293,423 gallons, valued at $29,117. This material was first called rhigolene, but a similar product has been called cymogene, and has been used inice-machines. It is to be presumed that this material was used for that purpose. Of gasoline there was manufactured 289,555 barrels, valued at $1,128,166; of naphthas the following- named qualities and quantities: ; Tepe, pia. | Starks | Yate Degrees. 60 1, 200 $3, 600 62 109, 472 225, 609 63 18, 945 43, 039 65 6, 148 17, 339 68 7, 300 20, 075 70 918, 374 1, 188, 201 71 1, 617 4, 657 71-72 6, 899 18, 110 72 6, 048 3, 931 73 38, 777 45, 945 74 19, 565 54, 110 75 8, 100 34, 425 76 11, 609 89, 315 68-70 12, 525 16, 282 65-70 260 780 60-72 42, 302 109, 417 C8-78 3, 400 8, 500 | 65-76 85 60 | Tota wats ‘| 1, 212, 626 1, 833, 395 - ee THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 189 An inspection of the table on page 188 shows that the different grades of naphtha, as determined by the specific gravity, command very different prices. The following table shows the fire-test and quantities of illuminating oils manufactured: Fire-test. Maren Lae Value. Deg. F. | 100 2, 059 $6, 435 110 6, 083, 026 19, 035, 913 112 913,979 | 2, 621, 777 115 90, 814 313, 560 120 2, 107, 220 7, 096, 218 110-120 | 5, 948 16, 844 130 510, 522 1, 507, 884 135 2, 036 11, 233 140 15, 000 85, 000 150 1, 170, 725 5, 494, 833 110-150 28, 270 108, 557 155 1, 960 7, 350 160 1, 627 9, 949 175 22, 843 164, 914 150-175 46, 220 359, 144 Total ....| 11, 002, 249 36, 839, 611 It will be noticed that the three grades of 110°, 120°, and 150° include the larger proportion of the illuminating oils. The specific gravity of these oils varies from 45° to 50° Baumé, the high-test oils having usually the highest specific gravity. But a comparatively small quantity of oils having a fire-test above 200° F. was produced. | 1 | Fire-test. | Barrels. Value. Deg. F. 260 1,940 | $8, 245 285 300 | 3, 000 300 | 14,304 | 191, 480 Totalesc 16,544 | 202, 725 ! | These oils are of a specific gravity of 36° to 39° Baumé. The lubricating oils are prepared by various parties of different specific gravities. Petroleums reduced especially for cylinders are made very dense, and vary from 25° to 28° Baumé. Of these oils there were produced 26,018 barrels, valued at $371,020. Petroleums reduced for journals are prepared in greater variety. Of these there were: shen Barrels. Value. Degrees. 28 8, 184 $30, 327 28-30 105, 095 506, 957 29 63, 705 306, 203 29-34 26, 657 179, 510 38 1, 200 7, 020 Total .... 204, 841 1, 024, 017 The distilled lubricating oils are in equally large variety. Of the deodorized lubricating oils there were produced: plains Barrels. Value. Degrees. 25 16, 460 $148, 140 26 2,017 9, 580 28 68 340 29 12, 440 149, 280 28-33 39, 480 304, 232 Total .... 70, 415 611, 572 | 190 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The paraftine oils reported are in still greater variety of specific gravity and price, ranging from about $2 to nearly $12 per barrel; the latter value being assigned to an exceptionally dense oil of specific gravity 20° Baumé. Of these oils there were produced: rie | Barrels. Value. | Degrees. | 20 | 2,524 | $24, 230 : 20-27 | 8,733. | 33, 297 24 | 552 | 4, 668 25 26,293 | 165, 555 96-28 | 6, 000 45, 000 27 | 3, 187 6, 055 28 31,462 | 124, 077 33 714 | 5, 141 Total ....| 79, 465 408, 023 | Of paraffine wax there was produced 7,889,626 pounds, valued at $631,944, an average valuation of about 8 cents per pound, of which 900,000 pounds were made into candles by-one firm. Of residuum there was produced and sold 229,133 barrels, valued at $297,529. The products of manufacture other than those already enumerated were chiefly petroleum ointment, harness oil, and other vacuum products, as follows: The paraffine ointment manufactured had a value of more than...... ...-.. -.- 2+ see eee ween eens ene e cee eee $100, 000 Harness 01) 2s: sis nse tod Se oie seco nsicie aia ele eee ree Ae ge w whe aie te tere tis ote eaten) oot ate eo entero oe a ee a 34, 513 Other products 2528 26 he onc Seema im ee ein eae rma ain ley ot lem el ta ttl a a 193, 584 328, 097 SUMMARY OF PRODUCTS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PETROLEUM AND THEIR VALUE. Article. Barrels. Value. | PRO Des ia aes J RhisGlene= crs. esee ee race x ak aa cies 5, 868 | $29, 117 Gasoline. 2a a.5- Acces cncahs sssccaee es 289, 555 | 1, 128, 166 PPR te US ee ee eh Dia oe a Ser a 1, 212, 626 1, 833, 395 Minmimnating Oils cs cse ws uo ce peack 11, 002,249 | 36, 839, 613 Mineral SNerm dooce ps.chdecccececene 16, 544 202, 725 Reduced petroleum, for cylinders. --.. 26, 018 | 871, 020 Reduced petroleum, for journals..... 204, 841. 1, 024, 017 Deodorized lubricating oils.......... 70, 415 611, 572 | OAT MIENO OUD ccs ccers once ss hepens 79, 465 408, 023 ROSIE C OM ie ask ocle . weasne on See amie 229, 133 297, 529 13, 136,714 | PraraWie aes oe inc oes cen ctu * 7, 889, 626 | 631, 944 Miscellaneous: products sss--ciac--0 lv ce eee eee ce | 328, 097 PD ObAL econ ae eee eae anice vasicpp ote bia 2 a oer eres | 48, 705,218 | | H « Pounds. SECTION 5.—BUILDINGS, MACHINERY, ETC. There were in use during the census year 374 boilers, of an aggregate capacity of 12,744 horse-power. The machinery was driven by 285 steam-engines, in addition to which there were 200 steam-pumps. These pumps were of very varied capacity and construction. Many of them were small, requiring only a few horse-power to run them, while others were very powerful machines, capable of handling hundreds of barrels of oil per hour. The number of buildings in use were reported at 866, and varied in character from rude sheds to substantial brick buildings, their aggregate value being $1,899,288, while the machinery was valued at $3,737,998. The losses reported as occasioned by fire and other acccidents aggregate $104,631 43, a loss on the capital in use in the business during the year of four-tenths of 1 per cent. An attempt was made to ascertain the quantities ef the different products packed by the manufacturers for. export, but a number of the returns contained so many errors that the results were worthless. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 191 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PETROLEUM DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. PS EWP 81g ie ate a” veces dart Bees AR Cipgtes, LVS oi ole Oe hte RAN os ya RAD yy gl A Se ag a a Tg @ $27, 325, 746 SEU beRE MUO TCOR LU WOLVE ANON Ses 3 tes ook ia seh cticine fama ee ee ie ee ee ES $25, 779, 688 Ree PON Ole SAMIR OTOL LO VEC he cos: cans ind ova Bate een Sa ae i ae oe Bee ees he ee the 12, 231 SLE MEETS UOTE OMDIOVEM A an class Ae) a Hein ecto ade et ces cee dee ae ceee ante ee chsh dal sdse ces 9, 498 eee uate, Omen CINDY CAL ssc cfc. oa tobe Wee ues a lec a ce ee es toon er 25 een ee CrOL CMU MIEN CHIPIOVOC o's onic. Jouve oupse da des cet ee aks oe phe ee tect oee cee nce. 346 Total average number of hands employed ..............-...-. BEE SEALS BY es tee pice tars nee ere 9, 869 RIE ERTL PLO Pe gk Ea daw oOo a Sotala vs Gee nd en Ca), 84, 381, 572 RMT PrP GUULAL fete Dei eae So nian w= la ms a wkd Send mess reso Ca esa hae hc he tee ee. $34, 999, 001 UNREST UP COR OCUS lode a=) 5 dine ans Wad cee DOC LE Sees ok Decade ee es EL Ge $43, 705, 218 EOS are mera A act os oa a= <5 vinints ale wn eoam 0 wacot i cbe's sip va clee cated chcueb ese oe, 374 EMER ROST OL OE OGG ee ECC din Pov ow ce SVs daiay Mewinicldinis cane spose dons ge oo vane che cet.caccl o¥ be 12, 744 DANAE beh ERE oe CASS Sada Or CS OHA ee eee Mee tee A Rie aie wen Meee Ry ey Oe 285 PTE MOIS, shay 2 Gob ed soo seoo eae eee aes tienes oan ee wr ma re sh NG nes 200 a nea ASOT ELC CER MNEs ia ahr Os din’ noo a va etm wine's S dina, 4a w'e'ee'n soe cece cae be aeen Beets eee 866 WELD (1 OGTIGNIN EE es ane CL ARRON SE ee oe a ee ene ee eae Nd TL Se Te $1, 899, 288 eT tk Te RE eee ee a. 5s 5s sp Se co bcthsceoe scamot bunlesautesae Us eu 3, 737, 998 ORM Sten COU SRVCALETEOM TT OMwOL Gas. .1 ats, 228 wu aatos's wee sco weasels to ey atee Lee 104, 631 STATISTICS OF PETROLEUM REFINING DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. ESTABLISHMENTS: Se ee Pee aT COLDOLRUIONN 52a fea. co a'sh nc once goa cong wade cokscabese sone Sede ice te 86 CAPITAL: MR RTE TLVeS Ur tete eels none cier ay ¢ faa ae ct ~ <5 wicca ne days naka cansee ceed ubeduue chee ty ean $27, 325, 746 HANDS EMPLOYED: Sia ERIS US LOR CUCL er ee aes nok Ua s eigc'y cnn w ccebus ccceiencccs aacecnaee ohente sumins doudcion 9, 498 Serra eatin nL TOMMW ONC eacts aan \we aio 1c dw ve sien mash vin nanroredes noe nit duane «nites bdaegn SoeeeLe 25 ere ee OO MOLE E MRS THI nt cle bye me hove h ans bsce wo ce cn coneatecd eed ace vennuddaeecs co debs 346 ee er ae MC Peatsia(e acim Sas Wap cial a mee ca deccsnnranne nu ese phwauvbacden cdeelece ets 9, 869 WAGES: er eee Are ee eR ee ws elu wang a's eis ee aee oo wens cansegas aged acy Goudeesveecseusss $4, 381, 572 MATERIALS: Quantities. Value. Cruderol used. (0) eesnic ss ceonccc ces. Igge dn nobaRo agadboaéab sooth dacqcee gallons.. 731,533, 127 $16, 340, 58h MR UERADAe ASIC Lise tiy oi eases emilee Sse a a ow)see a Soc e e+ cs en vere ccesincisenses tons. .. 179, 997 446, 922 iP peat ELEC GMMR ede ee ate alata Seen! Sana gen nbnie awn wea sns + wen elsane nine Smee ms do... 504, 667 580, 983. POOLE reels am aia acl rainre ee mec Sensle rnin econ aerais bane cose dene ces wdess cords. . 1, 471 6, 355 OU eri ee ineleaien ie ane tae ea lincs nose wr'es pe ad tows saan sein snh eben cess sees bushels. . 303, 596 13, 218 IMO OS) 652056 etiod BAS SoSde Loge GER ROO Nees Sere ee See ae Pei ae ee gallons... 2,892, 164 42, 315 eee A eee eats Rete ae leet leiele seinen aaidalcs ewwa.ne Sains Sn cose eres cals ann do.... 11,765,705 229, 215 Been ALE pret clelsea eee Catala neldielaae ood a ele st alcenie cone ale ae a eee tee Stee eee eee Ee Nomber. of buildings 2.2. ons tis fo steed cee decpew ot eae niasuie aepiauels eats cee en ee teg a ae a ene eee Value of:same 22.2055: 2 Se ole ecb Crimean obs Soe es atin einige ees ame oe apnea etre are ete nae Value. of machinerysct coc. oc cet Soccce ane eee cee ae cine Soe eerie ate aerate helie eee eee ae ae rete Loss during the census year from fire and other accidents .....-. 2... cccccccs coes cecces cece coceee Value. $11, 618, 307 2,793, 997 906, 911 645, 412 34, 999, 101 $29, 117 1, 128, 166 1, 833, 395 36, 839, 613 202, 725 371, 020 1, 024, 017 611, 572 408, 023 297, 529 631, 944 328, 097 43, 705, 218 866 $1, 899, 288 3, 737, 998 104, 631 Ean. dl ered Breed Beal Bd Bap THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. -VOL. Ix——13 193 : “OP VPs ee 1384 Vs be ait 4 ail a A One “ ey bg a io” Le ivy A rhs he bay, eee As, cP ‘ : , ‘ A ‘} vee * 2 wall i i 1 ss * oo eS axa i afGh ‘ : i ,4 iu hw : 1 ¥ iz " ; pie Seah d. ,'4 Rigen 3h, ; : * . a : - ’ tt ; ey 7 me 8 ‘ * Pave Ties Sy Re > >} ‘f es t tae " iy hes * 5 ¢ or | 4 ‘ ? *. Vea . / 4 J é ' a ry, se = - Y . ' 7 ’ ' 4 . ’ i « ,* ¢ 2 e A ‘ i é 4 % i . J f \ Rh iJ - rf rey " f rere, é ty f ts . bate] ay a eS Ee eae i) a t Pune? t : ' i et ce PRPAR SA BS if P| oe ‘ , ; ee + ere a: . * ‘ = - . me , ' ace N j } ‘ ‘ ws e } fh 4 i Pi & ‘ i Sin Fe - . i ee tae : Os , sot. it Cane , 7 ony oie . Ph al at : : egal ‘ Bh hike at Heogy y a at OU 3 A ae fae Da 1%) sy tia 4 ; - ’ tau, eh cy My A ’ ves fe . ; F , a aA ‘ f al ted . 4 I ; P ' \ Oe , és . iG ‘ P, } Ny it ' » a at pee ‘7 BeAehihlieeels Boks: CHaprer I.—THE USE OF MINERAL OILS FOR LUBRICATION. SECTION 1—INTRODUCTION. Wagner’s Berichte for 1879 contains a very full discussion of the subject of lubrication and lubricating oils. It is there remarked : A mineral oil which, without admixture of another oil or body, as a lubricator is of unquestionable advantage. It must possess the following charactenistics: 1st, it must possess the necessary consistence; 2d, it must not harden; 3d, it must not contain any mineral or organic acid (creosote); 4th, it must begin to evaporate and inflame at a high temperature (not less than 150° C.); 5th, it must also, at a low degree of cold, show no ae at of paraffine; 6th, it should possess only a faint odor. He further says: American lubricating oils are sold under the names of ‘‘ Lubricating oil”, ‘‘ Eclipse oil,” ‘‘ Globe oil,” ‘‘ Valvoline; ” also so-called “Natural lubricating oil”, which is natural West Virginia oil reduced in a vacuum, together with complex mixtures and material produced by patent processes from residuum. ‘The lighter and clearer oils are spindle oils, those more heavy are machine oils, and the specifically heaviest in consistence and evaporating point are used for cylinders under the name of cylinder oil. The higher the specific gravity of these oils the less their fluidity and the higher their evaporating point. The specific gravity of the American lubricating oils varies from 0.865 to 0.915 at 15° C. They stiffen according to quality between —6° and —30° C., most of them between —10° and —12° C. With the exception of the West Virginia Globe oils, which are sometimes found to evaporate at 200° C., they inflame between 250° and 360° C., and boil mostly above 360% C. (a) This may be taken as a fair representation of the subject as presented in the United States as well as in Germany. Although there have been those who have advocated the use of mineral lubricators for many years, it is only quite recently that any general admission of their claims to superiority has found expression. The whole question of lubrication is under discussion, and has been made the subject of a large number of memoirs during the last few years. Among these may be mentioned a very full discussion of the subject that appeared in Le Technologiste in 1868, two works that appeared in Germany in 1879, one by E. Donath (b) and the other by M. Albrecht, (c) and a work that was issued the same year by Professor R. H. Thurston, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, at Hoboken, New Jersey, published by Triibner & Co., of London. (d) During the year 1878 the Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company commenced a general research upon oils and their relation to losses by fire, the results of which, as made public by the company, are embraced in alecture given before the New England Cotton Manufacturers’ Association at their semi-annual meeting held October 30, 1878, by Professor J. M. Ordway, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (e) and in a paper presented by Mr. C. J. H. Woodbury to the American Association for the Advancement of Science at their meeting in Boston in 1880, and published in their proceedings for that year. From these two papers as embodying the latest results obtained, which are emphasized by the test of actual experience, I shall quote liberally. The contract Rider which Professor Ordway undertook this research required that the investigation should have reference to— 1. The power of the oils to diminish friction under various pressures and at various rates of speed. 2. 'The tendency of the oils to oxidize while in use for lubrication, and their consequent deterioration in efficiency. 3. Their tendency to rapid oxidation when largely extended by absorbent fibrous substances, and their consequent liability to induce spontaneous combustion. a W. B., 1879, 1139. b Die Priifung der Schmiermaterialien, Ed. Donath, Leoben, 1579, Otto Protz. ce Die Priifung von Schmierélen, M. Albrecht, Riga, 1879, G. Deubner. Hiibner’s Zeitsft., 1879, 67. d Friction and Lubrication. Determination of the laws and coefficients of friction by new methods and new apparatus, by R. H. Thurston: London, 1879. Triibner & Co. e Proceedings of the semi-annual meeting, held at Boston, October 30, 1878. ne 196 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 4. Their proneness to emit combustible vapors when rubbed or moderately heated, or kept long in partially-filled reservoirs. 5. Their tendency to corrode metallic bearings. 6. Their specific heat, or relative rapidity of heating and cooling when exposed to the same heating or cooling influence. 7. The relative length of time that a pint of each will last in doing a given kind of lubricating work. 8. Their relative fluidity or the thickness of layers retained between two surfaces subjected to a given pressure. 9, Their compatibility with each other when successively used on the same bearing. 10. Liability to separate into constituent parts by long standing or by freezing. 11. Their freedom from non-lubricating sedimentary matter. > 12. Ease of removal from bearings after becoming thickened by floating dust or abraded particles of metal, or by accidental over- heating. 13. Their tendency to diffuse unpleasant or unwholesome odors. 14, Ease of ignition and rapidity of combustion when they are inflamed. 15. The probability of perfect uniformity in successive lots supplied by the manufacturer. 16. The possibility of securing an unlimited supply at moderate prices. 17. Suitableness for oiling wool before weaving and spinning. 18. Ease of removal from yarn or cloth in the operations of scouring. 19. Their suitableness for the manufacture of soaps. 20. Their effect on leather and wool. Professor Ordway remarked that the report he had to make referred particularly “ to certain chemical properties and the facility of oxidation of different oils”. His samples were procured directly from the mills using them, and were referred to him marked with numbers; the examination, therefore, was entirely unprejudiced. A few additional samples were procured from reliable manufacturers, and samples were imported from Paris, France. These were used in comparison. After the examination was well under way a list of names was furnished him, so that in his report he was able to give the oils the names by which they were known in commerce. Of the one hundred and eighteen oils in the list twenty-four were designated “spindle” oil, some of which were called “light” and some ‘“‘heavy”, fourteen as sperm, eleven as lard, nine as parafiine, five as machinery, three as olive, three as stainless, two as neat’s-foot, six as wool oils, five as mixtures of paraffine and sperm, three as mixtures of paraffine and neat’s-foot, and two as mixtures of sperm and spindle. SECTION 2.—SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5 are largely quotations from an extemporaneous lecture by Professor Ordway, which constitutes the best statement of the subject that has yet been made public. A simple test of oils, but one of exceedingly limited value, is the specific gravity. We have determined the density of nearly all by cooling to 60° F. and weighing in a flask of known capacity. The results are as follows: “SPINDLE” OILS. No. 17 = 0.840 No. 21 = 0.880 No. 71 = 0.890 51 = 0.848 9 = 0.886 16 = 0.890 76 = 0.848 52 = 0.887 79 = 0.893 74 = 0.850 3) = O887 80 = 0.894 4 = 0.850 47 = 0.890 87 = 0.898 66 = 0.870 49 = 0.890 38 = 0.913 68 = 0.880 53 = 0.890 48 = 0.916 “SPERM” OILS. No. 11 = 0.880 No. 44 = 0.886 26 = 0.880 75 = 0.886 28 = 0.880 7 = 0.886 32 = 0.880 35 = 0.887 54 = 0.880 40 = 0.890 56 = 0.880 34 = 0.890 58 = 0.886 36 = 0.896 These agree very closely with the true sperm oils which were procured from disinterested persons or from the shops. I got several specimens from cargoes newly arrived, taken from the casks before the vessels were unloaded, and these varied in specific gravity from 0.877 to 0.888, the latter being crude head oil, rich in spermaceti. So,if specific gravity is any indication, the oils sold as sperms are very much like genuine sperm. ““PARAFFINE” OILS. No. 65 = 0.880 No. 27 = 0.905 59 = 0.884 45 = 0.905 85 = 0.888 69 = 0.905 63 = 0.890 2 = 0.910 43 0.894 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 197 “LARD” OILS. No. 10 = 0.914 No. IV = 0.918 19 = 0.916 VII = 0.918 13 = 0.917 VI = 0.920 81 = 0.917 Pure lard = 0.919 “STAINLESS” OILS. No. 3 = 0.860 No. 1 = 0.890 70 = 0.874 “NEAT’S-FOOT” OILS. No. 50 = 0.910 No. 6 = 0.914 Pure neat’s-foot = 0.920 MACHINERY OILS. No. 86 = 0.878 No. 61 = 0.895 39 = 0.878 24 = 0.899 33 = 0.887 With regard to other oils than sperm, specific gravity gives no definite indication, because mineral oils may be mixed, and in that way we may get an oil of high density, yet containing oil of low specific gravity. All I can say at present is that sperm oil is very light, of about specific gravity 0.880; and lard oil should have a specific gravity of about 0.920. Lard oils are pretty thick, and petroleum oils of about the same specific gravity are also thick, and neither density nor thickness would betray an admixture. Though a great many people rely on the specific-gravity test, it is not to be depended on by itself, though it may occasionally be useful in connection with other tests. SECTION 3—CONTENT OF VOLATILE MATERIAL. As to the mineral oils, we soon observed that they are some of them volatile at the ordinary temperature of the air. It is somewhat the same with petroleum oils as with water. Water evaporates at all temperatures, from the freezing point up, and so do the petroleum oils. Those that have a high boiling point do so very little, indeed; but those having a low boiling point, if left in the air in the latter part of June or July, evaporate completely in two weeks. This was rather a striking thing, as showing that it is unsafe to leave these oils exposed to the air, where there is much surface exposed, in a warm room, for we may get an explosive vapor over the whole, and if any one goes near it with a lamp there will be trouble. But this was carried further. What takes place at the ordinary summer temperature will take place more rapidly at higher temperatures; and in making our experiments we must exaggerate a little, in order to get quickly at results. Therefore we put some of these oils into an oven and observed how much they lost in twelve hours. This, I believe, is a somewhat new line of investigation, and the results are rather striking. Some of them were left for four hours, some for eight hours, and some for twelve hours; but we have finally settled upon twelve hours and 140° F., which is not a very high temperature, and which we may often have near a steam-pipe; and, in order to prevent one trouble which occurs in testing oils in this manner, we were obliged to suck up the oil in filtering paper. If you pour some oil into a watch-glass it will in time creep over the edge, and a little will be lost, and we suffered somewhat from that circumstance. We found it better to take a small watch-glass, which had been weighed carefully, and pour in oil enough to saturate a bit of paper; the paper prevents the creeping. So, in making these experiments, we took a watch-glass, put into it a piece of dry filtering paper about two-thirds as large, weighed the whole, dropped in some oil, weighed it, and put the glass into a hot oven at 140°, and observed the loss. All of the oils have been tried in this manner, and some of them give results which, to say the least, are very striking. * * * The first one was a spindle oil, at 50 cents per gallon; it lost only 1.3 per cent. The next was a spindle oil that lost 1.5 per cent., and the amount gradually increases, so that in the 43d of the table we come to an oil that lost 10 per cent. * * * And again, the percentage rises to the last, a so-called ‘‘spindle oil”, at 48 cents per gallon, which lost nearly 25 per cent. What would you think of an oil which lost, by exposure to a heat which is not very great, 24.6 per cent. in twelve hours? It seemed as though all the oils which lost over 10 per cent. must be oils not to be recommended, to say the least. I think the insurance companies would say they ought to be condemned; and there is a pretty large number of such oils among those which were examined. There are twenty out of the one hundred and eighteen which lost over 10 per cent. by exposure to this moderate temperature. When the temperature is carried up to about 200° the loss in some cases was about 37 per cent. Of course it is a matter of judgment which of these should be considered safe and which should not. For my own part, I should rather not use any oil which evaporated over 5 per cent. under such circumstances. This matter has some connection with the flashing point, as one would suppose, and the flashing point is the test which has been most relied on in regard to petroleum oils. I should say, in speaking of these oils, that those that are marked sperm and lard and neat’s-foot, instead of losing, gained at most 2} per cent.—they gained all the way from nothing to 24 per cent. All the oils of animal and vegetable origin (I mean those which were so marked) lost nothing, but gained alittle. In some cases they may have been mixed witb a small quantity of petroleum oil. We find that, in the case of a heavy petroleum oil mixed with a light petroleum oil, we may expose the mixture to the boiling point of the latter oil without evaporating much. The heavy oil has a power of holding back. SEcTION 4.—THE FLASHING POINT. Now the flashing point is a matter which is determined in the case of ordinary kerosene very easily by heating the oil in a water-bath. In the case of these lubricating oils we must resort to a higher temperature and put them in an oil-bath. In this case we take a beaker, * * * hang it in oil, and expose it to a gradually raised temperature, until when we wave a small flame over the surface there will bea slight explosion. The flashing point of all the oils under examination is considerably above the boiling point of water, but some of them are not above the point to which oils might get in contact with the steam-pipe, or pretty near a pipe heated by high-pressure steam ; and we all know that in factories, and in various other places, there is a possibility of oils, as well as other things, dropping upon the steam-pipe, or coming very close to the pipe itself. Of course such an oil, with such a flashing point, would be liable under such vircumstances to diffuse an explosive vapor in the room. Perhaps, under any ordinary circumstances, it would not take fire, but under 198 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. some circumstances it is liable to particular danger; for it so happens in a great many of these experiments, when we want to get an accident, we cannot do it, and we have to wait until nature takes its own course. J remember some years ago trying to get an explosion with ordinary kerosene, and we found it extremely difficult, and with kerosenes which are of low flashing point it is difficult to get a condition of things in which an explosion will take place; but we know that these explosions are happening every day. With regard to the flashing points, we have tried all; we have tried, by way of comparison, a great many of those which we procured directly from the manufacturer, and which we suppose we know something about. The flashing points vary from 239° to 450° F., but on putting the figures side by side with those that represent the loss by evaporation we find the flashing point does not indicate the loss we should expect by evaporation. There is a wonderful difference. I find there is one which lost by evaporation 4.6 per cent., and it had the same flashing point as one that lost by evaporation 13.8 per cent. We find another one which lost 9.4 per cent., and yet it flashed at the same heat as one that lost 24.6 per cent. by evaporation. This would seem to show that the flashing point is not to be so much relied upon. I place a good deal more reliance on the other experiments, to long exposure in contact with the air at a given temperature; and the flashing point I should set down as one of the things that may give uncertain results. If any oil has a low flashing point it ought to be rejected; but, at the same time, an oil bearing a high flashing point may be mixed with a certain amount of a lighter oil, which will freely evaporate when exposed to the air more rapidly than another oil with a low flashing point. Section 5.—SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. Of course those oils, which, on being exposed twelve hours to a high temperature (140°) gain something, gain it from the air on oxidation; and they are found to be, as a general thing, either of animal or vegetable origin. * * * I believe the sperms gain rather more than the lard or neat’s-foot. Of course this oxidation is a matter which is of considerable importance with reference to spontaneous combustion ; and we have attempted to make experiments on spontaneous combustion, which is a matter depending on the oxidation of oil when spread out over a great surface. We imbibe fibers with the oil in such a way that they are not dripping with the oil, but simply dampened with it, and then expose them to hot air, and in the course of time, whether the fiber is cotton, or jute, or wool—in time they will all take fire when we have used an animal or vegetable oil. It is rather difficult to carry out these experiments on a small scale, because we use only a handful; but when you have a large basketful of waste there is no difficulty. In order to make up for the tendency to loss it was necessary, of course, to heat the soaked waste to a temperature which might be considered rather high. We have made experiments at 140° F., and we have made them at 190°, and we have made them above the boiling point of water; in all cases it was below the igniting point of the oils. To make experiments on spontaneous combustion we took a given weight of cotton- waste, about ahandful, and imbibed it with its own weight of the oil to be tried; for it is quite an important matter that the experiments should be made with the same quantity of oil, and that the oil should be spread out in the same way throughout. When the waste is imbibed with its own weight it does not appear very greasy. It is not in a dripping condition, but in a state where it is still ready to imbibe. It is said by those who have made such experiments in Europe that equal weights of cotton and oil are the best; and I should suppose that to be the case, as then the air has the freest access to a large surface of the oil. The cotton, of course, is only matter which serves to spread out the oil, and to act as a non-conductor to prevent the heat from being radiated. We made experiments on spontaneous combustion at 200° and at 220°, but not as many of them as could be desired. One of the important things was to determine the accuracy of the trials made in Europe a few years ago. There were some experiments, published in the Bulletin of the Industrial Society of Mulhouse, in 1875 and 1876, experiments made by Mr. Coleman, of Glasgow, and by Dolfus, in Alsace. The experiments of these gentlemen show that when an animal or a vegetable oil is mixed with a small percentage of petroleum oil the tendency to spontaneous combustion is diminished very much, and if with a large quantity of mineral oil the spontaneous combustion refuses to take place. There is, however, in this latter case an oxidation. They found in their experiments, when they took an oil which consisted of thirty parts of petroleum and seventy parts of an animal or vegetable oil, that the oil would heat up when exposed to steam heat, but when it arrived at a certain point it would go down, There is an oxidation, therefore, in such a case ; but the petroleum prevents its oxidizing so fast as to allow the heat to accumulate and set the mass on fire. This, of course, is a very important point; and it was important to determine whether their results apply to the oils we have as well as those commonly met with in Europe. They use more vegetable oi], whereas sperm oil does not seem to be so common there as it is here. They found that all the oils tried by themselves would undergo spontaneous combustion, but when they contained from 30 to 50 percent. of a mineral oil spontaneous combustion would no longer take place under the circumstances to which they exposed them. We have made experiments with cotton-waste and cottonseed oil mixed with petroleum oil, and have found that cottonseed oil mixed to the amount of 25 per cent. with 75 per cent of petroleum oil will take fire spontaneously ; so it seems that although spontaneous combustion is retarded in a great degree, it is not entirely prevented, even by a pretty large admixture of petroleum oil in the case of such oils as cottonseed and linseed, which are peculiarly prone to oxidation. When we came to take lard oil a careful experiment was made, which showed that 33 per cent. of petroleum oil (for this purpose what is commonly called spindle oil was taken) mixed with 67 per cent. of Jard oil would not undergo spontaneous combustion at the temperature at which the experiment was made; whereas with 32 per cent. it did undergo spontaneous combustion. It would be very desirable to carry out these experiments to that degree of nicety in all cases, but you can easily see, when we are obliged to expose these oils to long-continued heat, and have an apparatus which must be isolated from the wood work around, we cannot have a great many of them going on at a time, and an experiment lasts from six to eight hours. Generally it takes to finish up one of these experiments on spontaneous combustion six hours. Some of them will take fire in three hours, but the heat does not’ accumulate enough with most until they have been kept in the oven for five or six hours. A great deal remains to be done in this line. * * * We all know cottonseed oil is one of those oils we have to fear, and it happens to be one of those whose spontaneous combustion cannot be prevented by a slight admixture of petroleum oil. But the experiments of Dolfus(a) and Coleman (b) were correct, it seems. We had no reason to doubt they were correct, but the experiments we made were made at a little higher temperature; and although the oil, mixed in the proportion of 70 parts of oil and 30 of petroleum oil, may not take fire spontaneously when the temperature is maintained at 110° F., yet it may when it is maintained at 190° F.; and, of course, cotton-waste is liable to be exposed sometimes to a steam heat, and a steam heat may range up to 300° F., so that even when the oils are mixed with petroleum oil there is danger. Still, itis a fact that the admixture of even 10 per cent. of one of the heavy petroleum oils does diminish very much the tendency to oxidation or to spontaneous combustion, and that is a fact, of course, of immense importance. * * * We have tried the different animal and vegetable oils, some of them mixed with larger or smaller proportions of petroleum, but that investigation is still unfinished. ee a Bull, Soc, Ind. de Mulhouse, 1876. bC.N., xxx, 147; W. B., 1871, 1874, 1875. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 199 SECTION 6.—FLUIDITY. There is another matter which might be of some importance, but we have not been able to deduce from our trials any data of practical value; that is, the relative fluidity of the oils. There is a wonderful difference in this respect, and we found all the lighter oils, that is, the lighter paraffine and spindle oils, are very much more fluid than the sperms of corresponding specific gravity. The specific gravity and fluidity have little relation to each other; there is some, but no exact correspondence. (a) The mode of experiment for this purpose is to take a small pipette, of which the globe holds about a cubic inch. The globe is filled by sucking the oil up to the neck, and the liquid is then allowed to flow out through a very small aperture thirty-seven thousandths of an inch in diameter, and the time of flow is noted. The experiments must be made in a room which is kept at a uniform temperature. In this way ran out— Min. Sec SHEYELRIT tes che hoy tie ne areca ae i a ge Sei Mie es ee A eal gies PO Ol (Aan od a cd em AAR EY 3 43 LITE D chp patents ha sak ee rE ORR NR anes Mees Ring seta NE Sk ielae fy seman Rim LraSa ACL A a hliee tm iad Gath amas Ad 5 42 ODD Vee s succs stacisccocesccc eee noe hate teeter eee. Fe Scole do blaeieetscee iri ie ees dap a et BIN I ae 6 49 RU SIULOIINOO (Lemire oe iare cas we melee eae meee eR ee re ie Die tac mca eee eee oe ees eee ee e 31 SET ye ae bese BeBe SHR a eRnS GEO iE ASS cobedig ear He an em tial ad i fly 0 ine a es eo i eA 8 14 UAT Ges en Macatee aM Ia Re ee oe eee eee Se ee em ee vue ken ce eeckiad ae taas es Spec Abs 9 24 DTIVEL(Merelgoulte matter ac cae aera eet eee eee alae ete ce aes er oe Rice we occ tales nse ceee obec towel eels ie) 26 JED iE ROL eS ips plea ne ced ees TET I oh ROPES Sa ESSEC RE IP er OS ae Re a I ag ee ee Aaa 9 29 APOC Peat sever asea te anasce ie edsoass cael vaca oats ce = Roane onion a ceee Seat eta e tere a et cease 9 55 [NG CLUQWMemtee Maenete st emate aeiacaeian @ acrala sass os venas ca-cace ceric ccec cece cone cedelccrs cccnmece ccesicccens 10 9 OO eee ee Peete eens eta taveatee as ccs te ae vane coiirods cise fa soe the sone cece coed eeeadiesscetccsencue. §=10 0 Castor, over two hours. There is another point which we would like to draw some deductions from if we could, but so far we have not found any particular law. If we immerse wicks in these oils, or filtering paper, which amounts to the same thing, of course, the distance which the oils will ascend or be carried up by capillary attraction is a matter depending on the fluidity of the oil, and this does not seem to have any exact relation to the flowing out through a small aperture. It is contrary to what I should have expected. * * * SECTION 7.—CHEMICAL TESTS. There have been various chemical tests proposed from time to time for oils, but in our investigation we were obliged to go on the supposition that almost nothing had been done, from the simple fact that the oils which have been experimented on in former times, in France particularly, have been mixed, and oils which are no longer in use.(b) We have experiments relating to the adulterations of olive oil and linseed oil and rape, but those adulterations are out of fashion, and they used certain tests which give comparative indications ' only; there is nothing absolute abont them. One of these tests is nitrate of mercury, which acts simply from containing in solution a certain quantity of nitrous acid. Another test is strong oil of vitriol, and another is caustic soda, and another is chloride of zinc. We can get very little aid or comfort from these old experiments. The nitrate of mercury test is of some treuble to carry out. And finally a very much better fluid has been invented by Jules Roth. He used a fluid which absorbs nitrous acid in considerably larger quantities than nitrate of mercury, and which could be kept for a considerable length of time. It is made by passing nitrous fumes, formed by acting on lumps of iron with nitri¢ acid, into sulphuric acid at 46° B. The charge up of the acid takes some eight, ten, or twelve days. Itisa slow operation, but when it is well carried out you get a greenish or bluish liquid, which has a wonderful effect on some oils, and although there is nothing absolute to be learned by this, it gives comparative indications of great value. It seems that all those oils that oxidize readily are not effected by this test, whereas those that keep better, that are not so prone to grow rancid, will thicken and become quite hard when tested with it. In making these experiments we generally take a small wine glass and put in a little of the liquid and about the same amount of the oil that is to be examined, and then they are whipped together and allowed to stand for some time. If the oil is a good one, one that doesn’t oxidize readily, we shall find that the product is very stiff; even if you turn it upside down very little liquid will come out, and it is wore like wax or tallow than the original oil. The sample I have.in my hand is olive; this is good olive oil, and you may see from the appearance of this that I find considerable difficulty in pushing a rod into it; it isas stiff as beef tallow. Good olive oil will do this, but if adulterated with even 1 per cent. of these other oils the product is softer. Olive oil hardens very readily indeed, and good lard oil also hardens with promptness. This is a specimen of lard oil; I can push the rod through this without very much trouble. Here is one that is mixed with 5 per cent. of petroleum. You will observe on comparing these two that the petroleum oil has undergone such a change that it is colored yellow. The color indicates something. Here the lard oil is thoroughly white and will remain so; whereas if there is an admixture of petroleum oil, however little, it will be pretty sure to turn yellow, and the product is softer than the other. I have here another which is a mixture of cottonseed and olive oil. Here you see a perfectly fluid oil; there is a little thickening from the acid below, but it still remains in a fluid condition; and this contains one-third of cottonseed and two-thirds of olive. By taking great pains we can distinguish 5 per cent. of admixture very well. These, of course, for illustration, have been exaggerated a little bit. That is, I have taken larger quantities than would be necessary if I were going to make an exact trial to determine how much can be used without interfering with the fluidity. I have here a mixture of lard oj] with 20 per cent. of cottonseed that has thickened, but not very much. Now, when we take this same test and apply it to rape- seed oil, it remains perfectly fluid. Of course rape-seed oil, were it mixed with olive or lard oil, would diminish the consistency of the product very much indeed. Here is neat’s-foot oil. One would suppose it would be very much like lard, but it is not; it remains fluid without the oxidation surface or crust. This hardening usually takes place in the course of six or eight hours. The best way is to let them stand and watch them and see at what rate the hardening goes on. If you find one hardens in four hours, you will find that it is a pretty good elive or lard oil; if it is six hours, it may be mixed; if it is eight hours, it is more likely to be mixed, and sometimes it is necessary a An oil distilled from California malthas of a specific gravity of 16° B. flowed like an essential oil.—S. F. P. b This statement of Professor Ordway explains why the investigations that have been made prior to the last few years are of so little value at present. 200 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. to let them stand until the next day; then we have a little hardening.(a) In the case of petroleum oils we have a very peculiar effect. Here is one of them: it has become very highly colored; the ‘petroleum oil itself becomes colored, and the fluid below becomes colored, and we can distinguish it by this discoloration. And there is another test, too, Whenever you have whipped up a petroleum oil with this liquid, and have let it stand for some hours, ten or twelve hours, there will be a matter like this sticking to the rod; a waxy, sticky substance, something that is neither oil nor wax; it is not paraffine ; precisely what it is I don’t know; it is a matter which still remains to be investigated. All of the petroleum oils that we have examined, without exception, I think contain more or less of the matter which gives. this precipitate, and the heavier the oil the greater the amount of the precipitate ; but even the light spindle oils and kerosene itself will show a definite coating on the rod or else a definite coating on the surface of the liquid itself. We have here a test in Roth’s liquid, which. is a very good indication of something. We cannot say positively when we have an oil hardened in this way what the oil is, but we can say what it is not, and that sometimes is.a very important. thing. If it purports to be so and so, we can see whether it is so and so or something else. * is Mr. ATKINSON. I should like to put one question at this point to Professor Ordway that I think is important. I believe you have reached the conclusion in respect to the amount of that gummy substance in a petroleum oil that it largely serene on the point to which the distillation has been carried, and that the double distilled and refined oils contained the least ? ~ es Professor ORDWAY. That is so; there are specimens here to show that. There is one here which has been distilled once, and another which has been distilled twice. It Gaanot be seen across the room ; but if any one examined these closely he will see that the precipitate on the surface of the liquid below is greater in one case than in the other, and the discoloration is about the same. Mr. ATKINSON. I think I am also right in asking you whether or not that is not the substance which probably causes the staining of the cloth and the varnishing of the windows and of the polished parts of the machinery ? Professor ORDWAY. It may be thatsubstance. Ishould not be willing tosay positively it is until we have made further experiments. This is a subject which has not been investigated, I believe; and it is quite important that we should spend time and find out what it, is. Itis something objectionable, it seems tome. It is said by some of the manufacturers of paraffine oil that a little of this in an oil does no harm ; but that is not a point we should take for granted. While it may not do any harm in respect to lubrication, it may have something to do with the staining. Here is a substance which is got on oxidation. It has kepton turning brown, and that brownness. may go on to a certain point where it will effect a permanent stain on the cloth. I am reasoning theoretically, but I think there are good grounds for saying, if an article of this sort is allowed to stain cotton or wool, and allowed to remain for some time, this substance will become precipitated and go on oxidizing and make a permanent defect. Thisis a point which it is very desirable to have further light on; and we can only get at it by a long series of trials, for the amount which we get of thisis not very great. This is a body which is carried forward by the vapor; for all vapors have a great carrying power, and although the boiling point of this substance is probably very high when oils are distilled, a little is carried forward even by kerosene itself. There are other chemical tests which so far we haven’t had the time really to carry out. * * * Among other things it would be desirable to find out something by saponification, and experiments in saponification areslow. We generally have to boil for ten, twelve, or even fifteen hours; and, when you undertake to saponify a dozen oils, you see it would take a good many individuals to carry on those experiments in a short time. * * * There has one thing turned up which I was not aware of before: that sperm oil does not saponify readily. Wehavetaken pure sperm oil, and we find it is exceedingly difficult to saponify more than 47 or 48 per cent. of it. I mention this because some might be tempted, after making an experiment of this sort on an oil of an unknown origin, to think it was not a sperm oil. This peculiarity arises, I suppose, from a difference in the composition of sperm from other oils. Precisely what it is I don’t know, because there has been very little written on the subject of sperm oil; and it opens up, unexpectedly to me, a new field for investigation, andI think the character and quality of sperm oil ought to be investigated by scientific men. Here is this fact which is admitted by a great many people: that sperm oil, of all the animal and vegetable oils, is the best lubricator. Itis not because it contains. more oleine, but it is something in the character of the oleine. After we have eliminated all the spermaceti, we get a peculiar oil which is different from the other animal oils, but I think it is sui generis. Wehave saponified a great many of the oils. Those which saponify with most ease are lard oils. Neat’s-foot saponifies pretty readily. When we take those that are mixed with petroleum, we can saponify all the way from 5 per cent. up, according to the proportion of the petroleum. I am not able at present to give any particular directions. about saponification, for this is a matter which requires to be understood so as to present it to people in ordinary life, and I think it can be made a very good test of the character of oils, but in order to do it there must be a great deal of experiment. * * * At present all I can say is, a good many of the oils we have examined saponify very readily ; and these turn out to be, according to the descriptive lists, lard oil or something similar to lard oil. There are a good many of them which didn’t saponify at all; and, on reference to descriptive lists, they are found to be paraffines. When the oils are poured on a brass plate and allowed to run slowly down for a length of time some of them get quite green; they color the brass; they are decidedly acid in their character. In looking over these results I noticed that all the oils which are acid are either sperm or neat’s-foot, and all of the sperm—I mean all those that purport to be sperm and neat’s-foot—are acid in their character, whereas the other (the petroleum oils) don’t show any acid reaction. (b) Following the close of Professor Ordway’s remarks, Mr. Edward Atkinson and the professor engaged in a discussion of the practical value of the flashing and evaporation tests as applied to lubricating oils. The following is a summary of their conclusions: The flashing point is no indication of the lubricating power of an oil, but has an important bearing on insurance. No oil should be used about a manufacturing establishment that “ can diffuse from the bearings an explosive vapor into the atmosphere”. While there are some manufacturers of oils that can be depended upon, it is found that oils purporting to come from some others differ widely in quality. Several specimens of oil having the same name differ greatly in flashing point and other characteristics, yet the price remained about the same, and was evidently intended for the same article. While it appears to be difficult for unskillful manufacturers to prepare oils of uniform quality, there are others whose product varies but slightly, and it was somewhat remarkable that some of them having the low flashing point were high-priced, while others having a low flashing point were a I have quoted Professor Ordway fully, although the text does not relate to petroleum, because of the great value of his experi- ments. b This long quotation, reported from an extemporaneous lecture, and consequently soméwhat diffuse in style, has been intreduced here as the best statement of the subject treated that has yet been made public.—S. F. P. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 201 among the lowest-priced oils on the market. It was found that many of the best managed corporations, ignorant of their true character, were using oils with a high flashing point. But, in addition to the element of safety from the use of these oils, which rapidly evaporate, is found the question of profit. The cost of oil per 1,000 pounds of cloth of about No. 33 yarn, in mills in which there is no reason in the character or kind of machinery for a variation exceeding 25 per cent., appears to vary from 68 cents to $258 per thousand, while the quantity used varies from 1.03 to 3.36 gallons per 1,000 pounds. It does not appear that this variation has any particular connection with the price of the oil. * * * But since we have begun to compare the results of the tests of evaporation and flashing point a very distinct relation of these tests to the actual cost of oil per 1,000 pounds of cloth is foreshadowed, and if we can establish this rule a great point will have been gained. The following striking illustration is given of the probable effects of the use of a lubricating oil from which the volatile material had not been completely removed: (a) The fire caught in the basement and communicated with striking rapidity with a weaving-room up one flight of stairs in which woolen fabrics were being woven and in which there were ‘‘no peculiarly combustible conditions”. The flames flashed instantly from one end of the room to the other, striking like a stroke of lightning the gas-meter, placed on a shelf some six or eight feet from the floor at the farther end of the room, melting all the solder, and dropping the connecting pipes from the meter, while a towel that was hanging 2 feet under it was not scorched. The wool oil and the lubricating oil being both examined, the former was found to be pure lard oil, while the latter was one which had evaporated from the evaporation plate completely in five days. There was an oil on those bearings in that woolen weaving-room that did evaporate with extreme rapidity ; there was a fire that flashed through the room giving the appearance of flames. Of course evaporation is waste, and is not only injurious, but unprofitable. The following paper, upon the “Separation of Hydrocarbon Oils from Fat Oils”, by Alfred H. Allen, is given here as the latest and best English contribution to the literature of this subject: (b) The extensive production of various hydrocarbon oils suitable for lubricating purposes, together with their low price, has resulted in their being largely employed for the adulteration of animal and vegetable oils. The hydrocarbons most commonly employed for such purposes are: 1. Oils produced by the distillation of petroleum and bituminous shale, having a density usually ranging between 0.870 and 0.915. 2. Oils produced by the distillation of common rosin, having a density of 0.965 and upward. 3. Neutral coal-oil, being the portion of the products of distillation of coal-tar boiling at about 200° C., and freed from phenols by treatment with soda. 4, Solid paraffine, used for the adulteration of beeswax and spermaceti, and employed in admixture with stearic acid for making candles. The methods for the detection of hydrocarbon oils in fat oils are based on the density of the sample, the lowered flashing and boiling points, the fluorescent characters of the oils of the first two classes, and the incomplete saponification of the oil by alkalies. The taste of the oil and its odor on heating are also useful indications. If undoubtedly fluorescent, an oil certainly contains a mixture of some hydrocarbon, but the converse is not strictly true, as the fluorescence of some varieties of mineral oil can be destroyed by chemical treatment, and in other cases fluorescence is wholly wanting. Still, by far the greater number of hydrocarbon oils employed for lubricating purposes are strongly fluorescent, and the remainder usually become so on treatment with an equal measure of strong sulphuric acid. If strongly marked, the fluorescence of a hydrocarbon oil may be observed in presence of a very large proportion of fixed oil, but if any doubt exists the hydrocarbon oil may be isolated. As a rule, the fluorescence may be seen by holding a test-tube filled with the oil in a vertical position in front of a window, when a bluish “bloom” will be perceived on looking at the sides of the test-tube from above. A better method is to lay a glass rod, previously dipped in the oil, down on a table in front of a window, so that the oily end of the rod shall project over the edge and be seen against the dark background of the floor. Another excellent plan is to make a thick streak of the oil on a piece of black marble or glass smoked at the back, and to place the streaked surface in a horizontal point in front of and at right angles to a well-lighted window. (¢) Examined in this manner, a very slight fluorescence is readily perceptible. If at all turbid, the oil should be filtered before applying the test, as the reflection of light from minute particles is apt to be mistaken for true fluorescence. In some cases it is desirable to dilute the oil with ether and examine the resultant liquid for fluorescence. An exceedingly small amount of mineral oil suffices to impart a strong blue fluorescence to ether. The quantitative analysis of mixtures of fat oils with hydrocarbon oils has till recently been very uncertain, the published methods professing te solve the problem being for the most part of very limited applicability, and in some cases wholly untrustworthy. When the hydrocarbon oil in admixture happens to be of comparatively low boiling point, it may often be driven off by exposing the sample to a temperature of about 150° C., but the estimation thus effected is generally too low, and often quite untrustworthy. When it is merely desired to estimate approximately the proportion of hydrocarbon oil present, and not to isolate it or examine its exact character, Kcettstorfer’s titration process may be used, as suggested by Messrs. Stoddart. But the best and most accurate method of detecting hydrocarbon oils in, and quantitatively separating them from, fat oils, is to saponify the sample, and then agitate the aqueous. solution of the soap with ether. (d) On separating the ethereal layer and evaporating it at or below a steam heat the hydrocarbon oil is recovered in a state of purity. Either caustic potash or sodamay be employed for the saponification, but the formeralkali is preferable, owing to its greater solubility in alcohol and the more fusible character of the soaps formed. A convenient proportion to work with cousists of 5 grms. of the sample of oil and 25¢. ¢. ofa solution of caustic potash in methylated spirit, containing about 80 grms. of KHO per liter. Complete saponification a In this case the volatile oils appeared to constitute the bulk of the lubricator used. b Oil and Drug News, October 18, 1881. Read at the 1881 meeting of the British Association. c ‘Either of these plans is infinitely superior to the polished tin-plate usually recommended. In short, the background should be lack, not white.” ; d “According to my experience, treatment of the dry soap with ether, petroleum spirit, or other solvent is liable to cause error from: solution of the soap itself, if much hydrocarbon oil be present. ” 202 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. may usually be effected by boiling down the mixture in a porcelain dish, with frequent stirring, until it froths strongly. In the case of butter, cod-liver oil, and other fats which undergo saponification with difficulty, it is preferable to precede this treatment by digestion of the mixture for half an hour at 100° C. in a closed bottle. After evaporating off the alcohol, the soap is dissolved in water, brought to a volume of 70 to 80 c.c., and agitated with ether. The ethereal solution is separated, washed with a little water, and carefully evaporated The agitation with ether must be repeated several times to effect a complete extraction of the hydrocarbon oil from the soap solution. The foregoing process has been proved to be accurate on numerous mixtures of fat oils with the hydrocarbon oils. The resalts obtained are correct to within about 1 per cent. in all ordinary cases. In cases where extreme accuracy is desired, it is necessary to remember that most, if not all, animal and vegetable oils contain traces of matter wholly unacted on by alkalies. In certain cases, as butter and cod-liver oil, this consists largely of cholesterin, CosH,0. (a) The proportion of unsaponifiable matter soluble in ether, which is naturally present in fixed oils and fats, rarely exceeds 14 per cent., and is usually much less. Sperm oil, however, constitutes an exception, yielding by the process about 40 per cent. of matter soluble in ether. (b) This peculiarity has no practical effect on the applicability of the process, as sperm oil, being the most valuable of commercial fixed oils, is never present without due acknowledgment of the fact. Spermaceti and the other waxes yield, after saponification, large percentages of matter to ether, and hence the process is not available for the determination of paraffine wax in admixture with these bodies, though it gives accurate results with the mixtures of paraffine and stearic acid so largely employed for making candles. The following figures, obtained in my laboratory by the analysis of substances of known purity and of mixtures of known composition, show the accuracy of which the process is capable. The process was in each case on about 5 grms. of the sample in the manner already described. The results are expressed in percentages: Composition of substances taken. Unsaponifiable ae GL OTE OMNIGA Fat oil. Results. Hydrocarbon oil. Results. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Olives. J.6s-taecetes tase oe 40 Shale) Olli eas. semevieses aa 60 58. 03 Olive yobs csraet ean a satene 80 Shale Ol cccicescsssrinende= 20 19. 37 Olive. .-ccwcasmeeaeascctes: 40 Rosin OU co. cus po acs os amaly 60 59. 42 ONG <1. ete rere tee 80 | Rosin oil........-. eh. pal 20 19. 61 RGD G cee see ee an ee eee 86 Shale ol so ts-eecceweceese es 16 15. 95 Cottonseed << 23.-ds. eer ce 60 OSM OU sess pees eessoeece 40 39. 74 Tinsecd..cs.9.. so sacseesee ee 60 Rosin oil... 22-. .<..s2ecnesce 40 39. 32 ISAStOR ss. .= conse coh oemee ee 60 ROSIN Ol seme es wees caecace ee 40 38. 88 Cod-liver 23.20... sscscesen= 70 ROSIN Ollie. douse. ses seeeece 30 30. 80 Cottonseed ..........2....2 48 Goal-tar oi) 22.ce¢ ssscecss es 52 52. 60 AI) ccsae cscssbiees Sonam 60 Paratline Wax ic.css+sease== 40 39. 54 NE wee tea y'se yma gees 20 Paraffine wax) .¢cs..<2.2<0- 80 80. 09 OMVGjmtet ous caseme ster boe 100 Wicd Suds sp ptadpantouedancsereelseeeeeerene *1.14 PR Geen nena esos - sae s = 100. | ase ans scncmnenacusnchemeledates nes smn eeeseis *1.00 RAO G Ee cceccincs areietraas wes 200 sl wccinccacapeanhon snaeuh pecseestianscureee ind 0.71 WO0sIVOR sas caenscscasmas 100») sSuncemesiahs ceatacentues seonpsiebesni esas => 1. 82 Pees a eemiacte a pine ate a leioiets 200." lccccomepeolns Suc cee ea wek, dase nal aGe amnaee an 0. 54 BUbGOr Lav sc ccncascec. Le mms 100 "inch sweetie ote nineicn tesco nae asnbem =| sea seeeo 0. 46 GE gta st ae sian anes a~)o 100 acts nice nes cinenach seadaa'ya dens |\cbesvelss sca 41.49 Spermaceti ............ shes 100) 9 cs amnuc es can ddecc aes swaatarleeseaedsoa=- 49. 68 DADAM Wak ece cc iacase= lon BU GaSe Hens Set sesetecisaas fl Sescgracia- 1.14 Waneseoee ee neces ose sicls: 100 '-| 22 cones cantehepeumaacuneeranesltgneemsatace * 0. 23 Cacoa butter: -2.--...-..-.. 100 | Facnasseun as caeceumesadesase a} ase nee aetieete 0. 22 * These experiments were not made strictly by the same process as the majority. The following table indicates the general behavior of the constituents of complex fats, oils, and waxes when the aqueous solution of the saponified substance is shaken with ether: Dissolved by the ether. Remaining in the aqueous liquid. Hydrocarbon oils; including— Fatty acids. Shale and petroleum oils. | eeeaetl Hee Pee in combination with the alkalies used. Paraffine wax and ozokerite. Carbolic and Vaseline. c Cresylic acids. Neutral rosins. Unsaponified fat or oil. Glycerol (glycerine). Unsaponifiable matter; as cholesterin. Spermyl alcohol; from sperm oil. Cetyl alcohol; from spermaceti. Myricyl aleohol; from beeswax. The hydrocarbon oil having been duly isolated by saponifying the sample and agitating the solution of the resultant soap with ether, its nature may be ascertained by observing its density, taste and smell, behavior with acids, etc. a ‘‘The process affords a very rapid and simple means of isolating cholesterin. Thus, on dissolving the traces of unsaponifiable matter left by butterin a little hot alcohol, and allowing the liquid to cool, abundant crystals are deposited, which may be identified as cholesterin by their microscopic and chemical characters. A sample of butterine gave no cholesterin.” b “Tam investigating this interesting fact, and have obtained full confirmation of Chevreul’s observation that sperm oil when saponified yields a peculiar solid alcohol instead of glycerine. It is distinct from cetyl alcohol, and distills, apparently without decomposition, at a very high temperature.” c ‘In a previous research I found that carbolic and creslyic acids were wholly removed from their ethereal solutions by agitation with caustic soda.” THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 203 SECTION 8.—PRACTICAL RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF PROFESSOR ORDWAY. In a circular issued in 1880 Mr. Edward Atkinson treats the subject of oil as follows: In the two years and little more that have elapsed since the question was taken up for the mere purpose of abating some of the dlangers of fire the following changes have occurred. * * * In 1878 a request made for information was responded to by the managers of one hundred mills, who gave the quantity and price of the oils used for lubrication, the pounds of cotton goods manufactured in preceding periods of six or twelve months, and other data. These returns were compiled, and it appeared that in fifty-five mills, operated on about the same fabric, and among which there was no good reason for a variation of over 20 per cent. either in cost or quantity of oil used, the actual variation was about 350 per cent. It will also be remembered that a large portion of the waste of oil consisted in evaporation, whereby the atmosphere was sometimes charged with combustible vapors, by which some fires that might otherwise have been easily subdued were made very dangerous. It was for the special purpose of discovering the facts in this particular matter and applying the remedy that the inquest was first entered upon. It is a great satisfaction to be able to state that within the first year after we agitated this subject a settlement was made in a patent lawsuit, the principal manufacturers of lubricating oil agreeing to pay aroyalty for the right to use superheated steam in their preparation, and by that or other methods a great change for the better was made. The volatile and dangerous oils do not now appear to be upon the market, or, at any rate, are apparently no longer offered to members of our company to any extent. They are very easily detected and avoided; and we still stand ready to examine any and all samples, and to inform all our members of the names of dangerous oils, -and to warn them against the vendors. Very soon after the change in the process of manufacture a sharp competition ensued in the sale of good oil, and a considerable reduction of prices followed. The change in practice has been very great during the last two years. We have lately called upon the same mills that gave us data in 1878 to make a similar return for six or twelve months ending in 1880, and have received answers from 78. From the 78 returns we get the following results: The product of cotton goods in these mills for a period averaging 87; months prior to June 30, 1878, was 102,874,748 pounds, or 12,653,720 pounds per month. For a period averaging 8,4, months prior to June 30, 1880, it was 110,166,595 pounds, or 13,550,620 pounds per month. Increase in product, 7.09 per cent. The quantity of oil used in the first period was 176,766 gallons, or 1.72 gallons to each 10,000 pounds cloth. In the second period, 173,481 gallons, or 1.57 gallons to each 10,000 pounds cloth. Decrease in the consumption of oil, 8.72 per cent. The cost of oil and grease for lubrication in the first period was $103,162 25, or $10 03 to each 10,000 pounds cloth. In the second period, $73,482 71, or $6 67 to each 10,000 pounds cloth. Decrease in the cost of lubrication, 33 per cent. If the cost of lubrication had been $10 03 for each 10,000 pounds in 1880, the gross sum would have been. $110, 497 19 SP oereC Dt KCOSUSWURA ert seers cease cla cla We toye nis Sule seme Uele aisle a nieikc diclels cic stitialac ciccle ees cieie cei 73, 482 71 PU OENCORUOTES mer Oi uiismente aaa ine at ccc e'sa'cick coe ne manne syje soe ccee ste eee ceickinc cece cee aes cee 37,014 48 See eR ORL As TT TOUNU DOULA. censuses 5. tone wal plex tn tien dann sakes dclecdcpade paves csiecedecsneenes 55, 000 00 The above seventy-eight mills represent an annual consumption of 400,000 bales of cotton, which constitutes about 30 per cent. of the consumption of the cotton factories insured in this or in other mutual companies. If the decrease of cost in these mills represents an average of the whole, the lubrication of machinery in cotton-mills insured by us costs $180,000 less annually than it did at the time this investigation was entered upon. The change has been computed first on fifty-three, then on sixty-five, and last on seventy-eight mills, ‘with substantially uniform results. We may therefore infer a general rule. Of course we cannot claim all this saving as the direct result of our work, because there has been a great decline in the prices of oils, ranging from 10 to 40 per cent., except so far as that reduction may be attributed to this investigation. One of the largest dealers to whom these figures have been submitted attributes two-fifths to the reduction of price, and the remainder to the saving of waste -and to the more general use of a uniform quality of fine mineral, or so-called paraffine oil, at a substantially uniform range of prices, in place of a considerable use of mixed oils under fancy names, and at all sorts of prices. In comparing particular cases, we find this view confirmed; but, if we may not assume so much of the savings as would amount to three-fifths, or $100,000 a year, yet we may fairly claim, as the direct result of changes made in consequence of this investigation, a sum equal to all the losses and expenses of this company for the two years that have elapsed since our work began to have an influence, especially an influence on the manufacture of oil. SEcTIOoN 9.—DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF LUBRICATING OILS BY MECHANICAL TESTS. During the discussion that followed the lecture given by Professor Ordway, previously quoted, Mr. Edward Atkinson remarked as follows : I will now say, also, that inasmuch as we have obtained three frictional machieretes American and one English—all of which may prove unsuitable, it has occurred to us to establish the rule of lubricating power on spinning-frames actually in operation by the application of thermometers to every spindle. * * * Three small frames have been provided, which are to be started and operated with full bobbins, and with thermometers applied to the steps and bolsters; we will then use the different oils upon them, and see if we ean establish by the ratio of heat evolved any rule as to the lubricating power of each’oil. In a rough-and-ready way we have applied that test to the shaft of the elevator in our office building, and there are several results that have been obtained that prove that there is a very simple method available to almost anybody. I caused some thermometers to be prepared, and mounted them in copper cartridges filled with water, and then had the journal-box of the shaft bored, and one of these thermometers placed so as to rest against the shaft as it is in use, and then hung another one in precisely the same way alongside. The first shaft that we tried was belted both ways, and had no serious bearing upon its journal. The second shaft is the principal shaft operating about four hundred turns, and working the elevator with the belt bearing down upon it. Under the first oil we tried the shaft heated about 30° F. In hot days, when the atmosphere of that room was at 100°, the shaft showed 128° to 130°. We then tried some light spindle oil which we didn’t think fit for a heavy-bearing oil, yet that carried the heat down about 10°. We then tried some plumbago mixed with paraffine by Mr. Toppan; it was very difficult to get it on, but that worked it 10° cooler than the first oil. We then tried another oil, which heated so rapidly that we took it off at once; we didn’t dare to run it. We then tried another and got down to 17° above the temperature of the room. It is averysimple matter; * * * andIthinkit will prove a good way for testing oils on a bad vearing, which almost every man has somewhere in his mill. 204. PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The management of the further mechanical tests was placed in the hands of Mr. C. J. H. Woodbury, of Boston, who embodied his results in a paper read before the annual meetings of the American Society of Mechanicak Engineers and the American Association for the Advancement of Science for 1880. The following abstract of this: paper, which presents results which “have been accepted as a long step in advance of anything ever attained. before”, is introduced here with the permission of the author: (a) The resistance existing between bodies of fixed matter, moving with different velocities or directions, presents itself in the form ot a passive force, which results in the diminution or the destruction of apparent motion. Modern science has demonstrated that this. destruction is only apparent, being merely the conversion of the force of the moving body into the oscillation of the resisting obstacle, or into that molecular vibration which is recognized as heat. Direct friction refers to the case where the two bodies are in actual contact, and mediate friction where a film of lubricant is interposed between the surfaces, and it is this which applies to nearly every motion in mechanics where bodies slide upon each other. The coefficient of friction is the relation which the pressure upon moving surfaces bears to- resistance. * * * Inthisreport of my work upon the measurement of friction of lubricating oils I shall restrict myself to a description of the apparatus designed especially for the purpose, the method of its use, and the results obtained with a number of oils in our market. which are used for lubricating spindles. Previous trials of nine different oil-testing machines in use showed that none of them could yield consistent duplicate results in furnishing the coefficient of friction. The operation of these machines, by their failure to obtain correct data, adduced certain negative evidence, which established positive conditions as indispensable in the construction of a machine- capable of measuring the friction of oils. The following circumstances must be known or preserved constant: Temperature, velocity, pressure, area of the frictional surfaces, thickness of the film of oil between the surfaces, and the mechanical effect of the friction. In addition to the foregoing conditions, the radiation of the heat generated by friction must be reduced to a minimum, and the arrangement of the frictional surfaces must be of such a nature that no oil can escape until subjected to attrition. To measure the frictional resistance: at the instant of a given temperature, and at a time when both temperature and friction are varying, requires a dynamometer which is. instantaneous and automatic in its action. The apparatus consists of an iron frame supporting an upright shaft, surmounted by an annular disc made of hardened tool steel.. Upon the steel disc rests one of hard bronze (composed of the following alloy: copper thirty-two parts, lead two parts, tin two parts, zine one part) in the form of a cylindrical box. Water is fed in at one side, and a diaphragm extending nearly across the interior produces. a uniform circulation before discharge. Although this use of water is original with the writer in the method of its application, its first. employment to control the temperature of the bearing surfaces of oil-testing machines is due to Monsieur G. Adolphus Hirn, and is described D1aGRAM 1.—COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 130 120 110 100 90 Temperature. 50 -10 -20 30 -40 ‘50 -60 -70 -SO -90 1.00 Coefficient of friction. by him in a paper on the subject of friction, read before the Société Industrielle de Mulhouse, June 28, 1854. M. Hirn, however, confine® his attention chiefly to the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, as measured by the amount of heat imparted to the circulating water, expressed in the work of friction. His investigations of lubrication with this apparatus were confined to the friction of lard and olive oils at the light pressure of about 14; pounds to the square inch. Mr. Charles N. Waite, of Manchester, New Hampshire, has independently, and I believe originally, made use of water in a friction machine, and has performed good work in the limit of his. experiments. A protection of wool batting and flannel, to guard the discs against loss of heat by radiation, diminishes the escape of heat to about. two degrees per hour, which loss is not appreciable when observations are taken within a few seconds’ interval. A thin copper tube, closed. at the Jower end, reaching through the cover, extends to the bottom of the disc; the bulb of a thermometer is inserted in this tube, and measures the temperature of the discs; an oil tube runs to the center of the disc, and a glass tube at the upper end indicates the supply and its rate of consumption, and also serves to maintain a uniform head of oil fed to the bearing surfaces. The rubbing surfaces of both discs were made to coincide with the standard surface plates in the physical laboratory of the Institute of Technology (Bos:on, Massachusetts), and their contact with each other is considered perfect. a The tables which accompany this paper are not introduced here, They may be found in the proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for 1880, pages 197-221. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 205 After this surface was finished the bronze disc was treated with bichloride of platinum, which deposited a thin film of platinum upon the surface. Upon the application of the discs to each other the steel dise rubbed off the platinum from all parts of the surface, showing the perfection of contact. This nicety of construction enables a film of oil of uniform thickness to exist between the surfaces, ‘and the resistances are not vitiated by the collision.of projecting portions of the disc with each other. The rounded end of the upper -shaft fits into a corresponding depression in the top of the upper disc. This method of connection retains the disc over the proper center, sxyet it is allowed to sway enough to correct any irregularity of motion caused by imperfection of construction or wear of the lower disc. ‘To obtain the desired condition of pressure, weights are placed directly upon the upper spindle. The axes of the upper and lower spindles -do not lie in the same straight line, but are parallel, being about one-eighth of an inch out of line with each other. Such construction, :giving a discoid motion, prevents the disc from wearing in rings and assists in the uniform distribution of the oil. An arm is keyed through the lower part of the upper spindle and engages with projections upon the upper disc. Upon this arm, which is turned to the are of a circle, whose development is two and one-half feet, a thin brass wire is wrapped and reaches to the dynamometer, so that the tension of the dynamometer is tangential and the leverage is constant for all positions of the upper disc within its range of motion. The ‘dynamometer consists of a simple bar of spring steel fastened at one end and bent by the pull applied at the other. Its deflection is indicated by a pointer upon a circular dial, the motion of the spring being multiplied about eighty times by a segment and pinion. “The whole is inclosed in a steam-gauge case. When completed, the machine was subjected to a long series of tests with the same oil, to determine the accuracy of the results and the best method of procuring them. The operation of the machine under equal conditions with the same oil gives results which are .as closely consistent with each other as could be expected from such physical measurements. As an example, four tests of the Downer Oil Company Light Spindle at 100° F., and on different days, gave 0.1145, 0.1094, 0.1118, 0.1094: mean, 0.1113. * * * Muchof the irregularity, slight as it is, is due to the variable speed of the engine. Concurrent results were obtained under equal circumstances, but the coefficient of friction varied, not merely with the lubricants used, but also with the temperature, pressure, and velocity. The results of my own experiments on mediate friction do not agree with the laws of friction as given in works on mechanics, but the coefficient of friction varies in an inverse ratio with the pressure, as shown graphically in the diagram (page 204). - These curves belong to the hyperbolic class of a high degree; but I have not been able to deduce an equation which will answer to the conditions of more than one, because the law of the curves is modified by a constant, dependent upon the individual sample of oil used, A little difference in the sample would cause a difference in the line of curve. Reference is made to diagram 2, showing the coefficient of friction under equal ranges of temperature and velocity, but with a different series of pressures. DiacRaM 2.—CURVES SHOWING CHANGES OF COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION UNDER VARYING CONDITIONS. Pounds per square inch. 10 20 .30 40 350 .60 Coefficient of friction. Coefficient of friction at 100° and 500 revolutions per minute: Pressure per square inch. Coefficient of friction. MSDOUNG sss oc sccces csciecc ace Bene cere oe. ce wate s sec ve clntae deces nea aeleee aeacelecceet se ebodlesiswesisoe sees sis 2 0. 3818 RCL Neem ete eee tee Nae erate sete eo eittia eer cer eens voile wa c eidicceccciaecec bees Sache eclcweesecesescccmss 0. 2686 DOUM US Mere ws vc ec clin tee cedeceslice spore De ae eee Na ate Poe sc eam vee CIE Ce Cee eo cb ciieans Caee weed inane 0. 2171 AM OUNGS pees era's Oh ea sek cas vp plies! Rea oe Ae ee Foe Tyee SY eee NE ee ON ILC wis Slob a ciee disc wae 0. 1849 CSO EL ctr EE re By) es ee uae Cok ch twin wadomersapiccw coeeledaseuessce sce 0. 1743 The ratio of the changing coefficient varies with the temperature at which the range of results is taken. Friction varies with the area, because the adhesiveness of the lubricant is proportional to the area, and the resistance due to this cause is a larger fraction of the total mechanical effect with light than it is with heavy pressures. The limit of pressure permitting free lubrication varies with the conditions; for constant pressures and slow motion it is believed to be about 500 pounds per square inch, while for intermittent pressures, like the wrist-pin of a locomotive, the pressure amounts to 3,000 pounds per square inch. It has been stated that about 4,000-foot pounds of frictional resistance per square inch is the maximum limit ef safe friction under ordinary circumstances. 206 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. As the results of this preliminary work indicated that the coefficient of friction varied with all the circumstances, it was necessary” to simulate the conditions of specific practical applications to determine the value of a lubricant for such purposes. It was decided to begin ‘these investigations with spindle oils, and therefore the machine was loaded with 5 pounds to the square: inch and run at about 500 revolutions per minute, as the oil is then submitted to conditions of attrition corresponding to those met with in extremes of velocity and pressure, in the case of a Sawyer spindle running at 7,600 revolutions per minute, with a band tension of 4: pounds, and the results subsequently given refer only to the friction under these conditions, except when definitely stated to the contrary. This particular spindle was selected because, of the 5,000,000 ring spindles in the United States, about 1,500,000 are of this. manufacture, and in a large number of the remainder the conditions of lubrication are quite similar. In a Sawyer spindle the step measures $ by +4; inch, and receives § of the pull due to the band. If that tension is 4 pounds, 3} pounds are transmitted to the step, whose projected area is 7%; square inch. The pressure per square inch is, therefore, 54 (say 5) pounds. The diameter of the spindle at bolster is 0.28’, or 0.8976’ in circumference. At 7,600 revolutions per minute its velocity amounts. to 6,685’’, or 557 feet, per minute; and the mean area of the discs of the oil machine must revolve at this speed. To illustrate, let— R = outer radius of disc = 2.656 inches. yr == inner radius of disc = 1.435 inches. n = radius of circle bisecting the area. Fractional ares of ‘annular:dise ==" 3(R?— 1?) occas al UL Sony dee cau soceus seuss ucucene cata seeceeeeamnee (1) area of outer: half] a(R? == 'n®) ease se Pa eee cdccccccee cde scene eee eee ae (2) Qa(Ri— we) = (R879) ee. Ug ase eee eweuwaes besa ddaciomsadeds nome ca sat (3) 22? —Qarnt x: . TR wrk ee PEL Ae a ee a ee aee eos vace Gaus on cetewee cen cera (A) BRI — Qa a= |) RF 9 use alec a Vee we snag oes amen uads wha Cuas codes. cere eae tee (5) nd ss — RA 99 Cass Shekels eek eeadie devaencccel sveceteaseedsoseuten eee (6) Sn | RA ao LSS PELE Se ew S a beeen ane eves stume ee ccetlpate scents cn en enme (7) n? = RIOR Sey ABER Abe ot) go: oso a cinetonie.s aeleisiaties cian ae ee n= Reo «paw aaciecai rac nd ncoe ae eee cae AA CEL as et (9) 2 2 2 2 Length of lize bisecting the area = 2 7n = A pated : ‘ : . ° . : (10) =Vimtany Lo PO A ee = V2xX 9.87(7.05-+2.11) . : 5 : , ; (12) = V19.74X9.16 : , : , : , ; (13) = V7 180.8184 . ; ; ‘ 3 : 4 é (14) = 13.45 inches. = 1,12 feet. To give a desired fractional velocity of 6.685 inches per minute the discs must revolve at 6,685 divided by 13.45 = 497 (say) 500 revolutions per minute. To recapitulate: By revolving the disc at 500 revolutions per minute, with a pressure of 5 pounds per square jnch, the oil is submitted to conditions of attrition corresponding to those in the extremes of velocity and pressure met with in a Sawyer spindle revolving at 7,600 revolutions with a band tension of 4 pounds. My reason for giving such a detailed statement is, because the value of investigations upon this subject must be measured by the precision with which all the conditions are observed. The apparatus is used in the following manner to measure the coefficient of friction of oil: After cleaning with gasoline and wiping carefully with wash leather, the discs are oiled and run for about five hours, being kept cool by a stream of water circulating through the upper disc. From time to time they are taken apart, cleaned, and oiled again. After using any oil, even if the discs are afterward cleaned, the results with the oil subsequently used give the characteristics of the previous oil, and it is only after thirty-five to forty-five miles of attrition that these results become consistent with each other, each succeeding result, meantime, approaching the final series. This seems to indicate that friction exists at the surface of the two discs, between the film of oil acting as a washer and the globules of oil partially embedded within the pores of the metal. Ifthe dense bronze and steel retain the oil despite attempts to remove it, how much longer must it require to replace the oil in machinery with a new variety whose merits are to be tested? These experiments confirm the wisdom of the increasing use of cast-iron for journals, as its porosity enables it to contain and distribute the lubricant. When the discs are ready to test the oil the apparatus is cooled by the circulation of water, the flow of which is stopped when the machine is started. At every degree of temperature the corresponding resistance is read on the dynamometer. When the thermometer indicates a temperature of sixty degrees, the counter is thrown in gear and the time noted. When one hundred and thirty degrees is reached, the counter is thrown out of gear and the time noted. This not only gives the velocity of the rubbing surfaces, but the number of revolutions required to raise the temperature a stated number of degrees, and is a close criterion of the oil. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the pressure to the resistance, and is deduced in the following manner: P = Weight on discs. R= Outer radius of frictional contact. r =Inner radius of frictional contract. N = Number of revolutions per minute. W = Reading on dynamometer. gy = Coefficient of friction. In the friction of annular discs the portions of the surface near the perimeter have a greater leverage than those near the center. The mean sum of these moments is found by the calculus. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 207 Let e be the radius of any infinitesimal narrow ring or band. Then will— Width of band = de : - ; ; : ; : : : ; ; ; : (1) Length of band = 27e : . . . . ‘ : : - : : : : (2) Area of band = 27ede : ‘ 4 ; : : : ; ; ; ‘ ; = (3) Moment of band = 2re%de . : Wt cr, : x : : : ; : : ; (4) The expression for the area of an annular disc is 7(R?—7?)_ . < z ; , : ? . (5) To express the moment of a ring in terms of an annular surface, divide Eq. 4 by Eq. 5, as follows: Qrerde __ 2e%de 2 RA) Re ms e?de == Moment in terms of disc j A : : : ; é : (6) Moment of whole Sos ff ede . ; ; F ! ; : : é: : , (7) : P 9 e8 R Integration of whole disc rp ae pes é . . . ° ° . . . (8) R3—r3 Substituting the limits R°—”, C ° . (9) and calling the work of friction=@P . : 5 : ; . c : . ; - (10) 3. Statical moment of friction of dise = ee) 5 ; - : , = : ; : (11) 3(R?—7?) : Ar@pP(R3—7?) Mech sl efeo? == 12 echanic 3(R2—9) (12) : 427 pP(R3—1)N Foot pounds at any velocity =———_——___— é ‘ ; : , ’ : : 5 13 oot poun paralogily reas (13) As previously stated, the dynamometer exerts a pull at the end of a lever whose development is 24 feet. Resistance of dynamometer = nue oh ee : : (14) Resi : ero Ww N esistance of dynamometer in foot pounds at any velocity = wk : . - (15) Then as the total friction = the resistance of the dynamometer, Eq. 13 = Eq. 15 1.@: 4rpPN(R3—13)__5WN 3 (R?—7?) ~— 2 Simplifying we have 8&2 pPN(R3—r?)=15WN(R?—r?) ! L ; (16) 8rpP (R8—r)=15W (R2—272). : : ; (17) __ 15W{R?— 1) {8% ? = SzP(RI—?) BM 3 ae, 5 Te ge Vy Separating the constants, @ =P : : A : (19) and R = 0.2214 feet Teoh tee ee R? = 0.01083 R? = 0.0489 PO OCLT 7. r= 0.0146 R* — r? = 0.00906, log. 7.9571282 R? — r* = 0.0343, log. 8.5352491 m = 3.1416, log. 0.4971499 _ (R?—r*)log. 8.5352491 8 * 0.9030900 15 log. 1.1760913 9,3573681 9.7113404 9.7113404 0.3539723 = 2.259 2.259W P= (20) RP This equation was solved for each reading of the dynamometer with five pounds pressure on the square inch, and the results tabulated in a convenient form for computing the coefficient of friction from the observed results. The table on page 208 shows the resistance of friction at 100°, 500 revolutions, for various pressures. 208 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. RESISTANCE OF FRICTION AT 100°. Resistance on Equivalent band Pressure, dynamometer. tension. pounds. Pounds. 1 2.62 0.8 2 3.68 1.6 3 4.48 2.4 4 5,28 Sue 5 DOS re 4.0 For further detailed results, reference is made to diagram 3. DIAGRAM 3.—RESISTANCE OF FRICTION AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES. fel ed ETA AIS ee 130 120 110 100 90 Temperature. 80 70 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Pounds resistance. These results seem to be intimately relevant to the most desirable limit of tension to the spindle-band methods of operating cotton- spinning machinery. By weighing the band tension in various mills it was found that the practice of tying bands lacked uniformity. As an example of this variation: in one mill the bands of a single coarse frame are reported to vary from 1 to 16 pounds. In another mill, on finer work, a number of spindles had a range of from } to 24 pounds, and in a third mill the band tension was between the limits of + to 5 pounds. The effectof atmospheric changes upon the fiber of textile bands renders it impossible, with the present method of constructing frames, to keep them at a uniform tension, but this variation can be reduced by a little care. Is it not worth while for each spinner to _ learn the proper band tension required for his special work, and then keep within those limits? The whole power required to run the frame would not vary in direct proportion to the varying resistance due to the friction of spindles at various pressures, because the resistance of the friction in other parts of the frame connected with the spindles, the actual spinning of cotton fibers, and the alternate contraction and expansion of the bands, are conditions which are more nearly constant, and in no case do they vary in proportion with the friction of the spindle, yet the variation is large, as shown by the following experiment made with the frame: Mr. George Draper, in a communication to the Industrial Record of June 1, 1879, gives the following valuable data on this subject: A frame of Sawyer spindles was taken spinning No. 30 yarn, ordinary twist, the front rolls running 95 revolutions per minute. The rings were of 12 inches diameter, and the traverse of the yarn on the bobbins 54 inches. The dynamometer was applied, and the power required to drive the spindles, with a side pull of the bands averaging 2 pounds to a spindle, was ascertained. The bands were then cut and a new set put on with a side pull of 3 pounds per spindle, and the frame tested again, all things remaining as before. The operation was then repeated at 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 pounds side pull per spindle, with the result shown in the following table. Calling the amount of power required to drive the spinning frame with— 2' pounds tension on the bands: .tcac--aslecsceevous -ccons soceee a cleat eccrine dy cen ee ne rein cee amine ce cinae = LOU) 3. pounds tension on ‘the bands . scccceceres cchacs scoccscrceccccecweas ceeet ena cee ane beer eae eee eRncene aj 4/pounds tension on the bands ssc scceesass cece cece csccce ycce aces saeee eee ce en eeeehe ce eaten eee neat eine —— Yi} 5 pounds tension on the bands .¢5 225 eiess toc cenoe soos 1ic% specneeatee 9 Bleached winter sperm... .....-..5:..2...-.--. 16: «| Mineral gsc0d; Seep. seciace al wpeet acme tf Mineral 2.éi:atie eunccwpde nse ox eeutecare eee 18 Bleached sperm..... Ranch apisen ses sae onsale 17 Unbleached sperm < ius cetaceans ssaeese 13 Minoral. «oo co0 aecaucderee nats ecese anemia ; 12 Mineral. .cc snjn sem nip as sa mene ames com cicteeainiet | 19 Mineral osc) cncenantassen cates ctetis eeerrene rine 2 TINGral 22 oo parca te se cast cin tee ean eee cee 21 OHS Sic gla.0cs cnc naenrestan caae steerer ees 28 MIN OTA Safes as came vce ce vice cane eee 3 WAI Sopee cic s setae toc eh eek pee es = cee eee 15 Minerah= 0202 352 5cc-eeacees sae oeeee aoe eee 22 Went’ s-foots.2.<2334./5 0265 es Sieh ee eee Coefficient of friction at 100°. 0. 0756 0. 0956 0. 1103 . 1113 WwAT4 Dy ohe® . 1147 . 1190 . 1201 . 1208 . 1476 . 1608 0, 1782 0. 2181 0. 2243 0. 2427 ooo ooc so & It is no disparagement to the qualities of an oil that it is low in the foregoing list, except so far as it relates to the resistance of friction under these conditions. For circumstances of great pressure and slow motion, I am of the opinion that the order of the list would be varied; and if the question of endurance were only to be considered, still another change in the order would be necessary. A portion of a lot of unbJeached sperm oil (sample 17) was bleached expressly for these tests (sample 18), but the results of the two are so nearly uniform as to be practically identical. although it undoubtedly reduces its gumming qualities. The result of bleaching does not affect the anti-frictional properties of the oil, The friction of sperm oil is subject to sudden variations, which occur at. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 211 certain temperatures for the same sample of oil. The explanation of this lies in the fact that sperm oil consists of a large number of varieties of spermaceti, each of which is liquefied at certain temperatures, at which the oil is relieved of waxy, or at least gelatinous particles, and becomes a more perfect lubricant. * 4 ‘ The friction of lard oil for high temperatures exceeds that of any other lubricant in the list; and this adhesive quality enables it to remain on tools used for cutting iron. In conclusion, it may be stated that the data necessary to determine the safety and efficiency of a lubricant comprise: . 1. The flashing point of its vaper, which is ascertained by slowly heating a sample over an oil bath, quickly passing a small flame over the oil and noting the temperature at which the vapor first flashes. The danger from an oil does not arise from the point at which the oil actually ignites, but at the lower temperature, when the inflammable vapor bursts into flames, which communicate fire to a distance limited only by the extent of the vapor. 2. The quantity of such volatile matter is important both as respects safety and value. The heat of friction liberates that portion of the oil which is volatile at the temperature of the bearings, filling the mill with a dangerous noxious vapor, and also dissipates in the air a portion of the oil which is paid for by the gallon, but does not serve to give any return of value in lubrication. The quantity of matter volatile under 140° F. is measured by heating a known weight of oil in a watch-glass and maintaining a constant temperature of 140° F, for 12 hours. This simulates the conditions of the temperature of the bearings mentioned previously and the maximum time that it would be consecutively heated. In the case of mineral oils the loss from evaporation varied from less than 1 up to 30 per cent. With animal and vegetable oils there is a slight gain in weight, due to oxidation. 3. The tendency to spontaneous combustien is estimated by a uniform amount of cotton-waste smeared with a certain quantity of oil. A thermometer whose bulb extends to the center of the mass indicates any rise of temperature due to oxidation. Any gain of weight during the preceding evaporation test shows a liability to spontaneous ignition. 4, Freedom from acid is an important factor in oil, because acid is a cause of corrosion of metals, and will tend to remove the oil from the frictional surfaces when adhesion is indispensable. The presence of acids is shown by corrosion of copper. 5. The anti-frictional properties of an oil can be measured only by direct trial under the desired conditions of pressure, velocity, and temperature. The results of these experiments show that a lubricant must have a certain adhesion to the frictional surfaces to maintain free lubrication, but beyond that point the adhesiveness of the oil resists the motion of the surfaces, increasing the friction. A thick oil gives greater frictional resistance than a thin one; and when ease in running is the object the most limpid oil should be used consistent with the specific circumstances of the bearing. In general terms, the specific gravity of an oil gives no indications of its value as a lubricant in qualities of viscosity, body, or endurance. * * * When this paper was read at the meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Professor R. H. Thurston spoke as follows: Mr. Woodbury in his paper made some reference to the fact that the coefficients of friction, as ordinarily stated, are not found to be strictly correct; in other words, that there are no such losses in ordinary practice. Then he has shown you here how seriously the temperature of the lubricant affects the coefficient of friction. You will notice that the work done is all at extremely light pressures. It is simply due to the pull of the band, and the resultant of that and the resistance of the work of the spindle. It is exceedingly light, and it is for that reason that we get what appeared to be extremely high coefficients of friction. In the table exhibited you will see that the coefficients run from 74 up to about 20 per cent., the highest figure being lard oil and a spesial grace of machinery oil, which are each about 22 per cent. Now, a fact which was not brought out so strongly by the paper as it might have been is, that this coefficient is also affected very largely by the pressure per square inch put upon the journal, and what I intended specially to remark upon was the fact that these coefficients do not represent the values of the coefficients obtained in ordinary engine work, but are the coefficients obtained in extremely light work, as in the spinning-frames of cotton-mills, If we use the same lubricating material, and the same surface pressure, rising above that to fifty pounds, we will find the ceefficients come down in value to a fraction of the figures given on the scale. Carrying the pressure up to a very common figure, such as we might get with any machine work, of 100 or 200 pounds, we will find that the coeflicient is reduced. I have had occasion to make tests of various kinds of oil between various sorts of surfaces, and, under varying pressures aud temperatures, up to pressures of 1,500 pounds to the square inch, and for a very short period of time 2,000 pounds to the square inch, and at temperatures which ran from the ordinary atmospheric temperature to above the boiling point of water, and I find that upen the crank-pins of steam-engines, such as are sometimes used on the North River boats, carrying the pressure of a thousand pounds to the square inch, instead of a coefficient of friction of 5 per cent. we get one-tenth of 5 per cent.—one-half of 1 per cent. for the coefficient of friction—so that the field explored by Mr. Woodbury is limited to these extremely low temperatures. They do not represent the results as ordinarily obtained, or exceptional results obtained by putting on tremendously high pressures, so that if we take the very best of lubricating materials—sperm oil is the best I have ever found for heavy pressures—and put a pressure upon it of a thousand pounds to the square inch, then, instead of the text-book coefficients of friction, all the way from 4 to 7 per cent., we get figures that run to one-tenth of that amount. I have obtained coefficients of friction with sperm oil as low as one-fourth of 1 per cent. The pressure, therefore, at which you are working is one of the very important elements in determining what is to be the coefficient of friction to be assumed in design. Now, I spoke of this partly as a commentary on this paper and partly as a commentary on that of Mr. Hoadley. Mr. Hoadley shows us that we may divide the circumference described by the crank-pin by horizontal and vertical lines, and he calls the upper and lower of the two sections of his circumference the work-doing parts of the traverse of the crank-pin, and the end sections he calls the work-using sections. Now he shows us what is the effect of friction in reducing the efficiency of engines where we put full pressure on the crank-pin at either end of the stroke; but it must be observed, as a commentary upon that statement, that these figures are very much smaller than we have been accustomed to assume. The friction of the crank-pin in a well-made engine, with a good bronze box, running on good steel journals, ought to come down to a fraction of 1 per cent. That being the case, we get the result that Mr. Porter indicated, that the loss of power at the two ends of the stroke becomes insignificant, more insignificant than I presume he had supposed. A remark was also made by another member of the society upon our determinations of the value of lubricating oils for steam- cylinders. In along series of experiments, which I have had occasion to make on lubricating oils to be used in steam-cylinders, I have taken oils furnished in the market for that purpose and tested them at the temperature of the steam-cylinder, bringing them up to a temperature of 250° or 300°, and some cases 350°, and I found that the value of the oil for lubricating purposes within the steam-cylinders is by no means the same as its value for lubricating on the crank-pin and other external parts not subjected to high temperatures, and that the oil giving the best results on the crank-pin may give poor results in the cylinder. In several cases I have found that oils that were among the best for ordinary use were among the poorest for cylinder work, while other oils that were not nearly so good for external use were among the very best for use within the steam-cylinder. So no one can tell what is the value of an oil for the purpose to which he applies it uxtil he subjects it to a test under precisely those conditions. 212 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Mr. Woodbury presented us with the results of work done under the precise conditions of actual use. He runs the spindles at the ordinary speed, and runs them as in ordinary spinning frames, and then measures the friction, and the data he gives are of course absolutely reliable as determining the results to be met with under that set of conditions. That is one reason why we may rely so absolutely, I presume, upon his results. He has determined under these conditions what is the comparative value of a large number of oils; but I wish to renew his caution that we are not to take these results, which represent the relative value of oils for spindles, as representing the relative value of those oils for crank-pins or the lubrication of steam-cylinders. Another remark was made in the paper, apparently incidentally, that aman may save a considerable amount of money in the purchase of his oils, while losing at the same time a vastly greater amount in paying his coal bills, and that leads to the question how are we to determine the money value of these oils? It is evident that the value to the dealer is not at all likely to be just its value to the purchaser. The money value of the oil to the consumer is something less than the money value of the work that it is going to save him in friction, or the money value of the work that itis going to save him in friction added to the money value of the work it is going to save him in repairs and incidental expenses. If you will take the trouble to determine the cost of the power in any mill or machine-shop in the country, and then assume a change in the coefficient of friction from an average of, we will say, 2 or 3 per cent. to an average of 5 per cent., and see what you can afford to pay for oil that will avoid that increase of friction, you will find probably in every case in which you make the calculation that you can better afford to pay the highest prices in the market for the best oils than to take as a gift the oils which give you the highest coefficients of friction. I took occasion some time ago to work that up in a specified case—that of Mr, Sellers’ shop—I don’t remember now what the figures were, but the result was such as to show that we could better pay a good many times the value of the best sperm oil in the market to reduce losses by friction than to take the cheapest oils in the market with the increase of those losses, The difference between the lowest coefficients and the highest coefficients is about 1 to 3. But when you are calculating the cost of the power required to overcome this friction, you will find that even slight differences are sufficient to justify you in making your estimate of costs in taking the very highest-priced oil, even if it gives you a very little decrease in the coefficient of friction. In a circular issued near the close of the year 1880 by Mr. Atkinson, he gives a summary of the results obtained in the research conducted by Mr. Woodbury, and remarks: Another result of this work has been the invention of the machine on which we can now ascertain the anti-frictional properties of any oil with absolute certainty, and by the use of which we have obtained measurements of the coefficient of friction with an accuracy and uniformity that have never been approached before. * * * Our machine having been adjusted in velocity and other conditions to those of a Sawyer spindle operating at 7,600 turns per minute under a band tension of 4 pounds, it appeared that the difference in power required to overcome the resistance of the parts varied as follows: The resistance or power required to operate the frictional machine at 100° F., when lubricated with Downer Oil Co. 32 extra machinery oil, amounted to 756, and under the same conditions, with the exception of the substitution of neat’s-foot oil as a lubricant, the resistance amounted to 2,427, or three and twenty one-hundredths times as much. . In respect to the same oil at different degrees of temperature in the bearing, the resistance at 50° is about 75 per cent. in excess of that at 75° F. In respect to the best oil and poorest lubricant at 100° F., the difference is 321 per cent. In respect to a difference of pressure varying from 1 pound to 5 pounds, the difference is 229 per cent. By means of experiments applied to a small Sawyer spindle-frame, which could not be reduced to such precise accuracy, but which marked the great variations in power according to the greater or less tension of the bands, other results were reached of the same general character, fully confirming the above conclusions. The general conclusions reached are, therefore, that although, as a matter of course, there must be a marked difference in power needed between a well-planned and constructed and a badly-constructed spinning-frame, yet, when it is a question between two well- constructed frames, * * * the greatest differences in details (of construction) do not make as much difference in the power required as may be made in the adjustment and tension of the bands or in the quality and condition of the oil, and hardly as much as may be made by variations in the temperature and condition of the atmosphere and of the machine, or in the quality and condition of the stock in use. The uniform tension of the band appears to be the factor of the greatest importance, and the structure of the bobbin of the least, provided the spindle is long enough and heavy or stiff enough to keep the bobbin true and to prevent it from springing under the varying conditions of the atmosphere. In respect to the best quality of oil to be used on spindles—that is to say, the best oil to be used on light bearings at very high velocity—a few simple rules may now be laid down dogmatically, so far a8 rules are to be made by experiments on a single machine or from laboratory experiments. 1. A mineral oil that flashes at less than 300° F. does not possess the best qualities for lubrication, and is unsafe in proportion te the Jesser degree at which it flashes. 2. A mineral oil that evaporates more than 5 per cent. in ten hours ata heat of 140° F. is hazardous in proportion to the increased percentage of volatile matter, and is also more unfit to be used as a lubricant the more rapidly it evaporates, because the remainder will either become thick and viscous, requiring a high heat in the bearing to make it operate at all, or else, if the oil does not contain such a residuum liable to become thick and heavy, it will leave the bearing dry. 3. All the mineral oils—and also sperm, lard, and neat’s-foot oils—appear to reach a nearly uniform coefficient of friction at very greatly different degrees of heat in the bearings. Several kinds of the best mineral oils and sperm and lard oils show a uniform coefficient of friction at the following degrees of heat: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION IS THE SAME. Deg. F 32° machinery (an exceedingly uid Oil). vane .cccs spec een e nese reams cece SOMETIME REA Danae Rane Chi ni ar endn 76 Light spindl@>. so coos cbs cue cen see baylran ewes cee wlen s+ cass cuins lc ap guia tee oth aie ema iG Mees ee oc 105 Heavy spindle........ Be 30 508S, SRA ae Pp SEO RCO SENS J OSD Eben IC stima OSES NSSORh AGES ate BASeaeead 125 Various samples of sperms ....2) Pacaws ates hesdins oo apt scsn'd spaces oot Renee emer Gre aaa wenn Stee en 96 to 114 Valvoline spindle..i. .. occss cnewog sduig ta emiber icky e © hes t0 e500 tp cies tie an seas mn meee ety eee whe ees iaas cies eaire 127 ‘ White valvoline spindle 2. s.0cigic ss aes soph alee te nisiadnveiccaua ake nage = eaeee ee ere jaleie micie’e Sues ele sia Saisie 112 A spindle. 02... G oles t Se ciccece ale ee es oaiwacac stticw ces sje'e miata kote care (eere = eee teeter alee eae 107 Neat’s-fo0t ese ca nents San sigcucetene eh an paseaceuealnaa sve iawiscs 6am ieee ee eae el otnien ieee eee ae meee ee 170 Lard: of) oo eee ee a recs be eed bean ca cne ee eee See te ee ee en eee 180 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 213 4, Lubrication seems to be effective in adverse ratio to viscosity, i. e., the most fluid oil that will stay in its place is the best to use. Lard oil heated to 130° lubricates as well as sperm at 70° or the best mineral oil at 50°. But of course it is a great waste of machinery to work oil of any kind up to an excessive heat, and there must be the least wear in the use of oil that shows the least coefficient of friction at the lowest degree of heat. 5. The quantity of oil used is a matter of much less importance than the quality. The mill that saves gallons of oil at the cost of tons of coal or dollars of repairs plays a losing game. Mr. Waite’s experiments on very heavy bearings at Manchester go far to prove that a considerable quantity of thin fine oil keeps the bearings much cooler and requires less power than a smaller quantity of thick viscous oil. Here let it be observed that a superstition that prevails in favor of using castor oil to cool a hot bearing is without any warrant. No vegetable oil is fit to use as a lubricant ; and castor oil is the worst of all, because the most viscous. If used, it will surely set the mill on fire, as it did in the only case of which we have a record. 6. The rule of best lubrication is to use an oil that has the greatest adhesiveness to metal surfaces and the least adherence as to its own particles. Fine mineral oils stand first in this respect, sperm second, neat’s-foot third, lard fourth. 7. Cast-iron holds oil better than any other metal or any alloy, and is the best metal to use for light bearings, perhaps for heavy. 8. It has been proved by Mr. Waite’s experiments that a highly-polished bearing is more liable to friction than a surface finely lined by filing. The lines left by the file serve as reservoirs for the oil, while the high polish leaves no room for the particles between the metal surfaces. So far as laboratory experiments may serveas a guide in practice, it therefore appears that fine mineral oils may be made to serve all the purposes of a cotton-mill, and such is the practice in some of the mills that show the very best results in point of economy; next, that the best animal oil to mix with a fine mineral oil, in order to give it more body, is sperm oil; this again accords with the practice of many of the mills in which the greatest economy is attained. Lard and neat’s-foot oil are used to give body to mineral oil in some of the best mills; but the results of our work seem not to warrant this practice, unless there is some peculiarity in the machinery that makes it more difficult to keep a less viscous or tenacious oil on the bearings. All the mixed oils sold under fancy names we believe must, of necessity, consist of certain proportions of the oils heretofore named, as none of the vegetable or fish oils are fit to be used, and there are no other animal oils that can be had in any quantity. It appears that all varieties of mineral oils are or have been used in print-cloth mills, and are all removed in the process of bleaching, as practiced in print-works. All mineral oils stain more or less, and give more or less difficulty to the bleacher when dropped upon thick cloth or cloth of a close texture. On this point we have been able to establish no positive rule; but as very many kinds are and have been used in mills working on such cloths and are removed we are inclined to the belief that this question is not of as great importance as it has been assumed to be. These exact results have been obtained under conditions of great velocity and low pressure. Professer Thurston’s remarks, quoted on a previous page, apply to the conditions of friction under great pressures and slow motion. We have not, however, yet subjected the lubrication of heavy bearings to so exhaustive a research. Dr. C. B. Dudley, chemist to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, has been devoting much time recently to the investigation of lubricants for railroads. His results have not been made public. This road and other leading railroads of the country are among the heaviest purchasers of natural lubricating oils that will not thicken at a low temperature. Oils of this quality, as well as reduced oils, are very largely used on railroads, as also some of the petroleum mixtures, such as the “ pine-tar compound”, the “ galena oils”, and the “‘plumbago oils ”. A report of a committee of the Railway Master Mechanics’ Association of the United States, appointed to examine into and report on the subject of lubricants, recommended a good quality of natural earth oils as the best to use for lubricating machinery and journal boxes. It is less expensive and of a better quality than other oils. When treated so as to reach 28° of gravity, it was found to work with perfect success. It had been reported favorably on from Canada in the north to Kentucky in the south. A test of various oils had been made with the oil-tester on the Lake Shore road ; sperm, lard, and tallow were used, and none of them were found to possess qualities which render their use advisable. In their experiments the committee used a machine the size of a regular axle-box, and 50 drops were poured in at a temperature of 60°, and the wheel was allowed to revolve at arate of speed equaling 35 miles per hour until a temperature of 200° was reached. The length of time, number of revolutions, and amount of friction were all noted. Attention was called to the result obtained from tests with paraffine oil which costs from 25 to 30 cents per gallon, and which has been used on railroads in preference to lard oil. Paraffine oil costing 25 cevts, with which six experiments had been made, showed that twenty-four minutes were required to reach the maximum temperature, during which time it gave 11,685 revolutions; castor oil, costing $1 25, which required twenty-eight minutes to reach the temperature allowed, gave 12,946 revolutions; manufactured oils—A, B, and C—costing 35 cents, 90 cents and 25 cents, respectively, required nineteen and one-half minutes, giving from 9,285 to 9,653 revolutions; sperm and tallow required only seventeen minutes to reach 200° temperature, with less than 8,000 revolutions. (a) Paraffine oil that does not boil under 370° ©. has been considered the best material for lubricating cylinders at high temperatures. Mineral oil, purified by being shaken with chlorinated soda, from which it is decanted and then shaken repeatedly with milk of lime, and again decanted and then distilled with one-third its volume of solution of caustic soda, is used for the lubrication of watches. (b) a Iron Monger, Supplemerft, Dec. 13, 1879. b Poly. Chl. 1859, 575. 214 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Onaprer JL—THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS FOR ILLUMINATION. SECTION 1.—INTRODUCTION. Orude petroleum has been used in Japan and Burmah for purposes of illumination from an immemorial period. In Burmah the Rangoon tar or oil was burned in earthen lamps. In Persia pencils of dried dung were saturated with the oil and burned, the pencil serving as a wick. In Parma and Modena and other towns in the upper valley of the Po the native petroleum, which is quite fluid and of a light color, has been burned for years both in street Jamps and in dwellings. In the valley of Oil creek, and in the salt region of the lower Allegheny and Kiskiminetas, the petroleum obtained from springs and from the salt-wells was used in a contrivance resembling a tea-kettle,. often with two spouts (see Fig. 19), for lighting saw-mills and derricks. For these purposes the amber oils of the lower Allegheny were considered superior to the dark oil of Oil creek. Since the manufacture of petroleum by distillation was commenced there have been several separate products used for illuminating purposes. Most of the illuminating oils have been called “ kerosene”, a name which was originally adopted as a trade-mark by some firm engaged in the manufacture of coal-oils, but which soon afterward became a common designation. applied to a certain class of oils used in common lamps. This word, however, has not been uniformly applied to a substance of uniform kind and quality, but has been used to designate a class of substances prepared in a similar manuer from a common crude material, but which in certain respects present a very wide variation. The varieties known to the trade are *“* Water White”, “Standard,” and “ Prime”, the distinctions on which the classification is based relating chiefly to color. There are, however, wide differences between the oils as manufactured by different methods that exist independently of color. The oils may contain too large a proportion of the volatile products of the petroleum; they may contain too large a proportion of the heavy products; they may contain too large a proportion of cracked material; and yet in either case they may, by judicious manipulation, be made to appear of good color while otherwise of inferior quality—a fact which in this country has been almost overlooked, but which has lately attracted some attention in Germany, and will doubtless be more carefully regarded in future. ‘ Color” and “test” have hitherto determined the quality of competitive illuminating oils, but a more careful regard for the quality of such oils would lead to the determination of the relative proportion of light and - heavy constituents and the condition of the oil with reference to the presence and amount of sulphur compounds. The quality of oils with reference to these two particulars is not determined by either the color or the test, but a disregard of them seriously affects the quality of the oil as an illuminator. (a) A few years since legislation was obtained in Minnesota which excluded low-test oils from the markets of that state. The following season those markets were stocked with oils, which, to use the English phrase, were mixtures of “tops and bottoms”. They were up to the legal test, and were satisfactory in color, but they would become solid at —20° F., and were so heavily charged with sulphur compounds that they blackened at a temperature of 200°F. They were of very inferior quality, and were very successfully used in securing the repeal of the legislation of the preceding winter. In addition to the ordinary illuminating oils which vary in the manner stated above, the naphthas of different grades have been used in lamps of different kinds. ‘The best lamp in all respects for burning naphtha is that known as the sponge lamp. This lamp is made in a variety of forms, and is filled with sponge, which, on being saturated with the fluid, yields it to the wick and prevents either the spilling of the contents of the lamp or an explosion when the fluid isconsumed and air becomes mingled with the vapor. Naphtha is also used in lamps of peculiar construction which have been found especially useful for lighting streets. These lamps are so constructed that the heat of the flame vaporizes the naphtha as it passes through a tube from a reservoir to the burner, where the vapor is burned as if it were a gasjet. This form of lantern is very extensively used, especially in the environs of cities. Another oil is ‘mineral sperm”, which is distilled from the crude paraffine oils in the preparation of lubricating oils. This oil has a very high boiling point, and flashes at a temperature above 275° F. It is chiefly used in lighting mills, steamboats, and railroad cars, where more easily inflammable oils would be objectionable. SECTION 2.—SAFE OILS. While the color of oils is to some extent an indication of their quality, the flash or fire test is the principal guarantee upon which the general public relies for both quality and safety; yet, as has been already stated, the burning qualities are not represented by them. ‘The discussion of the subject of safe oils was commenced at a very early date. Among the earliest papers connected with this subject is one published in the Report of the a See Vohl’s Research, page 181. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 215 Smithsonian Institution for 1862 by the Hon. Zachariah Allen, of Providence, Rhode Island. In this paper Mr. Allen states that the experiments therein described were undertaken at the instance of the Rhode Island Mutual Fire Insurance Company. The experiments were too simple to be deserving of particular notice here, but the discussion of the subject not only exhibits the acuteness with which the author was accustomed to treat technological questions, but also shows how few facts have been added to the sum of human knowledge concerning the products distilled from petroleum during the twenty years that have elapsed since his paper was written. He says: To ascertain the comparative qualities of the kerosene oil made in different parts of this country samples were procured and tested by the simple process of pouring some of each kind of oil into a cup by itself, and by placing them all afloat together in a basin of water heated by a spirit lamp, and with a thermometer immersed in the water to indicate the temperature while gradually rising from 60° to 212°. During the progress of the increase of temperature blazing matches were passed over the surface of the oil in each cup successively at short intervals of time, until the increased heat caused sufficient gaseous vapors to arise from each to take fire, which they all finally did, at degrees of temperature varying from 80° to 162°, exhibiting faint flames quivering over the surface of the oil, precisely like those hovering over the surface of spirits of wine or alcohol when similarly kindled. The flames are quite as readily extinguished by a blast of the breath, and not the least symptom of any explosive character became manifest when each one took fire. Until the evaporative point of each sample of oil was produced by the increase of heat applied, and until lambent flames were kindled, burning matehes were extinguished when plunged into the coal-oil as effectually as if they had been similarly plunged into water. The average heat at which all the samples emitted sufficient vapor to admit of being kindled was about 125° of Fahrenheit’s scale. After ascertaining the temperature requisite to kindle the several samples of coal-oil, it next becomes an interesting subject of investigation to ascertain the heat to which coal-oil is ordinarily elevated while burning in lamps. The results of actual experiments showed that in glass lamps the temperature is increased about 6° and in metallic lamps but 10° or 12° above that of the apartment, which, being 67°, produced a heat in the oil of about 71° to 79°, leaving a considerable range of temperature below the average of 125° above stated. Finding by actual observation that only gaseous vapors arising from the heated oil exhibit the phenomenon of flame whilst ascending and combining chemically with the oxygen of the air, it became manifest that no explosive action could be anticipated to take place from any kind of oil or inflammable spirits unless these gaseous vapors were first evolved by a previous increase of temperature, and then brought into contact with the atmospheric air before applying a match thereto, There being no room left for either the gaseous vapor of the oil or for atmospheric air to combine therewith in the chamber of any lamp entirely filled with oil, every attempt to produce explosive action with a full lamp, at all temperatures up to the boiling point of water, utterly failed when lighted matches were applied to the open orifice of the lamp. The only result produced by inereasing the heat of the coal-oil was an increase in the evaporation of the gas, and a higher jet of flame steadily rising, as from the jet of a gas burner. So long as lamps are kept FULL of oil, or even of explosive camphene or “‘burning fluid”, there can be no explosive action whatever. Jor this special reason it may be adopted as a safe rule to cause all lamps containing highly inflammable liquids to be kept as full as practicable by being daily replenished. * * * * * * * * * * As the dangerous inflammability of coal-oil appeared to be ascribable to the naphtha not separated therefrom, the following experiments were made to ascertain the extent of the inflammable properties of pure naphtha. Finding that the liquid naphtha evolved sufficient vapors at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere to become instantaneously kindled into flashing flames, the cup containing it was immersed in a freezing mixture of snow and salt to reduce the temperature to the zero of Fahrenheit’s scale. At this low temperature the naphtha appeared to blaze with equal violence. Then a quantity of snow was mixed with the liquid naphtha and thoroughly stirred, for still further reducing the temperature. Even at this extreme degree of cold the naphtha continued to flame so furiously that it was necessarily thrown from the cup upon the ice covering the ground where the experiment was made, in the open air, whilst the thermometer indicated an atmospheric temperature of 19° below the freezing point. The naphtha still continuing to burn upon the surface of the ice, a covering of snow was thrown over it to extinguish the flame. Through this covering of white snow the bright flames still continued to shoot up, presenting to view the extraordinary spectacle of burning snow. Onrepeating similar experiments on the comparative combustibility of spirits of wine or alcohol, camphene, and burning fluid, they did not emit sufficient gaseous vapors at the freezing point, or 32°, to become kindled into flame when burning matches were plunged therein, but with a little increase of temperature they all became kindled. The preceding experiments seem to exhibit impressively the extraordinary inflammability of naphtha, arising from the facility with which it emits gaseous vapors; the utmost caution is requisite to prevent not only unexpected explosions, but also the almost unextinguishable violence of its conflagration, for practically the application of water does not subdue the conflagration of naphtha in quantity, and only the exclusion of atmospheric air appears to quench the fury of its flames. *~ * * Petroleum contains a considerable percentage of naphtha, and consequently partakes in a degree of its dangerous properties. * * * In making experiments with the tin vessel of the capacity of a common lamp a single drop of naphtha was found to yield sufficient vapor to produce as much explosive action as could be produced by the most inflammable coal-oil for sale in the market when similarly experimented with; and after every experiment failed to exhibit the slightest explosive tendency of the best kerosene oil, a single drop mingled therewith rarely failed to yield sufficient vapor to manifest its presence by a slight explosive puff when kindled by a lighted match. (a) These experiments, made in 1862, satisfied Mr. Allen, as a representative of very large manufacturing and. insurance interests, that ‘‘coal-oil” (i. e., mineral illuminating oil), when properly manufactured by responsible parties, was a safe material for use; and they also established these fundamental facts, which have been made the basis of all the action that has since been taken with reference to this question, viz: That the volatile constituents of petroleum are extremely inflammable liquids; that they mingle with the air with great readiness and form mixtures that explode with great violence; that illuminating oil prepared from coal or petroleum, from which these oils, volatile at a low temperature, are carefully excluded, is a safe illuminating material for ordinary use, while the presence of a very small percentage of the naphtha, added to an oil of unquestioned excellence, produces a dangerous mixture, from the use of which explosions and conflagrations are liable to ensue. The continued agitation of this subject led to legislation by states, cities, and towns, and also to the manufacture of such oils as would satisfy the requirements of the various laws enacted. The result has been the establishment of different tests, that is, different degrees of temperature at which the oils might produce an explosive a Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1862, p. 330. The name is here erroneously given T. Allen. 216 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. vapor or burst into flame. The tests were therefore classified as flash tests and fire tests, and both classes include a range uf temperatures between 75° and 175° F. Both the classes of tests have had their advocates ; and to meet the requirements of law with most profit on the one hand, and to protect the public in the use of these oils on the other, a large number of apparatus and a variety of methods for their use have been devised. The conclusions reached by Mr. Allen, that an oil properly manufactured is safe, while one containing naphtha is dangerous, suggests the further conclusion that there must be two standards: one of relative and the other of ~ absolute safety. The object of establishing any test is simply to determine at what temperature a given sample of illuminating oil, in quantity sufficient to fill a lamp of ordinary size, gives off enough vapor, which, when mingled with air, can form an explosive mixture. It therefore becomes a matter of merely secondary importance at what temperature such an oil will take fire, as all experience has shown that an explosion has been followed by fire in so many instances that the question of the temperature at which an explosive oil will take fire becomes eliminated as worthless; because the temperature at which an oil wiil take fire is acknowledged by all parties at all acquainted with the facts to be no indication whatever of the temperature at which such an oil will flash. It is immediately asked, if such is the case, why is a fire test ever used? It is sufficient to answer, that it is much less difficult to manufacture oils of a uniform jfire test than of a uniform flash test; hence the efforts of some manufacturers have always been used to secure legislation requiring a fire test rather than a flash test, and legislators have listened to the presentation of practical difficulties rather than to the objections presented by physicists and philanthropists who have urged the claims of the flash test. As illustrating the inadequacy of the fire test to protect life and property by detecting dangerous oils, of seven hundred and thirty-six samples of oil examined for the New York city health department more than half did not take fire below 110°, while only twenty-three failed to evolve inflammable vapors below 100°. Returning to the question of absolute safety, we immediately seek to follow Mr. Allen in his inquiries respecting the temperature attained by the oil while burning in lamps under ordiuary conditions. The most elaborate research on record is that undertaken by Dr.C. F. Chandler and published in 1871 in his celebrated report on petroleum as an illuminator.(a) The following extract from this report gives the conclusion reached: THE TEMPERATURE OF OIL IN BURNING LAMPS. First SERIES.—TEMPERATURE OF THE ROOM, 73° TO 74° F. TEMPERATURE OF THE OIL. | : A Capacity of | Hel a ac lamp. Afterone | Aftertwo | After four | After seven Fo pr ed hour. hours. hours. hours. Ont Ounces. Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. | Deg. F. Deg. F. 1 | Brass hand-lamp...-..-.------------- 8 85 82 85 86 84.5 2°) Brass hand-lamp.icersesce-wsceoos -= 24 79 83 84 82 82. 0 3 | Glass stand-lamp .........---.---+--- | 8 17 78 79 80 78.5 4 Glass stand-lamp ........--.-.--...-. 11 77 81 84 82 81.0 5 Glass‘stand-lamp)<--2ssee-e- eee ==- 20 78 79 79 80 79.0 6 Glass stand-lamp ........-..--.------| 7 82 80 85 84 82. 75 7 | Glass standlamp..--2Je) osteo 10 84 | 36 84 82 84.0 8 Glass hand damp. .c.cc)e smash -eeeae 9 79 7 85 85 81.75 9 Glass\hand-lamp\.-..s2-seeeeeeeeeees 6 81 82 86 86 83.75 10 Glass hand-lamp 227.2. eee aa een = 7 80 18 cll cock 2th Roce Nee cee eee 79.0 11, ||’ Brassstudent-lamp'.--.-. s-eeeseeease | 13 | 82 80 83 84 82. 25 12 | Glass stand-lamp ...-..--.---.------- 10 | 81 81 79 78 79.75 13 | Brass stand-lamp ...:.-..2-.-.ces0s-- 11 | 92 89 88 86 88. 75 14 Tin lantern’. ci2.% 2.2 s2ssesaseeeeeeee (hen 89 86 88 87 87.5 15 Glass bracket-lamp ...-.....-.-.-.--- | 19 | 82 82 84 | 83 82. 78 16 Glass: atand-lamp - 2152. <-n---ee ree 29 82 80 80 84 81.5 17 | Braes student-lamp............--.--- | 7 BO nscane gen amas | Sipe eases fal 84. 0 18 | Brass Stand-lamp c-a<-ic-a0 se ememae ee | 14 | 84 | 85 87 87 85. 75 Lip Mtarcak stand-lamipieeess see eeee eee | 19.04 100 100 92 91 95.75 20 | Metal stand-lamp...-.-...5.-..:.--. 9 82 82 88 87 84. 75 21 | Brass stand-lamp ....-...........---- 12 | 91 92 88 85 89.0 22 Bronze stand-lamp-...<. -ss+<-+esae ee 16 83 76 79 85 80. 75 23 Glass: hand-lamp 723s es os <3 eee etl eee me oise ei 79 80 82 82 80. 75 i a Am. C., ii, 409, 446; iii, 20, 41; Mon. Sci., 1872, 676, Dingler, cey, 587; D. Ind. Z., 1872, 376; W. B., 1872, 873. « THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. yA With the air of the room at from 73° to 74° F. the temperature of the oil in the burning lamps ranged from 76° to 100° F., the highest temperature of 100° having been reached in a metal lamp at the end of one hour. That this was an exceptionally high temperature is shown by the fact that the highest temperature reached in any other lamp was 92° F. The following is a synopsis of the observations: | In ll metal | In 12 glass In 23 lamps. lamps. lamps. Sie J Dags oe \ Degu ke, Deg. F. Highest temperature reached......-.. | 100 | 100 86 Lowest temperature reached ..-...-. | 76 76 76 Average temperature....-...---..--. 83 86 81 SECOND SERIES.—TEMPERATURE OF THE ROOM, 82° TO 84° F, TEMPERATURE OF THE OIL. a aig aby as of lamp, After After | After After | Average one hour. | two hours. three hours.| four hours. | 0? four | hours, eee re St | | Ounces Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. ASO OO Tt eee tate talelaletatetn = of taratei alate o||leleeetel=lelaieiess ai=1~ §2 | 83 84 83 83 1 | Brass hand-lamp .-...-.--.. ae eee 8 92 95 96 95 | 94. 50 2 Brassnand-lamp<..- 2-6 -esses ses - 24 88 94 94 93 92. 25 3 Glass stand-lamp...:.....-....--.---> 8 84 88 86 84 | 85. 50 4 Glass stand-lamp........-.....-2.-..- 11 84 86 86 84 85.00 | 5 | Glass stand-lamp...-... neta na eee 20 85 86 87 86 | 86. 00 . 6 Glass'stand-lamp -.......--.----..... 7 86 87 88 88 87. 25 7 Glass stand-lamp.........---..----0.- 10 88 87 89 88 88. 00 8 Glass hand-lamp .............. --.-.- 9 87 90 90 90 89.25 | 9 Glass-hand-lamp)eeccecss0)ae= soja 6 87 91 89 7 88. 50 10 Glass hand-lamp .....-..-....--. ---- a 84 86 6 84 | 85.00 | 1l Brass student-lamp...........--..--- 13 86 88 88 88 | 87. 50 12 Glass stand-lamp -.....-......-.<-<;- 10 85 86 86 85 85. 50 13 Brass stand-lamp ...............-..-- 11 104 103 101 101 102. 25 14 Tin lantern ......... Seemnastene sislet have 7 95 96 94 96 95. 25 15 Glass bracket-lamp .....-........-..- 19 84 85 84 84 84. 25 16 IBYASSIBIAMC= =< 6 So Cie 95 | 96 | 97 94. 25 16) "\iags hand damp....... 2.08) 22.....- 7 ss | 92 | 93 | 94 91.75 11 Brass student-lamp.......-...--.---- 13 | 89 100 | 102 102 98. 25 1:92) | (Glasestand-lamp s...ceewst cove ete fs 10 88 92 / 93 | 93 91. 50 13 | Brass stand-lamp .....:...-2-2-2+0+ 11 | 106 | 114 | 116 | 110 111. 50 14, il (Cin tanternd. ce -ct eee ee ae aI 99 106 | 107 | 105 104. 25 15 | Glass bracket-lamp .... ........-.-- 19 85 92 | 91 | 91 89. 75 1, 16) hy Glass istomd-lamip ont. tesa tne nse mrss 29 86 91 92 92 90. 25 | 17 | Brass student-lamp........ ..-----.-| 7 | 92 99 100 | 100 | 97.75 | 18 | Brass student-lamp .............s0ee- 14 | 94 100 | 100 109 | 98.50 | | 19 Brass Stal IAM p24. - seen eas eee 12 108 112 112 107 | 109. 75 lf 205 \ue Metal atanddamp ces come ces eee mee 9 91 | 96 100 | 99 | 96. 50 | 21 Brass stand-\emMp >a). sorses ceees ana 12 104 | 110 108 106 | 107. 00 22 Bronze stand-lamp. .-.--- Sceeae ence 16 84 90 | 95 98 91. 75 23 Glass hang-lam py 7. seu Ste am alee oe we 4 90 92 | 94 94 92. 50 24 | Brass student lamp ...............--- | 10 124 | 129 129 | 128 127. 50 25 Brass student-lamp ....-...-- seeceeees| 124 | 120 | 126 | alten 127 125. 00 With the air of the room at from 90° to 92° F. the temperature of the oil in the burning lamps ranged from 84° to 129° F., the highest temperature being exceptional- SYNOPSIS OF THE OBSERVATIONS. : In 13 metal | In 12 glass ' | In 25 lamps. lamps. | lamps. | — - | —r - | Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. | Highest temperature observed..-..--. 129 129 98 Lowest temperature observed....-.. 84 84 85 Average temperature observed...-... 983 1044 924 By these results it appears that the temperature of the oil in lamps often rises much above 100° F., thus reaching a temperature at which oil, which does not emit a combustible vapor below 100° F., would be dangerous. It is apparent that 100° F. is too low a standard for safety; 120° F. would not be too high a standard, and its adoption would not add three cents per gallon to the cost of the oil. An analysis of these tables shows that when the temperature of the room was 73° to 74° (a comfortable temperature) only one lamp in twenty-three reached a temperature of 100°, and no glass lamp reached a temperature of 90°, and that the average temperature of the twenty-three lamps was only 83° F. The average temperature of the eleven metal lamps was 5° higher than that of the twelve glass lamps. When the temperature of the room was 82° to 84° (quite warm for comfort) only one lamp in twenty-five reached a temperature of 120°, and only two glass lamps reached a temperature of 90°, the highest reaching 91°. The average temperature of the twenty-five lamps was 915° F. The average temperature of the thirteen metal lamps was 104° higher than that of the twelve glass lamps. When the temperature of the room was 90° to 92° F. (an uncomfortably high temperature) only two lamps out of twenty-five reached a temperature of 120°, and no glass lamp reached a temperature of 100°, and the average temperature of the twenty-five lamps was only 983° F. The average temperature of the thirteen metal lamps was 123° higher than that: of the twelve glass lamps. Moreover, in the seventy-three lamps tested, but twelve reached a temperature above 100°, and but six above 110°. A series of experiments were described by H. B. Cornwall, (a) in 1876, which were made with the design of showing how much naphtha must be removed from a low-test oil to bring it up to safety. His results are tabulated on page 219. a dm. Chem., vi, 458. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. | 219 No. Sp. gr. Time. F Leta | Time. eoee Deg. B Minutes. | Deg. F. | Minutes. | Deg. F. 1 49.7 21 86 7 107 Di ville Wp aatinins 25 96 8 | 112 3 yA a a eat age TIOO Ne cme wens 124 4 47.1 15 80 7 100 5 45.3 23 121 5 138 OT ie cetiesss 12 98 5 : 113 7 50. 4 23 118 6 135 8 45.8 12 104 5 125 Oo Wassmwceselcas 23 104 5 - 120 LOP iN. Sees aees 23 Bran iecameseeteertaic ane sis ecclissi No. 1 was an oil flashing at 86° and burning at 107°. He distilled off 4 per cent., and the residue (No. 2) flashed at 96° and burned at 112°. He then distilled off of another portion of the same oil 10.6 per cent., and the residue (No. 3) flashed at 110° and burned at 124°. On mixing the distillate and the residue in proper proportions the mixture flashed at 89° and burned at 107°, almost at the identical temperatures with the original oil No. 1. An oil worse than No. 1 (No. 4) was then distilled until 12.7 per cent. of distillate was secured with 2.7 per cent. of loss. The residue (No. 5), which was very dark, flashed at 121° and burned at 138°. Five per cent. of distillate was removed from another portion of the same sample, and the residue, after treatment with sulphuric acid and soda, gave No. 6, which flashed at 98° and burned at 113°. The following table embraces some experiments made with mixtures of oils and naphtha, and includes some results obtained by Dr. C. B. White, of New Orleans, Louisiana: Oils. anit Difference. gine Difference. No. 7. TableI: Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. PAONE fois is tesa seen see sis os cincew secon LTS | Meeerocrareters)s 0G [iti HS ee ees +1 per cent. naphtha of 65° B..........- 112 6.0 129 6.0 -+-+ 3 per cent. naphtha of 65° B........... 103 5.0 123 4.0 + 5 per cent. naphtha of 65° B.-.-......... 96 4.4 116 3.8 | +10 per cent. naphtha of 65° B.......... 83 3.5 102 3.3 +1 per cent. naphtha of 71.79 B.-........ 107 LATOR | 133 2.0 -+ 5 percent. naphtha of 71.79 B......... Below v0) |scseesv ese - 105 6.0 No. 8. Table I: Alonex-e tite es Hee Se cheie 0s be gel LO4s eee denies es 2G Sect piere ssh -+ 2 per cent. naphtha of 65°B...... .... 96 4.0 120 2.5 +10 per cent. naphtha of 65° B.......... 76 2.8 107 1, 08 Dr. White’s oil: : | PANOUGR ems sp wewanseee A Setan secietecconeee LLS™ nore potest ce eeaacee ses a | ie coat +1 percent. naphtha of 65° B.......-..- 103 LOS OM le testes cet. ists tessa: | + 2 per cent. naphtha of 65° B.-.......-- 92 1025) awe aol Sesion eeaa. + 5 per cent. naphtha of 65° B.........-- 83 GrO mi hnseins nastier | aseec ane + 10 per cent. naphthaof 65° B.........- 59 DSS ete o Boe | bene mace ate Ser20mer Colts Dap uta OMOoe Lyons ota: oe'l\soolee ec dastes~lensse's ca ee se BO Moen ee eee The naphtha of specific gravity 65° B. is termed benzine, the commercial naphtha having a specific gravity of 70° to 76°. The columns marked “ Difference” show the average difference for each per cent. of naphtha added. - The naphtha used by Dr. White was lighter than 65° B. A series of experiments was undertaken to show the difference in two consecutive tests for flashing point made upon the same sample of oil, after allowing the oil to cool between the tests. The difference was found to be from 3° to 4°. Probably the greatest danger from kerosene lamps arises from the risk of overturning and breaking the lamp, although undoubtedly explosions sometimes break lamps. A series of experiments were undertaken with a view to ascertaining the action of oils of different quality under conditions similar to those attending a broken lamp. Thin glass flasks were provided with corks, through which passed tubes holding wicks. The oil in each flask was then heated in a water bath to 95° F., and the wick lighted, after which the flask was dropped on a brick floor near a steam boiler, the bricks having a temperature of about 93°F. The results are given in the following table. No. 8 was a mixture of No. 1 with 5 per cent. of naphtha of 65° B., and No. 9 of No. 1 with 5 per cent. of naphtha of 71.7° B.; the others were bought from dealers. No. | ¥ poe Thome Remarks. Deg. F. | Deg. F. 1 8 | 135 | The wick continued to burn quietly | | without igniting the spilled oil. 2 104 | 120 | Like No. 1, 3 100 | 112 | Do. 4 98 116 Part of the oil was slowly ignited. 5 96 111 | Allof the oil at once took fire. 6 80 100 ! Like No. 5. 7 80 | 98 ! Do. pay 9 | 116 | Do. | 9 | Below 70 | 105 Ignited with a flash. 920 | PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. From the above experiments the following conclusions may be drawn, as applying at least to these oils: 1. The naphthas distilled were comparatively heavy, 59° to 64° B., technically known as benzines. 2. The removal of about 10 per cent. of these naphthas from an average unsafe oil raised the flashing point 2.27° and the burning point 1.60° F. for each per cent. removed; the addition of the same proportion of naphtha of equal specific gravity lowered the feshang point in very nearly the same ratio. 3. The second table shows that a paying amount of a light naphtha above 70° B. could not be added to even a very high grade oil without making it conspicuously bad, while as much as 10 per cent. of a heavier naphtha (benzine) of 65° B. could be added to an oil of a little above 100° F. flashing test, and make it no worse than much of the oil now in the market. 4, When a small amount of naphtha of above 70° B. is added to a good oil the flashing point is lowered much more rapidly than the burning point; if the oil is of very high grade and the naphtha moderately heavy, 65° B., the burning point of the oil is lowered almost as rapidly as the flashing point, while the addition of a naphtha of 65° B. to a mbdenateey good oil, flashing at 104° F., lowers the flashing point 35 to 40 per cent. more rapidly than the burning point. 5. The burning point is not a reliable test of the safety of an oil, since oils, when spilled, will ignite instantly on the approach of a flame when heated a degree or two above their flashing point, even although the burning point is 10° or 20° F. higher. (a) 6. The first two tables show that an oil flashing at 86° and burning at 107° F. can be made to flash at 100° by removing 6 or 7 per cent, by distillation. This corresponds nearly with the estimate * * * that average petroleum yielding 75 per cent. of 110° F. “ fire test” (burning test) oil would probably yield 69 per cent. of 100° ‘‘flash oil”; in other words, 8 per cent. of the 110° “fire test” oil would have to be removed to make a 100° ‘‘flash” oil. The average flashing point of eight oils given in Dr. Chandler’s report as burning at 110° F. was 89°. (6) These conclusions were stated with equal emphasis by Dr. Chandler in his report, from which I have already quoted. He says: There are two distinct tests for oil: (1) the flashing test, (2) the burning test, which are often confounded; and when the law or ordinance specifies the fire test there is a doubt as to which of the two tests isintended. The flashing test determines the flashing point of the oil, or the lowest temperature at which it gives off an inflammable vapor. This is by far the most important test, as it is the inflammable vapor, evolved at atmospheric temperatures, that causes most of the accidents. Moreover, an oil having a high flashing test is sure to have a high burning test, while the reverse is not true. The burning test fixes the burning point of the oil, or the lowest temperature at which it takes fire. The burning point of an oil is from 10° to 50° F. higher than the flashing point. The two points are quite independent of each other; the flashing point depends upon the amount of the most volatile constituents present, naphtha, etc., while the burning point depends upon the general character of the whole oil. Two per cent. of naphtha will lower the flashing point of an oil 10° without materially affecting the burning test. The burning test does not determine the real safety of the oil; that is, the absence of naphtha. The standard which has been generally adopted as a safe one fixes the flashing point at 100° F. or higher, and the burning point at 110° or higher. In the English act and some of * * * the laws of the states of the American Union the burning test has been very judiciously omitted, as two distinct tests are often confusing, and, moreover, the burning test or point is not an index of the safety of the oil. More than half of all the samples of oil which have been tested for the health department (of New York city) did not take fire below 110° F.; consequently they were safe according to the burning test; but only twenty-eight of seven hundred and thirty-six samples w really safe, all the rest evolving inflammable vapors below 100° F. The flashing test should therefore be the only test mentioned in laws framed to prevent the sale of dangerous oils. (¢) In 1873 a committee of the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, reported ‘On the causes of conflagrations and the methods of their prevention”. This committee reported that in 1872 the number of fires occurring in Philadelphia was 41} per cent. greater than in the previous year. Of these fires, 59 (the largest number originating from any one source) were caused by explosions of coal-oil and fluid lamps. The report further states: The number of deathsin the United States from the explosions of coal-oil and fluid lamps in 1871 was, by the account kept by an insurance paper (the Chronicle), 3,500. If the death rate for 1872 kept pace with the increase of conflagrations, which was about 50 per cent., it would give for the past year (1872) 5,250 deaths, and the maiming of probably 20,000 persons within the jurisdiction of the United States. Statistics of this character could be extended indefinitely. Regarding the nature of petroleum products, this committee report : We find by actual experiments that all the light forms of petroleum (products) constantly generate vapor or gas even at the low temperature of 12° above zero, * * * Any oil or burning fluid that evaporates rapidly or generates gas below 100° is exceedingly unsafe. * * * Itis not the oil or fluid that explodes, but the vapor mixed with air. * * * When themixture goes on so that there is one part of gas and fuur parts of atmospheric air inside the lamp, or when these proportions exist ina room or any other apartment, they form a fearfully explosive mixture. * * * Volatile oils and combination burning fluids generate vapor inside the lamp, hence the less the oil the greater the vacant space filled with vapor and atmospheric air and the greater the danger, and hence it is apparent that to fill a lamp nearly empty while burning is almost certain to result in a terrific explosion. This report was accompanied by another, in which the subject was discussed by the then secretary of the institute, William H.Wahl,esq. In this report Dr. Wahl reviews the subject in great detail, and reaches the same conclusions as Dr. Chandler, above quoted. (d) I have already referred to the elaborate research of Dr. J. Biel, of Saint Petersburg, upon the comparative value of American and Russian petroleum, published in Dingler in 1879. (e) After reviewing the comparative production of America and Russia, in which he shows that the average yearly yield of a Caucasian well is three times as great as that of an American well, he refers to the “special general meeting of the Petroleum Association” held in London on the 14th of January, 1879, at which Mr. F. W. Lockwood, of New York, was present, and the representations there made, that the illuminating oils produced from the petroleum of the Bradford district were not of the same a See in this connection Chandler’s report, Am. Chem., iii, 42. d Jour. Frank. Inst., xcv, 267. b Am. Chem., Vi, 458. e Dingler, ccxxxii, 354. c Am. Chem., iii, 42; Mon. Sci., 1872; Dingler, ccv; W. B., 1872. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 221 quality as those exported from the United States in previous years and manufactured from the petroleum of the Parker (Butler and Clarion) district. He then goes on to say that the American oils offered for sale were very inflammable and were deficient in illuminating power; that they burned well for a few hours, and that during the succeeding hours, in order to maintain the illumination, it was necessary to raise the wick at short intervals, the result of which was finally the accumulation of carbon upon the wick. In order to determine the cause of this trouble Dr. Biel selected three American kerosenes, Pratt’s astral oil, and several specimens of Russian kerosene, and subjected them to fractional distillation in a glass retort with a thermometer immersed in the oil. That portion distilling below 150° C. (302° F.) he called essence (essenzen); that portion coming over between 150° and 270° (518° F.) he called burning oil (brenndle); and that above 270° he called heavy oil (schwere Oele). The three American kerosenes were Carbon oil of the Standard Oil company, of Cleveland, Ohio; Standard oil of the Imperial Refining Company, of Oil City, Pennsylvania; and Standard White, of unknown manufacture. The three oils gave practically the same results, as follows : 1. Standard oil, specific gravity 0.795, flash point 26° C. (78° F.), burning point 30° ©. (86° F.); concentrated sulphuric acid in equal parts with the oil is colored blackish brown upon being shaken with it. Tension of vapor according to Salleron, 160™™ at 35° C. The distilled products were: . Temperature. | Per cent. | Specific gravity. | Burning point. , Deg. F. | | Deg. B. | Deg. O. Deg. F | (a) 125 to 150 14.4 | 0.741 = 59 16 (162) (b) 150 to 170 | 9.8 0. 760 = 54 29 (85) (c) 170 to 190 | 8.3 | 0.770 = 52 43 (110) | (d) 190 to 210 | 6.0 0.778 = 50 59 (140) | (e) 210 to 230° | 5.6 | 0. 786 = 48 75 (167) | (f) 230 to 250 8.6 | 0. 796 = 46 100 (212) | (g) 250 to 270 | 7.6 0. 808 = 43 112 (233) | (h) 270 to 290 8. 4M G, BIGanay MSS Ne Te, (i) Residue ... 33.9 . 0. 840 = 874 Sara egy I have given the equivalents of the specific gravity and temperatures in degrees of Baumé and Fahrenheit. The distillation was accompanied with a copious evolution of sulphurous acid and the distilled products that come over between 190° and 230° C. (374° to 536° F.) are also strongly impregnated with it. This is produced by the decomposition of the sulphur compounds in the kerosene, which are produced by the reaction of the crude distillate with the concentrated sulphuric acid, with which the American kerosene is imperfectly purified. He summarizes his results obtained from the three Standard oils as follows: 14.4 per cent. light inflammable essence. 45.9 per cent. really good burning oil. 39.7 per cent. heavy oil. 2. Astral oil or so called, ‘‘ 150° fire test,” specific gravity 0.783, flashing point 48° C. (118° F.), burning point 51° C. (124° F.). Shaken with an equal guantity of concentrated sulphuric acid it is colored a golden yellow. Tension of vapor after Salleron, 5™™ at 35°. The distilled products were: Temperature. Per cent. | Specific gravity.' Burning point. Deg. F. Deq. B. | Deg. C. Deg. F. (a) Under 150 PN NE ES Coen eae | 16 (62) (b) 150 to 170 | 13.5 | 0.758 = 55} 29 (85) (c) 170 to 190 | 21.3 | 0. 768 = 52 43 (110) (d) 190 to 210 | 18.8 | 0.777 = 50 57 (133) (e) 210 to 230 } 15.0 | 0. 786 = 48 75 (167) (f) 230 to 250 10.0 / 0.795 = 46 | 99 (210) (g) 250 to 270 | 9. 2 0. 806 = 443 111 (231) (h) 270 to 290 4.8 OK SES == 42) eae cea (i) Residue -.-., 5.2 | CURES? Lows fl ees eee en ae OEE The distillation was entirely destitute of any deleterious odor, and the distillate was normal throughout. He summarizes his results as follows: - 2.2 per cent. light inflammable essence. 87.8 per cent. good normal burning oil. 10 per cent. heavy oil. The results that he obtained from the examination of the Imperial oil (Kaiserél) of Aug. Korff of Bremen, were nearly identical with those obtained from the astral oil, and his examination of the several samples of Russian oil showed them to be of very fair average quality. (a) a See page 180. A better method of conducting a research of this character is to use alembics instead of retorts; 200 cubic centimeters in an 8-ounce alembic will yield 1 per cent. for every 2 cubic centimeters of distillate. If the distillate is received into a narrow measuring jar graduated to one-half cubic centimeters, the measuring can be made to one-fourth per cent. without difficulty. 222 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The point in this discussion emphasized by this research is to be sought in the character of the 14.4 per cent. of distillate obtained from the American kerosenes below 150°, having a specific gravity of 59° B. and burning at 62° F. This naphtha, more dense than average benzine, when mixed with a residue containing oils more dense than those found in the astral oil, produces an oil flashing at 78° and burning at 86°, an extremely dangerous oil if no consideration were made of the large content of sulphur compounds revealed upon distillation. These kerosenes were cracked oils, not mixed “ tops and bottoms”, as the English oil merchants have styled them, but a cracked product that was run for a given specific gravity (0.795, equal to 46° B.) and color, without much regard to test, and none at all for other considerations. While there are, no doubt, occasional instances in which retail dealers have mixed naphtha with good kerosene for purposes of fraudulent adulteration, I do not believe that oils are thus prepared by either wholesale dealers or manufacturers. It is, however, not to be denied that the temptation is very great for manufacturers to allow too large a proportion of benzine for safety to run into an oil designed for a market where there are no laws prohibiting the sale of such substances. It is more probable that these kerosenes were made, as Dr. Biel received them, by cracking the heavy residue from which the normal burning oil had been previously removed, a part of which had been cracked too much and the remainder too little, than that the heavy and light residues, once separated, had been mixed together. Dr. Chandler is at some pains to show that a cost of a few cents per gallon will remove the naphtha from dangerous kerosene. When kerosene sells at wholesale for less than seven cents a gallon, a few cents a gallon would be a large per cent. of its value. What per cent. of the present price of refined petroleum would be required to place all of the oils sold at a flash test of 100° F., and of good quality as regards color and sulphur compounds, I am not able to say. I have not the least doubt, however, that it is quite impossible to convert Bradford oil, with all its paraffine, into illuminating oil of good quality in all respects by one distillation and one treatment unless the whole distillate below 60° B. is run into burning oil. I am quite certain that it is impossible to crack the heavy residue from which the normal burning oil that exists in the petroleum has been run off and produce a good oil by one distillation and one treatment, nor do I believe that such an oil can be made safe, that is, with a flash test of 100°. The question of how much additional expense would be involved in rendering oils prepared by one distillation safe involves quite a radical change in the manufacture of these oils; a change that would, of necessity, increase the cost of the oils, and would, therefore, have to become universal, but which would not necessarily render the manufacturer’s profit less certain. At the same time it would improve the quality of the oils to the manifest advantage of the consumer in respect to safety, health, and economy. That poor oils are not safe has been fully proved; that they are not healthful is as clearly proved by the vapors of sulphurous acid and the products of imperfect combustion from crusted wicks and imperfect flow of the oil. Dr. Beil says, when commenting upon the three samples of American kerosene examined by him: It is apparent that a kerosene containing such a quantity of heavy oil, and that in addition to this is contaminated by tarry substances containing sulphur, cannot possibly satisfy the demands of the public. While the heavy oils are not in a condition to ascend to the flame in sufficient quantity, the carbonized tarry substances obstruct the wick and prevent the further ascent of the kerosene to the flame. (a) That they are not economical is further shown by the research of Dr. Beil, in which the illuminating power of these common oils is compared with astral oil with the following result: ILLUMINATING POWER AT A LEVEL DISTANCE OF-— Gem, gem, 12cm, 14m, Standard 2 2e.-..--5 204 7 38. 35 1. 36 0. 80 Astral 2th.) .3,1 7 4.50 | 3. 00 1. 36 Imperlal a. ie. esc eae 7 6. 00 3. 00 1. 36 RussIAN Loan se rem ses (0) 7 6. 25 * 4,45 3. 70 Ragsinns: scensecec eee (a) 7 5. 20 | 4.00 3. 00 Russian... 3. cease (b) 7 5.70 | 3.20 | 1.65 | PRUSSINN. 2c cccces =| Cd) ont Qa tess Se SS Free bitrate eee cee Aaa e sees | At 6™ the oils are equal; at 9°" the astral oil is 34 per cent. better than the kerosene; at 12™ the astral is 120 per cent. better than the kerosene; and at 14°™. the astral is 70 per cent. better than the kerosene. The average value of the astra] for that distance above that of the kerosene is 274 per cent. In addition to the inferior illuminating power of these inferior oils we have the fact that they are consumed more rapidly. I am not aware that any exact determinations have been made respecting the comparative rapidity with which equal quantities of these oils are consumed, but it is undoubtedly a fact that oils containing a large proportion of benzine are consumed much more rapidly than those that consist of what Dr. Biel calls “‘ normal burning oils”. I am informed that the demand for “ high-test” oils is not equal to the amount that can be made from the petroleum manufactured. Manufacturers the world over can only make what they can sell, and the ignorant and. a Dingler, cexxxii, 357. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. | 223 reckless buy the cheapest oil, regardless of all other considerations, encouraging the production of these cheap oils. It is here that intelligent legislation is required, to protect the ignorant purchaser on the one hand, and the honest manufacturer from unprincipled competition on the other, as well as the innocent public, especially prominent as women and children, from the consequences that follow the use of dangerous oils; not safe even with patent “safety lamps”. As Dr. Chandler said ten years ago: It is not possible to make gasoline, naphtha, or benzine safe by any addition that can be made to it. Nor is any oil safe that can be set on fire at the ordinary temperature of the air. * * ™ Even when the ‘‘safety lamp” has an ally in the form of a “safety can”, it still fails to make naphtha safe. It is an axiom that no lamp is safe with dangerous oil, and every lamp is safe with safe oil. * * * What we want is safe oil; with it all lamps wall be safe. (a) This axiom expresses a permanent truth. The legitimate use of naphtha for illuminating purposes will be further discussed in Chapter III. Referring to page 218, it will be observed that Dr. Chandler concludes, from his experiments upon the temperature of the oil in burning lamps, that ‘it is apparent that 100° F. is too low a standard for safety; 120° F. would not be too high a standard”. While it cannot be denied that these conclusions are correct as indicating a standard of absolute safety, it will be observed that in these experiments the extreme temperature of oil in glass lamps was 98°, being never over 8° above the temperature of the room. The higher temperatures were in metallic lamps, in which the oil reached 27°, and in one instance 39° above the temperature of the room, the exceptional temperature being reached by student-lamp No. 24. Metallic lamps are widely but not generally used, and student-lamps are so constructed as to reduce the danger of explosion toa minimum. It therefore appears to me that if legislation strictly required all oil to be brought to a flash test of 100° F. the general public would be fairly protected in the legitimate use of such oils, so far as mere legislation alone can afford protection. Such legislation should rigidly exclude all forms of naphtha from use in households, in lamps or in stoves of any pattern whatever, as always, under all circumstances and under whatever name or guise, more dangerous than gunpowder. An oil that will not take fire when thrown from a lamp broken upon a brick floor heated to a temperature of 93° is a safe oil for legitimate use. Floors are rarely heated to that temperature. A temperature to which oil is heated in lamps of ordinary construction in a room the atmosphere of which stands at 93° is a safe temperature. An oil that did not reach 100° under the last conditions stated, and that did not take fire under the first conditions stated, flashed at 100°. I therefore conclude that an oil that flashes at 100° I’, is a safe oil, and while oils that flash at a higher temperature, and that cannot be prepared by cracking petroleum by one distillation, are more safe, healthful, and - economical, legislation can hardly require anything further than a reasonable limit of public safety. SECTION 3.—METHODS OF TESTING PETROLEUM. I have not been able to ascertain where, when, and by whom the question of safe oils was first agitated. Early in 1861, when I was engaged in examining petroleum in the laboratory of Brown University, Professor N. P. Hill (now Senator Hill, of Colorado) was interested in this subject, and it was with his assistance, if not at his suggestion, that the experiments described in Mr. Allen’s paper, previously quoted, were undertaken. The method of conducting the test, as described by Mr. Allen, was at that time supposed to be sufficient, and it is my belief that when undertaken by a careful manipulator, accustomed to the use of apparatus, it is; but it soon after became apparent that in untrained hands this method of manipulating was in many respects deficient. As a result, a large variety of apparatus and of methods have been contrived for testing oils, both in America and in Europe. The following descriptions of several testers, that represent the classes to which they belong, are taken from an elaborate article in the Sanitary Engineer, abridged from the article of Messrs. Engler and Haas in the Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Chemie, 1881 : (b) Petroleum testers may be divided into two classes, according to the principle upon which they are constructed. In the first class, the vapor expansion of the petroleum is measured at a stated temperature, and from this its combustibility ascertained ; while in the second class the temperature is determined at which the oil evolves inflammable vapor. To the first class belongs the apparatus of Salleron-Urbain, which is the most accurate of its kind, and the only one to be described. Most testers belong to the second class, and are known as ‘‘ opened ” or “‘ closed”, the latter because the surface of the oil is more or less protected from the atmosphere. In some countries two points are determined in testing petroleum: the first is that of the temperature at which the liquid begins to give off an inflammable vapor, and is known as the ‘‘flashing point”; while the second, or ‘‘burning point”, is the temperature at which the liquid continues to burn when ignited. Most forms of apparatus are constructed with reference to the determination of the flashing point only, and, as an oil becomes dangerous at the temperature of its flashing point, there is no necessity for a further test. The flashivg point of a petroleum will be found to vary according as the vessel is partly or entirely filled with petroleum, is open or closed, the petroleum is quiet or agitated, whether the air above it is in a large or small volume in relation to the quantity of oil, whether quiet or in motion, whether charged more or less with the vapor evolved from the petroleum, and, xbove all, as to the distance of the torch from the surface of the oil. It is also necessary to consider the kind and size of the taper used, the length of time it is allowed to remain near the surface of the oil in applying a test, the dimensions and material of the oil-holder, and the rapidity and uniformity of heating. As these conditions vary in different forms of apparatus, the flashing point will be found higher or lower; and eyenin the same apparatus this may happen, according to the care given to the manipulation in the above respects. Salleron-Urbain’s apparatus, in which the expansion of the vapor of petroleum is determined, is used principally in France. It consists of « copper vessel, A, Fig. 48, in which is fixed the conical pillar D, and which is covered by the plate dd fitting on its upper edge. C is a movable plate turning on the pillar D, and held in place by the screw n. In this movable plate is the cylindrical chamber a Am. Chem., iil, 24. b Oil and Drug News, 1881. 224 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. B, closed at the top by the screw-plug p, while its lower opening can be placed in communication with the vessel A by means of the opening 0, or by turning the plate C it can be sealed by the upper surface of d. There are also inthe plate d a thermometer, a graduated tube m,35e™ long, and the regulating apparatus J, which consists of the screw 7, so arranged that by raising or lowering it the water level in m is made to stand at zero. Fifty cubic centimeters of water are put in the vessel A, the plate dd and the sliding piece C are screwed down tight by n and so placed that the chamber B does not communicate with A. B is nearly filled with the petroleum to be tested, the screw p replaced, and the whole placed in warm water until the temperature has become constant. The water level in m is placed at zero, and then the plate C is moved until the opening of B comes over the opening 0. The petroleum spreads upon the surface of the water in A, and by the expansion of its vapor causes the water to rise in the tube m, when its height is read. By a comparison of this number with the known expansion of the vapor of normal petroleum at a corresponding temperature the combustibility of the oil is determined. For this purpose a table accompanies the apparatus which gives the obtained vapor expansion of normal petroleum in m for different temperatures sought. This method depends upon the supposition that the numbers which express the expansion of the petroleum vapor run parallel with the temperature of the inflammability of all kinds of petroleum. It has been found, however, that this supposition is not correct for all cases, inasmuch as the presence of a small quantity of a very volatile hydrocarbon occasions, by increased temperature, a correspondingly greater pressure in the tube m, without its being sufficient to form an explosive mixture with air. Experiments were made on samples of petroleum prepared by mixing in varying proportions oils of low and high boiling points, and from these experiments it is concluded that a small percentage of a volatile constituent, notwithstanding the equal inflammability of the oils, occasions an uncorresponding increase of the vapor expansion. From this it is evident that while this form of apparatus would give accurate results in some cases, it could not be depended upon in others. They have concluded that oils are to be considered safe that exhibit a tension of 64™™ of water at 35° C. The second class of petroleum testers are designed for the determination of the ‘flashing point”, or temperature at which the oil gives off an inflammable vapor. The majority of testers, and those found most reliable, belong to this class. The older forms consisted of an open vessel partly or entirely filled with petroleum, and heated until inflammable vapors were formed upon the surface of the oil. These have been improved by placing the petroleum in a closed vessel, by which the conditions of the actual use of the oil in lamps is more nearly attained. Of the open testers the Tagliabue, the Danish, and the Saybolt are the most important. Tagliabue’s open tester, Fig. 49, was employed in the official testing of petroleum in this country until 1879, and even now it is used in Germany with immaterial changes and under variousnames. It consists of a brass water-bath A upon the stand B, heated by the lamp C. D is the glass petroleum-holder, in which is immersed the thermometer E. The bath is nearly filled with cold water, allowing for the displacement by the oil-holder. D is filled to the top with the petroleum to be tested, care being taken not to wet the rim, the thermometer placed in position, and the lamp lighted. The heating should be gradual, and, if necessary, the lamp be occasionally removed. When the oil has reached the temperature at which you wish to begin the testing, a small flame, either from a wooden splinter or a gas jet, is slowly and carefully passed over the petroleum, about 12™™ (nearly half an inch) from its surface. If no flashing takes place, this is repeated as the temperature rises until the flashing point is reached. During testing the apparatus should be protected from draughts of air. The Danish tester differs from Tagliabue’s only in having the petroleum vessel of copper instead of glass, and in being but partly filled with oil. The Saybolt tester was, in 1879, adopted by the produce exchange of this city in the testing of refined petroleum. It resembles the open tester of Tagliabue, differing only in the use of the electric spark for the burning splinter. It is represented in Fig. 50, and consists of the copper water-bath F, containing the petroleum-holder, which, with the other parts of the apparatus, are placed on the tray C, and for transportation can be inclosed in the box A. D D are the covers of two battery elements. H is a current breaker, E an induction coil, and ee the conducting wires for producing the spark over the surface of the petroleum. a is the thermometer of the oil-holder, and a! that of the water-bath. In using this apparatus the bath is filled with water and heated to 100° F., after which the lamp is removed. The oil-cup, filled to within 3™™ (4 of an inch) of the top with the petroleum to be tested, is placed in the bath and the thermometer immersed in the oil until the bulb is just covered. As the temperature of the oil is raised to 90° F., produce a spark by the key H, and after replacing the lamp repeat this operation every two or three degrees until the flashing point is reached. The apparatus of Abel, represented in Fig. 51, is employed in England in determining the flashing point of petroleum. It consists of the copper cylindrical vessel D, in which is the water-bath, composed of the two copper cylinders B B and C C, the latter resting on the ring g g and covered by the plate K K; fis a funnel for filling the water-bath, and e is the thermometer placed in it. The brass petroleum-holder A rests in an ebony ring fixed in the plate K, and hangs in the air-filled space H of the water-bath. It is provided with a closely-fitting cover, through which passes the thermometer b, and upon which is placed the small oil-lamp ce, movable upon the horizontal axis. There are also in the cover three rectangular openings, which can be opened and closed by the sliding bar d, by the movement of which the lamp is so tipped that its nose comes opposite to the opening in the middle of the cover. The oil-lamp can be replaced by a gas flame, which is much cleaner, and was used in the experiments with this apparatus. The water-bath is filled and heated to 54° C. A is then filled to the mark a with the petroleum to be tested, covered and placed in the space H. The wick of the lamp is arranged to give a flame 4™™ long. When the temperature, by the thermometer }, has risen to 19° C., the tests are commenced, and repeated every degree or two until the flashing point is reached. In testing very volatile oils the air- space H should be filled with cold water, and in the testing of oils of high flashing point this water should be heated to about 50° C. In closed petroleum testers the oil is heated in a closed vessel until inflammable vapors rise from the oil into the empty part of the holder. There are a large number of these testers; among them those of Tagliabue, Abel, Sintenis, Parrish, Bernstein, and others. The Tagliabue closed tester is represented in Fig. 52, and consists of the water-bath A and the petroleum holder B, both of brass. The latter is provided with a cover, upon which are fixed the hood C, containing a rectangular opening a, the sliding bar b, for opening or closing the aperture beneath it, and lastly the thermometer D. There is also an improved form of this tester differing from the first in the arrangement of the cover, which is shown in Fig. 53. In this a a is the cover, with openings under the movable bar b b, by which they are closed; f f are small openings in b b, closed by the piece e, held up by the spring beneath it. By pressing upon the knob ec the apertures ff are opened, and the bar b b can be moved by the handle g. In using the apparatus, the water-bath and oil-holder are filled and the bath gradually heated by the spirit-lamp. When the thermometer reaches a definite temperature a small flame is introduced through the opening a into the hood C; and at the same time the bar b, in Fig. 52, is moved to one side, or, as represented in Fig. 53, the knob ¢c is pressed down, in order to establish communication with the air by openings b orf f. This testing is repeated as the temperature rises until the flashing point is reached. The next petroleum tester to be noticed is the Parrish naphthometer. It is used chiefly in Holland, and differs from those already described in that the inflammable mixture is carried out of the petroleum holder to a stationary flame. It is represented in Fig. 54, in THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 225 which A is the tin oil-holder, C the water-bath, D the support, and E the lamp. The holder is provided with a projecting cover, in which is the cylinder d, having in its axis a small tube, with a wick running into the petroleum. ¢ is a screen, against whose base rests the glass plate f for protecting the thermometer from the heat of the wick flame, and lastly B is a chamber communicating with the air, in which are the openings a and b b, the former for the circulation of the air through the petroleum-holder, and the latter to allow the passage of the oil from B into A. The thermometer ¢ is placed inthe vessel B. The bath is tilled with cold water, and the oil-holder with the petroleum to be tested, to a point 1°™ below the rim. The heating must be slow and effected by the spirit-lamp, whose flame is only 1 to 1.5°" high. The small wick in dis then lighted, care being taken that the flame is not more than 6 to 7™™ high. The heat of this flame produces a current of air, which, coming in through the opening a, spreads over the surface of the oil and passes out by the tube d, taking with it the vapors evolved from the heated oil. When the oil vapors are sufficient in amount to produce an inflammable mixture, they are ignited by the flame in d, the flame being extinguished by the sudden motion of the air. At this moment the flashing temperature is read. The apparatus devised by Engler is of the closed form, to which is added an electric mechanism similar to that of the Saybolt tester. Tt is shown in Figs. 55 and 56, and consists of the copper water-bath A, heated by the spirit-lamp B. CC isa glass vessel for water, which has a filling mark etched upon it; m m is the cover, and n the thermometer. In the cover is the glass petroleum vessel D, also provided with a filling mark, and to which is fitted the brass coveroo. The latter is shown in Fig. 56, in which will be noticed the following details: 88 are two movable covers, tt the conducting wires, insulated by the ebony rings u u, r the thermometer, and q the handle of the stirrer p, seen in Fig. 55. The conducting wires terminate in platinum points in the vessel D, from 4 to $°™ above the surface of the oil, and at a distance of 1™™ from each other. For the production of the electric spark a chromate cell is used, with an induction apparatus which gives a spark at least 2 to 3™™ long. The electric apparatus of the Saybolt tester answers very well. In using this tester the baths A and € are filled with water, and D is filled to the mark with the oil to be tested. When the petroleum vessel is in place the water in C should stand 1™ below the rim. The wires are connected with the induction coil and the lamp lighted. As the temperature rises to the testing point the spark is passed every degree, care being taken that the spark continues from one-half toone second. After each passage of the spark the oil is gently agitated by the stirrer. The operation is continued in this way until an explosion occurs, by which the covers s 8 are thrown open. The difficulties that have been found to attend the construction of an apparatus that in every one’s hands should give uniform results have been considerable. In the experiments of Engler and Haas three kinds of petroleum were employed in testing the various forms of apparatus, and at the start the flashing point of each oil was carefully determined in a closed apparatus. SUE hada eee ee a ee ee NI eg... 880 Cee TL OOP, Spun: ITS NG LO yet Geter CSC eae ESS OS bie ce eae ae or ge ae ee er ee 290" Ca posae oie peeve uthess Ch MEST A atl Si ieee acura aA ets Caan Mag AG ae ea cl emer LR 40° C.=1049 F. The following table shows the temperatures at which they flashed in the testers named : Tester. A. B. C. Deg. O. Deg. O.- Deg. O. Tagliabue, open. ..--- peace ney tor Bens 32.2 to 48.8 45.5 to 57.2 AMIS NM ae ayes seisetoe = 22m: | 19.5 to 21.0 29.0 to 31.0 42.0 to 45.0 Bacialeewncere. ste a 30.6 to 31.7 36.1 to 36.6 48.8 to 52.7 PLAS MADUCH COSCO: emma a telecine sie = cisfastentc lela de 245.0 TOG 4a) Weacie wees se tae we AD OME ee eeiee dolce sae. st seo | 16.0 to 17.1 22.2 to 23.8 32.4 to 33.8 IR OTVISI EE erie se sees e oe ies: | 20.7 to 23.0 25.5 to 30.7 36.5 to 39.0 sEin Sle mie see enintae os/seetsics 21.0 to 22.5 28.0 to 30.5 39.3 to 39.7 | The average of the several tests with the different instruments on the same samples are given in the following table: Testers. No. of tests. Average. Variation. Deg. OC. Deg. O { A 6 30. 95 16.1 uA Tagliabue, open.........- B 9 42. 00 16. 6 | C 6 52. 20 13.3 A 5 20. 80 3.5 Danish) open) .csen.--2--- J B 4 30. 00 2.0 C 4 43. 25 3.0 | A 4 31. 30 pak Saybolt, open ...........- B 2 36. 35 0.5 | C 2 50. 75 3.9 Tagliabue, closed .......... B 18 31. 68 15.4 (| pe taiar-§ 16. 60 an: Abel, closed...........-+- B7 22. 64 1.6 | C 3 32. 96 1.8 f Ay 5 21. 40 Paty Parrish, closed! s.as==;s5 51 B15 27. 30 5.2 | C9 37. 70 2.5 | | A 21.95 1.5 Engler, closed ...... .... B19 29. 40 2.5 } Gw2 39. 50 0.4 . VOL, 1X——15 226 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The great variation in the results given by Tagliabue’s open tester were due to a variation in the height at which the flame was passed above the oil, and the temperatures indicate different heights, from 1™™ (0.04 of an inch) to 12™™ (0.47 of an inch). The uniformity of the results furnished by Engler’s apparatus upon sample B, where eleven out of nineteen tests were within a variation of 1° C. and sixteen out of nineteen tests were within 1.5° C., is quite remarkable, and shows that this apparatus is greatly superior to most of the others in this respect. By the use of the double water-bath and the stirrer the heating is slow and regular, and, so far as possible, is independent of the size of the heating flame. Moreover, by the use of the electric spark, the size, intensity, and distance of the igniting agent is always the same, and in consequence of its short duration no vapor formation is noticeable. Finally, the form of this tester is such that the conditions. maintained in its use closely resemble those which are found to exist in petroleum lamps. Herr Victor Meyer is of the opinion that, in the: use of the ordinary petroleum testers, the true or absolute flashing temperature of the oil is not found, but a temperature higher or lower than the one sought, depending upon the capacity of the various forms of apparatus and the quantity of petroleum employed. The progress recommended consists in putting about 40 cubic centimeters of the petroleum in a glass cylinder of about 200 cubie centimeters capacity, and placing this in a vessel of warm water until the petroleum has reached the testing temperature. The cylinder is then removed, and the oil well shaken; after which a test is made by means of a gas flame, to see if the oil can be lighted. It is clear that in this process we obtain a constant maximum of the saturation of the oil with petroleum vapor corresponding to the prevailing temperature. In this country the open tester of Tagliabue was at first in general use, and later his closed tester. The New York produce exchange has, within a few years, adopted Saybolt’s. In England and Canada Abel’s has been adopted; in France both open and closed testers, particularly the tester of M. Granier, has been used, as well as the apparatus of Salleron Urbain; in Holland the naphthometer of Parrish; and in Russia, and also in Germany, some of the open testers have been employed. It is manifest that the great difference in the results given by these instruments, included between 22.64° C.. and 42°C., when made by the same person on the same oil, indicates that a decision should first be had in respect to the instrument used before the temperature should be determined at which an oil is considered safe. I think that more attention has been paid to this subject in England than in this country, or it would perhaps. be more proper to say that in England the subject has received consideration in a manner that has produced more satisfactory results. There legislation has been national; here it has been local. There the subject was placed in the hands of eminent scientific men, and legislation was had in 1868 based upon the results of their labors. This. legislation described the instrument and the manner of testing, and fixed the test at a flash at 100°F. After a trial of two years, during which numerous criticisms were found to lie against the provisions of the law, Professor F. Crace Calvert subjected the working of the apparatus under the act to very careful examination, and concluded (a) that— These results show theinfluence of time in raising six samples of petroleum spirits from 52° F. to their flashing points. Thus, when fifteen or twenty minutes are employed, the whole of the six samples tested could not be called ‘‘petroleum”, according to the act of 1868 ;. the owner would be liable to a penalty and the loss of the fluids, whilst if the time employed to heat the liquid is half an hour they would all be considered petroleums, their flashing points being above 100° F. His results are given below: FLASHING POINT. No. of | Time, 15 | Time, 20 | sample. | minutes. minutes. | Time, 30 minutes. | Deg. F. Deg. F.; Deg. F.} 9 Des tecenee | 96 8 102 ae eee 92 99 101 | Sees 90 98 101 pl | 94 96 104 Bee coeewes | 96 98 | 110 Base dae e 95 99 108 He further remarks on this point: I am therefore of opinion that as the act has been made to protect the public from fire and explosions resulting from the employment of too highly inflammable hydrocarbons, the chemist or person called upon to test liquids of this class should raise the temperature of the fluids as quickly as possible; otherwise they favor the vendor and manufacturer, to the detriment of the consumer. The next series of experiments was made with a view of corroborating a statement made by Mr. Norman Tate, viz, if two thermometers are placed in the petroleum spirit, one, as indicated in the act, 14 inches below the surface of the liquid, the other being only one-half inch below the surface, a difference of several degrees wiJl be noticed between them at the time the vapors will flash. * * * The following results confirm Mr. Tate’s observations: Flashed at— Flashed at— Naw4 pie sects ee Re ee te ert sos sae ct an ok rs et nee 94° F. 14 inches. 99°F. tinch. NOs 8. cee ao de wis atin aia aie ef Wee ee NESTS SE ee hee nigel ee 94°F. 14 inches. 98° F. 4 inch. NOs 6.5208 Soro at 2 econ ere eee Oe Semele et arse ene ne en 95° F. 14 inches. 99° F. 4 inch. This curious and unusual fact is due, in my opinion, to this: that petroleum not being a homogeneous liquid, but a mixture of several hydrocarbons, the highest products being first expelled, the heat rises toward the surface, and in this way the difference in temperature referred to is produced. a Jour, Soc. Arts, xviii, 290. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 227 After suggesting a remedy for these difficulties Professor Calvert closes his article as follows: From the above experiments the following conclusions may be drawn, viz, that the petroleum act of 1868 does not give sufficient and precise instruction for testing petroleum spirit; therefore it is to be hoped that government will take the matter in hand and do away with the objections to the present act, substituting more clearly defined rules and instructions, so as to enable the operator to determine the flashing point of petroleum spirit with greater accuracy. This subject was again very fully discussed by Mr. Boverton Redwood, secretary of the Petroleum Association of London, in 1875, (a) in a letter to the English Mechanic and World of Science, in which he gives a very excellent popular description of the manner of testing petroleum under the petroleum act then in force. In July, 1875, the Secretary of State for the Home Department requested Professor F. A. Abel, chemist to the War Department, to report on certain points relating to the method of testing petroleum as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the petroleum act, 1871. In accordance with this request he submitted his report, dated August 12, 1876, Before commencing his investigations he consulted, among others, the late Dr. H. Letheby, Dr. J. Attfield, Dr. B. H. Paul, and Mr. Boverton Redwood, representing with himself an unsurpassed array of talent and experience with reference to this subject. I quote here this report entire as representing the most complete and intelligent discussion of this subject extant, based upon a most exhaustive scientific research, and confirmed by comparative tests in such a manner as to make it a model for a basis of intelligent legislation. REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT ON THE SUBJECT OF THE TESTING OF PETROLEUM. In compliance with the request of the Secretary of State for the Home Department, as conveyed by Home Office letter, dated July 7, 1875, 1,386, 61 a, Appendix V, that I should report on certain points relating to the method of testing petroleum as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871,I now submit the following statements and the conclusions at which I have arrived respecting the points specially submitted for my consideration in the letter above referred to: I. With reference to the merits of the method of testing petroleum at present prescribed. In the evidence taken before a Select Committee of the House of Lords in 1872, the relative merits of and the relation existing between the open flashing test which is prescribed in the existing petroleum act and a modified flashing test, called the ‘‘close test”, which it was proposed to substitute for the former, were discussed by a number of witnesses. The opinions expressed and the experimenta] data upon which the opinions were based were in several respects very conflicting. The statements of a great majority of the witnesses were, however, in accord with regard to the unsatisfactory or fallacious nature of the open flashing test as laid down.in the existing Petroleum Act. The important objection raised against the open test is, that it is liable to “ manipulation”, i. e., that in consequence of certain very readily variable elements in the details of the test (added to the interfering action of even slight currents of air) the flashing point of one and the same sample of oil may be made to differ many degrees in the hands of different operators (or of one and the same operator at different times). The majority of witnesses also were agreed in the opinion that the proposed ‘‘close test’? was decidedly more reliable in itself and much less open to manipulation than the open test. The differences of opinion with regard to it were almost entirely confined to the necessity for some modifications in its details and to the relation which the results furnished by it bear to those obtained with the open test, or, in other words, the particular temperature which in dealing with the ‘‘ close test” should be held to correspond to the standard or ‘‘flashing point” (100° Fahrenheit), fixed in the existing act as applied to the open test prescribed. On the latter point a very considerable difference of opinion existed between two sections of witnesses; on the one hand, the results of a number of experiments made by several witnesses with the close and open tests were adduced in support of the conclusion that a flashing point of 85° given by the close test should be accepted as equivalent to 100° by the open test, while on the other hand similarly strong testimony and extensive experiment supported the view that the standard flashing point for the close test (equivalent to 100°) should not be higher than 75°. These differences of opinion were obviously ascribable, in great measure, to the unreliableness of the present (open) test, and also to certain variable points in the details of the ‘‘ close test”, which tend to allow of the results furnished by this test being also regulated (though not nearly to the same extent as with the open test) by small variations in the modus operandi adopted by different experimenters. The opinion which I myseif had formed from the results of practical experience 1n the employment of the flashing test, as prescribed in the schedule of the existing act, was quite in accordance with the general opinion of the witnesses examined before the House of Lords committee as to its untrustworthiness. Moreover, after careful consideration of the subject, it appeared to me, to say the least, very doubtful whether certain sources of errror could by any modification of the arrangements and directions laid down in the schedule of the existing act be eliminated to such an extent as greatly to reduce the liability of the test to furnish results not fairly comparative with each other, and its susceptibility to ‘‘ manipulation” or regulation in the hands of different experimenters. Before proceeding to examine into the merits and defects of the proposed ‘close test”, and to endeavor to supply the want of a generally satisfactory test (either by a modification of one of the known tests or by elaboration of some new method of experimenting), I considered it desirable to ascertain whether the additional experience of the last three years had led some of the principal witnesses and others who had given attention to this subject to modify the views expressed at that time orto form any decided opinion as to the direction in which a satisfactory solution of the difficulties connected with the present system of testing might be sought. I therefore addressed circular letters (Appendix I) to the following: Mr. T. W. Keates, consulting chemist of the Metropolitan Board of Works. The late Dr. H.Letheby. — Dr. J. Attfield. Mr. Dugald Campbell. Dr. B. H. Paul. a English Mechanic and World of Science, xxii, 355. 228 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The secretary of the Petroleum Association. The secretary of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association. The local authorities under the act at Liverpool and Bristol. As the replies to my communications, which I received from several of the above, embody the present views entertained with regard to the test prescribed by the existing act and the points which require consideration in the attempt to provide a satisfactory test, I consider it advisable to give the following précis of such replies. Mr. Keates says: ‘‘The present test fails by the nature of the test itself; it is not possible to preclude sources of inaccuracy in its use.” He proceeds to point out that a considerable difference in results may arise with different operators, working with the utmost honesty of purpose according to the interpretation put upon the directions of the schedule of the act (as to rate of heating, application of test flame, etc.), but that ‘‘such differences are trifling as compared with those which can be obtained when there is a desire to get away from the truth”, such differences being always in one direction, viz, in postponing the time at which the ignition of the vapor takes place. He proceeds: “I think it is conceded that the present open test is fallacious, and that it can be made to give different results by different operators, according to the wish or intention of such operator.” Mr. Keates then dwells upon the merits of the close test, the adaptation of which he had advocated in 1872, and says: ‘“‘ With a proper regulation as to the application of the light to the vapor chamber very close agreement can be obtained, and I do not think the test is capable of manipulation.” He expresses his belief that the close test is not objected to per se, but that the point upon which great difference of opinion exists is the difference to be made in the parliamentary standard of temperature if the close test be substituted for the open test, which was the main point of dispute in 1872. The late Dr. Letheby stated that the difficulties in the way of obtaining trustworthy results with the present (open) test, applied “according to the spirit” of the instructions laid down, are manifold, arising in some cases from the faulty construction of the apparatus, in others from the erroneous method of working, and in others from the indefinite nature of the instructions.” After discussing the difficulties included under these three heads, and pointing out that the instructions originally laid down by him, Dr. Attfield and myself, in 1869, embody most of the improvements and alterations required to make the present test more certain and satisfactory. Dr. Letheby proceeds to say that, ‘‘considering an open test must, under any circumstances, be uncertain, because of the diffusion of the petroleum vapor into the atmosphere,” he thinks ‘‘a closed test would be more satisfactory”, and that the only difficulty is the point at which the legal standard of temperature should be fixed. As regards this standard, he differs considerably from Mr. Keates, and in support of his view refers to experiments made by himselt and Mr. Dugald Campbeli (and confirmed by Mr. Norman Tate and Dr. Robinson), which were quoted in the evidence given before the House of Lords committee. Dr. Attfield simply expresses the opinion that nothing short of an original investigation will lead to a satisfactory solution of the difficulties connected with the test. Mr. Dugald Campbell discusses in detail the defects in the instructions laid down for the use of the present test, and which he regards as giving rise to the discrepancies occurring in the application of the test. He considers, from the results of his own experience, that if certain points, which he details in connection with the application of the open test, be adhered to, ‘‘ independent experimenters would not materially differ in their results.” Mr. Campbell’s experience with the close test does not lead him to form so favorable an opinion of it as is entertained by Mr. Keates, but he considers that ‘‘ with strictly defined rules for applying the test”, which are carefully carried out, the results furnished by it ‘‘are likely, on the whole, to be rather more uniform than with the open test”. He considers that some modifications in the construction of and mode of working with the close test as described in 1872 are necessary, and is in accordance with Dr. Letheby regarding the standard temperature which should be adopted with the close test (as equivaleut to 100° with the open test). Mr. B. Redwood, the secretary of the committee of the Petroleum Association, in expressing the views of that committee, considers that the difficulties which have arisen in the application of the present test are due to a ‘‘ want of detail in the parliamentary directions for applying the test, and to the delicacy of the test or liability to uncertainty in the hands of unskillful operators”. The committee consider that if directions with regard to the rate and uniformity of heating the apparatus, and of the size and character of the flame ased for testing, had been strictly laid down, ‘‘ the results of different operators would have approximated more closely, and that with skilled persons the results would have been sufficiently uniform to have given satisfaction. Inasmuch, however, as the inspectors under the act are men whose training has not qualified them to perform operations involving close details of manipulation, the committee are driven to the conclusion that the present test, even with such amended instructions for its use as have been instanced, would be found too delicate.” In discussing the directions which should be taken for providing a better test, stress is laid upon the desirability of adopting a system of testing which would preserve the existing standard of 100°, as the public, having been ‘‘educated in the belief that anything over i00° Fahrenheit means safety and below 100° danger, might associate any lowering of the standard with increased risk to themselves even if such lower standard were explained to be equivalent to an equally stringent and more certain test ”. Mr. Redwood proceeds to consider the directions in which, failing the possibility of an efficient modification of the existing open test, another test might possibly be sought, and considers, with reference to these, that— (a) The American or fire test (which consists in determining the temperature at which the surface of the heated petroleum takes fire permanently) is as open to discrepancies as the present legal test. (b) The automatic tests which have been proposed (depending for their action upon the vapor traveling to a fixed distance and there becoming ignited) are too complicated for general use, and have not given encouraging results. (c) The close test involves a lowering of the standard flashing point, and is therefore objectionable. The committee of the Petroleum Association state their opinion through Mr. Redwood, that if it should not be possible to modify the open test so as, while preserving the present standard, to reduce its delicacy sufficiently to allow of its satisfactory employment ‘‘ by an inspector of average intelligence”, “‘the closed test would appear to be the best substitute, but would, of course, necessitate a reduction of the standard,” in consequence of which ‘‘the prejudice created in the mind of the public would have to be combated”. In the event of my deciding in favor of the close test, the committee refer me to Mr. Red wood’s evidence before the House of Lords committee in 1872, in which he agrees with Dr. Letheby and Mr. Dugald Campbell regarding the standard temperature to be adopted in connection with this test as equivalent to the present legal standard of 100°. In conclusion, the committee request that Mr. Redwood may be allowed to exhibit to me the precise method adopted by the Petroleum Association in testing the petroleum imported into London. The Liverpool Petroleum Association expresses their concurrence in the statements submitted by Mr. B. Redwood, as secretary of the Petroleum Association. The Local Government Board of Bristol adopt the views expressed by the representative of the petroleum trade in Bristol, Mr. F. F. Fox, to whom they referred my letter of inquiry, and who suggests that, ‘‘following the example” of the Petroleum Association of London, the object aimed at should be ‘‘such an improvement of the existing test as shall take away (if possible) its present imperfections, or, failing this, the adoption of the closed vessel, provided an equivalent standard be fixed”. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 229 The secretary of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association is desired to state that the directions, as detailed in the existing act, are much too indefinite, and that the test is subject to extraneous influences which produce discrepancies in the results of even conscientious and careful chemists. The association considers it desirable to have a testing apparatus, the range of variations of which cannot, under any circumstances, be more than two or three degrees, and that the close test is the most satisfactory and reliable one that can be adopted. Such an apparatus as was described in the proposed bill of 1872 is believed to meet the views of every one, and is certainly the most accurate test which has had the attention of the association. It should, however, be distinctly stated, with reference to this close-test apparatus, “that the movable cover for the circular opening should be removed only when the light is being applied, and immediately replaced if no flash be produced.” From the foregoing précis will be seen— (1.) That the authorities quoted are agreed in regard to the unsatisfactory nature of the existing method of testing petroleum, as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871. (2.), That they are also in accord as to the great difficulty, if not impossibility, of modifying the existing ‘‘open test” so as to render it capable of uniformly insuring reliable and satisfactory results in the hands of different operators. (3.) That the close-vessel test, Which it was proposed to prescribe in the contemplated act of 1872, is more satisfactory than the present open test ; but— (4.) That differences of opinion exist with regard to the relation which the results furnished by this “‘close test” bear to the present open test; and— (5.) That there are evidently some points of uncertainty connected with the proposed ‘‘close test” which render it also liable to furnish different results in the hands of different operators. The results of my own experience with the present legal test, and a careful examination into the various points raised in the foregoing with regard to it, and to the “close test” which it has been proposed to adopt as a more trustworthy test, led me to the following conclusions: (a) That the method of testing petroleum prescribed in Schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871 (34 and 35 Vict., cap. 105), is not of such a nature as ‘‘uniformly to insure reliable and satisfactory results”. (b) That the ‘close test”, which it was proposed in 1872 to substitute for the existing “open test”, and which was discussed in the evidence taken before a select committee of the House of Lords in session in 1872, though more satisfactory, is open to objection on several grounds, and is liable to furnish different results in the hands of different operators. II. With reference to the alterations in method of testing petroleum which should be adopted to secure reliable and satisfactory results. In addressing myself to the preparation of a reply to the second point submitted for my consideration in the letter addressed to me by the Under Secretary of State for the Home Department, I proceeded, in the first instance, to consider whether it was possible to devise some method of testing differing entirely from either of those which have been referred to, and which would be likely to prove satisfactory, as being sufficiently simple, certain, and free from liability to involuntary or intentional modification in the hands of different operators. My examination into the merits of some automatic tests which have been proposed, and a trial of one or two other plans which suggested themselves, for comparing the volatility of samples of petroleum by operations placed more or less beyond power of control by the manipulator were not attended by promising results. The possibility of modifying the present legal test (the open test), so as to reduce within satisfactory limits the existing sources of discrepancy, next received a most careful consideration by me; but I came to the conclusion that, supposing directions could be laid down or arrangements contrived for securing uniformity in the rate of heating the oil to be tested, in the temperature at which the operation of testing is commenced, and in the nature and mode of applying the test flame, one great source of uncertainty inherent in the test—namely, the free exposure to the air of the surface of the oil from which the vapor is evolyed—would still remain. At the suggestion of Mr. Boverton Redwood I witnessed some testing operations conducted with the open test, but with the employment, in place of the ordinary thermometer, of an ingenious combination of a thermometer and clockwork, devised by Mr. R. P. Wilson (a) (and called by him a chrono-thermometer), the stem of the thermometer being made, with its scale, to form a circular frame, surrounding a dial with clockwork. The object attained by this arrangement is to ascertain readily that the rate of heating is in accordance with any prescribed regulation, the hands of the clock being made to keep time with the rise of the thermometer. The same result is, of course, attainable in ordinary practice by having a timepiece in close proximity to the test apparatus, so that it may be watched at the same time as the thermometer and the rate of rise of the latter regulated accordingly. The employment of Mr. Wilson’s arrangement is certainly more convenient than having to watch the thermometer and timepiece separately; but it adds a somewhat expensive item to the apparatus, and, supposing that by its employment uniformity in the rate of heating could be secured, only one element of uncertainty in the existing test would then be avoided. The general concurrence in the comparatively satisfactory nature of the ‘‘close test” led me to consider next whether it might rot be possible to remove the points of uncertainty involved in the employment of that test by different operators. The chief variable poinis connected with it are— " (1.) The rate of heating of the apparatus. (2.) The nature of the test flame to be used. (3.) The precise position in which the test flame is to be applied, and the duration and frequency of its application. Considerable differences of opinion were expressed by experts in their examination before the House of Lords committee as to the rate of heating which should be adopted in the application of the open test, differences of opinion which apply equally to the ‘close test”. Having carefully considered this point, I have come to the conclusion that it is unimportant whether the rate of heating be 1° or 29 per minute or 20° in fifteen minutes (the three rates insisted upon by different witnesses in the evidence), or whether a decidedly different rate of heating be adopted, provided the source of heat and amount of heat employed, and the mode of applying 1t, be the same in all cases, such definite rules being laid down with respect to this, and such precautions being taken in the construction of the apparatus, as to render the attainment of uniformity by different operators simple and certain. The suggestion to apply hot water as the source of heat in connection with a flashing test was made by one of the House of Lords committee in 1872, and Mr. Keates stated that this subject had received consideration, but that decided objections had been advanced against this mode of heating. Being strongly of opinion that hot water presented the only simple means of securing uniformity in the a Described in Luglish Mechanic and World of Science, xxii, 496. 239 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. rate of heating, I made many experiments, with a view of attaining, by ane arrangements, a satisfactory rate of heating by its means, which should be uniform with different apparatus of uniform construction and dimensions. By inclosing the hot-water vessel in an air chamber (or a jacket with intervening air-space), and by interposing an air-space between the hot water and the receptacle for the petroleum, I succeeded, on the one hand, in satisfactorily retarding loss of heat by radiation, and, on the other hand, in securing a sufficiently gradual transmission of heat to the petroleum. The rate of transmission of heat is not uniform throughout all periods of one single operation, but it is uniform at the same periods in different operations, and the average rate of heating is uniform. At the commencement, when the petroleum is cold and the water at its maximum heat, the rate of heating is necessarily most rapid, while as ‘the temperature approaches the flashing point the rise of temperature, which for some time previously has been very uniform, becomes somewhat slower. The comparatively rapid heating at the commencement of the operation is decidedly advantageous, and the diminution toward the close is not sufficiently great to increase the legitimate severity of the test. : The temperature of 130° Fahrenheit has been fixed upon as a convenient one for the water to have at the commencement of the experiment; this temperature gives, with the apparatus of the dimensions adopted, a mean rate of heating of about 2° per minute during an experiment. The only operation which is to be performed in preparing for the heating of the petroleum to be tested is, at starting, to fill the heating vessel entirely with water at 130° Fahrenheit. The supply of water of the required temperature may be prepared by adding hot to cold water, or the reverse, ina jug, and watching the thermometer, which is moved about in the water until the desired temperature is indicated. When the heating vessel is filled with the properly warmed water, the petroleum cup being immediately afterward placed in position, the operator has not to concern himself any further with regard to the heating, and has only to attend to the rise of temperature in the cup and to the test flame. When the next test has to be performed, the water in the bath may be again raised to the proper temperature by the application of a spirit-lamp flame, and this is readily accomplished while the test vessel is being emptied and refilled with a fresh sample of the petroleum to be tested. That the rate of heating must be rendered uniform by this mode of operation when the temperature of different samples of petroleum to be tested does not differ greatly is self-evident, and experiment has shown that, even if considerable differences exist between the temperatures of different specimens, the extra time required to raise the colder oil to the temperature approaching that of the minimum flashing point does not seriously affect the uniformity of the rate of heating at that part of the operation when this uniformity is of importance. There is, however, no difficulty whatever in avoiding any great variations in the temperatures of the samples tested at different times; thus, the warmth of the hand will soon raise a cold oil to a normal temperature, and a warm oil is easily cooled down to such a temperature by immersing the bottle containing it in water. As long as the temperature of the samples at the time of testing ranges between 55° and 65° the uniformity in their rate of heating will not be affected to an extent to influence the results furnished by the test. As illustrating the uniformity in the rate of heating, it may be stated that in two experiments made with one and the same oil, the temperature of which at the time of starting the test was 64° in one experiment and 70.5° in another, the average rate of heating during the rise of temperature from 75° to 85° was almost identical, being, during that portion of the test, 1.04° per minute. The only difference in regard to the heating in the two experiments was that with the oil at the lower temperature a period of six minutes was required to raise the temperature to 75°, while with the warmer oil only four minutes were required to attain the same result. The illustrations of results furnished by the proposed test apparatus given at page 224 show conclusively that they are not affected by differences even greater than the above in the temperatures of the oils at the commencement of the test. The nature of the test flame to be used, and the mode of using it, were next considered by me, and very much time and labor have been expended upon the endeavor to provide a test flame which, with little care, could be maintained for some time of uniform size, and which might be allowed to remain throughout the testing operation or during the greater part of the time in a fixed position over the vapor chamber of the petroleum cup, my desire being, if possible, to render the actual operation of testing perfectly automatic. Having satisfied myself that with the petroleum cup filled to a definite height there is no objection to keeping a small aperture in the lid of the cup (similar to that which exists in the lid of the close-test apparatus) constantly open, a very small oil-lamp was contrived, capable of maintaining a flame of the size of the test flames (furnished by a small gas jet or by twine) used in connection with the present test, and the lamp was so attached to the apparatus that when the testing was proceeded with the position occupied by the test flame over the opening in the cup was inevitably the same in all instances, The variations in the length of time for which the flame was applied, in the rapidity of its movement in and out of the opening and in the frequency of its application, all constituted sources of discrepancy between the results obtained by different operators with the two tests hitherto used, which I proposed to set aside in the manner above indicated, i. e., by keeping the small lamp in a fixed position from the time when the rise of temperature indicated an approach to the lowest attainable flashing point until the completion of the operation. This result was attained after numerous modifications of the small test lamp, and the form of the latter which I eventually adopted permitted of the attainment of uniformity in the size of the test flame by a very simple trimming operation. The position in which the thermometer was fixed into the lid of the petroleum cup was modified so as to allow of the reading of the temperature simultaneously with the watching of the test flame being much more conveniently performed than in the present apparatus. Although very satisfactory results were obtained by the arrangements just referred to, some difficulties were experienced in keeping the flame of the test lamp of uniform size throughout a consecutive series of test operations, and slight currents of air were found to affect the results obtained too greatly to render the test thoroughly reliable. After a long series of experiments, carried out with the view of overcoming these difficulties, I was eventually led to return to a method of operation very similar to that adopted in the original ‘ close test”, but with this important difference, that uniformity was secured in the nature of the test flame, the mode of applying it, and the position in which it is applied. The application of the flame is in fact rendered quite automatic in the proposed form of test apparatus, the mode of operation being as follows: The top of the petroleum cup has an aperture, as in the case of the old close-test apparatus, but in the center of the lid; this aperture is kept closed by means of a metal slide, working in grooves, and having two small uprights. These uprights support the little test lamp, which for this purpose is fitted at the upper part with small trunnions. When the temperature of the petroleum approaches that of the minimum flashing point, the slide is slowly drawn out of the grooves to the full extent permitted by a check; when this point is just reached, a very simple contrivance causes the test lamp to be tilted, so that the flame is always lowered into the opening in exactly the same position. Two seconds of time are allowed for withdrawing the slide, and thus the test flame is applied in all instances for the same period. (a) This operation is repeated at the termivation of every degree indicated by the thermometer until the flashing point is attained. a A small weight, suspended in front of the operator from a string 2 feet in length, answers the purpose of regulating the opening and shutting of the aperture. The slide is gradually drawn open during three oscillations of the pendulum, and is then rapidly closed during the fourth. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 231 In this, as in the old close-test apparatus, each time the aperture is reopened and the test flame is applied a small portion of the mixture of air and petroleum vapor necessarily escapes from the chamber, in consequence of the outward current established, and hence the proportion of air in the mixture of vapor and air formed in the chamber must become reduced each time the test is applied, and thus the ready explosiveness of the mixture is liable to some variation. A simple contrivance has been applied in conjunction with what may be called the “‘ testing slide” for remedying this possible source of discrepancy in the test. The opening which the withdrawal of the slide exposes for the application of the test flame is in the center of the upper surface of the chamber. Just before it becomes open to the full extent, and the test flame is lowered into place, two smaller openings, one on either side of it, become also uncovered by the drawing back of the slide and serve to admit air to replace that part of the mixture of air and vapor which is withdrawn from the chamber by the current which sets in the direction of the test flame; as the slide is pushed back again, these two openings are closed the instant before the central opening is closed again. The description of oil and wick most suitable for the little test lamp are given in Appendix II. When coal-gas is available, it may be substituted for oil in the production of the test flame, as being decidedly more convenient, and for this purpose an arrangement which can be used in place of the lamp, and which admits of a small gas frame being applied automatically in exactly the same manner as the oil flame, has been devised as an alternative adjunct to the apparatus. Even with a strict adherence to the prescribed method of heating the petroleum to be tested, and with the employment of the automatic test arrangement constructed precisely in accordance with the instructions laid down in the appendix, uniform results would not be obtained in the application of the test unless the petroleum cup be filled in all instances up to to the same height, and, indeed, up to a height which a long series of experiments (varied in many ways) has demonstrated to be the one which best insures the attainment of uniform results. A simple gauge, consisting of a small bracket, terminating in a point, is fixed within the cup, and indicates the precise height up to which this is to be filled with the liquid, which has simply to be poured in gradually until its level just reaches the point of the gauge. The thermometer which serves to indicate the flashing point is rigidly fixed into the lid of the petroleum cup ina sloping position, so that it enters the liquid at the center of thesurface. The length of that part of the thermometer which is inclosed in the cup is so adjusted that when the !atter is filled to the prescribed height the surface of the liquid is 0.2 inch above the bulb. The precautions combine to render the readings obtained with the thermometer reliable indications of the actual temperature of the petroleum during the testing operation. The sloping position of the thermometer scale enables readings to be very conveniently taken. Detailed instructions with regard to the application of the proposed method for testing are given in Appendix II, and Appendix IV gives the details of the proposed test apparatus. The method of testing, arranged as described, is so simple in’ its nature that any person of ordinary intelligence, after carefully reading the instructions, or after having been once shown the operation, can carry it out readily, and no experience is required for the attainment of uniform results with it. The following results, not selected, which have been obtained with the pattern apparatus sent with this report, illustrate the uniformity in the working of the test as now elaborated, and it should be particularly noted with respect to these results that in experiments with one and the same sample considerable variations in the temperature of the oil at the commencement of the experiment did not affect the accuracy of the results obtained: | Temperature |Temperature | Temperature fy | Temperature) Temperature, Temperature : Sample. No. of of bathat | of oil when | at which | Flashing Sample. | No. of of bath at | of oil when at which | Flashing experiment. | commence- placedin | testing was |. point. experiment. | commence- placed in testing was | point. ment. bath. commenced. | : ment. bath. commenced. | —_—_—_ H - —— = Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. | Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. A. 1 130 66. 0 68 q7 K. 2 130 63. 0 71 82 2 130 68.5 70 V7 3 130 66. 0 69 82 3 130 69. 5 71 77 Tt 1 130 54.0 68 75 B. 1 130 70. 6 71 80 2 130 53. 5 64 75 2 130 71.0 71 80 M. 1 130 54.0 66 81 Cc. 1 130 68. 0 70 82 2 130 67.0 69 | 81 2 130 69. 0 70 82 NG 1 130 57.0 63 73 3 130 70.5 71 81 2 130 59. 0 60 72 D. 1 130 59. 0 63 75 3 130 57.0 63 73 _2 130 63.5 67 76 O. 1 130 62.0 67 79 / 3 130 70. 0 71 76 2 130 57.0 63 79 E. 1 130 57.0 65 72 P. 1 130 60.0 65 79 2 130 59. 0 62 71 Q. 1 130 59. 0 65 | 74 3 130 61.0 62 72 2 130 57. 0 67 75 4 130 68. 5 69 72 3 130 67. 0 67 7 F. 1 130 63. 0 65 78 R. 1 130 66.0 69 78 2 130 65. 0 70 78 2 130 64.0 67 78 3 130 66. 0 67 78 SS) 1 130 64. 0 65 | 70 G. : I 130 70. 0 70. 84 2 130 63. 0 64 70 2 130 74.8 75 84 a 1 130 63. 0 | 66 80 H. Zz 130 74.0 75 80 2 130 64. 0 75 79 2 130 65. 0 66 80 3 130 65. 5 75 80 I 1 130 68. 0 68 78 U 1 130 66. 0 67 73 | 2 130 65. 0 67 | 2 130 64. 0 ape fin Mer 26 J. 1 130 59. 0 68 79 3 130 67.0 68 | 74 2 130 REO} 69 79 Vv 1 130 67.0 69 80 K. 1 130 57.0 61 | 81 2 130 70. 0 70 80 It will be seen that the foregoing table embraces a considerable range of flashing points; the samples which gave the results there recorded had flashing points ranging from 98° to 126°, as determined by the present legal test. All these were examined with equal facility and with equal accuracy (as shown by the results obtained with one and the same sample), the temperature of the water in the heating vessel having been in all instances 130° at starting. But with oils of much higher flashing points than the highest in the above 232 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. series the supply of heat furnished by the amount of water contained in the heating vessel, raised to a temperature of 130°, would not be sufficient; and even if in such cases the water in the bath be raised to a much higher temperature, the intervention of the air space between the petroleum cup and the source of heat (which plays an important part in regulating the source of heat in the ordinary use of the test) prevents the very high flashing oil from being raised to its flashing point within any reasonable period. If, therefore, the first experiment made in the ordinary prescribed manner with a sample of oil indicates a very high flashing point (about 100° or upward), the following modified mode of proceeding must be adopted for determining its flashing point. The air chamber which surrounds the cup is filled with cold water t% a depth of 14 inches, and the heating vessel or water-bath is filled as usual, but also with cold water. The lamp is then placed under the apparatus and kept there during the entire operation. (a) With this simple modification of the ordinary mode of working concordant results will be obtained with oils of the highest flashing points. It need hardly be stated that the greater majority of petroleum oils have flashing points within a smaller range than that represented by the annexed tabulated results, and that the application of the mode of proceeding last described will be limited to comparatively heavy paraffine oils, of which it is desired to determine the flashing points. Having satisfied myself of the satisfactory working of the proposed test apparatus, I invited Mr. Keates, the consulting chemist to the Metropolitan Board of Works, and Mr. B. Redwood, the secretary of the Petroleum Association, to inspect it, and to witness the operation of testing with it. The appended extracts of letters (Appendix III) from those gentlemen show that they concur in considering that the difficulties which existed in connection with the present legal test, and also, though to a less extent, with the close test in the form in which it was proposed by Mr. Keates, are removed by the mode of operating which has been elaborated. At the instance of Mr. Peter McLagan, M. P., the apparatus was also inspected by a representative of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association, Mr. John Calderwood, whose unqualified approval of it is recorded in the appended extract of a letter from him (Appendix III). iGO fe With reference to the ‘‘flashing point”, which, with the proposed test, should be fixed as equivalent to that of 100° Fahrenheit obtained with the present legal (open) test, and to the question whether the flashing point of 100°, or its equivalent, is ‘‘calculated to afford efficient protection to the public without unduly interfering with or restricting the trade”. With the view to establish the relation existing between the results furnished by the proposed test and by the present legal test experiments were made with a series of samples of petroleum, the flashing points of which had been determined by the test as prescribed in the act. Among these samples there was a considerable number for which I am indebted to the kindness of the secretary of the Petroleum Association. As Mr. Boverton Redwood has had great experience in the testing of petroleum, both by the open test and by the close test, which it was at one time proposed to adopt, I requested him to attend at my office and test a number of the samples with which he was so good as to provide me, In the first instance, however, I convinced myself that the results which that gentleman obtained by operating according to the directions laid down in the act, and also by applying the original close test, agreed very well with those obtained by Mr. T. W. Keates and by an experienced assistant in my establishment. Mr. Redwood and Mr. Keates were so good as to attend at my department to exhibit to me their ordinary mode of operating in applying the test, and the flashing points ascribed by those gentlemen (operating on different days) to particular samples were sufficiently in accordance to warrant my accepting the numbers obtained by Mr. Redwood in testing the series of samples referred to as representing the flashing points which would generally be obtained by experienced persons operating according to the methods hitherto practiced. There is no doubt that the flashing points which one and the same operator, of such experience as Mr. Keates and Mr. Redwood, obtains with different samples of oil, using one and the same open test or close test apparatus, bear very generally a correct relation to each other; occasions will, however, unavoidably arise, even under the above very favorable conditions, when the defects inherent in those methods of testing will give rise to irregular and discordant results. Hence it is not to be expected that flashing points furnished by the comparatively accurate method of testing now proposed should present anything approaching absolute uniformity of relation to all those furnished by either of the other tests. Thus, as might have been anticipated, among the samples of oil which have been tested with the new apparatus there are several which, though they gave flashing points identical or nearly so with each other when examined by the present legal test (the open test), were found to differ several degrees from each other as regards their flashing points when examined by means of the new test. In the examination of a number of samples by the new test and by the proposed close test the relation between the flashing points furnished by the two tests varied somewhat; the ‘‘new test” flashing points ranging from two to five degrees lower than the results furnished by the close test. Of 26 samples, ten gave flashing points with the new test 4° lower than the results obtained with the old close test, six gave results 5° lower, five 3° lower, and five 2° lower. a With oils of very high flashing points the rate of heating does not affect the accuracy of the results obtained. Therefore, if it is known to the operator that he is dealing with oils of very low volatility, he may save time by starting with the water raised to a temperature of about 120°. The following results are given in illustration of this: moe “Temperature | Go phctiely ae ‘ Pay No. o of bath at | of oil when ashing Description of samples. experiment. | commence- placed in point. M3 ment. bath. : L Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. 1 78 78.0 147 Young’s patent lubricating oil....... 2 110 74.0 146 3 120 80. 0 147 Il. ‘eorex! 74 74.0 131 Young’s patent lubricating oil ....... gee? me $8.8 ki | 3 100 72. 5 131 4 lll 72.0 131 .. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 253 In applying the new test to 29 samples which had been examined by the present legal (open) test the following results were obtained: Brphes of | Hnshingpeinie| aching point) rence Deg. F. Deg. F. Deg. F. 1 98 70 28 2 100 71 29 3 100 72 28 4 100 74 26 5 100 75 25 6 101 73 28 7 101 78 23 8 101 74 27 9 102 75 27 10 103 75 Ay axed 11 104 75 29 12 104 76 28 13 104 77 27 14 104 78 26 15 104 78 26 16 105 80 25 17 106 79 27 wy 106 80 26 19 106 81 25 20 108 82 26 21 108 83 25 22 108 80 28 23 109 84 25 24 110 83 27 25 110 82 28 26 110 81 29 27 110 81 29 2 3 | 113 87 26 | 29 126 100 26 | | t will be seen from an examination of these numbers that one among the samples gave a flashing point with the new test only 23° lower than that given by it when exatined by the open test, while with four others there was as great a difference as 29° between the flashing points furnished by the new test and the present legal test. Excluding the single sample which showed the comparatively small difference above specified between the two tests the following is a synopsis of the observed differences between the two tests: pepo | between the ree of flashing points samples. furnished by | | the two tests. | Deg. F. 5 25 7 26 5 27 7 28 4 29 1t would appear, therefore, from the results of these experiments, that the difference between the flashing points furnished by the present legal test and those obtained with the proposed new test ranges from 25° to 29° inclusive, and it should be borne in mind that the “new test” flashing points which have indicated this range of differences are all the results of two or three concordant experiments. Taking samples of oil which by the ‘‘open test ” gave flashing points of 100° and 101° (of which there are seven in the above series), the flashing points of these samples, determined by the ‘‘ new test”, ranged from 71° to 78° inclusive. Again, the flashing points of five samples, which were all shown to be 104° by the open test, ranged with the new test from 75° to 78° inclusive. Three samples, having all a flashing point of 106°, as determined by the open test, gave flashing points ranging from 80° to 82° inclusive by the new test; three, all flashing at 108° ( open test), ranged from 80° to 83°, and four, flashing at 110° (open test), ranged from 81° to 83° inclusive. Oils of flashing points between 98° and 106° inclusive (open test) gave flashing points ranging between 70° and 80° by the new test, and those which with the open test ranged from 106° to 110° inclusive gave results with the new test ranging from 80° to 84° inclusive. While the open test (the present legal test), and even the close test which has been proposed as its substitute, give what may be termed broad results, the new test, which appears to be as nearly absolute as a test of this kind can be made, gives precise results. For this reason, I am of opinion, so far as the results which have hitherto been obtained with the new test warrant my speaking decisively on the subject, that it will be necessary with the new test to adopt a range of 4 or 5 degrees to correspond to what has hitherto been regarded as the minimum flashing point which petroleum oils supplied to the public should have; in other words,I consider that the difference between the results furnished by the new test and the present legal test cannot be expressed by one figure, but must be represented by a range of figures (say, from 25° to 29°), : It need hardly be pointed out that great difficulties have arisen in connection with the present regulations respecting the testing of petroleum oils, consequent upon the legalized acceptance of oils as safe, or their condemnation as dangerous, upon a difference of even one degree in their flashing points, as determined by a test which may give differences of several degrees with one and the same oil in the hands of different operators, . 234 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. " With the adoption of a comparatively precise test, such as there is good reason for believing the proposed one to be, these difficulties should cease to exist, and I consider that a minimum flashing point may be adopted and strictly enforced with the employment of the new test without creating an opening for justifiable differences of opinion, such as have arisen in connection with the present legal test. Having given my earnest attention to the evidence brought before the House of Lords committee in 1872, and to the questions which | have arisen from time to time respecting the occurrence and causes of explosions or other accidents with petroleum, I have come to the following conclusions: (1.) The present legal ‘‘ flashing point ” of 100° Fahrenheit by no means limits the acceptance of oils of that supposed flashing point to such as have only one particular degree of volatility, but indeed may admit oils as being just within the prescribed limits which really differ decidedly from each other as regards volatility. (2.) There appear, on the other hand, to be no well-established grounds for considering that ‘‘adequate protection to the public” has not been afforded by adopting the flashing point of 100° Fahrenheit as the limit with the present legal test, or that the general results which that test has furnished in its application to determine whether oils imported have flashing points below the prescribed limit have been productive of risk to the safety of the public, even though there may be reason to believe that occasionally oils submitted as just within the limit have had decidedly lower flashing points than those of other oils which have been recorded as identical with them in this respect. It may therefore be considered that the minimum flashing point to be adopted in connection with the new test may, without danger to the public, be fixed at that point which corresponds to the lowest results (not exceptional) which are furnished by applying the new test to a series of oils having a common flashing point of 100° when examined by the present legal test. It may also be considered that the fairest course would be to base the equivalent, with the new test for 100° (furnished by the open test), upon the mean of the differences between the two tests applied to a large number of oils (with possibly the exclusion of a completely exceptionally extreme result). The objection would probably be raised against this course by importers of petroleum oils that it would have the effect of excluding from the market some oils which, under the present act, might be admitted as having a flashing point of 100°, and which past experience has failed to prove dangerous. Thus, if the mean difference between the flashing points given by the two tests in the results shown in the foregoing table be accepted as determining the equivalent for the present legal minimum flashing point (100°), then that difference being 27°, the equivalent for 100° would, with the new test, be 73°; but if that be adopted as the minimum legal flashing point with the new test, two out of 28 samples which the present legal test might have admitted would have been excluded from the market if the new test were in force. Looking to the fact that these two particular samples, though found to have a flashing point of 100°, gave lower results than others . of the same flashing point, not only with the new test, but also with the close test, it does appear as if they were oils of just that class which has given rise to occasional disputes, namely, oils which in the hands of some operators would have had flashing points below 100° assigned to them, and which might, therefore, even under the present conditions of testing petroleum, be excluded from the market by the balance of conflicting opinions. After carefully considering this question, I have come to the conclusion that 27° Fahrenheit might, without injustice to the trade, be accepted as the difference between the results to be furnished by the new test and the present legal test; or, in other words, that 73° might with the new test be accepted as the equivalent for the present legal minimum flashing point of 100°. It appears to me, however, that it would be much more satisfactory if, before a final decision is arrived at on this point, a very considerably larger number of experimental data than those which I have been enabled to obtain with the means at my command were procured with the new apparatus and by several operators experienced in theemployment of the old tests. It would unquestionably much facilitate and expedite further action in the matter of modification of the existing law with reference to the testing of petroleum, etc., if Mr. Keates, of the Metropolitan Board of Works, Mr. Redwood, of the Petroleum Association, and. an experienced operator selected by the Scottish Mineral Oil Association were invited to obtain test apparatus made in exact accordance with the pattern apparatus now submitted and to apply it to the testing of a number of samples of petroleum, the flashing points of which had also been determined by the present legal test. If portions of those samples, with the results obtained, were then forwarded to me by those gentlemen, apparent discrepancies could be examined into, and the ‘‘ equivalent flashing point” of the new test be established upon a large number of results to the satisfaction of all interested in the adoption of a uniform system of testing. : If this suggestion be acted upon, I would recommend that the same persen who, under my direction, has constructed the pattern apparatus, should make the apparatus required by those gentlemen, and that those apparatus should, in the first instance, be compared by me with the pattern now submitted. In the event of the adoption of the new test, the apparatus submitted with this report (and of which photographs, (a) measurements, and specification are appended) should be preserved as a standard apparatus and placed in charge of some competent and suitable authority (e. g., under the weights and measures office), who should inspect and:test, or have tested, all apparatus which are made for use under act of parliament, for the purpose of ascertaining that they are in accordance with the pattern and specificaton. Such apparatus should then bear some official stamp or mark by which they can be identified as legal apparatus. Since the attainment of uniform results with the test is dependent upon the uniform construction of the apparatus, it is indispensable that such a course should be pursued, and its adoption could, I apprehend, present no practical difficulties. In conclusion, I submit, with special reference to the letter of the Secretary of State for the Home Department of July 7, 1875, 1386a 61, Appendix V, the following brief summary of the results and conclusions to which I have been led by the inquiry which forms the subject of this report: (1.) The method of testing petroleum as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871 (34 and 35 Vict., c. 105), is not “‘of a nature uniformly to insure reliable and satisfactory results”. (2.) A method of testing petroleum has been elaborated for adoption in place of that prescribed in the petroleum act, 1871, due regard having been had to the fact “that the testing must in many instances be carried out by persons who have had comparatively little experience in conducting delicate experiments”. This method, while resembling in its general nature the one hitherto used, is free from the defects inherent in the latter, and is so arranged that it can be carried out, with the certainty of furnishing uniform and precise results, by persons possessing no special knowledge or skill in manipulation. With ordinary attention, in the first instance, to simple instructions, different operators cannot fail to obtain concordant results with it, and it is so nearly automatic in its nature that it is not, like the present method of testing, susceptible of manipulation so as to furnish different results at the will of the operator. (3.) There are not, in my judgment, any well-established grounds for considering that the present flashing point of 100° Fahrenheit is not ‘‘ calculated to afford adequate protection to the public”. a These are necessarily omitted from this reprint.—B. R. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 235 (4.) With the employment of the new test, a minimum flashing point should therefore be adoptec which is equivalent, or as nearly as possible so, to the flashing point of 100° Fahrenheit, as furnished by the present test. (5.) From the uncertain character of the present test, it follows that the “ flashing points” furnished by it are not always concordant with oils of the same degree of volatility, and that the same flashing point is sometimes assigned by it to oils of different degrees of volatility. On the other hand, the comparatively.very precise test now proposed furnishes, of necessity, concordant results with oils of the same degree of volatility. Hence the differences between the “flashing points” furnished by the present test and those obtained with the new test cannot be strictly represented by one figure, but may be considered as ranging from 25° to 29° Fahrenheit (inclusive). (6.) The results of a number of thoroughly concordant experiments with the new test, and a comparison of these results with those furnished by the present legal test, and also with those oLtained by employment of the close test, which it was proposed to adopt in 1872, indicate that a mean difference of 27° Fahrenheit may be legitimately accepted as the mean difference between the present test and new test, and that therefore a flashing point of 73°, furnished by the new test, may be accepted as equivalent to the minimum flashing point of 100° adopted in connection with the present test. (7.) Although the conclusions given in the preceding paragraph are based upon the results of a number of carefully conducted and controlled experiments, it appears desirable that the minimum flashing point to be adopted in connection with the new test should be deduced from the results of a much larger number of experiments, and that these should be carried out with the proposed test apparatus by several independent operators of acknowledged experience in the testing of petroleum according to the methods hitherto practiced. (8.) It is therefore proposed that several test apparatus, precisely similar in construction to that submitted with this report, be prepared, and that, after having been found by me to furnish identical results, they should be employed by the chemist of the Metropolitan Board of Works, the secretary of the Petroleum Association, and a duly qualified representative of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association for the testing of anumber of samples of petroleum, the results, together with portions of the samples tested, being forwarded to me, with the view of their forming a basis for fina] report to the Secretary of State for the Home Department on that particular point. (9.) In the event of the adoption of the test apparatus submitted with this report, it is important that the standard apparatus, with drawing and specification, should be deposited with some government authority, whose duty it would be to examine and certify to the correctness of all apparatus made for the purpose of testing petroleum under the new legalized regulations. F. A. ABEL, AuaustT 12, 1876. Chemist of the War Department. Immediately upon receiving this report from Professor Abel, the Secretary of State for the Home Department requested Mr. Boverton Redwood to subject a large number of samples of oil to comparative tests, in order that the relation between the temperatures at which oils flashed when tested under the act of 1871 and when tested by the apparatus contrived by Professor Abel might be accurately determined. The samples tested numbered 1,000. They represented (excluding the trial samples) 97,766 barrels of oil, and formed a series thoroughly indicating the character of the various shipments which have reached England from the United States during a period of six months. The following is a synopsis of the results, taking the first 968 samples, all of which consisted of the ordinary (refined) petroleum of commerce: PAUP LeSSUO wed a CuLerence NOLWeeN tN CWO LEStS Of2. 22)... ec Doo pOnBC Gon CECnoy S600 0. 03 100. 00 The results of several analyses of the gases escaping from the solfataras and fumaroles, given below, will be found to exhibit a strikingly different composition. The first is an analysis of the gases rising through the Lago di Naftia in the Val del Bove of Etna: Es ni Per cent. Per cent. SE ars tse See, Ase Sais om st sce EL Seer othe ORs a ete seicha cicre actaatens stele cmiuetente cet vee 94, 23 84, 58 are nner nine ene a a RES. Epa Ie rs See Ato «PEA Sis om ais ol ots SiS SES nial s slo'smie Wiieidicls ohne oe totic dey ates Gah z Sette PR rh ths ak ete ae Be iy lt it Let a os St a ceibec b gee set omens 1. 82 2. 42 Sh re cael eigen | Seta SMe ie SN SEE Ace itie S ola lie crates [catia & siaimocieitn pin 0. 28 4.52 NEI ts SY Se ee Oe S.dia ess lsmere es at aisles ge bath bb aoe Scecicaicuea dass sees 3.49 1.89 Neither acetylene nor olefines were present. (d) The next is an analysis of the gases evolved from fumaroles on the island of Saint Paul. The temperature was 789-809: (e) Per cent. CO ee eee RE SUG REEL at, oh einem ee nore Moo is dascle oe ws atde caee tee eae sees Wate loedews 14, 24 Osos see ee mete eter 2a ere e. Ah Lie emo eerat Sloe cplaassidaedoe Co ewcneecnns pica trate atte Micha nariee Span at ae 17.01 IN ee oo ane een Soe ene Saunt) eat Luan OPS Seto jae Sion. uo ealelianice cele seis Cun ss psid te ami 68.75 a American Chemist, vii, 97; W. B., 1876, p. 1134. d Gaz. Chim. Ital., ix, 404; J. C.S., xxxviii, 345. b O.N., xxx, 1363,J..C. Soc., xxviii, 242. e C. Rendus, 1875, No. 7. ce Mont. Sci., 1870, p. 550; W. B., 1870, p. 704. VOL. Ix 16 242 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The gas from Campi Flegrei, Vesuvius, is not constant in composition, but is mainly CO. H,S is about 5 per cent., O less than 1 per cent., N 5 to 10 per cent., sometimes as high as 50 to 60 per cent., with occasionally a small quantity of CH,. The Grotto del Cane yields pure CO.(a) No combustible gases are evolved by the Caldeira de Fumas, San Miguel, Azores, differing in this respect from the geysers of Iceland and the Suffoni of Tuscany, both of which invariably contain H and CH,.(b) The gases from Santorin, after the eruption of 1866, contained CO), O and N inconstantly varying proportions, with traces of H, H,S, and CH,. In 1870 HCL and SO, were present. (c) The gases evolved from solfataras contain CO,, H,S, O, and N. Two of them yielded wholly CO,. The Great Solfatara yields steam, H,S, CO,, O, and N. (d) A comparison of these results of analysis shows the great difference between the constituents of the gases from these two sources. In the gases from Burning Springs CH, predominates, accompanied by other products of distillation; inthe gases from solfataras CO, predominates, accompanied by other products of the combustion of carbon. The distillation of strata rich in organic remains, when invaded by metamorphic action, has doubtless produced the inflammable gases of burning springs and gas-wells ina manner analogous to and often simultaneous with the production of petroleum. In the United States the phenomena of burning springs were observed by the earliest settlers west of the Alleghanies. Dr. Hildreth described these springs as they occur in the valleys of the Little and the Great Kanawha, in West Virginia, in 1833, and later in the valley of the Big Sandy, in Kentucky. The volume of gas escaping from these springs is often remarkable, but no attempt was ever made, so far as I can learn, in any manner to utilize this material. The boring of wells for salt and petroleum led to the frequent penetration of strata heavily charged with gas that was destitute of petroleum. This was most frequently the case on the borders of petroleum fields in rocks that were, relative to the sea-level, higher than those yielding oil. The localities that have been and are most noted for their gas-wells are: Fredonia, Chautauqua county, New York; Wilcox, Elk county, Pennsylvania; Rochester, Beaver county, Pennsylvania; Burns well and Harvey well, Butler county, Pennsylvania; Leechburg, Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania; Sheffield, Warren county, Pennsylvania; Allegheny county, Pennsylvania; Erie, Erie county, Pennsylvania; Painesville, Lake county, Ohio; East Liverpool, Columbiana county, Ohio; Gambier, Knox county, Ohio; New Cumberland, Hancock county, West Virginia; Burning Springs, Wirt county, West Virginia. The gas from wells at several of these localities has been made very valuable for technological purposes : The use of natural gas at Fredonia was begun in 1821, and was introduced into a few public places, among which a hotel was. illuminated when General Lafayette passed through the village. The gas from this well, which was sufficient for about thirty burners, was used alone until about 1858, when another well was drilled, which supplied some two hundred burners. Another well was drilled in 1871 with better success. The average monthly supply of the three combined is about 110,000 cubic feet, of which an average of 80,000: cubic feet per month is consumed for lights. Seven other wells, varying from 50 to 800 feet deep, have been made without success. The area covered by these wells is about one mile in length by one-half mile in width. The supply has not perceptibly diminished since the opening of the wells. (e) At Erie, Pennsylvania, gas-wells have been bored along Mill creek. Some of the deepest of these wells have yielded a dense oil. The Demming well struck gas at about 440 feet under such a pressure that it blew oil to the top of the derrick for twenty-four hours. Many gas-wells have been drilled for private dwellings and manufacturing establishments. For the latter purpose, where large quantities are used, the yield of the wells runs down in a few years. At Painesville, Ohio, gas-wells are bored for private dwellings, and the gas is used often for heating as well as for illuminating purposes. At Rochester, Pennsylvania, and East Liverpool, Ohio, the gas is burned in enormous quantities in glass houses. At Gambier, Ohio, and New Cumberland, West Virginia, the gas is burned in a manner to produce lampblack. The gas of the Burns, Harvey, and Leechburg wells is or has been used in puddling iron. The latter was found particularly valuable in the preparation of the quality of pure rolled iron used for tin plate. The Sheffield well was bored for oil, but instead of oil it has discharged a jet of gas that has burned continuously for five years. In the oil regions the gas from these wells is frequently burned in the open air for no other purpose than to prevent the formation of dangerous explosive mixtures of gas and air. Bradford and other towns in the oil regions are mainly heated and lighted with natural gas from the oil-wells,,. and in some instances from wells drilled on purpose to obtain gas. If no oil accompanies the gas, the flame is clear and white, but if oil is present it is red and smoky. Benzine often condenses in the pipes from natural gas, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that, at the enormous pressure under which this gas is held in the oil-sand, the gas is condensed to a liquid. In the Bradford region especially this pressure is much too great to be ascertained by pressure gauges, and has often been made a subject of conjecture, rather than of estimate, as equaling from 2,000 to 4,000 pounds per square inch. Any attempt to ascertain the pressure would be attended with the risk of having the casing and tubing thrown out of the well. The evaporation due to the removal of this pressure produces an extraordinary reduction of temperature. At Sheffield the temperature fell so low that ice formed in the well pipe and finally closed it. The ice was then drilled through 100 feet in depth. When it was pierced, the pressure threw a C. Rend., lxxv, 154; J.C. Soc., xxv, 884. d Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. (4), xxv, 559; J.C. Soc., xxv, 469. b Ibid., xxv, 115; Ibid., xxv, 885. e Letter of E. J. Crissey, secretary of the Fredonia Natural Gas-light Company, to S. F. P- c Ibid., lxxv, 270; Ibid., xxv, 885. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 243 the tools and well casing out of the top of the derrick. When a stratum yielding gas is struck in boring, the force of the escaping gas prevents water from reaching the bottom of the well if poured down the side, or even, in some cases, if introduced from a tank through a pipe reaching to the bottom. In most cases by this latter arrangement (which gives the weight of a column of water several hundred feet in height) the gas is “stopped off”. The gas has been used in several instances to work an engine for pumping without water or heat by introducing it into the cylinder, precisely like high-pressure steam. In drilling the Roy well, near Kane, Pennsylvania, the gas from a well more than one-fourth of a mile distant was used in this manner. It is very frequently used as a fuel for making steam, and, when there is a surplus, that is burned at the end of a pipe to prevent explosions. The greatest gas- well on record in the oil regions is the Newton well on the Nelson farm, 6 miles north of Titusville. There the gas ’ raised a column of water 100 feet high with a noise that could be heard 2 miles, and when. the column burst it threw the water 15 rods each way. The Bradford Gas-light and Heating Company receive gas into a gasometer from wells near the city. Two sets of pipes pass through the city. One set passes from the wells to the gasometer, and has the same pressure as that on the wells; the other set passes from the gasometer, and delivers the gas under a pressure of about 6 inches of water. Gas is delivered from both sets of pipe; from the high pressure for boilers, etc., and from the other set for use in dwellings. The mains attached to the wells will deliver through the same orifice about ten times the amount delivered from ordinary street mains. The wells are so deep that the friction on the escaping gas is very great, and retards the motion and lowers the pressure as itescapes. The pressure at the wells gradually diminishes. In one case it ran down from an estimated pressure of 1,000 pounds to 6 pounds in five years. When first struck the gas would easily have lifted the casing out of the well, requiring a force of at least 500 pounds per square inch. It was estimated that during the month ot January, 1881, 7,500,000 cubic feet of gas reduced to ordinary pressure were delivered in Bradford, where it is almost universally used for heating as well as for illumination. The burning of the superfluous gas at nearly all the wells forms at night great flaming torches, that glare in the darkness from the surrounding hillsides. Mr. Charles A. Ashburner, of Philadelphia, has described a well which has received the name of the “ Kane geyser well”. It is situated 4 miles southeast of Kane, on the Philadelphia and Erie railroad. While drilling— Fresh ‘‘ water-veins” were encountered down to a depth of 364 feet, which was the limit of the casing. At a depth of 1,415 feet a very heavy ‘‘ gas vein” was struck. This gas was permitted a free escape during the time the drilling was continued to 2,000 feet. When the well was abandoned, from failure to find oi], and the casing drawn, the fresh water flowed in, and the conflict between the water and the gas commenced, rendering the well an object of great interest. The water flows into the well on top of the gas until the pressure of the confined gas becomes greater than the weight of the superincumbent water, when an explosion takes place and a column of water and gas is thrown to a great height. This occurs at present at regular intervals of thirteen minutes, and the spouting continues for one and a half minutes. On July 31 (1879) Mr. Sheafer measured two columns, which went to a height respectively of 120 feet and 128 feet. On the evening of August 2 I measured four columns in succession, and the water was thrown to the following heights: 108 feet, 132 feet, 120 feet, and 138 feet. The columns are composed of mingled water and gas, the latter being readily ignited. After nightfall the spectacle is grand. The antagonistic elements of fire and water are so promiscuously blended that each seems to be fighting for the mastery. At one moment the flame is almost entirely extinguished, only to burst forth at the next instant with increased energy and greater brilliancy. . During sunshine the sprays form an artificial rainbow, and in winter the columns become encased in huge transparent ice chimneys. A number of wells in the oil regions have thrown water geysers similar to the Kane well, but none have attracted such attention. (a) Some of the most remarkable gas-wells that have ever been drilled outside the oil region are the Neff gas-wells near Gambier, Knox county, Ohio. These wells are located on the Kokosing river, a tributary of the Walhonding river, which empties into the Muskingum above Zanesville. No. 1 well issunk not far from the line of Knox and Coshocton counties. Such a powerful vein of rich illuminating gas was struck as to cause suspension of all work. From this well immense floods of water, in paroxysms of about one minute interval, are thrown up to a height of 80 to100 feet. The vein of water was struck, fortunately, at a depth of only about 66 feet, where a large stream was tapped, producing no inconvenience in boring until the gas was struck, when suddenly it was all discharged at regular intervals of not more than one minute. The boring throughout its whole length of 600 feet is filled and discharged, making a most magnificent hydraulic display. It is, however, at night that the grand phenomena of this well are best exhibited. The enormous amount of water, perhaps 10,000 barrels per day, keep the derrick and floor so wetted that the gas can be fired with safety. When this is done, at the instant of paroxysm a sudden roar is heard, and at night the flame is seen shouting up 15 to 20 feet above the derrick, which is 53 feet high. It is a grand sight to see the flame leaping fiercely amid the rushing waters, darting out its fiery tongues on every side; now rolling above the most powerful part of the jet like balls dancing on a fountain, and now, with an intensely bright flame, leaping suddenly down the column and running along the floor, and illuminating, as with burning liquid naphtha, which is undoubtedly thrown out with the water, the whole forest scenery around as a magnificent spectacle. When the derrick was covered with ice the gas escaping from the well was frequently ignited, and the effect, especially at night, of this fountain of mingled fire and water shooting up to the height of 120 feet through a great transparent and illuminated chimney is said to have been indescribably magnificent. (0) A phenomenon (called a gas volcano) that has been observed in the valley of the Cumberland, in southern Kentucky, near Burkesville, is thus described. In a private communication Dr. J. S. Newberry writes: This name is given to explosions of gas accumulated under the flaggy rocks of the Hudson River group in the valley of the Cumberland and its tributaries. I have visited localities where explosions have occurred, but have never witnessed one myself. They result from the confinement of gas generated below under impervious strata of rock, the pressure ultimately becoming sufficient to throw off the superincumbent mass of rock, earth, water, etc. These explosions are not very uncommon in the valley of the Cumberland, and they are well known to the inhabitants. a Jour. Frank, Inst., eviii, 347. b Prospectus of the Neff Petroleum Company, 1266. 244 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. SEcTION 2.—USE OF NATURAL GAS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF LAMPBLACK, ETC. The gas of the Neff and other wells is largely utilized for the production of lampblack. This black is of very superior quality, and when first produced and thrown upon the market commanded as high a price as 75 cents per pound, but the production was very soon increased so largely in comparison with the demand that the price is now only about 15 to 20 cents per pound. Concerning the production of lampblack from natural carbureted hydrogen, a writer in Dingler observes as follows : (a) It is known that gases escaping from the soil of some of the oil districts of Pennsylvania (compare 1878, 228, 534) is 5 prenanen for illumination and heating purposes (1877, 224, 552). P. Neff now produces from the same by imperfect combustion an excellent lampblack, which he brings into market under the name of “diamond black”. This gas: flows from two wells which are bored at Gambier (Knox county, Ohio), in the vicinity of the mouth of the Kokosing. According to J. R. Santos (Chemical News, 38, 94, 1878), it has the following composition : Per cent. MR Vere hase Sa re aes sess dee SP EE ts oe eo int eo eriets Sos Sap racomon So kanes es 81,4 Bithylene\. 50. 5oe52 claclo wie a) He aa ucts Wise ww lnin Raine Sm sin Dine eteid ey heaton Steet a tle elm no elma ee 12:2 Nitrogen 6 face. seeje tie, esis See ce ele ame eerie be on nice piemignem ence seins pisins)aamans cle sss V-Wiseris = oasis Scce oe eee 4.8 ORY WOM sie esse a le celpe cant ce wcrc ene ene a sce snes ee maen asm ap ohn abl omas'ey tm pplninin gta rie anime aise 0.8 CO bere eae eee as ees 2 Soc Swen ole crn a ules Siete epee estes See cha ate re ea ep eee rs ee 05 OS @ Fs, 5 ee a ee ere ee 8 Or es en Ses Cm Moret. Snob abet Soo pcg cts 0.3 100. 0 Neff burns daily with 1,800 burners of peculiar construction almost 8,000 cubie meters of gas and obtains from it 16 per cent. of lampblack. The specific gravity of this lampblack is, according to Santos, 1,729 at 17° C. Dried at 200° an elementary analysis gives: is I Bie Per cent. Per cent. 0 ape et ees eee Ss ARE = 5-505 ASSERTS EE SOO SiS Cccl am GacOos SA ate 96. 041 96. 011 ) SNe eB Sea eter eg PSS 3s Ue ee rer GS 9 ooitaso Asie Sh Sue 0. 736 0.747 By means of Sprengel’s air-pump the gas is pumped out, having the following composition CO ciccwerstc le cain pels oe oo gm Ric oteudnieihee aie ea am Ree Siete o ece ide acai, 2» wea ahs BCI Share retard Sere etna ae eee ee eae 1, 387 CO gees astesiel a aicacn a aisex's cn can. cioe mine stern fs aeicleise else incte = = Siac iste cs Sate Seales tet ee eee 1.386 Se ee ee ae ee em Tne Pi eRe he ee MART EE MAR eee mo See SE ke ace pice 0.776 HO sevens ce dese mes ciao fF bcictee ote ae ce stlog seus scopes eccele cee be oe eee eee ate helt ee ene ea 0. 682 Besides, 0.024 per cent. of a bright yellow hydrocarbon soluble in alcohol, and which boils at from 215° to 225°, is obtained, which is probably impure naphthaline. The small quantity of ashes consisting of the oxides of iron and copper comes from the burners. The united composition of diamond black is accordingly as follows: Per cent. Cerca te DES CEC UR Eien ee peteble See! wd dines ame be wie nice em eel eee eI te nee eels ae Oa aor Bay cae Hors FA oan Salk cece bh alee SPE ete Bie oie Reece eter 'ow cre Slee lie pe Lino ste elaie hate yy aim rete Drees 0. 665 Niewiislsh seas Soc oR A eS ra Sw ogo Sh SS LE PES eat carers as ne ate ene et ee 0.776 CO scien ton ba Sa Rs oe ee ei ee eee See ae Ca ae ee ee ee 1,378 CO pg, o!sied wind alae be: SOR eae IEE ooo win odie Rinse MSA crn Referee hci te et cate ete ete rT nes ere ale ce Re 1. 386 ] oF 6 eee te. Sr ee ON SN rs oh OP NINA ots ey ms ces ae ee 0. 682 Ashes ioo. soil.bs 26 Secs Ge Eee o> nis =.5:6 a wok cowie clue wb'e wis epee bee als Stele Glnte ete ate aes eee te eee eee ee 0. 056 100. 000 The black is consequently very pure, and in any case is well adapted for fine printers’ ink and the like. It is also used in the preparation of lithographic ink. At New Cumberland, Hancock county, West Virginia, Messrs. Smith, Porter & Co. use natural gas for burning fire-brick. The gas from one well furnishes fuel for nine brick kilns, three engines, and ten furnaces in the drying house, with fuel and lights for several dwellings, besides a large excess that is burned at the end of an escape pipe. They produce 55,000 brick daily. SECTION 3.—GAS FROM CRUDE PETROLEUM, PARAFFINE OIL, AND RESIDUUM. A large number of patents have been taken out for processes and apparatus for the manufacture of illuminating gas from crude petroleum and the dense products of its manufacture. The general principle upon which all of these processes depend for operation consists in a distillation of the materials at a temperature sufficiently elevated to crack the petroleum compounds into gaseous products. The “ gas oil”, which is petroleum deprived of its naphtha, is conducted into a retort previously heated to a red heat. The method of heating the retort, the manner of distributing the fluids, and the purification of the gas from the undecomposed petroleum and tarry matters, are all subject in the different patents to differences of arrangement, but the underlying principle of destructive distillation is fundamental in all of them. This method of preparing illuminating gas is quite extensively used for lighting large manufactories and villages and small towns. It is especially valuable for these purposes on account of the comparative simplicity of the apparatus and process of manufucture and the purity of the product. The gas prepared by this method is particularly free from the ammonia and sulphur compounds that contaminate gas prepared from coal. a Dingler, cexxxi, 177. ‘THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 245 SECTION 4.—GAS FROM NAPHTHA. Gas is also prepared by the destructive distillation of petroleum naphthas and benzine. One of the methods of operating this process is thus described: A still holding 40 barrels of naphtha contains a coil of 2-inch pipe ; steam passes through the coil, volatilizing the naphtha, the pressure carried on the still being on an average about one-half inch. The vapor passes to three benches, of three retorts each, by a 3-inch pipe; 14-inch branches to each retort are tapped into the side of this mouth-piece, connecting with a 6-inch cast-iron pipe, which lies inside of the retort to within 1 foot of the back, and is open at the back end, but plugged in front with a clayed stopper. The vapors circulate through the 6-inch pipe to the back end of the retort and return forward and up the stand-pipes, which are 6 inches in diameter. These retorts are heated to dull redness. - During this transit the vapors of naphtha are converted into gas and pass through a submerged U-shaped condenser, 18 inches in diameter, lying in a tank with sufficient inclination for a drip. An air-pump is used to preserve an exhaust of about 3 inches, from which the gas passes to a station meter and “mixer”. At every revolution of the station meter 42 per cent. of air is drawn in by a reverse drum on the same spindle, and is mixed with the gas, which thence passes to the holder. The introduction of air is not necessary, as the gas can be burned with a suitable burner; but the gas thus prepared is very rich, and the air is introduced to reduce its quality to the average standard of 15 or 20 candle-power. It will be observed that all apparatus for purifying the gas is dispensed with, the gas being entirely free from all deleterious sulphur and ammonia compounds. The only residue in this process is a small quantity of heavy oil, apparently a residue from the cracking of the benzine. SECTION 5.—CARBURETORS. The idea of saturating illuminating gas with the vapors of volatile hydrocarbons for the purpose of increasing its illuminating power was entertained long before the discovery of petroleum in commercial quantities. Lowe patented a process in 1841, and alluded to it in a general way ina previous patent of 1832, the claim in which is so comprehensive that, if valid, it would render doubtful all subsequent patents. (a) Mansfield also claimed the application of atmospheric air as a vehicle for the vapor of very volatile hydrocarbons in such a manner that the ‘‘ vaporized air” might be burnt like ordinary coal-gas. (b) As early as 1856 Longbottom attempted to prepare illuminating gas by passing air through benzole, ether, or oil of turpentine. (c) These appear to be the earliest attempts at carburation. These machines were never made a practical success, however, until the distillation of petroleum furnished .volatile hydrocarbons in commercial quantities. The low price at which these products could be obtained after petroleum became extensively produced led to the invention of a large number of machines in a great variety of form and principle of construction. The number patented in England, France, Germany; and the United States prior to 1880 must be in the neighborhood of 1,000. The first patents that were issued were for inventions that produced a partial or a complete saturation of the gas or air without in any manner controlling the evaporation or the temperature. The result of the operation of these machines was invariably an overcharging with vapor in warm weather or when the apparatus was first put in action, causing subsequent condensation of the vapor, followed by undercharging as the naphtha was distilled and the residue became less volatile, and as it also was rendered more dense in consequence of the reduction of temperature resulting from the evaporation. Evaporation was induced and rendered more constant and rapid by the construction of a sort of labyrinth through which the gas or air was forced. The tank containing the naphtha was made shallow and of large diameter, and curtains of flannel were so arranged that the upper border of the curtain was securely fastened to the under surface of the cover of the tank and allowed to hang freely, dipping into the naphtha below. As a result, the gas was forced to pass through the spaces between these curtains, and a great evaporation and absorption of the naphtha vapor by the gas followed. This method of carburation, while very effectual, was still open to the objections above made, and did not furnish uniform results; but the difficulty was removed by an invention by which the tank in which the naphtha was being distilled was submerged in a wooden tank of water. The great latent heat of water caused it to give out heat, equalizing the temperature, producing a uniform distillation, and consequently a uniform partial saturation of the gas or air. This contrivance may be said to have rendered the carbureting of air a success, and a large number of machines have been constructed upon this principle. The general arrangement of the apparatus has been a wooden tank, sunk in the ground outside the building and below the frost. In this tank the receptacle for the gasoline is placed, and the intervening space is nearly filled with water. At this depth the water preserves nearly a uniform temperature at all seasons, and from its large volume it compensates the gasoline for its loss of heat due to evaporation, and keeps both the temperature and the distillation uniform; consequently the amount of combustible material supplied the current of air is uniform. This current is forced through the labyrinth by an air-pump worked by a heavy weight, and placed in the basement of the building to be lighted. This form of carburetor is entirely free from the grave defect of starting at the beginning of the evening with an, excessive evaporation and ending at 10 or 12 o’clock with an insufficient evaporation. The distillation proceeds uniformly, and changes in quantity gradually, the difference being perceptible only after the machine has been in operation several weeks or months. The gradual fractional distillation results in the accumulation of a residue in the labyrinth too dense for evaporation with a Jour. Soc. Arts, ii, 503. b Ibid., 520. c Jahresbericht, 1356, p. 422. 246 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. sufficient rapidity to properly carburet the air, and is, consequently, attended with diminished illumination. Many attempts have been made to remedy this defect, in which great success has been attained by a remarkable invention of very recent date. This machine is called the metrical carburetor, and is used for carbureting either gas or air. The name designates a peculiar feature of the instrument—that it measures the amount of carbureting fluid to either the gas or the air; hence there is never an excess of carburation, no fractional evaporation, and no condensation of liquid in pipes. One and one-half to 2 gallons of light naphtha are measured to 1,000 cubic feet of ordinary street gas, or 3 to 6 gallons of gasoline to 1,000 cubic feet of air, according to the purpose for which the gas is to be used. The carburation of gas and air has been made the subject of many elaborate researches. Prominent among those who have conducted them is the late Dr. Henry Letheby, medical officer of health to the city of London, who, as early as 1861, reported that— With regard to the carbureting process we are of opinion, from the data obtained by the laboratory experiments quoted in the report to the commission of the 30th of July last and the experiments made on the public lamps in Moorgate street during the months of June and July last, that the process of carburation appears to be capable of economizing the use of gas in the public lamps to the extent of from 40 to 50 per cent. This conclusion is founded on the assumption that the best quality of naphtha is to be used, namely, a naphtha which will give to the gas continuously a proportion of about 10 grains of volatile hydrocarbon to each cubic foot of gas, these being the average results of the laboratory experiments. (a) The following comparative tests were published in 1879 in Engineering, but the author is not mentioned: PRACTICAL TEST.—Barometer, 29.8; temperature, 56°; the weight of gasoline, 655 grains to water 1,000 grains; therefore one gallon of gasoline = 45.850 grains. The air was simply aspirated at the rate of 6 cubic feet per hour through an ordinary chemist’s wash-bottle, and each cubic foot took up 735 grains, illuminating gas of 17.10 candles taking 585 grains. Grains. 1,000 cubic feet of air =735.000 _ : ; 1 gallon of gasoline = 45.850 — 16.0 gallons of gasoline per 1,000 cubic feet of air. 1,000 cubic feet, 17.10 gas =585.000 __ ; ay . 1 gallon of gasoline gee 12.7 gallons of gasoline per 1,000 cubic feet of gas. One thousand cubic feet of air, after being carbureted, = 1,320 cubic feet; and 1,000 cubic feet of 17.10 gas, after being carbureted, = 1,270 cubic feet. SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST.—The time required to pass equal volumes of air, gas, carbureted gas, and carbureted air, under equal pressure, through the same aperture (Shilling’s test), was: air, 88 seconds; gas, 58 seconds; carbureted gas, 90 seconds; carbureted air, 104 seconds. Koo Gas = 434 to air 1,000. ak 3B ‘ 90? f : Carbureted gas, a 1,045 to air 1,000. bs Carbureted air = 1,396 to air 1,000. 10 be PHOTOMETRIC TEST.—Test on Hartley’s improved photometer, 15-hole argand burner (old standard), 7-inch by 2-inch chimney, consuming 2.4 cubic feet per hour of carbureted gas, = 14.59 standard candles; reduced to the standard of 5 cubic feet, = 37.73 standard candles. Also, with No. 1 steatite bat-wing, consuming 2.40 cubic feet per hour, = 18.63 standard candles; reduced to the standard of 5 cubic feet, = 38.83 standard candles; 3.48 cubic feet per hour of carbureted air consumed through argand burner = 16.52 candles ; reduced to the standard of 5 cubic feet, = 23.70 candles. DURABILITY TEST.—The durability of 1.10 cubic feet 4-inch flame: Min. Sec. Gas’ sold chiens a cece es etree eben. Oli sas Shwcule Bale we ores latec ote te Sane S aimee ae a teere aan eta 5 45 Carbureted gas x. ..55(oet cesta eee es bie se sates b Wests sled ARC ERe EE oe a actus | ae eee ag ae eae 16 38 Carbureted ‘altii224.. 3624 a 28 ac aetetes sisal asinine X= a/c unin Sinise palsies eee a ee ee eee ee 11 24 Various forms of machines were experimented on, viz, cylinders containing lamp cotton, sponge, felt, and wood carbon. They are all useless and obstructive, nor do they yield so high or regular a light as air aspirated or exhausted through gasoline and charged into a gas-holder, from which it is supplied ready for use at the burner when required. Upon this the editor of the Journal of the Franklin Institute comments as follows: Two great objections still exist to the use of these machines, viz, the impossibility of storing large quantities of gasoline without the risk from fire to property in the neighborhood; and, secondly, that if the pressure becomes excessive the flame from the burner will be blown out, and terrible explosions, resulting in loss of life, have followed in consequence. The increase in the illuminating property of coal-gas as ordinarily furnished, when passed through these machines, is very great, and the flame, also, is not liable to be blown out with increased pressure; and a wide field seems to be open in this direction if all danger from fire in the carbureting of the gas could be done away with. (b) The value of the metrical carburetor will be appreciated when it is understood that it gives a degree of carburation perfectly satisfactory for gas with 14 to 2 gallons of light naphtha to 1,000 cubic feet of gas, and for air with 3 to 6 gallons of gasoline to 1,000 cubic feet of air. Moreover, this quantity is measured to the gas or air with great accuracy, is all immediately absorbed, and, as no supersaturation ever occurs, no condensation ever takes place in the pipes, and no “running down of the light” is ever due to cold nights or distillation of the gasoline.’ In regard to economy, safety, and perfect operation this metrical carburetor far excels all others hitherto invented. a Jour. Soc. Arts, x, 87. b Jour. Franklin Institute, evii, 404, 1879 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 247 Cuaprer 1V.—THE USE OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS AS FUEL. SECTION 1.—THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The excessive production of petroleum in some localities, and the scarcity of coal and wood in others where petroleum abounds, has led to a large number of experiments in the use of petroleum as fuel. The theoretical consideration of its value as fuel was made the subject of elaborate investigations at an early date. In 1864 R. Mallett stated that— The theoretical evaporating power of American petroleum may be ascertained as follows: YS a = 18. 06 kilograms. ~ 100 For— C 0.86 x 8.080=— 6948 A772 1 18. 06 H 0.14 X 34.462 = 4824 G2 Step ot 11772 heat units. Regnault’s formula is 65.2 heat units for the evaporation of 1 kilogram of water at 0° to steam at 150°. (a) In 1869 Henri St. Claire De Ville conducted an elaborate research upon the calorific power and physical peculiarities of petroleum. His results are given in the following table: i : Specific | Calorific | s : Specific | Calorific Locality of the oils. gravity. |» power... | Locality of the oils. gravity. | power. 1. Heavy oil from White Oak, West Virginia; well, 135 0.873 | 10. 180 | 10. Oil from Java, commune Tjibodas-Fanggah, district 0. 823 9. 593 meters deep ; lubricating oil. Madja, residency Cheribon. 2. Light oil, from Burning Springs, West Virginia; well, 0. 8412 10. 223 |} 11. Oil from Java, commune Gogor, district Kendong, 0. 972 10. 183 220 meters deep; illuminating oil. residency Karabaya. 3. Light oil, from Oil creek, Pennsylvania; well, 200 0. 816 9.963 || 12. Oil from Bechelbronn, upper Rhine, distilled..--..... 0. 912 9. 708 See BeOP ans ou. 13. Oil from Bechelbronn, raw .-.--.------+----------+------ 0. 892 10. 020 a Stil a Pa ane Rica ft Seow fe ea whi ’ ‘, Fania 0. = 10.399 | 14, Oil from Schwabweiller, lower Rhine .-..-..--------- 0. 861 | 10. 458 5. Heavy oil, from the Plummer farm, Franklin, Penn- | 0. 886 10. 672 || ; Te 7 005 sylvania; well, 200 meters deep; lubricating oil. | | 15. Oil from east Galicia -...-.-------++-s0e2e--eere eso ee- 0.8 : . i os | | F ne 9 6. American petroleum, as offered for sale in Paris, | 0.820 | 8.771 | 16- Oil from west Galicia: .. .-.2 222-05. 6265 ses ae- == 525-25 0. 885 ; probably from Pennsylvania. || 17. Raw schist oil, from Vagnas, Ardéche......--------- 0.911 | 9. 046 7. Heavy coal-oil, from the Paris Gas Association......| 1. 044 8.916 | 18. Raw schist oil, from Autun, manufactured by Cham- 0. 870 9. 950 8. Petroleum from Parma, near Salo.............- ah ant 0. 786 10.121 | peaux, pam & Redness oy yi 9. Oi! from Java, commune Daudang-Llo, district Tima- 0.923 . 10.831 || 19- Heavy Kiefernharz oil, from Mount de Marzan....... 0. 985 . acon, residency Pembang. | * O. Rendus, xvi, 442; Ixviii, 349; C. N., 1869, 237. In 1871 he examined the petroleums of the Russian empire from the neighborhood of Baku, on the Caspian sea, and obtained the following results: No. 1 was crude naphtha from the Balchany wells, specific gravity at 0°, 0.882; No. 2 was residuum from the Baku stills, specific gravity 0.928; No. 3 was black oil from the Weyser refinery at Baku, specific gravity 0.897; No. 4 was light oil of Baku, specific gravity 0.884; No. 5 was heavy oil of Baku, specific gravity 0.938. On distillation they afforded : Temperature. 1, 2. 3. | TIS a | | | | | | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Volatile at 100°C ......senccnr---s2-- REE SERA AEM 3 ft 8 | aD) i eds plata. ViOlAtIG AT A0S Co setetecinete ese = [eeeeceeece sees eteree|eseeee sees | PTR Pest ald ie Volatile at 160°C .................... | DAO N latmencs taal asinac sae: COM | See eee Wolntilorat ISOC ssenccee eee acess OF Wie caeeeealeote ees, Peels, Seen aes Wolstileat 2000122 ass e cee TAN O Meee Mids 32 | SON eset vese. 1.0 | Volatile mtio20o (ise os cea oe sin tites 15aSa Weadewansctneshe osc eelos0 Jeon Nolatilo nt 2400 Cea ees te ease ewintpeces 1.0 8.0 ; 233 | Tod Volatile at 260° C 2. .-2.....4.iepe.25: | 29.0 2.8 14.0 | 29.3 | 3.0 | Volatile’ati280° C iiiiec 42k esc, 1 37 0 | 4.3 PERE aa TRY 6.0 | $ V Glavtile nt: 9000 Civc 50: ts.4se- scab nema 41.3 | TR yih BPA doe (Tbe8 9.7 | COMPOSITION AS GIVEN BY ANALYSIS. ThE perry re A SPA ee etm PUT MIRO. 38.6.2] ,) a3 | CL ETI ait Ek eae ieee ey as si L 86.5 | 86.3 86. 6 OSV OMe =< esc aslae as = dese aasisesats 0.1 | 1.2 1.5 0.1 1.1 100. 0 | 100. 0 100.0 | 100. 0 100. 0 a Pract. Mech. Jour., March, 1864, p. 314; Dingler, ¢lxxii, 71. 248 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. From these data their calorific power was calculated and compared with that obtained by experiment in the petroleums marked 4 and 5. The results are thus given in calories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Calorific power, caledlated ec eae see ciseee ete cee eae 11. 370 11. 000 11. 060 11. 660 11. 200 Calorifie power, observed t-ore. wcrc ener ewe ee ena cee aes (11. 070) (10. 700) (10. 760) 11. 460 10. 800 Numbers 1, 2, and 3 were calculated from the results in4 and 5. These results show the Baku oils to be superior to those of America and Europe for heating purposes. (@) In 1877 K. Lissenko stated that— Some forms of petroleum that yield a less amount of heat on combustion than that calculated are regarded as containing hydrocarbons of the series Cy Hen +2, accompanied by small quantities of non-saturated hydrocarbons. (b) Later, M. Berthelot has shown in a research upon the gaseous hydrocarbons that the heat of combustion of an hydrocarbon is not always equal to that of its elements. The variation is least in the case of the saturated hydrocarbons ©,,H», . 2. (¢) Asno two petroleums from different localities are alike in composition, these researches indicate that considerable variation exists in the heating power of different petroleums, and that practically their heating power is considerably less than would be calculated from their elementary composition. SECTION 2.—PETROLEUM AS A STEAM FUEL. The employment of petroleum as a steam fuel has been the subject of many experiments and much controversy. From a careful survey of the subject I conclude that no important practical difficulty has been anywhere encountered where for any reason petroleum has been a more desirable fuel than other material. Petroleum has always been burned for steam fuel more or less in the oil regions of Pennsylvania. All sorts of experiments have been made there to burn the crude oil, both pure and mixed, with steam. Mr. D. A. Wray, on Oil creek, filled with crude oil, at 50 cents per barrel, an 8-horse boiler, with safety-valve attached. He fired up under it as if it was filled with water, and burned the vapor as if it were gas. The arrangement worked well until the spaces between the boiler tubes became choked with coke. This deposit of coke from distillation of the oil has been found to be the chief practical difficulty, and has usually been avoided by injecting steam through the escaping oil in such a manner as to completely volatilize it. Another practical difficulty observed by Mr. Wray was explained by him as in accord with an observation of Tyndall that the flame of a Bunsen lamp is intensely hot to objects immersed in it, but that it radiates comparatively little heat. Mr. Wray has observed that all successful contrivances for burning petroleum must distribute the flame upon the surface to be heated, and not beneath it. Inattention to this condition is the cause of many unsuccessful attempts to generate steam by the use of crude petroleum. It is impossible that I should attempt to describe the great number of apparatus devised for burning the crude oil, many of which are entirely adequate. The successful use of the oil for years in stationary engine boilers has demonstrated the absence of all serious practical difficulties. The questions of economy and safety appear to have determined that for general use it is not a desirable fuel, while in special cases its use has been attended with complete satisfaction. Mr. William T. Scheide has communicated to me the following results obtained by the United Pipe-lines: The oil was burned with a steam jet under four stationary boilers (60-inch shells 14 feet long, with 83 3-inch tubes), and the steam furnished a Worthington compound duplex pump doing an actual work of about 200 horse-power. (The indicated horse-power would probably be about 225 to 250 horse-power.) These boilers and this pump use as nearly as possible 4.54 pounds of bituminous coal per horse- power of work done per hour. Using this average, which is pretty well determined, as a basis, 1 ton of 2,000 pounds of this coal is equal as fuel to either 3.94 or 4.13 barrels of 42 gallons each of oil. The experiment was not conducted as it should have been, and there is a question as to the pressure against which the pump worked, which accounts for the difference in the estimate. I think it may be stated, however, that 4 barrels of oil would be required to furnish the equivalent of a ton of good bituminous coal if the oil is burned with a steam jet. With an air jet I look for better results. It has also been very thoroughly tested for use on steam vessels. In 1868 the then Secretary of the Navy reported that the appropriation of $5,000 for testing petroleum as a fuel on steam vessels had been expended on a series of elaborate experiments at the New York and Boston navy-yards. The conclusion arrived at is, that convenience, comfort, health, and safety are against the use of petroleum in steam vessels, and that the only advantage thus far shown isa not very important reduction in bulk and weight of fuel carried. At Woolwich experiments were made with naphthaline, creosote, residuum, tar, and grease, but nothing proved satisfactory except pure American petroleum and “clear British shale oil”. Comparative tests showed the— . Per cent. Highest evaporation, of water pet pound of coal 21ibs. 4. 2sc.< cane coe cou cenmen meee a ees eek eee 7.38 Lowést evaporation of. petroletini 442.5. Ser eee sf ow 5 ca ates ee En ee ee 12, 02 Highest evaporation of ‘petroleuny 232. 55a see cee ee ee ee eee eee eens 13. 00 On July 31, 1869, a train arrived safely in Katschujan, 81 versts from Charkoff, whose engine was heated with raw naphtha (petroleum) instead of coals. The honor of the invention is ascribed to the mining engineer, Portski. a C, Rendus, \xxii, 191; Ixxiii, 491. b Russian Chem. Soc., June, 1877; C. N., xxxv, 180; J. C. S., xxiv, 453. o C. Rendus, xe, 1240; J. C. 8., xxxviii, 786. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 249 Two engines on the Strasbourg line, fitted in 1870 with M. Deville’s furnaces, burn from 34 to 5 kilograms of oil to every kilometer traversed, or say 8—12 pounds to two-thirds of a mile. The oil is completely burned, and no sulphur is observed in the atmosphere of the tunnels. Petroleum has also been used with entire success upon steamers and locomotives in the United States. While all of these experiments and practical tests show that petroleum can be used on locomotives without difficulty, and perhaps with some elements of superiority over other kinds of fuel, it cannot be affirmed that it is as yet so economical as to lead to its use in the face of the very grave and unquestioned elements of danger attending it. Coal in the United States is cheap, plentiful, and safe, but on the Caspian sea it is rare and costly. This fact constitutes a sufficient reason why persistent and successful efforts to burn petroleum and residuum on the steam vessels that traverse that sea should have led to its almost exclusive use for steam purposes. The following concise statement explains the method of its use: An apparatus has been devised for the utilization of petroleum as fuel in steam navigation, and its application for this purpose in central Asia has, it is reported, been attended with results that are considered very satisfactory, such fuel also occupying much less space than the amount of coal necessary to produce a similar effect. With the old-fashioned boilers in use—with a central opening running longitudinally—no modification, it is stated, is necessary for the employment of the fuel in question. A reservoir containing some hundred pounds’ weight of the refuse, “ astalki,” is furnished with asmaill tube, bearing another at its extremity, a few inches long and at right angles with the conduit. From this latter it trickles slowly. Close byis the mouth of another tube connected with the boiler. A pan containing tow or wood saturated with astalki is first introduced to heat the water, and on the slightest steam pressure being produced a jet of vapor is thrown upon the dropping bituminous fluid, which is thus converted into spray; a light is applied, and then a roaring deluge of fire inundates the central opening of the boiler. It is a kind of self-acting blow-pipe. The volume of fire can, it is stated, be controlled by one man, by means of the two stop-cocks, as easily as the flame of an ordinaty gas jet. Mention is made of a steamer of 450 tons and 120 horse-power on this principle, 30 pood per hour of astalki being burned to obtain a speed of 13 nautical miles in that time; and as 1 pood is about 33 pounds, and costs on an average about 10 to 12 cents, or about $60 for a twenty hours voyage at full speed. The use of petroleum in Russia for steam fuel on both locomotives and steam vessels has been very fully discussed by T. Gulichambaroff in the Gornii Journal for 1880. He says that— In the Caucasus the refuse of the distilleries is used as fuel, which in 1874 could be had for nothing. In 1875 the price was 3d. per barrel of 20 poods (720 pounds); in 1876 it rose to 1s., and 1877 to 2s.; in 1879 the price had reached 5s. 3d., while raw petroleum at the same time was 10s. Attention is now being directed to the use of raw petroleum, against which there is a standing prejudice on account of the possibility of explosions. Any liability to explosion is easily removed by exposure to the air for a few days. On the Balachauskoi railroad the locomotives are fired with raw petroleum, which is poured into the tender direct from the springs; yet there has never been an accident. The author has seen burning logs quenched with petroleum without setting it on fire, and spontaneous combustion is impossible, as the oils do not absorb oxygen. At present all the steamers on the Caspian sea use liquid fuel, 4.5 to 4.9 pounds per horge- power; 1,080 pounds of naphtha (petroleum) is found to be equal to 343 cubic feet of oak wood. The use of petroleum by injectors and its freedom from sulphur present great advantages over any other form of fuel. (a) The action of hydrocarbons at a red heat with steam has been investigated by M. Coquillion. He shows that steam assists the dissociation of the hydrocarbons, producing at the same time a fall of temperature which is added to that, produced by the reduction of CO, to CO. (b) As already stated, the use of petroleum for steam fuel is determined by its cost relative to other kinds of fuel. With the low price of petroleum at Baku and the absenceof wood and coal on the steppes of Russia and the shores of the Caspian sea, there can be no question that petroleum is the cheapest and best steam fuel to be had in that region. But in the United States the question lies between petroleum and anthracite coal for ocean steamers and bituminous coal on the western rivers. I think no one would now question the ease and efficiency with which petroleum can be burned in several forms of apparatus lately invented, nor can it be denied that it is less bulky than coal and more conveniently handled; but that it is a safe material to use on ocean passenger steamers as compared with coal cannot be maintained. Moreover, the claim that is made that much less stowage is required is not found to hold to any extent against anthracite coal. A ton of anthracite requires 48 cubic feet and a ton of petroleum requires 44 cubic feet. The difference is incousiderable. As the question is at present stated, I do not look for any considerable increase in the use of petroleum for steam purposes in the United States. SECTION 3.—PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. The natural gas of the oil-wells has been successfully used in the manufacture of iron in the vicinity of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Messrs. Spang, Chalfant & Co., whose works are at Sharpsburg, brought the gas in a 6-inch pipe to their works from wells near Saxonburg,,Butler county, a distance of 17 miles. They use it for puddling and heating and for making steam. Messrs. Rogers & Burchfield placed their works at the wells on the Kiskimenitas, a tributary of the Allegheny river. They use it in an ordinary reverberatory furnace by bricking up the bridge and introducing the gas in pipes with a blast. It has been remarked that the quality of the iron is something wonderful; with ordinary gray coke pig-iron sheets for tin-plate equal to those from the best charcoal iron are made - at a cost of $50 per ton less. a Proc. London Inst. Civil Engineers, Lxiii, 408. b C. Rendus, No. 19, 1878; C. N., xxxvii. 262. 250 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. ‘A large number of processes have been invented and patented for using raw petroleum in the manufacture of iron. Of these the Eames process appears to have been the most successful, and to have had the most satisfactory trial. At the Laclede iron works, in Saint Louis, experiments have been instituted under what was known as the ‘¢ Whipple and Dickerson”, or ‘‘Ambler process”. These experiments were unsatisfactory, but in what respect I have not been able to ascertain. Experiments were also made at the Chatham dockyard, in England, which were in many respects highly successful, particularly with reference to the fine quality of iron produced. The Eames process has been put into practical operation both in Titusville, Pennsylvania, and in Jersey City, opposite New York. Why it has not proven a commercial success I have not been able to learn. Competent judges having an interest in the success of the establishment at Titusville bear testimony to the extraordinarily fine quality of the iron produced from scrap and refuse of the most forbidding character. The process has been made the subject of a most careful and exhaustive examination by Professor Henry Wurtz, of New York, and Professor R. H. Thurston, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. The cut, Fig. 57, represents the apparatus in section. It consists of an ordinary reheating furnace with the “generator” and steam- boiler attached. The generator, which is the peculiar feature of the apparatus, is shown at A. It consist of a cast- iron vessel, from the sides of which shelves project alternately. The oil, entering from a reservoir at D, trickles over these shelves, from which it is swept by a jet of steam superheated to incandescence, entering the generator at E from the coil B. The amount of oil required for this furnace, which is capable of working charges of 3,000 pounds and making steam for the rollers besides, is a maximum of 30 gallons or 200 pounds per hour. The trickling oil is met by the jet of steam moving in the opposite direction, and is at once completely vaporized under a pressure of about 10 pounds and is carried into the furnace C. Air enters at F, and, mingling with the mingled vapor and steam, passes through the former bridge at H, and burns within the furnace in a long solid sweep of flame, which escapes from the furnace at I, and returns, after passing beneath the boiler, through the boiler flue to the stack. The old bridge of the furnace is completely bricked up excepting at H, where a space extends across the furnace, closed only by fire-bricks placed on end, and it is found that if this ‘‘combustion chamber” has a horizontal thickness of more than 18 inches the fire-bricks are fused. I quote the language of Professor Wurtz’s memoir respecting the working of the apparatus described : It is quite easy to determine with precision with the arrangements at Jersey City the relations of consumption of oil to iron produced, and time, labor, and material occupied in any special case. The oil was fed from a tank, sunk in the ground, which had a horizontal section throughout of 4 feet square. Each inch in depth, therefore, corresponded to 2,304 cubic inches, or closely enough to 10 United States gallons of 231 cubic inches. By gauging with a graduated rod each hour, therefore, the hourly consumption of oil was readily followed up. It was thus determined by me that, starting with a cold furnace and boiler full of cold water, 45 minutes was a maximum time, with oil fed at the rate of 30 gallons per hour, or 22.5 gallons in this time, to bring the whole fire space to a dazzling white heat. Six piles of boiler scrap, averaging 500 pounds, or 3,000 pounds in all, being then introduced, 35 minutes more at the same rate of consumption not only brought the piles toa high welding heat, but raised the steam in the boiler to 90 pounds pressure, being that required to operate the rolls. The time required after the furnace was heated and steam up for each charge of 3,000 pounds averaged at most 80 minutes, and as the brick-work became heated throughout it was apparent that the feed of oil might be somewhat diminished. Thus in‘ working day of ten hours just seven such charges could be worked off, averaging 2,500 pounds of rollediron each; total, 8 tons per day of boiler-sheet from one such furnace, with an average consumption, as amaximum, of 30 gallons (200 pounds) of oil per hour, or 300 gallons (2,000 pounds) in all. To this must be added, however, the fuel used under the generator and small supplementary boiler, which together was 500 pounds per day. It is admissible that one generator and one small boiler will operate several furnaces, the inventor says 5; if wesay 4, it will diminish the small addendum of cost. As to working this furnace with coal, it was ascertained from the testimony of the operators that, by keeping up the fire all night, so that a heat could be had at a reasonable time in the morning, the maximum product of finished sheet might be, with superior work, allowing 90 minutes for each heat, 6 tons, with a consumption of at least 5} tons of coal = 12,320 pounds, or 2,053 pounds of coal per ton. (a) I have omitted Professor Wurtz’s estimates of comparative cost, as any one interested can readily make them to suit the prices of coal and crude oil in his own locality. SECTION 4.—STOVES. During the last few years stoves in great variety have been contrived in which some of the products of petroleum are consumed as fuel. Practically they may be divided into naphtha and kerosene stoves. In reference to the use of the naphtha stoves I have nothing to say, excepting that their manufacture, sale, and use ought to be probibited by law. I need not repeat here the facts and arguments already brought forward to show why they are dangerous to persons who use them and to the communities in which those persons live. In spite of all that has been written and spoken on this subject, a vast number of them is sold every year. The apparent apathy of the public in reference to this matter is shown by the fact that after the terrible fire in the New York tenement houses in January, 1881, caused by the careless use of gasoline in some sort of plumbers’ apparatus, Commissioner Gorman said toa New York Herald reporter— That he had examined the law regarding the use of gasoline, and he found no statute that could prevent its being used as a heating and illuminating agent. Section I, chapter 584, of the laws of 1871 provided that ‘‘no refined petroleum, kerosene or other burning fluid shall be used for heating or illuminating purposes in any dwelling, house, store, shop, restaurant, car, coach or other vehicle, which a Am. Chem., vi, 94. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 251 shall evolve combustible vapor at a temperature below 100° Fahrenheit”. Now, had the law not been repealed, it would have prevented plumbers using gasoline for heating purposes. The law, as I have read it to you, was, however, repealed by section 4, chapter 742, of the laws of 1871, which reads “that no refined petroleum, kerosene, coal or similar oil, or product thereof, shall be used for illuminating or heating purposes which shall emit an inflammable vapor at a temperature below 100° F., or shall be kept for sale or stored within the corporate limits of the city of New York”. (a) ~ On the Ist of June following 27 barrels of gasoline lying on the platform of the Consolidated Railroad freight- house in Springfield, Massachusetts, took fire from some accidental cause, and after a part of them were supposed to be extinguished several of the remainder exploded and injured about 40 persons more or less seriously. December 27 following the steamer West Point exploded and burned at West Point, Virginia. Nineteen persors were killed and a number badly injured. Her “cargo was made up of miscellaneous freight, among which were several hundred barrels of oil, sixty of which were gasoline”. These are some of the gasoline accidents for one year, and yet there is no general legislation to prevent gasoline from being used in lamps and stoves and from being carried as common freight except section 4472 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, quoted on page 236. The kerosene stoves are being brought to a great degree of perfection, and are found to be very useful. Of the several different manufacturers who are seeking the patronage of the public I am not disposed to select any as making in all respects an article superior to all others. These stoves act best with high-test oil, and are therefore safe. Their healthfulness depends upon the manner in which they are used. It is claimed that one of these stoves with two burners discharges an amount of carbonic acid into the atmosphere of a room equal to the respiration of 2+ persons. I have not examined the merits of this statement; but, assuming the statement to be correct, it is a sufficient reason why the most thorough ventilation should be urged upon those using these stoves. Very few are used under circumstances that admit of the removal of the products of combustion from the apartment, and when one is used in a small room occupied by two persons the contamination of the air amounts to that caused by the constant occupation of the room by from four to five persons. When to this unavoidable source of impure air is added the sulphurous acid and half-burned products of the combustion of poor and cheap oil, the use of petroleum stoves cannot be recommended as conducive to health. Yet they are cheap and convenient, are used by tens of thousands, and their use is increasing. SECTION 5.—MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS FOR HEATING PURPOSES. Petroleum and nearly all of its products and natural gas are used in glass houses for producing high temperatures and flames free from soot and other materials that would injure the glass. At Wheeling, West Virginia, one of the largest glass houses uses benzine for producing the intense heat of the ‘glory holes”, and other houses use natural gas for the same purpose. Throughout the oil regions natural gas is largely Srneaiien in the towns for heating dwellings and culinary purposes. It is used witha large Bunsen burner, from which the flame is projected into an ordinary stove. Another method, and much the best, is to introduce the Bunsen flame into the back of an ordinary portable grate. The grate is filled with fragments of fire-brick, which become bright red in the gas-flame, and radiate as much heat as glowing anthracite, which, in fact, they much resemble. A novel application of petroleum to the myOdcHen of motive power has been made successful in Hook's petroleum motor, in which vapor of petroleum is exploded behind the piston of an engine and the expansive force made available as a motor. It claims to possess the following advantages over other similar engines: 1. Perfect safety; neither incompetence nor malice can produce a destructive explosion. 2. No particular attention needs to be given it. 3. The facility with which the engine can be started and stopped, no complex preparations being necessary. 4, Its almost noiseless operation. (b) At Mosul, Persia, in the valley of the Euphrates, the crude petroleum and maltha from the springs of Hit is used for burning lime, and proves an invaluable fuel in a country nearly destitute of wood. a New York Herald, January 6, 1881; Zbid., June 1, 1881. b Jour. Frank. Inst. (3), xviii, 87. 252 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. CuoapreR V.—THE USES OF PETROLEUM IN MEDICINE. SEcTION 1—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. Although crude petroleum has been used as a remedial agent from the earliest times, both in the Old World and in the New, I have not met with any recorded attempt at a careful study of its physiological effects. The few notes that I have made in reference to this subject are therefore fragmentary and inconclusive. While in the oil regions I was told several stories relating to the experiences of persons who had breathed natural gas or the vapors of the very volatile fluids that escape from the oil as it flows from the wells. From these several experiences I conclude that the natural gas from the wells intoxicates like laughing gas. Persons leaning over the edge of a well tank experience at first an agreeable sensation, which is followed by unconsciousness. On recovering consciousness the person is very talkative, exceedingly witty, with a vivid imagination. These effects do not disappear for several days, and are described as resembling somewhat those of a prolonged spree. Death results from the prolonged action of the gas. In March, 1880, a man was found dead at the top of a ladder at the man-hole of a tank. He was supposed to have become asphyxiated while watching the flow of oil into the tank, from breathing the gas which was escaping into the air through the man-hole. Rhigolene, which is the most volatile fluid ever condensed from petroleum, and the lightest liquid known, is an effective anesthetic agent, and has been used as a substitute for ether in a few instances. Professor Simpson used naphtha (specific gravity not stated) as an anesthetic during the extraction of necrosed bones. The insensibility was deep and tranquil, and the breathing was less stertorous than when chloroform is used. Its effect on the heart’s action, however, was much greater, the pulse becoming more rapid and fluttering. (a) Dr. French, of the Liverpool, England, board of health, investigated the subject on a memorial of citizens, and reported that petroleum had an offensive odor, but was not injurious to health.()) Landerer relates a case, but does not say whether the petroleum was crude or refined. It is presumed the material was illuminating oil. A quantity was swallowed, the greater part of which was vomited. It produced a strong, burning sensation in the tongue and throat, both of which became reddened and swollen. The stomach and bowels were also affected with strong symptoms of gastro- enteritis. Both the urine and the sweat smelled strongly of the oil for several days, and the odor was especially strong under the armpits. The patient became very weak, but recovered. In 1864 M. E. Georges published a memoir upon the physiological effects of petroleum ether, of which the following is a summary: 1. The essence of petroleum acts in a peculiar manner upon the creative faculties (sens génesique), and also under peculiar circumstances upon the temperament. 2. It occasions violent headache with nervous persons. 3. That action appears to be due to a peculiar principle, which may be separated from it, and which acts. principally upon the brain and upon the heart. 4, The ether of petroleum can be employed with advantage to produce cold upon the exterior in operations, because it does not produce pain upon the parts where the blood flows.(c) The term petroleum ether evidently designates a substance similar to rhigolene. The neutral paraffine oils and paraffine itself appear to be without action upon the human system. The extensive use of paraffine for chewing-gum shows it to be without deleterious effects. Petroleum is generally destructive of animal life, and particularly of insect life. Hildebrant, an African traveler, advises smearing the face and hands with petroleum to protect them from mosquitoes. He also advises the use of petroleum upon horses and cattle as a protection against the deadly Dondorobo gad-fly. By its use natural history collections are also preserved from the invasion of moths and ants in the tropics. (d) Petroleum has been used in France to destroy insects on plants and walls, also on dogs. In the latter case it is applied either before or with soap. An agriculturist of Aube is reported to have said that rats and mice left his cellar when petroleum was stored there, and slugs left a garden that had been watered with the rinsings of petroleum casks. Its use has been recommended upon plants to kill lice, and also to kill mange and scab on dogs and sheep, for which purpose 10: parts of benzine, 5 parts of soap, and 85 parts of water are recommended. It must be used with great caution upon animals. Those, who have used it recommend that it be diluted with benzine. The use of crude petroleum and maltha for ridding vines of parasites has already been mentioned, the product of the Albanian springs having been sent to Smyfna and the Levant for that purpose. Moths are destroyed in furniture and garments by immersing them in baths of benzine. One great obstacle, however, to the frequent use of petroleum products is. their disagreeable odor, which to many people is particularly offensive. a An. Sci. Dis., 1850. b Ibid., 1864. ec Ann. du Genie Civil, 1864, p. 525. d Nature, xviii, 373. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 253 SECTION 2.—PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS AS THERAPEUTICS. Crude petroleum has been used as a remedial agent in both external and internal administration. Its use asa liniment dates from a very remote antiquity. In 1839 M. Fournel addressed a letter to the French Academy, in which he discussed the employment of petroleum by the ancients in the treatment of itch. (a) He says: Pliny (Nat. Hist., Book XXXYV, chap. 15), speaking of the petroleum of Agrigentum, that was called Sicilian oil, says: ‘They make use of it for lamps instead of oil; also for the scab in draught cattle.” Before him Vitruvius (Ten Books of Architecture, Book VIII, chap. 3) had mentioned the custom among the Africans of plunging their beasts into the waters of a bituminous spring near Carthage; and after him Solinus (Poly. Hist., chap. II), speaking still of the springs of Agrigentum, says: “It [the oil] is used as a medical ointment in the diseases of draught cattle.” All the authors of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries have indicated the same remedy, notably among them Frangois Arioste, who cured men and animals afflicted with itch with the petroleum which he had discovered in 1460 on Mount Libio, in the duchy of Modena. Among many others Agricola also may be cited, who said, in the middle of the sixteenth century, *‘ Cattle and beasts of burden, when smeared with it, are healed of the scab.” If I pass to petroleum obtained by distillation, I find that in 1721 Eyrinis obtained from the asphaltic stone of the Val-de-Travers, in the canton of Neuchatel, in Switzerland, an oil, of the efficacy of which for the cure of itch he boasted much, affirming that he had cured more than 30 persons by means of it. (Dissertation upon asphalt or natural cement, etc., pamphlet in 12mo; Paris, 1721.) In America crude petroleum has always maintained a high reputation as an external application for rheumatism. The Indians living in the neighborhood of oil-springs used it for that purpose, and the early voyagers learned of them its value. Seneca oil and Barbadoes tar were offered for sale in the United States and Europe many years before petroleum in its present use became an article of commerce. In 1822 the editor of the American Journal of Science acknowledges the receipt from James R. Sample, of Barbadoes, of specimens of Barbadoes green tar, a petroleum of excellent quality, and indurated bitumen or ‘“ munjack”, and says: The tar is found very useful in preventing lockjaw, when the first symptoms are attended to, by rubbing the spinal bone from end to end and the muscles of the thigh and arms. When taken internally it is also a powerful sudorific. (b) Again, in 1833, when writing of the petroleum spring at Cuba, New York, Professor Silliman, sr., says the oil was used by people about that place for sprains and rheumatism, rubbed on. (c) In recent years refined petroleum has. borne a valuable reputation as a hair renewer. It is said to promote the growth and luxuriance of human hair and to stimulate the growth of hair on bald scalps to a wonderful degree. . Marvellous as are the tales that are circulated by the press, | know of no authentic case, nor have I observed any notices of such cures in reputable scientific journals. Throughout the oil regions of Pennsylvania petroleum bears a high reputation as an internal remedy in cases of consumption. The oil of the old American well, under the name of American oil, was sold in Pittsburgh for that purpose at the time when Kier was making his first experiment at distilling petroleum. While in the oil regions I met several persons who testified to having witnessed its beneficial effects either upon their own persons or upon those of near relatives. A Mr. S. stated that his brother-in-law was seriously ill with phthisis, when he commenced taking crude petroleum in teaspoonful doses, which he increased in a year to a tablespoonful. His case experienced a marked improvement, and the tubercles were said by the attending physician to have been healed. Duting 1879 the French Bulletin de Therapeutic contained an article in which it was stated that petroleum had been proved very beneficial in chronic bronchitis, and was thought to be so in phthisis. Administered in teaspoonful doses before each meal, the nausea that was first experienced soon disappeared. For administration it had been put up by a Paris pharmacist in capsules containing 25 centigrams of the oil under the name of “ huile de Gabion”, after an ancient petroleum spring. ¢ Notwithstanding these well-attested facts concerning the therapcutic action of petroleum, it cannot be said to have a recognized status in American pharmacy. SECTION 3.—PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATION S OF PETROLEUM. Petroleum has been deodorized and purified for administration by filtering. Within a few years a series of compounds has been prepared for homeopathic practice called myro-petrolenm compounds. They are prepared by causing to react upon each other fixed oilof mustard, an alkali,and petroleum. The myronic acid of the oil of mustard forms a salt or soap with the alkali in which the petroleum is dissolved. There are four primary preparations, viz: 1. Myro-petroleam—album. Refined petroleum. Mustard oil. Alkali. a C. Rendus, ix, 217. b Am. Jour. Sci. (1), v, 406. ce Ibid, (1), xxiii, 99. 254 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 2. Myro-petroleam—nigrum. Crude petroleum. Mustard oil. Alkali. 3. Myro-petroleum soap. A mustard-oil soap containing paraffine. The claim is made that paraffine is saponified. 4, Glycero-petroleum. Which it is claimed is a petroleum glycerine. The first three preparations are, no doubt, produced as claimed, and their merits as therapeutic agents rest on careful tests, not upon opinion. The claims that are set up, however, for these preparations—that paraffine is saponified and that glycerine is prepared from petroleum—show that the persons making such claims have no clear idea of the chemical constitution of either petroleum or the saponifiable fats. Paraffine was so named from being found destitute of affinity, and acids and alkalies have no more action upon pure paraffine than upon a piece of India rubber, and no substance resembling glycerine has thus far been obtained from petroleum or any of its products. They are all, however, including paraffine, soluble in soaps; hence soaps may be produced containing paraffine or petroleum, but glycerine cannot be obtained from petroleum. About 15 per cent. of paraffine can be incorporated with soap. These soaps are found very valuable in hospital practice for washing malignant ulcers and inflamed mucus surfaces. It is, however, as a material forming the basis of ointments that the preparations of petroleum have obtained their strong hold upon the medical profession. The preparations cosmoline, vaseline, petrolina, etc.,. which are all essentially the same thing, have now a permanent place in the materia medica. As early as 1861 C. T. Carney, of Boston, substituted paraffine for wax, spermaceti, and almond oil in cerates, and exhibited specimens at the meeting of the Pharmaceutical Association that year. He remarked: An ointment made in this way would, in my judgment, be very permanent and keep a long time without becoming rancid or ropy. White wax in small amount rendered the ointment more tenacious.(a) It was not until the discovery and preparation of so-called amorphous parafiine that a material was furnished to pharmaceutists that was destined to supplant the old preparations. I have made no attempt to adjust the conflicting claims of those who manufacture this preparation under different names. I prefer to leave that to the subtle administration of patent law. It is sufficient for my purpose that somebody discovered that when a petroleum residue obtained by evaporating the oil in vacuo, or by any other means that will prevent its destructive distillation, is filtered through animal charcoal, an amber-colored, nearly odorless material is obtained of the consistence of paste at ordinary temperatures. One man called it cosmoline, another vaseline, and others have given it other names. Whatever named, amorphous paraffine is rapidly becoming the ointment of the world. It is prepared by the manufacturers either plain or scented with rose or some other perfume for the retail trade, and is also prepared in bulk for the apothecaries. At the meeting of pharmacists, held in 1880, for the revision of the United States Pharmacopeia, the superior | claims of this material over all other preparations as a basis for ointments were acknowledged, and the necessity for its recognition as an officinal preparation of the pharmacopeia was conceded. Some difficulty was experienced in preparing a formula for a substance the origin of which was hidden behind the mysterious veil of conflicting patent rights. On the other hand, the profession was justly cautious in recognizing a name that might designate one thing to-day and another to-morrow. Finally Unguentum Paraffint obtained a name and place in the Pharmacopeia. Some difficulty has been experienced in establishing a proper melting point for the preparation. The merits of this question are fully set forth in the following paper, prepared by Dr. Charles Rice, of the Bellevue hospital, New York, and read at the last (1881) meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Association : ‘““What melting point is most desirable for petroleum ointment?” * * * Our present as well as former pharmacopeias contain two principal classes of unctuous substances intended for external application; one of these of the class of cerates, and the other that of ointments. These have generally been understood to have two entirely different functions, at least in the majority of cases, and for this. reason they have been carefuliy kept apart, although they overlap each other in a few instances. A cerate, as the name already implies, © is a “waxy” ointment, that is, an ointment stiffened with wax, for the purpose of raising its melting point. An ointment is intended chiefly for ‘‘inunction”, and for this reason should possess a melting point but little above that of the temperature of the body. A cerate, on the other hand, is rather intended as a dressing, to be spread on lint, linen, or muslin, and to be applied to the injured surface. These well-known distinctions furnish the clue to the solution of the question, at least from the standpoint of theory, and also from the standpoint of the physician. The writer has had an opportunity during the past year of learning the views and opinions of a considerable number of practitioners on this subject, and he only regrets that he cannot quote their statements and reports, which were made for another purpose than the drafting of the present paper in full, and with their names attached; but he is at liberty to state that most of them, and among them the foremost dumatologists, pronounce the melting points of several of the commercial petroleum ointments to be altogether too low. During the heat of summer particularly, and in the warmer sections of our country even in other seasons of the year, an ointment should not have a melting point below about 40° C. or 104° F., and as it is easier to soften an ointment by heat than to stiffen it by cold, it appears preferable to select a uniform melting point for the year round, based on the requirements of the average summer temperature. a Am. Jour. Phar. (3), ix, 72. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 250 Petroleum ointment is principally desired by practitioners as a perfectly bland, neutral, and inactive base for suspending therein. various topical remedies. Naturally, this very property of blandness and neutrality will in many cases alone produce curative effects,. because it will permit the natural healing process to proceed normally and uninterruptedly, provided the injured part is pesaroughly covered so as to exclude the air. From the opinion of most of the practitioners whose views have been solicited or tendered two petroleum ointments of different melting points are chiefly desirable. One of these, which could take the place of lard or ointment or other low-melting unctuous: compound, should have a melting point of 40° C. or 104° F. And the other, which could take the place of cerate or of corresponding compound of higher melting point, should have a temperature of about 46° C. or 115° F, The preceding would be an answer to the query from the standpoint of the physicians. But there is another feature connected with the query which cannot well be separated from it, though it is not expressed in words. In fact, the question might as well have: been formulated thus: What is the most desirable melting point to be recognized by the next pharmacopeia for petroleum ointment ? While the pharmacist acknowledges the correctness of the distinction between ointment and cerates, and will doubtless agree- with the opinion of the physician that there should be both asoft anda firm petroleum ointment, according to the purpose for which it is- to be used, he will, on the other hand, most probably deprecate the introduction of more than one kind of simple petroleum ointment into- the pharmacopeia, because a multiplicity of them will surely result in confusion, both on the part of prescribers and dispensers, and besides, because the likelihood of the pharmacopeial requirements being observed, will diminish in proportion to the number of grades recognized, since it is out of question for the retail pharmacist to prepare the article himself. Hence, from the standpoint of the pharmacist, it will be safest, at least with our present knowledge and experience, to recommend the official recognition of that petroleum ointment only which has the lowest melting point declared suitable by competent medical authority. And this melting point is 40° C. or 104° F. Any higher melting point can be easily obtained by incorporating with the petroleum ointment more or less yellow wax, and the exact consistence - and melting point of the product will, therefore, be more easily within the personal control of the pharmacist than if he were compelled to rely upon the alleged melting point of a manufactured product. The addition of yellow wax to petroleum ointment has long been known to yield a perfectly homogeneous and satisfactory product. Nor does it introduce into the mixture any source of deterioration, at least for any reasonable period of time, since it has been shown that the mixture remains a long while free from all trace of rancidity, particularly if the petroleum ointment itself was sweet and fresh. It has been said above that pharmacists, as a rule, will probably prefer only one officinal petroleum ointment, and this supposition will probably be confirmed should any discussion of this paper take place after being read. But itis also approved by quite a number of © physicians with whom the subject has been discussed, and to whom the difficulties attending the recognition of several grades have been pointed out. But, so far as the writer is aware, those who advocate the introduction of only one petroleum ointment, whether pharmacists . or physicians, do not deny the correctness of the statement of the other side, that several grades of petroleum ointment of different melting points are very desirable. They only wish to point out that the official recognition of more than one kind would, by no means, be a guarantee that the other products could even be at all times procured in the market when required, or would be furnished if ordered. And as it is certain that the pharmacist can furnish to the physician equally satisfactory products of controllable and known melting points, if such are required, by the method above indicated, it is hoped that the two professions will come to the harmonious conclusion to- recognize, in the forthcoming new pharmacopeeia, only one petroleum ointment having a melting point 40° C. or 104° F. (a) The merits of these preparations have met with a very cordial recognition in Europe, and frequent mention is. made of them in foreign journals under the names of either cosmoline or vaseline. The following notice from an English journal presents many facts of general interest in relation to the substance and the varied uses to which the apothecary can apply it. It is presented in preference to others for the sole reason that it was convenient of’ access, and well represents the appreciative consideration which has been extended to “ petroleum ointment” on the other side of the Atlantic: AN ENGLISH VIEW OF VASELINE. (0) Dg ous MONS WE hver Mou Ss Eien Ors. Although petroleum in some form or other has been in use for two thousand years (Herodotus, born B. C. 484, is the first writer who. distinctly refers to it), petroleum jelly or vaseline has only been known during the last few years, and is said to have been discovered by Mr. R. A. Cheesebrough, of the Cheesebrough Manufacturing Company. I have been unable to find any authentic account of the manufacturing process, but according to the pamphlet which I have on the table, and which most of you have doubtless read, it is the residue from the distillation of petroleum purified by an elaborate system of filtration, known only to the company, or at least so says the pamphlet. This secrecy of its manufacture is one of the greatest drawbacks to its usefulness and official recognition. Vaseline was the subject of an original paper read by Mr. J. Moss at the meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, on February 2, 1876. He describes it as a pale yellow, translucent, slightly fluorescent, semi-solid, melting at 37° C. and having a specific gravity of 840 at 54° C. It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, freely so in ether, and miscible in all proportions with fixed and volatile oils. It is not acted upon by hydrochloric acid or solution of potash, and has all the other characteristics of a mixture of paraffines; an ultimate organic analysis made by him gave 97.54 per cent. of hydrocarbons. Under the microscope, vaseline, in common with most other fats, is found to contain numerous small acicular crystals, doubtless. consisting of a paraffine of higher melting point than the mass, but these do not in any way interfere with its usefulness, because of their extreme minuteness and easy fusibility. Vaseline may be kept indefinitely without becoming rancid; this is its chief characteristic, and together with its indifference to chemicals and its readiness to take any perfume is sufficient to recommend it for pharmaceutical and toilet purposes in place of the fats generally used. (c) If-vaseline be considered too thin it may be thickened to any extent with paraffine wax. I have found one to seven a good basis for general use, or one in ten would answer for most purposes; but to obtain anything like smoothness in the mixture it must be thoroughly a Proc. Am, Pharm. Ass., 1881; Oil and Drug News, September 6, 1881. b A paper read before the School of Pharmacy Student Association, London. ce One improvement seems to me to be possible, and that is the isolation of single paraffines, of various melting points, one suitable: as a basis for liniments, another for ointments, in place of the mixture of paraffines sold as vaseline. (The objections to this multiplicity of preparations have been presented by Dr. Rice.—S. F. P.) 256 : PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. beaten while cooling. Vaseline alone being used for making such ointments as that of ammoniated mercury, or for diluting mercurial or the nitrate of mercury ointments, a partial separation takes place on keeping; but if a mixture of paraffine wax and vaseline be used no such separation occurs. With regard to the preparations of the pharmacopeia, in which vaseline has been suggested as a substitute for the basis in present use, first and foremost I must mention the nitrate of mercury ointment. Squire states that this can be prepared from white vaseline by substituting it for the lard and oil in the official formula. I tried the experiment on half a pound of white vaseline, using the B. P. quantities of nitric acid and mercury and a temperature rising to 214° F., but it was a decided failure. I could obtain nothing but a mechanical mixture, the vaseline being changed in color from white to pale yellow and the acid solution continually weeping out, and nearly all of it could be separated by pressure. It may be that failure arose from lack of manipulative skill on my part, but I have generally been able to get fair results with the B. P. process. I have on the table a specimen of citrine ointment, prepared from a mixture of white wax and vaseline and about the same quantity of mercury, but rather less nitric acid; this specimen is about eighteen months old, and is as good as when first made. As far as my experience goes, vaseline is not suitable for making citrine ointment of full strength, but it certainly is useful for its dilution. Here is some fresh official ointment, and also some recently diluted with vaseline. I likewise have a specimen which I prepared two years ago; its color is still good. I found that the vaseline had partly separated from it, and in future shall make it with one-eighth paraffine wax. ‘ The next troublesome ointment, I think, is that of red oxide of mercury. I have here a sample of the official ointment, which has been kept for over two years, and is now certainly an unsighly preparation; also some made with prepared lard, quite as bad. Benzoated lard seems to have answered very much better, but still more successful is the mixture of castor oil and beeswax, suggested some years ago in the Pharmaceutical Journal. Vaseline, however, will take the palm for more elegant appearance, and it will keep any length of time unaltered. Compound lead ointment has been spoken of as very liable to change. I have some here made from the official formula which has been kept overa year, and also some made with vaseline eighteen months ago; likewise a sample of zinc ointment. The official ointments, although only a few months old, are quite rancid; but the samples made with vaseline show no alteration after being kept eighteen months. Mercurial ointment is also very advantageously made with vaseline and wax, instead of with rancid fat, as is usually the case. Under the microscope, samples of both ointments exhibit globules of mercury of about equal size. Iodine is soluble in about twenty times its weight of vaseline; therefore vaseline is very suitable as a basis for iodine ointment. I am not aware of any action occurring between iodine and the paraffines, although action does take place with chlorine and bromine under favorable circumstances. I prepared some a few days ago of B. P. strength, but without any iodide of potassium. The crowning success for vaseline is in the preparation of cold cream, and if this were the only compound in which it could be used with advantage its mission would, I think, be fully accomplished. I nave made my cold cream for some time with white vaseline, and have found a very marked increase in my sale for that article. Ihave kept a sample freely exposed to air in a warm place for some months without any alteration, except loss of water. I make it by dissolving Z ij. of white wax in 1 pound of white vaseline by heat, adding 3 iss. of borax dissolved in Z ix. of water, and perfume with 3 ss. of oils, stirring until nearly cold and then pouring into pots. Vaseline, with or without paraffine wax, is undoubtedly the best basis for pomades, and only requires one-half the quantity of perfume common fats do. Vaseline has been suggested for internal administration, but it is not the province of the pharmacist to discuss the relative merits or demerits of any therapeutic agent; it behooves him, however, to study the best method of exhibiting it, and to bring it to the notice of the physician. The Cheesebrough Company prepare vaseline in the form of pastilles, which they say contain 33 per cent. of vaseline, with a like quantity of sugar and gum; these they flavor with wintergreen oil, which is very much appreciated by our cousins across the Atlantic, but not so much so on this side. Vaseline can be emulsified with the usual agents. The emulsion made with gum acacia is tolerably permanent, also that with yolk of egg. If for external application the vaseline can be mixed with one-eighth its weight of white wax and then emulsified with borax or any alkali. The sample on the table was prepared by triturating 5 ij. of white vaseline and gr. xy. of white wax with 3 xiv. of water containing gr. xv. of borax in solution. I do not look upon vaseline as a nostrum, or I certainly should not have brought it before your notice. It is true we have not yet been let into all of the details of its manufacture, but it may be that such disclosure is not far distant. Because the manufacture of Duncan’s chloroform is kept a profound secret among the partners of the firm, has that prevented the medical profession from insisting upon that particular preparation as an anesthetic? If medical men do not hesitate, when it falls in with the interest of the profession and the public, to recommend a particular preparation of a particular firm to the exclusion of all others, I do not see why chemists should consider it infra dig. to recommend and use such an elegant and useful article as vaseline. One trouble looms in the far distance—will the supply of vaseline last as long as the demand for it? Coal may be replaced, and heat and light obtained from electricity by unknown means; but how shall we find a substitute for vaseline, unless, indeed, we be able to make it from its so-called elements? The supply of petroleum does not, however, seem to show any signs of decrease at present. Sources known two thousand years ago still yield bountifully, and if the American supplies prove as permanently productive as those of the Old World we may leave this question for the present. (a) Benzine has been used as a solvent for certain oleo-resins. (b) It has been used successfully in the preparation of atropine, santonine, veratrine, delphine, strychnine, brucine, cantharadine, quinine, cinchonine, narcotine, aconitine, and coumarine. a London Pharmaceutical Journal, 1881. b Proc. Am. Pharm. Ass., 1873, p. 592. ‘ THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 257 Cuaprer VI.—MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. Petroleum and its products are used for a great variety of purposes that do not fall under the classes previously considered. Commencing with the lightest products, a liquid called cymogene, nearly if not identical with rhigolene, but said to be condensed by pressure, is used in ice-machines with complete success. Gasoline has been proposed as a suitable substance to be used in cleansing raw wool. The following discussion of the use of naphtha (gasoline) for this purpose is introduced here from a circular issued by the Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company, with some statements regarding the use of mineral oils for use on wool as the latest information on the subject: WOOL OILS. The quality and kind of oil used for preparing wool is a matter of the utmost importance to the underwriter, as if is spontaneous combustion that has caused the record of losses on woolen-mills to be heavier than that on cotton-mills; but in touching upon the subject of wool oils we approach a very ‘‘touchy” subject. Many of the methods of treating wool are jealously guarded as trade secrets; the composition of several of the mixtures used on wool has been communicated to us confidentially, and only in order that we may be assured of their safety. In respect to testimony, we could summon witnesses to prove conclusively that each oil or mixture now used is the very best for its purpose; and conversely that not one of them is really suitable, some difficulty being found either in respect to safety, to the effect on the fiber, or in the removal of every oil used. All, or nearly all, appear to require a hot solution for their removal, by which the elasticity or luster of the fibers cannot fail to be injured in some degree. It would appear, according to the evidence and also according to the practice of many of the best manufacturers, that mineral or paraffine oils may be safely and economically used upon wool, either pure or mixed; on other equally competent evidence, that they are utterly unfit to be used and cannot be scoured out, and that nothing but olive, Jard, or red oil can be tolerated. The ‘red oil”, so called, is in fact oleic acid, and is subject to impurity if the sulphuric acid used in the process of candle-making (of which ‘‘red oil” is a subsidiary product) is not sufficiently removed. When thus impure, we understand it to be peculiarly liable to spontaneous combustion. The mixed oils, sold under fancy names, of necessity consist of combinations of some of the oils above named, to which the natural yolk or grease of sheep’s wool is sometimes added, the latter substance being imported from abroad under the name of ‘‘de gras”, mostly for the use of curriers. From the standpoint of the underwriter, the use of mineral oil, mixed to the extent of at least 40 per cent. with animal or olive oil, is to be desired; because in such proportion it abates all danger of spontaneous combustion, and does not in that proportion seriously increase the danger if fire occurs from other causes. If consideration be given to the work done by the oil, the chief reason why olive, lard, or red oil is preferred, aside from the question of economy, may be that they are a little more viscous than the mineral oils. Thismay be a point worthy of investigation. If the slight viscosity of fatty oil is desirable, it may be obtained in a mineral oil as well. The substance to be desired is, therefore, one that is not liable to spontaneous combustion; that is not readily ignited by contact with fire; that is readily saponified or reduced to an emulsion, and readily removed from the fiber without the use of any high degree of heat; and that does hold the fibers together in the process of manufacture. Since none of the oils, greases, or compounds now in use fully meet all these conditions, and since the adverse testimony against them all is stronger than that in favor of any one kind, it follows that both the common practice in scouring all washed or unwashed wool, and the common practice in preparing the wool for carding and spinning, are in some degree bad; that they are not consistent with true economy; that they enhance the difficulties in manufacturing and dyeing, and that if there has been any improvement indicated as being possible by experiments made in a laboratory, from which it is fair to infer that great gain would follow if the theory of the laboratory can be reduced to practice, such experiments deserve the closest attention of all parties in interest. We therefore beg leave to submit, as the result of our investigation of wool oil, certain propositions. These propositions are submitted only for what they may prove to be worth, and with some hesitation, because none of the officers of the company have ever had any practical experience in the treatment of wool. P Proposition 1. The wool now used in this country will yield 45,000,000 pounds of grease that is now worse than wasted, because it, together with all the alkalies used in the present imperfect method of extracting it, is discharged into ponds and streams, polluting them in a manner most dangerous to health. 2. All this grease can be extracted more perfectly by the use of naphtha than it can be by the use of alkalies, becanse this grease or yolk does not saponify or yield readily to alkaline treatment until it is in some degree oxidized by age; for which reason the best foreign woolen fabrics are made from wool a year or more old. Ou the other hand, the newer the clip the more readily the grease is removed by naphtha. 3. The grease and fertilizing material that may be all saved by the naphtha process will more than pay the cost of scouring. 4. This process does not require any heat in the application of the naphtha, and only tepid water for scouring, with a little ammonia in it, it being possible to cleanse a single fleece, by careful manipulation, without disturbing the position of the various portions, thus leaving every fiber in a perfect condition. 5. A portion of the oil thus extracted from the wool itself, after being in some degree refined and mixed with a small portion of mineral oil, makes a viscous emulsion, absolutely free from tendency to spontaneous combustion and in very slight degree inflammable, meeting all the conditions that are required for preparing the wool for carding and spinning. 6. The fiber wool thus cleansed is in much better condition for spinning than when it has been heated and scoured with alkali. Wool and cloth thus treated are in much better condition for the reception of dyes than is possible under any other treatment. 7. This process may be conducted safely in buildings constructed outside mill-yards, at a fair distance away, but not beyond the distance to which the small amount of heat needed may be carried from the main boilers in underground steam-pipes. In witness of these allegations, we present the report of Mrs. Richards, which was first printed in the Bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, vol. ix, No. 2. VOL. 1x 17 258 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. MRS. RICHARDS’ REPORT. During the progress of the investigation of oil instituted by the Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company, for the purpose of abating the danger of fire from spontaneous combustion and other causes, it became expedient to study the natural oil or grease of sheep’s wool, which is now saved toa considerable extent in Europe and imported into this country under the name of ‘‘ de gras”, for the use of curriers and for other purposes. The results of our study of this substance, although not immediately bearing upon the purpose of the inquiry, yet may have an interest to the members of the company, especially those engaged in the manufacture of wool, and are therefore submitted. The preparation of the raw material is a question of the first importance in any manufacture, and anything which promises to improve the quality of the product, to lessen the labor and cost of, preparation, or to lead to the utilization of a hitherto waste product, deserves at least a careful hearing. One of these possibilities seems to be foreshadowed in the wool manufacture. As is well known, wool, as it is cut from the unwashed sheep, yields from 40 to 75 per cent. of extraneous matter. All this is waste: product, and is washed away down our streams to their great damage. Of this large waste, from 12 to 40 per cent., according to the kind of wool, is a grease or oil with valuable properties, and the remainder is largely made up of nitrogenous matters, potash, and phosphates. in a very suitable condition to be returned to the soil from whence they were Sraarty derived. Of course some wools contain sand and mineral dust to the amount of 10 or 20 per cent. The total amount of washed and unwashed wool used in this country has been estimated at 250,000,000 pounds per year. This will yield approximately 112,000,000 or 115,000,000 pounds of scoured wool, or 45 per cent.: 45,000,000 pounds of grease (18 per cent.) ; 30,000,000 pounds of fertilizer (12 per cent). The recovery of a portion of the valuable material has been attempted in France in two ways: First, by the treatment of the wash-water for the recovery of the grease’in a form for gas manufacture, or for the recovery of the potash by the incineration of the evaporated residue, which yields also a very finely divided charcoal, used instead of lampblack. Prussiate of potash has also been manufactured from tbese residues. By this method, which isan inconvenient one, requiring large tanks. and numerous operations, only a portion—about one-third—of the total greasy matter is saved, and none of the nitrogenous matter. The second method used was the extraction of the grease by means of bisulphide of carbon. The dried wool was then sent to the picking and beating machines before washing, and the wool dust thus obtained was sold for fertilizing purposes. The danger in this. process is twofold: the yellowing of the wool by the bisulphide of carbon, and the heat necessary to volatilize the last traces of the: solvent (150°-170° F.). This method, theoretically good, has never been practicable in this country by reason of the cost of bisulphide of carbon. But we have a solvent for grease, in many respects superior to this, which has never yet been applied in this country on a large scale for this purpose, and we have no evidence that, before the present year, any accurate experiments have been made with the best form of this solvent. We: have been told of several patent processes for the use of ‘‘ benzine” for the extraction of the grease; but from the statements as to the results, as well as from a knowledge of the articles sold under the name of ‘‘ benzine” a few yeurs since, we have no hesitation in saying. that the material used was not of proper quality for the purpose or was not carefully applied. A certain amount of moisture seems necessary to the suppleness of the wool, and any degree of dry heat which takes away this. needful moisture renders the wool brittle and harsh. This drying of the fiber is probably the cause of injury in the processes hitherto: used. Our experiments have been made with a quality of naphtha called ‘‘ gasoline”, of about 86°. We have packed the wool in a closed. vessel and allowed the naphtha to remain in contact with it for about twenty minutes without any application of heat. The liquid was. then drawn off and fresh naphtha run in, the process being repeated three or four times, according to the amount of grease in the wool. “Gasoline” of this quality boils at 90° to 100° F., and air of 50° or 60° F. completely removes it. The naphtha has no affinity for water, and does not, in this cold liquid form, carry away any moisture; very little will be taken out by air at 60° F. before the naphtha is all gone. In the large way a current of warm air would now be passed through tocarry off the absorbed liquid; in our experiments we simply exposed the drained wool to the outdoor air for a few hours. The wool is picked and beaten (the dust being saved), then put into warm water and washed without the aid of any other substance than the soap of potash, which is left on the fiber, untouched, by the naphtha. The wool thus obtained is very white and soft, and has a ‘‘orinkly ” appearance. The objections which have been made to a process of this kind, whether bexwine, fusel-oil, or bisulphide of carbon is used, are: 1. That the grease is too completely removed, part being needed to work the fiber. 2. That the grease is also removed from the inner tube of the fiber. 3. That the potash is left in a caustic condition, and hence certain to injure the wool. In regard to the first objection, Grothe, (a) the great German authority, says that the office of the natural grease is so distinct from that: of the oil added to facilitate manufacture that this cannot be held valid. The natural grease envelops the fiber as it comes from the hair sack in the skin, making a somewhat stiff coating over it, and only after the removal of this is the wool in the best condition for completely good carding, and also for fulling. ; The second objection, that the grease is removed from the tube of the fiber, seems to be founded on earlier ideas. Grothe does not mention this as an objection, and, in the description of the hair, (0) says: ‘‘In the axis of the hair-shaft is found the pith. This pith is. not evident in all wools. In some sorts, viz, Vicuna, it is much developed. The pith-cells contain either liquid or air.” Kolliker (c) says that the pith is wanting in colored head-hairs and in most wools: ‘‘On treating white hair with caustic soda we get the pith-cells, which do not contain, as was formerly supposed, fat or pigment, but air-bubbles.” It has been stated that washed foal after a time becomes greasy, and it has been supposed that the additional grease came from the pith of the fiber. It is suggested that, as soap can never be entirely washed out of any material, this grease may be derived from the. soap used in washing, which is partially decomposed by the cold rinsing-water. . The third objection, that the naphtha or other solvent takes the grease away from the potash on the wool, and thus allows the latter to attack the fiber, seems also derived from a former idea of the nature of the substances under consideration—an idea which is not correct, but which atill prevails. The following quotation from an address made in 1872 to a wool manufacturers’ association seems to give the prevalent opinion: ‘‘In its natural state, as taken from the sheep’s back, the whole fleece is filled with a yellowish matter, called by novices grease, but known among dealers as yolk. It is not grease, but a partial soap, being largely composed of alkali, and becoming, if suffered to lie until the volatile oil has dried out, almost a pure soap of itself; hence, as all manufacturers know, old wool scours by ordinary processesgnuch easier than new wool just shorn.” eee oo a Grothe, Wolle, i,70. Berlin, 1876. b Ibid., i, 18. ec Kdélliker, Gewebelehre. * THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 259 Hartmann, in 1868, showed that this ‘“‘yolk” is a true grease, containing cholesterine in place of glycerine. (a) Schultze, (b) of Zurich, in 1873 and 1874, carried on the research on certain kinds of wool, and it is to his investigation and that of his associates that we owe nearly all of our present knowledge of the composition of the ‘‘ Wollfett ”, or grease. He has not only proved the presence of cholesterine, but of isocholesterine and another analogous alcohol. We now know that these substances are in the place of glycerine ; hence the far more difficult saponification of this grease than of lard and tallow, which are compounds of glycerine with the fatty acids. Also, the indications are that the wool-fat in the different races of sheep is composed of varying quantities of these cholesterines. The presence of cholesterine in wool-fat is a very curious fact. Hitherto cholesterine proper has been known chiefly as a product of excretion from the brain, eliminated by the liver; hence its presence in bile. Gautier(c) says: ‘‘ Cholesterine is to the brain what urea is to the blood and other organs.” Why we should find this same substance on the wool of sheep is an unexplained mystery. The grease is dissolved out by naphtha in the same condition as it is in the wool; a potash soap remains behind untouched. The proof that the potash is not left caustic is that the concentrated wash-water shows but a very faint alkaline reaction. Only on subjecting it to a high temperature does the reaction become strongly alkaline, showing that a decomposition has taken place. It may be supposed that because carbonate of potash is made from wool-washings, therefore it exists as such in the wool. It is also obtained from wood ashes, but in neither case does it exist as carbonate before incineration. The advantages claimed for the naphtha process are the more perfect cleansing of the wool, the better condition of the fiber for taking dyes, etc., the ready recovery of the waste products, hence a prevention of further pollution of streams from wool-washing establishments. The disadvantage allowed is the inflammable character of the naphtha, rendering a separate building necessary. This is not an insurmountable obstacle, as the use of the substance for several industries has been perfectly successful. The ultimate cost of the process will depend largely upon the value of the recovered products. This subject has as yet only been touched upon, but we have ascertained that the recovered oil is “equal to the best” for currying leather. It is not liable to spontaneous combustion. The accompanying table will show the great variation in the wools already tested, the small amount of potash to be obtained, and the necessity of a large number of tests: z| A q 4 g w 4 a a 8 a 5 3 | COMPOSITION OF THE RESIDUE FROM EYAPO- ; 3 sb a = Sauer + 5 RATING THE WASH-WATER. o “4 | |) b& i =| g a | 8 A 3 : = = By tan) 8 55 pes ey ee 2 tb ao 4 5 rg ES oe =] a Fo 2 pa eos 4 @ 6 rs) ay | 9 q 2: A as = Se esses Weaiey oe) A, a Sa S ce ad 8 oe eb Preliee Wiaeg domes) Beta Sie g¢ B | O45 BS, ae iG a | &S oa, & 0 52 oq = | 6 Co) Ae mn 2s | 6-7 a | a B Bid ko ew 8 ao dq q 2H 4 |%3 2 | 88) 8 I ee a a ee ee S eB Pe) . : fH ° | : a =D. : | eo eat ete a et a pee rae) oas ote |g ae $ | 33 a ro) oO cc) 3) SH oo) 3 oS > fe Oe ° ts ro) | a=) iS ° ° og os oga fe + 3 Fy ine Wa 5 Saou Mates ld 6 Crh es Bas ee E A | Ay BH 1S a < A x) a 2 |e Seas ay No.1. Victoria. Not liable to moths... 70 21. 43 2.0] 21.57 45.0 BH OWMPAB LS eles i 0. 38 15.4 3.6 (*) 25.8 55. 2 No. 2. Cape of Good Hope, Natal. Full 70 | 21.70 220} 15.10 58. 8 4152) “Ls! 41.45 1.72 7.3 2.7 | Like No. 1.:.. 35.3 54.7 of moths. c No. 3. Buenos Ayres. Full of moths... 70 | 13.57 15.8 | 36.13 65. 0 Son 0 ond lens se a 3. 50 10.7 1.5 0.6 34,8 | 52.4 No. 4. Adelaide. Many moths.......-. 70 | 22.86 18.0 | 19.14 60. 0 40.0; 1.4] 18.00 5. 00 7.6 4.3 1.6| 40.4 46.1 No. 5. Victoria. Not much injured by 70; 18.57 6.7 | 24.63 49. 9 BOs late 3. Olle ress 1. 40 pW iy) 1.3 | 0.5 39. 0 47.5 moths. ‘ | No.6. Cape of Good Hope. Liable to 70 | 13.57 4.5 | 38.33 56. 4 ASG 45.4. | yaetonaes 3. 80 11.5 3.3 0.8 36.3 48,1 moths. : 7 0. 3 magnesium No. 7. Uruguay. Many moths......... 70 | 12.87} 80} 39.43] 60.3) 307) 25|........ 3.20{ 65] 0. of Seal se ; 46.7.1 45.9 Vermont wool. Very greasy ........---. Tislea So DOn bss =f Seen |eeet a ok 76.7 DO Mlemseta es coe at eae ataies-| VE Se a eseiae QiSuldccticn=|senccncases ssw |aaneue eal cwos pera * Very little calcium ; trace of magnesium. Naphtha dissolved the grease of all but Nos. 9 and 10 with the greatest facility. These two samples seemed to be older wool, and to have free cholesterine, which was more difficult of solution. All the samples of wool noticed in the table, except No. 10, were kindly furnished by Mr. George William Bond, to whom we are under great obligation for his interest and co-operation. No. 10 was furnished by the agent of the Washington mills. The table will show the small amount of potash which can be obtained, reckoned as percentage on the raw wool. We were surprised at this result, as we had been led to suppose, from various statements, that there was a larger per cent. The small quantity of ash left by incinerating the grease shows also that it is not a soap of either lime or potash; a portion of this ash was carbon, which is very difficult to burn entirely when derived from cholesterine. It must be remembered also that this was crude grease, which doubtless mechanically carried down some of the other substances. ELLEN H. 8S. RICHARDS. MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Boston, May 5, 1879. We may also cite, in confirmation of these laboratory experiments, the commercial success of the Adamson process of extracting oil by means of naphtha from bone, dead meat, and even in paying quantities from the meat scraps previously treated in the most powerful » presses. en a Inaugural Dissertation. Géttingen, 1868. b Journal fiir Praktische Chemie. c Chimie appliquée a la Physiologie, ii, 216. 260 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. This process is also now being applied commercially to linseed and cottonseed, and, in witness of the great affinity of naphtha for oily matter, it may be stated that Mrs. Richards has lately treated some of the hardest and driest, cottonseed-cake from the most powerful steam-press now in use for the extraction of the oil; and we find that, after the utmost quantity of oil had been removed by the press, there still remained a quantity equal to 1577/,ths per cent. of the weight of the cake, While the direct result of our investigation of wool oil has therefore only given us the data by which to cause one or two mixtures to be avoided that apparently contained volatile mineral oil, we may yet hope that the final result may be a substantial improvement in the method of scouring wool and woolen fabrics and the saving of a waste substance of great value not only to the woolen manufacturer, but also to the leather-dresser, for whose use large quantitiesof ‘‘de gras” are now imported of a much less pure quality than can be obtained by the naphtha process. Since naphtha itself is almost a waste product in this country, and is somewhat difficult to obtain in large quantities abroad, owing to the cost and danger attending its transportation, its application to the treatment of wool can be made in this country at much less cost than elsewhere. The cost of the apparatus would be small, and the waste of material very little, as it can be saved by condensation with very little loss in each treatment. I am told that the oils that are especially prepared and sold under the name of “ wool oils” at the present time are supposed to be in general mixtures of not more than 50 per cent. of mineral oil with either lard, olive, or red oil; and even these mixtures that do not contain more than 50 per cent. of mineral oil are limited in their use to coarse work, it being understood that for fine work the smaller the percentage of mineral oil used the better. Benzine is equally as useful as benzole for dissolving grease, but it will not dissolve aniline. It is not only used to dissolve grease from cloths, but from animal matter and waste products of any sort from which a refuse fat can beremoved. Naphthaof aspecific gravity of 62° to 70° B. is used inthe manufacture of varnishes, lacquers, and floor-cloths. Rectified anhydrous petroleum spirit (naphtha) of a specific gravity of 0.725 is used to dissolve anhydrous caoutchouc, by which the India-rubber is vulcanized on the addition of chloride of sulphur. (a) Naphtha has also been used in air thermometers and for cleaning guns. Paraffine oil (kerosene) has been recommended to protect seeds from mice, and is said to proinone rather than injure vegetation. It has also been successfully used to protect pease from birds, slugs, and caterpillars. Large seeds are soaked in the oil, but it is recommended to sow the ground liberally with sawdust soaked in the oil when smaller seeds are planted. Paraffine oil (lubricating) has been used for saturating gypsum figures and for oiling clocks. Solid paraffine is largely used for stuffing leather, for glazing frescoes and paper, for preserving flowers and wood, and for protecting labels and stoppers of bottles from corrosive liquids. a Le Technologiste, xxvi, 126, 312; xxx, 308. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 261 CHAPTER VII.—THE INFLUENCE OF PETROLEUM UPON CIVILIZATION. In anintroductory discourse, delivered before the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York, May 4, 1814, De Witt Clinton remarks: There is a bituminous spring in Allegany county whence the famous Seneca oil is obtained. z is * At Amiano, in Italy, the petroleum of a spring discovered within a few years is also employed to light their cities. * * * It might be of considerable consequence to discover whether the petroleum of our spring might not be used for like beneficial purposes. It is, however, only during the last twenty years, and through the production of petroleum in the United States, that this substance has exerted a marked influence on civilization; for while petroleum has been produced and used in Burmah, Japan, the Caucasus, Galicia, and Italy for many centuries, it cannot be claimed that its use was more than local, or that such use exerted any extended influence upon the world. Indeed, for the most part it was confined to such rude mechanisms that, as an illuminating agent in those regions, it was much inferior to the materials employed twenty years ago among highly civilized peoples. The earthen lamps of Burmah, the pastils of dried camels’ dung used in Persia, and the rude lamps of Galicia were all of them little better than faggots or pitch knots. It is the advent of refined petroleum at comparatively low prices that has practically lengthened the duration of human life and has added vastly to the social enjoyment of mankind, not only among highly civilized peoples, but among the semi-civilized and barbarous nations; in fact, wherever the white wings of commerce can transport it there it has gone, and, more, its light has penetrated even the solitudes of the eastern deserts and the forests of both hemispheres. Speaking of the rise and progress of the trade in petroleum, Mr. E. W. Binney remarks that it is “‘ the most remarkable rise and progress in a trade in modern times. In 1861 the exports from the United States were 1,194,682 gallons; in 1869 it was 99,148,947 gallons”. (a) In considering this influence it may be regarded either as of the past or of the future. Dr. Draper, of New York, writing of the influence of petroleum in America, said, in 1864: The effect that this illuminating agent has produced throughout the country is very striking. It has entirely displaced all other means of lighting except gas, and is used even in cities by many who desire an absolutely steady light. The great desideratum is a perfect chimneyless burner. The petroleum requires a large amount of air for complete combustion of its carbon, and by no other means than a tube 6 or 8 inches long has the supply been rendered sufficient. Although by the substituting of mica for glass the difficulty of breakage has to a certain extent been overcomes, there is still great room forimprovement. Kerosene has, in one sense, increased the length of life among the agricultural population, Those who, on account of the dearness or inefficiency of whale oil, were accustomed to go to bed soon after sunset and spend almost half their time in sleep, now occupy a portion of the night in reading and other amusements; and this is more particularly true of the winter season. (b) Notwithstanding the desirability of a chimneyless burner which was thus early felt and clearly stated, that wart is yet to be supplied, as all attempts to supply such a burner have thus far been only partially successful. In eastern countries, where the compensation of labor is so small, the cost of chimneys, enhanced by long transportation and breakage, is said to seriously interfere with the extended use of kerosene among the poorer classes. Yet the use of refined petroleum in the East has steadily increased, until petroleum is no longer produced in Japan, and the production has little energy in Burmah. In 1869 M. Félix Foucou published an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes that is especially interesting in this connection. He says: In the domain of the useful arts each age reveals characteristic tendencies. In the last century mankind had need to clothe itself cheaply. It was this that made the fortune of Arkwright and the machine spinners, the sudden prosperity of Manchester and the continental cities which imported the new method of labor. The nineteenth century has wished for light, both in the birch-bark wigwam of the Indian and in the mud cabin of the poor Ruthenian of Galicia. The introduction of the most modest lamp gives activity to family life in prolonging the evening’s labors. Trance has largely contributed to this result. The invention of Argand, which was the first progressive step in advance of the smoky candle-wick of ancient times, arose painfully at the eve of the French revolution; the Carcel lamp and gas are of yesterday. A crowd of obscure inventors have, with unremitting labor, perfected the mechanism of lamps in order to escape the costly necessity of burning vegetable oils. These experiments, many of which were undertaken under the monarchy, prepared the way for the success of petroleum; unfortunately they came at a moment when it was premature to dream that illumination by mineral oil should become universal. The material was at first wanting; chemistry had not furnished a method of extracting those precious substances from the schists with which they were found associated at many points; and science had not yet shown the part that liquid petroleum was destined to play, of which a great many springs were then known. It is to the Americans that the merit belongs of having given this last right of citizenship among the industries. The native talent that led them to regard the useful aspect of everything, above all the feverish but patient activity, seconded so well by a happy-temperament, has served them marvelously on this oceasion. The French chemist Selligue gave them the first experiments in the basin of Autun, about the year 1832, by distilling on an industrial scale the schists that abound in that part of France. Mr. James Young, of Glasgow, perfected the process, and established in 1847, in Derbyshire, a vast manufactory for treating the English minerals, incomparably richer than those of France, and known under the names of bog-head and cannel coal. Ina few years this establishment took on an extraordinary development, and yielded its @ Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Manchester, viii, 135. b Chem. News, x, 204. 262 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. projectors several hundred thousand frances of revenue. The prospect of such profits so soon realized placed this manufacture in a reputable position. It extended to the United States in 1854, where it was employed upon the Scotch bog-head as well as several other indigenous schists. In 1860 there were in North America 64 manufactories of schist oil. The discovery of abundant reservoirs of petroleum suddenly arrested this growing industry, ruined a large number of manufactories, and led their projectors to change them into refineries of petroleum, that substance being much richer in illuminating material than bog-head or cannel coal. (a) This graphic statement of the manner in which the requirements of the age have been met, and how fully they have been met, is well supplemented and illustrated by chart No. III, page 148, in connection with the statistical statement on page 149 et seq. The statement shows that in twenty-two years preceding December 31, 1880, there had been produced 156,890,331 barrels of petroleum, of which amount about 16,000,000 barrels were stored above ground, leaving, im round numbers, 140,000,000 from the Pennsylvania oil regions alone for consumption during twenty-two years, an average of 6,363,636 barrels per year. But the production increased from 500,000 barrels in 1860 to 26,032,421 barrels in 1880. The stocks held in the producing regions did not accumulate in excess of the demand until 1875, when they amounted to 4,250,000 barrels; but the demands of the next two years reduced those stocks, and the price advanced to above $2 50 per barrel. Since February, 1878, stocks in the producing region have constantly accumulated, with a constantly increasing demand, and a tendency, as might be expected, to lower prices. The accumulated stocks, January 1, 1882, had reached nearly 30,000,000 barrels. The total value of the yearly production, as shown by this statement, has been subject to great fluctuations. For instance, the 4,215,000 barrels produced in 1869 were worth $23,730,450, while the 10,809,852 barrels produced in 1874 were worth only $12,647,526. The most valuable production of any year was that of 1877, when 13,135,771 barrels brought $31,788,565, while the 26,032,421 barrels of 1880 brought only $24,600,637. From these figures it is readily perceived that up to the present time the demands of this century for light have been more than satisfied, and that while new uses and applications for petroleum and its products are being constantly discovered the increasing demand has been more than met by an increasing production. Looking toward the past, it may be said that petroleum has become the light of the world. It is fast displacing vegetable and animal oils as a lubricator on all classes of bearings, from railroad axles to mule spindles. Itis also displacing animal and vegetable oils where such oils are liable to spontaneous combustion; it is becoming one of the most largely used materials for fuel in stoves, both for cooking and for heating purposes; it is very successfully used for steam purposes where other fuel is scarce and petroleum is plenty; it is found to be available in the metallurgy of iron, and is likely to be in demand for the production of pure iron for special purposes; its merits have been long recognized in medicine, and it is rapidly becoming a necessity to the apothecary in the form of petroleum ointment; in fact, petroleum has become one of the indispensable needs of civilized man, and ministers to his wants in such a multitude of forms and under such a multitude of circumstances that it may be safely said that it ameliorates the conditions of his struggle with external nature, adds comfort to health, and soothes in sickness, prolonging his active life by extending the day into the domain of night over all that portion of the earth’s surface accessible to commerce. Looking toward the future, what assurance have we that these varied wants, the wonderful creation of twenty-four years, will be satisfied? In answering this inquiry I wish to emphasize the futility of prophecy and the abundance of the present supply. All through the census year, when each successive month brought an addition to the production without precedent, the entire literature representing the oil interest was each. month prophesying that the end was being reached, the Bradford field was outlined, the production next month would surely show a decline, the yield of wells was rapidly running down, and so on. As an illustration I quote from Mr. J. C. Welch’s Views of Future Production for June, 1879: Reality has been constantly ontrunning estimates on the Bradford production. The subject of the amount of production has been somewhat abandoned recently, in the light of the supply being so greatly in excess of any immediate demand, or of any probable demand in a reasonable time in the future. The May production from the wells will be exceeded, no doubt, by the production of some of the summer months. I think a shut-down movement, on account of depleted bank accounts, lack of credit, and a cash system inaugurated by the well-supply dealers of the Bradford district, will be a very important check on the starting of new wells, and the Bradford production probably is about at its height. He estimated the total daily production for this,month at 58,700 barrels. In his Views of Future Production for January, 1880, he says: While the present situation regarding production is bad, great hopes are that in six months the production will necessarily show a very important falling off. He estimated the total daily production for this month at more than 65,000 barrels. In his report for June, 1880, he says: The next point is for the production to show an appreciable falling off. This point has not arrived yet, although producers, on account of the falling off of wells throughout the district, expect it will do so pretty soon. Total daily production for this month, 80,804 barrels. January, 1881, he says: Public opinion is very greatly in accord with the following extract from a letter of a producer tome: “In some districts the United lines are cleaning out the tanks. _ Do you get your statements on stocks at wells from the same parties as the Era and Derrick get a Revue des Deux Mondes, April, 1869. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 263 theirs? I sometimes think they back up oil purposely on those who furnish reports. I have interviewed a large numberof producers from all sections of the field, and allmake the same statement, namely, our production is falling off. I caunot understand, in view of the facts, how there can be an increase in the production, and, in plain words, don’t believe it.” Total daily production for this month, 70,427 barrels. In June, 1881, he says: The sanguine hopes for an important decrease in the production have been postponed for some months atleast. Bradford is expected to decline rapidly at some time, and it was confidently hoped the time was near at hand; but the figures on the May production have been disappointing, and any marked decrease in the production is still a matter of the future. Total daily production for this month, 81,455 barrels. January, 1882, he says: For the time being the increase at Allegheny equals the loss at Bradford, but this relation is likely to change soon, and not only Bradford will decline, but Allegheny will accelerate the decline by declining itself. Total daily average production for— Barrels. ESE eh pe, ee ers Gre Ye cr See Paley a ae ed Pe a ees fee as Pee ie ce ae eat Bt 81, 110 Movember, LS8l 52s. 5..ci2...° ee aa Se oe ee ae ee ee nS AAR See See no See ee Nee a ee oes 80, 985 Piseuncoye UY erig Garey haya eee ete ey Ae AM Ne Se oe Lar lade Mk As eel Ng ei A ale aA Si age Ri eee ier ec it Bes * 81, 462 The following paragraphs were written by an intelligent oil producer of large experience, and express the opinion of conservative operators at the date of their publication, August, 1881: In the twenty-one years that oil mining has been the chief industry of northwestern Pennsylvania there have been discovered, besides numerous minor deposits, three great basins of petroleum, known among oil men as the Venango, the Butler, and the Bradford districts. The first centers on Oil creek, Venango county; the second on Beaver creek, Butler county; and the third covers an area of about 60,000 acres in the northeastern corner of McKean county, and extends a short distance into the state of New York. The first two named are so far exhausted that a majority of the wells have been abandoned, while those that are still pumped have fallen off until they average less than two barrels each per day. The Bradford district in extent of area and volume of oil exceeds the other two combined. It was discovered in 1875, but it was not until two years later, when its rich character became apparent, that it began to attract the oil men from all other fields. Since then it has been the scene of greatest activity, the magnitude of operations exceeding anything ever known in the business. : In the autumn of 1830, after four years’ continuous drilling within and around the Bradford district, the boundaries of this great reservoir were accurately defined; more than 9,000 wells had then been drilled there and were producing oil. These lines being fixed, the producers began to retrace their steps, and to select within these limits such locations as seemed desirable among their old wells and to drill what is technically called the ‘‘second crop” of wells. This was the first manifest proof of the limitation of ‘the Bradford district and of its approaching final exhaustion. The percentage of successful ventures in Bradford surpassed all former experience. Of the whole number of wells drilled in exploring and defining this district about 5 per cent. only were dry or failed to produce oil in paying quantity. In Venango and Butler the average of failure was much larger, and if we except the years when these districts were in their prime, and take those intervening periods in oil mining when the producer had to depend upon the discovery of such minor de posits as lay outside of the great basins, and yet within the oil region proper, it will be found that half of the wells then drilled were failures. * * * * * * *¥ * The distinctive features which have marked the.development of the Bradford district, and which have given to the Bradford producer advantages over all his predecessors, are: first, the insignificant risk to be taken in drilling; second, the durability of the wells; and third, the expense saved of pumping the wells, which have until recently yielded their oil by Howing. To these natural advantages may be added cheaper machinery and cheaper labor. He has also gained facility by enlarged experience and by his improvements in well machinery. His greatest advantages have no doubt been in the long life of his wells and in the fact that they have been flowing wells; but these conditions have changed. Half of the wells in the Bradford district are now pumped, and the average product per well has fallen to six barrels per day. It is estimated that before the close of the year nearly every well in Bradford must be pumped. They are now passing rapidly from flowing to pumping wells. The longevity:of these wells is accounted for by the thickness of the sand-rock, the natural receptacle of deposit for. the oil, which is never found in the Pennsylvania oil region except in this rock. The Bradford rock averages from 50 to 60 feet in thickness, while the Venango and Butler sand-rocks are from 20 to 40 feet. The volume of oil found in any deposit is determined by the extent and porousness of the sand-rock. In one of the minor districts, viz, Triumph, Warren county, the sand-rock was found to be 120 feet thick, and the wells there lasted the longest of any that have been struck; but the area of this deposit was limited to about 1 mile square. * * * * * * * * We have seen that the extent of the Bradford basin was ascertained last autumn. Its margin had been previously defined at many points, but it was not until then that the limits of the whole district became known. We can now see that the greater magnitude of this oil-field will not save it from the fate of the fields that preceded it. The same evidences which marked their decline have already appeared here, and we need not doubt that the same results will follow. The 9,000 wells of last autumn have now increased to over 10,000, and a total of 55,000,000 barrels of petroleum has been drawn from them. It is therefore not to be wondered at that the great reservoir begins to show symptoms of exhaustion. True, these symptoms have only passed the premonitory stage, yet they are as real and significant to the oil-producer as his figures of production. They are to him the “handwriting on the wall”, for he knows well how insidiously the same symptoms developed in other districts, and with what accelerating speed the decline went on month by month, as his tables of production showed, Ordinarily these monthly tables of production are a sufficient guide in forming a judgment of the field; but the condition of the Bradford business for many months has been such as to preclude the possibility of accuracy in them. The product of the district rose so rapidly last year above the receiving capacity of the pipe-lines that much of the oil flowed over on the ground and was lost. This waste continned in varying degrees through the greater part of 1880 and into the second quarter of this year. The extreme cold of last winter, and the aptness to congeal of the Bradford oil (which differs widely in this respect from Venango oil, and in a less degree from Butler oil), complicated the working of the pipe-lines, while diminishing their capabilities; so that the waste of oil was estimated to rise sometimes as high as 5,000, 10,000, and even 15,000 barrels per day. This led the producer to suppress the flow of his wells as much as possible, and to increase the wooden tankage which he uses for temporary storage at his wells until the oil can be conveyed into the large iron tanks of the pipe-lines. These iron tanks have a cz acity of from 20,000 to 30,000 barrels each, the usual size of a wooden tank being 250 barrels—1,200 being the largest. 264 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. In making up the monthly tables of production it has been found that the greatest accuracy is attained by computing the “runs” of oil into the pipe-lines during the month and omitting the oil held at the wells. When the business is moving normally these well stocks remain nearly stationary and average about a hundred barrels per well, and this average does not seem to be much affeeted by the fluctuations of the market. A measurement taken in the Butler district in 1876 to ascertain this average gave 100 barrels per well, and this at a time when there were five pipe-lines competing for the oil, and when the price was $4 per barrel. When we consider that the average product of the wells is now 6 sarrels each per day, that 200 barrels is usually the minimum taken by the pipe-line in one “fran”, and that there are 10,400 wells in the Bradford district, it will be seen that the time required for oil to gather to make up these ‘‘runs ” necessarily leaves stock at the wells at all times, and that there must be a point below which this stock cannot sink util the number of wells decreases, when it will gradually decline with the decline of the district, until both are exhausted. : * # % * * * * The total marketable stocks of the region at the end of June, 1881, may be estimated as follows: Barrels. Stocks in United Pipe lines....-...---. ------ - 22-22 eee ene cee cece es pen nee cee ce ene ce ere eee ree teens 20, 641, 285 Stocks in’Tide-water Pipe line... = ...2-. poses eee eeeis acess foie k ol mon olen isen te oe-ienie ieee merit ace 1, 924, 658 Stocks in the minor pipe lines.-..-.-- .----. - +++ ---- 52 ee cee eee cee eee eee een cee cee ree eee eee eee 76, 222 Stocks in iron tanks of individuals. -.-2-.- 2-2. 22.2 2. 12-5 ee ce one sae owe enn ns nce be aw oe anlens amelie 420, 930 Stocks at wellso3. 22. 6S oj)soe cs ee nnn wi wie os aisisiow =] === pedeire sibs some ae ee oe ome tala ae deters eet 335, 095 23, 398, 190 In a less degree perhaps than any other industrial product is the supply of crude petroleum governed by the price. There have been periods in the business when prices have ruled high, and yet production has declined because of the oil-man’s inability to find new productive fields to work. On the other hand, produetion has not infrequently continued to rise long after the price has declined below cost. A powerful incentive to overproduction is found in the mobile quality of petroleum and its tendency to shift its location in the sand- rock, its passage from place to place through the channels of this natural receptacle having been the cause of many an energetic struggle along the dividing lines of adjoining tracts for the possession of the treasure beneath. These subterraneous currents set toward the first drill-hole on any given tract of land, and are not readily diverted toward subsequent openings; so that the chances for a larger share of the oil and for a more lasting well favor the first well drilled. The exceptions to the rule are rare, and arise from conditions that will readily suggest themselves, such asa natural center of deposit, or, still more rarely, a crevice in the oil-rock. As an oil district is always divided among numerous ownerships, the stimulus to excessive drilling pervades the whole field, and when the deposit happens to be large is sure to lead to excessive production. Another cause of overproduction is found in the tenure, the tracts being mostly held by lease, the land-owner receiving a rent or royalty in oil varying from an eighth to a half of the total product; a bonus in money is often added when the chances of success seem favorable. The lease always stipulates the number of wells to be drilled and limits the time of drijling them, and also contains clauses of forfeiture to enforce execution of the work. The producer is thus compelled to drill wells at times when the market price of oil does not warrant the outlay rather than forfeit a lease on which he may have already made valuable investments, or which he believes will subsequently prove valuable. Still another agent, acting in the same direction, is the discovery at a time when the supply is already sufficient to fill the market demand of a new oil-field, richer than any then being worked. The yield of the larger wells in the new district makes the cost of production less than in the old districts, the price declines, let us say, until the producer in the older district receives for his product barely enough to pay the cost of lifting it to the surface, though the producer in the new district still has a profit in his products; both continue their work and production is further enlarged. The first man is impelled to pump his well to save his property from destruction; the second is prompted by the profit he makes. The first man cannot shut his wells down and wait for an advance in price until the new district is depleted, for, besides the inconvenience which such stoppage entails in any business, he would risk the ruin of his wells by the clogging with paraftine of the oil-ducts in the sand-rock, or by the diversion of the oil into other channels by the suction of ether wells. The first would be more apt to occur in a waning district and the second in a fresh district, but either is likely enough to happen to admonish him against a shut-down. Since the discovery of Bradford two other districts of minor importance have been opened. One is known as the Wellsville district, and lies north of Bradford, in ANegany and Cattaraugus counties, New York; the other is the Warren district, lying south of Bradford, in Warren and Forest counties, Pennsylvania. The first has been worked for about three years, and yields the heavy oils only, the gravity varying greatly in different wells, being from 36° to 43° B. ; the second is two years old, and yieids a light-colored oil of 47° to 48° gravity, About two-thirds of the wells drilled in the first district and one-third of those drilled in the second have been failures. The total daily product inthe Wellsville district was, at the close of July, 1881, 350 barrels. Neither gives evidence of large capabilities for increasing production, though of the two the Warren is undoubtedly the more promising. Neither can by any known possibility contain what may be termed ‘‘a great basin”, for the drilling already done is sufficient to establish the character of both fields. These districts are not even pointers to such a deposit, and if they possess any significance in that direction it is rather against than in favor of such a discovery, so that no marks or guide-posts yet exist to point the way to new fields. In Wellsville a good quality of oil-bearing rock, varying in thickness from 25 to 35 feet, is found in the productive weils, but that it is of a sporadic character is proved by the large percentage of unproductive wells; and this idea is further confirmed by the remarkable variation in the color of the oil obtained, which ranges from the ordinary green to black. Salt water is produced with the oil in all the wells in the Wellsville district, which is another distinguishing feature of heavy-oil districts, the light oils being always found in the sand-rock entirely free from water. Also, the rock here lies at a higher level than the Bradford rock, and therefore belongs to the upper strata, iu which the heavy oils are found. The Warren oil-rock is from 12 to 25 feet thick, and there are two strata about 100 feet apart; but no well has yet found oil in paying quantity in both rocks, where one overlies the other, as occurs in some parts of the district. The drilling here has been so extended as to leaye no space sufficient for a new basin of large capacity; and as north of Wellsville the geological formation changes, the metamorphic rock cropping out in the immediate neighborhood, the oil district cannot extend far in that direction, and at all other points it has been thoroughly tested by the drill. Stimulated by the large prosperity attending the development at Bradford, test drilling advanced in every direction to the extreme limits of what is geologically regarded as the oil region. For a period of nearly three years, ending with 1880, more of this work was done than during the previous seventeen years since oil mining began; but the want of success in finding new oil-fields, and the enhanced cost and diminished price of petroleum, have all contributed to discourage and arrest this pioneer work. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 265 The impression that there are no more great basins like those of Venango, Butler, and Bradford remaining to be discovered is gradually growing into a conviction that Bradford is indeed the last, and that hereafter this region will have to depend entirely upon minor deposits and districts for its supply. This belief is supported both by the practical experience of oil-men and by the observation of geologists. We are satisfied that no one can make a careful survey of the oil region without being impressed by the great amount of test drilling that has been done. This work has been quietly prosecuted in the depths of the forest and other unfrequented places, and is little noticed and little talked about unless oil is found. It is only the successful adventurer who receives public attention ; the unsuccessful man is seldom heard of, but the abandoned well, with its dilapidated “rig”, everywhere attests his energy. From the foregoing statement the following deductions may be drawn: ist. That the Bradford field, from its uniformity and extent, constitutes the true oil center of the whole region, and that it is already declining ; that, as all statistics show, the decline of the old wells averages about 150,000 barrels per month; that this decline has hitherto only been overcome by large and continuous drilling; that the field has now re Shak a condition where the production cannot be maintained by the incoming new wells; that the number of euunines in the field has so drawn upon the common reservoir that further drilling is simply subdivision of what is left and will only tend to hasten exhaustion, and that therefore the decline must proceed month by month with increasing rapidity. 2d. That the production to supply hereafter the large demands upon this region (which will amount this year to 19,000,000 or 20,000,000 barrels) must come from minor deposits. 3d. That to supply this production from these minor deposits will be attended with greater uncertainty and a greater degree of cost than heretofore. 4th. That under these circumstances the stock of crude oil in the region will be held more firmly, and that consequently the range of prices must be permanently higher than during the last three years. Artificial conditions and the influence of speculation may for a time interfere with, but cannot prevent this result; indeed, nething can prevent it save that of which there is now no sign—the discovery of a new, great basin. (a) In still further illustration, the following admirable survey of the available resources for ‘future production is quoted from the correspondence of the Oil and Drug News for February 28, 1882: How far off is the date when the production of petroleum will not be in excess of the demand is the great question of the hour to all parties concerned. Daily, monthly, and yearly reports are printed by many parties, a large proportion of which differ one from another. In giving the amount of oil taken from private, wooden, and iron tankage and run into the pipe-lines some reports give the year 1881 credit for the production of the same, when it really was produced in 1879 or 1880. This, of course, would swell the production of 1881 on paper only. Opperman, a civil engineer and map-maker of this county, and who is good authority, gives the total producing territory in the Bradford field, including Cattaraugus county, New York, at 68,250 acres. February 1, 1882, there were 11,764 wells; and if we estimate 5 acres to the well, 11,764 by 5 gives us 58,820 acres drilled, leaving a balance of 9,430 acres of the lightest territory yet to be drilled, of which from 2,000 to 3, 000 can, and probably will, be drilled at present prices, but the balance cannot be operated at less than $1 or $1 25 per barrel. In November, 1880, there were about 7,000 wells in this field which had been shot with light torpedoes. At this date the large torpedo was found to be more productive, and since this time the greater part of the 7,000 wells have been cleaned out and reshot with the heavy torpedo with good results. (A medium size torpedo nowadays is 60 quarts, which costs, net cash, $290 40.) Production was further encouraged in 1881 by a great deal of crowding, which I explain as follows: | | A wishes to drill one well per month, or wait for higher prices, while B leases his land in small lots. The outcome of this is, a number of wells are drilled along the border of B, which compels A to do the same or lose his oil. This is one of the principal reasons why producers bring their oil to the top of the ground instead of leaving it in the rock at present prices. The Forest and other large oil companies show by their statements that the cost of production in 1881 was from 30 to 40 cents per barrel more than in 1879 and 1880. This is owing to the pressure of gas and oil upon the rock exhausting, wells ceasing to flow, and pumping resorted to. The cost per barrel for production in 1879 and 1880 was from 65 to 75 cents, and if the companies are right in their figures the present cost must be considerably above the present market price. During the six months from July, 1880, to January 1, 1881, the total production of the country was estimated at 90,000 barrels per day, and during much of this time from 3,000 to 6,000 barrels per day was running on the ground in the Bradford field, owing to the inability of the pipe-lines to store and ship the same, and in part owing to the inability of the producers to build private iron and wooden tankage. During these six months the highest production of the Bradford field was reached, being about 75,000 barrels per day (15,000 being the average production of the other fields). This has gradually declined, until on January 1, 1882, it was about 61,000 barrels per day. This decline includes all drilling of new wells up to that date. There were more wild cat (or, in other words, prospective) wells put down in 1881 than in all previous years of the oil business, which developed nothing new except the Richburg or Allegany field, in Allegany county, New York. This goes to show that a large territory has been condemned which was counted on as a possible oil-field. The Allegany field consists of from 7,000 to 8,000 acres, of which about 4,500 is good for 10-barrel wells and upward. The balance from 2- 10 10-barrel wells. On February 1 there were over 600 wells producing from 4,500 acres, and allowing 5 acres to each well, this 4,500 acres will be drilled by April 1, at the present rate of drilling, which is 175 wells per month. It is estimated that one well to 10 acres is sufficient to drain the land, but where one well is put down to every 5 acres the territory exhausts more rapidly, on the principle of a glass of lemonade paticnaticg itself sooner when five straws are applied instead of one, If the Allegheny field is to become a second Bradford, as some seem to say, why is it that the producers have drilled wells so thickly on the 4,500 acres, which is the cream of the territory, and how do they account for the 125 or 130 dry wells immediately surrounding the field? Bradford, in its early development, has scarcely a dry hole in its producing area. In the early days of Bradford torpedoes from a Stowell’s Petroleum Reporter, August 23, 1881. 266 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 2 to 6 quarts were used, while to-day Allegheny wells are treated to from 40 to 120 quarts, thereby forcing the production to an unnatural large amount for a short time, but the land is being drained correspondingly rapidly. The following shows the condition of the oil production, ete. : Barrels. Total oil in all pipe-lines, January 1, 1881 (@)..-.-...---- ------ 22-22 cence cee ee eee cee ene cent eens 16, 606, 343 Total oil at wells im Bradsord weld, January, Lost (ilies cee ace vee acct ce a alate te erate rere enter aM ete 2, 403, 500 Total oilin private iron tankage, Bradford field, January 1, 1881 (c)..---.----.-------+---.------------- 692, 750 19, 702, 593 Total oil in all pipe-lines, January ly VS82 (a )ee icc tce bem oe icle = b= 2 8) ve lees eet 1s atl eee tee elem glen aioe e = 25, 333, 413 Total oil at wells in Bradford and Allegheny fields, Jannary- 1, 1882(c)-....---..--3-. 2222-0 e 1, 135, 848 Total oil at private iron tanks, Bradford and Allegheny fields, January 1, 1582 (c) ..-.-.-...---.----.--- 104, 256 26,573, 517 Deduct'amount for January, 1) USSU eee ato ec a we ac apc sain) oie ree re oe wm a eel ate ote ee ele 19, 702, 593 Total net increase of stock in oil regions on January 1, 1882 ... - 2. 26. weet wes me ee cone so - owns casm 6, 870, 924 This amount divided by 365 days gives: Total net average daily increase in stocks in 1881] ....-..----.------ ---2-- 2 ~~~ on ene eee ene one - ones 18, 824 Total net average daily shipments from oil regions in 1881 (@)....--....---..------------+----- Sessa weue 55, 774 Add the daily average increase and shipments for net production..--....-2-..----- ---------- eee ee eee 74, 598 Add the daily average evaporation and shrinkage (q@).-.-..-----------+ oo. PAE seer tdi qdas Sa 2, 150 Giving the daily average gross production .... ....-.-----+ sees cee e sewn e eee eens e wens eee enn ees 76, 748 The daily averace shipments of 1860 (a) were! 255 Sacc ese ene iee i ieee a eee iva ae 42,916 The daily average shipmenbs OL esl (Wa sa. om ccs ca sae cle cle mle alee erate ee tee onto este ee 55, 774 Shows: inereasein.188 overi880 ito-be per day -.2u) sen sine = apn torent = aera steele rere ena © eee 12, 858 Our export trade has increased nearly every year since 1852. I copy the following from the American Exporter for December, 1881: Gallons. Total exports of petroleum and petroleum products for October, 168). < 72s. 0-8 oe oe sea eee cee 54, 244, 846 Total OXPOLLS LOB SANTO CO CUOMO LSC sai oe cig olm.5 miele mnie epee eee ee a 34, 065, 254 Increase for October, 1881, over October, 1880.....-.....--. goss HOPI ae - Cee eee. ee ee ee 20, 179, 592 Total for 10 monthisvondine October SL. TORU nn aoe ao re alee ea ae ae ee 422, 713, 216 Total for] 0 1monthsending/ October 31. 1800 - ook cc oo Aermisig ene neces peat 6 ole race aie eae eee 295, 520, 798 Increase foreign demand 4nrten months. 0225 25 Se ae re sree ce eee ee eee at ee eee ee 127, 192, 418° The Oil and Drug News of January 31, 1882, says: The total exports of petroleum and petroleum products from the port of New York, in gallons, from January 1 to January 28, 1882, as compared with those of the same period in 1881, are: | 1882, ) 1881. bm radepallonsivis. 20. 2.5 Fcc SoM. Dae eee ete ee 2,913,442 | 2, 641, 430 | sceahoes deemaleteaas ieee. = (ES ey RLY SAE Ne oe) “TOM itera ie Nas MR ae see perce Rete Coral ane heres 83 hae oe k LATTICE cin, tacts SYR a ee SE a eae ete Mel a ge SOOO R Coe Neac tg til eda Sota b eae eacenay'c ods pos amenen eee cok UREA Sauer ateat Ce PRIME yee ges Sr dows sd cnc nid> techies cicicc esc elbews one css ceases DE TAOS SOOUIN acess Meal onvicsede che cet icaekebioseida.|(tdoceseubaadecl se tacaeseasue ele ss smears SRA SO occa oles Sclaitee so ge Sori a ehes Stele s-tnasitecages <25 DO ODOM Era cre cegtes wia/<) wis matmataiainisleva.oys | totale «clala/ctutainie cline & op oth ects amet lions sa cemas 4am leat aetere saints MON reels ipa a wen cisco oF ances saccans|ersoc-set-eeanse DOT OOO tes cwiac ate occ atlocessescineeees awe Poesia css fetal naa ae ete atelais miihe ates mane pataeelae PMMA MBUNO TON re ite = e'aicce's is ei= cisrs, s/s ees cisivieianGissne'cfciaccccesccceeess TOS UG < vote es cide cease css sees s tall ceeiee gael cae ciiedeWelccetc cocoa linen a streets cera ee ae een teen NESE An 2 Ae coca sac + cede cbs so ate rs sis cin'es oe ose cates OOOO OO0NH ae saads c's to otelldoosobiie caatellUcenes se nectadlaces cot tees call seta cdate reed secloaem ns cehmtas EPR Pee sso Was a cadcace ese ee me balas|ecccna obec eaemcs BO: OOO Miso seen e accass see sce seek ed lease caine ate we cl mamnicute fe Caines] tite le sats oes alee redone do ae een Omran ler ess Ohne eS oo. cate we slate eek's's DOV OOO pes se aan ie tae lat cies ee Ou ot tals sata ce dma one ete Re a oe ate leeds eee oer ae TR ee ela al coc mnie Sk och sie siesieiissiwele'ee|is Seeats D7s OOO i eects cect a howae wascete ceal{akm cs cameos: sone wocos cm assmes|ls cosa dtereee cel anc esucaaibctes RITE oN oo oe One asts seein cae aceaneld eee D0; SU [noc cccr tess shoeacecs a here licons esas «ae etcltaccmcemees wae {oer tees mecanes [eee eens PIPL RES Satce's one come ocaccescescatedes'saals Are etal LAOZEHOODN | oarct alae tao hetallieye aberdeen eee neonate aelach Sele actacabaatche sll tea ace etebimeanieasa cides gate ee Ue mma. © <1. 2 8c 2 Ss «Soca fp se ebblleedeuecseece das | VLD) OOO Mi ties. setts s [ase eate mito ae cele lemming teat ee o2| cdeiamsinmclds etciatlles do niea eit oo | qeicinaid seein ate 2 2 sae AGE Se See enn ee a a 225 000i besce ct aas saat mm abiecle pseu elt tes .cas xvas ac bees s ection ehMac So ay Soins oa ama ee earn [et LAC a) 3 0 ee | MOV OOO Heese a trees olive scene cee callacuceecatcacie sills Sao Ma awtels ative eters talhe se eee cites s ETI A eS Ske So daemon code nc|Scnsecemssrectoe 7,000 ||..----.------ easels ned total lee es att a maybeldtaws ames consiee alllacaatetd sane ta cel Ma.cats atest saere Commencing at the head of the list, it will be observed that 4,799,706 barrels of refined oil were chartered for Great Britain and the continent of Europe north of France. exception of only 1,000 cases, probably of a special brand, which went to Antwerp. This amount was all chartered in barrels, with the In addition to this vast quantity, amounting to nearly 68.5 per cent. of the total charters of refined oil, there were chartered for the same region 153,450 barrels and 10,000 cases of naphtha, 139,800 barrels of crude oil, and 90,200 barrels of residuum, of which latter material all but 300 barrels were for Liverpool and London, England. There were chartered for France only 7,000 cases of refined oil, which was for the port of Marseilles, and probably consisted of some special brand. The charters for France, however, included 87,650 barrels and 4,900 cases of naphtha, 395,560 barrels of crude and 2,000 barrels of residuum. France has for many years laid an import duty on refined oils ena admitted crude oil fee thus fostering the manufacture of refined oils on her own soil. This fact accounts for the heavy charters of crude oil for French ports. The charters for Spanish ports embraced both refined and crude oil in barrels and cases. for Spain 61,400 barrels and 191,600 cases of crude oil. of Spain include a larger proportion of case oil than the outside. With the exception of 7,509 barrels of crude oil chartered for miscellaneous Mediterranean Portugal is in barrels. There were chartered It will be observed that the charters for the inside ports Nearly two-thirds of the oil chartered for ports, probably Spanish and French, no crude oil, naphtha, or residuum was chartered east of France or south of 270) PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. the straits of Gibraltar. All of the refined oil chartered for Austria through Trieste was iu barrels, besides which 135,500 barrels were chartered for Italy and various Mediterranean and Adriatic ports in barrels. The remainder of the ‘ill chartered for ports between France and Port Said was all case oil, and amounted to 2,098,200 cases. All of the oil chartered for ports south and east of the Mediterranean sea, with the exception of J 000 barrels for Las Palmas, Canary islands, was case oil. The trade with eastern Asia, ncludine India, the islands, China, and Japan, in case oil is enormous, the charters amounting to 5,933,800 cases for the census year. Table V shows the relative amounts of the different products of petroleum sent from the different ports, and also gives the amounts and values of lubricating oils exported. In 1879 New York exported of lubricating oils less than one per cent. of the amount of illuminating oils exported, while Boston sent out of lubricating oils nearly 10 per cent. of the amount of illuminating oils exported. The quantity of lubricating oils exported in 1880 was nearly double that of 1879. The total exports of 1880 were more than 45,000,000 gallons in excess of those of 1879, yet their total value was more than $4,000,000 less for the last-named year. Table VI shows the quantity and value of petroleum and petroleum products exported from the United States from 1873 to 1880, inclusive. This table shows generally a steady increase in the quantity of the different products exported from year to year, but the value of these different quantities varied greatly. Jor instance, in 1876, 25,343,271 gallons of crude oil were exported, worth $3,343,763, and in 1880, while the quantity was increased to 35,481,168 gallons, the value was decreased to $2,679,193. In 1877, 309,778,832 gallons of refined oil were exported, worth $51,901,106, while the following year, although the amount was lessened only 882,525 gallons, the value was reduced $12,806,655, and in 1879, while the quantity reached 367,321,255 gallons, the value fell to $32,696,713, and in 1880 was still less. The exports of petroleum and its products were valued in 1877 at $57,497,164, a larger amount than has been realized from the same source in any one year prior to January 1, 1881. Table VII shows the production and quantity and value of exports for seventeen years ending June 30, 1880; that is, for the last seventeen fiscal years prior to and including the census year.(a) The fluctuations in relative quantity and value are exhibited in this table. As an illustration, in round numbers, the 425,000,000 gallons exported in 1880 brought $500,000 less than the 150,000,000 gallons exported in 1871, and about 65 per cent. of the amount obtained for 309,000,000 gallons in 1877. The anor of the fiscal year 1877 were valued at $61,789,438. The remaining tables need no explanation. THE CONSUMPTION OF PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES. The amount of petroleum and petroleum products consumed in the United States in any given time is a residual quantity consisting of elements very difficult to estimate with absolute accuracy. An approximate estimate, however, has been repeatedly made by subtracting the exports, reduced to crude equivalent from the production, less the accumulated stocks. This method, never of much value, is becoming more unreliable each year as the increasing demand for mineral oil residues increases the production of reduced petroleum, and, consequently, the proportion of illuminating oil manufactured without cracking, and therefore not representing 75 per cent. of the crude oil. The production of oil out of the ground for the census year has been already estimated at 24,354,064 barrels. Of this amount 315,000 barrels were estimated to have been wasted or burned, leaving 24,039,064 barrels as the available production, of which 5,350,863 barrels were added to the stocks already accumulated. Of the remaining 18,688,201 barrels, 17,417,455 barrels were manufactured in this country and 673,763 barrels were. exported, tke ing 596,983 barrels for ebdsnmption in this country. Of illuminating oils of all grades there were manufactured 11,002,249 barrels, of which 7,346,516 barrels were exported, leaving 3,655,733 barrels for home consumption, an average of about 10,000 barrels per day. Of lubricating oils there were manufactured of all kinds and grades 380,739 barrels, of which 103,257 barrels. were exported, leaving 277,482 barrels for home consumption. Oils consisting in part of crude petroleum are not. included in the above amount. Of naphthas of all grades, including gasoline, there were manufactured 1,508,049 barrels, of which 368,221 barrels were exported, leaving 1,139,828 barrels, of which 57,843 barrels were used as fuel by the manufacturers of” petroleum, leaving 1,081,985 barrels for home consumption. It is impossible to assign any definite amount as representing the consumption of residuum ; 229,173 barrels: were sold by the manufacturers and 235,314 barrels were burned by them as fuel. Of the 229,173 barrels, 94,141 were exported, leaving a remainder of 135,032 barrels, nearly the whole of which was used as raw material by the manufacturers of lubricating oils. The term “residuum”, as it has been used in this report, is probably not properly applied to the whole of the 94,141 barrels reported as exported ; but it is impossible to distinguish in the. statistics of exports between the different materials, denominated “tar”, “ pitch,” etc., included under the term “residuum.” I have not met with any notice of the export of paraffine wax, but it is not therefore safe to infer that the 7,889,626 pounds manufactured were all consumed in the United States. One firm manufactured 900,000 pounds of candles. While the manufacture of candles represents the largest use for any one purpose, the great number of uses to which it is now applied in the arts represents an enormous consumption of this substance. a The census year closed May 31. Practically the last fiscal year is the census year. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 201 The actual consumption of crude petroleum represented by these figures is, after all, only an approximation to a correct result. If the illuminating oils are assumed to represent 7 75 per cent. of the crude oil, the Consumption ef crude oil as illuminating oil was 4,874,310 barrels, or 13,354 barrels daily; but in reality the illuminating oil, all grades taken together, does not represent.75 per cent. of the crude oil, and I am inclined to think that 15,000 barrels daily is not far from a correct estimate for the consumption of crude petroleum in the United States during the census year. TABLE I.—SHIPMENTS OF CRUDE AND REFINED OIL OUT OF THE PRODUCING REGION TO THE FOLLOWING POINTS DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. [Compiled from the reports of the New York Produce Exchange. } REFINED REDUCED TO CRUDE. CRUDE. Month and year. * ] ise | | rity a "| New | Phila- | Balti- Local || New | Phila- Balti- Cleve- Pitts- Ohio | Local ee York. delphia., more. Boston. points. | York. | delphia. | more. Boston. land. burgh. | river. | points. Fire. Total. | va ig | | 1 { | | 1879. Barrels. | Barr’ls.| Barr'ls. Barrels. Barrels. || Barrels. | Barrels. | Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. | Barrels. | Barrels., Barrels. | Barr'ls.|| Barrels. | Jp SSeS ae 210; ABS). da cicte atom clsacts 37, 830 24, 984 643, 817 29, 151 53, 957 10, 087 114, 810 207, 697 17, 720 er Supers ateicierse 1, 369, 314 MUAVE Ss eueweu eo... SAO BRIG Dee Ree seat en ar 62,493 | 15,516 || 465,824 | 139,968 | 57,187 23,203 | 292,924 | 278,030) 20,336 29,243 ;........ \| 1, 625, 035 RS ee To.) TTAB Ya 52nssloweseass 37,350 | 25,806 || 655,416 | 196,915 | 57,337) 10,178 | 314,477 | 284,563 | 15,214 | 33,576 |........ 1, 808, 239 September........... Taeesb O48N Sc aetsmct mates os 26, 977 42, 468 6238, 832 | ‘169, 062 65, 459 16, 169 296, 116 207, 863 5, 403 BS, 025: eionn ata 1, 627, 120 oubberess.2..5-.--2- (7 160/898 fo etes. eo ay 33,942 | 30,666 || 502,400 | 149,349 | 74,648 | 10,352 | 369,779 | 267,975 | 5,932 | 48,791 |........ | 1, 663, 169 Novenjber........... TSS. Gu we, oc aa ee | 28,625 | 55,245 || 611,630 | 137,997 | 56,778 | 8,428] 298,634] 193,770 | 12,597| 36,555 |........ || 1, 553, 645 Jyeth eer epa Se ER | MOT UE et Pn Oe | 55,085 | 40,267 || 667,533 | 221,743 | 77,310 | 11,433 | 242,415] 70,072 | 27,257 | 28,356 |........ | 1, 582, 585 | Hl 1880. | i | Wanuary..-dc: l2.-.- | 55, O71 90 geese | 33,911 | 49,098 || 810,131 | 171,330 | 78,017 11,541 | 228,145 | 152,330} 20,254) 40,491 |........ | 1, 650, 409 February........... DME V al (ike Seca Oe pee | 18,050 | 54,100 || 758,157 | 179,145 | 96,146 | ........ | 156,041 | 53,418 | 9,850 | 42,862 |.2...... || 1,392, 151 A BOWTEON ere eo |ecsee ee 23,989 | 18,269 || 984,808 | 220,517} 80,645| 9,489 | 151.775| 32,590] 7,400| 21, 240 | Wovteas || 1, 613, 462 met eee sckSic3... 1982250). es - A on Deng 13,502} 21,079 || 385,727 | 97,147 | 12,816) 5,758 | 141,197| 65,619 | 62,194 | 15, 004 el aaa || 839, 268 LAM omc crgs cea a oss. ais 2, 001 175 | 499 18, 940 23, 781 |) 513, 704 61, 503 31, 779 4, €42 102, 358 105, 657 3, 818 26,402 200,000 || 1, 095, 259 | ed siirae F: ohana | | Total, census year}1, 370, 503 265 499 | 390, 694 | 401, 279 ||7, 622, 979 |1, 778, 827 | 742, 079 | 121, 280 2, 638, 671 1, 919, 584 | 207,975 | 380,021 200, 000 |17, 769, 656 Total, 1879........ GLO HOO der eceecle fone ee | 379, 293 | 333, 446 | 6, 318, 532 1,607,998 677,273 120, 584 2, 502, 570 |1, 901, 649 | 183,131 | 350, 344 |. ....-./{15, 987, 870 Total, 1880....... 509,769 | 2,248 | 7,322 | 378, 685 | 397, 369 |\6, 461, 465 1,741,286 604, 183 99, 819 |2, 585,216 | 958, 336 | 206, 577 | 935, 810 p= 490 15, 420, 525 PERCENTAGE OF DELIVERIES OF CRUDE AND REFINED OIL AT THE ABOVE NAMED POINTS. | | | | | Census year.......-.. 63. 35 | 0. 01 0. 03 18. 06 | 18.55 | 48. 85 11. 37 | 4.75 0. 78 | 16. 91 12. 30 ih BB H 2.43 | L228 Wiceeuc ens Lov) 3235 ee OO, SOIN cats wale oie Seeteoce | 16.31 “14. 34 | 46. 25 11. 77 4.96 0. 88 18. 32 13. 92 1.34 ; 2s OO ernia aarset: | areas alctare ae RGMU EE Pacisleicips/a'cpoeons 39. 35 0.17 | 0.57 | 29. 23 30. 68 | 45. 74 12. 33 | 4, 28 0.71 17.95 6.78 | 1, 46 | 6, 63 | 4,12 | ap cataisietnie : | | . TABLE IIL—RECEIPTS OF CRUDE AND REFINED PETROLEUM, ETC., AT NEW YORK, WEEKLY, BY ROUTES, DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. [Compiled from the reports of the New Yurk Produce Exchange. } | BY ERIE RAILWAY. 1) PY pte tale RAIL- || By PENNSYLVANIA RAILWAY: CANAL. | TOTAL. For week ending— | ‘ bee Crude. Refined. | Naphtha. Crude. Refined. Crude. Refined. |Naphtha.|| Crude. Crude. Refined. | Naphtha. 1879. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. | Gallons. SUCRE Siere< «/2 sce =~ 1, 641, 465 SoGy 00S Peso eer sce 1, 805, 265 | 1,031,321 || 2, 619, 193 ANAL lero ate 567, 730 || 6,633,353 | 1,409, 634 |........-. POUOMA ce an sno. ss -- 1, 366,695 |- 982,488 |............ 1, 862, 235 GSSSH0T ed 2a 719 eee ee le ae seheen|l-cacemecece: || 6,456,644 | 1,681,989 |...... So. 5 ane tee sls. 640, 080 CEL Tee eepneia es = 1, 780,065 | 1,273,512 || 2, 765,171 21 7FOShi|hoie cone 901,108 |} 6,086,424 | 1,673,566 )...-...... June 26............ 1, 730, 340 ROGSOOGR ances tee hen || 1,557,630 | 1,162,451 |) 2, 558, 377 G4 DOG soos aco: 250, 914 || 6,097,261 | 1, 983, 353 |....-.---. July 3.........-... 1, 513, 080 MOQN824 | Hae facar cna || 1,223,370 | 1,626,623 || 2, 453, 333 CS DE eee en | oaeeelsaeetse 5, 189, 783 | 2, 480, 519 |...-...... July 10...... rersee} 840,375 BISAR OR | et eee 982,215 | 1,268, 483 |! 1, 584, 893 78, OG0il os Sen coche Pes 3,407,483 | 2,165, 666 |.........- July 17...---.-.--- B1O natin) 188.630"). o 2.0.5... 5 1, 029, 420 | 2, 086,612 |} 2, 379, 670 OEP Lecaseen 48,005 || 4,073,865 | 3,795,767 |....-..--- July 24 .........-.. 539, 955 SSICRCO ya cicccsice ss 1, 407,960 | 2,170,037 || 2, 207, 696 S407 0018 | aac ncaa linen are ne ese 4,155,611 | 3,951,807 |.......--. July 31.-.......... Dros Oe0n pel 127,248 |. coc.3. 22... 1, 687, 860 | 1,646,316 || 2, 166, 219 BE6N 703 wee eee een ee aneee 5, 588,019 | 3, 659, 326 |........:. Amgust | To-sc-ven 1, 048, 095 APAWL TOA cen teas ke 1,712,025 | 2,139, 487 || 2, 278, 433 ay Aire CON eee Spal | Beam 5, 038, 558 | 3,561,378 |..-.....-. August 14........ 1, 126, 575 BOON GU | oisia = o/s = eee 2,379,240 | 2,579,830 || 2,080,899 | 1,617, 082 |.......--.||.....----+-- 5,586, 714 | 5,027,449 |........-. August 21 .......-.. 1, 570, 050 Dea eD ates esec= a [pete 915-2008) 01.498 2961 1617064 1.2571 56M. dscce. || a0 seeescceo 5, 003, 214 | 3, 638,317 |........-. August 28 ......... 1, 854, 720 ARTS hale coees cocic's 2,420,010 | 1,496,574 |} 2,161,847 | 1, 580, 884 |.....5....||.....--..--- 6, 445,577 | 3,799, 245 |.......--. September 4...... 2, 090, 880 1.30 Re 2, 343, 555 928, 823 || 1,744,387 | 1,210,391 |.......... Serco 6, 178, 822 | 2, 322, 364 |.......... September 11 ...... 1, 655, 460 MLO |eece aisle ose ols 2, 178, 405 684, 837 |} 1, 544, 964 TON sbOi| meaee eee cell saeea stews oe 5, 378, 829 $65, 9268 ifvae-eetens September 18 ...... 634, 545 BVO || coc nee: 2, 840, 085 | 1, 056,184 || 2, 002, 126 180, Bini. aeasee< ch eecncescoce-|| 5,476,756 | 2,209, 799 |.-...----- September 25...... 1, 134, 135 BIO 400! | sokas ee = ce. | 977,895 | 1,435,944 |] 2, 973, 266 449, 267), son cews cllseaesaceme's 5, 085, 206 | 2,364,711 |.........- NY 272 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TaBLe II.—RECEIPTS OF CRUDE AND REFINED PETROLEUM—Continued. BY ERIK RAILWAY. 13e raison perk SAE OAE 1 BY PENNSYLVANIA RAILWAY. CANAL. | TOTAL. For week ending— x / ae: \ Basie: Crude. Refined. | Naphtha. || . Crude. Refined. || Crude Refined. 'Naphtha.| Crude. | Crude. | Refined. pNaphihe, 1879 Gallons. | Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. } Gallons. — Gallons. Gallons. October 2.--.----- 991, 485 664,000 |.....-...-.-|] 2,601,360 | 1,404, 783 || 2,388,762 | . 450,100 |...ic. ec [lsecencaaees. | 6,981,607 | 2,418,883 |.2...0-... October 9....----. 635,185 | 826, 730 |........-... 1,088,325 |. 792,796 || 2,227,820 | 402,057 |.......0..|)e.e-sesceees 8, 851,330 | 2, 021, 588 |...-...... October 16 .......-. 455, 400 1812, 788 Www naciscscietete 280, 575 | 551, 733 1, 840,110 | 240; 858. heme sicseesisteele wane se «ll 2, 576, 085 2, 104,879 es see October 23 ......-.. 1,297,575 | 633,090 |.........-:. | 358, 830,) 689,802 |) 2,516,842 | 93,718 |... |e eeeeeees | 4,173,247 1, 416, 110 fees October 30.......-. 1,704,960 | 593,093 |..........-. | 1,019,225 | 1,296,465 || 2,916,481 | 11,996 |.-........]].-..--.200.. 5,640,666 1,831,496 |.......... . | | | November 6 ......| 1246, 680 | -o4ond aA Sou || 843,210 | 487,695 || 2,778,771 $4, O08 Te aie Pewee reneyas = | 4,868,661) 605,877 1.....-4-.. November 13 ...... 1,871,640 | 745,796 |i-.0-2.-0-<: | 781, 920 752,705 || 2,608,972|° 74,807 Jan---2.--c/}-cen-e-.---- | 5 262,532 | 1,527,808 |......-.-- November 20 .....- 2,614,500 | 587,453 |............ | 683, 910 656,138 || 1,910,763 | 667,024 |........-.||-...0-.e0ee- 5, 209,263 1, 910, 615 | ee November 27 ....-. 2,166,435 | 660,522 |....... .... | 719,685 | $96,195 || 1,781,120] 252, 581 |... +. -...||-.-see evens 4, 667,049 | 1,409,248 |.......... \\ i | | December 4......- 1,568,340, 629,988 |............| | . 726,980] 287,311 || 3,773,698 | 786,866 |.se.00-c0.l-cceas wees 6,068,963 | 1,654,165 |.........- December 1l......- 1,192,280 | 870,625 | ....--..-.- | 1,864,040 |- 492,187 |] 2,365,794 | 806,205 |...-......]]...-.2.se0ee 4,922,064°; 1,177,867 |...-...-.- December 18.....-- 1, 192,275 | SIO TLale sorte eet | 1,285, 475 | 250, 510 2, 007, 899 299/249 Nocen ele ier dela este biee 4, 435, 649 929, 472 [220 ceseecen December 25....... 2,349,360 | 1,044,105 |..........-. | 861,480] 623,643 || 2.154,420/ 32, 900 |..........||....--.-00.- 5, 365, 260 | 1,700,648 .........- December 31.....-. 2, 859, 795 ! 1, 744, 452 [sence sence. 887, 805 / 364, 062 2, 618, 748 SD) CLO be ee emilee staal iivlnle 1,727,010 | 96,000 || 777, 995 | PED, we Bn ae eae || 3,602,645) 187,200 |.......22- May 1S\sor, cers ase 2, 803, 770) ies teaver cre 5 Et em | 1, 751, 670 140, 000 : 450, 614 | BT. A600 le eee osc eiisace wae aoe) || 5, 006, 054 157; 400i): 2) eee May 20.). ssbo0 8, 674,385 | 85,300 |............ | 1,733, 400 108, 000 617, 924 | O00 Vncan oe Nevlleece eee. | 6, 025, 709 149, 900 |........-- May 27). 2:-.-.cvc,| 4,367,885 16, OBO tapes anus __ 1,519, 200 78,100} 250,314 | CO bi me Pala eh | 6,137,349 | 101,650 |....2..-.. Total, census year.| 91, 675,935 | 29, 894, 360 394, 650 | 73, 965, 518 | 88, 459, 426 | 118, 332, 563 | 15, 732, 688 } 1, 767, 757 285, 740, 033 | 84, 041, 483 394, 650 Total, 1880......... 1119, 842, 560 | 19, 271, 650 | 1, 061, 250 || 80, 825,203 | 18, 439, 950 || 56,210,897 | 5,185,977 |......--.-]eeeeeeee--- | 256, 878, 660 | 42, 847,577 | 1, 553, 850 otal 87922 accehee | 77,580,610 28, 460, 996 256, 620 || 68, 061,215 | 43, 657,858 | 98, 434,951 | 15, 406, 718 2, 830, 045 | 246, 906, 821 | 87,525,572 | 650, 957 Total, 1878......... 67, 263,973 26,541,352 | 664, 380 || 47,579,410 | 42,389,953 | 68,110,155 | 15, 873, 717 7, 103, 634 189, 708, 589 | 79, 600, 602 |.......... Total, 1877......--. 63,734, 244 51,117,982 | 860, 850 | 36, 882, 450 | 45,319, 665 | 78,597,550 | 7,184,614 |-.-...----) eeeeeeeees 279, 214, 244 08, 062, 216 |. -csaeeae | THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 273 TaBLE IIL—EXPORTS OF PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS FROM NEW YORK TO FOREIGN PORTS FOR 1878, 1879, 1880, AND THE CENSUS YEAR. [From the reports of the New York Petroleum Exchange.] REFINED PETROLEUM. 1 barrel = 50 gallons. | 1878. | 1879. 1880. Census year. Gallons. Barrels. Gallons. Barrels. Gallons. Barrels. Gallons. Barrels. Great Britain: RRP Cetalalelnic eo wielwicicwivic visas scene ene <*>" 13, 158, 980 263, 180 21, 192, 079 423, 842 14, 026, 865 280, 537 22, 367, 521 447, 350 MERVELDOO! -<- 2+ veces Henson cons enssancenss- 5, 018, 377 100, 268 7, 993, 254 159, 865 6, 482, 959 129, 659 8, 943, 434 178, 869 S00)! o§ Aaa Sas ee ee ener aoeee 2, 537, 886 50, 758 4, 280, 209 85, 604 || 4, 195, 827 83, 917 3, 299, 266 65, 985 RE ele sla ie eles ain win i'w mn nioicinininin= 2 < cieln's <= 5, 444, 392 108, 888 7, 158, 319 143, 166 4, 261, 677 85, 234 6, 967, 157 139, 343 NPG UR eee tno ekairi< cian ne Siaisinw 403, 682 8, 074 523, 958 10,479 | 672, 162 13, 443 || 483, 220 9, 664 Ohno) ae 13, 500 270 26, 100 522 || 31, 496 630 || 45, 477 910 MeorinrHIPAMErICS ..-<.-<------.<--s-e--ecceens 162, 244 3, 245 215, 383 4, 308 |) 239, 680 4, 794 ] 259, 855 4, 647 LU le 0 A 532, 921 10, 658 784, 483 15, 690 || 696, 359 13, 927 || 735, 613 14, 712 Bets Norhh Amoérica...--..-.--..-.s0c----0cse. 412, 329 8, 247 237, 654 4, 758 || 171, 337 3, 427 || 126, 835 2, 537 er ee! Soeecnnacescceeecee- 2, 117, 267 42, B45 708, 186 14, 064 433, 528 8, 671 || 430, 839 8, 617 BscrmeneN estilnidies ..-..-..--.- mci weieinnie aise n= ==" TSO O0UR ree Cee eee oe eee eer le neni oe ences Ser ae ae tere Redcat wae ce tiasiae +n xe gees Tpramlentiot WUTOPG..\-. (-cssecer= ances ccdne= 706; 600"). < 322-2. 22-- LOE SOO ee as crete cle Nera Go aa ogk4e | CORE ease chem eee es: MEPOHEAGON cee Vee aco s ccc acer ssaws cm aemnls cess see 325200) | eee wail | (dag pec E eB ar HA Hace. po cane aee | BERDE SSE: SHEG NESEY Saar Sasa. | Encore ete 4 ae Emr ae ===eee Nes 909 BOC an OPN BSr DERE OACOSEE SOU ESS Oso aore Soe beee sass a, OQQU ie seer sionals dae ere ee Meee en inte dll o'sictarclaly apteter ata alll ae ele aiatalela dare all> >a ath asm viccacamc EN shor cy aro igs 3) ined d dsicemieeve a: Pt UN Nee ot 27 oe | RET ie ee A | ARORIOE RARE, Roemer rem Meee pa eer eter (0! Sb Pete na canis oad oe hese ce ooh ec eewcgeee ees 26, 600 P50 OOO MENS Aaa da ace ce clibcsdee ciecockijcllse em octet Suit bemnuce cect becllqaeBekceemiec ale h= mma aaleta came MRPARVIBTRDOLUS UE ose a2 vse ions os< 5 5c= soot 5, 500 settee eeseeeee|| eats resssesas Hontc Sees atta ats Ancie seer oP s abicte erotics head ne Rae pasate eal raion = CER TMM ce acs so See cena Sete ece nade |e eecccaccdsece ES COO OSS omvechs a nara otal emake eestor clic Sasae oe cabernet iesamenccceseso||scasian a aleieie oi] + sems ata saan EN 508 fice) fvacocd eS Soka sias BU, 200 bd. eee ee i DE OOOG Se ea dees licks 0a ake PP Tes gat la Lee SRS feasts ole ae fatal aim j= mi inivim lo sie = vie = 2m) m= CAS POU Ta tte ene cata ea SS ames ear ats sa seisel| [Os tin wes sles = eneinn S00 cc ce||ancunelencesess|~=sne en manmme CSM SERS ES SRE Pe a eee eee nes (ee eee reer ery 52, S00: [2 eine ese | 186,700: [2-56-50 See c ces foseendains aad on] nese awe mnne eck. 52806) 0k O22 es regen cel bseed acs egese OM Ny era PR a : EMS AG iad Pete Wipernoee San elhea doc ws yy eps Gor ote IEEE eee cs she sce ag a1phue kt Pabisvks lop oe cawisin ae ce =e NSO COO Nisan seeeincee isle eesee o sacc||deacas cnet ecce|Ssaaneenace = ae] pena memenmen|aelatee nan es RE RO Ps eo 5 walniein cic Bec dmc acne cmee BIOO0RIe, Anemone were ans | | ee ee ee ated he tatoos a seaataeiee Nish eam eee wares [op livk See / 13, 709 CTs sear See dS pe el A | age an oe eee OR | ee ee LPC oerese PERT) tee rea Sa ao AS aiclecinide hatioc’s secece | TSh:; A00we eee: aerate, TONDOO I eeesemeereee sls seme adeuc cs eee mectam oo 82, 400 |-------------- ae | GG BOG. acer auss | tel fi ee 2 Oey IRS taal We a ae TRG ienss- neko snes HORE Se eee eee cent cie'sbc = ha ceesleabanccccedees CBU) A825 ASF nec abe anes toed | BEPHAE CAPE Pecan CASsemecreebrel| tec Io. © faced CCROneRG orcek CO OR | Peta eae RN. ek iN RL ke eae | eS, SOR MR | EE es On Pree cre vib ON aan ee Dees 2 Dee a el PES gee n/t AR Oe Rte ca || ALAR ed eR | SS pA 2 WD Be iit eee ya) ae yey ie AT SOOUM ree aur sete tec te amet tee lle oe soe nice lsemsee qecee dae ose nine aeneec cence can nar MOV SELUOBD cee nee eae PEGC BEEN tances Secs ncs Perec eats cs 7, 000 GOON eee 2 6155003 semecaceemenne 2,000 |-------------- Liban ieee at oe oh se Baa ee ea ene ae akin belle oeeacies same ss [Nosed eeta teva sccumames ams temeamemiannige « MGdiberranean Ports essen aoe set. 3... sae 0 c- 50, 800 B02 S500! |e eee eit See ee 7 BOQ) |ocveec cle ac Jcee|ljce tee meadeselleweenar ssn << CSS TS REESE eget (a STOOD eee eet Fee cae aa. 1 ae Oa heh See PED Pasa ep, Cones Peer PATER VAG GOs ate cc cin vit See I ee NN TO"O00hIeemeee cco a tsvene ec atacs Ne reer te re net ees Cll ake oot ecm tno ae we ave aa NCL: SR EE 2s: 8 yee ni | 27, 600 EN a eid aac EE | RR PLE EAE hae ns) Pra yee ae Oro eee PRENEGORTLON, sc cbs cic sic cual ee eRe ne |S MBC eras ese were ERC ener cle soe emi Fal, 22 bar 2 Poteau en a ice sae aaa dlae cawdecial mn ae SON) CaO EN ee 3 EO ee ee SO O00 Eee ee te colton ee ie als. wee atineas doce Me cdullec ve ebeapnansleesenstemminensa 276 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE IV.—THE CHARTERS REPORTED FOR CRUDE AND REFINED PETROLEUM, ETC.—Continued. REFINED. Barrels. Cases. SN onwal Var seen ee sae eee eee ee CACY | eogicoeeos soc Qde@S8SS secakoe aces dees eee seems tec ens eccemenameliee n= «dees see 48, 000 QDOVLO Ga rine® ale < ante wen emia e mieclnemielnls «comida tere 18, 800 11, 000 A) TATE 28, oa iaps, ws Sate ehacie'siclp sivieia’ sim wiatelares Se cise = eters enteral 800 12, 000 PaIOLING seek eeie eos en ce ewiele allem bieciai\anl Wels lee oe lerete an cies 49, 000 PASSALES .~ --.- nie serene -omemee, seen cnsnsmentens|asece w/ala sta ead wiiw.o.o isan ew eine PAN Enh ne, 24 ne in cma O De ti Be coe oo seer ode sonss| Saas atee aces 31, 000 Palimascst ccs ecsescnee cae) ee cases ae eee e aimee 1, 000 21, 000 Nate TNS Sea e Pmt ion i eeidigiet Soa Soc rien acl oawasoodr asec 20, 000 padebd Db kvl Solas aoe scion caper Ste ose posmact 07 | acuocue mero: 8, 000 MU gunOn hl Nepts enSOGOS SCHEME G Ooo BOSHOnOSuasac es By 000i Ss ceeram ae ate Port: Gallet sc ee seas coe spoke ton engine mee = penis -leseneae fem eciae 95, 000 Port. Philip) Head 2 octnns seeaedacesenees setae penne eosin 45, 000 Port Sad eee cae eee ae catcleien sas peacian be cereal ersten sefetas eter 21, 000 RAD QOON . 2... - eo eon neni ewe oe cece ene eee enna aon e nner eecee ee 151, 500 URLS 8 ohana wai tate re wiv ole! ein eiv'> ls mee ne iielete i | | Kesiduum ......° 3, 885,588 | 217,677 || 395, 094 26, 161 416, 430 Bh, WOON CL Bs etree fetes 69, 888 6,652 || 4,767, 000 276, 490 Total, 1#80...'314, 170, 192 | 27, 178, 159 || 82, 610,436 | 6,578, 762 || 19,387,920 | 1,528,888 || 5,213,155, 645,047 || 2,582,996 | 287,769 423, 964,699) 36, 218, 625 TABLE VI.—EXPORTS OF PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS FROM ALL UNITED STATES PORTS TO ALL FOREIGN COUNTRIES, AND THE DECLARED VALUE THEREOF, COMPILED FROM RETURNS OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF STATISTICS. [From the report of the New York Produce Exphange for 1880.] CRUDE. | REFINED. | NAPHTHA, ETC. | RESIDUUM. Year. : Crt | - Quantity. Value. | Quantity. | Value Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. 1] ree Gallons. Dollars. | Gallons. | Dollars. Gallons. Dollars. | Gallons. Dollars. oe Se ra 19, 643, 740 2,665,771 | 209, 021, 305 41, 854, 841 10, 250, 547 1, 264, 962 |) 2, 069, 616 145, 398 TTL a ae ee 14, 430, 851 1,428,494 | 208, 635, 382 | 30, 497, 191 10, 617, 268 997, 355 || 2, 263, 776 167, 794 Lh. 9 ee 16, 536, 800 1, 738, 589 204, 616, 798 / 28, 417, 339 14, 048, 726 1, 392, 192 || 2, 655, 984 169, 671 lon 25, 343, 271 3, 343,763 | 221, 900, 446 44, 448, 361 18, 252, 751 1, 502, 798 || 3, 278, 024 239, 461 coe eee 28, 772, 233 3, 267,309 || 309, 778, 832 | 51, 901, 106 19, 565, 605 1, 938, 672 | 4, 778, 641 390, 077 5G... 23, 883, 508 2, 150, 390 308, 896, 307 39, 094, 451 13, 431, 783 1, 077, 402 |) 3, 145, 506 221, 019 i 27, 841, 900 2,182,573 |) 367, 321, 255 | 32, 696, 713 22, 695, 223 2, 081, 210 || 4, 457, 486 273, 045 UEDA. ja 35, 481, 168 2, 679,193 || 284, 470, 800 29, 126, 985 22, 010, 074 2, 615, 094 8, 324, 804 204, 324 oo se Se 191, 933, 471 19, 456, 082 || 2,114, 641,125 298, 036, 987 125, 871, 977 12, 869, 685 || 25, 968, 837 1, 810, 789 a ae 23, 991, 684 2, 432, 010 264, 330, 141 87, 254, 623 15, 733, 997 1, 608, 711 3, 246, 105 226, 349. CENSUS YEAR. ' 1879. ae 1, 350, 713 102, 755 30, 221, 930 | 2, 719, 090 1, 305, 136 129,170 4 62, 664 3, 568 Ee 3, 297, 347 205, 781 44, 972, 481 3, 882, 095 1, 568, 370 136, 419 194, 082 14, 166 ee 1, 483, 108 94, 086 41, 883, 762 3, 325, 565 2, 579, 406 207,179 | 451, 500 26, 781 a 1, 496, 109 135, 931 | 40, 046, 705 3, 092, 885 2, 187, 854 168, 749 | 328, 272 21, 615 ee 2, 808, 561 163, 935 | 42, 837, 294 3, 530, 654 3, 651, 526 296, 224 758, 478 36, 364 Sibemanee oS .....-..2:.2... 2, 924, 488 187, 481 32, 684, 161 2, 810, 061 2, 047, 099 175, 141 | 769, 062 35, 530 i 3, 223, 457 248, 822 | 87, 455, 351 3, 352, 574 8, 794, 884 305, 022 | 594, 258 33, 029 1880 IARUAD TIE eee Eee. ue. 2, 299, 624 170, 399 © 34, 219, 503 3, 159, 460 | 1, 407, 958 158, 877 | 495, 768 39, 334 PMeDAE Tete tet ies... 2, 756, 776 211, 236 | 20, 593, 427 1, 934, 975 | 1, 030, 129 146, 119 582, 330 31, 035 MaTGhee ot eee 1, 945, 020 136, 152 | 20, 545, 746 1, 939, 466 2, 059, 438 280, 083 | 410, 718 22, 641 5 ee ee 1, 745, 150 121, 418 | 18, 130, 976 1, 724, 732 1, 129, 941 162, 784 2, 604 248 1) ee tn A 1, 645, 181 121, 887 > 13, 090, 549 1, 150, 665 897, 004 102, 064 | 187, 152 10, 199 Total <.-.- noe te eesee ne so 26, 975, 534 1, 899, 883 | 376, 681, 885 82, 622, 222 23, 658, 745 2, 267, 831 4, 836, 888 274, 510 ! 278 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Taste VIL.—QUANTITY OF PETROLEUM PRODUCED, AND THE QUANTITY AND VALUE OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES DURING EACH FISCAL YEAR FROM 1864 TO 1880, INCLUSIVE. [From the report of the New York Produce Exchange for 1880.] E PRODUCTION. * 5S Ep is Barrels a° | produced | Gallons Zz of 42 gal- | produved. 3 lons each. w 1864....| 2,478,709 | 104,105,778 1865.... 2,424, 905 | 101,846,010 1866....| 3, 165,700 | 132,959,400 1867.-..; 3,591,900 | 150,859,800 1868....| 3,613,709 | 151,775,778 1869 ...| 4,046,558 | 169,955,436 1870....| 4,411,016 | 185,262,672 1871....) 5,558,775 | 233,468,550 1872 ...| 5,842,497 | 245,384,874 1873... 7, 242, 343 | 304,178,406 1874....| 11,188, 741 | 469,927,122 1875....| 10, 083, 828 | 423,520,776 1876....| 8, 823, 142 | 370,571,964 1877... 10,822, 871 | 454,560,582 1878.... 14,738, 262 | 619,007,004 1879.... 16, 917, 606 | 710,539,452 1880... .| 22, 382, 509 | 940,065,378 Crude oil, including all natural oils, without regard to gravity. EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES. Mineral, refined or manufactured. Naphtha, benzine, gasoline, etc. \ Gallons. | Dollars. 9,980,654 | 3,864,187 12,293,897 | 6,868,513 16,057,943 | 6,015,921 7,344,248 | 1,864,001 10,029,659 | 1,564,933 13,425,566 | 2,994,404 10,403,314 | 2,237,292 9,859,038 | 1,971,847 13,559,768 | 2,307,111 18,439,407 | 3,010,050 17,776,419 14,718,114 20,520,397 26,819,202 26,936,727 25,874,488 28,297,997 1,406,018 2,220,268 3,756,729 2,694,018 2,180,413 1,927,207 2,099,696 | | 11,758,940 | 14,780,236 | 15,140,183 | 16,416,621 18,411,044 | Dollars. 154,091 173,943 188,825 34,175 267,873 445,770 564, 864 746,797 932,160 | 1,487,439 1,038,622 1,141,440 1,442,811 | 1,816,682 | 1,411,812 15,054,361 | 1,258,780 | 1,192,229 Gallons. 438,197 480,947 673,477 224,576 1,517,268 2,673,094 5,422,604 7,209, 592 8,092,635 9,743, 593 9,737,457 Tluminating. Dollars. 6,764,411 9,520,957 18,626,141 22,509,466 19,977,870 27,636,137 29,864,193 Gallons. 12,791,518 12,722,005 34,255,921 62,686,657 67,909,961 84,403,492 97,902,505 132, 608,955 122,539,575 158, 102,414 217,220,504 191,551,933 204,814,673 262,441,844 289,214,541 331,586,442 367,325,823 | 34,138,736 30,566,108 37,195,735 37,560,995 27,030,361 28,755,638 55,401,132 41,513,676 35,999, 862 31,783,575 Lubricating (heavy parafiine, etc.). | | | i Gallons. | Dollars. 1134,532 | 51, 122 16,871 2, 611 159,632 | 22, 660 541,419 | 211, 287 748,699 | 277, 966 1,244,305 | 404, 243 1,173,473 | 313, 646 963,442 | 303, 863 | 1,601,065 | 497, 540 2,304,624 | 639, 381 | 2,487,681 | 655, 468 5,162,835 |1, 039, 124 Sant el acer Total. from which the light bodies have been distilled). Gallons. | Dollars.|| Gallons. Dollars. Mpa WN Sc 23,210,369 | 10, 782, 689 Varia a bitecdell gate 25,496,849 | 16, 563, 413 “Preonqorscoucdsas. 50,987,341 | 24, 830, 887 Be Aep ht. 2 70,255,481 | 24, 407, 642 WotR eE Mean Peers) 4. 79,456,888 | 21, 810, 676 PREP Mn PE eos. sn 100,636,684 | 31, 127, 433 ohh es Ones 113,735,294 | 32, 668, 960 #155, 474 | 14,770 || 149,892,691 | 36, 894, 810 438,186 | 41,724 || 145,171,583 | 34, 058, 390 781,074 | 79,566 || 187,815,187 | 42, 050, 756 1,827,798 | 142, 299 | 247,806,483 | 41, 245, 855 2,752,848 | 187,103 || 221,955,308 | 30, 078, 568 2,581,404 | 193, 206 || 243,660,152 | 32,915, 786 3,196,620 | 817, 355 || 309,198,914 | 61, 789, 438 3,968,790 | 316, 087 || 338,841,303 | 46, 574, 974 3,307,088 | 210, 726 || 378,310,010 |- 40, 305, 249 4,767,000 | 276, 490 || 423,964,699 | 36, 218, 625 » Asa given number of gallons of refined petroleum represents the product of a larger number of gallons of crude petroleum, it is necessary to reduce ihe exports of petroleum to their equivalent in crude oil in order to arrive at a knowledge of the percentage of the total product of mineral oil exported. + Estimated. AVERAGE PRICES PER YEAR, TaBLE VIIIL.—NEW YORK PETROLEUM MARKET. [From reports of the New York Produce Exchange. ] Year. i ee See eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a September’. to suc. ewes ante neo eeriak eee heee ae OCCODED sc cent ensece rs sees mee a swen ae ete eae ees OMUALY 3c dassee nian. haee Je ee enin ase cee terete HW ODIUATY: -Csa2h coe ca ee dee ae dese eee eee eeneee March | CRUDE IN BULK, PER GAL- CRUDE IN BARRELS, PER LON. GALLON. Extremes. ace. Extremes. re Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Shoot Bessey v4 | re Pde ola | abe dian)s-o ein eine Da Oe: Nia me wi aleeiae we eels Olas eevee seen sdanemecageeneee G52 Ween alae sca senjeaanl eSaeke meee stun ey seahekorer LO. Go Mia nia ates recs ete Hate 10. 50 eRe sta sche ee 9, OO We etre sais chee 9. 12 Ram owerae cu hielo G. 88 illl|: Geamieemenee.s oe 6. 37 Ce aasrsie nines U 3; 62h song Saba cam cece 7.10 Foes et cele c oe 7.14 | item ante aiatato's 7.14 Sesasetenaehie sie 3. 60 5 to 7% 6. 44 Oh ack NR 2. 50 5 to 64 5.41 DERE Slee, ees 2. 38 4% to 64 5. 42 Ce See See eee 2. 50 4% to 63 5. 50 Be aS ete) a 3. 10 53 to 74 6.55 oe SAL 3.90 64 to 8} 7.45 Ei Bac Sh ie) Mae tes aieoped Th to 8h 7.92 72; to 8 7.53 7 to 8 7. 55 6% to 744 7.03 6§ to 72 7. 29 69; to 78 6. 68 6 to 74 Pele 613 to 7§ 6.97 6§ to 73 7.22 Gy; to 7% 7.03 64 to 73 7.03 REFINED STANDARD WHITE, | NAPHTHA IN BARRELS, PER PER GALLON. GALLON. Extremes. a Extremes. eee Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Pes ee ee 18; 21) ..2.-=ct5 seen 11. 07 gittwlcniewo-anranint 18.09 || 22. sho scuteen eee 9. 04 beatae decease eee 12,92) Ihe aicinm Cheaieecserete 9. 67 BPE, aN ooo eee 19-19: owe 19, 319 18, 175 7, 598 8, 911 13, 103 T2780) ace 85, 937 121, 114 86, 207 116, 455 79, 198 79, 345 72, 223 (2 ipso) greed go he DR ES Ae ane eee er Sarre 105, 399 68, 895 82, 914 121, 451 108, 105 101, 571 69, 652 UAL Ht) Gees beige Gog EE BARE enn CRE Os eee ae eee Seer 113, 523 112, 822 | 145, 627 254, 644 199, 723 304, 392 278, 459 eee ae ae 2s a et social Sais nm ins Hains oe eoSe es co heme wae 246, 323 169, 834 226, 432 333, 234 275, 707 380, 499 340, 717 hod lll GIRS Ry Oa ea A 4,231, 594 3, 000, 890 2, 785, 387 4, 096, 188 3, 628, 669 3,962,295 | 4, 139, 476 memeindes 4 Cades 60 barrel, << - 2.226 5650-655<+-cscceeanas=- cases 59, 421 19, 701 60, 023 183, 160 48, 965 56, 707 33, 195 PEE MCCS TS ASCY S aawiad sins ieriesccecces evince ccc tv cnenesecees = DaErelssi eck rec cp we teenie Soe mionieaia = 21, 714 34, 517 38, 311 55, 694 52, 174 STOCKS OF PETROLEUM HELD AT THE SAME PLACE AND TIME. ERR ea wie oS 3a ncn sja/ aie sisi cecal swe wile ey <2 .227.ced ocomecosss= Jc sae| on cate ee pee Ema eees ans Ws tee sae ens ee ees Hist., v, 6. Circa 100)) *Josephus ceseess-oeseee ene aes “dale tae mh Orclgem ths phere eee a nici en ec H.J., iv, 8, 4. Cirea /120"||)* Acliani. 2oceee ee eceen toe ae rh lua wane Albanian bitumen; Variz historia, lib. xiii, §16 ....-- Quoted in B.S. G. F., xxv, 21. Circa) 200’ | * Dion Cassius. ...-snesesnese ane seees Albanian bitumen ; Roman. Histor., l. xli.....-...-.-.. Quoted in B.S. G. F., xxv, 22. Circa 225 | *Philostratus .....-. dle boaclguc sate aaaiea/ai| vim anlaee'sapine cae'scialecinn tele aeisins eames sot reata terete Meets eats Appollonius of Tyana, I, 17. Circa 1300 | *Polo, Marco .....-.. ciel aamenaawee Book Ul Ch. Hi neces. ccerensccask sere enn sewease canes (Voli, p. 46, of Col. Yule’s edition, 1871.) See also note in Marsden’s edition. Cirea(1326)| *A bulfeda G-225-- =n s-na-neeeeee ee seme Dedd sea (asphalt) --2c.0ccuc cececutennacjare ss ansenes t. ii, 1" partie, p, 48. (Trad. de Rainand et de Slane). Circa 1360 | *Mandeville. PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 283 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PETROLEUM—Continued. ‘Circa Circa Circa 1817 1817 1820 1820 1820 1820 1820 1820 1821 1822 1822 1823 1824 1824 1826 1828 1828 1829 1830 1830 1830 1830 1832 1832 1833 1833 1833 1833 Subject. Reference. PIER DEIOU RL) ware aise talon eae jena wis *Kempfer PIS TUE VI Ss occas pele canta n os 23 Serre eee eee eee *Hanway, Jonas *Bianconi (G. L. ?) ewww ewe ees cose es cece ne -- eee ee wee eee eee ens wee e ee een eee ER OOLON VAL. = atatatetete dsit wets l= ciarirao) = Symes Michel. s5-ceasesis cuisine <'s Cox, H Kao, Dionysius *Lutzen, M. J BEE MUUGIN Sc cae cos teceee sco ehi- seme o Aikin, Arthur Bright, Richard Nag Ont, NICHOIAS 224. a2 ons os oss = PIVEOTIOD vals eiels see sje ais © vicieloi=siaies siecinmie vee INI Ely ME os cu cise eee en we eas eee es Clinton, De Witt Baussure. CEO. COs -<.--5pdeew Boast ccc BAUSHUTG, LNGOs COsane oniseceee es esnc<< PBORULOLG san sno ees ese a eecesc ass acts case Buchner Holland, Dr *Pouqueville, F......-.- MeN ASeo oe MABSSITO tL NOON OO snrctae orcearepieie ein chistes Thomsen, Dr Edited from travels of Foster, Han- way, Reiberstein, Cook, Kinnier, and Hiram Cox, and from a payer by J. J. Virey. *Burckhardt LORD VP OCNTOM es a ac's)s.ais « sataw nin <2 eo Knox, George *Keppel, G Sem CHIT DM re. arent Stee ce 2 Selo *Crawtfard, Johbn.......-..2- Boussingault, J. B Henry, M.,jr See ee es HAL eMLa ens cic ctas acs fecicisces esse aie Johnston, J. F. W Murchison, R. J Reichenbach, Dr. R.v ......... DUAR eres te ceeteaweec sco dchce-s. Gay DHsate esse ants ome 210s vic Alexander We Hocvesese. ceewaieds -.-22-. BaGk, CAPU aval a setae ote tac ace ae Hildreth, Dr. S. P., Marietta, Ohio.... Laurent; AUgUste;.c.-ctw-: ss. -s+00se .| Journal of an embassy to the court of Ava..-...-..--. .| Beitrige zur niheren Kenntniss der trockenen Destil- | Recherches sur les combinaisons de l’hydrogéne et du Letter of J oseph de la Roche D’Allion, on petroleum springs of Pennsylvania, dated 1629. Baku oil Asphalt Dissertation sur l’asphalte ou ciment naturel, décou- vert depuis quelques années au Val de Travers, etc. Bakwioil, Pce xc sosleus vac aeerase otis na cnc oeeoae epee ceed Mud volcanoes Natural history of Barbadoes..-.-.-........-----..---. (Prinidad hitumen sen acs eswcls alas sae wesc cet memnbien ecaue Travels in North America, with map locating springs. Beschreibung der in Tirol iiblichen Art das Stein6l zu bereiten. Baku oil Embassy to the court of Ava.....-.........----.-.--- Oil in Burmah Rock oil of Shansi, China. Dead Sea asphalt. Chittagong oil gas Observations on the Wrekin, and on the great coal- field of Shropshire. On the strata in the neighborhood of Bristol...--...--. Account of the Pitch lake of the island of Trinidad .- Baku oil Baka Gu Oteteeeereerc assem. = sos tela cobs ene acnies sae DONECA OM Saas care sisjeeees aes ween Seas witina sie wlaeoem au Recherches sur la composition et les propriétés du naphte d’Amiano, dans les états de Parme. Procédé pour dépouiller le pétrole de Travers et quel- | ques autres huiles minérales de leur mauvaise odeur. Gas in Karamania (Para tiDons auietee onisics ome avairie a= a a Sasi aaieislaian aoe <'esict Albanian bitumen Albanian bitumen: Voyage en Gréce, 1820-'22, t.i, p. 271 PP Beit tin Gay = trates ote sree ea ome la elas mala! aiaminre Cini aieels 25. sesee tees 1836) |, +*@allier: Capts..- J. seees te 18890) Millet: MiSs seen ee seme teres cae 1839) } Selliguey Ml coe aeons semmiseseeae Seneca 1880) ] <5, 32 scsi mic einrees SERS eater ee alee en 1840"| *Boué: «i000 cs.cn comer ee seee eee ebeee. 1840 | Boussingault, J.B --..25.c0+-.-cccccee 1840 | Bulletin, New Orleans .--...--.....--. 1840") *Pottinger sce... cak sepaee unm oak setae 1840") Preissery BY ..5 52 fscceremase cate ose eee 1846 | MRitter? Carloscs pee mens coset eee 1840. Sellione: Mie. at -ccects were essen eer 1840 | Ure, Andrew ../.........43 dzcnkiese ee 1841 | Charneroy, M........ Reine ote pee areas 1841. | Degousie, Mio casce ance ce omiiciee Sec ees 18414, Hitehcock: Bice. caseses eee sae 1841) Pelletieriet Walter. oo. 5 tos acces once | 1841) * Robinson; Eicee-c-ssssccrece dc seeemes 1841) *Robiison.*Wie-ecscoeces cheese cae emo 1841 | * Sainte-Claire Deville, Charles ....... 1841 || *Symonds,, Lieuti2-.. he speaeus sees 18424 S AINSWOLbavsces cas see c Soe coecees 1842 (Binney, Wik so acses ne cee eee 18421) *Conelly, Lictthi nen -sceeie ote cous ae aeeae 1842 4) *Brmann GUAs ooceccsanen seutive cp oes Notice of a fountain of petroleum, called the Oil Spring. Nouvelle note relative a l’origine des bitumes LAD: DUUMEN! ae secre cemaie as eeelae se ou pe cee eee Paraifin'ss. ct. incon stccauinemecen erase cee Dead Sea (asphalt ?) Mud volcanoes and gas in China. ....-...-.-..-.---..- Observations on the bituminous coal deposits of the valley of the Ohio. On the geology of Coalbrookdale - Ueber Eupion und Berg-Naphta in Sabie auf die 1 sichten des Herrn a Hess. . Sur Vhuile des schistes bitumineux: l’eupion, l’acide ampélique et l’ampéline. Dead Sea (asphalt?) cc... os... en cuae weasel Dead Sea (aspbalt?) Notice of a vein of bituminous coal in the vicinity of Havana, in the island of Cuba. Sources bitumineuses. Instructions pour une explora- tion scientifique de l Algérie. Méthode simple pour décolorer complétement sans distillation l’huile de pétrole du commerce. Geology of part of Asia Minor BituminiZation Of Pests cee santocdesunevacseeeueasecaires Sur les bitumes employés anciennement dans la Perse et les pays voisins. Perpetual fire of Baku Asphaltic mine at Pyrimont (Seyssel).. Analyse du caleaire bitumineux du Val de Travers (Principauté de Neuchatel). Miscellaneous notices in Opelousas and Attakapas ... Account of the bituminization of wood in the human era. wt tween ewe e ee Sur lemploi de Vhuile de pétrole pour le traitement de la gale, dans le temps ancien. Baran}. s2e.sien ated eto see ae taelaaancde snake Settee Asphalte: sur quelques emplois de cette substance... Die Industrie-Ausstellung zu Paris im Jabre 1839 .-.. Note sur le gisement du bitume de ]’Ain, de la Suisse et de la Savoie. Huile provenant de schistes bitumineux employée avec succés coutre la gale. Chittagong oil gas Albanian bitumen Analyse de quelques substances bitumineuses Petroleum oll wellecwicces tase bt ate ee teenv enter ae ceee Petroleum of Kerman. Sur la dilatation des huiles. Asphalt, Bitumen, Erdél, aphta-Quellen, Petroleum. Erdharz, Naphta und On a new process for making gas for illumination from bituminous schists. Report on asphaltic recks of Val de Travers, etc Tubes bitumés pour la conduite des eaux et du gas d’éclairage. Pétrole sortant avec l’eau d’un puits artésien...-..... Dead Sea asphalt ee ee ee ee ee Recherches chimiques sur les bitumes.....--...-..... Dead Sea asphalt Petroleum in Assam Trmidad ibitnmens-.ess--5-seeee eee pudeceraueeue tawatk Dead Sea (asphalt ?). Kurdistan bitumen ee ee ee Notes on the Lancashire and Cheshire drift. . Analysis of rock oil Mud volcanoes i i ee a A.J.S. (1), xxiii, 97. B.S. G. F. (1), iv, 372. Tbid., p. 203. Peripter des Caspischen Meercs, p. 360. Pan eigger Seidel’s Jahrbuch, ix, 133; N. E. P. J.,xvi, 376 A. J. Ph. (8), ii, 133. Pog. An., xxxvi, 417, 418, 420, 426, 434. Journal des Sayants, Oct., 1835, p. 596. B.S. G. F. (1), vii, 138. Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, iv, 527. Journal des Savants, Jany., 1836. Archives de Philosophie Chrétienne, xii, 422. The Chinese, 1836, chap. 5. A.J.S. (1), xxix, 87, 121. T.G.S. (2), v, 438. Pog. An., xxxvii, 534. T.G.S. (2), v, part 2, p. 403. A.C.et P. (2), lxiv,141; J.F.I., xxiv, 138; N. E. P.J , xxii,7Z A.C. et P. (2), lxiv, 321; C. R., iv, 909. 1887. 1837. P.M., x, 161. C. R.., vii, 150. Jour. de Pharmacie, xxiv, 367; len der Pharmacie, xxv; 100. T. G. S. (1), v, 588. A.J.S. (1), xxxiv, 78, 395. C. R., vii, 19. J. ¥F.1., xxvii, 120; Anne Penny Magazine, vii, 44. Jol. Ly xxvii 276: An. M., xv, 564; J. F. I., xxvii, 345. A.J.S. (1), xxxv, 344. A. J.S. (1), xxxvi, 118. C. R., ix, 217. Grundriss der Mineralogie, p. 266. C. RB.., ix, 54. Niirnberg, 1840. B.S. G. F. (1), xi, 352. C.R., ix, 140. J.A.S.B., xii, 1055. Turquie d’Europe, i, 279. A.C. et P. (2), lxxiii, 442. A.J.S. (1), xxxix, 195. Jour. de Pharmacie; J. F. I., xxix, 138. Die Erdkunde von Asien, vii, 223, 745; viii, 537, 547, 549; 820; ix, 147, 177, 199, 200, 519, 529, 545, 555; x, 142, 292, 369: 926, 1025, 1076; xi, 200, 935, 495, 669, 670, 692) 697, 705, 737, 757, 926. Civ. Eng. & Arch; J. F.1., xxix, 335. yr J. F.L., xxviii, 409. C. R., xiii, 1165. C. R., xii, 487. Rep. of Am. Association of Geologists and Naturalists, Boston, 1841-’42, p. 348. C. R., xi, 141. Biblical Researches, 1841. A Descriptive Account of Assam, 1841, p. 33. L’ Institut, 26 Juin, 1841. irae 1842. Histoire des progrés de la Géologie, 1866; ii, 1 M. P. L. S., 1842. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, viii, 1842 (?). Archiv fiir wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland, 1842 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 285 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PETROLEUM—Continued. 1850 1851 1851 1851 1852 1852 1852 1852 1853 1853 1853 1853 1853 1853 1854 Subject. Halleck, H. W Lewy, Mu <- 202 = snense- cco -n--0eee----- Percival, J. G...-..--c0--------------- *Vigne, G. T.....-----------.--+------ *Vigne, G. T. (with assay by E. Solly, ar)e Vigne, G. T *Jameson, W ROAD OU HEL Olea ae cas ee e.anie elalenia ale Day PVEVGRGHODRIGN = fu 'setlas seme ne see ats se eT NAPO te acdc cansaie nema ss ose = *Hanway, P.S *Humboldt, A. v ee Voisin, M., directeur du séminaire des missions etrangéres, en adresse un échantillon envoyé de la Chine par M. Bertrand. Bertrand, M Pratt, S. P *Russegger PE HEBIOGTI toss set waraee te naiiecicis = b's sc GMO DLs NLT ce nalenwe pie 2. ais =< LIAS CRL Yn On eila a eeeem cise caster. ioe =ic.- *Fleming, A URINATE er Rac. Stoel: otis les *Gaillardot *Robertson, A. C Saint-Evre, M Carrara, J UGS Rois Re eee Jackson, C. T *Lynch, Lieut Nasmyth De Coulaine Jackson, C. T., J. others. ieRRTasON, Oil ds: 2--4-.cncmenscse ssn | PPAR OU SON Utes osc civis nasa a sigs os Huguenet, Isadore Pelcync he LAGUt.. seetecs au nbs tis sien sea Taylor, Richard C UMAR. OIE 1M Oke eae ee “ALLOY TERS WE So ook a Hauer und Foetterle...............--- Volekel, Gite. nee. seen. fe See te *Encyclopedia Britannica, 8th ed., 1854-60. Use of bituminous cement in Europe and the United States. Note sur la composition de la paraffine................ On ‘‘Indurated Bitumen” in cavities of the trap of the Connecticut valley. JewalaMok? past see cote h ieee stacks soem ene es ve ese ROCKO BOar WeraDONd ss... 0 cane hanes cmelesonmsmanier oss Asphaltum near Iskardo Dead Sea asphalt On the occurrence of bituminous or organic matter in several of the New York limestones and sandstones. Geology of the salt range (Punjab) Fire wells in China and bamboo gas tubes at Khiung- tschen. Petroleum springs Paratiine ys. Sees «ans sees oe ok one re he mere Sur le point d’ébullition des hydrogénes carbonés . .-.. Assam petroleum beds Dampf- und Gasquellen, Salsen, Schlamm-Vulcane, Naphta-Feuer, Bitume provenant des puits forés chinois qu’a décrits M. Inbert. Rapport sur des échantillons d’eau salée et de bitume envoyés de la Chine. Geological position of the bitumen used in asphalt pavement. Dead Sea (asphalt?) Punjab oil springs Ueber die Anwendung des Asphalts .........-...-.-- Baku oil Héhen-Bestimmungen in Dagestan und in einigen trans-caucasischen Proyinzen. Naphta-Quellen. Dead Sea asphalt Mud voleanoes of Beloochistan Sur divers hydro-carbones provenant de l’huile de schiste. Vorkommen yon Asphaltstein in Dalmatien L’histoire des schistes bitumineux...............--... On the asphaltic coal of New Brunswick. .-......-.--- Dead Sea asphalt Test tor oils for lMOTIiCRUN OS. ccs soe ee ane ee el... enecsleee anna nines 1858 | "Bolley, Po. lcces cacee near eae eataeln = 1858 >| Rividre, As? oscc-s02 --caee se meeremsioe = 1858s) “ROSONS, EW) lose ee ae ete eee eens 1858 || Vohl, Bio. .ncden-acheen ee reoneeeemaseer 1859) | Antisell, Thomas’... - ss.ss5-0s- eee ee= 1859.) Cooke, MG. © 26 so seaeneeas ee cet sree 1859] Dela Rue; Warren :s.-- coe cc ees cee ee 1859 | *Dutrénoy, At oesscs essences erase 1859:'|" Foetterle; Er ..-os..ctds-e > oe eeeaeee 1859.) “Miiller. (Ci Gitee< cs a-teiees cemmeaeenes 1899)}| Newberky;dtsi-<-. ce csees = ee eeeeeae 4859) Perutz, Hii .smecenspecetoe nee eee 1809 | "Dripler, A. Bit. 2 Das Erdél Galiziens, dessea Vorkommen und Ge- | Wien, 1865. Verlag des Griindung’s-Comités der Ham- winnung, nebst Beitragen zur fabrikmissigen Dar- burg-Galizischen Petroleum Aktien-Gesellschaft. stellung seiner Produkte. ; 1865) |\Schmidt, Ed .-cicc cess coche cevemecess Die Erdél-Reichthiimer Galiziens. Eine technolo- | Wien, 1865. gisch-volkswirthschaftliche Studie. 1865 |" Schooley.diissacescsceciee Senmise sacle Petroleum region ot: America’ ....<-..cesseas-ncemaens Harper’s Magazine, xxx, 562. 1865) |bSchorlemmer Gieaseesseseeearecesce = Presence of benzole series in Canadian petroleum... .-. Trans. R. S. (5), xiv, 168; C. N., xi, 255. 1865): Sheaferwe. Wiss. sccskaccecetcene acecea On the relative levels of coal and oil regions .--...---- Py AD Pe Sink oo. 1665)" Shutteldt GrA jt iccesacteecwceee nee On an oil-well boring at Chicago .............--..----- A.J.S., xl, 388. 1865 Siliman, Woy [lees aie cecieteass cera California oil is not asphaltum....-....-...--.--...--. Letter from Prof. Silliman to Hon. D. H. Harris, of Spring- field, Mass., dated New Haven, April 8, 1865. 1865 | *Silliman; Dis jlsseecc sos seale esses Petroleum in California. Extract from report..-...--.. A.J.S. (2), xxxix, 101, 341! 1865 | Silliman, B., jr....... Set Seca ee eeeens A description of the recently discovered petroleum | New York, 1865, 25 pp. region of California with a report of the same. 1865 Me sillinians 19.. j0see ssecee eetees see aeeeee Report upon the oil property of the Philadelphia and | Philadelphia, E.C. Markley & Son, 1865, 36 pp. California Petroleum Company. Ue Walliamson, td, scoces cece sincee ceases. TONG Mors Ch awind oes Soe oobild cad eoaews ena acme ase eee Pages 19 to 31. 1865 | Soulié, Emile, et Hippolyte Haudouin.| Le pétrole; ses gisements, ses exploitations, son traite- | Paris, 12°, 1865, ment industriel, ses produits dérivés, ses applica- | tions A l’éclairage et au chauffage. 1865} Stenhouse, John .-----.---22-esock ee On the employment of paraffine for water-proofing....| J. F. L., lxxix, 340; C. N., vii; A.J. Ph. (3), xi, 320. 1865) Swallow, Gs Crp ocesqceees se seeeea ene Report on the geological survey of Miami county, | Kansas City, Missouri, Nov., 1865. Kansas. 1865 | "Sykes, Cc Psi) come swensmsilesaeetcee t= Petroleum in Colorado territory ... ........--.. see. New York, W. H. Arthur, 1865 1866) )|. “Ussher, di cccsceessce res amnaeaareet Baku OU LS. ces.cses ci csnade euce sen et nee sone Seen Journey from London to Persepolis, 1865. 1865, (° Warren, CM uo. cease ence ee | On a process of fractional condensation applicable to | Mem. A. A. (n. s.), ix, 121; A. J.S. (2), xxxix, 327; C.N., the separation of bodies having small differences be- xii, 85; A.J. Ph. (3), xiii, 449; M. Sci., 1867, p. 576. tween their boiling points. 1865:.| Warren) C.M 220. 2 cconceeepeeeeaes Researches on the volatile hydrocarbons......-..----- Mem. A. A. (n. s.), ix, 185; A.J. S. (2), x], 89; C.N., xii, 261, 279, xiii, 13, et seq. 1865 | Warren, C.M.,and F. H. Storer....... Researches on the volatile hydrocarbons............-. Mem. A. A. (n.8.), ix, 176; A.J. S. (2), xli, 139. 1865/1— Whitney;d\)D....- scene cea eee teen. Asphalt at Hill’s ranche, near Santa Barbara, Cali- | Geological Survey of California: Geology, i, 132. fornia. 1865). WainGhell,GAr o2ta4. 4m eeete wel see eee On the oil formation of Michigan and elsewhere..-.-.. Detroit, 1864, 8 pp. 8°; A. J.S. (2), xxxix, 350. TSGG MAW Mig Ge William a2 ce ee a ene The oil regions of Pennsylvania, etc..........-...---- New York, Harper & Bro., 1865. T8655 PVE ee ELOUTY . , ' - % a a tr re S> i ' svustine: inal est ; ‘ : i if d | : } | 1 A ' | sl seseucely, SESE FH ee ae | / | / SCALE [Fic. 15—page 79.] Foundation timbers for rig. Plate XIV. Monograph on PETROLEUM. 7S ~ 100 INCHES Plate XIV. ; Monograph on PETROLEUM. eS ie mies eg a ee ee < é ey a et AG aa aa mm 7 fe SS fan FA e S 4 ' i F4 Iie pu 252015 10 5 0 25 50 7s 100 INCHES [Fic. 16—page 80. ] Side elevation of derrick and engine Plate XV. nograph on PETROLEUM. a (EA ESLR Se Qs 26 201510 5.0 25 60 ie) 100 INCHES | Fic. 17—page 80. } Horizontal projection of derrick and engine. Monograph on PETROLEUM. Plate XVI. 50 252065 1096 0 (Fic. 18—page 80.] End elevation of derrick, Monograph on PETROLEUM. 100 INCHES ie See ~ ib es i UN Pu sChT 1. Gol ob dre SPAR et) he be 74? ; - \ ' 1 ‘ nd ‘ 7 ’ 4 t t ' - ' " F ov 4 ' . 7 » wridens = ‘ ; 3 Pa F TRE ye ae | to va fs. 4 il ’ er ‘ ie ee ee m sot eu - : ’ - Ge SE ROS de | sutticoutisad Me ¢ t : Ret ae Lal. Rane eee ReRAL SF ee eae me Aes! iti | , ’ ‘ A a ¥ ' 1 ‘ \ ‘ M, { , ; ‘ Ph, ‘ A eS - P ‘ j , oe i “e4 7 s' aeseeet's Nor ere idan, “hb Oe eee ' a ’ dn bia 6 ak 1 hae it 78 Om Phy ay Pa Ye hile “ ( ’ Y ; ae 2 qn ? aoe ee a a) hi ’ 6,4 a as { ar as ; , ee ie ay ; { . . at 4" ) ora ee re.” Mas ¥ tees ‘ j : Eon te mii , [ ae ; nh ine 7 kun es par ; Dighe 4 he iu 4 1p, hy paw wr rai) wad ly 5 talisd i Hirmy Pig } ‘ oi it ES, ys A \ ; | + \ ; i “4 ff : dj ; i Wo Palyee Py ig ce { Mose la , Mj Nein ele , , ’ Dey Ree i MDs 4 ie i fy} PA Pua ‘ - i “i \' . a : Ve 5 4 F , ’ r a 7 a a ¥ , rl - i ‘ah , , Y j jt . " s 7 + # wore yy: i coe i ] : . ; , iy ea ny { 5] Y y Pf Ais Od & = L F 7 bet! Moke 4 by 4 . ‘ Sistine dive ) ’ ‘ : f ' 4 y ’ * ~< ‘ Y ; ts in= p's ; - ; J J - ' yy ¥ ’ : Plate XVII. Monograph on PETROLEUM. [Fic. 19—page 81.] Inside view of derrick at night, showing use of temper-screw and derrick light. ' > \ 4 . ‘ ' + rit: , ay Ab Ur lat ; DRIVERS ae LINES \ Plate XVIII. [Fic. 20—page 81. ] Eight-inch bit, 1-12 natural size. 36" "Fic. 21—page 81.] Five-and-one-half-inch bit, 1-12 natural size. Monograph on PETROLEUM. [Fic. 22—page 81.) [Fic. 24—page 81.] Auger stem. Sinker bar. I-12 natural size. od? ie! Ae. 4 Rail Cre 2a | we se 5 i : DRIVER MAY ab LING hair: Monograph on PETROLEUM. Plate XIX. = SE os (se) (Fic. 25—page 81.] Rope socket, 1-12 ratural size. MATEEETTUNTOD 81.] Ring socket, 1-12 natural size. Closed. Open. cand d, cross-sections [Fic. 23—page 81.] Jars, 1-12 natural size. ’ \ ® . & 4 > | , Pi \ _ al Ji i ca » bist Saat > a ; 9 =. i o3' Fee ; rayne » : oP iu Vera sty oF IETS ‘ ; / r) oe ‘ ‘ -) : ' ' al * 7 ti t ; ‘ ; is ‘ 7 : ‘ 4 4 ov ¢ % p hy Lh ae iv > - O my's) ~s bd Dar 4 termes ae | aly, ‘7 ie Ww iu i Gl nie m7 ; Pur, tee: Me ot : ‘ ae j iP im a ae ‘ h oe Z as 7 ie : oe Ti r 'Z wb ,.% J , i tt : a 7 ; 7 % a Pad \ wae on , ‘ %) ad ig ry : PE e Sy ee : Pe ; 4 —? Bnet en tba ed) 1 ie : ioe « ' ak fe Pe nt , oe a 7 = id » ‘ ie fe ’ 5 ~ ra Pa Ay , ay! ne ute; Pet as eA . ont = i 7 ’ a a Pe ee ee ae a aR) a | a aly ‘ Monograph on PETROLEUM. Plate XX. 9— page 81.} uO,” [Fic. 28—page 8&1.] Wrench, 1-12 natural size. 2 (Fic. Five-and-one-half-inch EAATTATATTATTA ANAM ph rrrrereerrererretert ee re] SW I-12 natural reamer, size. [F1c. 30—page 81.] Eight-inch reamer. [Fic. 26—page 81.] Temper-screw. a. —ve* ¢ i ; and hs Mas My y i * i. ¥ wore A : ’ ee bs tt : aed pani : } J a ae s Bs i i f ep i : : as rs er . en i Goad ; : . ¢ , : _ 4 te; 4 A 4 a ¢ 7 i rs ’ aie | } } + | '. sf ss e ~ ’ j , 1 . * . s i ‘ ' . ‘ ” . i we bis — Th Pare | . Gj) +; b " ’ 5 . 7 a j a \ , ithe & i. tp ures ae ea tek ft meeeee a ; REIYGH wid. M4 HA AH " ty ‘ ie ot) 8 a ‘ ‘ i : 4 = x @ iL A ae be + s P pal ad * AY * ‘ B Some SIM oll ’ ." 4 " i - iY a: f + 1& oa . ‘ a ey ‘ ly I i ay, &- & 3 , i “ee : , i , ' ne ® * Ti * * : > “i a ae’) . ‘ ; . >. ~ ¥ ‘ 4 ' | / ] . Al 7 ‘ j : | ae ee; ‘ ' "is He one oy 4 . 7 a 7 ' Al 9 uv ig F ‘ ws i a, “an Ney) re Ge sh: RET as yee uf ay Tar ith ae ¥ f me a eae ) inpaitatingaal teal * ie. ad ee 7a - “ We . 2 val i ap DSF ae ia 7 | (et »%§ , qi W y ~~ i ‘ Fi P . id +} rr ” j ° _ ' P paras vA fy ; ‘| Hy Plate XXI. Monograph on PETROLEUM. EY yyy VALLEY) AU ft, q / 7 Aye yb, LGU H ae VST, “y YOU Yl, “4 ayy LOGO Le MOP TLL GF /, SOLAN i Yad eee, ul piling y Ly yy yt OG Yih My, HL) Y, “yy tt WY fli Mi) OTL GY Yb Yilty ly, by, GUT iil G4y CAPAC Ee GUS? 1 Uy Si Gh YYMMY YOU Wy ay May GGys igh Vuln YOY Wy YU Uy Gh CU Goo iy “Up Wittl{p, As LOY UYU hy Gh h dy ty, CM My GGG YUNG hy te : Yl), Uy ly (OU UY Yih U4 1, byt “Yi , Ph lied ye YL tl, Mugu sy YG SLY “4)¢, Uf HOES 4 LU pg ift, Vy Gy bo) LEELSY Yj UO ae My UY Yl YM bt, ‘ CMM GILLIES! Uy YOY), iy $64 iy SS 7S, M7 Yj 4. lay l, WI sbi YOY My iif ‘7 (/LL/ Wy = S/ YF LY [Fic. 31—page 85.] Torpedo before explosion, 5 ’ ; f f y ( Pins a } i in oe Ce « J *. : ; ’ j ree 1 eae oe uy art Mie! \) ree anh, ; » . a Nn ' D ] \ % " “pu r % : : ‘ aL Ca Met be | who ¢ han 7 ; ot “oy way! reas , "3 rr? } y Le at Py ae OF ae ae - , ALP yes r iP: ra iu we he . or. Cliche gh , 7 7 ey ane wa) i j é \ . te (Fel oe aN - ih * r Bae ee ave “si } i hate Payal sod —~ ; a Fa ye , ‘re As 4 t Mie a's t ¥ b ' ) } Pa. > Riera - “s LA” A soe ‘ bare ae Lee F . ; 4 Vet oa : ae) Ae aK? KS. s eed we 7 ue) ng _ Ligh ‘ ‘ s ¥ : j ; ' bs ; R Ky i ; r ; ‘| - ae oy ¥ Rn ' 7 ‘ te A we ey’ o THE \ ENARY v 2ooe oh ah Seen : ‘ : ; nH Pte f a aA a" ha) | ‘ » j GF Tat ee Wy? cies weary a # 5 A ‘ ts i : ae Vibe ae nl! et" AE A ; tes ‘ pa RRS igi Tee | it , RY #1] 129 he si) TR iN . } : eet 4 Oni 7 A “A " ea tei “i fn 7 c Way ts, 4 PR, / mY. 7 . =f ’ i « an , » Se . , tt ‘ A -, y my, Ke Monograph on PETROLEUM. Plate XXII. ap Wtf ‘A Wn) ‘i | AR t is = [ Fie. 32—page 87.] , 1861—wooden conductor. section of pumping well Cross- eS [I'1G. 383—page 87.] Cross-section of pumping well, 1868—cast-iron drive-pipe. . ‘ A 7 { ‘ r > ; t ‘ 7 ® ‘ : . J , “ - ¥ A f t ’ 1 . a ‘ x cae “ WAIVERSH K a Tub s Plate XXIII. Monograph on PETROLEUM. [ Fic. 34—page 87.] Cross-section of pumping well, wrought-iron drive-pipe, 1878. R SSS yw ON DRIVE PIPE 6 INCHES [Fic. 35—page 87.] Cross-section of flowing well, 1880. Pew Ao eb). BA) ee > " " AW ‘ ? NS Oy oe i j ~ a ‘teb ! H ‘ 7) : ‘ ’ ' ™ " , , i ~ t ' ‘ i s ad ’ ' ’ ’ ; ° . / , i ee | ' ee 7 % ‘ Ms} , aay re ne: A ; kee AV pas | ee ie Pa or a an 7 oda Pied) » he aA Io aa as heen ‘WUSUMBZAOU! POI-13ayx9NG [‘83 oSed—ge ‘o1q) “AIXX 781d ‘WOAIOULYd uo ydesbouco,y “ 8 dhierey aye Moreen j » o rs iO > ’ es ale ‘ pe iain 7 if - Plate XXV. Monograph on PETROLEUM. \S N \ BALE YER Y | [Fic. 37—page 162.] Lateral vertical section of cylindrical still. ; we ee ee + ee ee ew ee fee \\ \\ \’ \ NS b EY \ ; i ’ : K\ AN WN hy \WY \ y \ x) ; i eo Gy oS yy ‘ | \ \ i \\ ‘y AW f \ \ IN ————_—_{X\\¥————__\N NN \ NN AY SS B ae KX NN BOs SY [Fic. 38—page 162.] Transverse vertical section of cylindrical still. aS? Fi al a YY. i: cmt \*¥ ‘, i Plate XXVI. Monograph on PETROLEUM. | | 3. Otmrey sepposed be 50 feet high 48 taches square inside Wine | | - ~~. ee ~—. FeeBrick 281 2630 6 2 wre ew m2 ou! fro mcues \ \ | — \ \ i Pa eee Ea Dian of Brick work 'g Base Line eae” AE ol i) i} [Fic. 39—page 162.] Horizontal section of cheese-box-still setting, ‘a SNA PD BAS SMF PAN ANNE PN RT MURR [Fic. 40—page 162.] Vertical section of cheese-box-still setting. Plate XXVII. Monograph on PETROLEUM OSV enor Ue C70 (Ooe OO Ono 10 0-0 OF -OLOFOROFOOTO 0200 O20 6 6.6.06 eS A eae ae ay er cas ee SD OD in at ee le oe Os ee er << Oe OR OSES Swe we = = = eS Ben Beare se meee @ - ~ ‘ - ; j At ied : , ‘fie m4 a, 4 / % és x j . 26,4 , ¥ Q ; r ' ‘ i ery} , 4 ¥ : ? i . aie) A . en eS ¥ re ay boa aig r A = ts ; . ; nl, sy i ae As; ( hove a f - Aa : eae Ry Ftay ‘ bf 4 } ; i a ie ae - # he ay, ” 4 c : t ees i 4 ata fe & lee ret * caw § F oh Mees Ber # Dieta se: . ever ne i Ly ONE ED a i MI > - ¥ " a can She mete 9 Pua ; iy ; : a *; oP eS ake g t ots @ kad . 1 re sai oe yt Plate XXX. Monograph on PETROLEUM. Cer { Fic. 54—page 224.] Parrish’s naphtometer. Engler’s tester. | Fic. 56—page 225.] Engler’s tester. (Fic. 57—page 250. ] Vertical section of Eames’ petroleum furnace. ee 7 ) he's 7 . of a Tah tay 4 if Si ) 5 ih Ny : ‘ea ' ‘ ao : ' ¥ sey AR The ah ra yh ‘ if wa i wit Ui $s : | ALR) wate. Obs mUryrastt) ” he 4 ; MJ x i Mi ra We | 3 o s i 5 ae . , “* 5 » | ® \ : - Mig i : i is Oh ‘| ert \ ‘ J i ay i} 5 dy) Ai ‘ u ii tyne ‘ in ; \ j ; | aFarih |r a ve A ne poe . hike, Ue i lel fan ik! U ‘ 1, ‘ « i) ‘ a Me ya) bg PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 291 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PETROLEUM—Continued. Date Name. Subject. Reference. 1866 | Jones, T. Rupert ...........-.........| Note on the orbitoides and nummuline of the Ter- | Q.J.G.S., xxii, 592. tiary asphaltic bed, Trinidad. BOG UP Gila MB cic as cemcielae's see oie ce awivn «ries satin: On the geological position of petroleum or oil wells...| P. A. P.S., x, 189; A.J.S. (2), xli, 189. TET) ERC ad I) a es er SOE Records or Ol DOLIN Ghee ss = Gee eae = see ae nae ae ce P. A. P.S., x, 227, 266. EBON Wek MCPONX, Iuj2s cs. cmcens se acco es, Origintot petrolowmie nesses sees e ase n sen siecle msiale Trans. Am. P.S., xiii, 324-328. POO ANEOLBLO SLIGO wai s ccccle css chiens ge cectiee Guide pratique pour la fabrication et lapplication de | Paris, 1866, 12°. l’asphalte et des bitumes. MBGG ee OW: DELIV el 509 ctere = 2 an7a'minlatein'm sisal otal Prospectus of the Indian Creek and J: ack’s Knob Cincinnati, 1866, 20 pp., 8°; A. J.S. (2), xli, 284. Coal, Salt, Oil, ete., Company, with a geological report. PAGO RMUAOGWOOU,. Eee ciavesicnea a Supin eete apes On the preservation of meats by paraffine......-...-. Ph. J., May, 1866; A.J. Ph. (3), xiv, 341. BBGGuIe’ SAUONC dic M cccms2 eos sese sen'ek aero et Note on the geological position of petroleum reser- | A.J.S., (2), xlii, 104. voirs in southern Kentucky and Tennessee. 1866), Salleron et Urbain’. -..-22--.c--e0se5- Nouvelle méthode d’essai des huiles minérales ....-.. C. R., xii, 43; Les Mondes, 1866, p. 127; M. Sci., 1866, 104; B.S. C. P., 1866, p. 477; Z. A. C., 1866, p. 247; L’A. et L., 1866, M8 172; P.M. (3), xxxi, 148; Dingler, clxxxi, 397; D. Ind. Z., 1866, p. 164; W. B., 1866, p. 671. PEGG | SCHOPIEMIMEL, Clee 2 ose ewe oe sicnceeis< Note on the amyl compounds derived from petroleum.| P. R.S , xv, 131; J. f. P. C., xeviii, 242, 292; Poly. Cbl., 1866, Dp. 143; Z. C., 1865, p. 242; W. B. , 1866, p. 671. MOC a eS LATED Toon 3. ys aie ccialale dlow.a tae cisiaie On petroleum in California..............-..-- fines ante eis National Intelligencer, Feb. 7, 1866. PeGbe ELTON GUOY) CAMINLO. 7 ccc-seccesecsnic Nouveaux réservoirs pour l’emmagasinage des huiles | An. G. C., 1866, p. 640. de pétrole et autres matiéres inflammables plus légéres que l’eau. 1866 j Wagner, Rudolph .--.-........-....-. Ermittelung der Stearin-Siure im kiuflichen Paraffin.| Z. A. C., 1866, p. 279; Poly. Cbl., 1867, p. 1151; Bayer. K. u. Gbl., 1867, _p. 344 ; ’Dingler, clxxxy, 72; D. Ind. Z., fact p. 242 S.C. P., vii, 422; W.B. , 1867, p. 735. PRDOMEC I ALTON Use Wola ccns's «linc omwinmcieldai(=\2 Assay of petroleum from Santa Barbara county, Cali- | Report os Diceaion Silliman. National THis gencer, fornia. Feb. 7, 1866. POM GaECOVVETTLCELGLI cA fog ce im ore ciaisn'e) emis wininiarnie slic Geology of petroleum in Canada West....-....------. A.J.S., xli, pp. 176-178. SGM Nes eEH CES. iSi cacileccswietecaccueessisincine Zur Darstellung schwarzer Paraflin-Kerzen-......... D. Ind. Z., 1866, p. 498; Poly. Nbl., 1867, No. 2; Dingler, elxxxiii, 253. PEO GPA MALLOC Ln Lecter cs siteclls otaigr sts = acioe On intermittent discharges of petroleum and large de- | P. B. A. A.5., 1867, p. 50. posits of bitumen in the valley of Pescara, Italy. ASOMMMATICINsON Messe oe. faveic cnc se ence oe Synthetical researches on the hydrocarbons ...-.-..-- P.M. (3), xxxiv, 506. Rene BOriheloty Mesa. cic tesns cease cows c Des earbures pyrogénés; action de la chaleur sur les | A. C. et P. (4), xii, 5, 94,122; C. R., bxili, 788, 834; A.J.S., homologues de la benzine. xliv, 266-268. NEG TBS OOUI NG sais ais ¢s.-/o clea -eiseisismne =e es Weed Sea ASplaltig: pater ioc lela sees wars ates aisle wins = ate Lieut. Lynch's report, p. 185. Ghemical properties: Oly G0. .2 2. le eesti eels BES) Ge Wen XXhVy Les ASG (ols TOOKMAUSE aeite cian -setlec st csncee eee Pottolotiii ce sec cee atin sae path oceice syn cole ote mcerstn = ee Conversations Lexicon, xi, 586. | BIbUINGNe teat ce rete ike saree tcciee. see eemesns Ibid., iii, 299, 300. ESDP OHEY) AU cmidocinctncmiadios ae seconde sos System of fractional distillation of mineral oils. ..-.-- Eng., 1866, p. 394; Le Tech., xxix, 69; Dingler, clxxxv, 276. SG imtUee OC TstM Cee Lersta cise taint sia etelo s aisieiste eo <'es Sur les gites des pétroles de la Valachie et de la Mol- | B.S. G. F. (2), xxiv, 505. davie et sur I’ Age des terrains quiles contiennent. PSOE OCURDG, Eliaaa seach a caine aden s Ss Description géologique des gisements bituminiféres | B.S. G. F., xxv, 20. et pétroliféres de Selénitza dans l’Albanie et de Chieri dans Vile de Zante. TSOug Ellen berger «Grice < wma mess eee c Das Petroleum-Terrain West-Galiziens ........--..--. J.K.K.G.R., xvii, 291; Leipziger Blatter, i, 18; W. B., 1867, p. 718. Saale LOU CUO IMs Soc crerleic'e scutes tcssc cers see .| Etude chimique des cing gaz des sources de pétrole | C. R., lxvii, 1045. de VAmérique du Nord. TSOfmimliateh Cock ;Os Hens... oc omecines os ce cece Petroleuman North vA moericay... os e-ss- =a se eae. The Geo. Mag., iv, 36; L. u. B. J., 1867, p. 623; W. B., 1870, p. 697. EG Pao Of AIT ,) Dh s/s 2.4 a,5'« afesieimlsieicia.s bee lee Empfiehlt meine (Wagner’s) Priifungsmethode des Pa- | W. B., 1867, p. 786; C. N., No. 401, p. 78. raffins auf Stearin-Saure als eine Zuverlissige. SOWELL OMMANN © Ds seine creat asue.siaciaie.2 ee aes es MerO7z0 KEK base cee. ces sic ce Ste eee ee Sey a eee eee a cae Bayer. K. u. Gbl., 1867, p. 186; Dingler, clxxxiv, 378; Poly. | CbL., 1867, p. 288 ; He Nbl., 1867, p. 142; W.B., 1867, Pp. 736. NBOUH ee LUNN Gr Le SOL Y. socom. we eniatee as Pétroles\de Amérique dm Nord <2... 4-5 45 eae - ea B.S. G. F., xxiv, 570-573. LEO MEE eIDACHMIG, oi, Laccawctclaesdsekacuene Notiz, iber: Petroleam: 22 )sjsccis2.¢-<1clseeima cicie's oa5,0.<<%05 sin: B. u. H. Z., 1867, p. 62; Poly. Cbl., 1867, p. 469; D. Ind. Z., 1867, p.78; W. B., 1867, p.724. 1867 | Macadam, Stevenson ......----..-----| On the poisonous nature of crude paraftine oil and the | P. B. A. A. S., 1867, p. 41; C. N., xiv, 110. products of its rectification on fish. [Sb ieie MaenNIOL DGSIRG os ca-s eh sonnet sce oncien Nonveau manuel complet de la formation et de l’em- | Paris, 1867. ploi des huiles minérales. HOGI AtOMGNSAA OL seecsta cs oneeiena slesas ons n sale PUDJAD Ole ec. sees ea neteds oce renee sca etae seteas Memorandum on the results of a cursory examination of the Salt Range, etc., reprinted in a supplement to the Gazette of Tndia, Aug. 24, 1867, p. 780. ES67s Orr Hector-s- cccess «25 protests: PStrOlennyY LNG) ae need sonics ones oe ee cra metre J. F. 1. lxxxiv, 27. EMOTE She COMP Dl tite . aacees asteee seeiaiae | 1877 | Friedel, C.,and J. M. Crafts .......... 1877 Godsten®; BiHew 2 | Reports uf the Geological Survey of Indiana. *Report of Geological Survey of Can- Bitumens. Petroleum springs...................-..-. ada,Sir Wm. E. Logan, director. PIGORICY, Os, Fer CGIOl ys occcice ateaiseae ss _ United States Railroad and Mining Register. Owen, D.D., N.S. Shaler, J. R. Proctor. _ Reports of the Geological Survey of Kentucky. RSAILOLU Ga) AIN ota n caeiein so ero ae ice cawiee -| Reports of the Geological Survey of Tennessee. Redwood Boverton (secretary) | Annual Reports of the New York Produce Exchange. Exchange. J.S. Newberr;, chief; Edward Orton and E. B. Andrews, assistants; T. | G. Wormley, chemist; F. B. Meek, | paleontologist. eke Lesioy, ONiOl os sace. cst ess sess oe J. ¥. Carll, counties. J.J. Stevenson, Greene and Washing- ton counties. | C. A. Ashburner, McKean county ---.| teports of the Geological Survey of Ohio........-.-.- Reports of Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. Venango and Warren | Reports I, I, and IIT (with maps). teport K. Report R (with maps). _ Reports of state inspector of iliuminating oils for Michigan. PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. | Reports of the Petroleum Association of Great Britain. | Die Keene Gre Wes, XE) 115) Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., 1880, p.1; P. A. A. A.S., 1880, p. 182. E. M. W.S., xxxi, 509. | 1863, pp. 521, 785; 1865, pp. 217, 403. Columbus, Nevins & Myers, State Printers, v. d. Harrisburg; published by the commissioners of the sec- ond geological survey, v. d. Lansing, v. a. Bradford Era, Bradford, Pennsylvania; Petroleum World, Titusville, Pennsylvania; Oil City Derrick, Oil City Pennsylvania; Stowell’s Petroleum Reporter, Titusville, Pennsylvania; Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, New York; Oil and Drug News, New York, etc. - - ' . 4 5 4 Mer Th Zz yrs ; ‘ ‘ , i < ; 2 a -; m” 7) a ~~. TAT) (oe wes A NE at ' aie wr, * i ew = f 4 v a . i 7 if ? ¥ ho iy, ¥ id - y ; : Md P| 7 « § . » i, , ‘ betas be hi tet nts ts i be Ai ; ¥, aA i 4 ue hy i \' {te ‘ y 5 5 t ’ ‘ ? a ‘ee A oe A ; } ri lan he % ‘7 Fy / ‘ f Ao bof =) , ) P vie a | sere ‘ / q iS a . j ti A. , ih z ‘ } P s » A af A ’ i * ie” ny | Ag ns a4. Wp aa vi wz) ; t YT ie : ‘ Nore er 7 Vobed ty Pa ay : ’ ve ) os “4 = t are sy ' | } : ; wy wens hi a” . ’ A i? a oe 7 ‘ t at 7 a ‘ F] ‘ 1 4 ‘ , f 1 ii , ' ¢ . hae ae vite iv : ‘ / ‘ey wale i S ve. ' te w 4 ° t \ | ri if ‘ - > 1 ‘ 4, i ‘ er j r ? . i 4 , ' ' ‘ o'*s 5 . ” ~ Lagind © “ y iy - ‘ ’ ' ‘ f ; ¥ ‘ { ' ¢ . 7 “1 ' ° , 4 7 ifot 1 . i : *. . » | 4 q \y a E = i , . a ‘ \ * rt ; ? - . U ' z ‘ ‘ , Y ' ‘ p aN ry 4 A a ‘ rhe ‘ { A 3 ¥ Fi : af f Wilh ; ‘ i ; R we | yt - ; > : d: if wa Ry 4 Pas Oh i As Beret ve fae . 0) idk ae SR te a Rear rere a”. doch ' ‘ ; si . ae oy aa INDEX A. Page. UO WEM AGS ce Seach ccc sccessaslacacecs 224, 297, 296, 298 PETRI OR ee see ee sie oS slo oncaeid ccaaclows 285, 289, 297 REPEL NV Laois an saci cones bdaees ca ciide wate 295 PME uece p tan vcncncwesccctaecceesmasacee 282 TEST RET Sioa al 6D SS 292 PRODI Meter aatale dere cle we ccc becice sda cece occa 4, 282 EX PTICOL Crime emsnnoccsse.tccive stances sks sa << 253 ING AL ee 30, 64, 283 ite WOnthMeer eee sees sasSs osccslctecce cee 284 Prion nt CAME ES Ot 5. c.c. ioes,cerctecce ct 195, 296, 299 PRR OMMIRCLOL TINE cae ot cisiivic cles cacsccecoea asics 283 MTR INS i 201, 299, 300 MNGONGROOLL Ol tadasissdssesccteonicccac.sacsene 158 JSG: Ya 292 BR eRe A AODRTIAN ovis cai cciels sac ccnccnse os 215, 287, 292 PUICERAOHM DD Eisarclacas ac ksesccsscccte octce uses 285 UA RT RESO 5 5 a a 294 PAO MEME mence 2s cate ss Sas ccctnace'se mee 286, 289 Andrews, Dr. (of Belfast, Ireland) ...........- 296 SAMIROWS Hi Id cc scaces ccs tecsesces88, 67, 287,290, 30L SEM AULE Meieiiates co's iin ea ccs bacac=ssiecceses 12, 13 Bee OAD UP eee tines as das ocides cee chesccicecaes 285 POrVcaC eel pelo efoarts SoG ceiclsnie. ifs acco aces Asoc 10, 78 Pn iedeD iets get es gi, 240, 287, 290, 291 PRALIAN@L A LIT ntstents chnie w/c sins ceics nw cles'e\s cacn a 168, 286 PL GNOME LOICAROD «ccs cscscc ancccccpaeeciacenes 288 PATIORTOS MIAN COIS visa necsace je ccocadeccccseee 18, 253 PITRE OU Uae newest cic biceeica cece seis cee cece aeic 4, 282 UL Sat ed. rr 14, 243, 298, 299, 300, 301 EN ASST UT Oe SS a 291 Atkinson, E. (of Boston, Massachusetts) ..... 209 AGS TOS A 0 ee eee 53, 227, 290, 294 JRE SE ATRIOS I le ee ee 9, 10, 180 PMIVOOU MV ALISINNG Sas os faces aes dSacacaccccs as 9, 10, 29 PAUL OHI Ele Sale cia cnc in aca ae casenvccsdavate 292 PUP ROPE TOLOSSOLS .scca¢ sees oc cceces ceca tn 38 oe: A rr ene 298 PRIMO MEM orcececcccceabatecccel soewassens 298 B. OU MO ADIOAN TIN cncicsccticecces cs onsc neces oe 283 PSMULGV RIM ENe toe cute ses ccscwadcenceseseces 289 USSD) Jens SSR. Sea 290 | aU St OUP ORION cy, cae c eee ac ccka ses 299 LUNG Ao a See ce ee 300 GW ON TR meee ee nc oe acces scisoc sce ae 286 ROBERN Mer nit ae osecccce sees ccscceeclcce 296 GEL TA, AE IO EEE ae a aS 299 OU AN SG ABE SB OS See Ese eee ae a 298 BRUNER MOIN MV acca c pa Aeeccen seniccceste ss 293 BSORGLON are wicea een gmetad seen ae soeee =e 283 Beaumont, Wlie'dG".s.cc.s.cedseaca sede wssene 284 Peet GLU AMES Lac sceele c ase aetten tenes sc canes 292 LOT U fa) Bete Se Se Ep Pie ce Os Sa Ne 285 Pei ot MONG Oh’ isccc kas neve eater ess acess 296 LTS ee Sa ee Ba RR 55, 300 POLEMIONNGTs ai Dios sesiscen ce sine ccsnres eee: 172 DOLEMONeAa ste ae eee atittess popoacatec neste ne 297 4 OF NAMES OF PERSONS. 11 | Page. | BOM Wed i Oyen sete cutee tas aber we tice at wrueclste 296 HS OUR ee ate e chines tesice ection mem ine a newie osccide 298 Bennett. Dhomassjr.. -ccese ssa es cera ceceeas 209 Bernstein Avs. ices ccce od cccenccee ss sathesis ates 224, 299 IBErtels” GucAGees ssucmatnysteewinca.sssete seme 296, 298 Berthelots Messe ssnscste. 58-60, 248, 287, 290-293, 300 BOLIC lS be nace cite sites eee eit semis ane oteee 284 Berton. Dlices ca sces cat sensateoes en enietecnes 286 Bertrand UMN o. ca sscen oust tercaseeares ctge se 285 BignGconiy (Gr.plint)aeacsineise sec cstce tines sions 283 Bioly Jiecaaswesee tacos te omcaaie=caccier 180, 220, 222, 299 Bigelow sOmesactne asec sste ces aces esas es 290 Bioney, E. W..... viii, 9, 10, 30, 64, 159, 169, 261, 284, 293 PID Gre Willa EL eepter cena aa cet cee seicciets sae 158 Bissell George. scesscas urs ess oscar acai as Bizard und abarre:= 2s scensscs screen ss dae se 290 BIZAO} Gr cae n ceamamcsie = cise cstisa ce cee aasdee se 296 PORK CrAccemre ens eae cay Sues oe Moen ses J pede Blake William Pe Scr: seanisccnes wecorseecias% 285, 289 PB LABS Ge cs Cmitaiecicalctatan a nat enact saceccr sucess 293 IBJCGRTOd E/E MUs meric a aeceie iets piers eee 287 SOLORUsCuaalOT OO nee ce ac ete oeaes sem aan ers 288, 292 BOG Ys, Beater ce vers cesices swicueen s.cee ues 286, 287, 294 Bond George: William 320. cpse2. saa = scenes 259 Bone; MW «ce saccctewcnnceeks saves seecswcsig 287 Boned SHA. seas aetaess cesses etic dean sce 289 BOOUD OSs se seisiese oiaisinn taste scteciie cee siaiesie nies 291 Booths C cscs scene cs civnec sens aes sanee ec 28% BOCES ORT eacicdeiseiisosasiessisescceecasss(cisjee sees 284 BOUG teense cetecivesniow aise ds 'sice sarc aris 284 Boulan get aeetessacieie ee aaa acesae eeaces ees 296 Bourgongnony Ad cacccecserescsessecte 109, 110, 297, 300 Boussingault, J. B..........-...-. 6, 53, 57, 240, 283, 284 IBOWOr 7G GOrgOle an aacsc ese ae ease a emase eee 288 IBPAV CONS Hitec taceea cons tencscese ceca satees 297 Brewer’ 6c! WatsOn ws cae ceccactissacsccseave ce 10, 11 LOW OF rile Dos teases as eae sate e tesla oa 10 BPI COS titres cue Sow ecsiede soak teececs etreticne = 289 Bright eniChardi assed cana sa tsetse eee 30, 283 IBPOCKDAUSHd Gees ase aetietes Meseee eee decree 291 Brough) (Wiliam cssaumesseaceseecs ess se = viii, 153 IBTOW MMW Pidcisee sass ae ccs ice made ceatcaeeewee 286 (BUCHNOLy.AG Anacesttoaaet veecits pet acicpece tees 168 BuchneriO Baws ee sa teas act ene ee sSenecee es 283, 288 Bufsenlussen cos: ateectee rio eeneenea: wecaesiaae 286 Burchfield top -ccaccceeves ccswes cece -b tee aesls 249, 297 Barcekardt:cocces cs sees sae ecest ae cae vis sac 283 (BULKAThocsctoceeecdans cae oth Ossetia neces ve 293 IBVasson; Elise Beccscccsasascvcemcccctssn as 60, 294, 297 Cc. CHDOU S.r IE ekaeveteswncaseciscepesisaccesse 58, 297, 298 WARBNTAT A US een ecas cscs escaceceseon aches 54, 58, 288 Calter, Captalitucemese seme samenn anno aa sen eas 284 ChIvertem Crcsesetae wens sie sao saci fale ded 226, 293 CRI DUG speacicus tame e tamstes ses cack tes we 227 WANCtO THA DDG cacceceawwitmetn= aceeersuines 284 Carl d: Weis csrasesscitneacn vii, 41, 43, 90, 297, 298, 301 Carney, C. T Carpenter, C. M Carquillat, A Carrara, J Chabrier, E Champion, P Chance, H. M Chancourtois, De ey ee ee ChandleriC. Wi 2..-<. 216, 220, 223, 236, 293, 294, 296, 297 Charneroy) Mescaceiecssineeecs eer ene=asnec cds 284 @heesebron gh, Rea Al cas sceeee ecm ete ate 255 i Oheesebrough, William Hi woscssensesae sce cce 296 Chevalier, M sale ccaccossssoececcrasaesee ste ees 292 @hristison: Wiscecsec sco ce cess oe ae eee 168 Ohurehs MAC) Carts can sensc ecnceascandeeanas 104 Churchill sare een dacs oa tivoce s esisiaeieeione 298 Clarkee Wis. Dies sence ASeceas aaccaceanecebeetes 290 iP Clemsony LHOMAS Getic. sccees ancen els ceees Ose 284 Clinton WeaWilbtccssc'c=s sedenmnnns 54 Demarcay -- 2-6. slerc's wares erelaaioteisetets 4 Dibba Te oe caer Seeley cies mel getokeran(e arab are 298 Dodvewd. Wiescccssesewescceec cess somes tinenace 288 Dolfas: i hice scsecelcc sa eeslss accede ance sisets 297 Donsty,.B ce cssshews cewes eece sess gees 177, 195, 295, 299 Drake; Wijbisctesweas cele sate sat tench emsee dame slat WIEADER Ue wee Aaceeeamaees ccseiseemmoccamiease 289 Draper, Dr. lasncc.omeincesisomacitnnsissciice'sesm 261 Draper, George sn csiaeaceee sea es ee eee 208 Draper HN cess sce setceprnct ces ansreeneces 293 Onde y Oe ecm ecee aie. s mcaitee iste eicjemieiiele tates 213 DDT ML CULONAN GS pices bee et eee eee 287 IDRITENOY, Alcs cocecuc eoeeee Maem by heeuinnoe 66, 286 TO CT AY f tear eens merece ais-eae Sar eel ames 283, 292 | Dundonald Warl of Y.csscc2-esease eee eee ee ee 159 ION PRIONG EA: nena ce tiasaataee on eee seme eee 294 Dyer LOE fasceee scene chee een ue cer eemanessaee 300 E. AMCs tke Sth nls caw seus pean te aaeeereaen 250 Baton, (8. is scence ssestcchee: sclseeerees 290 sid certon} HyHoo no co se ccs tee eee ee eer 294 WCE: 2 5s(- 4 - nial gat ssitie os winie cease see ec ee Eie 159 HMichwald\..ss22)s sss sctysewcns soba eee sees 284 RATINGS COM YIN VS soe a eee ee eee eee 253, 283 Hisenstuck, Dre... cssceateue eae ato tee es eee 286 Ellenberger, J:G:sccecsccuctecnesees 291 Emmons, |S. sss. cnaseehes eden wesemeccene eee ae 295 W Green: DOblic. oacecsckee coke oc oe pete oem 290 | GTEDOIY,; Wiss -eonccet ce ceent ee nee ee ene tees 168, 284 | Grotschel’t.: ss o0s ca eeee ee eee eee ee er eens 290 (Trin, Cee the vomit eras mee seen oee sa aee 288 YW GCOthe a, - 22 oes noone pee bana Sue eteee erriee 258 \Grotowskl, is. sate seeeeee ee 59, 293, 294, 297, 299 |] GLOVO%:. Dec sta cachew es eebeeeenm tesee see meee 286 1 Gruner, Mv Sai onns senase seseeet eee noes 289 P Gru pert, Use cmistersonteneests= sEdarematies sone 284 | Gulichambaroi® Siv.cctesessas soeeee oe see ee 249, 300 | UOMO, 2 secvccanceasaoncesuslees ms Se cmelemas 298 Gime coes cme sees Ee nnmaikewisemas sels mematd 283 Ginshere) Rit 2~ coos decane coetaeeeesceeeneer 299 H. ij ktagenbach: Hii o isc. cetawsseceeeienc ane 295 Hager, H . Jccn ces oscaues ws sae psemeesas tess s es 296 ale. Dr a Bes Sate cis seciant ceases canta ew ner 6, 297 PSNI pee eed tyera cea) Ue OO TTY 41 Hall, J ames o..: screen tacesaccccnecacemann ss 74 [ ‘Blalock We Msc: sypircee coe otek ee 285 Hamilton; Wied = Gisceccecs saess ou-odeemer eee 284 HanecoCks. sweucss= abe aaos acca tc une cceemeemee 159 Hannemann) :'si<.<.05 sais scie's's sic opineiascaisveae siete 293 Han way, JOnas .. scise2 sens casldesip cic smcticn 4, 283 Han way, bans acrctaces=.seasee esos oe sae eee 285 Harkness, Rid. secs ou csccntouen v0 acticceseneee 286 Harley, (Hs... psecs se 7 sscaa tana ener eee 93 Harris, De. James 7. ...-7- se cation sees=eeumceae viii Hartman; 2. s2sccctsssscn eens cadens tte ommeens 259 Hass ven aes save i roe rec aero eeene 223 Handoin' ef soulie |. .s.:-ccces cones csnectesetes 288 Handoin: Hv sccccsccsacssicmes ones voossdeentina 288, 290 TIRES, (WON) 2 voenncth vaeecscaeeteeceeeneers ci 292 Hanuerand Moctterléic.cccc.sccecscsisocne en 285 Ry eS Te © Rp aap eae Eee LN 9 300 Hausermann) ©. - cs.) scussase ces ocakecactes 299 TLAUSMAND Jot sc nn sc ana caente ae beer eUeeee 285 Hawes): Gow. cc ca-ccesiensicosecenessneae seeene 296 Hayes Ss Dooce civesstccudece came wceee ese 295 HBS jSr Ocsne acs cnescatigns anise snsteoenegeaeey 290 Haywood sh tcc. acest eee. sata seen oaee eae ee 287 OMG Bivcascsssericcsacsuacneulcwanes vaeras 58, 296, 298 Hellmann \s 01. 2ecsessscsiesscacpeeceeeseins 285 Hellmann, Ko niccsesc4 tp ean snes eaten snee™ 298 PLOnIy; hs Gite dss ata ee ies cele te soak ac eripeee 5, 295 Henry, M., jr. (of England).............-.-.- 283 Horbelot, 2). 22. seraas cvecasteaneces eee eae 283 Horbert, (Do sp ssccuratectdewxiveccmesscecccsss 295 Swallow, @.C...... SuaeanWasnanwnecesenss soa 26, 38, 290 Sykes, C. P ....... SOC AC So EO aes 290 Symes, Michael ......... Papnussaew ont tecedass 5, 283 Symonds, Lieutenant Symons, W. H eee ee eee ee ee er 226, 287, 289, 293 29, 72, 284-286 Tate, A. Norman Thompson, C. O Thomson, Dr. T Thomson, J. E 195, 211, 250, 295, 300 ee ene wwe ee eee wm enw ewene eee eee ee rr fee were reer eee ee were ceescaseces Thurston, R. H Torrey, Dr. J eee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee er ry Tuttschew, J Tweddle, Dr. H. W.C ee a Uelsmann, H eee ee ee rs ee eee ee eee mew eee mee ween wee ee eter weet eee were ees weseeeeee Urquharty/T ct cece recente Se waeesevuevcuc Washer) dls:-cecrcessmenceseeers cates wos suere Van der Weyde, P. H Vanqueliny Mi Sus -cwese ee eee sess dinate te Verchére, A. M Wideky, acecceeun Rigee rake eeeecw dal eae wanes FF ee rs Ae mm etm mee meee emer ee tee meee eee eee 224 292 287 297 299 295 154 286 291 283 55, 58, 289 15, 56, 152, 298 285 Page. Wagenmann) Pit... one0s-t seeps enaeeeeeeee 286. (W ARNEL, JAN sctan cou ac ace caueattes cee neice 288, 297, 300 Wagner. BoViisw.scoeccnes 177, 288, 289, 291, 292, 298-200. Wahl, ‘William Hi_\\ce.ss:atktece ee ee eae 220, 295 Waite, Charles N.....20cascesicssaupeeeee eee 204 Weal, (GaP ies ais coscemcams sles ee ates 29, 64, 240, 287 Wallace; William....:2..s:.012>s) sede seeeeee 295 Waller, Thi... <2 cscsicesedeuss ceeasese ean 29, 53, 295 Walter, B noc cc. cncues cen sence eee nee 16, 301 Warburg, Ei. .5.5%.0.0-cctsns cele eee nee 295 Warner Ay Stl 2 ite. cs fk ae 71, 294 Wearren; (O52 gees. ose acs cse seen 54, 58, 290-293 Weber, Ric. e-- 0. o2e ash 024s eee * 298 Well i ee ties 6s valde oo dane eee 287, 298 Weise Ke v.25 vas. pose onc pee eee 294 Welch, 3: csicntcccseneccece Viii, 134, 140, 151, 152, 162 Whipple & Dickerson. -~..25----s.seeee en eee 250 White, C.B: orcas wethen se cece eRe eee 219, 293 White, Min. ccsandscsccesciee nese cones eee 286 Wohitlark, Wid... .-.¢.0..-01necseeeeneeeee 298 Whitmore, W..H . 22.002. .c once eee 287 Whitney, J. Dies )escesesce eee viii, 20, 65, 290, 292 Wiederhold, Dr... .).. 5..2205. ese eeaeee 287 Williams, Greville... ...-0). io. c cee senemaeeaeee 286 Williamson, J 2... .!sis)s ncn cee me deeetanee 290 Willard: 22.263. ccde ee dcex chee etna 294 Willigk, Bosc .. Ji... so aoa aeeee ema 58, 294 Wilson, M, Wb oss cases tcp escce cence eee : 298 Winchell, Av... o...t2c sic oceans eee eee 65, 290, 291 Windakiewicz, B ....<5.0. ssn e ose 296, 297 W000, As Hh oce a bietdes cacie scien ade teeta 295: Woodbury, C.d: Hoos i2ee. seco 195, 204, 238, 295, 301 Wormley; T. G:. 2. 0. -2cneen secretes neeeeee 301 Wray, DuAl concn ccc ccicesescntsieeee ee ene 248 Wright, William 22.302 25..2ss2s5— ee 290 Wrigley, H. Bisco vscscee see ere eae eee 297 Wtinschmann, H. Biss. 2... spree eeee 294 W arty, Avesicec cs ocecdie(frisub viccieh eee oaeen 287 Warts, Hic. cenccscepels sei cunmenteletes 241, 250, 290, 297 Wynne, AsB uciw sce eas sce mcrae ao roa te 294 Y. Noung, C..T) Toc... cc. udaccemse eae eee 293 Young, James..... eas see heeeaecemte -. 159, 169, 261, 286 Young, James, jl. secccusssccucsacnveenestene 161 Young, John tc).0.- cncensepiassekes ance eeeee 294, 295 Yule, Col. c.vcen ctvevccaccacesteracdestemnaeaem 286 Zz. Diingerle, M - aces pass deccacces cacceeneeaieae 293 INDEX OF A. Page. Sebo WIM GN Sens. | coe sho cake ad ate cisnie inclewatlem deine nas weniclasacie saune 282 mpel ta. report of, on test: apparatus ....0.0.<.525- 0c le cscs tentcccess 227 PERE UST OR GIA DALAUUA sco toe ae lta tel ccna wiciemiemmininac anicieia tes sliw seams 224 Absolute safety of illuminating oils .............- 222. ..-2-0-eceeeceeese- 216 Accumulation of stocks during census year .....--...-.....----------- 98, 140, 142 Pre KM RC ELITI Cees aeteiale) fo) nalsiciiic stain cteiditis cp cu'c cists diene acinisicicis beac eateweneies 284 PA CROMBIN BOLUM Ocemt cap cies csnin ve cp tveld ks Shes cibon cle caceleccin Met ee heme cule ae 284 PALCIOSIETIO, ACtON Of,,0N PATAINNG «5. oc0c0000 cen caenncecccmeecscweensce 59 FOE PROM TITOESS 2 ok oaee 9e e S 178 AmMursmipaAuto,action of, on parafine:=: . 226.2 tseseneace encase ococse 177 Acid, sulphuric, use of, in treating illuminating oils .............-.-..--- 187 IAOMATOLE ANIC OLCTRGS PEtLOlOUM. <2... .2ccccecncndeseemsicecacececcecee 57, 58 Pe Mae Cit VENNING POLCOLGMM oo scnicic ce cnciinie ccpaaieausinamciaciconsiessic 187 PMOmon OL OunerOn Saponitied CUS". 65 ...5ocsneseccneecencccssnsvcesiosecce 202 Action of petroleum on metals ...............--.--.--- Be eee fase Sites ie 59 Action of sunlight on petroleum products........-.-.-.----2------eee ee 59 Additive compounds of the benzole series .......-...--..--.-------.00-- 55, 185 BT TAME ae cies Again nsita Sodan dacs masccceeecdedeteccasee ces 163 en Ar OM POLrOLeUMiN LN PIANG 2.2 .-f- ccc cece ce dee tecsscceces 64 SSE ETEMORT TIO NM te None yee cas cere) cc Luccce weer secnsgeaceccrsercc sectce 25 cRa LER EDGR OUT ts eras oe ce ots onecn 4 escatiss otesca das cenincneicsccnces 25 IAP APTAT ON TLUMOM OL cocci cciccie wesc wsiccsaucicmcckicencaesscccseveccis 66 AIDANIG po ece-ciecwe ee Re fom are oe ccc vaieen ciotetineneeneceecese 282, 283 PENTA PAGUINORM Tc chon ac sccisicnic ess ca dcescsncdeescuscesdccngaciicesccee 32, 73 aaNet Ge P re eteoae SS ec Se meine vane cone seem s ¥onclcle sca ee See eee 19 Panvine a AolwOnt Tor Gleb Tenn Soke aE | ee ae 956 || Bitmmen in Washington territory ....-.....-+--+++---- sees sees eee ee nite 19 Beleinsune iin wella Qo hl Woe. ae a ey gg || Bitumen in West Virginia ........-...22+--2+--+ sees eeee ee eee eete ee eeee 19, 24 Benzole series ux petroleum: cc. e+ sence ween serene cer aaeGe ne settee ecenee 55 ape in lear Teme eT. 19 Berea Tit, pevroleum 1... mcs we wee = = ainie sists aa a awin/asse Seaclarstates ee 154 Meriatiby Of OUcsONG <2 05. 0c 3. = 5 -e-.eeee es pe Case eene ands terme eras 86 Capital employed in manufacture of petroleum...............----------- 187 SEED CUAMNILENOOLILOS = 22 coats Soo c'ewi cee ncionUsleciisea pe dertenme scenes 292 DEMME LOTMA Doce se hn clowns 2 Crane suas seus conse ad emeren cae Aas 240 CHA WEGNER: (OVE pat SR aes Se ei Ler RO PN A, Le ee 240 marvaremod gas; durability test of... 2:..0-<<6 20 see--neccnncetecceneeease 246 Cacbureuved cas, photometric test of. c.sscccoccs secees scececssseasscseus 246 Carburetted gas, specific gravity test of. ......-----s.20.-.0..-seeeeecene 246 PMOL MIR GULICR Lae an Ree omer me teeta ae a detatccletas cade taee 246 BASED ICOUDOY See ce acts ces ce Saedecs secweiaccstwisicssen AORSHOreKese coder nnes 246 PArLDULoLLOrs in tie Mehting Of Mills)... ee awe sce c sees sees a ecsickinn see 297 EMMA SOU OC COUS CO soo ac aiescnes coc c cscs since va scescnntinccev ccs nese 246 Maret TeGHMP TAG EMU rate eee eet ata arate clola|e\s\< = ninla/sinistnicistu's x « ciclsicie.sia:ciew bielelewsierseicis vias 146 Peele ee MO NENOOUINE WOLLS Iielelee lena cree e viseclser mca tesacseerisdcvascte 90 eee MOI Ol GARUS Sse fo os ccs sce cseceresseenie ca urcuesaccesseenciccacns 41 RO pee teen aia see Sswigtecwee scesee cee ace pipinemieeataisisceinesincisis sie oe 88 Raa nse ay DOUrO OUI MLGS ON sa. os sceccciccc qa gzotacesescemccmecescse sia 34 See IRCOADCREIN UR Voce cet ae ce ose Picts wis wince elena ceattelaisie sie se) aistelsix\keisfarsia a seleidianie 239 OraGkime espa. as ce cee seins sate neisties atalet od arat aed ge etnasiaaaie tiie « 161, 166, 178, 293 Crackin oot napnth aves cask ceete: meets seias ata sae state alee sate wee seme « 180 Crawford county, Pennsylvania, petroleum in..............-..----------- 22 Grawiordisnalosenmeeccn enatar cis te tae satin Ces nee eeinine ars catine am docals see iene 43 Oredit. balancesercn-t csc sc! cae sces schispcat ns ons mancies cdwce asic css acicmac 106 Crevaccous pPeuroleund IN tO seas ee sc owe es ce tan ceicoule= cca nine enna 38 Crevices;petrolowmiint co: 2 --e ees cake Us eics sw ele voles sewn aeieielpinielnte a winnie 52 Crimea eceee weet s oe altace pets chistes comma cre tema ae more wie were oreiaialelal=rs 240 (CrOss- Delis DUGIOD wen Cemetink see cutee ce bine alte omen a cits beware ele wicale ermaeere 45 Ormderpehrolounl wae eeeae ces ceesies Caristcss ces aces ok ine ear een paneina elem mies 108 Crude petroleum, chemical examination of ...-.-.-----------------+---+: 57 Crude petroleum, how transported.......------------------ee-eee seneee 187 CONDE. os een Bey Rak Side 9) 3 a tee em DAE Rohini ae) claw ea 299 eT DEDISD LAL Reie tate es cite ce ee nicest ae seminal awn ie Vataaiola)o snieiaiastelsin ovisid® 29, 72 Cuba, New York, oil-spring at -.-- 2222... -ccccewenncsccnnneeesenc-senece 8 CubanpetroleumL an Sein ese em ah nie oem anes scieee ose as mars «mi eae ak tana 29 Cubic foot of water, ounces in .............-.- sickais mw sncverateed tee nee earls an eeee 133 Cubic foot of water, pounds in.-... 2... 02... occ s ener eee ances nee eon ee- 133 Cubic inches in imperial gallon... sc. ccme scence coe ce cemes ses ceancces 133 Cubic inches in United States gallon .............2.--0-----2-0---+-seee 133 Curves of friction under varying conditions ..........-....-------------: 205 Cuyahoga valley, Ohio, petroleum in......------..--00----------0-------- 23 SWINE Ly OUR eee cies wn eicmmis sam iae a scien aan en Relate le ate atacaiaie ain ae 158, 189, 213 CvUINALI CALS LLLS peje cee es eenna ee sicininjene ue clas mininlem nic cing sien = 162 PONV OG ie Harta leis Ms tere a aeiciaicin wield theme cite Aman ee obtener 188 310 D. Page Daghestan, petroleum in ........ Secs ausecttcavesusecenae RSebobance: we 33 Dakota, petroleum in...................-+2- wae bneesenienessorsuedesassuae 26, 27 Dalmatia, DsUmMen IM seeevessecee see cea ees Sones bec cc sGcruaadaseeee 32 Dangerous oil-lamps..-.-..-.-. DNaeuesoeuisa\vana esmesehankensee= seescuebioaa 288 Maubréeon metamorphism=..--c.css seco ese seces ceca sreeessaeeeeee Sa5c03 67 Dead sea, ‘asphalt of: the:-* = -..c..-scccunsccneureceteassebeuce tee meee 4, 34, 282, 285 Degree, Baumé, specific gravity corresponding to each ......... OSH SCH _ 133 Delaware; bitamencin oo s.eses-scscccaccecces lac ces sa scelcere eT eeeEEaee 19 Deliveries We cea case n seeceercessccianwas= sencceeas dns sea a enteaeaneeen ee 109 Denmark; -bitumendns.ccsdsc. ccc -cccecsataes seas cclvenmenee teen ea een ents 31 Deodorized neutral hydrocarbon oil ............-.2...ecceneece ccc enenee 165, 189 Description Of rig -s.5-- vcsees = scar oe enir tes wn cee aceme desea e ree E = eeeeee 80 Destructive distillation... .......-----..0-----e+seece-oeennn+--secccencens 58, 160 Determination of value of lubricating oils by mechanical tests .......... 203 Development of oil territory 2. < oc. ccc cu ns. caceaecennseaneeuseaeeeereaee 75 Devonian shales, (N.S) Shaler on -<-5.5..0-----s-s--seseanssemeeeeseceon 69, 70 Diagram isccncu secs cuansweeeieen'siss ne heiiesms cle slc mines saGel sere a meres 204 Diapram 2 Oe stents otg tanec smces Sass wien ses tee a eocis es orn eee eee! 205 DIAPTAML 3 oeesesae ans ashe csncesennicconeekacaswicard'os price aan ennenttate . 208 Diamond ‘black; composition of : <<... 220. csceccescccseneesureweeeean ce : 244 Dinfensions of drilling-tools ~ oc cccccnscsvwscsucsconcosueseeeeesegererecs. 82 Dimensions Of tanks (incon. cccnscaessos cones sievse races stamtermareemescn 94 Dip of Venango third oil-sand! rico. 52-2 oon - oo stocecse ee eetnenurs tessa. 45 Dipped Ol eesteseco. cen sa shcecpetesulenwae secu er car lena anette nee ee nels 89 Distillate; Pennsylvania olla ssoscawacnss cccaceasearesceeeeetaeseeaeee se 71 Distillate, petroleum a..2..2.- .scscseneces sense siecceaseeeneeeasteece=- ws 65, 178 Distillation, continuous..........-...-.--eccee Spaces Binagalsicrscsoce 162 Distillation, destructive; s-.cssce pace ences sauce ace eeneeeneeecncmeee os cca 160 Distillation destructive of animal fats ...........--.-...0-----2--eeee eens 58 Distillation destructive of petroleum ........-..-..200.cacenccccee Lae 58 Distillation of California petroleum under pressure........-.--.--------- 184 Distillation of paraffine under pressure ..........-..2--22ececceccee cence 179 Distillation under pressure 2) 2-cscessecacs secs ap soene vcecacceccee becne 161 Dissociation J25S2n eestiok seman ete eweas cose salceecaatinedescmtcssceesces 179 Donath, Es on lubricating oils 2-s-psaserssseseestaesonsceees casas esse ee 195 Donath, E., on separation of paraffine from stearic acid .............-..- 177 Down Holland) Mossy petrolenm On aos sear ceceeeetetayeneeees -teecusccce 9, 30 Drilling-toolsis2< soos. sansncne ican ecmarescacenes tr eatase teascee ee eancccs « : 81 Drilling‘tools;"“weight of-22ec. cs-depmasiacaeeasansaseecaeakrs see a4 as s566 82 Drilling wells .ccc.wscvcs conse s coeur roserateceeesecer ss eethincse tecaes <5 82, 83 Drilling wella'wot72cc2- 20 areacessccceotsenerseeeere eecrcinsesesscss os 88 IDELVe-i pO lee eee om sce et ane eee e eleaetnte a eae ee ae einer eee e ane eee las < 83 Drive-pipe, ‘cost'of: cco sn-cs neecee ae secre ee rc dehieeusee ea rewsrcec sr cace 144 Dry -holes:in northern distriotit = c-ccaneroeeeaeeeseeeesuce sree cenes ce 14 Dry holes: in western district 22225 oo eccsecosssicssusasisesiaxicccsssnwices sais 14 Dufrénoy on bitumeniin Marvle -ccesseeee-eeeaseeceese ses ensese sins ss 66 Dug wells at Mecca, Ohio'.i2.: ccc cnaceres ates er errecettenrsrtsencaccss as 77 Dug wells at Tidioute, Pennsylvania ...............-------------+------- 77 Dug‘wells in Galicia 2222. > -stce<> secewnc ee ne me este teaeeaee ds cwleacue sls os 33 Dug wells'on Oilicreck, Pennsylvaniats--c--cncsseeeeses esas amy-a=ee ease 77 Dump: oll Sere ccsse reese ee eee ena aeree esac oeteepattnncen yhessemane as 105, 134 Dunkard Greek? ..5..0scnsestatcoscasehuwencackescrecssuucsctuawaiersecisteee 45 Duty on Russian oil ............-- Caeser acne naeacen she aasasarancseeoeees 154 E. Eames iron Process s<. ccesaceasvcuscceeseaceucee Eee SE Sanorisehs Seon 250, 297 Early history of; transportation .:..2.0--s+<0-ses0" = se edleeeee see sess ss asm 92 Harly methods: of distillation ass. c- oe dace secon sone ee eee te Roe eee 190 England, petroleum in ee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee INDEX TO REPORT ON PETROLEUM. Page. England, petroleum in, Aiken on.....-...... coveucsstenseeceastiog a aieaae 64 England, petroleum in; Binney Ons oes. o. ecoce seenasivessenceesycenneeee 64 Engler and Hass on test apparatus ...........2..-2------+ on ani aa eee 223 Engler’s test apparatus....---.--.---...-ccenerecceeenee Sones tee wosais 225 English petroleum act of 1862 cn ee. -nc en cosmessaneeces ss enee eee 287 Eocene, petroleum in. .....--.. scecssceccense nn cncnnesasevevceccosssase== 38 Hrdhar? ios. 220%: 0.02 cic coatee saa stesecinspiossioe os o0cse deen ts skeen 3 Brd0l on. vcs-ouesseccesdnnentscesedame ane dawt ss ncan's onan ne een 3 Hrdpeeh «225.5 coco spn se seerecisesnenenesce uses 4sou becuse de aaa anne 3 Erie county, Pennsylvania, fucoids in shales of ....-........-.----..---- 41 Erie county, Pennsylvania, petroleum in....................--2-5---eee- 22 Eruptive rocks, bitumen in..-..........-.....-.---... oo ocisisie sata eames 5 Estimate of petroleum in Niagara limestone ...........-..-.-+---------- 63 Ether, action of, on saponifiable oils... <<... cen occce sess enee seen 202 Tina. ivicesedsssacsse on meee vacaes obin jb osie We sine wale ciqa eae ee eee 241 Huphr ates; . oc ccc oja.cccceis sacucicine eoeceseaness see ss sis a auaae keene nee 3, 4, 34 Wapion 16 Galicia, ozokerite in.......... APA PN Oe CR Ne es te alee hard aeleneeine eras = 33 RRMA PALPORASYLOUT 10) eo cian pine ol caalalate inate winnie et ciainlca lace) aa eta diem wie elem sla 33, 72 Galicia, production of petroleum in....-. 2.20... .-2ces---ennn ene cesessese 77 aL IOientrAt ee hi ou sla. te tak eicwisce masa e sa ace Cons elec uin devs sa alenae 33 Galicia, statistics of petroleum in... .....2 2.0220 cece see eeee nee neenss 16 EAMG a ClCH BS) LOPOLE Ol, Jas eene ie cate caus was onlase onan eccnlansines sence 152 Gallon, imperial, cubic inches in ...........5..- 1-22. c eens ne en onto n nse ne 133 Gallon; imperial STAMS IN 62... c.cc. sta ceencencececonercnessasancnen=s 133 Ae CaaR Eee OUNCS Ulacwio aisle ae aicn we nel oaeme'cceteaais hennnee ao aidan e = 133 Gullons Umited states, cubic inches in... 2: 02. sss ccs cence weecsecnes 133 Crellon Msi bed SALES, OTAMS 112s. shane cls ome swale sce snscccutcececucseies 133 frallone Uiited stites, POUNGS Il... nace cee beea spss cccsescescnsuceue 133 Gallon, United States, pounds of oil in, at 60° F....-.. hee de cei ey os eae bis 133 Casscarpuretted, durability test of)... - 2...) cseteecicasscccasccsicassss 246 Gas, carburretted, photometric test of ..-.......2...--2.00.0--- sees cence 246 Gas, carburretted, specific gravity of ........-.....0-00..-.c0-sceseeessee 246 WneErOnh CEI NELTOLGMIM a .c-[- 22) eevis eicincelscs evs sews clsiseeie'sccecinneccsces 244 Pema TEAT AT) MADAM Foetal aa nie iniala a) sini ia'sis wisieieiaia aia aim orm clae Sle wince aelu'aiaiate'dis a's 245 ‘Gas from petroleum (Wren’s process) -..-..---.-----22e-eeee ee eseeeeeeee 299 Pee TRE UT TON eases a eee aie relal cw in ise shits 5 claim ae Sh eicinte 3, 4, 251 HOCK’ s Poiwoleum MOOR eee wel wat on venice saslsmmnciscdccem se cdees Lan 251 Horse Neck, West Virginia, geological section at ................ BEaERA 50 ELOT RCS US8;Ol) DELTOEUIM OD ee sem ae acer sas sales as ene aasaneioosllelaaiaaa ome 7 SARE derGaplone vessee per ay tee cate steers nierics emcee eel eine 43 Lime-burning with bitumen. 22.22 nace sees essen eco nehianee sue soe oe pee eee 251 Limestone; corniferons Wea cac2s0 oe eos oe eee eee eee ee ne tee sels ere 46 Limit. of legislation x: coe ccsacteca ro eee eet ewe att ieee ee ate eee 223 Limit of pressure permitting free lubrication.................--.---.---- 205 LIVING Garth s.cs0 cde scse counbad cave cient etaee sents cee ee meena tenes 34 Location'ot petroleum refinertes:.-.-2+5.s4seere ee teste e nee a eee eee eee 161 Location Of wellsice, .cusscecctergscctasece enews enett teen me ctas te cae 85 Louisiana, petroleum Ila. sces ceo sche cease onstage eRe ne tere 26 Lubricating’ ofl 2522 scnte-- cee sate sn otesas ance a eee as eee artes 195, 270, 277, 278 Lubricating oil analysis Otvsssecctetsccce asee ee se nee eee nr ee 201 Lubricating oil, apparatus for testing.-.....-....-0----cececescceeecccues 204, 206 Lubricating oil, calculus of friction of =o. «---22)- arose eee eee een aeen tees 207 Lubricating oil, chemical examination of ....-. ....-.....--------- dois ae cis ooh elem eae ee ee ee 21 Maltha, research on ....--.--------------22000 222222 - eee e eee eens SP orc 184 Management of pipe-lines.... <<. 6.502... scee sees cencne mens aeienee Eeeaee 105. Management of wells a... <2 2c.) ccs cone csv cvie = © heisicinn sep aiae eee 87 Manufacture of petroleum, capital invested in ...........-.-....-..-.-.. 187 Manufacture of petroleum, firms engaged in .......--..---...----------- 186. Manufacture of petroleum, labor employed in........--...-.------2----- 187 Mat). on cnsstewn caecmesie sacs cine siwelbieh mice mate, c:ajs micro x as ea sia are 82° Mechanical testa of lubricating oils .-...2...--. 4.05 j0< 2 >= eeuenena eee 204 Measurement of fluidity of oils <.-. 2-2. 6-2. 5.6 enn wane see eee eee 209° Mecca, ObiG: s.22 ice se does sceksconeee wed Qreeas 628 tole eg ae, 14 Mecca, Ohio, dug wells at... 1.5. tasetew ones. aeenteneemeeeae salons actaveetaeed 77 Mecoa, Ohio, petroleum. at ...-+.0-0s-eencess ooee tachesie get 12, 23: Medina county, Ohio, petroleum im-!-.-- <- 22.5.2. os meee eee 23 Melting point of paraffine .\..5...2scccn cow sqenreee sone sceane pene 176 Melting point:of petroleum, ointment. <6. 6. . oc ccc ce ceesee ene eee 254 Mendeljeff on the origin of petroleum ..........-:--04.0--ceccenascmesee 60 Metals, action of petroleum ON .<.0 65. occ. caemce mans ee eee eee 59 Motamorphism, Dawbrée on.s 2... 6062 oc. 5 econ ee occa eee eee 67 Methods of purifying paraffine. - 22.0. 26.2. es 5p ss ocelne cece ueene ames 286 Methods of testing illuminating oil <2 22-2... 6... ecoc eee eee 223 Moetrical carburettor... co.cc cccecsneccmetewctescsess ena sansa eee 246 Mercer county, Pennsylvania, petroleum in ............-.--..---------0 22 Morrill’s still. - 2-2. 50k ese scint sas wsemedessccpmasemtae esses ee 163 Mexico, bitumen im’... 65-2365 ns. nace heer en pe eee onn ee ae 28 Michigan, bitumen im <0... <2 see dsceceees-ce pees en ee eee 25 Michigan, petroleumiin, «6c scec~ ow «aj su ces ae hg eein'n eis ene Se 25 Microscopic character of Bradford third oil-sand...........--.....-.---- 41 Middlin 28 is. n6 sicccs cecawe vice sewccesaencoss see ee oscsms. seen eee 184 MGM Nigh tig oct oo. acs meeweslete cs ccemenitinne viawmien ancy ace eae ee 10 Mineral oils, effect of Roth’s test on .........-...------- sie ee eee 200 Mineral oils, value of, in cotton mulls. <-- 3... . oa ccna sna cccsclstccacnsccctnessncne 242 COTM AROLS WAL CEI GOVO = ebaccnstasasatones occenesceaon ets cisaasaine a 241 Natural gas of Vesuvius ...... 156, SRE ERS oe POCO, One am ee 242 Natural gas of West Bloomfield, New York .......--........+-.--+------ 241 Natural gas, pressure of..-.......- Aeeodchor SanB ARSE SOR cSt SSB SES 242 BURT ALE as DO WDE MOOG Dit cmecea-ccsacew awn meer ncenncdinwanansapeiieaa 242 NOH E RL OOO isis icles See aina Vann cease ta caus cao Oeksin aware Seae es eihaels 157 Neat’s-foot oil, specific gravity of........... Sean s Gants ain ce poet im a cael 197 Page. NODTOsKO, PEtOLGUM IN cess ss cuwacusanbecesiccee cee an ee eenete net meieas 2 ENOL SAS“ WOllS ie asnelseWapticcveses uiceccnce spanstwaetagmevtovcueniantectesien’ 243 NCLY 2ilLetanacaceecisenmcosac = acicdintensiccees odes ratte Eee ae 3 EN OUGPAL ONG canmeet cal anecon iene asa dncccetas4cshes aint este eee en atee me 165, 189 Nevada. ‘Ditumeny ince = cen ae conse teva toc tna ca dec ecco eae ee omer 19 Newberry, J.S., on petroleum as a distillate............2.-..----eneeecee 67 New Bruns WiGks aLbertte ten iesac oe oe asekietccccuseost con eens eee enone 74 WN GWLOUTC ANG POLOLeUIN AM mission) coe encine ea actensn ence teosestneneueses 28 NGWsLLampalinesDILNMen Ise ccrewct cerass-hcencecceresteeee cece Ones 19" ING Wid GrROV WDIUUIMON MMM etiane atiecsamaticacceatne sc eceel coe loas eee ates 19° New Mexico, asphalt in..... Dele mil dian slain ne seinen mintsinis' poe aaa nie me Semen nee Tae 20° New, Mexico, Maltha Int casncnanessccitcecs cece sitacw cneeceoe cnet rene tee 20 NGM MOxICO MOUOlONIb AN ean cacaschalsece ar asset cssacecese eee Seadede 26 NewAV-Ork, powoleumi ine scent etwas toneclces necldcoienet ccc ene ae 21 ING WOE MUIALemeeccr ac. Ualsccnnatc eaten we Baus sotece sents otne ce ete 240 ININGVOM an ak crea astiincc racine ne caawede acne auetiencareeninnate tose cenoas 4 NIisNHI-N OV LOTOO Sececce ace tmew se ccesGnccus dcaetecncocsceecu cacetensccse 15 Nitrogeniin petrolenmetanccsst.cceesen sr ersssars ce ee Sp SE HEO SEE SB BA GE 53 Noble:county: Ohio metrolowmMinas acces: cea cnerenceseessaceercceeecees 24 NOLECATOMN An DIGLM ONIN treccmie seine sae mercae naciatiaekcns doe ecttecucce 19 Number of wells in the Bradford district-..............0--ccccccccccenee 135 Number of wells in New York during the census year .................. 147 NOVEL OLE Wells NOL NCTO coach eases acoaa cess Recs casactncssanemsce cee 86° Oo. Occurrence(of ozokeritess.. cc a-sesceeioccdadcccetasceascactecmeesccccie 289" Ohiok bitwmMenwNs soc vases js dcwcceateescwes calbactesse cere s secrete cene eens 24 OMo na UTA PAs AN se cceaacnesadietecassaeanen sos one veaeae cere aki sae cee 24 Oilkam betwee ses cores pes snc conaceteaeccatsaenecewse wee ence enememeaee 10 Oil astral Fes sisseas oct na cccdsdedavec ncsavecduace cocsta eae tee ences see 221 Oil belGmeaserseesc re cd ars acedcenedataccacs scakecescetcabencecsaeet ene aes 41 Oil pericathtanticlinalsse.cssascssessasetasetestsree ace snes dace eceeeesene 38 Oil break of,W est Varginigtcccosscnsscsccsccatccescecs ne nseeececeseotees 37 Oil burmed/during census year sche tes scssccaseccussccscaqcaccsccmeeseae see 138 OIF Castoriescsscatac cen se cns coree ene dadedvaes cevanciesceceaewe es tesaeneee 157 Oil City Derrick oniwell St0GKB.scosos camstesetacecrsceses ocbu see sstenbees 135 Oiltoold-testaeccescestcoscscheces ba pucscebecccasscscansce cchortecers snes 104 OiliGreekteseaeneess cedeeeccce sews boas seme chawd be cuussesruaaceacuseeaeenes 5, 214 Oiloreek, dug wellson\-csstsccnsceVsnscdccsrectcevccevebotosccecesareees 77 OUFCylNGer cess atone ees tes wer asesises Hseecnaee cee coc lees tides ceseme alia 188, 189 Olt dipped@aaneesevsesseras taste aaieceancseasees SREP ORO IGOR O SC RAd BOSS cic 89 QOil¥ filtered’s 12S ietc se cameacracadecendacsdhesasewd oes oa stand satercae cess 167 Oilifireoniatreamsi.cccac- steeencdsacssess stospcsensecahensdessecascanees 8 OLE TAT MUN seed deestaencice sels acisic’ste vie ectte aaciatsiststn ais site e-scenacoutenccscsbercceterb ood soscaneeeoeCresmes 157 Oily neutral Pes ccercocdecscvotenscaae se Uaeoose cece tscosm nee sate cae see 165 Colvopaleecacscn ssn. Re aeceencae Senekb ere crns ce eu onndasseae tess eeu 157 OU) parading 2 cee. e ene se cece se ces ees sn weer senads ccvecwmebe dbier viseelss 170 OU plambaeorcasdeccsscasiemncccskerasscashyasecdansstaassinass esse esl ane 213 OilbrapOes. seesaw cos tea ctewes ea a sces ta sadsmn cee sa anee capcleae dee tet 157 ile reduced: seece cose ccsenewatcasdsesdédoesie ds cnccdsecdcestevaecJe nears 158 Oisand AhOwcssndscccsesasenlccsccsccssssn Senculions dense ereerctasadeses 86 OUP Seneca. tases sh nes cn ccs cao vc cv amaelskenaelsess waren acim sem 'slsasiee 253 Oil'shafisin Golleiaceececeecesccs en npeewa aa cen conte sweden ciecean hae es se 33 CU GIHAN Ge sees se cen ese sneee seek ea aeheanreanescastenseo saaees saeaen 253 OUP SUSI cost decease corece solves sa ceenebesces geccneivencunicicncs isi (qunes 13, 87 Oil, Smith's Ferry..-..-. eeaeese grrr tect cess cere ee eee eeeeee rene ere seen ees 107 Oil speriiessaeeeenrceeencccehes rab newas feccaenesisens arhdatsnasaacaep ses 157 Onl BpindlG Ucnecssece veces uces aubiowae sashas ave eric ae ieelomasn aunt sates ae 165. OAES prin nbc Osim OC Wek Ol hone creams seem aes esse et leanh aiaemw esa se sae = 8 Oil, steaming ..... Ba aaa see eeieeine wien ce serene cereal sere Saccseoceaen 100 ON StOLace Ol. sees sacaselsn dam eue nh scenn a aeaeke ete Senne raWcndecs ede sssmae 98 314 Page Oil, sunned ....------- 2. eee ee eee eee cence nent eee e ene ceee Ueameceture 158 Oil territory, development of .....--...-------- +--+ +--+ ee eee eee nese eee 75 Oil, transportation of Crude ...--.4 5.020. -0-- 202 eee nace cere en eweecees 187 AD], VACUUM 2.8 oe we cece cones cameo aicltr ess innueincee ssc smasiclalns bee eels ieee 168 Oil, Valean ... 020. ee ese s esa seenes ces cme se wncic snes se ccs awseshacaninnaaess 157 Oil) whale eascereaasescebe-ss-e ssn ee SRS Seba mnoney ert sa ae sees i 157 Oil wasted during. census year i. -dcsece-c shea. cc -2n5 -awlimwene seselsi ents 138 Oil wells'in' Galioia (oo. e nic atace naam ain as nim stefani a iia eae ere Le te 16 Old,Crittenden well <5... .s-ese recep esenc tees 60 Origin of petroleum; New berry on wqes- seers eee eee heen 4 acters oan 7 Origin of petrolonm notiwvolcaolGes sa enone coer ee cent eee ore eee 70 Origin of petroleum, Reichenbach on .222-2. 25 os-eesen seer esceecee ass 65 Origin of: petroleum; Whitney OMvecc 263-266 Ounces:in'a cubic foot of watersecs. sess see ckae et ese cae cen tenn cecehco : 133 Overtlow-of. burning tank cc sersske cee en stares aes poner e ce «02s ces 97 Oxidation of parafiine.<2-cecac-npereas sores eerrrere cere est ats +6 nese 58 Oxidation of petrolenm .-checaceeck oe re eee eee mere Ree tenes ick 58 Orokerite ict. cass sva sed veree etenees Meee teaer sean se tere cemecek se 34, 170, 289 Ozokerite in Galicia <..22.c-5shessmeee ad ae team eeie ei e we od Sie oma ote s 33 Ozokerite/in Utah 0.525.660 nse scien nme nwa seem aineanen ta ata an acne wiatele' 20 P, POCKOLB \oc5 seas cedagscensnasaaapene eee eeoe meee een eae ee eae aieeaes 85 Packing shes dsca ce cogeepinnciccenisas oa nee eee teene ee eee ee areca ee 163 PAaChingG-CAGOSs sone esccs seas secscasceakees seca s cuE er eelseamannae a akeete 188 Paraihne pesue ee cestceesawsccses ce oteeee ee cee oe eee eee eee ee 268, 283, 284, 286, 295 Paraiine, action of chlorine Olss..4-5-scee cece ae eee mena neta eee eens 286 Poraffine, action of nitric acid. on)... =a weekeaaaeace een cate aaee ee 59 Parafiine, action of sulphuric acid on........---...00---------eececeesenes ET Paraffine apparatus for filtering... nce seetee ae eee eee eee eetee nesses 174 Parafline, coloring! 2.4 0ncdeee ce rendes cece ae eee ee Eee eee 176 Parafiine, composition-of £2. css2s.cascseese= scene eee eee lee 185 Paraffind, crnde i525. 42528 5 seeds ee oe cas co eee ee eae cae 165 Pacaffine from! brown.coal and: peat..--...<-0s2cenee eee Cee aeeen seen eee ee 172 Poarattine'from Irish peat... 4---e-- ce sae eeesene beens eee ea 171 Paraffine from peat-tar ..............-.. aise Axbie as atwiels eee B Ree Es raetes 172 Parafiine injaya-- css hsassewssceseacmessecaseeeroe Peter pyle tee noe 298 Paraffine in-petroloumsi2.+0secowsancletoaclns cee eae ee ee eee 55, 171 Paraffiné in pharmacy 2222. 5.-+cceccsaen, look saat pee te eee ee eee eee 297 Parattine, John Fordred’s patent -.o--2sseeseuees sae oe eee eee 173 Paratline;-melting pont ol -c-oacesc-ceae scenes o/s ee ee eee ee ee 176 Parafiine, methods of purifying ..-.ssees cee -e se secs re eee eeee eee ee 286 Paraffine Oils os owese sos osces sa coemem ae ene sah cee aun e eT Ee eee 170, 190 PAratine olsspeciie eravity Olesen sess eae aan ee 196 PRarafiine ointment acss-acoree seear te aneee eae ate ee ee 254 Parafiine, preparation of <25.4<- teases senescent eee eee 173 Parafiine; properties o£; -cee cant barn ce ett ene eee eee eee 176 Paraffine, patifying cok ch eeset esos se eee ee eee oe 176 Paraffine, separation of, from stearic acid ..........--.------cenceeeeenee 177 Parafline S0ap ..).\4..0.0-5= ace wacaccacssease dupe aes saneqeeeee 296 PERE NaS UE TIRRAIE GTI SOMLZ oo siecle vislatn\e'ais(a a1n1sleialniniels)s aieiwisluloln «[auin'= v's unin ain’ in = sii 17 Potrolount Of Javaic-scsscdeecesacs cocscacocsoncacensdccecceedes sss senate 247, 287 Petroleum in Lawrence county, Pennsylvania..........-...--.---------- 25 wim etrolenm Ole Rormaniwuncccecicsiscee se Nocscns a sciicsacac= adden ceeiaetesnenee 284 AS MORI GUNEE OTIS vate o oie cia elnicsicis vos « clu nlein'sln einleieieinia s minis eleiewlnwisieivina sina acre Petroleum ot. Meco, Ohiote- wears accsae.cecescsocanecuenscasan sedan wenine 286 Petroleum in McKean county, Pennsylvania ....................-.------ 13, 21 Petroleum of: Michi Gane se ccnkcewlsechsidescivedepcaciescs = oom lL eLrolonm OLpe arming Ltaly meres oras decisis dulce cales ons aieaae siete oars 247 Petroleum in Michigan... .......22-2.200-0e+ceecescnenscccssscwecsensecs 25 || Petroleum of Pennsylvania distilled from Devonian shales...........-.- 69 Petroleum in Missouri... .........-.02...200. cnessnce serene nesnseccsese 2 Petroleum of Pennsylvania in Upper Devonian ......-.-...---..---.---- 41 EERO LETRA OLA VAS ia versinn'siaidsinein= = n/s ann ace emai wialcseimninescecssinacasas 335 eeetroleum. oF Santo Domingo: <5. ncesc ta: sine wee oameiel sees seuemse= 294 PPGGPOLGMIN TM MONtANDs0o<500-ccsecicuecaccceess fee aes teterel= Scanngcnidack 26 (Petroleum Of Schwab Weiler cies. cars ee asian nitete mate sieiel ele setetete one Sere 247 EPUroleuniin Morgan COUNTY, OWIOl ioc. cc ccemtee css ccescinseswecsascoes 245 |b etroloum of the Panjab accicc acoso sarcelim<'e'slcte-lulnle a /olltalslsialalalute wleieiatat stayatera 286, 294 eet MOUMne N CUULSK tacts caso mais icine eas oe csaleinls elniaice v cise elem ala.atinia esdnle 26 POtrolen Mm Ole Wiel achiai osmeslsmatem ecient aisieiceslscecia'sns scenae sicataatieaniee 291 (Per rOlommnily NeEWLOUNGlANG ..cccsaicasccicescesconsqecansvacenacecsese sss 28 || Petroleum of White Oak, West Virginia...... ....-...-.-2---sccccaseee 247 Petroleum in New Mexico.....-..-------- fae ee oaceacnnas pela sa weaseas 26pile Petroloum of; Zantecccscsesseice. eee eee eae eae aaa eee aes 291 eRe rOtHO TION GW OF Weer aeeiciceoaivis adie seisen'u odsiewiln eso ucewcwaisale arciae 21 Petroleum ointment, melting point of ...-......-..-.-.--..--++---------- 254 GEreleginiieN ODLG COUNTY. ODIO << seccnncecaeecusessascccnsewcsonsiascs en 24 Petroleum on Down Holland Moss iccsssces stan ccs css ca cesacessscssns 9 Sem One EeNNGy LY Aliases cissesens Seeeey seh omieraianineenjec= ania 21 Petroleum on Boyd’s creek, Kentucky .........-...--2-0----2---+---00e- 25 Petroleum in Persia ......-...-. Rieu cet wees css asgcalcicecensresiin dees ac: 251 || Petroleum on French CLOOK HenNSVLVALIA tn wise caecies ewinwcic wae apeiraceaciais abl PStrolenid In POPU. os. c ae cccnas eo er cecnceenesssensessesceucone --- 17,30 || Petroleum products as therapeutics. ...........-.-...2-----eeseee-eeeeee 253 Petroleum in rocks below the sea-level ........-..--------- Be netceainia nea SABE Petrplout Bly 6Ss.m. sae asst esa wae sence ease «cans sous Soapeleecdere= 250 Petroleum in Roumania..............- jEonagopbonceaecnetnns Sa vaseesectects Saieeeetroleum: under anticlinals..0--0\c-ces2 os ceo eslosas acl same sinehieemasiaes 52 Petroleum in Russia..-.-...-..- SPREE Ce BEC Oe SSA RRSoer CS SEASca aepedsod 14 2OTm ePotroleum wellsthe firstiscscee sce ssesses cs «sien science ham eee oeeetane 6, 11 Peprolonim in Santo Domingo... -- 5.6. sscascccccenesenebensses eeeaeaiaaie C0286) We retrolia, Ontario, natural pas ates. o--o- seine = |e leases eee iaelaeinee een 240 (Petroleum in southern California). < .- . << occ. coc osc n ccc cenencecacresaune 12 Petrolingsee scars ac co ten eee csiet tices aan duis nen ce e\dowina siete ym mine cmlas seein 168, 254 Peorormum in southern, Kentucky -<- hicia = (Reenaaehisoanile 283 Pitch lake of Trinidad .......... ane ure Gu nla orks biartlowwlxioe style miners mlalasslerarasis 29, 283 Petrneun 10 the vallev OL EOSCare oa sercwaelana ism es sme ceisinea's a cecnieaieide ASM mithOlo Redwood, Boverton, on test apparatus.......----...-- ees ee eres 235 || Section, geological, at Burning Springs, West Virginia ...............-. - 51 Receipts of crude petroleum at New York during the census year. .. 267, 268, 271 Section, geological, at Horse Neck, West Virginia........-.....--..-...- 50° Receipts of refined petroleum at New York during the census year. .267, 268, 271 Section, geological, at Laurel Fork Junction, West Virginia. ............ 51 Refining ernde’ naphtha ~ 2.546 meses tccnesuasceeuscr see cen eee eee ests 167 || Section, geological, at White Oak, West Virginia ...........-...-..-..-.- .50 Refining petroleum, acids used) in. Fon. .ceacs5-0-2 cle case ccen es weeeeeeeee 187 Section, geological, from Black Rock to Dunkard’s creek, Pennsylvania - 45 Refining petyolenm; alkalies msed.in 5-.cscescesee seers oeseamaeeeeeeneeees 187 Section, vertical, of Pennsylvania oil-bearing rocks .......-.........-.-- 46 Refining petroteum, fael used inis22 sed tea sSsecn ease ot ce ate seeeeen eames 187 || Section, vertical, of West Virginia “‘oil break” ..........-............- 2 49 Refineries, buildings atic.cud2 ue. 5: esos. foe ocean ae eee eee eae 162 Selligne’s Patents 2.2. asec eee ew eke eeew swerve ra cuecacssosdaa seek eae 169 Refineries; boilers at shave edsdvecios sve ce seat ease eee eee eee eee 190 Seneca oil ee se ee tava es sete cee bee neem es «sina taco yee ene 258, 261 Refineries; engines uséd ati c2ssseseaes seen se) Pes Secens ee cea ease ae eee 190"): ‘Seyssel, bitumen iat?t.222. scemecccsces coesunecescccescoccect cpen ean acee ane 31 Refineries; locationiol:sscosssts chores a eee ee ee ee 161 Shafts in’ Galicia. Gisess - Tease 97 RN eins ttn oan ann ele a eas aisle sp Sash Sons ga aisis wine eas yale aicate ie 253 SEM RLCICLOMAOHOMUN SG OL oaaaee a seh faces dcuitale cna lucinesiciontacenae 176 Silliman, B., jr., on petroleum of Oil creek, 1855 ......-......--..--2------ 53 Silliman, B., jr., research on California maltha ...................-----e0- 184 PIE MOLPOLOUNE IT URGw a son chas ac vacicmic «desea sicsccee sin aseieetecemet 37 Silurian, petroleum indigenous in rocks of..............-------0-200---e- 38, 62, 63 PRM ATLa! ON GEPOSitiON OF thO.. <2... < 0 -2 ee eee eee ee esee atte sees ss 254 Use of petrolenm:as fuel ec... ees seer eee emma ee ee ee ce. bavct es 247 Use of petroleum for illumination.............. SSS AROSE Gee Me 214 Use of petroleum for illumination in Burmah ....... Rea tee ck 214, 261 Use of petroleum for illumination in Japan ............2.--.0cee--e-ees 214 Use of petroleum for illumination in Persia .............-..-22022- scene 214 Use of petroleum for illumination on Oil creek .............---..-------- 214 Use'of petrolouny for scaban cnttle.--2-s-e--ees. cence oe seceeteecensseeas 253 Use'of-potroleum in bronchitisie.s:.-2 2s +t -ckeee cenceeeee ee eeeteeceeses 253 Use of petroleuin in consumption.............--.-.---ceoc-tecse PAS ose 253 Use of petroleum in Galicia ..............-- seein inte ain nin ela ater eee oon 261 Use of; petroleum in glass-housos sass een cee ceee ates eeeeet meee eee eee 251 Use, of petroleain invmedicine cs. .2 cess ee carce Soe eee ee ee eee 252 Use of petroleum in rheumatism -cassesese ence es ee eeene rae se eeeee cece c 253 Mae: of, petroleum on: Horses,..-. <0 o-sece ee ne ee oe eae eee nee ee 7 Use of petrolenm ‘on vines').2.22 se eeece seneie ce oe eee ne eee ee ae a 252 Use of petreleum to destroy vermin..............-.------ Sate ChodAe 252 Use of the word parafiinein Pngland oecscer ses coerce eaten eee eee 178 Utah, ‘bitumen in 22. scene scene tucide seam core ete Sete Seen eee eere 20 Utah, grahamite in .......-...-.ceeseeecee- a a eee 20 Dtabyfozokerite:in .-cs sos c0 es cence etre ren See ce Ee ee ee 20 Ungnentnm: Paratiini tse: : ss-acaetes. 2 eee oe Coenen eee Boke 254 Unsaturated carbides from American petroleum ..............-..---.--- 56 Unstable character of California petroleum .............--------eeee---- 69 Vv. MaCUMM OS e524 esi de laecseenee see sees ls deen eee etn Teme ean ee ae 168 Vacouin stillet. 200 esec shots sameeren en meaties at oe eens assess 163 | e INDEX TO REPORT ON PETROLEUM. VAQTIAS ~ 222 oe ene cen nee one sewn ein nites cme nec meee ere mercmemeneansreenns Vial GecUravers o.. cnn. sonnei nem te emaet wenn ery acest Meese eerie Viale of engines And DOUG ec acre tie aasertele win = alle te ieee letter eee Valune‘of land in) Pennsylvanian cnr an cies esos aie olen nee olaeaiy elele nee sneer WaluGiOk Ligs iss .c ec wen ns scan oejeemieiminic eleirieian eerie == min sta mieein (Ga sie oes ae Varieties of petroleum, commercial 12. lu.sce.-0cs2ees se ana sass see peewee IViGSCLING \yi5 so cle ise = nea mine ie gala min nee terete tee oleae ole tt ee ee 168 Vaseline in compounded ointments:. csc. ce- ee cee cn coe eerie ee eee Venango county, Pennsylvania, petroleum in............----------++---- Venango oil-sands.....-....-..-.-.. g eiiaht foie oe ae a 6asc,aiei/e, as 5 etalon ee ete Venango oil-sands, dip Of cocci. scccectmts Evin ss © = <1 iss eno es aie ae seal eeeeee Venango oil-sands, elevation of, above sea-level ......-.------.--------%. Venezuela, petrolemm im. toe ieee ccwe readin ser emeiies pales aaa eee eee Vermont, bitumen in’ yas. ..ccteeu se teense ee yc es ams aces cic eee teen Viscosity of lubricating oil 2: -- 7.2. on. aloes «aca ous nae ee aeeee en eeeane Vohl on paraffine from brown coal and peat.......-....--s..ee-c- se -ecnns Vohl on sulphur in illuminating oil... 22.2.0 --..--se en eee Volatile material in lubricating oil. <0. <2 2 eo ese «cen ecisnine eee eee eeae Voleanic action and natural gas Voleanic action, petroleum not a product of ........-0-.-00202+ecennscnee ee ee ee es Vulean of) scccr econ nkwkccedcswawesccees oralece oan mbinnaip cine een Wagner, R. v., on the separation of paraffine from stearic acid ..-........ Woalking-beam «...2. ccs su secsce esestcaseecease ctccino awa e vecarita stam Wall on petroleum in Trinidad 2:22. coe ne so5- sos ces eaaee sine eee Wallachia, natural gagiin .<. 2.0 << oesc2. sm eeis ewes encalalp winnie ='a ikea eee eee Wallachia,: petroleum in. <<... ani wab a nesinsismesyaena~ ons eeisia's 91 Yy Wells, production of, in Bradford district ...........--..-----cceeeeeeee- 135 Yeuangyouig 7 Fi RMAC MOM MUSKINGUM, «..ccsasccrsnrerleanscesecsiernwes deasinwscceeas 7 She wa Mg e les C BWA eed been ieee a, oo A PViGlG Ol wells eee camerteaeesimetacmes kate cece esise sie siesc'ean d= san sae ask 89 RLS SE SSR hale ise aii gatos dak aa iy Young, James, jr., patent of 161 Wells, use of benzine in ............. Ronee tee ere teteece se sece se ncnene- 89 oi tenes it Mee at hehe eLearn erg figs elo. eo, DUE NIOLOL O Ltn aisles nic cuincicicesedasccescatoecnspecscceucbinn saccea SmenaaHe 89 Z. DW MOIGIQE See caccecneaans cewcccecests FSG SCD DCEO 4 COLCA DOE Bneaee case 157 WBCYRUNUS fen ea ene en aceest as nase cess melee nee eie aa man wae wont sss eaeas vale VWihiGs), TRU Wels AGA AS ge Cee aero SOUGEECOM SAE agescocee sen ea 81 ZADLOVMIUNMOM AN ewes acess senda aenccceresserss as Sauce anisasemee. eek a 7 32 wes Fa ein ths - ‘ % . . ’ = . . , ft ‘ *y . / i a) 1 I . ‘ Ae . , ¥ ’ qf ¥ ’ Ii, 1; 1? (0) Jey, Ds ON THE MeCN UE ACTURH OF COKE. BY UR@) Sy COMBE OWA AI ER SE SPECIAL AGENT. Bee - f « f . \ . i - - phan me ay gi a ; > i ae ; 44 4 / “ * 9 i. . ‘ ‘ % 5 * ' : { , pe 4 * ir \ ¢ \ Sa 2 ; ;" oh , + r ‘ vj x “° ; a Sh a } a oan ; LA die “uy bag | ao ‘ Pet Wy 7 guy Fy ee lal - a St, tek ieee Tee) Pe Lae : ig foie “ul ante Pe ah Lu a i , : 4 wy tthe * Thai ri , Nee wiry eee tte ot rag 7 ‘ me, « ’ th) 7 cary i . — : Siu * 4 4; ee Ne ny ot to i" ar » As Ay . : Ve ! { 2 - »" 4 a . ‘ « ; , - 7 \ ‘ - ’ « it t need . an if he LEMONS I Shae ah ®: ye = i - | . oe -—~, 7 ; & i] : ‘ t ' \ + ° i ’ v ' sua ane ‘ - ie ;*o Af 4 ( Petrie VAR Ja ve ¥ o" | hae q . ain } Kear i i ‘oe yy a ua is oe Pi a7 ie Ba ge a i > (ae AY f a WP : Pts “~ + ei os ‘ ‘1 et , t ia * i ae rt - , -4 = " - ; x * . ‘ I ’ a be p , ee Le are ar vn ets oy SEI SaEE EI Stone ira nab rset panne eee eh Mt EAE I teeta eae ERE NTO SIS CLUTUI te Aig one nas 6 ey Oe ete ee in aches hard wm pcre iin y wens nfl fee: Kann wdisicuinanamice ene deen Statistics of establishments at which coke was made in the census year 1879-’80 ..........------22 2-2-2 - eee ee eee ee eee acs itcusiny NaGhnc Okey aSAn ULa CULE cc ee cece ss clrale cen tine coiionc tie wine sce eccpecicwlieeccli-sich.¢ = acces oa Suu seebuae eer (COPD corm onc a8oh a ESE RStias GSS ASST CAS a CSD ol ae SEES See ee en ei et en es Peay S eeeee Nn Dolethdeknid sr Ole OVENS mre criceticola oe sae we ba nh oo Solas ccc bee a ee ence snaceet loeb E ds kue See See aeeee Bee roa TOLN Clap na LEO VON sae tee ete ery tere ner irat Cmn ce Men ue yee OL a We tI), icjs ocie mnindaidle Siw rapide wizie ole Sse e seus ciate Statement of number of coke cars, locomotives, and miles of railroad track at coke works of United States, May 31, 1880- WMG! CEVA RES he eats A A os ol ee SES Se ae BU Tee a ag ners en Oe ae 2 oN PR Reed eh Ge Wages and earnings ....-..-- Sao Mb See RES c ASCO MER ABRs 4 Apia A a oa oe te nai a ee ag ee ee ee Fate ee om aeRO SEChian Tyee VION b eee eee ee atone tee crete Sate cla aaeee one mieten ale See Site tics Eoclded ced cece tant cs eee ase dslgccsleno cal Nigiinan yy OF (IRRMAD sess Jo8 Sebo Soa sokoEe SES EEC ah Se UaGILOAS SLO GHB ete SGSSCESt ct DOI SE EAE East SR si ata Rear yaaa sys Pammnyears ombive tank in produetion of the several states and COUNLICS_ oes aceite Cewcse cowesnewaded avwe sacaes actlwe cada dededh ede cam ede wear PUNE eeLAG Cnty its VV OSG. V ALCIN IA. oon cates n= ot ae oe oe Ghee asa e tice seve cues cccccdsdiwae veduessepwetascess SeNesrmesm owes MOP a OMB DEY a0 IPLANIG ces enc oye mene cae Coc en a rae dos toe ine ncmsed eves ceveanenesccecns seb ccdieues pens avenuacxsecs eres CECILY Cp ant eps eee te eis aul dae Cents cae neces cea ssee wesc c deact sicusvrnawcsebeetocaas acne saba'ees iMhecokemdnstry in Tenness6dsc-as-2ac-cececs verclstceccse ces cite ate oo erat tale minions Set oeia cette cae te coin aceine mee seals FU RCOn MnO ase eRe A RUA Roe coo ove cay Saas see tw ob cela so RSs nv ne dana coe sec'sedndee Kenta eso ersn cuss sonebs ared.ose ten Ue ORAL E OA At CLOCROIN ie asa caress cia dessus a ein sles ee shee) ad nien's wobiemneep'n amaincnn Used cane sacnktes onesmamnswiascden & Ne CG Gr CL UMEP SR IEO NOSAUA Mee eee Nee oer ons a tebe coheed scadecesee sasensacdsusKiuaed saeessindepe sine creeches PEG ROm artic ie Gr Cairn OIE ere he dele «car eo vas cls Ge eset as ches mire woe tance «nce tuk ombienesitaapiad sneeGauleewdwase baecns THO COORG IDUUELE al COOP GN oo ete a cot fd oa tae cad vegcde hich hp hededssqddeciswactascacen SNE hy CREE ED Oe EEE The coke industry in Utah ..-........ Le Se ny cee Os Mae eee tN ae te | Dot Go rae tense ot wees paces caetac a on CORGANOUSEC WIN NOU MLOSIOUIS Cert vcr cancaua taser teak cove sole Ges psmrne. spe cesidses scetanneina denn aveeesipevecd'cuceasce DBOOQAaWt® &® WwW co COKING IN EUROPE History of coke in England Coking in Great Britain and Ireland Coking in Belgium Coking in France Coking in Germany Coking in Austria-Hungary COAL, COAL-WASHING, ETC Coking and non-coking coal ‘OVENS Coking in piles Cokine in open kilns The bee-hive oven The Belgian or flue oven Special adaptations of each form of oven The utilization of waste products TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part III. ee ee ee Se ee ee ee ee et ee ee ee et ee ee ee ee Coking in other European countries J2o0en cree saesc cen enc cse woe c «ncn ches caenes secs o=ueai ve aun eees saad ee: can Coal-washing Coke as a blast-furnace fuel Part IV. eee mee wee ee ee ee ee ee ee ew eee ewe ee ee Oe ee ee ee ee ee oe British coking coals «Goo e eas nase ame ee ee (enint ewie'n w 0 alan cnc [amm meiste fore ain eee ova ciate a ere eae ei aaron er Coking coalsioiethe continent ofUlope ee merce ia sins ole sia mate alnie teeta a erate eae tee area ee een rate eee AN aly Res Of ABUrO pean INGUStrIBMCO KGS telecine - soe ssea ante cies saa ere miele ceereletee aete eet Properties and composition of coke / Analyses:of Huropean cokes 22-2522 lie sec sec poe ces esecsbes cecscclesiener Obie’ came saa e) «als\cwiduee set Steere eee Analyses*of American‘industrial cokes <2. = - 5 ~-5 <<-s-2 5. tae saeee ee eee ees amine ce . samen oe ee ee eee 21. 22. 23. i ; o4. The Siemens-Carvés oven ....-..-. -20. soeece sees 25. 26. 82-106 100 105 106 Page. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. PITTSBURGH, PA., February 15, 1883. Hon. ©. W. SEATON, Superintendent of Census. Str: I have the honor to forward you herewith my final report upon the manufacture of coke in the United States in the census year 1880. This report embraces the complete statistics of: the production of coke during that year, together with such information regarding the characteristics of the works, materials used, and labor employed as could be obtained. These are supplemented by such statements and explanations as seemed necessary to the correct understanding of the statistics. Considerable attention has also been given to the history of coke, both in this country and in Europe, as well as to such technical information as promised to add to the value of the report. | It should be carefully noted that this report inciudes only the statistics of that coke which was manufactured as a direct product, and not that produced in connection with the manufacture of gas. There is only one possible exception to this statement, which is noted in its proper place in the report. The manufacture of coke is so intimately connected with the manufacture of pig-iron that its history is virtually a history of the manufacture of coke pig-iron, while the value of different cokes and of different methods of coking depends largely upon the adaptability of the coke to furnace use. The reason of this will be evident when it is known that more than four-fifths of all the coke manufactured is used in the production of pig-iron. This will explain the constant reference to pig-iron and blast furnaces in this report. In view of the great variety of coal in this country adapted to the manufacture of coke, some statements regarding the different ovens in use and the results obtained in other countries with various ovens using different kinds of coal have been given, which I trust will be of importance in certain sections of the country. I have also given very full information as to the methods employed in the utilization of the waste products of coking. In the historical and technical part of this report I have relied for information to some extent upon standard works, as well as upon fragmentary statements scattered through various publications. In most cases I have given in the body of the report the authority for the statements made, but it is no more than just to mention here my especial obligations to The Iron Age, of New York, The Colliery Guardian and Engineering, of London, England, among journals, and Percy’s standard work, Metallurgy, volume Fuel, Jordan’s Album of Metallurgy, and Mr. Richard Meade’s The Coal and Iron Industries of the United Kingdom, among standard works. I also desire in a very especial manner to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. John Fulton, mining engineer of the Cambria Iron Company, to whom I am indebted, not only for permission to make use of extracts from the admirable papers published by him in the reports of the second geological survey of Pennsylvania, but also for the revision of certain chapters of this report and for very valuable suggestions and information. My thanks are also due to Major Jed. Hotchkiss, of Staunton, Virginia, Mr. I. Lowthian Bell, Mr. Charles Wheeler, and My. Richard Meade, of England, M. Max Goebel, of Belgium, and Dr. Herman Wedding, of Germany, for valuable information. r In the collection and compilation of these statistics I have had the intelligent assistance of Mr. 8. C. Armstrong and Miss C. V. Young, of my office. I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, JOS. D. WEEKS, Special Agent. | \é : ax e 5 ——. 7 i «a » » a | ~ Le, at % * = ’ cal - ry nd oe, a i ™~ oe i . ‘"l is ® | , * sa ; ' 7 J . ‘ “ tia é : * A > dhe 7 Pee 4 aS : cS 7 of ids . ; ‘ ° = = 6 e ; } 4 ; Sail? " 7 ‘/ es * “7 “ - ’ i i pan te * ' a3 — 7 - , 7 = ae ‘ ‘ aS ho 4 a 3 4 : i i ~ mn? ' al if 9. . ; . e 4 J é r Tay pay” 7” - =_ ; . a Tere 4 3 - 2 Ld i) > ><: - oa? * : - * _ - ' ° hd is 7 all -— ; = 4 , , = - °° r ‘ . yaa | ° ' = #h» : . > . ' - Ar =] 5 = F * 4 , q 24 - ’ ‘ ; a ‘ s . i bis - , ; F ’ Kil > 7 ’ ' = ¢ ar ic ae 4 A : . : ey ime - me e z 7" - s i‘ ‘ oe evs “ i . sci pe™ & ne S _ i iy | 7 o00toh 2 le SpE eo 7 ri ; : ° ‘ J P ar yt A ee Maes es 5 i, Are . Fy _ ij i 7a s Y =| o = ‘ih abet fj j ity eo Via oe MREM Ae Byres a: 2 ral - j Lo ) i | + "1 a ‘i ? ot ee “i * A < : j ae ye , : | ete Pe Ly i - E { 7 “ ooo ae 2 7 . ' : 5 x oi i . - bs . F % RE ar ci ae ; » * ; ft J . = a i. ‘ y » ; a “ ay 4 Part I—STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF COKE. SCOPE OF REPORT. In this report and its accompanying tables the word “coke” is used in a restricted sense, including only that coke made from bituminous coal, in ovens, pits, or “on the ground”, and which, for convenience, may be termed “oven coke”. ‘Gas coke” so called, or that which is a residual product of the manufacture of gas, is in no case included. An apparent exception is the coke of the Consolidated Gas Company, of Pittsburgh, which is made in bee-hive ovens, and is, therefore, a true oven coke. The gases escaping during its manufacture, however, are collected and utilized for lighting purposes, instead of being allowed to waste into the air. By reason of this omission of “ gas coke” the total of coke consumed in the United States, as shown by the fuel tables of the census, will not correspond with the total production of coke as shown in this report, the fuel tables showing the consumption of both oven and gas coke. It is also to be noticed that, though there is a most intimate connection between the mining of coal and its manufacture into coke, this report covers only the latter industry. The coal-mining connected with coke manufacture is regarded as a separate industry, just as the mining of iron ore is an industry distinct from the manufacture of pig-iron. The statistics of such mining are not, therefore, except incidentally, included in this report. The coal is considered as material, and is so tabulated. To this statement there is no exception, not even in reporting concerning those establishments where all the coal mined is manufactured into coke and where the coal mines and coke works are virtually one establishment. The statements of capital, employés, wages, etc., relate only to the coke works. As illustrative, however, of the extent of the coke industry, some facts regarding the coal mines connected with coke works are given, but they are carefully separated from the figures regarding the latter. In treating of coal as a material for the manufacture of coke it has been thought best to include some general statements regarding the character of our coking coals, but these statements have been for the most part confined to those deposits of coal which were actually used in the manufacture of coke in the census year. No attempt has been made to show the extent of the deposits of coking coal in the United States. It should also be distinctly understood that from the statements and statistics given in this report it is not possible to ascertain, even approximately, what have been the profits of coke-making in the United States. 62.2222 202 scecd ccccce wceces esslsercsecece ccess 140, 922 Capital invested in coal works connected with coke works that fade cokennil879—S0bese-caceemcee oe tes $10, 903, 541 LOCALITIES IN WHICH COKE WAS MANUFACTURED. Though coke was an article of manufacture in this country some years prior to 1850, it is not found enumerated among its manufactures until the census of that year, the very small amount returned being all credited to Pennsylvania. The published volume of statistics of manufactures for that census gives no indication as to the localities in the state where the works making this coke were situated, but an examination of the original returns shows that oven coke was made in Allegheny and Fayette counties. It is very probable that coke was also made in other localities in Pennsylvania, and some in Maryland and Ohio, and possibly in Virginia. The census contains no record of coke so made, and it may have been returned as bituminous coal. At the census of 1860 coke is returned as made in Allegheny, Cambria, Clarion, and Fayette counties, Pennsylvania. These counties are respectively in the Pittsburgh, Allegheny Mountain, Allegheny River, and Connellsville districts, so that at that date what are now the chief coke-producing regions of Pennsylvania were engaged in its manufacture. A remark similar to that made concerning the statistics of 1850 is also applicable to those of 1860, as coke was doubtless made in other counties of Pennsylvania than those named. Jn a work published in Pittsburgh in 857 (a) the statement is made: The coke-iron consumed by the manufacturers of Pittsburgh is at present obtained both from a distance and from the neighborhood. The metal of this description made from the fossil ores of the central counties of Pennsylvania is excellent for castings. * * * From the neighboring counties of Fayette, Cambria, Beaver, Mercer, and Lawrence coke metal is now brought to Pittsburgh. a Pittsburgh As It Is, by George H. Thurston (Pittsburgh, 1857), page 103. 4 , MANUFACTURE OF COKE. This would add Beaver, Mercer, and Lawrence counties to the coke-producing sections of Pennsylvania. The Clinton furnace, at Pittsburgh, working entirely with coke as a fuel, was also blown in during the fall of 1859, and though small, its consumption of coke would have been a considerable proportion of that reported made in the census year 1860. Altogether, the indications are that the returns for 1860 are very incomplete, as they omit many localities at which coke was made, and fail to report much that was made, or do not report it as coke. In 1870 Ohio for the first time appears in the census as a manufacturer of coke, it being made in Hamilton, Jefferson, and Tuscarawas counties. The coke made in Hamilton county was probably made from the screenings gathered from the different coal-yards. In this year, according to the report, coke was made in Pennsylvania in Allegheny, Armstrong, Cambria, Clarion, and Fayette counties, Armstrong being the only county in which coke was reported as made at the Ninth Census in which it was not reported as made at the Highth. In the census of 1880 it will be noticed that coke is reported as being manufactured in nine states: Alabama, Colorado, Georgia, Hlinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia. Two establishments for the manufacture of coke are reported in Virginia near Richmond, but no coke was made in this state in the census year 1879-80. Under the head of “Relative productive rank of the several states and counties” are given the details concerning the several localities at the Tenth Census. From an inspection of the map accompanying this report and a comparison of the figures given in the tables _ showing the localities and production it will be seen that the coke-producing belt of the country is the bituminous coal-measures of the Appalachian chain. Beginning very nearly at the extreme northern point of the Allegheny mountains in Pennsylvania, the coke ovens follow this range of the Appalachians nearly to their southern limit, at Huntsville, Alabama. Outside the limit of this region the make of coke in the census year was but 26,600 tons out of a total of 2,752,475, or less than 1 per cent. It will also be noticed that the center of production is the Connellsville region of Pennyslvania. é No doubt coke in considerable quantities will be manufactured in the future in other states. Already there is promise of this in certain sections of Ulinois and in Colorado, but for many years it is probable that the bulk of the coke of the country will be produced along the Allegheny Mountain range from the coal-measures of which such a large percentage is now supplied. CAPITAL. The capital invested in coke works, including that in ovens and appurtenances, buildings, ete., and employed in the coke business, but not including any of the capital properly belonging to the coal-mining part of coke-making, in the census year 1879-80 was $5,545,058. This amount, however, does not fairly represent the amount of capital invested in the coke business of the country. Though in this investigation the statistics of the mining of coal for the manufacture of coke have not been included, it is nevertheless true that the capital invested at the mines which supply coal to the coke works is in many instances invested in them solely for the production of coke, and the capital employed at such mines should properly be included with that invested in the manufacture of coke as returned to the special agent. In Fayette and Westmoreland counties, Pennsylvania, the entire product of the mines at the coke works is, with the exception of a small percentage, made into coke. Sales of coal, as coai, are very rare, and are only made under exceptional circumstances, and probably did not equal 1 per cent. ot the product in the census year, though it is larger in other years. In stating the capital invested in the manufacture of coke it would be necessary, therefore, in order to show fairly the total of this capital, to add to that given in the tables of coke manufacture the amount of capital invested in the coal mines at coke works. This was $13,060,041, which would make the total capital invested in the manufacture of coke as follows: Total capital invested in coal works supplying coal to coke works..........-...--. .--.-.--c+seces---- $13, 060, 041 Total capital invested in works for the manufacture of coke....221 222 225. eee oes cee eee see eee eee 5, 545, 058 Total invested in’ the manufactnre‘ofieoke.cs.-: conc. cet eee ee ee eee eee 18, 605, 099 A large part of this total is invested in coal lands. There are connected with coal mines that furnish coal for the manufacture of coke 158,683 acres of coal lands, the value of this land varying from $100 or less to $800 an acre, according to its locality. NUMBER AND KINDS OF OVENS. The total number of ovens, and the number of each kind built and building in the United States May 31, 1880, was as follows: F , Pits and Bee-hive. Belgian. Other forms. nana: Total. Ovetis built May/81;21880 vs. fee coe ote ctr eee ee eee te ee | 9, 728 316 30 42 10, 116 Ovens building May:31; 880 2222, oe cece) oc eee cre oe ee eee DOSS een aan cette ces BO ceca esseceme 2, 163 Lotal builtand-butlding May 31; 1380s22. sseses oder eeen eee ene neceee nese eens | 11, 811 316 110 42 12, 279 — Fig. 1.—THE COKE-PRODUCING BELT. ; vs ) is Aly ae Le : ow zee me By highs j re i“ if i ge ok “a - é a MANUFACTURE OF COKE. D The 316 Belgian ovens include a number of varieties, but are all constructed on the Belgian plan, with flues in the bottom or sides, or both. ‘The other forms are a modification of the bee-hive, and resemble the oven used in Wales. They are known as the “Tunnel, or English drag”. The report on pits or mounds must necessarily be very ufsatisfactory, the number used varying with the demand for coke. In seasons of great demand the number at old works—not only at those where only pits and mounds are used, but sometimes at those where usually all the coke made is burned in ovens—is largely increased, and in addition coke is made in mounds at coal works that do not make coke except at these times of increased demand. With a falling off of demand the number is reduced. As they are so variable in number and are not as permanent as ovens, no satisfactory report can be made of the numbcrin use. Those given in the table may be regarded as the number reported in use May 31, 1880. There are no statements in the census reports of previous years showing the number of ovens in existence at the dates of the reports, nor are exact data obtainable from other sources. A work published at Pittsburgh in 1870 (a) gives the number of coke ovens in Pittsburgh and vicinity in active operation in 1855 as 100. The same work states that— In 1870 what are termed city coke ovens number 273. In addition to these there is a number of ovens owned by manufacturers, who consume their own material, or, in other words, mine their own coal and make their own coke. The Connellsville coke ovens, the product of which is in universal demand throughout the West, number 790. (b) This would give a total of 1,063 reported in the Pittsburgh and Connellsville districts. From other information it would appear that the number of ovens in western Pennsylvania in 1870 was not far from 1,200. Of the coke reported as manufactured in the census year 186970, 92 per cent. was reported as manufactured in Pennsylvania, all of which was made in western Pennsylvania. Ninety-four per cent. of the persons employed were employed in the same locality, and the relations of capital invested, wages paid, and material used are about the same. All of these facts would lead to the belief that the number of coke ovens in the United States at the census of 1870 did not exceed 1,300, all of which were of the bee-hive pattern. In addition to that made in ovens, some coke was made in pits and mounds in 1870. Much of that produced in the Allegheny Mountain region of Pennsylvania was so burned. [have not been able to procure any satisfactory information regarding the number of ovens in use in either 1860 or 1850. PLANT OTHER THAN OVENS. As before stated, there are connected with the coal mines that furnish coal for the manufacture of coke 158,683 acres of coal land. This does not, however, represent the amount of coal land from which good coking coal can be mined, but only that attached to ovens, or the acreage of the various tracts of coal from which at the close of the last census year supplies of coal for coking were drawn. Of the plant used at coal mines which supply coal to ovens, the data, for reasons elsewhere given, are not complete enough to justify any statement. There were 4,360,110 tons of coal and slack used in the manufacture of coke. From a comparison of this with the statistics of bituminous coal produced some rough idea of the proportion of the bituminous coal-plant used in the supply of coal to coke works can be obtained. The amount of bituminous coal produced as a regular product in the census year was 41,860,055 tons; the percentage of this used in the manufacture of coke was therefore 10§ per cent. This proportion of the capital, employés, wages paid, material used, and other items entering into the report on bituminous coal should therefore be regarded as employed or paid in connection with the production of bituminous coal for manufacture into coke. There were in use at 28 coke works 38 coal-washers. Of these 38 washers, 12 are reported as Stutz’s patent, 8 as Diescher’s, 4 as Endres’, 4 as Hybrid, 2 as Plunger—one of which has 4 jigs and the other 2; 2 as Lauders’, each with four compartments; 1 as Osterspey’s, with 14 jigs, and 1 each of the following: Slush, Common, Bradford, Waverly Coal Company’s, and Floating Trough. There were also in use by coke works 20 locomotives, 1,703 coke cars, and 26.37 miles of railroad track. These are exclusive of locomotives, cars, and track that are properly credited to the coal mines. The coke cars do not include the “ larries ”, or cars in which the coal is run to the ovens, but only the cars used for transporting coke over railroads to consumers. The ownership of these cars by the works has been found necessary to secure prompt shipment, though only a portion of the coke shipped is forwarded in these private cars, the railroads usually furnishing the necessary rolling- stock. The number of these private cars owned by certain manufacturers is quite large. One firm owns 500, another 222, a third 172, and a fourth 167. In addition to the above there are at some establishments extensive works for the supply of water used in cooling coke. At those works using Belgian ovens engines are used to discharge the ovens. The number of these was not obtained. a Pittsburgh, its Industry and Commerce. Pittsburgh. Barr & Myers: 1870. b Idem, page 18. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. The statement of washers used and of the number of locomotives, cars, and miles of railroad track is as follows: ee — a a Number of establish- C ti . ments at States. ounties. which washers were used. oA hes eedscodr a secabsdos J OMOPSON sc cctescae s-he- a oceeencmaeae 1 Colorado .cresssacciteavisceuns Pe as Animas sa. esetensseceseciownenes ah Jilingisse.ce-eere soe e seen eee ee re DaCkSON. sc ceedecsa scene coseaeeee 1 SaintiOlair:. unc ot.saccesenemeeee nes 1 Walliamson.o.. acct. ccse == aah eee 1 Indiana! -..c.cccsesccecesenuscescsete Mountain ccece-anceeewantewns tueeeae 1 Pennsylvania qcsceer es. e aes corse ete Alleoghenyiccecnssccsacasa suklstaneenmna 8 Clarion 5. c osceise ona atom anecieeteraterete 2 Clearfield .0.25-.5++sccconmaneeersnes 1 Fayette .s-s0s-ssese0- ces eneseemeceme 1 (LAWPONCE bs co cease smcn sae eeeenpee em 1 SLOP csienisss << ssn ce se os eee if Westmoreland jc... 22 ocaplad 2, 761, 657 Motaiay a NeLOmotner WiabOLi a) Se oases sa cas anc mes ica cise = mm epson eis inlelals ole anisiw'din hie a.e'vel sam «aia a sisivnd sama laine 233, 784 2,995, 441 EN GiIMU A LUCERO EB COLL AIS Loe oe © tealc sa co atoe eae oe e's simataemn ak atte nia ota aimators Naveiais( a a eS hee The chief materials other than coal were fire-brick, red brick, wood, and castings, but no reliable statement of the amount of each could be secured. 8 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. WEIGHT OF THE BUSHEL. The weight of the bushel, which is so frequently employed as the unit of measure in the buying, selling, and using of coal and coke, varies but little in the different states. A bushel of coke is almost uniformly 40 pounds; but in exceptional cases, where the coke is very light, 38, 36, and even 33 pounds are regarded as a bushel. In one return 56 pounds, in four 50 pounds, in one 48 pounds, in one 45 pounds, and in one 42 pounds are given as the weight of the bushel; but in these cases the coke would be quite heavy. These exceptions, however, are so few that 40 pounds may be taken as the uniform weight of a bushel of coke. The weight of a bushel of coal differs more than this. In Alabama the returns give it as 80 pounds, and the same is returned for Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia; but in Pennsylvania it is 76 pounds, and in Indiana 70, EMPLOYES. Compared with the tonnage produced, the manufacture of coke requires the labor of but a small number of persons, the average number employed at each works that made coke in 1879~’80 being less than 25. There are but four works in the United States that employ over 100 men, and one of these is a works at which the labor is. performed by convicts. With other labor a less number of men would have sufficed. The total number of persons employed directly in the manufacture of coke, as returned at the last census, is. 3,140, (a) of whom but 3 were women and 71 boys. The number of employés in coke works at the last four censuses is as follows: Mal ] ales Females All. over 16. over 15. Youtie: Employés at census 1880. .----- 22+ --- 22 een n ee cee e ee cece ee cence ewe ne ect w ewer nent n ee ene e aetna teemenesnenes 3, 142 3, 068 3 7k Employ6s at census 1870-22220 cecce.- cnc amccen conc cccncccncc cnnwss pecerenesncesecencccsscccrcnccsceces cosscecccecss 528 O22 « |ss=see cemeee 6: Employés at census 1860 oo oes ccceasercvacesen a= semsne sane neanceun nave ite aecan de sss Ges ss «des desis = sinceseencblieae 198 198: |i... sce ca dal eee eae eee Employés at census 1850. .....-----seeeeeeene es eee e eee ene e eee eee ee ee eee ee ce eee nee rene ee ee nee nee n teens 14 14 eho ciate «a pilen aie elena eee Most of the employés are unskilled workmen, and would be classed as common labor. The operations connected with the manufacture of coke, for the most part, require only strength and endurance, and at many of the works, especially the smaller ones, even the term ‘ superintendent” does not imply much more than a “labor boss”. This is not universally true, however, as at some works the position of superintendent is one of importance and responsibility. WAGES AND EARNINGS. The total amount of wages paid during the census year in the manufacture of coke was $1,198,654.(b) This, however, does not include any wages paid in the mining of coal, but only the labor-cost, from the delivery of the coal at the ovens until the coke is loaded upon the ears. As the amount of coke produced during the census year was 2,752,475 tons, and the total of wages paid $1,198,654, the average labor-cost of producing a ton of coke would be 43.5 cents. Any attempt to deduce from the figures given in these tables the average yearly earnings of each person employed would be futile. The total amount of wages paid ($1,198,654), divided by the number of persons employed (3,142), would give a quotient of $381 50. Though such a quotient is often regarded as the average yearly earnings of each employé, a little consideration will make it evident that it does not represent such earnings, but that it really represents nothing but the result of the division of one number by another. A consideration of the circumstances attending the growth and development of the coke industry during the census year will show that this is especially true in its manufacture. Many of the old works, or those in existence at the beginning of the census year, were idle, in whole or in part, June 1, 1879, and did not resume in full until the census year was well advanced; in other cases additions were made to old works, and in still others entirely new works were built. To operate these various works additional persons were employed, not in place of others, but as an increase in their number, and therefore the number reported May 31, 1880, would be much above the average for the year, and very greatly in excess of the number at work June 1, 1879. These additional persons would, of course, be paid only for the time they were employed in making coke, and in the wages-total only the amount so paid, say, for two, three, or six months, as the case might be, would appear. Now, it would be manifestly misleading under these circumstances to say that the quotient resulting from dividing the entire amount of wages paid during the whole year by the number of persons employed May 31, 1880, some of whom had been at work but a month, would give the average yearly earnings. If there had been no increase in plant or in the number of persons employed during the year, if no persons had been brought into this industry from other industries or from idleness, and if, when the coke works were idle, the men employed at them performed no labor, then such a quotient might represent with some degree of accuracy the average yearly earnings of the persons employed in the coke industry; but when not one of these conditions exists, it is evident that the average yearly earnings of the men employed at the coke works. was not $381 50, but more than this—what, we have no data for ascertaining. a In Table I 3,142 employés are reported, but 2 are watchmen at idle works. b Of this amount $910 were paid two watchmen at an idle works. The amount is so small, however, that it is not subtracted in the following computations. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 5 A somewhat similar difficulty exists in any attempt to arrive at the average rate of wages paid to persons employed in this industry. This is a most difficult fact to ascertain in connection with this or any other industry. It is very easy to give an average of the different rates of wages paid, but this is more properly termed the average of rates of wages, not the real average rate. To arrive at the average rate of wages—that is, an average that shall consider not only the several rates paid, but the number of men employed at each rate, as the average rate can only be found by the consideration of both—is very difficult. In the following statement an attempt has been made to approximate the average rate of wages for a number of classes of employés at a portion of the coke works. These tables show: 1. The range of the rates of wages, or the highest and the lowest rate paid the different classes of labor as given in the schedules returned to this office. 2. The average rates of wages as near as can be ascertained. These average rates are found by multiplying each rate by the number of persons employed at that rate and dividing the sum of the products by the sum of the multipliers, which represent the number of persons employed at each rate for whom rates of wages are given in the schedules. It will be observed that the tables below do not take: into consideration the number of days the men were employed, or, in other words, the regularity of employment, jut simply give the range of wages and the average wages, without reference to such regularity of employment: SUPERINTENDENT. CLERK. | HAWLER. States. | | Average | Average Range of rate of cables Range of rate of | rateof || Range of rate of | rate of o wages per month. ath | wages per day. |wagesper|| wages per day. Neg ae per ¥ ay. | ay. | Bn m Ee Ceds SbALGS emai a atectly cn iniqe ances see tases secessecssecie™ $35 00 to $125 00 $56 04 $1 50 to $4 17 $1 93 $1 00 to $2 00 $1 55- NA A er elles owls eee terete elas anes onto ae am min isin= wala vie © enepieve eh wnn 40 00 to 100 00 CEE Je PER ee mee anal Cnrcch (ee eC RIEIC 100 to 1 25 117 as en Cee eee ieieerat mem neta aieawine's Vein ace © cisie'wce sla cleee o.ctteo viele 125 00 PZONOUM Ht eweecten citeatioestes cleme craters 20 2 00 EET) ee gots oi lena ite pclae ocini = aalewiwies So 00 cic sie owes ace sabes se, a. ece dares em 55 00 5E200% Ie canis saree catewrae = ae eo ne al lecae ee sm wa ae comity ok a lseinin'a'=ta)a 0 ee erate lero ale isl cha Sy clasieie'<'= ocinlnis eae dais se.cceccincleSnenis evesccas 45 00 to 62 50 SONDO! eas ec aeeeeee sams cael sales ipsa. 120 to 1 50 1 29 LER © Sa Sarge SSG CE Sn OCIGUSOE SoD OE Cnn EEE Ee ieee Beet Ee Eee 385 00 to 105 00 53 15 150 to 417 2 03 115 to 1 80 1 62 a A Nee ee elas lal ele a ele alee vic lslinle wiqwicin= <<\sie nec «sic sian eneccicucaaes 75 00 TOU OO mee eictemenis eter stsratat |ateee ms ae ee 1 40 1 40 OWS WSR occ acicncedacis Bore pS ce SC ENE He Be SSIS GSE BES SCR Soe reser 50 00 50 00 1 50 1 50 100 to 110 1 07 COKE-CHARGER. ENGINEER. COKE LABORER. States. Average ; Average | Average Range of rate of | rate of || Range of rate of | rateof || Range of rate of | rate of wages per day. j|wagesper|) wagesperday. wagesper wages perday. wagesper day. ay. day. ‘ PA TC es ALON Met ae asta acs sone eine ase cidia scieisem alcwen cz scm aveere $1 00 to $2 50 $1 49 | $1 50 to $2 60 $1 59 $0 78 to $2 00 $1 27 =| : : ee on oo cain ckgadanegenceene-vndeoods 100 to 125 PL 09Aiee?: 162 eto ak 90 to 100 | 93 SORE NA Ghee ani cartials stats sae nino Sr mic/vls aale weg divine waciecuseces cesisersccece 2 00 2100p eames sinc ate ciecicla/=| oo <5 == Lib leawerclswosics Me eeen cacaces essen eee Sales eae ds since Gent Clave se--cctencs = crcia Ta pooctecenseed Te esctacsebaas bsesteuwsene=|enacesewsses MNO Byes ce kervicd eo cow cons 4 lowewes eve se Uovittedent ca deet Py Dee cas cotnae site G15 bea ee eee ae pa GRASP Se cae We eee ads ces te clseciee steunianl nape te ve eeee CHIGe oe eas.ntacnaas = sas aim a LG ile csowie vas aes BP pecans Sonne 4 2 Pennsylvania............ 104s ieee eleaks ss 62 3 8 3 TPEUNEKSOG apeo-cateet eas é 4 1 Py dlleeatercascas sccumncescc 1 West Virginia ........... 5 pael Wea Ns ie Gi thee Maree 5 hed BERS ae 10 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. METHODS OF PAYMENT. Returns from 118 establishments show that at 56 of them there were stores connected with the works for supplying the operatives with goods, and that 62 were without stores. This would indicate that the “truck system” was in use at a little less than half the coke works, while a little more than one-half paid cash in full. What proportion of the wages paid at those works that have stores is in cash and what proportion is ‘‘truck” we have no means of knowing. The following table shows, so far as reports have been received, the establishments in each state that have stores connected with them and those that have not: States. The United States Coéloradotecee- n =I n | ago o — 2 - A = 2 | > =} Gn | co) o =] o | ES = ag S & fe 3 = WW 3 ae ba 5 — n Se ale | at ners A 5S. oa pO Be Pei Se oh pee Soe fe BN eM By a oe ~ a | | \| | | | | | | | The United States ./ 149 | $5,547,058 | 9,728 316) 30) 42/ 10,116 | 2,083 )...... i ba 2,163 | 3, 068 Sa eal decane 3,142 | $1, 198, 654 | |= -| — — | ———_—— | | —— | ne | = =! —|— | I} | | POMIAR Soo on tian ges 6s 4 Rig HOD Is! S 210.45 on. cayee ge. hen cd 216 Hh 4206/5 oa. eae ee ZOGE OS 045) x. 2thina do afivs'a se 64 38, 500 | | SEIOIGEOMG icd~ ven sat as 1 150s 0001 ||. 28 lee Peele esl pene 128 | 12 teste Le sco eee Co gl | re cae Be ens 75 13, 500 Geetgia sieves et -vacs. 1 80,000 140... Se eee aeleay 140! |e Soa os tote SNS enas Ie eet ee ee oe ft ee Meine: ale oe 107 13, 837 | | LU ae 6 ae 4 205, 000 ||........ AO BOA ele RON ge ta a Stee oes Bou e528 | eieecas ee Cae 18 9, 347 Maley Sees). =-2 2550 2 Gr 000 Wo 2 20 Pc Shae A aed Tae ere jezocthbbccha ae cseh baa RNAS 7, ae, Coane 4 300 OT see lena a 15 EAC Po ge ag 1 leaded ae oe 619 | pd Ae penil (A Mea 3 | ah pe re ies 1s i a 153 51, 977 ’ Pennsylvania .......... 104 | 4,262,525 || 7,524} 242 |......| 49°F 9,908 Wh rsayaeo | ores dees hee: 1, 469 |) 2, 379 Sulrentliee: 2. 444 983, 431 || if | Tennessee ......-..--- 4 200, 021 1 DSO LIAM: w || maminciiae cnc 589 I 159 Lb ea eres pe (Meg GEN eet cpa eg oes 114 38, 820 | | | | yaneinia 26052 se5 sens: 2 30, 000 i BON mse dtstes / Been 85 | PINES, eases ee DL | eeeeee eeeeee|eeee eel eee eee) eee cece sere ee eeee ee { | } } | | ‘West Virginia ......... 12 $80) 0001). (407.00 de hen eee | eer’ 407 0p Blas 1b Sel Sits 152} 15041202 4: |e 163 48, 942 II | | | a COAL USED. | SLACK USED. Me fae ae he eee EN COAL PROPERTY. COKE PRODUCED. nD | at. | Pie: | | £8 / States. So | Ae | c= | ot a iil 5 a 2 Pa z Z = B = z = | Pa =z ‘a é ‘a é a 5 3 5 iG 5 5 5 ic ¢ é S a > a - a Py mans S Zs Fe The United States. |$233, 784 || 3,729,328 | $2, 392, 449 | 630, 782 | $358, 558 | 751,824 | $533, 818 | 4,360,110 | $2, 761, 657 || 158, 683 |$13, 060,041 || 2,752,475 | $5, 359, 489 | = PRORDONID. Sdocessecai-~- 1, 304 66, 376 73,814 | 1,000 E, OOU As nesen =e ewan tes 67, 376 75,314 || 35, 860 471, 000 42, 035 148, 026 | Colorado........-..---- 600 29, 500 98 G00. tactics anita amea tae 29,500 | 29, 500 29, 500 29,500 | 2,000 | 1, 033, 500 18, 000 90, 000 ot ee a ene 4,900 || 117, 000 420,000 frciide ts s+|nnseaae atte eee ewes aa 117, 000 120,000 || 15, 000 220,000 |) 70, 000 140, 000 Biingis. 222 tacc sade 23 Po. i ape i yeas 15,000 | 11,250 | 15,000} 15, 000 15, 000 15,000 |) 160 38, 000 7, 600 24, 700 Pudiani7s. saae- fee sec. 200 1, 500 CMP iiiee ets] DEERE 9 | Sebrc Eo pceasce cee 1, 500 2, 025 || 260 20, 000 1, 000 3, 000 RTD. te tule. Sotacas 5,399 || 148, 292 181. 103)).45; 550 | 47, 320ues ee eee eaten ae = 193, 848 228, 482 || 3, 357 432, 525 || 109, 296 334, 546 Pennsylvania.......-..| 209, 849 || 3,144,969 | 1,786,717 | 463,126 | 244,588 | 596,713 | 426,581 | 3,608,095 | 2,031,305 || 32,272 | 9,421,450 || 2,317,149 | 4, 190, 136 Tennessee ....-.------- 8, 032 80, 911 75,137 | 98,400 | 49,000 | 110,611 | 62,737| 179,311 124, 137 || 48, 383 570, 101 91, 675 212, 493 Dre ANNs eet cee tee ee lear asec die cane chs ceacaa| bared > acallcneo soe c'nsl| ime acnee =| -n-n~ penn slissau a= ate weal wnvicie ase nf |neebidn cm] sess seas us-||sauissbe's+ <2 |n = a-c0ces =e West Virginia ...... 3,020 || 140, 780 131,044 | 7,700 SDD ore NS ee 148, 480 135, 944 || 21,391 853,465 || 95, 720 216, 588 * See remarks under Materials, page 7. 14 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. TABLE II.—STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF COKE IN THE — — Dore hoe OCMBNAOEWNH wre me ODD eS “a a od ni 3 e ‘Se, | NUMBER OF OVENS BUILT. NUMBER OF OVENS BUILDING. | NUMBER OF EMPLOYES. 5 g o > i | £ = 3 Cae | : | 5 Ber ial Lt phases zs 3 253 | ee) | Z a ania ea es ao States and counties. 2 z ei | * a é E S 5 | . ag om aae || | FI & i 3 5 i 3 | Ee Sy geSis Ch Ye alii att aaah ities ie: Rp mS Zo) Og eg ot ie g ee ‘ Ae | aa H ape ee a e sl : eS a) S82 13 | BPS le lS es | By Bes eh Sees) 6) ae But are | Oo =) ° 5 oO zc) con ° De | 3) ° 2 Zhi tee 2B! cea a, ce PR ge alia|s|/a la Sah ieeet | reba. tte a i TE i | | oF Re The United States.| 149 $5,545, 058 i 9,728 | 316 30 42 | 10,116 || 2, 083 |-seee- SO Saee es 2,163 || 3, 068 3 ML ede oa 8, 142 | $1, 198, 654 | =—— ——— |, > ——S ——————| |— a =—_ = eS 0 | ee [Se cee) an es ALABAMA, i | | | JEMCTSON eaccee ase eeae| 3 | 135,500. 11), ZIG cee achincaciee seem 216 206" oeeall cee eui soe see 206 || 64 beers al on ce alle mes 64 88, 500 Shel Dyitiete ok see ase Do psc caer seed senenal) ses =e F|ohon mal tee eee ete soaill ka ones ected eeeeed peeeee beac Mees oie Peon Peter ety co Bereare se F5ccc Total. saws scene ce ae RR Ce a eee eee BE Z16ih) /2064|,28 oa] eee eee 206 ll 64 | ->2nn vets lpeenes 64 38, 500 —_ = - =| ——__——| —————— ————— | es SS SSS SF SS Se > ae COLORADO. | | | Las Animag22-ii:e0.-5a;} 1| 150,000 || 128 |...... He bbek ene ce) eee eRe Fe ps eg Ok cal Bs oe 75 13, 500 GEORGIA. | | wie ae ull Dalek near oo} 1 86,000 11: 140 fadenolidcstohelaes YT | Seats Petes (Peaevoal Me beter 107 |...... Be a 107 43, 837 ILLINOIS. - | aon a ie % tee PACKBON eric vee verve 'saaen = 1 25, O00 dh-acazs Vabee plbseeneh sinc etter ets hlllecken-s|aakere 80) [coos ot | Bes Sea Nemiscs Rast Semcrnss,{ociocr icc Saint Clair... eae 1 100, 000 |/....--. 24 emia tte: ya | eae Manes ee See! he OSE EOE ON Re aire 2 910 Bete aes ee ee il eee Ee ee ere) bps ay Rae ee 95 I swew es [eccace | Menmee teeta eae lc ccecchecrcaleconc chiens s0|0oe iW illiamson xc. ic2ss004h 1 80, O00. scree tee oetes BO ake BOI ccse Sus hece © tale ceeyel tis pare een ae WEA eee Pete see 16 8, 437 Tptal qeie aces 4| 205,000 ||....... 49) 301... Ty Bee Se oy Gane hy ee ee oe 18 9, 347 INDIANA. aa 4 x | CIBY cece doce osesice eee 1 8, 000 20 viercasll mene a sms as Ue | Beoeaer ocris yee ecikecoace | cena C0 PP ee, 4 300 Fountain tf). ee. secteno Dee ete sens chlswemcers 29 ila Somcin| enema 26 \\ csseselocoveal Seecedlmacceetenadaes |) -sesece|ecenen|ocwces |e ewene|scwercnahewseisinir snl Total s-d.vcecteeeet 2 ,000 ||. 30: Shilaaeets| cs Pe Met ESS ey 4 300 OHIO | 5 PET Tae | | be ‘Athowilvecesnctoeconeee 1| 2, 000 | oy Renee ie Pe 8 13 |.ciceatceeeee eee 12 7 Weigece ca ocl copes 7 375 Columbiana) secrete as 2 57, 500 LOB Seeman | rec cctitense = 205) cncc.cc]onteeeldamses lon aeosteeneree DT lees cal cucccalecneae 27 11, 965 Hamilton > .cpeesiceces = 3 14, 000 | 2B Weaseee ct ment me etas 22) llc wsidse's|awcnee | seesieelonccaplcasenet VO fessece| cccess|sacece 13 4.012 JOHELSON . :|eee eee Hienyvico ie se2 ses cn eee 1 |... ene e bees 2 at See eee el sees Pa eo see py Sos cigelbetis aii | wna ant ot See em eice Seema seine le Ook Bell ee ak Sal] eae eta |nweeecerewee Total gnc: 2 Bey 2 30, 000 85 Paiste | M oy, OE Baye ec. oe ae Oi JL eee co) Bal Acyl. cee WEST VIRGINIA. came E | ais bs ee Fayette. Seeahasese see eee 6 239, 000 | 288 ee eas clita cisate [rosters 238 184 iiwee call reece s | “Son5" 134 OB Ne akaas Fa PRP eli 99 27, 612 perion oaene cine oeeenene 1 14, 000 BG fede rocbeeeeeel eee BG ih scot ceshte nto lee eeneleanceniescaes 5 Bare elwcestclnn sven 5 2, \ ODIO -absdes eee seepeoees 1 3, 000 he pee eas alice 8 1 See See aeons LN | MOAR Se oh ee 0) Prestomsse: .ssceecen: cee 4 74, 000 TBO hee aol eee senleeseee 130 1.6; se ceenleeeeetelle cee 16 64 | ...... Balieetten ny 18, 850 Total ose oe 12 | 380,000 || 407 |.....-]......|-----. 407 | att Ree eae 151 || 159 |...... ahivez | 163 48, 942 * The report of this works is included with those in Jefferson county. +t Manufacture of coke abandoned and capital regarded as sunk. + Works experimental; no returns of capital, ete. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. UNITED STATES AT THE CENSUS OF 1880, BY STATES AND COUNTIES. Value of materials other than coal. $233, 784 117, 000 148, 292 10, 618 13, 400 155, 453 3, 144,969 | 1, 786, 717 45, 556 COAL USED. BLACK USED. a ES é | ° x °o s ei > a] > 3, 729, 328 | $2,302,449 | 630,782 | $358, 558 66, 376 73, 814 1, 600 1, 500 66, 376 73, 814 1,600; 1,500 156, 082 463, 126 21, 600 7, 200 | 19, 311 27, 937 40, 000 40, 000 80, 911 75, 137 } 88, 769 84, 444 | Rade 2,180, 2,000. 49, 831 44, 600 140, 780 131, 044 | WASHED C Tons. 751, 824 ee OAT, UsED. | *7TAE sora onal Se COALPROPERTY. || COKE PRODUCED. | | | | ati | g z g g 2 | g g | Ss ° | s i] a || 5 =i / S Bite ee 4 oa ee Sun $533, 818 4,360,110 | $2, 761, 657 158, 683 |$13, 060, 041 \ 2,752, 475 | $5, 359, 489 Cowen aensent 67, 376 75, 314 35, 860 471, 000 | 42, 035 148, 026 | ee ee [eee Ne Sens eee ee eee eee ve ebb 6) ed. aes vill vie am dad wane Ree ee ae AS Te 67, 37 75, 314 35,860 | 471,000 | 42,035; 148, 026 } 29, 500 29, 500 29, 500 2,000 | 1,033,500 18,000 ~—90, 000 = SSS 2 Spa Fa nt me rg ar a ee ry oe ree a mre Fa geo ee eel | Sete eh Cv Be con 1, 500 | 2, 025 || 260 20, 000 1, 000 3, 000 ee ee ee (SPSS OR SCoCE) Ban Aa errs dl brcoode-cacr eweeeseceseecloeoeeeceecoescs ease é< eee @ « | a as m2 id A } o A 2 5 5 n 5 D 8 co8) | rao om a cs ml a 1 a ae: A . a aS) A ES 2 Ruy a =a ° a t= - fo ° a 8 3 2 oS = = g ‘Bes $ A ae ee 2 £ } i 2 Be < ei 4 FI g $ = BES o o re a 5 o o re nm S Ss ® S ® ) ° yi 6) 6 A} Ot & a a} TU a= eee ea x = & | a | & aA a feel ae PRES ie PN Ae a | eee 2 eas The United States. 9 $248, 700 || 304 UN REE Ran enter 353 VE BEES eee es 21 Bil arent) iadinne [cane = $910 ILLINOIS. ys a d.}) SaintiG@lairy-s--eee secs 1 100/000) secenar Oe oeacem ie meses BAN ase tel ecant =| seen ic aleanca=| asa eee PT Ss el bape 910 INDIANA. res ae | | i “Howntals o.ceee secu t DAS Roce tee (Ose One: ya See Kea DO wis own] ocesias|owcaes|/ecemac| 2 saaanctlscmainesllce clues cose fae ee een ee cen een PENNSYLVANIA. ae fat 1) Anerhenyircccesseeoae == af 20, 000 Pag netted ert imate cee D4 Wi cccccclewwnnc|ccoces|'seenas|sueccnsll's seen clal an bass ec.nm=lllne ames ee cetera 91 Clarion aoe eee eben 1 | 21, 200 BU eeeeeels cae ten emes BO seas cee lsasecelee wa as] eee ale ofenwe tlh yenees sca -00| <= 0 =i 500 o's 2 1 ele om aie eee 3 Payethes22-c52 -- tomes 1} 85, O00 se e127 | eeecalnccaeclatsoe ee 17 | Saeere Bey eee eres rr) ies ys eR AE rm SR 4) bawrencé-o- cess eas eel eens ALABAMA. Hi 9 bi 7 Re = re it l a) OH OPSON aac aac aciese 1 29000 Win cee cel hans tal eet cote talline, + s/ouis.- 100). a > A > a 5 a 5 < 3 a S a See es or OA ad ERR ae 23 eet RNID Fol nae Re Dee | SR Debhtade e508 500 Woe ofa te ee Soa aaec | | cocamassasea =—_ ——o =: Cn ——- ———_ atte te alee orate ta aleve la ale itd. cia sistas a ree waren [teed afe peice os bee ew etomillne weenie sic waciliswaawicinodas ho ceca teers uillene eictocdcc ee lace oanlewacantsnecwente ve 1 =} nnn re nen eer ened | onan | Sectseawon Midensuatnanay coeaiapems ¢ | SSacaneananpapeaesanssngeedamaeeas | f Sasaenganain leseunaipeieSasecenaiens itaaeanalases sammeabonast =o ae PEC ns kee tee Pees ores heh an sot les oe sdecgs ne eee eee NL teeter ee OM Ae deta tiCed es oaceeed | | ceeenmsans ———— | es | ——— ————— pec omc ee nme ft Se ma nn | [pe i eater aoeecaeaneem= | [easinaeeaslegaegumes Seoeaaeaee | stecasaaes kaecenmnesemeseees | | | 1 2 3 | 4 5 are on cenlenetion| CaSeddectioad Bees OSES ie AEEASn Ass ae ieee ni (ee nel eee nena Ce iNet eet || cca Se ane eee ere |e eae ce ts | era Ae anes | 1 ee ene ee ge ea emia nel lik a acininlaine Lia's |/ons deers csieiels |isewae'e cise ccal~is once eduer|sbaciselvuce'dalincisueomaiec acl ceebers cclecosllees ater se gan lpembaemeawseiubeineticanaen 2 UNITED STATES BUILDING AT THE CENSUS OF 1880. mH a . COAL USED. SLACK USED. WASHED COAL UsEp, | TOTAL Se prde SLACK COAL PROPERTY. COKE PRODUCED. = ' aaa i Ss | ae *” oO Sq ee we 4 oO : oa . o z . s= a & oS ° iS) 3 > A > a > ce Biche ESS Be EO ee ee 1 ee eet me temas aku tins cite Ges aiasacc'eas oc:0) [vdieswevecamelavacesmanwenlea nce cusses aap cian a ai eae Cioran Uline mateleraiaiae-o allfis ee socio oaeel than aiarata oats ft me A eld 6 aia eRe MUN WOME MRE i Ye oh CEU Huaadie cate uevlacanadcaupaisllaaesasancoentandant cath olka ncacabaserlademaliccs selek i eiharcinta fae o/s Sitio ra lib sracwpaieie ce emcees Rests may atattetacere 2 nr ae TE ROnniEn Ditaee aot hee Nyt Le ete shneewebccnbitedsawcesscllecvadwaraseslccrecctbasca|]cccadls soahaalietess twos 3 IN te cee ev lO ray Ne Ae Poa [cosas Lc asiccdesnos cncd@slen Seogesvacalsoasfuaseane 46; 605; |,°4, 600, 000 Ilc-coecsseacclicc scum aed SM TIS Rs RR el, og tog. - ack -c| oad eadenpplealiabties co scus|eeere4 40d 175 OF NO Nos cdee cee elites Sec atl, B rs ere eno ners cere See ee: ce ee Salo. aluptsic casts wccecaces cnileeuaisivismpieinic| cuca esis'somes sles aaioaisies ne 213 DO QUON cas siaeamactas wa eat aiac = Sita EE eR ee ea he a es ee re Bere ed eee eee PU SUB E720. OO: Hh eces heal ec ae BuGuss wccteallsccans ea eee eaeeits leases caine cel acawce i cccdaclcccccceseves|counucenebeledviceias catittavece gaaneo 1, 000 100; QO0OM i caw ee cuenpta|'sciesaeesna= ink ‘ 17 CO, VOL. Ix——2 18 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. RELATION OF COST OF COKE TO SELLING PRICE. In the accompanying table will be found the average Selling price of coke per ton in the United States and in each state, and the value of the different elements of cost so far as the data for the same have been collected and are ascertainable : =— COKE PRODUCED. | Valne of | S#EUING PRICE OF COKE. | WAGES PER TON OF COKE. | Value.of | Value of # coal re- | materials States. || Value of Total | Be | quired to, other coal used, /wages paid. other || Average |Range of prices|| Average || make a than coal Tons. Value. than coal.|| per ton. per ton. per ton. Range per ton. | b= : | ee a | : ‘ae | |_ eae The United States ...| 2,752,475 | $5, 359, 489 || $2, 761, 657 | $1, 198, 654 | $233, 784 $1 95 | $1 00 to $5 24 $0 44 $0 20 to $1 30 || $1 00 $0 08 Alsbbme penis tected sedenc 42,085 | 148,026 || 75,314 38, 500 1, 304 362| 350to 400|/ 92 | 56to 93 || 149 | 03 Coloradoves ss teeestes eee 18, 000 90, 000 |) 29, 500 | 13, 500 600 | 5 00 5 00. 75 75 Woe L164 03. Georgia reieietitiay ul. 70, 000 140,000 || 120,000} 18, 887 4,900 || 200 2 00 20 20 1 «det 07 PELTE Ce) Settee P teade Lee Villy 7,600| 24,700 |) 15, 000 9, 347 420 | 3 25 325 || 123 124 197 06 TndianaG\sicot s,s fu, 1, 000 3, 000 || 2, 025 300 200 3 00 3 00. 30 30 2 03 20 Dis omic ere tan eae eee 109, 296 334, 546 | 298,432 | 51, 977 5,399 || 306] 175to 4 00 48 30 to 1 20 | 2 01 05 Pennsylvania ............-- 2,317,149 | 4,190, 136 | 2, 031, 305 | 983,481 | 209, 849 | 1 81 100to 5 24 42 23 to J 30 88 09 PLORNOSSEG ease cutee ceens et 91, 675 212, 493 || 124, 137 | 38, 820 8, 092 2 32 2 00to 4 74 \ 42 35 to ii 1 35 09 West Virginia............. 95, 720 216,588 || 135,944 | 48, 942 3, 020 | 226} 150to 400) 51 37 to. 7 1 42 03 In considering these figures it should be most carefully noted that all the elements of the cost of coke are not given. No attempt was made to ascertain all these items, and my experience in other positions convinces me that any such attempt would have been an utter failure. The average business man will not give to his competitors, much less to the whole world, all the details of the cost of manufacture, nor indeed such details as will enable others to approximate, with any degree of accuracy, his cost, and therefore how much or how little profit he is making. This should not be expected. The only elements of cost given are wages and material. Among the elements of cost of a ton of coke which are not given are interest, taxes, insurance, collections, postage, rents, general office expenses, expense of selling, bad debts, and many other items, and in most cases the hauling of coal from the pit to the ovens, washing, profit chargeable on coal, ete. With these considerations in mind the following table should not be misleading: AVERAGE COST OF LABOR AND MATERIAL TO TON OF Perea COKE. selling States. Sue a ton ot coke. , | Other Coal. | material. Wages. Total. The United States...........---- $1 95 $1 00 | $008 | $0 44 $1 62 Asbestos Tisch Ae: Sree 3 52 179 | 03 92 2 74 (bloradoccacacie seo AEP eee 5 00 rea | 03 15 2 42 Georgia -c <> Asyesew eases ere cence 2 00 ib yal 07 20 1 98 DUINOI8 a5 wap esis cesmcsiobaees woe ene 3 25 1 97 06 1 23 3 26 Endiang ese iacsaee seen + are eee ane 3 00 20s anh 20 300% 2 53 Ohio eects bee See ee gia 05 48 2 54 Pennsylvania 09 42 1 39 LONNOSSOO So cacewcur ek ccbeee ns meee ee 09 42 1 86 West Virginia 03 51 1 96 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 19 Part I].—COKING IN THE UNITED STATES. THE COAL-FIELDS AND COAL.OF THE UNITED STATES IN THEIR RELATION TO THE MANUFACTURE OF COKE IN THE CENSUS YEAR. A discussion at any length of the geological features of the several coal-basins of the United States, or even of the geology of the coking coal, does not lie within the scope of this report, nor will an attempt be made to establish the correlation of the different seams of coal used in coking in the several states. All of these subjects belong more properly to the report on coal, and will be referred to and discussed in this report only incidentally. Neither will it fall within the plan adopted to show, save in the most general way, the extent of the deposits of coking coal nor the character of these deposits, except of such as furnished coal for the manufacture of coke during the census year. The coal used in the manufacture of coke at the census of 1880 represented three of the great coal-basins or coal-fields of the country, the Appalachian, the Illinois, and the Colorado. By far the larger part was derived from the measures of the great Appalachian field, less than 1 per cent. of the total coming from the Illinois and Colorado basins. This Appalachian basin is at present the most important of the coal-fields of America. Beginning near the northern boundary of Pennsylvania, it extends for a distance of over 750 miles in a southwesterly direction, following the western line of the Allegheny mountains with a course nearly parallel to the Atlantic ocean coast. line, through western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama, to Tuscaloosa, Alabama, where it ends. The average breadth of the field is from 80 to 90 miles, the area being fully 70,000 square miles. The eastern escarpment of the Allegheny mountains formed, and still forms, the eastern border of this basin, while the great Cincinnati anticlinal hemmed it in on the west and separated it from the measures of the Illinois basin. The eastern line of this field is comparatively regular, following the trend of the mountains ; but the western is very irregular, the basin being quite broad in its northern area, contracting through Tern oases and northern Alabama and expanding considerably at its termination in Alabama, though by no means so broad as in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. In the northern part of this basin the coal is found in numerous isolated patches, the chief of which are the Blossburg, McIntyre, and Barclay. Between the eastern edge and the ocean other detached fields are found, such as the anthracite coal-fields of northeastern Pennsylvania, the Broad Top semi-bituminous coal-field of middle Pennsylvania, and the Cumberland coal-basin of Maryland. These patches are all that have been left by the denuding agencies which have swept away so much of the Devonian and Silurian rocks and cut so deeply and sharply, and at the same time so destructively, into these measures in this belt of country. Along nearly the entire length of this great field, from Blossburg, Pennsylvania, on the north, to Birmingham, Alabama, on the south, the colae industry has been established. The ovens, following the zone of best coking coal, are Beaerally found near the eastern limits of the field, hugging the mountains, the coal in the middle or western part of the basin being, as a rule, not so well adapted to coking as that in the eastern. The greatest name ionntent in the manufacture of coke is in the Connellsville region of western Pennsylvania, a small trough 50 or 60 miles long by 3 miles wide. The Connellsville coke is regarded as the typical coke of this country, as the Durham is of England. Some other regions in this field may produce a coke equal to the Connellsville, but as a blast-furnace fuel especially, which is the purpose to which most coke is put, it is so well adapted, its use is so extensive, and its characteristics so well known, that it fully deserves the designation “typical”. Coke is made at other points in Pennsylvania, especially in ae Allegheny Mountain region, in the Ligonier valley, and near Pittsburgh. As a rule, nong of these cokes equal the Connellsville. In some cases the cokes are lower in ash but inferior in physical structure, while in others washing is necessary to produce a fuel for blast-furnace uses. In West Virginia the New River coal furnishes}the most and also the best coke. Analysis shows it to be lewer in ash than the Connellsville, and its producers assert that it is fully equal to it as a blast-furnace fuel; but this is by no means conceded. The Preston County beds, which are regarded as the equivalent of the Ligonier Valley coal of Penrsylvania, are also used to a considerable extent, but the coke is not equal to the New River coke. In Ohio most of the coals are coking coals, but the deposits are much thinner than in either Pennsylvania or West Virginia, and generally, though not always, contain an objectionable ameunt of sulphur. The coals are coked only to a limited extent; and the manufacture of coke is not increasing as rapidly as ia Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama. 20 MANUFACTURE OF GOKE. in Tennessee the Sewanee seam furnishes most of the coke, while in Alabama coals from both the Warrior and the Cahaba fields were coked, furnishing a most excellent fuel. The extreme eastern outcrop of the Appalachian basin cuts the northwestern corner of the state of Georgia, furnishing a small patch of coking coal, from which some coke was made in the census year. 7 Two important facts regarding. the character of the coal in this Appalachian field have been pointed out. These are the debituminization eastwardly of the coal and the similarity of the composition of the coals in the same basin. These laws are of considerable importance in connection with the coke industry, the one indicating generally the location of the seams of best coking coal, the other bearing on the future supply of this coal. (a) The fact of the debituminization of the coals eastwardly has been pointed out by Professor Rogers. Whether this has been accomplished by the heat evolved by the dynamic crust-flexing force or by conditions in the coal flora is immaterial in this connection. Certain it is that the most abnormal condition of the coal is found in the extreme eastward coal-fields, in the natural coke or anthracite coal. From this anthracite range westward the bituminous element in the coal-beds increases gradually until the zone of full pitchy or gaseous coal is reached in the vicinity of Pittsburgh. The following analyses exhibit these extremes: e Per cent. of Per cent. of - bituminous. anthracite. Fixed carbon, (MM, p.17, No. 180) (b) .-.-.. -. -2---- cece + eee oe cone cece coe e ce enee sans 48. 769 89. 06 Volatile matter....-.------------ ew ween cece ere se cnns esis cecnscsoens= meecnesnie Rea Se 40, 995 3. 45 PAB oo cle eww edcletaisis sycrelemie Sion & atm 6 eteel REM foretell eat eters elena eee 7. 020 5. 81 Snipbur.2 co: gece cate AU bud des wed oxe sewed q2gd vale eee ae 2. 206 0.30 Phosphorus... 2-26 o.oo cacvle owen ae ne lslaminaia b= sien ls mm eaten minle le ialm af oleate ies tee eta tee aimee 0. 024 Moisture. so. oc Fase hainec s sae sini slate peta reia'e Cl ara 'n wie am wie ele ar tetera re eat , 1.010 1.35 The following table shows the increase westwardly of volatile or hydrogenous matter in the Upper Coal- Measures (McCreath) : | Reports Volatile .| Pennsylvania Coal-fields, Moisture. | Carbon. haktee Ash. | Sulphur. Second . Geological Survey. : 7 ar ia = A aa peso “al Amthracites.s--ces--2c-see~ 02 1.36 89.06 | 3.45 | 5.81 0. 30 L, p. 183. Cumberland 2. 06.5. sssens em 0.893 | 74.289 | 15.522 | 9.296 | 0.714 | H3,p.101. Sallapary aces deat vaink case | 1,665 68. 774 22. 35 5.965 | 1.246 | Connellsville...... Seppe phe ee 1. 26 59, 52 30.11 | 8.23 | 0.78 Greensburphsccp ccc snsssscleee 1. 02 61. 34 33.50 | 3.28 | 0.86 | MM, pp. 23, 24. Sriyin i bE Nee te et bd uae 54. 44 87.66 | 5.86 | 0.64 | MM, p. 22. | | | This table leaves a gap of 30 miles between Salisbury and Connellsville without analysis of the great Pittsburgh | bed, the Upper Coal-Measures, including the great Pittsburgh bed, having been swept away with the exception of the Salisbury and Fairfield basins, from a belt of 35 miles broad, west of the Allegheny mountains. The following table shows the character of the Lower Coal Series in the Allegheny field (McCreath): | = oe hee ’ Coal-fields. Moisture. | Carbon. Moores Ash. Sulphur. Second? Geological Survey. Anthracite. ...... LC eusnopeees 1. 35 89. 06 3.45 5.81 | 0. 30 Broad Top.cécsciace eee 0.77 | 73. 34 18. 18 6.69 | 1.02 Bennington ............000+- 1.40 61. 84 27. 23 6.93 | 2. 60 Johnstown .:.:5:s--ieasnams 1.18 74. 46 16. 54 5.96 | 1.86 | - Blairveville ccc s-we secnteeeee ae 0. 92 62, 22 24. 36 7.59 | 4. 92 H4. | Armstrong County....-.-..-- 0. 96 52. 03 38. 20 5.14 3. 66 M 3, p. 56. The gradual increase of volatile matter from the Broad Top coal-field of the east to Armstrong county in the west, a distance of about 75 miles, is very marked, showing an increase of 0.267 per mile. Making a comparison of coals from the second bed in the Lower Coal-Measures, bed “B” of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, we find that this bed at Bennington contains 27.23 per cent. of volatile matter, which exceeds its legitimate richness westward 2.38 per cent. At Johnstown, in the second sub-basin, this bed “B” contains 16.54 per cent. of volatile matter, or 10.98 per cent. less than its westward position should afford. This is.a remarkable exception to the law of general bituminization of coals westward. So far as determinations have been made on coals in this second sub-basin north and south of Johnstown, this condition of “dryness” in the coal-bed has been found extended and uniform. How far it may reach northeast and southwest has not been determined. Blairsville, 55 miles west from Broad Top, has coal containing 24.36 per cent. of volatile matter. This is 8.50 per cent. under its normal richness, showing the broad range of the operation of the causes that have produced these exceptional results. In fact, this Blairsville coal is lower in volatile matter than the coal at Bennington, 30 miles eastward. a For the following statement I am indebted to Mr. John Fulton, M. E. b These letters refer to the various reports of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 21 Armstrong County coal attains a mature condition, and is constituted with its full share of volatile matter, 38.20 per cent. This last result unfolds a truth that has been clearly pointed out by Professor J. P. Lesley: the similarity of the elements of coals in beds in a common basin. Taking the Salisbury coal as an illustration, and its congener, the Berlin bed, below, in the same geological range, they are constituted as follows: | Salisbury (Pittsburgh). Berlin bed. (HH) H, p. 78.) (HHH, p. 34.) Per cent. Per cent. RTGS G TL Gket mene Rate eshS a c.eie ce was Fah oe eon wisiele =, ala ots Sele Sia 6 fava cts earls wip rnvoe soe a a.see 1.385 2.010 ae MCU Mi ttmeitete taiate io) <4 n a 3) ia | Ae ES EL Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Perct.| Per ct.|| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Connellsville ........ Broad MOVE ees eeecece ce <= 30.107 | 59.616 | 8.233 | 0.784 | 1.260 || 89.576 | 9.113 0. 821 0.030 | 0.460 | McCreath. DORs eases sees GOKGLON =~ 52 sees ssccess = ie 21. 850 | 65.720 | 11.710 | 0.700 |...---- 89. 150 9. 650 L200 Wha eee > oer | B. Crowther. Tews etree Penn Gas Coalt....------- 38.130 | 54.880 | 6.980 | 0.960 |.....-. | 88.240 | 9.414] 0.962 |........ 1.384 | Carnegie Bros. & Co. Allegheny Mountain.| Bennington ‘‘B”’.......-.. 27. 225 | 61.843 | 6.930 | 2.602 | 1.400 I 87. 680. | 11,360) "1,060 Ica cas saree a McCreath. Oise cee = = eae nae Lilly’s Station ‘‘E”....... 22.250 | 70.518 | 5.058 | 1.459 | 0.715 |).-...-..|.....2-.].... 2.2. {ek Seen sean Do. Blosspurg. c--4- o<<- Arnot, Seymour vein f.. --- 21. 586 | 71: 574 | 4,753 | 0.907 | 1.180 || 84.760 | 13.345 | 0.998 | 0.175] 0.722 Do Allegheny River. ..-.. Lower Freeportt....-.---- 35. 825 | 54.223 | 7.340 1,312 | 1.300 | 85.777 | 11.463 | 2.107] 0.3380] 0.628 Do . | | Beaver county -..--.-. | Hulmes & Bro. t......---.-| 38.110 | 54.619 | 4.080 | 0.791 | 2.400 |! 84.727 | 12.636 | 1.994 | 0.100] 0.633 Do | : | | WEST VIRGINIA. | | j | | New River .-.-:...-- Quinnimonte-e-aces=s-e= es 18.190 | 75. 890 4. 680 0.300 | 0. 940 | 93.850) 5.850! 0. BOO cas crarect ne arte J. B. Britton, DO 5 Fececesia cee |. Wire Creek! 0. 20.05 22.340 | 75.020 | 1.470 | 0.560 | 0.610 || 92.180 | 6.680] 0.618] 0.110 |..-...... Coal, Dr. Ricketts; coke, | | | | J. B. Britton. DO see stieee< sere Longdale ...i)s2. ay dlanilfyy y GF Muy % Steal Works DGC BIOs, & Co_Linited. iN oeLPHIA S Re bebe E «| & sg g nee § S mh gS * SS ‘ SIRS f oot f a BALTIM 6 $ aN LY Seeeser a TON 7 ie SE ~, pubei—Te} Ns et Ewe RAT PEAR CHESTNUT bree Springs Coke Tigple HCKTIch Coke Co ~~ ES8\\coLUMBIA Le MAP OF THE CONNELLSVILLE COKE REGION. LEGEND. NS ZC Frick Coke Co. Quens marked - ® ? E Other Ovens in the Connellsville regionmarked, * Bedstong oi an % Ovens using Pittsburg Gas Coal Slack marked -* RO momsvitie 3 F c 8S < Oar me Ahunrmye nts i apéle Coke EParnacelos ——————— ee L—“‘i‘“—S el — eS eeE—E—eE——EEEeEe a a iad ce > 2 S / - 1 : \\ QB EX : § v . Bussey, Ch, 3 y * a iS Silat MM, wally jpltadlal J } eH Rw a a rN cain stata >: | Joaiu ae af GREENSBURG MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 3 in process of construction in this region, all bee-hive. Deducting from the totals for Fayette and Westmoreland counties, as given in the table on page 29, the totals for those establishments that cannot properly be regarded as in the Connellsville basin, we have the following statistics for the Connellsville region: | j Were? OVENS. COAL. COKE. astane Wane | Number of | yp = || Bass Aas Counties. pee Capital. FP EI aS employés. | W2ges paid. | i | ments. | hai, puilain a, | | Tons used. Value. Pedy: | Value. iF : ee) “I> aa a 5 ns wee | \| | \| | ge ..| 42| $1,939, 450 | 4, 109 1, 082 | 1,030| $489, 882 | 1, 898, 799 $926,454 || 1,253,743 | $2, 051, 126 Westmoreland .........--.---- | 19 1, 295, 500 | 2, 158 | - 160 || 826 | 284, 573 | 984, 499 | 606, 872 || 639, 457 | 1, 149, 772 ae | 61.| 3,234, 950 || 6, 267 | 1,242 || 1, 856 | 774,455 || 2,883,298 | 1,533,326 || 1, 893, 200 3, 200, 898 From this table it appears that about 62 per cent. of all the ovens in the United States at the close of the census year were in the Connellsville region, and that 69 per cent. of all the coke made that year was made in the same district. Of the extensions in progress June 1, 1880, judging by the number of ovens building, about 58 per cent. were in the Connellsville region. Since the census year its development has been remarkable, large tracts of land, in which the coal lies at a considerable depth below the surface, being now utilized, and the number of ovens has increased, until it is estimated that there are now 9,000. The accompanying map, showing the extent of the Connellsville region, the localities of the ovens, and their relation to Pittsburgh, is based on a map furnished by H.C. Frick & Co. The coal-bed from which all the so-called Connellsville coke is made is the Pittsburgh bed of Professor Rogers’ report of the First Geological Survey of Pennsylvania of 1842, and is described in the second volume of the final report of 1558. The continuation of the Pittsburgh area of this bed with the Connellsville area is broken off by the Youghiogheny river, the bed taking an upward course and descending again, the intermediate portion being swept away. This has led to a popular belief that the bed at Connellsville is different from that at Pittsburgh, but careful surveys have established their identity. It is a fact, however, that at Pittsburgh this bed is not in its best condition, while at Connellsville it is at its greatest thickness and is of the finest quality. It is also true that the coke made from the bed at Pittsburgh is not as good as that made at Connellsville. In the Connellsville basin the coal ranges from 8 to 11 feet in thickness, with one small slate parting, the ‘‘ bearing-in slate”, (a) 18 inches above the floor. The roof is only passable; the rooms can only be run 12 feet wide, and the pillars will average 10 feet, a large amount of which is lost in drawing. The floor is even and HA the coal is of a remarkably good and uniform character, and is soft and easily mined. On wagers, 23 wagons (57,684 pounds) have been dug and loaded inside of 10 hours by a man anda boy. The greater portion of this work is to shovel the coal into wagons, the digging or mining being the easiest part. Very little outside labor is requived, and the average output per man per day is from 8 to 10 wagons, the cost of digging being about 25 cents per ton. It is this ease of mining which, next to its chemical and physical characteristics, gives the Connellsville coal so much value as a material for coke, and has enabled the latter to compete in such distant markets with other cokes and fuels. Mr. Fulton has pointed out in a letter that this ease of mining is also a distinguishing peculiarity in the Connellsville basin. East or west from this narrow strip the cost of mining increases ; westward the coal hardens, eastward the beds become thinner. ° The coal is bituminous, with generally a dull, resinous luster, alternating with seams of bright, shining, erystalline coal, coated with a yellowish silt. It contains numerous particles of slate and some crystals of pyrites; is compact, with a tendency to break up into cubes; is a very tender coal, and is ill adapted for shipping. Such a coal from the mines of the H. C. Frick Coke Company, at Broad Ford, is taken by the Pennsylvania geological survey as the typical coal of the Connellsville basin. Its analysis, as determined by Mr. MeCreath, chemist of the survey, is: Per cent. Wiabelc tee eae oS soc eslsavicsecss SO er ete. eae teeta eine eis toate ante tele bial oltre « (ala'sie'cal ean deistee ects 1, 260 Sirs etal OEtiy a bbe Ree aa eeee meno ee ee een een et ene Om Sins oe stele teh io wins Misty eo aiaarel ices cine aie bc alsece tact snl 30. 107 eee eration et one oer es De en eae tas Eo sein oe... eta e baa ia ds adina cided va ac ee ea sees sesces OO, O16 ee Meee eR eee hea anie hen ae = Gace Steet te ca eisiem Siena cn Donien es fats ces basens sececcesinwee 0. 784 SL. cacy asjeel ached ea Mike Oe Fo et Ro ie ia AA ORR ey ee ee ee eee 8. 233 Color of ash, reddish gray; coke, per cent., 68.633 ; sulphur left in coke, 0.512. L i er cent. Percentage of sulpihur in coke . 22-2. sneces conn s cece n me ene ce tee cnt ae cece ne net nen nen cee nes caee ene ene 0.746 Perconcage-of Aply il COKG. oe fciie so ne snc cap = sade semicon s <8 odin ovals H wlgem= mn emeinn > not Snes cenecne nn eseees meee 11. 995 Percentage of carbon. in coke... --- 51... oe cece ac tment werner en gee cache tem ene recep eccns cose cee 87.25 The coke from this region is ef silvery ake cellular, with a metallic ring , tenacious, comparatively free from impurities, and is capable of bearing a heavy burden in the furnace. Its penanite and ability to “stand up” in the a The pareend or Second Geological Survey is devoting a great deal of labor to this coal-field, and the reports that hate bien pubNshed contain much'valuable information. I am greatly indebted to these reports, especially reperts L and KK, for data. \ 39 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. furnace are what have given it such a reputation as a blast-furnace fuel, and have created such a demand for it for mixing with anthracite and bituminous coal in the east and west, especially where an open iron, such as is used in the Bessemer process, is needed. Mr. John Fulton has conducted a series of very elaborate and ingenious experiments on the physical properties of coke for furnace use, embracing the typical coking coals of Pennsylvania. Some of these results are given in a table in connection with the remarks on the Allegheny Mountain region, and will be referred to at further length in the chapter on ‘Coke as a Blast-furnace Fuel”. In coking the Connellsville coal, the bee-hive oven is in universal use in the Connellsville region, these ovens varying at the different works from 11 to 12 feet in diameter, and from 5 to 6 feet in height.(a) The working is very simple. The coal is dumped through an opening in the crown of the furnace and spread evenly on the floor to the average depth of 2 feet for 48-hour coke and 24 feet for 72-hour. The front opening, through which the coke is discharged, is at first nearly closed with brick, luted with loam. The heat of the oven from the previous coking fires the charge, and as the coking progresses the air is more and more shut off by luting the openings and finally closing the roof openings. The average charge is 100 bushels (76 pounds each) of coal, and the yield in coke is from 63 per cent. to 65 per cent. The average time of coking is 48 hours, with 72 hours for that burned over Sunday; 24-hour coke iS sometimes made. The 72-hour coke is a firmer coke than either of the others, but it is questionable whether it is a better furnace coke. When the coke is thoroughly burned, the door is removed, and the coke is cooled by water, thrown in from a hose, aud then drawn. We have given an analysis of what was regarded as the typical coal from this region from the mines of the H. C. Frick Coke Company at Broad Ford. The analysis also gave the results of coke in the laboratory. A sample of the coke from these mines made in the ovens of the firm, analyzed by Mr. McCreath, gave the following results. This coke is exceedingly coherent and compact, with a silvery luster, and contains some slate: Per cent. Water venciz cote cae See tines bie Soe Meters Bie cis Sib ba ce cle Re bev \Relnis Sele alot a eeIS aT OTeL a eee tee eee etn ere een 0.030 Volatile ‘matterncs Shen ese cee cars Sec Sete na Se ea Seb SMe bb eon dee eee ere me IO ATE ee Eee TE Cate a TSE eet en ean 0. 460 Fixed carbonsie emcee sot coset ee tice aic te bee con coe ccc La Shee oi cle: © SIS tON SS SRS ae Seer eet 89.576 Sulphur goss eet eae Ses ea ck reece cclcin bt cin, 95 bc Sb ew icicew wis Ne yam teen eee eae ae 0. 821 Bs! MEER tis 21 BAL Danette Pea sa eee Se A MEE Elie. RR Sl Sea AL Soy ck SY Stat gmc ta Bt ie Mr. Platt, of the Pennsylvania geological survey, in his report on coke, takes this as the typical coke, “as being thoroughly burned and as well made as can be produced in the Connellsville basin.” Probably the most thorough analyses of the coke from this region were made by Mr. J. Blodgett Britton, of Philadelphia. It is the average of a large number of analyses of all sorts of Connellsville coke, and cannot, therefore, be regarded as a fair analyses of good coke: Per cent. MOISbUTE Sauer) -e ete eo eee ctemisieee mars Sone cc clclc cou winislce dele cols cans 6 Geel Cee ere cree TRe ee eee eaten a eee 0. 490 ASD . 2) caccce poses pweu shy Pes Wen eeS ee ebcs dececenmece’ occu weibare'y ikki emer: Rielle cae Clee iitnane aaa anne 11. 332 Sulphur Se ere Line teste Seer d Slave SS oe a oi bes wln oeikict 5 Os Se ee eae SU a ee 0. 693 Phosphoricracidl 2a c)cie oo toe ete eee hele nis she & wie ooo < > owe. ci 'sin.ce bOI RRIOD REE OE eae eae ee eee ee en eee 0. 029 Carbon, by pein Sele baie k os evs add ehEE wate ne Sie adware /sas vey ae $30, 000 IMO ceN erie COTY ES agencies cae dpe Abc 05 CARES SESE AE 5 Geese Cera oi Ale ami afar So Phe a et A 40, 600 PEEL AOE ees eet eveetate a a anes ere sic ista ole oi bacs cts’ Wa ohn is ow et dou eee coe (oases see oe ese. 120, 000 At least 8 percent. per annum interest should be expected on an investment of this character, which gives us: REE SUM sales axe ste er So dS wa Saal em ain'e ainin'dim igh dV cin lec ninacicionn ys was oss win scsceadees Suen augendsapananeucneses $9, 600 LOOMONS ESOL DOL ANNUMML TE Mw ae OLesOLeCOdls pA Owaacds wee sie eccccdecewescccccctece cadeccccsucccets scue 2, 800 SRA ON siete ota oe a aA a Sn'e vise claims A ~ a acune ae ocra sis ins sem duc tueaaaingsece nine, 12,400 So it will be seen that at least $12,400 should be first made yearly out of an investment of this kind to pay interest and make up depleted capital. It is not possible to make on an average more than 39,000 tons of 2,000 pounds each of good coke yearly with 100 ovens, and by the above figures it will be seen that it will require about 32 cents per ton to cover interest and replace capital. At the best arranged works in the Connellsville region, and at the present prices of labor, the cost of manufacturing a ton of 2,000 pounds of coke is about as follows: Bp OHHE LON GN OF COKO neces 46s sia5 hasan os oa aaek coeivae ceacee dea Pe aseat emer seas Gaaiiae saat eae wes $0 38 eNO ee Ns ae PMs oo See eaters. we anda Nae Se eed ce die tse ne deus sob eks we dete eeow dace dauccoasesacs 25 SRI UAC ceed UCI CLAS Dane MER 6 2. oj S 00 oe gcladh) Seams one dedacebedibend duud -fcd wes aoe ee eee 10 eee a ee ee Me a a Ce ae eagle a se aeec< dmnlk Sous odeleus) sctagel tawcldke sa mmice nda cha hawt yum decisimgls als sare ache 10 a eR eta ee tales kts Soe eh aes oe SWB = pian ea cia clt= 5 Side sam dome S9 ba isin iis Fed aba side ta sae seas ele 83 For the total we have: Interest on capital; and allowance for coal used, per ton, say...... 2... 0.0025 cesens conn ceweee e+e cece eenn-es-- $0 32 Se eer RAMU RE TOLO ek oe oma Sain es an oy mae Ah ewe ao has nis nergy ies seme tenes ena cncegas.ce saue% 83 Ce PIED La ie penta Siero ee ei AR lt cf BS Pe ie eae i ae Se a Tea 115 The above calculation is, if anything, too low, as the investment in ovens, ete., is lost when the coal is all gone, and the cost of manufacture will increase as the front coal is used up. This calculation is based on coal that will drain itself, as the cost will exceed this when drainage is added. Until recently most of the coal was brought out through entries, but now a number of shafts are employed, the great increase of ovens necessitating the mining of coal at points where the coal-measures are from 300 to 500 feet below the surface. A statement furnished by Mr. John Fulton as to the cost of a plant of 400 ovens erected by the Cambria Iron Company at Morrell, Pennsylvania, and also as to the cost of producing coke, differs considerably from that given above. The cost of the plant at Morrell was as follows: Vi arene ejsoe.. Sos eh Seagis¢ acbctscot, bee eRe eS Cee ee ee ae SS ee eae eee eo ees eee eee $29,113 80 PGE 5 Soo eekeen bn bts Sse n Ss 86 ee GS ee ee Sen Sens eee er eee 30,598 48 REY ee doe FE Salt Se BASS BHU S-5 CSCS BEERS SSE OBOE eee See ae aa ee See pve earn as 50, 000 00 AMI ROM Clisee sees mieten sien ene ethene cca, isceciesienie ettece cies ctcete siete ccccceUesesase wee ce ccete 118, 673 46 REE Oe ee SNe Be eee a ei Ree Ps Usd Doe oa AD. el ele Aad wht. he 228, 385 74 This would make the cost of a hundred ovens $57,096 434. Taking the cost of workmen’s houses, $30,598 48, from the above, the cost of the 400 ovens, not including such houses, would be $197,787 26, and of 100 ovens $49,446 814, or very nearly $50,000. This Mr. Fulton regards as the cost of 100 ovens where the coal is worked by slope or shaft, the estimate being based on a slope 2,000 feet long or a shaft 300 feet deep. Of course when a simple adit is run the expense would be less, but adits are exceptional. This is 25 per cent. less than the estimate above given, but is based on the actual cost of a bank of 400 ovens recently built. The actual cost of making coke at the works of the Cambria Iron Company, at Morrell and Wheeler, near Connellsville, is given on page 34, the mining of coal being based on 25 cents per ton for mining the room coal and 32 cents per ton (2,000 pounds) for heading coal. CO, VOL. Ix 3 34 . MANUFACTURE OF COKE. MINING COAL. Mining coal, per ton (2,000 pounds)... 22. .-..-- 0-22 ene eee ee een ne cen nn eee core cone cone commen cowene ” $0 27.6 Hauling ..---- 2-2-2 eee ne cone cone cece cee cee cece tees ce nnn cen ones cnn wes eee ence ctewes cecnss secses ence 07.3 Hoisting ‘and dumping: 6-2 32qcth ke 35 as loa oe eee ga cen tee be ae oho eek apne ue = cok cinta oleae eRe eae See aeeene 03.8 Superintendent, foreman, and clerk. .355-0 5. ao sawoce vamone sn ccisasee sachs bs omlsvani bs on bun bieries Sele «a actteaag 01.6 Lumber, ‘ties,'and props 226 Sooe ne saiee ae ary sae eee maciniaye been ais rigie stele eee oie allele = min at nieces etee tagnite « eeere cnet 02.9 Repairs and supplies... s i206 lowes weepad caldwell oes cect s Vaccavawin vas seed ccccieoces osacnr dau psaeeaset «= aeuee 06.8 Cost. of coal per fon, delivered: atovetiac ees tes aces ene ec'cciecce. opens ans chee dee eee tees 50. 0 COKING. 1:6'tons;of:coal, at 50 centstccc se. = nose aine ce tee cic eo si ce ses, sacar sin se tou ech ne soe eee eet eet ete cee iaeine $0 80.0 Labor (drawing, loading, charging, superintendent, and clerk) .... ..-... ---- coe cone cnceee senses once ween 41.2 Suppliésiicc aces wos = cote ea teeira cies ce teet ea cee a ee ele ce mice,c en's ele eo sal eininia ale '< alan ate oe a eee ee ee ore in 02.6 RGOPSIIS cso c eee = cele we ce elalee ban eie ee ere ne ceealsccctnebaselss a 6c'slncedncws'ssscis sas sistemas emteette Rouscomcdsechorse 05. 2 Costiof coke peor ton: tcsenac cnn mec ricccs cece cs ccs (ccc ce ns cen epimecn ve asp oasainns aie e em emeinoe aia cites 1 29.0 It is estimated that at these works 20 cents per ton on all coke made should be added to this to pay for real estate and interest on improvements. This would make: Cost of improvements and allowance for coal used per ton Of COke ....... 0000 cess cows cons vedces coos sone seccee $0 20 Cost of manufacturing coke per ton ........-...--------- wna eee teens eee een e cee cone cece cee ens one neeeee 1 29 AMY of Uh hag te a ring PR pla ae ee er ee il 49 It will be noted that this estimate of the cost of manufacturing coke is considerably in excess of that first given. These two estimates, from two reliable manufacturers, are given for the purpose of showing how difficult itis to arrive at exact figures. The result of a careful survey lately made puts the amount of coal yet remaiuing in this region at 72,000 acres.. As each acre furnishes 5,500 tons of coke, this would furnish, say, 400,000,000 tons, which will supply the present output, say, 200 years. This only applies to the Pittsburgh bed. Other seams in this same field not now worked will no doubt, when needed, furnish a supply of coking coal. Before speaking of the Allegheny Mountain region, the next most important coking district in western Pennsylvania, it may be well to refer to those coke works in Fayette and Westmoreland counties not properly belonging to the Connellsville region. In these counties are two coal-basins, or, more properly, sub-basins or troughs, in addition to the Connellsville, one the Greensburgh, of small extent and lying only in Westmoreland county, the other the Lisbon or Irwin, which is much larger than the Connellsville, extending from near the northern boundary of Westmoreland county in a southwesterly direction, through Fayette and Greene counties, into West Virginia. In both of these troughs the Pittsburgh bed remains, from which considerable coke was made in the census year, mainly from slack. Following the line of the Pennsylvania railroad, the first of these troughs (the Greensburgh) lies west of the northern extremity of the Connellsville basin, and some five or six miles from Latrobe. It is of but little importance as a coking-field, only 4,154 tons of coke from unwashed slack being made in its limits in the census year. The second of these troughs, still following the line of the Pennsylvania railroad westward, the Irwin, is less than 10 miles distant from the Greensburgh, and includes the mines of the Penn Gas Coal Company and the Westmoreland Coal Company, so well known for the production of coal of excellent gas-making qualities. The coal from the Pittsburgh bed in this portion of the Irwin trough makes an excellent coke, and contains, except in very rare cases,. but little sulphur and a very low percentage of ash. The coal, however, is much harder than the Connellsville, and will bear shipping, which the Connellsville, as a rule, will not, being too friable. The coal of this trough also contains a large proportion of volatile combustible matter, and consequently the percentage of coke per ton of coal is much less than in the Connellsville region. For these two reasons, and to utilize what would otherwise be not only a waste product but one very inconvenient to dispose of, but little lump coal is used in coking, most of the coke being made from slack, 9,200 tons only out of 215,045 tons used being lump coal or “run of the mine”. The largest works in this trough is that of Carnegie Brothers & Co., limited, who have a large number of ovens, with necessary washers, near Larimer station, on the Pennsylvania railroad, washed slack chiefly from the mines of the Westmoreland Coal Company and the Penn Gas Coal Company being used. This coke is of good quality, in some respects equal to the Connellsville and lower in ash, and has been used in Pittsburgh furnaces with good results. An average of three analyses of the Penn Gas Company’s coal, made by Mr. A. S. McCreath, chemist of the Pennsylvania geological survey, is as follows: Per cent. Water io os eas reid ew aac et Ce dE a ete wis cere co ein te ce ee re ee eer tee ne SS Soe nae 1. 427 Volatile matter... etc 2. CA Se ete a re ecu ceece 37. 980 Fixed carbon . coin Fok AR es eee ie. 2 a een, ake. bree 54. 598 Sal phoary «\n'ayisk oaawiwcele sik} «eae Meee Heid be chews wo s 5io-a ob SON tN ce lia oes haa 0. 638 Ash ss 0 co eee SSS wel re et aie oe ee Sa te ba rete = Deal a ac ee te ee eet ce eee 9. 304 From Messrs. Carnegie Brothers & Co., limited, we have the following analyses of the slack, both washed and unwashed, and the coke made from the same. It will be noted, on comparing the analysis of the unwashed slack MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 30 with that of the coal above given, that the amount of sulphur and ash are both very much higher in the unwashed siack than in the coal, while the volatile matter is somewhat lower. By washing, the slack is made to very nearly equal in purity and contents the unwashed coal: SLACK, Constitutents. “| Coke. Unwashed} Washed coal. coal. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Bixodsearvn.oct-da advise ees la) 56. 57 54. 88 88. 240 ; Volatile matter..........: perches 31.68 | 3813 | 1.384 ah ee se, St ere eae 11.08 | 6.98 | 9.414 Snlpligrssaee eee Gees ses oec'e oie 1. 26 0.96 | 0. 962 Southwesterly from the Pennsylvania railroad, on the Youghiogheny and Monongahela rivers, several banks of ovens have been erected to utilize the slack from various mines. This slack, however, contains, when unwashed, fragments of slate, which interfere with the reputation and the use of coke made fromit. At Cat’s run, on the Monongahela, near the Virginia state line, where ovens and washers have been erected, an analysis of the coal is as follows: VMOA NED Sat oi no SS nS SES SOb Ces ESSE s GHOTIC TOET SC EE eae eral 7 1. 040 VDI YW STS AAR 8 SS = Go Sci eo TERESI SESE SEIT ih ae 32, 815 PERC REO ORME ee toe Meera ees eee Ae ede oe oe ee Ne Siete Soo ek eo Se a See ae 60, 214 SULT: ous Scomcnce BANS ONE IE S SHSe aS SISO OC Se ae Tie ie ae Sn a Pa Poa ae ee PRR 1, 249 Aes Uae tee eee ckocints aa elas cb chus cocci sidie cpielbsle Secu bued BS IS ay A ee COE SS Sess eee inee tase 4, 655 The slates of this coal are sontewhat thicker than in the Connellsville basin, and the coke is not apt to find a ready market, owing to the injury caused by projecting bits of slack. We give below a statement showing the manufacture of coke in these two counties outside of the Connellsville . region: | OVENS. COAL. COKE. No. a, fetes tab- . : Troughs. ish. Capital. : | Gan! eye Wages paid. | | ments Number | Number Tonsused. | Value. || TDS Pro- Value ; built. building. || ‘ : f voll peedirced.cag) ; - | le SSSCORSUME EM satanic ic | | | | Pr.ct.| Pr.ct,| Pr.ct.| P.ct,| Pr. ct. | Pr. et. Standard coke, Con- | 12.46 | 20.25 | 47.47 | 77.15 | 61.53 | 38.47 || 284] 114 il 3.5 | 1.500 | 87.46 | 0.490 | 11.32 | 0.69 | 0.029 | 0.011 eae y | | | | ss 1 big vein, Salis- | 12.98 | 23:33 | 49.52 | 89.01 | 56.07 | 44.93 || 162 65 1 | 3.25 | 1.501 || 89.31 | 0.420 | 9.45 | 0.82 | 0.019 |........ vaprmh equal to yury. | onnellsville. No. 2, over big vein .| 12.73 | 22.94 | 48.50 | 87.39 | 55.49 | 44. 51 all 69 1 | 3.00 | 1.645 || 84. 42 0.030 | 12,92 | 1.63} 0.100 |........ Little high in sul- : | | | phur and phos- | | phorus. No. 3, under big vein. 12.05 | 22.78 | 45.92 | 86,05 | 52.49 | 47.51 Tavs POL 1 | 3.00 | 1.644 || 86.27 | 0.010 | 11.68 | 2.02 | 0.020 |........ Little high in sul- | | phur. | | No. 4, under big vein.| 13.71 | 22.35 | 85.15 | 85.15 | 60.88 | 39.12 || 167 67 Vo) 2.75 |1. 546 |) 91.59) 0.150 | 7.08 | 1.16} 0.020 |........ Very good coke. | | Blair Coal and Iron | 13.19 | 20.80 | 50.25 | 79.25 | 63.41 | 36.59. |/.....-|...... eos Olicctera == eSit5S) fe aeneee Ped TS 8 Gral0s,00.)| state fae ealete rene 3 Co., Bennington. | | tk Neila she Tron | 11.76 | 20.18 | 44.81 | 76.88 | 58.27 | 41.73 240 96 DE SPOO esos ere SOL 28 sees wees O, 66. iil: 06 lee ccs ceteerts.ce% Washed coal. 0., Broad Top. | erage We Wa Co., | 14.79 | 19.86 | 56.35 | 76. 69 | 74.48 | 25. 57 319 | 128 TUS. G0) pas COON SO.87 Os 00G Oral Veo s ears aa 0. 667 | T.T. Morrell, chem- earfield. | | | ist. an coke, Clear- | 14.09 | 19.37 | 53.71 | 72.30 | 72.28 | 27.77 180 70 1%.) 3:00 | 1.186 |\;84.30 ) 0.520 | 18.74 | 1.41 | 0.022 |........ Do. eld. | | | | | | Nat Hon. Hy. Rawle, But- | 13.35 | 21.11 | 50.66 | 80. 46 | 58.68 | 41.82 || 266 | 107] 1 | 3.80] 1.300 || 92.04 |...... Polat One Si liseeesaiae [eetesteeter Do. ler county. | | | | | I} From the above table it will be seen that the Allegheny coal region affords a wide area for coke-making, and it is remarkable that, so far as disclosed in the practice hitherto, economy of production and good quality of coke are closely allied. It also affords a wide field for the application of ovens adapted to the peculiar wants of each family of coking coals. It may be urged that the Connellsville and Allegheny Mountain belts may become exhausted. To this it may be shown that the law of similarity of composition of coals in each basin would afford a large additional supply of coking coal. The lower productive coal-measures in the Connellsville basin must produce at least twice as much coking coal as the great upper bed, and the belt of coals between the Johnstown sub-basin and the Connellsville basin should also afford a very extensive supply of coking coals. It would appear, therefore, that the present demands the utilization of the best coking coals with the utmost economy in the production of coke. Though no coke was made in Somerset county in the census year, I am informed that there are 30 bee-hive ovens at Ursina, built about 1868 or 1870, but as the coal failed to make a marketable coke these ovens were abandoned, and have not been in operation for some years. The company has recently been reorganized, and the ovens will be repaired and put in operation. Coking is also now being done at other places in this county. The Appalachian coal-field, at its northern extremity, breaks into a number of small detached coal-basins. From the coal of one of these, the Blossburg, in Tioga county, 33,572 tons of coke were made in the census year, all from washed slack, 53,777 tons being consumed. Slack both from the Bloss bed (Upper Kittanning) and the Seymour bed, which lies some 150 feet above, is used, but the Seymour-bed slack furnishes much the larger proportion. This bed is from 3 to 34 feet thick. The coal is semi-bituminous, bright and shining, and is very tender, carrying numerous thin partings of iron pyrites and a large amount of mineral charcoal. An average specimen of the coal from this bed, as analyzed by A. S. McCreath, gave the following result: Per cent iT Cnet ene ) Saee Ree ey Ree ee ves TER TIS! soliidee ces So aes seegia eloude ede ess 1. 180 WSOC TVR o |. cee eGa sina Gostieccben 54 een a oe eee Sane ean SP yee cc: 21. 586 STOR HEC TIT LO Tie aoe went es tee er are ie ev AP Bsr, a Ae wi Glatalm wield de eats inet sete lnleie! eleuie! elie elaine el sicher 71.574 el ee a Se ee rs ON arabe tas! auina ba kaee ced 6 U Raped ew siss Reed vee ess eens cescldsds besiege ee : 0. 907 ae ey nn ees DED eR eek Ce a! Er A oe eae a a Se ee teins wea thie Un earslesen clic aeasue's Ae Thay I have no analysis of the slack, washed or unwashed, but an analysis of the washed coke is given in report MM of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, page 110, as follows: Per cent. Sy ELL eee ae em eee A AO Ss ean bar SC ejecnigiw es coed neo clece ROT Sey ee eee te 0.175 Wedyleadhe: FEAGWAR NS. oe ce ea Atay ele Me BC SU BSE SE OESEISS htS pe E CGE Sok See See I Sene Pie ieee meyers eee 0. 722 TCG eel eee ae a RR ee es Se aeolian cides aco Sacss see riecaletn Saale ate seats mere me =o 84. 760 Pe a Re CE Beets eet ache ce en igs heeeen Zacern pane tecedrihamene saa njoeta nacans teen sone 0. 998 CA Le arene ee ee ar eeia wait sonal oirwiate co cain alaiala/e'a sina 5 Sele Svc mcien ees elon ales a ewan a aieinielee S's 13. 345 38 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. The screenings are thoroughly washed and coked in bee-hive ovens, the yield being about 62 per cent. of the washed slack. The ovens are burned from 48 to 72 hours, and the coke is watered in the oven. When properly burned, it is an open, porous, cellular, ringing, and strongly coherent coke, and its physical structure is very good. From its location the manufacture of coke at this point is commercially of considerable importance, a large portion of New York state being supplied with this fuel. Two ovens were erected at McIntyre, in Lycoming county, during the census year, and experiments looking to the utilization of this so-called McIntyre coal were made. But little coke is made from the coal of the Pittsburgh bed at or near Pittsburgh. There-are two reasons for this. In the first place the coal does not make as good a.coke for sinelting iron as that from the same bed at Connellsville, which is only some 60 miles distant. While the coke is as pure, indeed somewhat purer, the coal contains so much volatile matter that the coke is generally too porous for blast-furnace purposes when the lump or run of the mine is used. In addition to this, the coal at Pittsburgh is more valuable for other purposes than for coke, and by using an oven adapted to coking this coal, good coke could be made, but under present circumstances it would not pay. Notwithstanding these facts, Allegheny county ranked fourth in order of production among the counties of Pennsylvania in the census year. It also made more coke than any of the states except Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia, its production being only 35 tons less than that of the latter state. There were produced in this county 95,685 tons of coke from 166,700 tons of coal, all but 10,618 tons of which were slack. Most of the slack was washed. It will be noted that while the larger number of ovens were bee-hive, 140 were Belgian, nearly half of those in the United States. Considerable success has been reached in coking Pittsburgh slack in this oven, and it is a curious fact that in western Pennsylvania, where the bee-hive oven is used so extensively, and, indeed, where it is the best oven for most of the coal now coked, the Belgian oven has also been used the most successfully, these Pittsburgh ovens and those at Johnstown showing the best results of any flue ovens in this country. It is also worthy of note that the coke is watered inside the Belgian ovens at Pittsburgh. Probably this practice obtains nowhere else. A noticeable feature of the manufacture of coke in Pittsburgh and vicinity is that it is chiefly to utilize what would otherwise be a waste product. Slack is used in other sections, but nowhere to the extent that it is used at Pittsburgh. In what is sometimes called the Pittsburgh district, which includes Allegheny county and those portions of Fayette and Westmoreland counties outside of the Connellsville region, in which 216,429 tons of coke were made in the census year from 389,505 tons of coal used, only about 25,000 tons, or 6 per cent. of the whole amount, was lump coal or run of the mine, and more than half of this was used, as has already been explained, in bee-hive ovens for the purpose of manufacturing gas, the coke being a by-product, so that of the entire amount of coal used in this Pittsburgh district directly for the manufacture of coke about 24 per cent. only was lump coal. The following table gives the chief statistical items concerning the make of coke in Allegheny county in the census year: | ree OVENS. | COAL. COKE. County. | estab- Capital. l | Number of| Wages paid. | Pees ip omber | Number || se hee nt | Tons used Value Tons Value : | built. | building. | Hake ea cai : produced. ¢ : Allegheny #25... is0e te a | 17 $325, 150 476 20 171 $59, 485 166, 700 $119, 718 95, 685 $235, 915 | | | utside of the districts already mentioned the manufacture of coke in the state of Pennsylvania was of comparatively small importance, although the total make of these counties is much greater than the entire make of a number of the states. The coke, however, is either produced for the purpose of utilizing screenings, which would otherwise be wasted, or to supply some local blast-furnace with fuel. In the Allegheny River region, which may be regarded as including the ovens in the valleys of the Allegheny and Redbank rivers above Pittsburgh, coke was made in Armstrong, Butler, and Clarion counties in the census year. But 7,000 tons were made in Armstrong county, all in pits or mounds. This coke was made from Upper Freeport coal, Mr. McCreath’s analysis of a fair average specimen being as follows: Per cent. Water ui tie od sak ce a a tee ce Me rece ee eine eels Sale ik Sy ee ea De RTE oe 1.700 Volatile matter sc 622) scewbe os ome cate toe See ele alse bc a cctcla) Neat Ste oe ee ee eye tee ea ERE Sa) 35. 520 Fixed. carbon 0252032 6 soph as ee bere a on nae ci sks Cele OES Rr eee et ee a eee Pe bovo4o Sulphur’ 12222. 4.0 2c.c2e2 Ao eee pe eos Seen Stee cork bio cic ome oe eee eee oe ee eC) ere ee 0. 835 ASD? oc eic sinc tee cba eddie As ee ee re ota ic Bene ce eeicie eg Lacan Sere em ego ht ee 6. 630 Yield of.coal in coko.2... 0) son een eee ee sea RSPAS ee SES Re age Lie See ES” 63. 0100 Phosphorus:it: coales.e Sonat oe eee ee Oe ee nae oe se ee Pete meaties ee sees © 5 asa weee 0. 0684 Phosphorus in ¢oke 2 sos Si Sees eee ee eee si ee ee eee Ss =e i Seater 0. 1085 The coking is badly done in open-air ricks, requiring from 8 to 10 days in the operation, according to the state of the weather. The coke is very tender, and is an inferior fuel; crushing and washing the coal before coking would improve it. It is used in a local blast-furnace. Another works was in course of construction. (a) i, a At this works, which is now (1882) in operation, the coal is washed, and a very good blast-furnace fuel is made. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 39 In Butler county coke (400 tons) was made at one small works for the purpose of utilizing slack from the mine. In Clarion county there are two coke works, but one of which was in operation in the census year. The idle works, when in operation, supply coke to a blast-furnace which was idle during the entire year. The coke made is from the Upper Freeport coal, the bed ranging from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 3 inches, the coke showing the following analysis: INU Ce eee ete eee ee ee aa Nl ete etme cers Seat oe cles cna braid Gibielna eo v masia dieu mc eipace sac cae sisas censuses edna 0. 230 WolauilenntibeCineenmrc sa cete = Sect tm tak os ec eee ss eee oe ce ac cote ct eee volbwsede ol be%s deieccacuebetocce 1.106 WEREURCAEIONGE TEES fase cota sis clee cia lett etna c vbcUne dots cohen cmies sed RL SA eS jo BSNS Be SAE AL Ass 5 oe 88. 360 eA ete g = eaieasi ie 5 WS sich ows tine leceden gbus\aye nn Spagi-ethlssth sic veulsip'svec'dteslecceense- seuss 1. 076 es [fer St eto tok). Sagk oe Saat hn Se ists Sale as, wciee cue nic slniaie 6,2 sernp w Sie eee eadleiaccen sauce cbcclearn 9, 228 At the works which were in operation in this county coke was only made for the utilization of slack, the coal in this case being the Lower Freeport, and the yield in coke being 67 per cent. The coal is from 54 to 64 feet thick. The slack is mixed with considerable slate and fire-clay, necessitating careful washing, which is done by a Stutz washer. The following analyses show the effect of washing on the coal and coke: Unwashed slack. Washed slack. Per cent. Per cent. Sue e ee eae Seen nae ina etme tte emtctac = Waekiach sew cates saciels sacha ea ae csth det ics ac eters OO" 1.300 MDLOLLLG TA UCI seem ce ateueiey «acct alaeles au pisiaeiasis'a bao oCclnfac cick Giacle seleiesssdtis bees eho 35, 130 35. 825 PEs CRG) AN) Oe ee eet Sera tet goles ei ein 5 8 ohn c wnlein tals apis sit) oieiae era Gia w/nfinigiaic opie areistes S Ne ol. 397 54, 223 tN ee ee I esc be a agin vies a kes alps Ue S we'nioysininite oct e ase 4 ie Sora POA 1. 988 1.312 ee Coa ell nm alten eine ol alae bis ais w foto sie win leeks make nob ova giecpe cs aceeen 10, 225 7.340 COKE FROM WASHED SLACK. VRE oconocabs Doog gas embe dbtoma de Bas beasrics ieee iS Sk SAF ke pala id he a ear en Se oan a ge ep 0. 033 Wika, TINSGEGT = 26 Us 545 bes aS ae a Ee Ae eae Sed Te Se eta oe An ears Aree Me ne nee a 0. 623 MEIC NCOELT: EOFs ctetatateta sleet tee = ta ees aden roetel eet aye a saa eid, ate ene eels SO SE asl Es Ske a Sa Seo cle eto ae cides 85.777 Piatt eects nls eiestenera ate era Pete eae Ain el oN saola lait cl sian sft alate aloe hah Sein wlqace ois lela oie yaa nlele clave aim ajele wie wiajete se eetelclete 2.107 Nae ee ee re ne sees amen a Set cea Cclate sci dhciel ete aecicce ccivcis ewe eels teessecescsscans ESHA 11. 463 The cost of washing is about 12 cents a ton, but on a large scale it would be somewhat less. The coke is bright, silvery, of rather an open strucfure, with small masses of slate included. : In Washington county 1,200 tons of coke were made in the census year; but like most of the other coke made on the Pan-Handle railroad near Pittsburgh, it was only made to utilize a portion of the slack at the mine, as at times it is more profitable to sell the slack. In Beaver county there was one small works, making altogether but 506 tons of coke from slack produced at a small mine. The coal used is from the Kittanning bed. This bed is in two benches, the upper a hard, dull, open- burning coal, with some pyrites, and the lower a bright, oily, soft coking coal. Much of the lower part comes out as slack and nut coal, and is coked. The coke is firm and porous, has a bright silvery luster, and is used in the steel cutlery and other works at Beaver Falls. The analysis of this coal and coke is as follows: ‘ Coal. Coke. Per cent. Per cent. IVVISUU ON torer. cietre arate bate cee SSS Mee he RSA Re Ooo ae Ha ee ERs A iit Te Le See 2. 400 0. 010 MiG OU ORIN AOUOE a2 sare res erclo riots aetiiats ca eee ee wale ate Maco acts Se dele eee Ons Ay 38. 110 0. 633 ECHL Ol cen cede ape eye seems ae eeee I ee ern eR ce SNS ec Ochoa olive ad seeese 54, 619 84. 727 Sa Ue eran suse seals alcrees Sts eateea statis oe Neieis on ate tc ae eeaes lc henteemecie nee and eee ese 0.791 1, 994 IME co pacpa cee GE Se HOD CEE GR SE SOROS Seal t ye ier Alias ie by alse Ea Ah Oh ee a re ce 4. 080 12. 636 It is evident that the coalis a picked specimen, and that the slack from which the coke was made contained a larger proportion of slate than coal. In Lawrence county 3,941 tons of coke were made in the census year, washed slack from the mines in the vicinity of New Castle being used. These works had been idle for some years, but owing to the increased demand for coke that sprung up in the census year the works were repaired andrun. There are also some coke-ovens connected with the Wampum furnace, but these were idle the entire year. When running, they make coke from the Darlington or Upper Kittanning coal. The coke is mixed with Connellsville and is used in the furnace. THE COKE INDUSTRY IN WEST VIRGINIA. Coke to the amount of 95,720 tons was made in four counties of West Virginia in the census year. The following table, condensed from Table I of this report, gives the chief statistical items concerning its manufacture : OVENS. | COAL. COKE. No. - ae | 4 estab- : || Numberof . ro Counties. lish- Capital. || ARP oe ol aoe bar igmploves Wages paid. | Tih ments. | built. building. Tons used. Value. produced. Value. MBLC onaisine Memeo voce pee nets 6 $239 ,000 238 134 | 99 $27, 612 | 88, 769 $84, 444 57, 943 $127, 588 INEGI IO DM cae Ansan wena ats aaa 1 14, 000 |; BOM cae wai dmateta | 5 2, 000 | 4, 200 2, 100 2, 800 4, 000 That) a eee BAAD 1 3, 000 3 1 || 2 480 | 2, 180 | 2,000 || 1, 200 3, 000 SPEIMANSOEE taee ne oink. 5 od api niciais alain asi 4 74, 000 130 16 57 18, 850 | 53, 331 47, 400 33, 777 82, 000 PL DUA se tats wane sisinwn tesla 12 330, 000 407 151 163 48, 942 148, 480 | 135, 944 | 95, 720 216, 588 | | 40 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. In order of production West Virginia ranked third among the states, producing 3.48 per cent. of the entire make. In yield of coal in coke the returns contained in the table on page 11 show that Indiana coal surpassed that of West Virginia; and, disregarding the Indiana manufacture as little more than experimental, West Virginia, in this respect, stands first, closely followed by Pennsylvania. Indeed, the yield in coke of the coal of these two states may be regarded as the same. The most important, as well as the best known, of the coking coal-fields of this state is the New River field, which lies principally in Fayette and Raleigh counties, extending along the course of the New river (a) and its tributaries about 40 miles. Reports of recent investigations include the Flat Top coal-field in the New River district, which would extend this district to Mercer county, and make its total length 80 miles. The relations of these fields to the New river and the Chesapeake and Ohio railway and the Norfolk and Western railroad will be seen by an inspection of the accompanying map, prepared specially for this report, by Major Jed. Hotchkiss. Along the sides of the escarpment of these mountains, fronting on the cation of New river and its many tributaries, the outcroppings of several veins of bituminous and semi-bituminous coal are exposed, varying in thickness from a few inches to over seven feet, (b) five of them being workable, containing 3 feet of coal and upward. The coking property of these coals, in view of their relations to extensive deposits of iron ore, makes them very valuable, the coke made from them being an admirable blast-furnace fuel, second to none in the country. It “stands up” well in the furnace, has a high percentage of carbon and low percentage ef ash, sulphur, and phosphorus, and in the practical test of furnace work has shown results that have not been surpassed by any other coke in the country. At the Longdale furnace, with 72-hour coke and an ore with 50 per cent. metallic iron, 5 per cent. silica, and of an aluminous nature, a ton of pig-iron has been made with a ton of coke, and this not for a day at a time, but for some weeks in succession. The average consumption for the entire blast would be in excess of this. As a result of this excellent character, coke is rapidly coming into use in the iron furnaces of Virginia and the Ohio valley, and the number of ovens has largely increased since the census year. (¢) The bee-hive oven was the only form of oven used in this region in the census year, but ovens on the Coppée system are being constructed in Virginia to coke the New River coal. The charge of coal to each oven is three tons ; the time of coking is 48 hours, except on Fridays and Saturdays, when the charge is increased and the coking continued for 72 hours. The coal yields about 64 per cent. of coke. This is to be understood as the average, not the uniform yield. The yield at Sewell in 1879 was 6523 per cent.; at Quinnimont, for five months, 66.7 percent. The chief points in New River region at which coke was manufactured during the census year, following the line of the Chesapeake and Ohio railway, are Quinnimont, Fire Creek, Sewell (Longdale Iron Company), Nuttallburg, and Hawk’s Nest. Below we give analyses of the coals of this region, and the furnace cokes made from them : QUINNIMONT COAL. FIRE CREEK COAL. NUTTALLBURG COAL. Hawk’s Constituents. meen N . Ane No. 2,lump| No. 3, | os coal. . No. 1.* RaaLt pack + No.;8,9 |) SeNon2 No. 1.§ No. 2.t Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. Hixed carbon ses csscnceees ce vace PE AN fx 75. 89 79. 26 79. 40 75. 02 75. 499 72. 32 69. 60 70. 67 75. 37 63. 10° Volatile matters csc. oe ele see eae ee! ae 18.19 18. 65 17. 57 22. 34 22. 425 21. 38 29. 59 25. 35 21. 83 82. 61 A Ghd. 5 cous Ashe seat ae cuieteieasiepe mete wale aiate 4. 68 Lat 1. 92 1.47 0. 805 5. 27 1. 07 2.10 1. 87 2. 15 Sulphur casctiewte can cee eeanes eee aes 0. 30 0. 28 0. 28 0. 56 0. 536 0. 27 0. 78 0. 57 0. 26 0. 74 Waterco. fo. 2 oncscmatac eens chemo spaces 0. 94 0. 76 0. 83 0. 61 0. 735 1. 03 0. 34 1.35 0. 93 1.49 Phosphorus eects deste s s'-eee ae se seme alee! aac eer es hag ee ahs Oise Poel OS eiaie ail lewis cc a aeiaerel elms ealemiea cil bea ee semnemlor|| meta aieneeetes 0.08 |]...--.------|---------+- Total jccnksceccecnteteosscenceacnebe 100. 00 100. 01 100. 00 Y 100. 00 100. 000 | 100. 27 100. 78 100. 12 | 100. 26 100. 00 * Analyst: J. B. Britton. t Analyst: Professor Egleston. t Analyst: Dr. Ricketts. § Analyst: C. E. Dwight. || Analyst: J. W. Mallet. As the Flat Top coal is now (1882) included in the New River region, and is rapidly assuming importance as a coking coal, we give the following analysis by A. 8S. McCreath: Per cent. Water. si vsecee ceeded ic dead oie Soe ee Cn One wee a be Pete ee neato eS soho ee ee ee ee See ne eee Saree 0. 982 Volatile matter oie. 204. ne OE PO SS ee oer re ee Ne are es 5 ee ne ae ne Un ee ee cree 20. 738 Fixed CATDON wicca ave mac ob auhelawrens eee te Site ee ee eae Ce hs eee ere cee arte ae 73. 728 Sulphur oec5 22h Soe Sek 5 ares ee pe ie ee eee ar eRe Ce Sree ane a ee te nee = 0. 618 Ash eee cs SE Soe oy wale poe erode ae DO oe ee ee a eee Re ert, en meee Oren Sey 3. 984 Laboratory coke 5.2.0) fee ie ee ee ee a eee ere Le et nn Sn ES 8 Peas 78. 3300 Phosphorus. Goi 652 Sect eee oe eee soe digs ere ne neo aLae Sn cine SEE ee a see scenes 0. 0013 a The upper part of the Kanawha is called.the New river. b Four feet is the generally-stated maximum thickness of any of these seams, butaJetter from Major Hotchkiss puts it at 12 feet. This probably refers to the Flat Top region, and not to that section where coke was produced in the census year, ie In Professor McCreath’s: section of this coal at Pocahontas, published in Mineral Wealth of Virginia, 4 feet 8 inches of the 11 feet 8 inches is described as ‘coal With such a coal, if it is included, an analysis showing but 3.984 per cent. of ash is remarkable. ¢ Mr. Jed. Hotchkiss, in the October (1882) number of his journal, The Virginias, published at Staunton, Virginia, gives the number of coke ovens in operation on the line of the Chesapeake and Ohio railway as 731, very nearly double the entire number of ovens in the state in 1879-’60, and more than three times the number in the New River region at that date. with irregular thin slate streaks”. Gauley Mtn. Ci olliery. 6) Arey, fe Hawk3 Ne Ye Gai mont. o, ° Sunnyside. \; Elmo. moans Weg eds Jane eat ARR Saar Avis, — s\n io oy oink His a ees VA G ch mM, Ex : urs = a ae SS SS eee eee eee ee Ne ee Oe eee eee - siete emmeatl lieeineneatinet _ an arene = = gy — _- — — - ee citeneatencell — _ — < Car? NS : >“ Lich, yy. E etic, ma O | ( BPMN Ga Nera cine (ae. Ay 7 . ax lim rnawhar\)\ A alts. } % f vy SR Ansted. ‘ AZ, \\e —iny \ ¢ SONG Cotton Fit. \ Zor fo Haw Nest. Sia era iW) \ 2 Siu y side. pL \e- Elma Laure x MAP OF NEW RIVER OF KANAWHA COKING-COAL FIELD, WEST VIRGINIA and VIRGINIA. By JED. HOTCHKISS, Cons. Eng. Staunton, Va., 1882. ue \ Sia Dow ae y — aa Sy <0 Creek. NOTEH.—The Coking-coals of the New River region of West Virginia and Virginia are found inthe Lower (Va.) Coal-Measures, (Rogers’ Va. Formation No. XII,) the ‘Pottsville Conglomerate” of the 2d Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. *New Rich mond \ Locations of coking works are underscored. The heavy black line with hachures shows, approxi- mately, the outcrop limits of the New River coals. Ty ay 'O % 1 v1 = NT rf VUE yy aya ane’ 4, AA ! Mir, ' Win ven MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 41 The following are analyses of industrial coke made from New River coals: QUINNIMONT. FIRE CREEK. x Constituents. =A —| Longdale.$| ~ uttall- No.1* | No.2. | No. 1+ No.2. | burg.t | Percent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Violapile Mater, (no. ~ <5 aseean= Seer Neaetaeiekan se RM eld petrets sala =e a x's Ue le 15 144, 012 619 12 | 153 51, 977 193, 848 | 228, 432 |! 109, 296 | 334, 546 42 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. While much of the coal of this state is excellent for many purposes, there is but little as well adapted to the manufacture of coke as some of the coals of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama, though most of the seams of coking coal are geologically the same as those of the former. They appear, however, at their best as they approach the mountains. Much of the coal used in Ohio gives a coke that is soft and brittle, and often high in sulphur and ash. This is not true of all the cokes, however, some being remarkably pure. The yield in coke is not as great as that of the coal of the same seams in the states mentioned above, being on an average only 58,64 per cent., one of the lowest yields in the country, Tennessee and Illinois only showing a lower yield. The chief localities in which coke was made in Ohio in the census year were Columbiana and Jefferson counties, which produced 97,108 tons of the 109,296 tons made in the state, or about 89 per cent.’ Most, if not all, of this was consumed in the blast-furnaces located at or near the ovens, the Columbiana coke being used at the Leetonia furnaces and the Jefferson County coke at the Steubenville furnaces. Of the coal from which the Columbiana County coke is made Professor Newberry says: “It is remarkably pure, and makes a coke of superior quality.”(a) A portion of the coke reported as made in Columbiana county was made in Mahoning county, the Cherry Valley iron works, which are situated in the former, having ovens in the latter and finding it impossible to separate the product of the two. Mr. J.C. Chamberlain, of this works, writes me regarding their coal and coke as follows: We have a mine and coke ovens on the Mahoning county side, another mine and coke ovens on the Columbiana county side, and a mile and a half south, at Leetonia, we have still another mine and coke ovens. All three of these mines are working the same seam of coal; this is positive, and there is no material difference in the coke; if anything the middle mine produces coal a little freer from sulphur. It is from this mine ‘that the “ Washingtonville coke” received its name. We call all our coke by that name. The coal is, according to Professor Newberry’s classification, ‘‘ No. 4,” but further and later examinations will place it one if not two veins higher in the series. The greatest thickness of the seam is 3 feet, the average is 30 inches, of which trom 4 to 6 inches of the top of the seam we do not coke, but use in the furnace in its raw state. This upper 6 inches is very hard and a little slaty. The bottom 2 feet we coke, using slack and lump coal or slack only, just as circumstances require. Generally we run the coal over a 2-inch screen and sell or use the lump coal at the furnace or rolling-mill, coking only the screenings. The coal is remarkably pure, is free from sulphur, and has a very low per cent. of ash. The following is an analysis of No. 4 seam coal, Leetonia, Ohio, thickness 2 feet 6 inches: Per cent. W ater ied cagice See enn ac cin cn Be Suan Woe oa een Mate mee 6 ee ani e sata Sule eal se Clea ed ic See he eter ean 2.56 Volatile combustible niatter s. <2... setae ce ate tae Ce cc 3 vet Sls occ bs were ose s aoe ome eee eae eee oe 34. 60 FUE Carbon idaciee's faces oe eee ete ee rata! Ss Satay cleee ce ictniete eka ee See eee Pee See 56. 04 ASHE cen ee feces aes se tek ois Seen Mie DR OR ee Chae Sawe aala cidlecte oe SEE lobes EO mets Reet ee ee 1. 80 Sulphur... o. ccns vie nc dciec ss ose.d soe eA eS eatere ss Sie oie sve nse sole) sic ee nine tela iene ra hele teal eee 0.53 Specific /Cravity .o% cc cce ns cio ccs Seco ee aan = mm 0 Ce ale See te ete feiai eta ere eee atete as etre Seen ss See ae 1.213 Coke compact; ash white. Two analyses of oven coke made at Leetonia are as follows: Percent. Percent. Carbo. cctsocccces cde ee eee ae eee fonpels ona onc wn edie cele e cla mate a ae SE SIGE eel eatin e em 93. 75 95. 50 Asbris se Mes adae al Fagete Leos Sane see eels SERIE ES tee wo ofc bm oc a Sema ee ee oreo ere Oe Sn oe te aoe 5,'oe 3. 30 Sulphar ss. sees salen dec San 5a 8 Se wi ae int eos ole le: aians Sin ola She a a Rae ee ree ee 0. 87 1. 20 Silica in ash; 3550s a ccb.-.0% occ alle oe EE BEE ei lsy le icias ow cm cie'p isis crapaleretale ena Inte eo Se ee te ae oe ere 3. 02 Mr. Chamberlain writes me that the analysis of 1.20 of sulphur is the only one he has ever seen of this coke that showed over 1 percent. This coke is not so compact as that at Connellsville, and will not stand transportation so well, but it is used in the Leetonia furnace, and is regarded as better than Connellsville for the native ores. It is also claimed that it will carry as much burden by weight as Connellsville coke. This coal, when coked in bee-hive ovens, yields from 55 to 58 per cent. in coke, and is mined, paying for slack and ‘ top” coal at 69 cents per ton of 2,100 pounds. ‘he miners keep the top coal separate. An analysis of picked samples of the coal used for coking at Steubenville, Jefferson county, shows a very pure coal, containing less than 2 per cent of ash. As this coal is somewhat slaty, the samples from which the analysis was made must have been a very good selection. Mr. William H. Wallace, president of the Jefferson iron works at Steubenville, which was the largest producer of coke in Ohio in the census year, writes regarding Steubenville coke as follows: In reply to your inquiries in regard to Steubenville coke I would say: It is soft and brittle; it breaks very easily, and a large proportion of it becomes fine and like dust, even in transporting it from the ovens to our blast-furnaces, a few hundred yards distant. As compared with Connellsville coke, it is difficult to give more than an approximate statement. We have not used the Connellsville coke alone, but usually in the proportion of one-half Connellsville and one-half Steubenville coke. We find that it not only increases the output of the furnaces from 25 to 35 per cent. when used in this way, but the amount consumed per ton of pig-iron is less, being 85 to 90 bushels of Steubenville, and but 774 bushels when mixed half and half. The Connellsville coke does not improve the quality of the iron when mixed with the Steubenville coke, and our forge manager, a practical boiler of many years’ experience, has said that the iron is deteriorated in quality by the admixture. As we use a large proportion of good lump coal in making our coke, it costs us not far from 43 cents per bushel, or $2 25 per ton. The Connellsville coke costs us from $1 25 to $1 75 per ton at the ovens; freight to Pittsburgh $1 16}. and freight from Pittsburgh to Steubenville $1; making it cost here from $3 41} to $3 913 per ton. If we could get the a Geology of Ohio, vol. iii, page 124. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 43 ‘Connellsville coke at $2 75 per ton it would not pay us to make our own coke, as the superior quality of the Connellsville coke would overcome the difference in the cost. Our coal contains considerable slate, to which is ascribed, by some, the brittle character of the _coke ; but it also contains a large amount of charcoal, and it is believed that in crushing and washing the coal to remove the slate this charcoal would be wasted. We use the bee-hive oven, and the views above expressed are the result of opinions formed from experience with coke made in this way. What difference a diffsrent process for its manufacture would make, and what improvement in quality might result therefrom, we have no means of ascertaining at present. The seams of coal at Steubenville are from 3 feet 9 inches to 5 feet thick. The following analyses by Wormley are of shaft coal No. 6 and of coke made from the same in the Steubenville Furnace and Iron Company’s ovens: Per cent. PR MCRIAOURMOliMeie = late mnie Anca ion tor ee ei cc cidate omic «cane Someta tete Crete nc Meee oes fa ke Sicdyaeie ced ene wee oe 65. 90 OPO ERCURT USL Dlonaiabelwes tones eer ee ee ese See a Coie, pe Ieee Oe ae en NL Ee ey Se 30. 90 StL ea Pron per teres ie wath pee oe ky Aas Navel Oc als me eae Sito o eee Net eee soe tack oe klc du cheboevevenecd. 1. 80 DN RR eal g.5 i! = aie cicada Wag natn ale ome DL vee eae! Se ia oid Seta yes Ieee wis welewn pouiee wie 0,98 ee et nto eI ire 3 Mat tat Sis Wulel ge athee.o Meebeeios, ae pute estes mee eee es SE AC AN 1. 40 Se CPOR VLG eee eneetene era seat raw ele rek Sot. vcrce setsucatrcs cutee set recdaccccsteste sae cae peSecs sinciens 1. 308 Coke from this coal analyzed by Wuth as follows: Per cent ec ebe cit 0 1) eee eee eee Tee ATS SAS OS. oui den aliens ha cap cunt oe, 2 ope eaciewesdeadume ate sen sme necjenesecites(s 90, 63 a ee ae ee te ne ed nw ct oon aidcec asic el cabs acealtoud conser tthe theca cbocsetasewee. Oreo SHI PQIAGID tee 6489 GS so54an 04 JaB ES Bee eee a ee POS Sees na aes See ie eee 0,27 Re ee sec ce hse cd swans cevced onan a can seven sncan seer memes bewrereaveess was clnsna sce a= 0. 72 All of the ovens used at Steubenville are of the bee-hive pattern, and vary somewhat in their dimensions, ssome being 11 feet in diameter by 5 feet high in the clear, and arched from the bottom, others 103 feet in diameter with 36-inch spring of arch above wall, 54 feet high in the clear. In some cases, with a charge of 100 bushels of coal, 72-hour coke is made, and in others, with 75 bushels of coal to the charge, 48-hour coke. But little coke was made in the great Hocking Valley coal-field during the census year, the single establishment reported as in existence having been built during the year and operated from March only. While much of the coal in this region is adapted to use in the blast-furnace raw, and therefore does not need to be coked, other coals are well adapted to the manufacture of coke. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt (a) thinks that coal No. 7 will yield:a good coke, while the lower four feet of the great Pittsburgh seam, so fully developed in Big Run, gives a coke of superior appearance. Mr. E. C. Pechin, whose long experience in the manufacture of iron in the Connellsville region gives his views special weight, says : (D) In coal No. 7 the district possesses a coal for making an admirable coke which will shortly play a most important part in the metallurgical operations of the district. Mr. Pechin, in the same article, refers to a peculiar product of one of the coals of this valley, which he calls “charred coal”, which has many of the properties and can be put to many of the uses to which coke is put. He Says: I inspected the oven at XX furnace, which had been experimenting on various coals. The attemptat coking the small coal and slack was not successful, as the heat of the oven was not sufficient to agglutinate the slack; but in charging the slack several large pieces of the coal had gone in with it and had been drawn unbroken. They had retained their original shape, aud were extremely hard, resonant, and lustrous. The use of this charred coal will prove of special importance in those districts where coal No. 7 is either not found or becomes too impure for smelting purposes. But little coke is reported as madein Mahoning county. «sien 5's 0. 85 0. 99 0. 90 Ne ety 9p i SS ek Oe AA ee 3. 28 6.17 3. 50 Sulphur seveceeceessyset toe ss Sects | 0. 81 1. 83 1.00 DOCG ee setiacist nice Seen asce ant 100. 31 100. 69 100. 38 * Authority, I. Lowthian Bell. The coal of the above seams yields from 60 to 65 per cent. of its weight of coke. Its purity will be seen from the appended analyses of the coke made from the seams in the following collieries: Collieries. Carbon. Ash. Sulphur. Water. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Hamateels punsisd sos acasticeunptt cums ver 92. 55 6. 36 0. 81 0. 21 Consett ies ae ec ee cn sea eeibeeces 91. 88 6. 91 0, 84 0. 37 WWaltitworthiva: coon tecenes ceeeee Uneee 91. 56 6. 69 121 0. 54 South Brancepeth .....<-. SEU Lie Se Ea ds i Bi | ae ce 5,025) to: 5.500 (SOV, ad. S866 boa yeRSch asad ot opsStoric ssugeoe a Ge Socuee ase gotede cot aot eter Is Sachin Secret an sre 6.205 to 8.243 IERQUEM 2 Sa eno Gunes Seca dine casd .oadso nan: af Gedse Ag HermdaSGe He peer BEOM Re Herc RRs Soe eerie Sa ae 1.496 to 2.120 SUPERS. cs (pad Re eet Msp i SAM ek ee Ae Rr We oes SE Ree i Pe ee yet the eer eee 1.144 to 2.100 EMSS. oo ca coed genet ee PHB SRS ASE nescence aes eat ah Se 8 2 aT a EAN SRL Se ie et foe ee ee a a eae eae 1.226 to 4.100 aC ICME COR Gite Soa e Stacie oaks See eke eee eR Oeed oR ee Sala ps S Biets Seite Alaa ths Sea we Soe eel ee = 62. 000 65. 520 1. 266 1. 290 The Silkstone seam, so named from the village where it was first worked, also furnishes a coal well adapted for coking.(a) Its analysis is as follows: ’ Per cent NSRP ets elo ice 2 ae iene eee iat oe eh Aas ieme PE age ak Smeal amie ae as mas sdamces ses acest 0.4 ish Ghkweyegei ae = Aa eee eet Ba ee alter aia gle gate sr an eta ery a SE ea ake is slats ai eihin ep Sei@ ee Scr aiste hye ae a S35 Ed nial a aisaigs 5. 08 NB ea a la 2 as ne Ae eae a RAEN arc reer to ai a mie agin Fiala Sab sin ela dalewe ss eas'eseee clciciny cc <= 30 126, 419 Brpene IANS IStrict<..0. .. j.n se = wes ween’ algaraines pe - see ye YAO: elo ee AOE oa ee er 71, 973 In the Pilsen district....-.-.--- Be Spates eee aye wie ainlel hws omens sia) e's ain ealmls/ai> ~\alo(cnie| = ==] =\a'n ols ns ole joa tiei si leis =) =i = 43, 281 In the Schatzlar-Schwadonitz district ..-..----. Abbe osasen geek state ge Seoas sons aan CA eae eee decease 7, 340 POG Vem IROSAL UZ OES UEC Uictec acm = = she = = enim ore de aie cl ei ete ia Easel miayelmicinlale cigs Sinem ee oes ep Bea dee Oo 7, 129 Jul TES SOWA 3 eS Ae is See SBC en ae thsd 6 oH Sge Me SE Son ne: SO SISO CI Gen Cera E OMe nese aa Sra oee 2, 974 Assuming the yield to be 58 per cent., this would make a total production of about 150,287 metric tons. From another source the following statement of the make of coke in Austria in 1878 is given: Metric centners. Ea Co a gk YES Ig See aon Se ng oe a te eel lee tats ead did cia/ets (aia n'ai, «i= cele ou Spine erind Seb ase eee ee 9. 416 Another analysis of the ash in Connellsville coke is as follows: Per cent Silica. cus ies sey. ceaccleen were etieate ee epee e heb ome wees ct Chaba riots emiiele ckacislt abet setae tis terete 44. 64 AVUIMIN D foie 5 oS au fe aia Senie oa wlniore le 9a OM pe ws Sle aieelp wee wee pose) aoee aeiateiepeinh sleds Es ane cisiecte we eal ise areata eo 25.12 Sesquloxide, of iron. 2.22 c.scae chs chee ceteeaie\enob oan dwiccc cm settee secon an ¢ Ouicice a a ste eatin = eee eee 22.73 Dime soo 528 Vea es eC oe ca eee poms ayes olny wide Serene Satie ME Main: SMe i a meaner ne er 6.95 AE See) CERN RR OAR AP Shc AAP ea are eae IRE: js oe ec oR SGU O RIGS Soa iesiS GA yaied ow BO 2: 1.91 The chief objection to most of the impurities is their reduction of the calorific value of coke. The phosphorus and sulphur, however, exert a decidedly deleterious effect upon the iron if coke is used in furnace or cupola work. For these reasons cokes that are low in ash, if high in either of these ingredients, are of but little value. The amount of water in coke is also an important consideration, and all commercial cokes contain more or less of it. As cokes are usually dried before analysis, analyses do not usually indicate the amount of water present in the coke in the condition in which it is supplied to purchasers. It should not exceed 2 or 3 per cent., but at times it is as high as 5 or 6 per cent. As the presence of water reduces the value of coke as a fuel, it should be as low as possible. This water comes chiefly from that used in quenching the coke, and it is therefore of the greatest importance that some method should be used which shall leave the least water. The evidence seems to indicate that coke quenched in the oven, as in the bee-hive plan, contains less water than that quenched outside, as in the Belgian. The amount of oxygen in coke is also a very important consideration, especially if it is to be used for smelting iron, where the process is essentially the combination of the oxygen of the ore with the carbon of the coke; and if the coke has already absorbed a portion of its oxygen, its heat value is reduced to that extent. Cokes that, so far as ash is concerned, would seem to be of a fair quality are, more frequently than is supposed, really inferior fuels, by reason of the presence of water, oxygen, and other substances, which not only reduce the percentage of carbon, but in some cases require the expenditure of a portion of what remains in the coke to expel the injurious elements. From what has been said, it is evident that when it is necessary to arrive at the approximate true value of a coke, without actually testing it in furnaces, which is oftentimes expensive and sometimes involves great risk, not only is a thorough analysis necessary, but a most careful consideration of its physical structure should be made. In various parts of this report, especially in the chapters on ‘“* Coking and Non-coking Coals” and those devoted to the coals and cokes of specified localities, a number of analyses of coke are given. In this place it is only necessary to bring together analyses of certain of these cokes that may be regarded as types, giving here only analyses of industrial cokes, or those made commercially, and not in the laboratory. It is not claimed that these analyses are of the best specimens, or of average specimens even, unless so stated, and it is fair to presume that parties in selecting specimens for analysis would not select the poorest. ANALYSES OF EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL COKES. Localities. Mine or seam. Bike Ash. Sulphur. | Hydrogen.| Oxygen. | Nitrogen. Authority. a ee eee 4 — English: ger as hese Durham so. copeewesessccae's Browney, average........-.-. 91. 580 6. 86 0. 230 15310) race seteenss I. Lowthian Bell. DO'F. c2 52055 sane ts cra en eepeties G0 Pos .oesekeneabeatets 91. 490 6. 32 0. 460 BIG sector Ae Do. DOs scrcne cela deeeee ee etees South Brancepeth .-.-. ...--. 92. 980 4. 61 0. 300 Sai) Veta sinteate ex Dae. DO fied eens dceagine tnaleselee cece oensosean Once eh ot enees 93. 150 3.90) deeaeae cence 0. 720 0. 900 1.28 | Richardson. ry SRT ig a POAT ee Bel giant's ose eoeceeet eee Mons: DAS Ge sete se edeces 91. 300 6,20) 228. oe 0. 330 2.17 M. de Marsilly. DOb cats Ao eshtetetatecen eel esate GOsch ka nemuscmierecscee 91. 590 Oe Sees ae 0. 470 2.05 Do. LOE bcbots-t GAGS anaeeiccre SOLAN gf. ase asece een se a 80. 850 16. 510 0. 510 22180: sod creatine I. Lowthian Bell. GOrman a7. eeee esse nnataee ee Westphalia 2-..ch--tseaqssee- 85. 060 6. 400 0. 860 e680) [ee a= oe Saaice Dr. F. Muck. Dorcas. csstsaie oor eel pees GO 2oa.3p3 caceet eenatees 91. 772 6. 933 1, 255 0040 ioe nennaee Do. D0 Fae dasgeeiyets on cteccinaseaceee GO deg) scegeewweaddene ne 83, 487 10. 309 0. 737 B46] Sansome Do. DO Ferenc comp ees: Soe eee Se SAGD 2 tose wesles sieves antgeny 86. 460 8. 540 1. 980 D020} ciewieiee= aes Do. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 73 ANALYSES OF AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL COKES. Localities. Mine or seam. Carbon. Ash. Sulphur. | Moisture. Volatile Authority. matter. Pennsylvania: PAPMNOUSVING)onncss-cam Caciewecssaee Bron HOG .nccceasneee n= aeaaens 89, 576 9.113 0. 821 0. 800 0.460 | McCreath. TOD OX) eS eect oes Coketon sms. eeste cen sleds: eee mes 89. 150 9. 650 TS200 tensa recess w see cee B. Crowther. Me ergs oe ans doa ce'ediclec sacs Penn Gas Company........-.-.- 88. 240 9. 414 On9023) as ter. 1.384 | Curnegie Bros. & Co. Allegheny mountains.............. (BOUTIN LOU erly teem aaa) atas)satee 87. 580 11. 360 PO OG0U seca te 5 citar eng oe McCreath. PRUE Diesen sicacieic cit ese'e => cece oe Arnot Seymour vein......-..--- 84. 760 13. 345 0. 998 0.175 0. 722 Do. Allegheny River....... syn eae iN Dower Mreeportss.css-. 0. <- cam 85. 777 11. 463 2.107 0. 330 0. 623 Do. PEMMOMOONNGY soseap- cnc todecss ec Halmes co. Brors-seseccsesaese ae 84. 727 12. 636 1. 994 0. 100 0. 633 Do. West Virginia: Dos UNL Digs we 5 Sa Se ae Oninnimontaesas caesar en sacese o- 93. 850 5. 850 GucdOrpeeeas act etos|i tes ocr ccce J.B. Britton. DME as. See e tienen stedced Hire Onedkisess..cscccsececeseue 92. 180 6. 680 0. 618 OFTION SEE RSS 8. Do. OE RN eerie aac ante sd roa we te Hong dale sect pesee ana ses o< 93. 000 6. 730 OFA VG este eee plaacaicides oes 8 C. E. Dwight. PEGUPCEvadaail> vecens sa Osc<3 cease NMGta DOES emes aets aes aa meniaa 92. 220 7. 530 Oc O10 a eret ates Ae ccoc ak as ed Do. Ohio: PPEGNOMI Mma cscssnless cine sass sss iais5 Washingtonville...--...-----.-. 93. 750 5. 380 CYA) srs cosdobocnl See sOSERaBHE Professor Wormley. POM DOILVILIG cote wcececqcconce sna Shaft Gnal-cs-cacaneten's os scge SSH 7 AM —J = anil GUfee | ZEEE > alll al “ar i : I : = Y Bee ea Y SEN, Nes ‘Al REVS 2 > DA Ag Z ss : ‘/ V1 us es it rh == Fae m a ne Lfy Lh aa He ISS 2 SS SAK SSS} Ss S==32w LL, Le an Oe LL iz t ta Soe : SS SS SS \S & S Se: —— WS eee aL AS ; WSS PHT) LISS PRS A mM: : SS -— Seo Co LZ, hh, by CL LZ Le Qs % 4 = sae IS Li CLIN EZ BE te: SEER RSS SS 78 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. and coal passes over a drying sieve, 7, leading the coal to the elevator buckets, while the water goes out through the meshes of the sieve and flows out below. By their greater density the pieces of slate, sulphur, etc., form the layer immediately upon the sieve S, and, being forwarded at the same time as the coal, will pass through the valve H into the slate-chamber NV. The inlet of the slate into the valve His regulated by the lever d, according to its percentage. From the chamber V the impurities are let to the outside of the gate 0, worked by the lever J, and reach the trough t, from which they are carried away by the waste water. The fine particles of slate, etc., forming the slimes, settle below the partition n and are discharged by the valve k. The use of a differential cam for the working of the plunger allows the material after each stroke the necessary time to deposit, according to gravity. An eccentric or crank cannot produce the same movement. The usual size of the sieve is 3 feet by 4 feet 6 inches, or by 4 feet 9 inches, hence its surface is 134 or 144 square feet. Washers with one or more sieves are constructed. An apparatus with two sieves of the above dimensions can prepare from 200 to 300 tons of slack per day of ten hours. The amount of water required varies from 12 to 25 gallons per bushel (76 pounds) of coal, and sometimes even more, according to the percentage and nature of the impurities contained in the material. Mr. Stutz estimates that from 3,000 to 4,000 bushels of coal can be washed per day in this machine with a simple screen. At the works of Charles H. Armstrong & Son, at Pittsburgh, an apparatus of two screens 3 by 4 or 44 feet washes daily from 6,000 to 7,000 bushels. A 4-gallon pump, running at from 50 to 60 single strokes per minute, furnishes the necessary water, thus giving from 20 to 25 gallons of water per bushel of coal. The labor needed to the above amount is: One man attending enginesand! washing-machine, at... .. =. Ssajoee eens eet ore one ote Soe areata ee cee eee ee $2 50 One man “attending to bollers, etc.) abs.-2 -. 3c. 22 oo oe BSAC DOD TOA OE ER OOOSE Ctr Sapp termes 1 25 Total sete cg sek «plese Sei) 62h Ue Seis) a0 leche a ole mere oie RE eRe Sree tS ag aera ead eet te ch ot ote 3°75 or from 13 to 2 cents per ton. , At the works of the Colorado Coal and Iron Company, near El Moro, in Colorado, where the coal is crushed and washed in this machine, the cost of crushing and washing 200 or 250 tons daily is from 44 to 53 cents, as will be seen from the following statement, the amount washed being, as above given, 200 or 250 tons: Interest per day .on-$12,000'at' 10 per cent. per annum 2... 2,-1.0... seseeceanees --+5-p See een ee ee eee $4 00 Coal, oil, packing, ef@=22 =< 22k iss ate cu teehee neid bce fea se he wa iurm edepe OE Se ea alent eee re a 1 50 Oné. Machinist as eeeeeee eee ess Gee eee Sh EBS: pRsk etl g case, ccc eetea ae Bec clare, ss o's.gueenaeem WERE its oe Clo ate eaten eee 11 25 The third method of washing of M. Marsaut includes a number of plans of sorting by equivalents, none of which are in use in this country, and which it is not necesssary to refer to here. As many of the coals of [linois especially require washing, I give a cut and description of a washer that has been especially adapted to these coals. It is the Osterspey jig, improved by the Messrs. Meier, of Saint Louis. (See page 79.) The upper box A B is composed of 2-inch plank, feathered at the joints, and bolted to a stout bottom frame of 4-by-8 inch scantling and an upper frame of 3-by-6 inch scantling. The bottom frame serves to rest it on floor timbers, either lengthwise or crosswise, aS most convenient. The lower box ©, also of 2-inch plank, fits into it, secured by heavy feathers and bolts. It is pointed toward the bottom to cause the fire-clay, etc., to settle around the mud-valve M, through which it is discharged. The upper box has a rear chamber, B, with plunger P, and is separated from the forward chamber A, with screen bottom gg, by means of the diaphragm E. This is double, and admits the water-supply pipe W and the mud-valve rod 7, both of which pass through the cross-plate e, which forms a fulerum for the mud-valve level m and a support for the housing H, carrying the two shafts. The forward shaft carries a pulley, 8, and a slotted cross-head, T, in which a T-headed bolt, I, is clamped at a point giving the desired stroke. A sleeve on the bolt I works in boxes sliding freely on the guides G attached to the rear shaft, thus giving a quick down-stroke and slow up-stroke to the crank K and the plunger P. The bed g is made of fine wire-cloth, supported on coarser netting, or on perforated plates of iron, braced by six small angle-irons crosswise and two heavier ones lengthwise, held down by key-bolts, a a, and resting on a narrow cast-iron frame, ff. By driving back the keys and unshipping the six bolts a a the whole bed can be lifted out and replaced in ten minutes. By having a few extra bed-screens on hand, we avoid delays in case of choking up by fire-clay, or in case of repairs to screens. The screen-plates perforated with fine holes in use in Europe will not answer, frequently choking up with fire- clay several times a day. E. "MOLES [VUIPLyLUOTyT yaaf fo apoy eo = Wis FANRSSSSSS Ss j = . "PIA *jeoo r0z Sif Lods1syscE yor j 98—'8 SS Se) fl aa = =s =| Pires Mi = 4 i= ul = i i = a ci H —— | oa , | om i = li -— ia hh I +f = i NL = at shh = ‘7 80 MANUFACTURE OF COKE, The coal is fed through a hopper, I’, and under the slide J, which regulates the quantity. It is jigged along the whole length of the screen g, the washed coal discharging over the bridge through the hopper D. The slates and dross pass through a slot flush with the bed-screen and through the valve V, and drop into a pocket, from which they are occasionally drawn by means of the slate-valve O. The main valve V consists of part of the periphery of a cylindrical roller which has been perforated by a number of parallel triangular prisms. This presents to the discharge-slot a number of triangular openings, giving, equally distributed over its entire width, just as much free area as is required to continuously discharge the dross as it accumulates on the bed g. When it becomes necessary to open the valve O, the valve V is momentarily closed by turning the lever v until V presents its smooth cylindrical surface to the discharge-slot. Then O is thrown suddenly open, the dross washes out, O is as rapidly closed, and V slowly returned to the position previously determined as giving the required discharge area. The plunger has valves, ¢ t, of such opening as to prevent any possibility of suction. The feed-pipe w supplies water when needed to fill the jig or to supply the waste when V is closed and O open. The value of having the lower discharge as far as possible from the feed and of the full width of the screen, whether in washing coal or concentrating ores, will appear upon reflection, and can be shown by ocular demonstration when working a jig. A certain number of strokes will be necessary to create regular layers of materials of different gravities, and within certain limits this classification must be improved with each stroke. These layers will, in uniform action of the upward currents of water, be of equal thickness across the jig, ¢. e., perpendicular to the line of travel. The quantities washed, preserving the quality above given, varied from 30 pounds for the smallest size, I, to 223 pounds for size IV per hour. On Pennsylvania coal the same machinery could easily furnish 60,000 pounds per hour. As to the advantage and benefits of coal-washing, there can be no doubt that in many cases where the coal to be coked is impure, containing a large mixture of slate or sulphur in the form of pyrites, it is advantageous to crush and wash previous to coking. It would also be advantageous to wash slack in which there is a large amount of the same impurities, but it by no means follows that all coals would be improved by washing, even though the impurities might to some degree be removed. The Kemble Coal and Iron Company, at Riddlesburg, Pennsylvania, which for some time used a modification of the Berard washer, abandoned it some two years ago. The operation carried away the hydrogenous matter, which made a desirable physical structure and afforded heat in the coke oven. Other works in this country using other forms of washers have ceased washing. ple . G SSeS |. pe z A A LIST elie Acad Nene Sau yee z = Boo 3 we r 8 Do a's A N % oO vs G ~s iS : . - Me ST af eiesenene seem eet sf is : = —— oS yaa lel logs NS i) “y S “3 a ee as S&S SOON x8 3 N i R v | : ) ee = ch iS A a Stef Lav bes Sn | Ws | eee Ree | 4 S S Hil > a | : | i ° : Se i | ea) < N | Lu S| i i 3 O47 i} SAAN ol = aio LY Lie Sa J Se Se ‘i ay = Xs An ach ACN Coke Whart Car. Coke R.R eee i eDis Ure eel folios bed [ror be be bo: Lh 49 a ne og oe hh PLAN OF PLAN OF MOREWOOD COKE CO’S OVENS. ace ae MOUNT PLEASANT, PA. Dy \seana. | ae ee eee ee cangs 4 3G 3 eS se) Ere. 14; TH ‘w W° per ’ yrs ‘em gle pfs" Me WAi ats ’ ; — 844 he 7 ry — MOREWOOD COKE COMPANY. GROUND PLAN AND SECTION OF BANK OVEN. Walle: N\ \\\ ZAI 26 1 ds Fia. 15. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 89 As showing the style of these ovens, as well as the general plan of a coke works in the Connellsville region, I have given the accompanying cuts, representing the works of the Morewood Coke Company, limited, one of the latest and best built coke works in that section. The method of operating these ovens in the Connellsville region is quite simple, and may be taken as the usual practice in this country. The coal is generally brought to the oven in lorries holding each a full. charge, 125 bushels, for 48-hour furnace coke. The lorrie is run to the charging- hole on a railroad over the top of the oven, and the coal is dumped through the hole in the crown of the roof and carefully leveled by means of a long iron hook inserted intothe door. This door is bticked up and plastered or daubed, except some small interstices at the top, so as to admit only sufficient air above the coal to carry on combustion. The heat which the oven acquired in the preceding operation is always sufficient to ignite the new charge, combustion being carried on by the entrance of the air through the doorway, and the coal soon begins to emit aqueous and sulphurous vapors, followed by a thick, black smoke and reddish flame all around the sides. At this stage of the process the gases are particularly offensive. The heat of the oven at this time is a low red. In a few hours the mass of burning coal cracks downward, enabling the volatile matter below the surface to pass off, and by its ignition to generate additional heat for carrying on the process. In about 12 hours a clear, bright flame prevails over the entire surface, which increases almost to a white heat. Basaltiform columns are formed, which allow the gases to rise as the heat ascends. Finally the clear, bright flame dies off gradually, and the coke becomes a glowing red mass. Now the sooner the oven is quenched and drawn the better, for the coke will continue to take up air in spite of every precaution, and the red-hot coke will waste, lose heat, and become inferior as a fuel. A description of the coking process in bee-hive ovens in the Durham region is thus given by Mr. Meade: Wheu the oven is refilled with a proper charge, the coal is fired at the surface by the radiated heat from the roof, enough air being admitted to consume the gases given off by the coal, and thus a high temperature is maintained in the roof of the oven. The coal is by this means melted, and those portions of it which, under the influence of a high temperature, can of themselves form gaseous compounds, are given off, forming at the moment of their liberation small bubbles, or cells. The coke now left is quite safe from waste, unless a further supply of air is allowed to have access to it. At this stage of the process the coke assumes a pentagonal form and columnar structure. When the coke is left exposed to heat for some time after it is formed it becomes harder and works better, from being less liable to crush in the furnace or to decrepitate on exposure to the blast. In England the coke was formerly drawn from the bee-hive oven in a heated state and afterward cooled by water thrown on with buckets outside, but this method has been discontinued, and the coke is cooled inside of the oven by water thrown upon it, either from buckets or with a pipe and hose. The only drawback to the method of quenching is that the oven is cooled by the contact of the water with the hot bricks. It is generally believed, however, that coke cooled inside of the oven absorbs less water than when cooled outside. The quenching causes the coke to separate or crack open and facilitates the drawing. In drawing the coke from the oven the usual plan is to pull it out, piece by piece, with long bars of iron turned up at the end, similar to a large poker or hook. This method is the only one that can be used in the ordinary bee hive oven. Other methods of discharging by what are termed “drags” are used in modified forms of the bee-hive oven and in the Belgian oven. It will be noted that the coking process is essentially a process of distillation, the oven being the retort, the heat in the bee-hive oven necessary for volatilization after it is once heated being derived from the burning of the volatile products; and the heat remaining in the walls of the oven instead of being applied from the outside. Some of the heat is at the expense of the carbon of the coal, as it is impossible to prevent the destruction of a portion of the carbon by the admission of the air necessary for combustion, though it is avoided as much as possible. The combustion is maintained over the top of the coal, and the coking or distillation proceeds in the bee-hive oven dewnward from the top, and also slightly inward from the sides, the current of inflammable gas and vapor arising through the coal and meeting the air admitted through the doors above the burning in what may be called the “combustion chamber”, until the lowest stratum is converted into coke. It is evident that air should be admitted only over the top, as, if the air enters below or through the coal, coming in contact with it when hot, a portion will be consumed, and the coking will not be effected exclusively by the heat resulting from the combustion of the volatile products, as it should be, but largely at the expense of the coke, which should be avoided. As has already been noted, considerations of economy in various directions have led to many changes and improvements in the construction of coke ovens, and it is impossible to describe the numerous forms that these improvements have taken. They seem to have had for their object, first, the more rapid discharging of the ovens; second, the avoidance of the rapid cooling of the oven by watering the coke inside the oven; third, the utilization of the heat in the escaping gases by passing them through flues, where they are burned; and, fourth, the exclusion of air from the coking chamber, the heat necessary for coking being applied from the outside of the oven. In providing for the more rapid discharging of the oven and the cooling of the coke outside, chiefly for the purpose of greater ease of handling, and to prevent cooling, the oven assumed the rectangular shape, and one of the best of these forms, which may perhaps also be regarded, not as a development of the bee-hive oven, but as a rectangular kiln, closed in at the top, is known as the *‘ old Welsh oven”. This is simply a rectangular chamber, 7 by 12 feet, with an arched roof 6 feet high. As generally built, they are set in rows, back to back, with one chimney to each pair to carry off the gases, the length of the oven requiring a greater draught than a vent-hole would supply. A flue from the roof of the oven about one-third way from the back wall leading into the chimney 90 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. conveys the gases to it. The whole front of this oven is movable, and the coke is drawn by means of a “drag”. This drag has various forms, but is essentially a strong piece of flat iron laid across the back of the oven prior to the charging, having attached to it at right angles a rod of iron sufficiently long to extend beyond the front. The protruding end is attached to a chain, operated either by a windlass worked by hand or by a small engine, and the whole mass of coke is drawn at once. In some ovens only the transverse piece of the drag is left in the oven during coking, the rod of iron being inserted after the process is completed through a gutter left in the middle of the foor the end of the rod being shaped ‘something like a fish-hook barb. This rod is pushed in with the bent-up part or, barb flatwise until the end passes under and behind the drag, when the rod is turned, the barb catches on the drag, and the coke is drawn out in one mass, Sometimes the transverse piece or drag is a short length of an ordinary rail; sometimes, also, instead of a single piece of iron attached to the center, which might bend the drag or transverse piece in drawing, two rods, attached near the ends and brought together outside of the oven, are used. This Welsh oven seems to be preferred in many parts of Great Britain either to the bee-hive oven or to the recent forms of the Belgian oven, as being easily nanaged and yielding a homogeneous and well-burned coke. Sometimes these rectangular ovens, and also the bee-hive ovens, have bottom flues, through which the escaping gases pass to flues running between the two banks of ovens placed back to back. In this way a portion of the waste heat is utilized for keeping up the heat. In other cases the heat so escaping passes into flues between the two banks of ovens, where the heat is utilized in raising steam for boilers. Such a method is shown in the accompanying drawings of the ovens at the Browney-colliery, in the Durham region, England. These ovens will also shew the size and general appearance of the Durham bee-hive ovens. These ovens are in double rows, back to back, as usual, but the flues between are much larger, averaging 64 feet in height and 3 feet 6 inches in width. To each chimney of 106 feet in height are connected about 100 ovens, an equal number on each side, and the flues and boilers, four in number, are so arranged that the heat can be carried past when cleaning or repairs are requisite, the small connecting flues being built as compact and tight as possible, and thus the remarkable freedom from smoke seems owing to the air-tight and perfect character of the flues, the small amount of surpius air present not cooling the gases to a point below which the hydrocarbons es’ape imperfectly burnt. This has been tested by admitting a large surplus of air, when smoke was immediately evident. No coal whatever is used for boiler purposes at these works, and the product of the pit at the colliery where these ovens are situated is drawn from a depth of 100 fathoms, and the water pumped, whereas before this system was adopted 600 tons of coal per fortnight was the amount virtually wasted. At another colliery belonging to the same firm, and where the small coal is valuable for coking purposes, the advantages of the system described are equally evident. As to the economies in the use of ovens of the Browney type and arrangement, Mr. A. L. Steavenson, in a paper read before the British Iron and Steel Institute (Journal, 1877, page 406 et seq.), makes the following calculation and statement, which contains many important facts that are not generally known to coke-makers: In order to ascertain the amount of heat available for evaporative purposes, the first step was to measure the volume and temperature of the gases passing to one pair of boilers from 50 coke ovens at the rate of 230 tons of coal in 84 hours. The temperature was found to be 1,500° F. The volume, measured by taking the velocity of the current in a given length of the flue, was ascertained by introducing sodium at one point and noting the time required to effect a flame, made by putting a little coal into the flue, spectroscopically at another, to be 1,187 feet per minute, which, multiplied into the area of the flue, 24 square feet 28,488 cubic feet per minute. This exceeds by 4,005 cubic feet the theoretical quantity of the gases, supposing that only just sufficient atmospheric air is admitted to effect the complete combustion of the known weight of material lost in coking 230 tons of coal; and this 4,005 cubic feet represents roughly the unavoidable excess of air used in coking, and the presence of which was evident by the ease with which a piece of charcoal burned when loweredinto the flue. The theoretical quantity above referred to was thus obtained: 230 tons of coal of the following approximate composition— Tons Oxy pen: te26 5.723 os Oo eee Se eee ote oP ate recone. ke oe cee eee iow ale bas Gare dW ale dni ne inet eee 15.3 Carbon siccccekls « aslad seine seitabice oe tects mteieinin ale S's Sais nreic nok died cule dic opiates mie eee me eee eee eee ieee ee ete 195. 3 Hydrogen... eins oa nn ce eke Shee aeRO Meee ca sale ooo tne accion Gln clea « eee eee eee ee eee cere 10,3 Nitrogen... 50... ooo oot ee ete pins Ree aan ERIS cinle = ainte Ce wie oo onic eicidinin sce ere paneer ate eens etn ere ete ee erent tate 2.3 Sulphur... ese. si wt coats Pemcctoee Cee ee eine toro e wc eo te Ca se ole ce ae ee een eee een peeeeraee 1.4 B.A) | ae EE RROD re Se SP ie Se Ee he eee I a rs S55 os oy ak ot ee An ae 5.3 ; ; at 229.9 yield, on coking, about 60 per cent. of coke, of the following approximate composition : Tons. Carbon .o0s ceeds oaks ge tied mes a aor pe eee eee eens coe cee eects cisid sm emis Soci eso ean notes cele cals mein see ene 132. 7 BN.) | eae eee RNP Pee gh aA es ae Ee SE EP is dott A, ee a ak ele. 5.3 . . . . . . 138. 0 Therefore, the composition and weight of the materials lost in coking are: Tons. Carbon nc dea oe ais selec tee Sate hagec Sopa ae ee are ee ne ee ear ee ae eg oe ey a en te 62.6 Fy drogen sos ajo% see cicte obec ae ol ic cels oie ae Ree eee oie re eee ee eye ite a te es roa eR he tp ve re ee 10.3 Nitrogen. .ciev.- tee sciiaeSe aw ee Se ackis sec see Nee cee ue ee eC ae ate stileors sake se ee nee mate tt ont eee eae 2.3 Sralphur’. sale sce de epee soe oa.k ote ex ak ca ee Beet ee se rcs ee OTe Sate ete en nee a ace ee ae ee ee ne eae LA BROWNEY COLLIERY. ARRANGEMENT OF COKE-OVENS, BOILERS, CHIMNEY, &C. SE ee er CP IG i A es be ae — —-— — «800 —- ee ee er we 14'0—— — + ——-—-12’0"---——-—» i i BATTER ! IN 27, $$ ————— —,-- —-—— rt eee rr re bt} ~ ee ee ee a eias. Blevation of Chimney. Scale "AInch «1 Foot: 7) Cc Le - m -+| 8 ” 60.0.606666.6,6,6,0.6006.9,.6.6 6.6) M p I N Fete leek U E us enh OOO - --19'0 SCALE. a Z10 OOO a) -=~190---- ' G U L L E i 3a el, Pa oe oo aa “~ £5, 5 a a= sere ih ae Pa — _.* ZK > - se a li al ede oe a) a s = Vn eemreaimce ee ee et ree . # eee e ht. ee Viglen ar mnt a pat hs ‘ oar * je = a i re a ; x ; , ‘ % ‘, S| ae) =< 3 - ts =. a eu iad ‘g 4 t -_ - 7 lies a’ &, : . f . *,. % Z 7 -. K 5 : ps yaa : : - : ae «| ares _ _ > ‘ a es — : - < 7 2 ts = - - ‘bn : a : r - . a cA” el * ve nl "a mG iy a te Fe | agg — | via ni: \ ev a _ : ou >) be Pred \LITSSESSSSPLP CISA: “LT “OT ‘V'Y HSNOYHL NOILIZIS 22 eS oS eS —L—--- 967 ---—- --- -----—-—-—-—- Se {PYeF= — —— = —<— ~~~ ~~ ~~ © ~~ ~~ 8b = ~~ <<< ~~ ~~~ ~~ 986 —— —— 9 -- 5,08 —— ~~ = 4 SSAA WG GE NK WS SN WOW AISI BEX 2 yw I SAEZ ‘ gece LALLA SSS —S WA SS ae aa aaa ZA CZ N o ao LL wy ZN Pfs Fe LLOSLA Ss ANNNIZ ZA Was = Fa ‘SL. nr ZN LTLL2| Gl NNN a NS Jom GY: NY Lab i NY NN NN | \ EAE EZ [oA hg g2 Gel g LACH IB DG i; a j es ay2at z STR ae i ‘a1vV9S ‘OR “AANWIHD ‘SHATIOG ‘SNSAO-3MOO JO LNAWSDNVYYV “AYAITIO0 AANMOUE “NOLLVAZ72 ANOYS MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 91 To complete the combustion of these into CO,, H,O, and SO, are required 1,023.4 tons of air, making a total weight of waste gases of 1,115.4 tons, of which 790.3 tons are nitrogen, 229.5 tons carbonic acid, 92.8 tons steam, and 2.8 tons sulphurous acid, which, at a temperature of 1,500° I’., will occupy a space of 123,399,000 cubic feet; and since the coking of 230 tons of coal occupies, on an average, 84 hours, we have 24,483 cubic feet per minute, or 4,005 cubic feet less than the observed quantity. Next, as to the heat commonly wasted: We have 1,115.4 tons of mixed gases, at a temperature of 1,500° F., which, if they could be reduced to the temperature of the atmosphere (say, 60° F.), would have the following heating value in tons of H,O raised 19° F.: Tons. rary ng ean Deg. Tons H20. mE gael eure ANS 634 b 91S Mi, Td Wi BR henley Bele 2, 790.3 x 1,440 x 0, 244 = 277, 680 (OOS Saks? Bele ed WHO6 ERB eAIS SES Onc SS eCee HASSE CHES SEC COs COSC eSe iste amma 229.5 x 1, 440 x 0.216= 71, 384 1B Gah ce Gihap ie Sienna eee AN aS teers | se Noel se See tw ecient ee sed 92.8 x 1,440 x 0.475= 63, 475 SOE Reece So Fe as Sonn coecen’ Gasee Sasha Ae Aut PFE Se ee ee 291,440 56 05155 == 625 PONS) To © seit ake or ha er) aie ares reese ares JP ee rt ee ee 413, 164 which is equivalent to evaporating 415 tons of water at 212° F. But, owing to the fact that the temperature of the gases was only reduced 750° F., instead of 1,440° F*., the above quantity is reduced to about one-half, or 216.1 tons, evaporated in 84 hours, or 2.6 tons inone hour. This was tested in an actual experiment (on the two boilers supplied with the gases from 50 ovens, coking 230 tons in 84 hours), the quantity evaporated in one hour being 2.4 tons, an approximation quite as close as can be expected. The total theoretical heat actually developed in the process of coking at the above rate is equivalent to evaporating 17 tons of water per hour, which is thus expended : Tons Peo HeULUL ZO KML ve LOU OC Seat yee Mee eee Mee Oe a ee eae Ae ew caiaiz ait of inisinle eivelceniciews dee ’sa sing =\p mere 2. 40 BUG rtinen Get IN Orsi CLUE Verne ios ioe eee ie mis eset la cael osc alate eee os. eet ce cep see nee see Aan ee ase 2. 54 Heat lost in radiation from ovens and flues and watering the coke......-...---.---- 2-22-22 coe coe eee eee 12. 06 mE sete nner aM MEN a Cea ree ee Se eg as Se os ww ea cielne sas slog thar casas oo 17.00 Thus, even in the plan described, but a small percentage of the total heat generated in the ovens is utilized, although if this even was carried out throughout the district of South Durham, where in colliery boilers not more than 6 pounds of water on an average are evaporated per 1 pound of coals, we should have a saving of 1,085,869 tons of coal per annum, or a money value of £271,467. But this by no means represents the total saving to the colliery owners, as foremen are entirely avoided, with the exception of one man on each shift to attend the boilers, so that the total economy which would be effected, were the system generally adopted in the country, would be fully £300,000 per annum. THE BELGIAN OR FLUE OVEN. Under the general term “ Belgian ovens” is included a number of forms of coke ovens, not all of which, however, are of Belgian invention, which have certain points of resemblance, but all differing from the bee-hive or solid- wall ovens in two, or possibly three, particulars: First. In the exclusion of air from the coking-chamber, the heat necessary to coking being applied from the outside. Second. In the utilization of the waste heat and waste gases to facilitate the process of coking. Third. In the more rapid discharging or drawing of the ovens and in cooling the coke on the outside, thereby saving labor and reducing the loss of heat in drawing and cooling. Coking in ovens on the Belgian plan is of the nature of distillation in a close vessel or retort, the process proceeding at the same time from the sides, bottom, and top inward toward the center of the mass, the heat for distillation being applied from without and being supplied by the combustion in flues of the waste gases supplemented by the heat retained in the walls. Theoretically this should give all the carbon in the coal; practically there is some waste, but much less than in the bee-hive. Coking in bee-hive ovens is from the top downward gradually through the mass, the heat necessary to expel the gases being supplied partly by the heat in the walls and the burning of the escaping gases in the coking chamber above the coal and partly at the expense of the carbon of the coal. The coke is cooled inside the bee-hive oven by throwing water upon it before drawing, thereby cooling the oven also. In the Belgian oven, almost without exception, the coke is first drawn out and then cooled, the oven losing but little heat in drawing. It will be seen, therefore, that, considering only the yield of coal in coke, theoretically the Belgian plan is the better, as it should give more coke to a given weight of coal than the bee-hive oven. The practice is found to agree with the theory, the yield of coal in coke in the Belgian oven being greater than in the bee-hive. Yield, however, is not conclusive as to the economic value of coke, and in deciding which is the better plan, the original cost of the oven and expense for repairs, as well as the character of the coke produced, should be considered. Which is the better oven for making a fuel for blast-furnace purposes is discussed in another place. 92 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. To attempt even a brief description of the various forms of the Belgian oven would far exceed the limits of this report. The three that have been selected for description (the Dulait, the Coppée, and the Appolt) are regarded as presenting the most important principles of construction and as being of the most practical importance to the coke manufacturer. These are all flue ovens, but differ in shape and in the location and arrangement of the flues. In all of them the air is excluded as far as possible from the coking chamber, and the volatile matter is expelled from the coal by heat applied outside the walls of the coking chamber, the coke being discharged from the ovens before cooling. It should also be noted that the discharging of these ovens, which is by mechanical means, is facilitated by building them not quite rectangular in form, but with the walls slightly diverging, and, in the case of those which are horizontal, the bottom slightly sloping downward toward the front. The Dulait ovens are horizontal, long, and narrow, and are heated by the combustion of their volatile products in horizontal flues placed in the sides and bottom, numerous jets of heated air being supplied to the gases in their passage through the flues. They are built in pairs, one oven heating the adjoining one. This division into couples also exists in the Coppée system. As generally constructed, these ovens are 7 meters (a) long, 0.75 meter wide, varying somewhat, however, according to the. quality of the coal, and 1.15 meters high to the base of the arch, the arch being 0.10 meter in height. The incline of the bottom of the oven to the front is 0.02 meter to the meter. To prevent waste of heat and the penetration of air the oven is furnished with double doors, the outer one, which is on a plane with the front, being of sheet-iron 0.005 meter thick, and the inner one, which is 0.30 meter from the first, of cast-iron. The space occupied by the coal is thus reduced to 6 meters. The ovens are charged through hoppers closed both at the top and bottom, the lower part being shut by a cast-iron slab cemented with clay in the brick-work, while the upper opening is closed by a cover, the edges of which rest in a channel filled with powdered coal. The flame from the coking chamber of one oven passes out and descends directly below the bottom of the. other member of the pair, where it is divided into four currents, which flow in between the partition walls, and after traversing every flue reach the chimney. To supply the air necessary for the combustion of these products one of the walls of the flues through which the gases pass is built of two rows of hollow bricks, superposed. These bricks have a section of 0.10 by 0.12 meter, and are pierced by a longitudinal hole 0.05 meter in diameter, in such a manner that by their juxtaposition they form two superimposed channels as long as the whole flue. The lower channel is open at the front of the oven and closed at the other extremity, where it rises in order to communicate with the upper parallel channel. This is pierced by holes 0.008 meter in diameter, placed at a distance of 1 decimeter from each other, and opening into the flues in which the combustible gases are circulating. By this arrangement the external air taken in by the draught penetrates into the lower channel, where it becomes heated, and, reaching the upper passage, is projected across the stream divided into innumerable streamlets, which increase the surface of contact, thus effecting perfect combustion and producing the highest possible degree of temperature, so that the gases are in ‘this way fully utilized. As a result, if the coal is of the right quality, the combustible gases are produced in sufficient quantity to secure a complete distillation of the coal and the regular and continuous heating of the whole of the apparatus. This system does away with the necessity for providing openings into the coking chamber for the admittance of air or secures a theoretical absence of draught, limited only by the care with which the clay has been applied to the doors. The Dulait is a very hot oven, somewhat expensive in its first cost, but requiring only slight repairs, works large charges, and gives a yield nearly equal to the theoretical maximum. It requires, however, constant and careful attention to secure the best results. The charge of coal is from 5,000 to 10,500 pounds, about 7,000 being the average. With the medium or lighter charge the time of coking is 24 to 30 hours, with the heavier 48 hours. The yield as compared with the Smet oven, which it has in some cases superseded, is much greater. Coal that in the Smet oven yielded 71 per cent. yields in the Dulait 79.17 per cent. of large and 1.75 per cent. of small coke, or 80.92 per cent. The cost in Belgium in 1873 for a Dulait oven to produce 5,300 pounds of coke every 24 hours was 2,700 franes. (b) In that year there were 1,100 of these ovens in Belgium and 700 in Trance, Prussia, and Austria. The Coppée oven is designed for coking only finely-divided coal. It resembles the Dulait oven in being horizontal, long, and narrow, but its side flues are vertical, instead of horizontal, as in the Dulait and Smet ovens, and the methods of supplying air for the combustion of the waste gases, as well as of firing and utilizing the waste heat, are improvements on the Dulait and Smet. As generally built, the Coppée ovens are in banks or batches of thirty, arranged in groups of two each, one oven of each pair being charged when the contents of the other are half coked, and vice versa. Connected with each oven of a pair are a number of vertical flues, or chambers, through which the volatile products from both ovens are conveyed downward to a horizontal flue under one of them. After passing under this oven to its end, the gases return by a similar flue under the other and enter a channel running at right angles to the ovens and under them, passing from this channel either directly into a chimney or carried under boilers and used to generate steam. Air is supplied to these vertical flues in the sides by a smaller vertical flue, one or two to each oven, a The meter is 39.3702 inches. b Journal of Irav an Steel Lastitute, No 2, 1873, page 345, from which the details of cost and yield are taken. ‘ST ‘OA ee. === ‘ITVIS : SW af i | i t ‘NOILWAR14 ‘WVY-3 OO ‘NSA0-43xHOO S.dddd00 SATU, | il i i ed ae ear me ne a Pe ® lye io “ + —_ = ? Ce ‘ * ‘ > aay? 4 Ase 1 ‘ : j F ane ae fe r tara SiGe , f * Oo OR a eae | ; . , ps (nh A Ph el : by : ov U 3 ; ed i 4 * ' 1? ia i f , ied We Ssyotd pik Liana it y ; scat dle et ena . . . we’ vii raf e t ; ae “it Ai, ; A) : : ha, (hae ar A e. ; Pi: ~e)) q ¢ > mie a oe F { ? 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AY Li Kt “~ eS elles LLL. az ABAD, a GG OGLE BB Li VLLILLL LAL LECCE CLLLLLLL NJ 5 “J Ny a SSE b | +. ae SS 3] A ZO VL Wi \ LZ. LLL a CTH pom ubio.p Saas aia ATUPYIAY it phy : Y i phe day Ha Rt Ga Yj WV Yi; A UZ Oa aH ay YGnosyg aug Cra TO aun Ubno1y, UW07?490g Bal a oun Ubnowyz vores 6 hur ‘ZO Tt Ont € ‘NSAO-3xHOO S.daddd09 |] Y) 1G Z hee ! . 1 i EY WN <] Y) 4 eee [ae SY Sa rere ~ SNNNSNNANN AN N SN N S SSS } ZANSSSSS SSE ------+8 iS SSS SSS ATT N iia A A pire Se YG N Yh, SWS \Se gi 2 y Z 4 Ge RNGSNN Z) shat sVemi , Bree Kkéidkidiiiiikdidiidte, Z SSSI N WEPLLLLLLLLLLLLA| rN L Melati TS WN i Yael TE Md ceed 2k a monoas 2037104 GOL VV N “SLYOLAY 8i ‘SNSAO-3xMOO S.L1TOddV MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 93 connected with the top near the center charging-hole, the air becoming heated while passing through the flue. The ovens are charged from the top through three hoppers, and are drawn by means of a mechanical ram propelled by a cogged driving-wheel, worked by a small portable engine. At each end of the oven are two iron doors moving on hinges and fixed securely in metal frames, the lower 3 feet high, the upper 1 foot. The usual dimensions of the ovens are 26 feet 6 inches long, about 19 inches broad at the babe and 17 at the front, and 4 feet high. Ovens of this size are charged every 24 hours; ; others, arranged to be charged every 48 hours, are 5 feet 7 inches high and 5 feet broad. The thickness of the brick: work between is 13.2 inches. (a) The accompanying drawing will give an idea of this oven. The operation of the ram used in discharging the oven by pushing will be readily seen from an inspection of the drawing. In working the ovens it is necessary first to heat them thoroughly, which is done by lighting fires of coal at the end of every oven closé to the doors. When sufficiently hot, the first few charges of coal are in small lumps, the coke produced being of an inferior quality; but in a few days the ovens become so thoroughly hot that crushed coal of the consistency of very coarse meal is used, it being washed, if necessary, to remove impurities. As has already been stated, one oven of the pair is charged when the coking in the other is about half completed. When ready to charge, the previous charge not having yet been withdrawn, the front and back doors are opened, and the mass of coke pushed out bya ram. The ram is then quickly withdrawn, and the two lower doors are closed. The oven is charged through the three hoppers or openings, and the coal is leveled, by means of rakes, by two men working through the upper doors at each end. The doors are then closed and carefully luted, and carbonization commences immediately. The processes of emptying and refilling the ovens need not occupy more than eight minutes. The coke is quenched immediately upon being withdrawn. Six charges are coked in each oven per week, each charge yielding about 2 tons of coke. Regarding the yield of the coal in coke it is claimed that within 2 per cent. of the theoretical yield is obtained. Mr. E. Windsor Richards stated to Mr. Percy that at the Ebbw Vale iron works(b) 13,400 tons of coal (containing nearly 20 per cent: of shale) were sent to the washing-machine, and that 8,400 tons of coke were obtained, which is equal to a yield of 62.7 per cent. of the unwashed coal. If the washing process be effective in removing the shale, the yield of the washed coal must be considerably greater. Mr. Richards, however, found as much as 6 per cent. of water in the coke—a point of considerable importance in estimating the aes large quantity of water being ; due to the fact that the coke is quenched outside the oven, and to the want of sufficient care in performing this operation. A series of determinations, recently obtained from Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., limited, of Middlesborough, of the quantity of water in coke made in bee-hive ovens at their Newfield collieries We quenched inside the ovens, gave an average of only 0.8 per cent. At Ebbw Vale, where there is a bank of these ovens, the work of coking is let to a contractor, who commences by filling the trams from the bin containing the crushed coal; and he finds all the labor for filling the ovens, discharging their contents (inclusive of working the coke-ram), and loading the coke into trams, for one shilling per ton of coke. The additional cost of crushing the coal in a disintegrator must be borne in mind. In France, in 1878, the cost of making a hundred-weight of coke was about 28 cents, with 20 cents per ton for repairs and incidental expenses. On page 99 will be found a statement made by Mr. Bainbridge, of the Duke of Norfolk’s colliery, regarding the werk of the Coppée oven. The advantages claimed for this oven by its inventors are rapidity of coking, largely increased yield, and better coke. It is further recommended by them on the ground that— Some qualities of coal which are not sufficiently bituminous to coke in the old oven (or bee-hive) make good coke when burnt in the Coppée ovens; that there is a slight saving of labor by the Coppée system, and that the waste gases of the oven may be utilized for the raising of steam without involving extra expense in the construction. It may be questioned whether a coal which cannot be coked in a bee-hive oven will make good coke in a Coppée oven. Coke can be made from such inferior coals in the Coppée, but it will be inferior coke. The occasion of the invention of the Belgian oven was to utilize these inferior coking coals, to make it possible to coke them ;_ but it is evident that no oven treatment can supply the lacking chemical elements demanded in making good coke. - In 1873 there were in operation in Belgium 524 Coppée ovens, and 192 were in course of erection. In Prussia 305 were at work and 138 building ; in France 186 at work, and in England 30 at work and 30 building. According to Professor Jordan the cost of each oven is from $300 to $350 in France (2,500 to 2,750 frances). (¢) Though not strictly a flue oven, being more of the nature of a retort entirely surrounded by flame, the Appolt oven is very properly treated in connection with the Belgian ovens, as it may be regarded as surrounded by one large flue. The Appolt oven differs materially from those previously described. It is upright instead of horizontal, and the coke is discharged from the bottom by gravity, instead of being pushed out by a ram. The method of supplying air for the combustion of the waste gas is also theoretically more perfect than in either of the other systems. a A full description, with working drawings of this oven, may be found in Percy’s Vetallurgy: Fuel. London, 1875. b Percy’ 8 Metallurgy: Fuel, page 534. c¢ Album to Course of Lectures on Metallurgy, by S. Jordan, C. E. (London, 1878), page 20. 94 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. This oven consists of a series of upright rectangular retorts, the longer sides of the rectangle being two or three times the length of the shorter. The retort is also wider at the bottom than at the top, to facilitate the discharge of the coke. These retorts, in groups of 12, 18, or 24, as the case may be, are inclosed in a large rectangular brick chamber, which may be termed the combustion chamber, the retorts being surrounded on all sides by air-spaces, these spaces being in communication, and the walls which form the sides of the retorts connected together by solid blocks of fire-brick. Between the fire-brick walls of the combustion chamber and an outside brick wall is a space filled loosely with some powdered substance, as sand or other bad conductor of heat, which allows a certain degree of expansion and contraction of the fire-brick wall of the combustion chamber within. The combustion chamber for a group of 12 retorts would be about 17 feet long by 11 feet 6 inches wide and 135 feet high. The retorts are about 4 feet long and 1 foot 6 inches wide at the base, and 3 feet 8 inches long and 13 inches wide at the upper part, the walls being about 43 inches thick. The distance between the corresponding walls of the neighboring retorts varies from 73? to 9? inches. (a) The ovens are placed in two rows, back to back, the bottoms being provided with cast-iron doors, strengthened by transverse bars of wrought-iron. The partition walls of each chamber, at a distance of from 16 inches to 2 feet from the base, are traversed by two rows of small horizontal openings 54 inches long and about 34 inches high, 9 on each wide and 3 on each narrow side. At the upper part there are three similar openings on each wide side only. Through these openings the volatile products evolved during the coking of the coal pass into the surrounding open spaces of the combustion chamber, where they are burned by atmospheric air admitted through holes in the wide sides of the outer wall of the oven. In the wide side walls are the flues which receive the products of combustion from the flues surrounding the spaces and convey them to the chimneys. There are twelve vertical flues in all, three below and three above in each of these walls. In operating the oven it is first heated with coal, as in the case of the Coppée oven, until the walls have become red hot. After eight or ten days firing the oven will be found to have attained a temperature of from 1,200° to 1,400° C. (bd) In order always to insure an equal degree of heat through the oven, and to simplify the management of the latter by the dampers and air-flues, it is expedient to charge the two series of compartments alternately, the temporary grate and brick lining at the bottom being removed from the compartment which it is proposed to charge. The door is closed and securely fixed, and is then covered with a layer of coke dust about 1 foot thick. This is done to protect the door from heat, to close effectually the bottom of the compartment, and to prevent loss of heat. The charge of coal is now introduced, and a cover is placed over the top, luted with coke dust or clay. The gases, whieh are immediately evolved when the coal comes in contact with the red-hot sides of the compartment, pass into the surrounding free spaces, where they are burnt, and so sustain the heat of the oven. An hour afterward a second compartment is charged in like manner, and so in succession until all have been charged. As the amount of gas produced increases during the day with the number of charges, it is necessary to open the dampers, and all that is required to be done during the night is gradually to shut them again in proportion as the evolution of gas decreases. Carbonization being completed at the end of the 24 hours, on the following day the coke is drawn from the first compartment at the same time as the charging took place on the previous day. Immediately afterward the compartment is charged again. The process is thus continued without interruption, the coke being drawn from each compartment 24 hours after it has received a charge of coal. No inconvenience arises from the use of washed coal which still retains moisture. By suitably decreasing the admission of air and the exit of gases from the oven the charging may be omitted on particular days, and yet the heat will continue sufficiently high to enable the charging to be effected on the following day. The advantages claimed for this oven are as follows: (¢) 1. The calcination is effected in a close chamber solely by the combustion of gas disengaged from the coal, a condition favorable to a high yield. . 2. The heating surface is very considerable, reaching 190 square meters for a charge of 1.5 tons. The comparatively small size of the retort secures a rapid and regular carbonization. 3. The flames from all the compartments uniting in a common chamber, which surrounds them, insure a uniformity of temperature. 4. The vertical position of the compartments, beside the facility of rapid charging and emptying, gives more compactness to the coke, while the arrangement occupies less space. The following are the inconveniences incident to the system: 1. If the general arrangement does not allow of the coal being led directly out upon the loading platform, lifts must be provided to raise it. 2. Masses sometimes adhere to the sides of the retorts, which have to be broken by bars before the coke can fall. 3. The management of these ovens is not so simple as in some other%systems, and when repairs are required for one compartment the whole group has to be stopped. In the Appolt oven the yield is very nearly the theoretical maximum. At the Blanzy collieries, in France, an oven of 18 compartments is charged with about 24 tons of coal and 3 tons (2,240 pounds) of ashes and dust for covering the a These dimensions are to be regarded as about the dimensions, they being the equivalents in English feet and inches of the meters. of the original paper. b Percy’s Metallurgy: Fuel, pages 449, 450. c Journal Iron and Steel Institute, 2, 1873, page 348. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 95 movable bottoms. The operation lasts 24 hours, and produces 17 tons 6 hundred-weight (2,240 pounds) of coke. Taking into consideration the water in the coal (5 per cent.) and in the coke (10 per cent.), the yield would be 684 per cent., about the yield in a crucible. The cost of the construction of an oven of 18 retorts is about $10,000 (50,000 francs); the cost of coking at a French colliery, including the mixing and breaking of coal and maintenance of oven, amounts to about 43 cents per ton (2 francs 15 centimes). Dr. Percy, in summing up regarding the Appolt oven, makes the following remarks: (a) This oven differs much in construction from most other coke ovens, and appears completely to fulfill the conditions of a close vessel er retort. Although it certainly is a costly structure, yet according to the inventors the cost in proportion to yield is less than in any other kind of coke oven. Now, it has been previousiy stated that the non-coking, thick coal of South Staffordshire will cake and produce a solid coherent coke, provided it be rapidly exposed to ahigh temperature in a perfectly close vessel; and a prodigious amount of the fine slack of such coal has either been wasted or left in the pits because it could not be raised with profit. It may be possible to imitate on a large scale the conditions of the experiment in a crucible and to heat rapidly a large mass of slack to bright redness; but of all the coke ovens known to me, that on the Appolt system seems to be one of the most favorable to the solution of the problem. Mr. Menelaus, however, informed Dr. Perey (June, 1873) that some years before he saw the Appolt ovens at work near Saarbriick, and that the late M. de Wendel, to whom they belonged, and who was an excellent judge of coke ovens, did not, at least at the time of Mr. Menelaus’ visit, see any great merit in Appolt’s scheme. While it thus appears that theoretically the Appolt oven is the nearest to a perfect coke oven, it is not used to the same extent as either the Smet, the Dulait, or the Coppée. It is by far the most expensive to construct, and, as has already been noted, the stoppage of operations to repair one retort necessitates the stoppage of all. As to which of the many forms of the Belgian oven is the best, but little information has been obtained, as results of comparative trials have in but few instances been made public; indeed, it would be almost impossible to arrive at a general conclusion on this point. It will doubtless be found that one form will give the best results with one kind of coal, while another form will be better adapted to the coking of coal of a different character, but it will always be found true that inferior coal of whatever character will invari iably g rive an inferior coke. Some forms of oven may give a better coke than other forms with the same coal. The true method is to study the character of the coal and adopt the oven that seems best suited to it, having in view economy of operation. At the Cockerill works, at Seraing, Belgium, where a number of Smet ovens had been used for some time, a trial was made of the Dulait, but after careful and thorough experimenting it was abandoned and the preference given to the Smet. On the other hand, at the works of the Société Anonyme des Charbonnages de Marihaye, Belgium, some experiments have been made as to the relative value of the Dulait and the Appolt ovens, with the following result as to the contents of the coke produced: | WASHED. | UNWASHED. Constituents. Neder ERI lee at | Treated in the | Treated in the | Treated in the | Dulait oven. | Appolt oven. Dulait oven. Per cent. | Per cent. | Percent. ES RE eR ISAAC aia wie cin yee v= 2 eerste =e 2. 8400 | 4.4900 | 9, 3400 \WESIED © 6) et EARS. ee eee are 0.5100 | 0.4800 | 0. 5800 Ag OT AIRGAS rials ira.n Leklas'ob.oe venus 96. 6500 | 95, 2300 | 90. 0800 SULpHUT ame eece. - = oss iccns cinsae 0. 0790 0.1016 | 0. 1016 IPROSPROLUSecat ane - 2-3-6 sda en cece 0. 0125 0.0292 | 0. 0292 In England, in the South Wales district, where the Belgian oven has been introduced, and in other parts of England having coals of similar or inferior character, the preference seems to be given to the Coppée ovens, with modifications in some cases, suggested by the experience of the English engineers. While other ovens have been tried, no record has been found of any other form of Belgian oven in use at the present time. The Cox oven, of which the Dulait is in some respects an imitation, and which was at one time used at the Ebbw Vale works, does not seem to meet with continued favor, as at this works, as stated elsewhere, Coppée ovens have been lately built. As noted by Perey in his Metallurgy, all of the Belgian ovens, with the exception of the Appolt, seem to be improvements of the old rectangular Welsh oven. In this process of development the Smet, Dulait, and Coppée seem to be successive steps, and the late action of the English coke manufacturers would indicate that with the inferior coals of that country the last step in this development, that is, the Coppée oven, is the best. SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS OF KACH FORM OF OVEN. A question of the utmost importance in connection with the manufacture of coke is which is the best oven, and is as difficult to answer as it is important. The form of oven that might be the best, the most economical, and produce the best coke under certain conditions, would not necessarily be the best when these conditions are changed. The oven that would give the most satisfactory results with the coals of Durham, England, or poopoueyile,3 in this country, would not necessarily be the best for the inferior coals of sirites or Belgium. a A full description of this oven can be found in Percy’s Greiaiherga rua 96 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. This question as to which is the best form of oven, while it is one contingent on circumstances, is nevertheless answerable as to a given coal. It has been thoroughly investigated in the chief coke-producing countries of the world, and some decided results have been reached as to the best ovens for the coals of the several districts. As there is so great a variety of coals in this country, it may not be unimportant to give these results. It seems to be quite well settled that with coals similar in character and cost to those of Durham, England, and Connellsville, Pennsylvania, the bee-hive oven, not only as to the character of the coke, but on the score of economy of operation, is the better form. The yield of these coals in coke is no doubt greater in the close distilling ovens on the so-called Belgian plans, where the time of coking and consequent exposure is shorter than it is in the bee-hive ovens, and the coke, in burning, is more or less exposed to the action of highly-heated atmospheric air, but it has been found in blast-furnace practice that this greater yield is more than compensated for by the larger amount necessary to make a ton of iron. This is a somewhat remarkable statement, but it has the sanction of the best authority. Mr. I. Lowthian Bell, the distinguished English manufacturer and writer on blast-furnace phenomena, while acknowledging, in speaking of the Belgian and bee-hive oven, (a) that the yield was much greater in the latter, “almost the whole of the fixed carbon being obtained as a coke, the exception being a very minute loss incurred in drawing,”(b) nevertheless found the useful effect in the furnaces inferior to that obtained from the coke made in the ordinary oven. In consequence of this all his more recently erected ovens have been constructed upon the old fashion. Mr. Bell also stated, at a meeting of the British Iron and Steel Institute at Paris in 1878, (c) that his firm, among many others, undertook, at considerable expense, the inquiry as to whether it was possible to treat English coal in the same way as coal was treated in France in the manufacture of coke. Both the Knab and the Appolt ovens were tried, and while in both these systems the yield obtained was quite equal to their expectations, they found in practice that whatever advantage was gained in yield was so much lost in the blast-furnace; that the quantity of coal actually consumed in the manufacture of a ton of iron remained pretty much the same in each case. In other words, he found if 30 hundred-weight of coal made 20 hundred-weight of coke in a bee-hive oven and 223 in an Appolt, that it would require the 224 hundred-weight of Appolt coke to do the same work in the blast-furnace as the 20 hundred-weight of bee-hive coke. They were compelled, therefore, to go back to the old bee-hive oven, and, as a result, were using a considerably greater quantity of fuel than ought to be the case if the coke made in the better description of ovens had produced an article equal in quality to that preduced in the bee-hive oven. He suggested, as one reason for this fact, that the extra coke was consumed in great part in the upper part of the blast-furnace, but another and more simple reason was that as they invariably used a much greater quantity of water in quenching the coke made in the Coppée and Appolt ovens than they did with the bee-hive, a portion of the increased yield was due to the presence of water, and therefore more apparent than real. There is perhaps another reason for this greater consumption of the coke made in Belgian ovens than of that made in bee-hiveovens. The flued ovens make a denser coke than the bee-hive, and it takes more of it to smelt a ton of pig-iron than of the more cellular coke of the bee-hive. In a word, the difference of consumption may be largely due to the physical condition of the coke; and here it may be pertinent to say that the physical condition of the coke produced with the several ovens is not receiving the attention its importance demands. (d) Mr. A. L. Steavenson, a North of England eugineer and writer on coke, went further than Mr. Bell, and claimed that coke was made in bee-hive ovens in the Cleveland district of England that it would be impossible to produce in any of the Belgian ovens. After a study of coke-making in England extending over a period of twenty-five years, he was quite sure that there was not any oven equal to the old-fashioned round oven for producing coke economically for the manufacture of iron. (é) ; These statements are fully borne out, so far as relates to the cokes made from our Broad Top and Connellsville coals, by the careful and thorough experiments of Mr. John Fulton, mining engineer of the Cambria Iron Company. (/) Speaking of the Connellsville coal, Mr. Fulton says: (gq) The best quality of Connellsville coke treated in the Belgian ovens of the Cambria Iron Company produced a coke of very objectionable density, especially in the bottom and middle of the charge. A direct test to determine the relative calorific values of cokes made in bee-hive and Gobeit ovens, using the same quality of coal in each kind, was made at the furnaces of the Kemble Coal and Iron Company, in the Broad Top coal region, Pennsylvania, by William Lauder, the general superintendent. The furnace in which a Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting, I. Lowthian Bell, London, 1872, pages 314, 315. b Transactions Institute of Mechanical Engineers, 1871. c Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 2, 1878, pages 346, 347. d Mr. Fulton suggests that the denser coke may not be as vigorous a fuel as the more cellular, or, in other words, thaf as many tons of pig-iron could not be made in a week in a furnace using the denser coke as in one using the cellular. A comparison between the makes of furnaces using Connellsville coke and those using anthracite, which is practically a dense coke, will illustrate what is meant by a “vigorous fuel”. e Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, page 354. S See Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Report G (Harrisburg, 1878), pages 235 et seq. Also Report L, pages 117 et seg. g Report G, page 248. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 97 the tests were made is 14 by 60 feet, with modern blowing machinery and hot-blast oven. The ores are from the Clinton group (No. V), well known as the Juniata fossil ore, containing 30+ per cent. of metallic iron. The increased density of coke made in the Gobeit was very manifest. It was found that with careful management in both trials it required 2,300 pounds of Gobeit coke to carry the same furnace burden as 1,900 pounds of bee-hive coke. Mr. Lauder confesses his surprise at the results. While this coke was in the furnace it took 5,196 pounds to 1 ton of pig-iron; with the bee-hive coke 4,156 pounds for the same work. The loss, per ton of pig-iron made, is 1,040 pounds of coke, or 20 per cent. If the furnace makes 250 tons a week, the loss will be 1155 tons of coke, at $2 25— 259 87 per week. This testimony in favor of the use of the bee-hive oven for coking the coals of western Pennsylvania is further strengthened by the action of certain coke manufacturers in that region, who, after having thoroughly tried certain forms of the Belgian oven, have, on increasing their coke-plant, built nothing but bee-live ovens. It may be assumed that, for coking, the character of coals, of which the Durham and the Connellsville may be taken as the type, and having in consideration the fact that the use to which coke is most largely put is in blast- furnace work, the bee-hive oven is the best. It may be possible that in the development of the iron business and the increased demand for coke, coupled with the exhaustion of coal-beds and the necessity of going deeper and further into the hills for coal; in a word, with the increased cost of the character of coal which is so admirably adapted to the manufacture of coke, some modification of the bee-hive oven that will give a similar character of coke without so great waste will be adopted; but we are speaking, of course, of the present and the present conditions. In noting these results and opinions it is scarcely necessary to state that in the experiments recorded all forms of the so-called Belgian oven have not been tested and the results compared with those obtained in the bee-hive ovens. It is fair to presume, however, that tests made by such eminent engineers as Messrs. Bell and Steavenson in England and Mr. Fulton in this country would be carefully and thoroughly made, and that the Belgian oven selected for trial would be regarded as the best form for the coal used with which they were acquainted at the time the test was made. It should also be noted that in these statements the coke is-considered only as to its value as a blast-furnace fuel; the economy of coking is not taken into account. It is also fair to state that the experience of Messrs. Laughlin & Co., of the Eliza furnaces at Pittsburgh, is favorable to the use of the Belgian ovens. The oven they use is the old Francois oven, improved by Mr. Henry Laughlin, and are 22 feet long, 18 inches wide, and 5 feet high, flues being arranged vertically in the side walis, which are 13 inches thick. Mr. Laughlin states that he has used Connellsville coal in these ovens with very good results, the time of coking being very much shorter and the coke produced equally as good as that made from the same coal in bee-hive ovens, but the yield was greater. They also use at times a mixture of Connellsville coal -and the fine slack from the Monongahela river, but for the most part use the latter alone after careful washing, it making a lighter and more porous coke than the Connellsville coal. They get every 24 hours about 2,000 pounds of coke from each oven.. A remarkable difference between their practice and that ordinarily used with the Belgian -oven is that the coke is watered in the oven as in the bee-hive and is pushed out cold, and it may be possible that the better quality of the coke from these Belgian ovens is in part due to this watering inside. So far this question of the relative value of different forms of ovens has been considered only with reference to the coking of coals similar to those of Durham, England, and of Connellsville, in this country, and it seems well established that with these coals the bee-hive oven has so far given the best results; but all coals are not of the character of these, nor are they so easily coked. Mr. E. Windsor Richards, of Blockow, Vaughan & Co.’s steel works _at Eston, England, very aptly remarked of the Durham coal: “It would be very difficult not to make good coke with it;” (a) and. a similar statement may be made of the Connellsville coal. The question arises, regarding those coals that in the bee-hive oven have made inferior coke, or, as they are termed, the “inferior coking coals”: Are any better results obtained with these coals in the Belgian oven than in the bee-hive or similar forms? The evidence seems conclusive that, with certain inferior coals, the Belgian oven produces a better coke than the ovens of which the bee-hive is the type. In a word, certain inferior coking coals can be coked in the Coppée -or some other form of Belgian oven which cannot be coked in the bee-hive. Many coals do not contain sufficient hydrogenous matter to thoroughly ignite and agglutinate in the bee-hive; they lack the pitchy matter to supply heat and bind the coal together in coking. In the Belgian oven, however, by reason of the greater heat, these coals catch more readily, and, the process being quicker, they bind together better. In many cases where the Belgian oven is used on these dry coals it is found advisable to mix them with coals containing more‘‘pitch”. This has been done at the works of the Cambria Iron Company with their Belgian ovens. At the same time, however, it seems to be a fact that the invention of the Belgian oven was the result of necessity, not of advanced scientific method. The European coals for which this oven was designed were very dry material for coke—could not well be “stuck” together in the old circular oven, and hence a costly appliance had to be used to make it possible to use these inferior coals in coke-making. Up to 1852 coke was made in Belgium in bee-hive ovens, or in others with solid walls, somewhat similar in a Journal Iron and Steel Institute, No. 2, 1878, page 348. CO, VOL. IX———7 98 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. construction to the bee-hive. At this time the cost of the bituminous coal used increased to such a figure that it was necessary to use inferior coal for coking or to abandon iron-making. Out of this have grown the many forms. of the so-called Belgian oven, the principles of which are described in the chapter treating of ovens. The fact that the old forms of oven have been entirely abandoned in Belgium is the most convincing evidence that for the Belgian coals they are not the best form. The testimony as to which of the many forms of the Belgian is the best is not conclusive, but it seems generally conceded in Belgium, as the result of careful and long-continued experiments and comparisons, that almost any form of the oven is better than the bee-hive for their coal. ; A similar statement is true of France. The French coals chiefly used for coking are not typical coking coals, being dry and quite impure, and consequently high in ash. In that country the coke is generally made in the Coppée or Appolt forms of the Belgian oven. In the discussion of Professor Jordan’s paper, which has been before referred to, Mr. Windsor Richards stated that his impression was that without the Coppée or Appolt oven coke-making in France would be impossible. (a) In discussing this further, Professor Jordan said: (b) The improved coke ovens, Belgian or Appolt system, yield with the same quantity of coal a higher percentage of coke than the old bee-hive ovens, because there was a smaller loss by combustion in the oven, and also because the proportion of small coke or cinders was. smaller, as was also the cost of working. It is a fact universally known to be true by the French and Belgian coke manufacturers that the cost of production of a ton of coke in a Belgian or an Appolt oven is smaller than in a bee-hive oven. There is less coal and less labor required. For the blast-furnace process, coke must be considered as to its percentage of ash, and as to its porosity and friability. A percentage of ash can be obtained as low in the improved coke ovens as in the old form; indeed, by using the same coal, a purer coke is produced in the new ovens, since the yield is higher. As to the porosity and friability, which depend above all on the quality and the physica] state of the coal used, and also on the thickness of the layer of coal in the coke oven, the French manufacturers certainly obtain in their improved ovens coke as dense and as hard, indeed, perhaps more dense and more hard, than in the old bee-hive ovens.(c): Therefore, Professor Jordan said he could not find an explanation of the fact recorded by Mr. Bell. He was not aware of any trial made: by iron-masters for comparing the two kinds of coke for blast-furnace use, but all the blast-furnaces in the Loire district had formerly used coke made in bee-hive ovens, and actually now used coke manufactured in improved ovens, and they had never had any disadvantage- resulting from the change. . Professor Jordan, referring to Mr. Richards’ remarks, agreed with them. The only coals to be got by French iron-masters were generally inferior to those of Durham for coke-making. In old times, when the consumption of coke was not very extensive in irance, it was manufactured from caking coals in bee-hive ovens; this, for example, was the case with the Loire coal-field. Now, however, that the wants of the iron trade have increased other kinds. of coal are largely employed. Professor Jordan believed (d) that, in spite of the unfavorable results referred to by Mr. Bell, the Durham coke- makers would adoptin due time the improved systems of coke ovens used in France, Belgium, and Westphalia. The: failures reported by Mr. Bell had also been incurred by German manufacturers in the Loire coal-field, where formerly coke was made only from caking coal in bee-hive ovens. There the improved systems had been introduced in practice later and more slowly than elsewhere, because the first trials had been made with systems of ovens which,,. though having merits for other qualities of coal, were somewhat inappropriate for that used. He ventured to say that the same had perhaps happened to Mr. Bell. It should always be remembered that when making trials. with coke ovens of the Smet, Coppée, Appolt, or other class failure might result instead of success, in consequence of a difference of some inches, more or less, in the breadth of the oven or the dimensions of a flue, or probably of some units too much or too little in the percentage of humidity of the coals prepared for carbonization. These: improved ovens required also more attention and care than the old ones. In Westphalia, though the coal is superior to the French for coking, being somewhat similar to the Welsh: steam-coal, it has been found that better results are secured by the use of the Belgian ovens than by the old style of bee-hive ovens. The details and experience in the use of these ovens in this part of Germany have not been procured, but the relative number is conclusive evidence as to which form is deemed best. Of the 5,300 ovens reported in the Westphalia district, the far greater number are of the Coppée system. Dr. Gustav Natorp, in his. paper read before the British Iron and Steel Institute, says: Although it is the opinion of some engineers that the coke produced in the bee-hive ovens is superior in many respects to that of the Coppée ovens, the former have, nevertheless, not been generally adopted, since a coke can be far more cheaply produced in the Coppée ovens, which answers all the requirements, not alone of our native iron industry, but of that of Belgium, Luxembourg, and France as. well, Even in England itself there is strong evidence of the superiority of the Belgian ovens of the Coppée system for the manufacture of coke from certain of the British coals, especially those of South Wales. Mr. Richard Meade, in his recent work on The Coal and Iron Industries of the United Kingdom, page 201, says: The coke manufactured in the ordinary way in South Wales, although exceedingly hard and dense, does not appear to have attained all the economical results possible. Experience has shown that the carbonization of the coal is not complete, the long, deep fissures in the- coke thus manufactured exhibiting, on examination, a considerable amount of dark carbonaceous matter not carbonized. a Journal Iron and Steel Institute, No. 2, 1875, page 348. b Idem, pages 349, 350. e A confusion of denseness and hardness of coke may exist in some of these cases. Dense coke is not desirable; hard coke is. As: is explained under ‘Properties and composition of coke”, a hard coke is one in which the cell-walls in the fuel are hard; a dense coke~ is one in which the number of cells in the coke is small. d Journal Iron and Steel Institute, No. 2, 1878, pages 352, 353. MANUFACTURE OF COKE. 99 At the Ebbw Vale iron works, in South Wales, 60 ovens were constructed on the Coppée system in 1874, and so successful has been their use with the coals at these works that 60 more were erected in 1880. In the same yearthe Dowlais iron works decided to erect two blocks of 72 ovens each, and it was also reported that the Barrow Hematite Company had decided to make a trial of their coal, which is a very much poorer coking coal than even the Welsh, in: these ovens. In Pembrokeshire, where the coal is not at all caking, good coke was obtained in the Coppée oven with the mixture of 50 per cent. of anthracite dust with bituminous coal and some pitch. At the Dowlais works the first block of 72 ovens on this system was put into full operation early in 1881, at which time they produced 1,000 tons a week of excellent coke from a coal containing but in a slight degree those qualities that are considered necessary for coke-making. The success of these ovens at Dowlais led to the erection, in 1881, of a block of 72 similar ovens by the Rhymney Iron Company. (a) From what has been said we think it is evident that while for coals similar to those of Durham, England, and Connellsville, Pennsylvania, under the present conditions as to prices and demand, the bee-hive oven is the best form for coking. We think it is also evident that for other coals, which may be termed inferior coking coals, similar to those of France, Belgium, Westphalia, those mentioned in South Wales, and the Cumberland district, the Belgian system, or some form of the Belgian system, is better than the bee-hive or a solid-walled oven. As to the relative cost and results of the two systems, many comparisons have been instituted. Mr. Emerson Bainbridge, who has gone very fully into the respective merits of the bee-hive and Coppée systems of coke manufacture, has prepared the following summary of the chief points of comparison, which exhibit some interesting features: (b) | | Bee-hive. | Coppée. | eee etait} First cost per 2 tons of coke per day...-.....---..--..--- iBT Te Bartel te' ce £100. HEMT ENC Woprbd bebe Fos oy SSA Sep Cee ace Ct bed os ee Sepetpsce | 48 to120 hours’... ..| 24 hours. FATeM per LOW OL,60K6 Gallyna- .-cevscssasecmerscelsctens wes | 1,218 square feet..... 234 square feet. JERR ESTA OE ATG asc onerisect Sar ae Petes SG EASS cehGe Cac 45 per cent........-.. 59 per cent. Outside cooling-surface per 2 tons ..............-...-----| 1,002 square feet.....| 175 square feet. Time in emptying and refilling. -.............------+------ GO mMInUtess esses. 8 minutes. Units of heat in waste gases per oven...........--------- PS 966871 One temas et ecu 1,401.584. LADO CHAT EO OM LON an os--ne en § caatenne conecieeesiet weet ss Ie Ten Bdc on eine zie ie 11d. ‘y Mr. Fulton, in discussing this point, says: (c) The relative cost of making coke in each kind of oven is hereby given, with original cost of ovens and annual cost of repairs. The estimate contemplates banks of ovens to produce 100 tons of coke per day, or 30,000 tons per year. Coal at $1 per ton delivered at ovens. BEE-HIVE OVENS. EY BNICN STS, Da PANE ec Ae Ail elas se 7 I i Ais ol Api al ae Indi ha Se cia Ga Danae. hee rr $16, 000 IU eSmOnMMVeSstinente lO. perscents Per ANNU... see lao sa aete alm oe strae clone tes aeidnee sce ces se cave lee 1, 600 Seana Re ETON Nt ea le Tubs SE Olas » tas! cms ona’ hem eGiaisd vetaig a ol ku aid Asm oR Meunclanledae cd buedaed cbcwseeece 800 ' $2,400 Then =8 cents per ton of coke. 30,000 tons. COST OF COAL AND COKING. HEOURLONSOLECOdalig la per LONM nacmen aah <2 cciss voicec secre be soe ee cnet ee cece ceacae Haceep ac hasten aHeEeenre $1 60 Rese et etiog Ctizel eh MU LUIS 56 vnc'a tae diva wanaisg semnicd spo sods decline Hees baee cess evocestuccosceeass 27 Interest on cost of ovens and annual repairs..-.------- Moey ae ose ake leh isAtty foe Ree WMA ae are 8 Coal, $1 60; coking, etc., 35 cents.......---- bas 6 eden Rene So hosisoqe soe er 1 95 BELGIAN OVENS. RS ST EIN TIS Cteeat este pe aes, Se Cate eR RE Raat eis ite nts ae Se Ge RIES ei eeca TAG cicisac alee Sots cabs vias be, eteae's $45, 200 PTT OM OLE DIS Nin Du COKGlOu OTRO VOUS Nash safe ieict otras ciate etna ye Geena cine lels cinicieleees tat biecse cose ccicces Sh = 3, 000 ATL ELS P LCM LOLI fll C aane eran rele 2 no e)e naan) g = oh eee eae otetesin tfeieiainie a wiaisinics coat ccieln Sajeaecee ceeets 50 PACKS LO LEG 1 TLC Saker sett Se eee nie Pte rel ata aa ae oot - ata c ei ateie Oe RTE SIE pole w/a wie sais Sra wln|lo s'vinie wiciolein'sc'cavcieeinels eines 300 JAI REEL RE) DENIES WOO ET ne oho Sc too ebm eB ee beie BaD C es Betis COS8 6 AgC KCNC. SEE Se ROC ee ee Se a eee 310 Annual interest on investment ($48,800), at 10 per cent..--....-..----.--.--------- 4,880 $5, 240 Then $4, 880-+-$310-++-$50 — = 173 cents, nearly. 30,000 tons. a Mr. Edward P. Martin, manager of the Dowlais iron works, writes me under date of November 23, 1882: With regard to the question of yield of coke, we consider that the yield in the Coppée oven is better than in ordinary ovens; how much, it is difficult to say, as we do not weigh the products. With regard to the question of cost, taking into consideration the greater output per oven, we do not think that the cost per oven per ton of coke made is in excess of ovens built on the ordinary plan. The time of coking with us is 24 hours. The coke, if we use a fair quality of coal, is good and hard, but it has not that silvery appearance so taking to the eye which we get from good coal from ordinary ovens. Chemically and mechanically there is no difference in the quality, as far as we are able to judge, on the blast-furnaces. The cost per oven in this country is about £100 each, including roads, foundations, etc. The labor expense is less than in operating ordinary ovens. We have 72 ovens, and these 72 ovens burn out about 1,000 tons per week, or 14 tons per oven per week. b Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, vol. iv, page 262. c Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Report G, pages 249, 250. 100 MANUFACTURE OF COKE. COST OF COAL AND COKING, Coal,.1.42:tons, at BY per ton uancss clots poeta hase con raat woe ae eee ee eee sae aine enate $1 42 Labor at ovens, charcing,, luting, pushing, GiGeas esis sea oe ele ee an aaa mat taste ee tecelemtata's S23 SERA seCee 234 Interest on cost of OVens andsannilal ,Lepalis ie csca ets ste emis cia ste ee eree ants etal avin sept deren ela eee 174 Coal, $1 42; coking, ete. 41 G6nte i... ien<+,25-cdineewsadtie sedans aise sa vesiacclessmieiees 80. 50 Nos. 1 to 3 show clearly that the hardness of the coke increases as the width of the oven or the thickness of the layer of coal treated decreases. The time required for each charge varies according to the description of coal and the dimensions of the oven. In ovens of a width of 2 feet a charge is finished every 48 hours; in ovens of a width of 3 feet 60 to 70 hours are required. At the Bességes works steam is produced to the extent of about 45 pounds and of 44 atmospheres pressure per hour and per ton of coal coked, and under more favorable circumstances it is thought 59 pounds of steam should be obtained. As at Bességes 1,400 kilograms (3,080 pounds) of coal are carbonized per oven and per 24 hours, it follows that, taking about 174 pounds of steam as necessary to produce one horse-power per hour, each oven gives about 3} horse-power of motive power, and could be driven to about 43 horse-power. (a) At Bességes all the machinery required in the manufacture of coke and its by-products is now being driven by steam raised in this way, and there remains a large surplus, which is used in the blowing-engines for the Bessemer process for lifting charges to furnaces, ete. At Saint-Etienne, in France, coke was for many years made upon a somewhat similar system, but the manufacture was discontinued in favor of Carvés’ system, which gives greatly superior results in every way. ‘There can be no doubt that much of the prejudice existing against these ovens and this system as the results of early trials was just. The latter results also seem to indicate that the disadvantages of the earlier ovens have been removed. The present increased heating surface of the ovens is the principal cause of this change for the better; for whereas in the first ovens the heating surface per ton of coal charged was only 18 square feet, and was applied exclusively under the sole of the oven, in the last ovens the heating surface per ton of coal charged amounts to about three times as much, namely, 54 feet, and surrounds almost entirely the charge of coal, which is much thinner than before. The cost of ovens varies considerably, according to local circumstances. On solid ground much less expense is occasioned in foundations. I annex a translation of the actual expense incurred in constructing the last battery of a hundred ovens at Terrenoire, which are each 19 feet 8,3; inches (6 meters) long, 2 feet 6 inches (0.73 meter) wide, and 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 meters) high. The length of the ovens but for local circumstances would have been greater, as thereby the power of production per oven is increased, with almost no increased expense of working. Each of these ovens takes a charge of 5 tons of coal, and produces at the rate of from 1,100 to 1,400 kilograms (22 to 28 hundred-weight) of coke per 24 hours, according to the quality of coal used and the quality of coke required. The time occupied by one operation with this size of oven is from 60 to 72 hours. a Or, to express it more clearly, a battery of 100 ovens will furnish steam for about 400 horse-power over and above the making of the coke and the rendering of the by-products. Number Price Number Price Masonry. of cubic | per cubic Total. Masonry. of cubic | per cubic Total meters. meter. meters. | meter. y 1. Ovens complete, including flues: Francs. eancsoel 18. Woodwork, ete., for engine-house : aranee! rane Digging out foundation.......-....-. 660. 87 2.00 | 1,321.75 damiber for house and shartings...-.cfiseesesmetetecnec«.ac- 0: 800. 00 (ON ORE OSS OB tert an tae Oe ee CCE 803. 75 12, 00 9, 645. 00 | Hour windows/andstwoidoOrs.. sesecaloct enon edie eee Cake 304. 65 Rough REOMIEN S ceue ce disc on coumaertaicmlas 100. 00 11. 00 1, 100. 00 | Painting Sis ute S's mis wise /aiminim: oie binig £6 ainls ele ais| om mma waiaie.eiellinie aieie aia kie ares 455. 00 ROCIO K estes wes be nap ooee tte od oth 1, 828. 82 25.00 | 45, 720. 50 | (PEPE) psa gst baile tee A a i AA Es ag Lops | eo 78. 00 Sree Bi ee eee cs Me Pat i Lied 1, 358. 00 90. 00 | 122, 220. 00 | HHAE 5 Saree ese ay oe oe an A eR ee Sees ed * 208. 00 2. Discharging platforms: | PROS ee ote ee eel ek a aiat oe |. walle nee epi Sanaa 165. 00 Digging out foundation............. 32. 00 2. 00 64. 00 BROH A CONES =< 40 ace clos esio nate =a mie 6. 40 11. 00 70. 40 |} | mie Dressed stone....--.--.---------+---- 6. 40 60. 00 384. 00 | Railway lines, doors, and fittings. Quantities.| per 100 Total. PRC OUDELO BS or celia niacisciein yess sistas sia 79. 40 25. 00 1, 985. 00 | kilograms. 3. Four chimneys: | - Digging out foundation............-- 94. 01 2. 00 188.00 | 19. Railway lines: Kilograms.| Francs. | Frances. Rough stones...-.----. -----++++-+--- 77. 10 11. 00 848.10 Rails. and chairs.< sce. san aes 50 MLV RE SOL DIO MU Ad yACOK Ole Aeris ccnais ledoe see eclsacesle << 49 PAV Ae ROL Isrts oO COKINO (COALS sa1.\-s's os cesses ccee ss shes 26 70 Analyses of coals not determinative as to coking properties. . 70 Analyses of coals of the United States .........-........-.-- 22 Analyses of cokes made from coals of the Cahaba field, Ala- PANU we cs ante nt ace acces be ckina = etiecce alt ue esos ae 47 Analyses of cokes made from coals of the Warrior field, Ala- DOM anee cee nt te ets da hie away ce cetlotac addwto ce se cesinstias AT Analyses of cokes of the United States................-.--.- 22 Analyses of Coketon, Pennsylvania, coal.........-....---..-- 30 Analyses of Coketon, Pennsylvania, coke.....-......--...-.- 30 ATL VSDS OT SOME COAIS6S Ui. ans ade onie’ sy Bee ase shee ewes = 22 Analyses of coking coais of the Cahaba field, Alabama ...... 47 ? Page Analyses of coking coals of the Warrior field, Alabama...... 47 AUeLy Ses Ol OLOTAAO COSI min gees ind fos Aceon c's dc ebdle ess 52 Analysesoc Colorado cokeuss. sae oa teeaaer sll tcioe skis ses 52 Analvecso, Colorado cokes)... staeecceec bees acs -- 5 ses 22 Analyses of Colorado coking coals ...........2....020--0--e- 22 analyses of Connellavillé coke ..25 ss. ceencteicst eee tes un cee 32 Analyses of Durham, England, coke ...............-....---- 56 Analyses of Durham, England, coking coals....-.......---.- 56 Analyses of European industrial cokes.............--...---- 72 Anglyses Of NewaluiviercOaldin cls oo. .c ete. Soe nee cee eens 40 Andlysesiof New River'cokes.2..2s22..). 22... se eee 41 Analysesef, Ohiorcokesseeasss cu «eek oe ans 2 eee 22 Analyses.ot- Ohio coking: G0dla:.3. 4.0202 Sacd-cecereescanuene 22 Analyses of Penrisyivania coals .2.560.0.0b 0 co ckck ocks bea we 20, 21 Analyses ‘of Pennsylvania cokesi. i322... 50..cleeksssec sees 22 Analyses of Pennsylvania coking coals................------ 22 Analy ses,Olal elmesseecCOKeES see ets cence ee eee eels seen 22 Analyses of Tennessee coking coals ...-.........---+.s<.e00- 22 Analyses of typical coals of the Allegheny Mountain region. 36 Analyses of West Virginia cokes... 02.52.25. 22..200.02 922.5 3 22 Analyses of West Virginia coking coals.............--..---- 22 Analysis of Beaver County, Pennsylvania, coal. ...-.....--.-. 39 Analysis of Beaver County, Pennsylvania, coke ......-...--. 39 Analysis of biou Muddy coal. oj2. 4. sane selee osee eee ceee eee 49 Analysia of Carbondale coke. .22-. .02 2 sees dleteweshaeuees 50 ATIOLVSIS Ola Oats is UIL COA]! acon sate anes oc eee tar sames sence tee 35 Analysis of coal from Sewanee coal seam .-..-......----.--- 44 Analysis of coal of bed ‘*B”, Miller seam <........-.....-5.- 35 Analysis of coal of Upper Freeport bed ---- 2.224. .--2---2.-2 36 Analysis of coal of Upper Freeport bed at Johnstown, Peun- BYLV ANIA S eee. cite ccels = woe oticae Eeimeeee Se se eras selose es 36 Analysis of coke from Columbiana (Ohio) coal. ..-.-...------ 42 Analysis of coke from Sewanee coal seam .......-..--------- 45 Analysis of coke from Upper Freeport coal ....-......------- 39 Analysis of coke from washed slack in the Irwin basin...-..- 35 Analysis of coke. of bed “SB”, Miller seam?:<. ..---..-..../---s 35 Analysis of coke of H. C. Frick Coke Sil at Edgar Thomson Steely WOrksemsece tee oe ot ooo occ eater creer ere 32 Analysis of Columbiana County coal (Ohio) Risse wencaede ema 42 ANALY SIS\O1, Connellsville COAlimt arth beceisaccea es ecw ever = 31 Analysis or. © onnellsvilloicoke men. cen. o-s -8 -c seen eee e = eee 98 Belgian ovens,y yield) in oieeac teats icin) \isinsa nn iatehneee eee erate ee 96 Belgian oven, use of, at Pittsburgh . .....- oe oie elsac aes noe ene 95 Cost,of coking in. Cop péepovenees ace se sia. sae cea nice s <-s'0 93 Cost of Connellsville coke at Steubenville, Ohio ..---......- 42 Cost of Coppée Oyen: sss cere Reese ancestries asses sitet oe 93 Cost/of crushing andi washings hres sck ee ber ores asccce if Costvof ‘Dulait/ovens. 2 ssa) fe aceee ero tere eee ese. coata 92 Cost of making coke in the Connellsville region ...-......-- 33, 34 Costof ovens on the Carves Systemiree- s-neemerss os = so 104, 105 Cost of repairs to Caves Ovent size se ace ene === ee oes ecUb Cost of Steubenvilles Olio, coke 5-2-1 ne see eae ses ee ee oe 42 Costof -washuip in Stutzewasheren cn. eee eee eee tae 73 Cost relation) of, 10 sellin) Pricey a.— eae eee ae 18 Counties iniorderiot prodinchion|.- -- s- oe eee eee 11 Coanties, relative productive: rank of. 22 oslo. seas eee = aces 10 ‘Crucible coke”, how. Geeta. aes faces oeecie emer oie seer 69 Crushing and washing Colorado coals .......-.++.---..--.- 52 Crushingvand washing, cost OL fee .o-- ae ee eeeeee ae este 7 Crushing and washing in Durham region, England.........- 57 Crushing strength of various: cokes: s2--tri tase ee seen 04 INDEX TO COKE. Page.. Cumberland district, England, coking in the........... ARE 59" D, Darby’s use of coke, difference of opinion as to date of....-. 22 Darby’s use. of coke in blast-furnace........2.-. 6-2-5. .tees 5 55 Date of Darby’s invention in doubt ...--..---. jt. Se 55 Debituminization of coal of the Appalachian field ......-... 20 Definition. of. coke eee waveeenceees cies Sb. ce eee 1, 69° Definition of establishment 222.5 Mccabe cou oe Sree 2 Definition of :gas'coke:. oc 2.5 cassettes oa coe te 1 Definition of ,oven coke... : «2e22- Ye sees en +s oe 1 Denmark, cokingyin: .3. .. ti snvaben aces cee s-ts eee 7 68° Dense and hard, as applied to coke, meaning of....-..--.--.-. 71 Deposits of coking coal in the United States............-..- 1 Deterioration’ of Durham coke /24-...0-5 Soseb eee ee 57 Development of the bee-hive oven from coking in piles...--- 86.. Development, of, the. Belgiam oven - 522) 3- 55. cesar eee 62 Development of the British iron trade due to coke-..-......-. 56 Development of the manufacture of coke in western Penn- BY WADLA g odiocepetee i paoicia) 5.21) Ric epee teal oe ee ee mae 29: Difference of coking qualities of coal in the Allegheny Moun- tain district of western Pennsylvania --......-:-...-..c55 35 Discharging the Coppée oven 2. <2... 5-26.02 --2es-2 eee eee : 93: Distillation, coking’a process of . 2.5... 220 st). 22 see 89" Drag) coke: ovens os. 6 siewe inns -)< Sts le sane ei 5 Drawing coke....... eodeb Socaes nb de celaee eee er 89: Dryness, of! Cog Sac 2 2 ese coo Sce cee ages eae eee a 20 Dudley, Dud, experiments of, in manufacture of coke...... A 54 Dulait ovens <..o)2t ct emtee Bane eas eon, oa ee aaa ee pao Durham district, England, description of......--...---..-.- 56 Durham (England) coal, best oven for coking....-...--..... és ays Durham, England, coal-fields, description of.......-...----- 56 Durham, England, coal-fields, extent of .....:...-.-.-.--5-- 56, Durham (England) coal, yield of, in coke.......-..-.---- Be. 56 Durham (England) coke, analyses of........---. ssse=.--2ce- 56 Durham (England) coke, capital invested in manufacture of- 57 Durham (England) coke, character of 2.5.22 - Scan eee 56, 57 Durham (England) coke, crushing strength of ..........-.-- 57. Durham (England) coke, deterioration of ..-.-.-.---.-----. 57, Durham (England) coke, method of manufacture of ......-.. 57 Durham (England) coke, oven used in the manufacture of -. 57 Durham (England) coke, statistics of. ........ ‘eek tateriaaa asi 57. Durham, England, coking coals, analyses of........---.---- 56. Durham, region, England,.coking in the ..2. 222 2. v-cemreere “BO. Durham region, England, crushing and washing in -...-- ais 57 Durham region, England, number of ovens in ...-..--....- 57 E. Earliest recorded use of bee-hive coke ovens...-.-....-------- 88 Barly form of .bee-hive oven... e-.- -- + --- ae see oe ee eee 86: Early form of coke oven used near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.... 87 Early use of coke in blast-furnaces..< 2.5 --2-----+ -'2seeee 2 Early use of coke in refining iron ..--. oe de ces ec cace eh ommeete 2 Earnings in coke manufacture, wages and.........-------.- 8 Ease of mining the Pittsburgh coal-bed in the Connellsville TOPO Ss saci ienaise san = eset Saree a teas etna ee toe 31 Economic results of Carvés system at Bességes .... -.------- 104. Economy of bee-hive and Belgian ovens, relative -..---..-.-. 99, 100 Economy of coking in. open Kilns 6.00 2s..2-6< - 525 sss nen sewn 86 - Economy of coking in piles or heaps <...---...-..-...-<.t-- 83 - ECononry Ob SOUbZ Washer sc seeps teen siiccs ass eurcicias eee 78° Edgar Thomson steel works, analysis of coke of H. C. Frick Coke: Compan yotite seca wicwdinwrisic cll == pices Cr ie ale eusier aeeaaes 32 | Effect of impurities on the calorific value of coke.-......---- 72. Efficiency of bee-hive and Belgian ovens, theoretical - ----- : 91 Efficiency of Dulait dvers Se. sees sees nnd oe eee 92. Employés,numberofiea-seen sacs se cise soc aoa ee ee ete : 8. England, history of coke Aa... 2.51. .s.00 cree sean anes 53-55 England, Mr. William Strickland sent to, to investigate pro- cess. OF COkING ss cces seeeish awitshowsareres sav sips mde pron ete 23 England, use of Belgian ovens iD... 2... as dence saemes nas 95, 98% England, use.of Carves Ovens in <.v. if. cncccneheaebesabann a Lute INDEX TO COKE. English drag oven, use of, in Ilinois..................------ 49 English iron workers, early emigration of, to the United PN fe ake Sin a Wal Oo eran as ya BE awe hisieu ween ane Kine co bees « 23 Establishment, definition of...-.. San eR ae Mee niclan ate ae aes < 2 Establishments at which coke was made, statistics of....... 3 Establishments, increase in number of............---------- 2 Europe, analyses of the coking coals of the continent of. ..-. 70 European industrial cokes, analyses of .........-..-----.-.. 72 Exhaustion of Allegheny Mountain coals................... 37 Exhaustion of Connellsville coal..........-.2-----c-0s-0- 37 PempStemtsi Ol SONSINT COKG 66555 caw deisca nese a ceens sseces 62 Exports of coke from Great Britain....................-.--- 61 EK. , Fairchance furnace, coke made at, by F. H. Oliphant, in 1836 24 Farrandsville, Pennsylvania, use of coke at ....-...--..-.-- 25 Fayette and Westmoreland counties, Pennsylvania, outside of tae Connellsville region, coke in --.-...5:.--..-.-2--.4.-2 34 Pinecoal, use of, in South Yorkshire ....2......----.--+. +--+ 59 Firmstone’s, Mr. William, successful manufacture of coke iron 24 MES COKe OVENS IM: UNC1AN ne xcs. + ce Salm ele ce esnaes- <> -'s 54 First mention of coke in the United States.................. 3 First use of coke in the-United States ...--......-..-...-..- 2 Fisher, Mr. Isaac, on early manufacture of coke in Pennsylvania 24 Pale eeconte anh | VSeSeOU (ccm oe sicie ct ciscn eee ~< ces aecee sce ee 40 wom cectoOn, COKE OVENS Of ©... 24. Mes neces cb oe ee oes 41 Flue oven, Peletan CDE Pena ee Nema e tise. othe creer west = 3's 91,95 France, character of coke made in Belpit OVONSHLI ene te crac 98 oS, GUL STOR | Aer adn are ee i ae ee a 64, 65 Rrance saescription of coal-fields Of 2.2... -2-2..5252-'oe'e-s se 64 irance, production of coke in..22.) ....2c<226 Jci soe Bie atest 65 ihrance, use of Beloian Ovens! ils /-- 2.22.5. s2. occ sees dane 64, 98 emu Gwe OLs@arv es OVENS. saeissc1 ls dc veccce mec cecincine 64 Franklin Institute, premium offered by the, for the manu- CESS CURIE Es Cove SCH) ECE Bey weg es Sie ta 24 BMeHGCHECOAlN VICI Ol, 11 COKGr.0ea8 scmcic ccs «2 eccecenendes 65 see we NsUTICG Olesen ee tr eet aia tl. \ocdcnc.ce 5 oooh = 65 Mrench importa and exports of coke ..-..3-2-.- sews, cs 5. ns saa oe eae eee 48-51 Iiinois.cokesvangl yaesOls'. oc sea a2 =n + Sein os Sree eee 22 ilnoisscokingicoals analyses 0t;.-.....-.. s2oe hese eee 22 Illinois, northern, attempts by Joliet Steel Company to coke COaILOLSS Bese Se ees ee aie eae sah ale tala ono ctu Lega thmeeneers 50 Illinois, northern, attempts to coke coal of.....-...--..-.---- 50 [ilinois, northern, sulphur in coals of -...-......-..-.------- 50 Illinois, northern, use of Belgian ovens in .-......-.-...---. 5 Illinois, use of English drag oven in -.......-. s20- 2-22 secees 49 Ellin ois; mseerhunneliovens nese. 2. c crt. oe = ee oe ee ote oe 50 Imports and exports of Belgian coke......-...-...-.--.------ 63 Importsand.exportsiof brenchicoke@e. .--- 2-242 - ae oer 65 Improvements im'coke manufacture. -2.2..2-2-.- 42. 2 ese0 te 55 Improvements in construction of coke ovens ......---. ---.- 89 Impurities, effect of, on the calorific value of coke......---- 7 Increase in number of establishments .......--....-..------ 2 Indiana, characterof, coking coals oOfs. 22 aces. ses scieal 48 Indiana charcoal ofsee- ecmesseere ees nats soe oe hee ere 48 Indiana coals, descriptiom Of ase stsaaeselaasalass sa eeee more ee 21 Indiana sesaeee oe ~ ose ests oe Marion county, Tennessee, manufacture of coke in...--.---- Marsaut on ‘coal-washinle)S2Sas4-) erste ee eens oe. Maryland, early manufacture of coke in..............-...-- Maryland, history of useOf coke in! 322 seers 2 se eal = fate Material other than coal, value of, to a ton of coke......---- Materials used in the manufacture of coke, value of......... Material to a ton of coke, average cost of labor and.-..-...- Meir’ ovens))-o-20 422 fe see ie See epee meee eee, eer eraee Method of burning coke in Tennessee-...-.. ..---. ---- woo oee Methogsof coking in open kilng) 222. ears eee eee eee ee Method of manufacture of coke in South Wales....-..-.--.- Method of manufacture of Durham coke ...............-..- Method of manufacture, value of coke partly determined by- Method of operating Appolt oven .-.-.5...-22teeees see eee Methodior operating Coppéejovener=--e te osee c= eee Method of operating Dulaitovyen- 2. sesee-sse seer oe seis Method of operating Simon-Carveés oven .......----.-.-.---- Methodsof selling ‘cokes... neeieeroe ek ose teasese cee eee Methods\ofcoal-washing.22 225 eeseete ae eee rence arene see Methods of payment=222 35 sae oe seek oe ce lon emetic eee Michigan: basin, coals of a .saodis) 5.0 ence eeee et een eens Miles of railroad track used at coke works...-....-.-.------ Mining. coal in the Connellsville region -....-..-....---..-..- Missouri basin; character of €0al Of2 -oanees esse seer oe Morewood coke ovens, Connellsville region, description of.-. - Mounds, pits Ors2-0)-2 2 tease eae oe me eee ce eee rer Mount Savage furnace, Maryland, use of coke at...>.-...-.. N, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, early form of coke oven used near.... New ‘Mexico, coke industrydni..../o.2---+ eee ee eeen een ee New River coal, analyses of... ess<.ccereteteeone Jd8Q cadced New River: coal-field 2c 2e2 eee See ae see eee eee eee New River coke a | New River coke, consumption of, in blast-furnaces .......-.- New River cokes, analyses of. .5050/ 2552 tice vn cieh eee ee aes New River cokes, aah im sos siueceaueees teen ee BSan Sooner New River coke, use of, in blast-furnaces......... wsapeacesee INDEX TO COKE. Page. Norway, coking in. .... 2222-200 cece cece eee cere cece ene e ones 68 Number of Belgian ovens -...----------.--- Seisiaele eines eee 5 Number of coke ovens..--- nie tie odo, 0 0 4 0 Sie ye mel ousiare mice as eee ee 4 Number of coke ovens in western Pennsylvania in 1870 -...- 5 Number of coke works ~.. 2-2 sm secs -= = <9 ee a= sieeeee 2 Number of Coppée ovens in US ...--. .----. -2-- eee eee ee eee 93 Number of Dulait ovens. -.-.-...-.-...- wet en cece ecw ens toes 92 Number of employés =. - sac ciniplse 2) eisl® ole venir aol me cleat 8 oO. Oak Hill, Tennessee, coke, analysis of. ........ ..--++ seeasees 45 Ohio, coke industry in 0. 2. ccmc nee sinines pebie|- >= = 9 o's eee 41-44 Ohio cokes, analyses Of. ...,cccees-p ete acs sae besarte see ; pepe Ohio coking Coals. clos sere eer eee eee tee ate ote 19 Ohio coking coals, analyses.Gf 0.5 ..c0 sts sebe ess ese anes = 22 Ohio coking coals, character Of. 2... 7. > ss. senses naeee nae 42 Ohio, description of Columbiana County coal of .....- Reniens A2 Ohio, history of the manufacture of coke in ....-.........-- 26 Ohio, localities of coke manufacturein ......----..........- 42 Ohio, prodaction of -coke Inve. oe ease scale sleee se eee 41 “Old Welsh” oven, description’ 0f--.. 2-2-----+---.5 eee eee 89, 90 Oliphant, F. H., coke made at Fairchance furnace by, in 1836- 24 Osterspey jig, description Of. 5322... 0) fo sce: wc clone ste ae ee Oven, adaptation of éach form Of: 222... o essen esas eee 95-100 Oven, bee-hive ~ 222) cetera teeatassc on vee ae ele ate 86-91 Oven, Belgian or flue «£22: case sane enussere cso cscs Soe a nea Oven, best for coking Connellsville coal ......-..-.--.---..- 97 Oven, best for coking Durham coall-2- 222252 2-. 2-3-5 5 seeeeee 97 Oven coke, definition 0f-- 22: oe esc eeeee eee ee eee 1 “Oven coke”, word, how Used s2----eseesicess cee ctnee een 69 Oven, description of Appolt -2 2: 202. soe ce-- - eae e ee 93 Oven, description of Simon-Carvés.--..-.....-..-...--.-101, 102, 103 Oven, development of the Belgian.......--. Soee ass eee 4 62 Oven, early form of, used near Newcastle-upon-Tyne-....... 87 Ovens, Bennington, Pennsylvania ----2-.---- + on«< == Seen eeee 88 Ovens, Browney (English), description of....-...-----...-.. 90 Ovens building im Virginia, Coppées.-=---- 2. se seen 41 Ovens, coke, at Steubenville, description of.............---- 43 Ovens, coke, description of, in Tennessee ..---....--<. -2--.- 45 Ovens, coke; in Belsiumsin 168i te. cee. cease oe eee 62 Ovens, description of Coppée... - ou 2-- eee eeee se eee 92 Ovens, description or Dulaitis.----=-+----e = ae ree Sees " 92 Ovens, description of old Welsh 2-2-2: 2-220. - 5. .--=-s eee 89, 90 Ovens, drag: coke =e-2- 22 8en. o-oo csce sites eects 20. eae 5 Ovens, early use of, in Hnpland -- 22-20-22 -5. snes eee eee 54 Ovens, general description of Belgian ---....-...-2-22..c-se 92 Ovens in the Connellsville coke region ..-.-.-5 ..-<2- sacs cea 30-32 Ovens in the Connellsville region, charge of ...-..-.....-e- 32 Ovens, kind. of. cok@ educa ccrcsi cn eee eee eee eee 4 Ovens, Meir... ccs se. veccccecscas Renee ee ee ore ee ee 50 Ovens, number of Belgian2. 22.2 see es ease eee ee eee 5 Ovens, number of coke... 527) sean eese a hee eee eee eee 3 Ovens, number of, in Durham region, England ............- 57 Ovens of Flat Top region : J.J 2.s Seen eee beeen be eee eee 41 Ovens, tunnel: coke .... 21:0. tees mee eean ee, Sete eee eee 5 Ovens, use of Belgian, in Alabama £i:2..2.45.6-5 -22t sanemee 47 Ovens; use.of Belgian, in Prane@ees.2-cee ss] ees -- =e ee 64,98 Ovens, yield of coal invdifterent/=-se.. see eee oe eee eee 71 Oven used in) South Wales s2eeaseeeecee cess eats oe emer n oes 58 Oven, use of Belgian, with inferior coals -....-.. 2.22..2--es 97 Oven, use of English drap, in Wilinois vee. ----) ce oe eee 49 Oxyeen-incoke.-: ....eccce la seoe eee Sete e ee ae ee eee 7 P. Patents for making coke granted in England ............--- 53 Payment intervals ofso.5-% 52 Woes ete olsosn nese a eee 9 Payruient, methods Of 5 si... scavintaclenececa cep esenee it Blaise 10 Payment, periods of... .. 12... sedate wa s'se Wewe Dour eee Cents 9 Payments, truck........- Sees ace wsench ose ge tande saan eee 10 Pennsylvania coals, analyses of .......--2. 22-2 scce---scesens 20 Pennsylvania cokes, analyses Of...... .ececse seseeesecees acess 22 INDEX TO COKE. Page Pennsylvania coking coals, analyses of -....----..--.------- 22 Pennsylvania, coking in, in 1834 .22. 2.2. ses eens seee ce ecee 24 Pennsylvania, Mr. Isaac Fisher on the early manufacture of WOK OHI ae cise sane estes mane Aalelnte Scien sirinie's oAaieemso == 24 Pennsylvania, production of, 1850 to 1880........--....---.-- 11 Pennsylvania, statistics of the production of coke in ...-.-.-.- 29 Pennsylvania, the coke industry of...........---.--.----.--- 29-39 Pennsylvania, western, number of coke ovens in, in 1870-. -- 5 Percentage of total production of bituminous coal used at CD RoEWOLCNGese se Sclccd ante ences ecceesiecs sec encccrisun ass 5 MOlOy PU ONO DNOLU OVCW oo. sc on a2 ceccwees on ecee = 95 EGE WF {ORS ALT paypal, Ss apenas eS ee rn Are ae 9 Piemmanroper cies OF COKG. 2 ue 2... cece n Semenn ve ceedsees 71 Pig-iron, amount of coke used in the manufacture of ....--.. 80 eeeaexcripiion Of COKING iN: .— 5... accce -sa caneee scenic s 82 Piles, description of coking in large circular .-.. -.-- Bees oese 84 Piles, development of bee-hive oven from coking in -..-..-.-. 86 PAG REOIEMIOUNOS oe ccisicns sc a.se snes seecloaeee pe casclcccis lees © 5 Pittsburgh coal-bed in the Connellsville region, description of 31 Pittsburgh coal-bed in the Connellsville region, easeof mining 31 RR TU EC ORISOAIM ecm aa eakinchaus's cons <'seacwcaved = so08 29, 30 Pittsburgh, coke ovens at, in 1855 and 1870. ........--..-... 5 NRE REINS WG sees c 228 oSere cote oceincs sans anueesns = 38 Prmevoceh, production Of COKC af .-.- 2. 22.2 ose yeaa ces ates 38 Pittsburgh’s sources of supply of coke iron in 1857 ........-. 3 Pittsburgh, statistics of manufacture of coke at ........-... 38 Pittsburgh, use of Belgian ovens at ........-......--------- 97 Pittsburgh, use of slack for coking at ...--.-.-.-..----.--.- 38 Plant in Connellsville region, cost of coking....-...---..... 33, 34 Plumsock, Pennsylvania, use of coke at, in 1817...-.....--.. 23 PLEA MCOMBULNDULOU bees oe mes ccnlece = lc oineiniab ccs ecacasecns 2 Pratt seam, Alabama, description of coke made from...--.--. 46 Pre-eminence of Great Britain in the manufacture of iron, due li (IRC: bee eed BoSe ESSE el carton gs ASS RoG ee ere ears 56 Premium offered by the Franklin Institute for the manufac- 24 PP PMMERP ITO tee hen cus andi eaesien pecs cae sstesigcene nse 24 Re CORAM FSU OT ole oa dae oe ae che dinpaeecic gee eens 5s 48 Preston County, West Virginia, coals, description of-....--... 41 Preston County, West Virginia, coke, analysis of..-...-.--.- Al LPI EUE ANP OLE iia Be Siena Nee filer pe Ce speek ee ee Pe 2 PGeOMCOKE, AVeLAGO SOLUNG (fic pcengocce .< -.s--<+ ce scos pacessioees 60, 100-106 Utilization of waste products in France................- caine 64 Vv. Value of coke partly determined by method of manufacture. 71 Vali, Of COAL BBS LOM OF GORG ibe Wages paid per ton of coke.........-.- Min\o ee on se 18: Warrior field, Alabama, analyses of cokes made from coals of EHO, -...5s 9c o Say wce se eesiae pian wa sate ee eve nie eee 47 Warrior field, Alabama, analysis of coking coals of..---..... 47 Washed slack, coking with, at Carnegie Bros. & Co.’s works. 34 Washed slack in the Irwin basin, analysis of .........----.- 35 ‘Washer, description of Siutti.. 7. .-s4-hice aaen oes cee 76, 77,78 Washer, description, of trough... 5... ...c04. se beoeeee 74 Washing Colorado coals, crushing and.......--...--.--.---- 52 Washing, cost of crushing and ......—~26.ss6ie eee eee if Washing in Durham region, England, crushing and..-.....- 57 Washington county, Pennsylvania, coking in -.........-.... 39: Waste of ammonia in coking in the United Kingdom....-.... 100 Waste products), utilization of........-- e.s-sesee ee eee ----60, 100-106. Waste products, utilization of, in France ......---.-.----.-- 64 Water in cokes. oie te ease wco ci «oun scene © ops wll een 72 Weight of bushel in different states ....-. 0.222. -.-ce+ veces 8 Welsh coke, character Of %. 1... soisec-0cs/cane Snes sane 58: Welsh coking coals, analysis of ........-+ i-.« «:asseeee eee 58 Welsh coking coals, character of ........ ..-+ -«-4-sene eee 57 Western Pennsylvania, description of Allegheny Mountain coking district Of 2.2.25, oa2oeeue celssiele noes eee 3D Western Pennsylvania, description of bituminous coal re- GiONS Of owe since ews wee ccee en dee ee Cee 29 Western Pennsylvania, description of coke basins of.-....-. 29 Western Pennsylvania, development of the manufacture of COKG IN oo oc sds nese cece wieieeltaee «alse teeta 29 Western Pennsylvania, number of coke ovens in, in 1870 ..- 5 Westmoreland and Fayette counties, Pennsylvania, outside of the Connellsville region, coke im...........0--0ses- += 34 Westphalia, use of Belgian ovens in ........-...----....--- 98: West Virginia, analysis of Preston County coke .--.--..-.--- 41 West Virginia coal, yield of, im coke) -2)o s-cee ous eee 40: West Virginia coals, Preston county......-..-..-.-----.---- 41 West Virginia coking coals ...-.. ane co sesisn ed nisin eee 19 West Virginia coking coals, analyses of...--- cok he cena 22 West Virginia, history of coking in--. 2... 5-2 .2s.-eeeeees 28 West Virginia, the coke industry in ---.-- ...- <2. eeenemees 39, 40 Wilmot sub-basin, coal of) [2.2.2 -a)cecncincge seo cec ete 36 y. Yield’ in Appolt oven .5.032 sacs Jhc5 fos aceees ecm cae ae 94, 95 Yield in Belgian ovens-. 5525022 s.cnoccle cele eee eee eee 96 Yield in Copp6e 0VONS...<..+s0 es secehsee ene cee eee 93 Yield of coal in'coke in Belgium. .--22.222-.) 0s. 6- ose eee 63 Yield of coal in different.ovens:.272sc-+.++-2--2- 2 see ems 71 Yield of Columbiana County coal in coke....-........-.--.. 42 Yield of Durham/coalin coke). 5-25- { vee socin'n selec = shee eee 56 Yield of French coaliin coke. 22-2 sce tecececaees nets eres 65 Yield of’ Tennessee coaluinicoke.-coc2 aii 22 s.r 45 Hee OC Eeale ON tia BULLE DING STONES OF THE Won Ee Das PACT AS: STATISTICS OF THE QUARRY INDUSTRY SEMDASY ARStS(OE ror \ 1a TABLE OF CONTENTS. — Page. Be Ob TRANSMITTAL «0.0.5. .0ccce~ ass iret rate Sal etepe i Metnom os eretee eis. aie iia lalsialsie einen ace ser a mae byaNin wa.cid dwn eigccceremeces xi-xili Den ees UN LT OO UC LION te tees ce mimee tee seine ee sara Sate ate ie salves oe ere aeblae cel nett ct tiaelcaeSceinsisnlwace sacs veveveceraee 1-14 Biles ees a TE CLONE ee Beaches rere ictal saree tented nic aetc sea ate siete bin oe cleo stan aun tice ss coins Ueleiametent ac Seis eSelcicc catens Seeder aecere 1-4 PeeMUN HEATON BULLOLIN Gus T ONE Sie aette aero elena te ace cela oo ciselsaa at ncemlc ce cits lee etreeiad clsaclecsiuswciiend‘osas counesicoee 4,5 POETACH) SiO HSC UL) \ eee ened eee eee tee ein eet iae ee etree soe tuse sins sfmastere ct ios odie wana cele hick et aumiticms snes sulsis.c Sins cneece 5-12 MEAL EEOA LIC Ngee tea ee eet ete tee aes Noa sie ce nisia ides ae se Sees saad asec ten cee ehers cat cate tins sates nlcvcecs/eseecva.e 12,13 PGA Es LONE ORR LOM LN sae emen ites ice sts aac tate is on heee oe woe 107-279 GENERAL REPORT ON THE BUILDING STONES OF RHODE ISLAND, MASSACHUSETTS, AND MAINE.... ---- Upiar Sober 107-115 GENERAL CONDLEIONS Ob) TH BULLDING STONES OFENEWOEINGLAND sone ctoneeescotscs cote ewes ace ce nace ettasulc comsecisiccece 107 LAIN GS LON Comme Tae tee ee Ma sete he MEI. CALE re Ben dace yr SN Uberti eg Ee a ate Ree hintaan ff eee aS 107 WViDT GORI ser Domes om aye seme eer ae et ae ane ears Nee RR Fe NST oo ee seat dae anos onldewin eile cowere wna 107 RBGMMaLUM cor siocck ss scate, shedis goo. 2 ts Ate baat ee hee hie ae eee Oo ROE oer EE EE ee 107 BCID aT OMe enna nes See ee en eeN Ee ae Teme poms NE SENO. UMS RNS. Be eee Dah eae ee cae teen soc sa es 107 AM RION OR CINE LT EP ALOR Sit ne Oe ohne tea na ees Ooe aa hoe cd hee aas dace or vaesh GC segs Mab re Nees ss’ duu leece cosas 108 ner Ano Todas tall ds DTOW 1 SAN OS CON esas sere cates sco eas cn vee = na cen aieciin ses ees Seamless veces cone 108 Conglomerates and coarse grits.......--- Peete So AE pe case ricess heed tasiveet bh avons sLenpyudadacdeacs«cse 108 iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. : Page. Cuaprer VI.—DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS—Continued. Bot GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE BUILDING STONES OF NEW ENGLAND—Continued. Slates and clay=stones js). 0 einadate ss seas Se eee ete aim lela e)aie clejo/a eis eialasCnie eh = ai cietwio s'ale%e w.siain 6's dine aisin'e/e sins aati eee eiete een 108 Clay-slates ccron- sos sects nictenents seeiee tect esta d <2 secant nics Sclstag s.aeis on\5 0's ee wiele pales emietere ieee oleae et eae ae 108 Clay-stoneslorrargillites sccm ees eect on socio e ce se eek mae e coe el fel a Seiwa pieniesis aiel altos ahaaelea See 108 Highly metamorphosed TOCKs saves stains eee ae mae cee s «cece eaeice ale ms cie, osieie sce s(eelse sae wetaiacgainlelom diet ciate = ote at ae 108, 109 Granibic TOCKS haces seca atm eee einee eee nals lowe nae alciem vin is:n/a/a, oie'afale o nta hermiale ares We oats folie eae ane Peete etal ete ete ee 108 Schistose rocks (gneiss and mica-schist) ....-.. 1-2. ---- . 2220+ cee - 2 en eee cee eee wen wee 7 newe oes ee 108 TTAPPOaN LOCKS. 25 eames te ely are Me eke olen cctnw Sneha cache mae wa 6io ee ote nee RM ee Meas area a rol etn oe ee 109 Serpentines and steatites (verd-antiques and soapstones)....-...---------- secces 225, o-oo = cece e eo eee awe 109 A GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUARRY INDUSTRIES IN RHODE ISLAND, MASSACHUSETTS, AND MAINE.. 109-115 Rhode dsland esas sean ceepen aa ne eee ema ce see ses ce agit ee = ce ineinel= © ereiie see oor nis erie = nie) aie) atime a) os oye 110 Maseacnusetta ye ore ee te be cee ates cin. cn gia odin c clelcin as 2 clebwd wb eciew sien oa feats te ae ee ea ata an 110-113. MAING Pi a eek ee Lose Sace meee sees SSE re ct lee ct eds cece tbicee s bass b0jed eee e emit celeste eners eae ete ae 113-115 GENERAL RELATIONS OF NEW ENGLAND BUILDING STONES TO THE MARKETS OF THE UNITED STATES ....-....-..-----.---- 115 DETAILS REGARDING QUARRIES 62-222). -cnce cheese elec sacnccuecccee cocece cleus acleltsew! capmicee sees eee ieee eatin 116-279 MGUNG eae ecard cee ett eine Cac Dee ee els cle core cae Stier's ainle ieee © + ae om cit eieie tae ole a el hee eet oe eet ae 116-123 New Hampshire jac oh ac eoGine Sots cetels bag Lew oesce acca tee cee oe ten cece soe aysin teimees ice asa 124-126. Granites). 4.2. Secwcai- Sus cic wap cong escc cece ne cceg swicowee kelvin se Nis Sinlaise ccip asta s 5) alaieete/ see 2 ae eee 124-126 VErMont =) piemee ae « anise nie siowci= eiualetw-ori ss cin c\caeees car cc e/rina cla ais s\cicns cinm\n ieee ven lale (sce eit em sere eee et 126 Marbles and limestones ............... p pawe soweiss Sema woo maw a1ee a Se clei e ele Oth eee eae eee 126. Granites). 2 asens reece mciens cic ols «0in(c caine s elclee\niccimeiel=leina asp tiny~i= ein) amie ule wletet~ eater a elma = ete a ae e tet 126 Slates 22 oe oo cock v tarciee cidlside ccs ace cclwcwbuitelewccte eee anes pews de se t.e Bins eee eRe oe Ste ee ae 126 Connecticut 25 dete ae cleerne dante apo wise cocin de nec see ses secine osc cme now aee mmleeisised stm atte cea ee eee ae ee eee eae 126-129 Brown and red Sandstone, ‘Triassic formation --.-- 5.2202. .-00-. soccee snenetime sem cee sae pone eee 126, 127 Granite and syenite 2... 2.2. 200. ee eee eens cae eens cege cnns tenes caners seeueh se ernn env sera ens see een ae 127-129 Serpentine and verd-antique marble... 02.020 cone sacces cowees sone snowcessened scan dus nae asa asle seen 129 New. York oot oon oe Peer Sie oe ab ideo Side Slo date wkin bis Sbiw so nlc oeisie 51s yc wince tctere re tie re eee a re ee 129-139 Granite soe ac oe tesa cin co oon nd dU eaalnc es ae asa 0m ace nlc ve'ssesi sien ie iele lam oa a silaimial ata) atele telalee eet 129, 130 SANAStONE! sce acic mee nee cow once mim wewelenen ema ome cine winincae aielein) olin miele mimi ela) aie ere ae el als tee 130 51 TO-BEONOMISULOURee eres steels se ea scale aca wate cael E emtaeele ieee Incas cies clcesivie cee oles mieem eile he ieee 130-135 Marbleecs 2 Sse cod cew tn cone ceee ccinccciscnce® apcelee, om mies a'eleicleps Wels ieie's okie alee it alee sire te te cet ena 135-139: NOW Sergey vores sancce cowwas on cans co cces ce cces see cne son ces cccnes monn Saves snaseetere sas ens eeu cns eh - = Ee eee 139-146 Archean granite, gneiss, and marble ... 2... 052i. Joc e sc pa cicee wemeise sm = slein ealssielsis ste see le sete tee 139 Localities: where granite quarries-have been opened ....5. 6 22 Scien eee we = oe wales le isis seein ee 139: ME RHO Saati Sod.o U6. 5.0580 CUS SC TEE aE ee one Pao naccn case. cane eaceis sence celbilcaaa es nals os\s see = sae ne = 339 Potsdam sandstone and Green Pond Mountain conglomerate. .-.-...--- ---- 22-22 cen een enn een ee emeees 140 Magnesian Limestone 42 soos <- cle cece ee ce cee cecicns nocees abe bainas 2 <0 atrloly ames Gale elses ee alee oateee 140 Hudson River slatec once. se o/s sijelo es eee ce ces eee ce ates emianit esis ale a/a kote Beaters este etet eee eer 140 Oneida’conglomerate and Medina sandstone... ... .- 2. ss2. ace ce newer «cae dee set eee eee ace eee 140 Lower EelderperemiIMestOne GTOUP a2... 22 mele «siete nt ee lee ere a eee ee ia Sie diate aan wim ee ele ee eee 140 Upper Helderberg group—Onondaga and corniferous limestones -......-2.. 2.2. 2225 eee eee wens wen cone wee wane 140, 141 Triassic age—sandstone, freestone, and brownstone ............-.---..--.------ seoatatiscn senses te ane ae 141-144 Blapoing-stoneenecme cs ech raises eins /= 2-H .c0e ae sels os oe wee meee aes ae eae eee any ee cea ete ot 144 FEN OD-TOCKS me emet ee ina cee slew sles a1 nam ce vio deka ah eienniden cae ware melee mnielesialeta el elet Meats cece ne ee er 145, 146 Later formations—brown sandstone and conglomerate .... 1... 22-22 oe ene eee cone cnc nn ene cone ween cecees 146 Pennsylvant a occa ieecacisteyse ns yew pn awie cad pa a!s ss) nw onie nieiw ais'e'e a’ sme witin'te e.cie'e blue wie mista ae ele ie ase teh ae 146-174 Building - stone resources wesc afenas e's celine s wlea owe meee bec coeleememainicinie DE Desc mie ot cis misie ose ene eet ee 146, 147 Archwam TOCKS Ge sae sina ta see da edible ws acin ooh atin e ve lecte alee Dak ste Ona ates cet fare mee ce ae ee ee ee 147, 148 Serpentine and SOAPsbhONG (62 fo-2 2 s5 eH el Os eke st lane bel hes suis cesgowic see ema cereene ke Sele a aon ee 148, 149 Limestone os Actress = entee pec eee n Bae cb cain wis wi ois baie ofc ona min boinia Dimictelm cree aid Se eee ae eee 149-156 Lower Silurian’ 2-0 weecuewens so foe hinne mw peels wo eeiwy a sn cela Cin nae fe meee ne ee a ee 149 Montgomery County marblés.. 2.) os. a. cece cone Se an wend ons oc hn 6s sce cune pm clean hice atm etl ae tie Devonian eecte scorn Ge cee rece sates BOE Re OES A AGRT IE Goma moter Srardunoroncine since hat sos 164065: Sub-Carboniterous::-o-p rpm cee tenets ce lec eticr ce cece ss ance mace e dice cece tem anne eit ees = ee 155 Carboniferous (ct o> becjonoan he mnld wiaiecie te minin cae awcloc's ac clcitias vice Dre ee ene eet ener eects oa er 156 DPIASS10 Ps. aces pe eee tenn tease scala es cisete see Eaeces sin a slacwiow sana cediseecs me sas siaae cs cece eee 156 Bandstones si... nc ct eye eae tatiana wane seu cing sins clin unie nebe as’ awnk Sa mee ele Samir ae rate oe cies 156-162 VIQSSIG ae Sse teee [wens futcis ola vie oe nlela eiein ahevele e hapa aie = [are vimi=i vinias nial’ = clovaie mete eisai aera to] etc ate =e ct 156, 157 Lower Silurian ese ate eeee ep wagricneepusncewimednnn casas wawaep sowalees pretlan cunts otdenh 12a 158 Upper Silarian ioc 2 pectin essa aewescosema nce seicee Seto Aiea’ a elela'e ant siniae) .c\0,clein's 2) 04) ai= oleh at ee ee 158 DéVONIAN {2 Sacianed pene geenmtionsns aide Geue EM Ses COCR Ee” sn Ak ap is ape ss «o's cis ss oo 0s win cla sin aw WERE Meme mel sid:épbe' Scns es sea sens 185, 186 SUUTRCUI COR ee pe alse ay BR a SE Ae cane eared ei ty ti Ni 186 J REO DR oP, Ge DAS He FERRIS Cie BOSE SSE CONS OS BSS od Bae See oe EE EAPO cSSe) oee ona ha ae 186, 187 DLE OTRO es eS E Si) THO DS 305 BAO SO SAREE EAS 686 AGO ESE aU SIO OS ONSEN ON 8 50a &t Se CCR RO aE ee 187,188 MORO wes ae sete reese eee eles MB GSSHA 6 Bso0.qaCee 44A6 TEAR OE eee ar ere so a Sete Re ee 188-215 Sandstone ......... (Smog QUE SOOO EECA DAS OSE SHEE SIS SS Sa eae ee elles ct Sn As 0 ee are es 188-200 Sub-Carboniferous ..-....... Reese eras 2 2 ole as cian acl miktc one ete en ene oe ene Stare ewe os Sais cme 188-198 Cat DONILOLO (a ween ete Meee areas ates octet bis el oe siete cio oo oia: sin dic oiciainia crsinicie) <= SNe ein ee ae am e'aciele 198-200 TARY IYH OS oo es S856 HAR SE GRE 6 OSS ROS5 COR ESL CIS CES UOBCEG BES EICn eA an Sree E Ems ons S54 As ae 2a eee 201-215 CAO IT BmO LOUD Demet = teers aates ete n olaain ns Pin selaie wiwis's yw Sw vicielsie ma wae hale oe scien mine Seas Sates ee'e 201, 202 IN RVOR RTS PAO Cheng Sc GE CASES Sa SOS Aa Oe Ce eae ie SES ies dea eer id tater 202-206 ie der berger cae maise eee ote acs henreaecs BP ete ene asic, sinicin) oiclais aerelegasteet oe eke ane ee eae ee tee ees 207-210 (CLOT RT TEs ose on AoRitidte BASSE LCE Sed Ore Sac CARO te CoS OSE eee Ee Siena on hey) ae SS aye 3 210-213 SEC NON LOLOU Saree eer eteen AT tar, Meme este cite Ree Celie cte da. ure ain Sietainie Pee aces ota ae aiava aeepe NN ae oe 214 Cat HONILORO Smee eee ete etn ener te tees sR U aoe ar le COR Lata Ge acin ak Chats «cin n oi me ceternes oe eis eee eee 214, 215 TET 0s. re ceomdidabtaclinticg IGE ae aie 5 He i ERS peFae Ente hon se ee Ea AR eS eB 215-219 LTRS ICING oy enon Ode DOE SUS SAE OOS SIS SRE CC Io Oe a a a Pe 216-219 KTS DDS, sotto gat Se eeei Adler HE SOICEO GSES GEER EIB UD HS OR Se SC SEB Be OEE SEE SEE EN eae Bnet oe SA ae eee es aes 219-226 SAIN LL eee eee ets oe ase alas eis eee oe wemietem mm etarerele tele ee etete im eee T= late ti eee 259 Sant WOUISE PERE Rene ene cece ce lebe coe lem rie Sine c ainieb «nine os feel tae te erate eters Js ca 6~0c «See ee 259, 260: Keokukcceesteo*. ce teetee ree eiuacwexcts hakew succeed cosack oboe chabueWeeteetapnns saucse fe ain 260 Burlington -2.- 220.2. 5d cee ne cece ge cnc ce ccc e cones coc cee cose ee cecnns enemas teceee cone ones ennewe sess 260, 261 Kinderhookseceme cnc cece otc cc lcc wince -bck cc cepe boccie bes cle leemm cole memo eet ieci ts inlet caesar 261 Devonian period 2.05 oc ccos nctees cocccc cscs cocenc scenes woes necaes cceess depsenm omeabs saeess epee es === eam 261-263 Hamilton 2.25. eon cccccon os tees cs ccesvcccccccces sowecslbeccen Beals tae ad mbes isle atm pales [e oe ae 261-263. Upper Silurian period .... 1.2.2.2 22- -e eens cen ce cece cence ence nec ces cane secmes nore cnn aen cons senese cons seseee 263 Niagara ...... vou cave moss wet seme socced ncn saccet ecb scum suseee epgh siamese a/seies lane sm mens Seem ee 263: Lower Silurian period... 22... 2.2. ccc cee cence es cence ccc ens cane cease cncnee cane cess pecews sess eassasseue seu saeae 263-265 Maquoketa ..---. 2-2 <2. 22+. nccee coe cece ae mons cen ces ceeees cceses sovees ccs c=s oan ble nlsirin oils essen 263, 264 Galena tries oso bite ce cccclcc cobs sdeues socece snccse mee see me sie ete lelste fete alate etal etal tet tte tetas teeta a 264 Trenton ...--. -.2- ese ee eee nee eee ee eee cece teen cen teen ee cee e ee cme ns none eens cee ne ce wene 264 Saint Peters soekcs voces win cece acoce's anc cis sie 's ices 0 nicele win eer nore aia lEe eet sietete tele see ete eet 264, Lower magnesial ...... 20. 2 - eee cnn e eee ce eee nee eee cen e cece cee n tem w en eens eee cee wns ene seenas 264 {MOUSE RMAs 554 4H SAS See Soe cabs cosseetene ececic's swe ean s selene ek see lebis eas =a leh ee 265 SIOUX: socecacekae occ Scmcccaelsne cen ciec cee sec ee staan wants l=elate lemme eteiele ele le tela elaetete ae ate ee 265. Missouri. coe ate enc sw ee Se Sa ba sas nolo; en ole eeiene oe o.cls ena oe slcicis ole Stelobiseys Blea telaie = Sievers ate ee oe etate tatateae 1a 265-274 General geological section..-..........-- Lecteces constune once seceee smeabe ce ecma eeeeiae ome ee ce 265. ATCNBAN soit ce ccce ets otc cs nn ccce cb owst ween bccs sees ams eniceechela e/mminie nie che eee e re fete elem eee ata 266, 267 Sedimentary rocks. .-.--- 22. eee ce cece ee ena ce pe nasesd ccpdae ce anus adlnn pale giale Bie a= ite ates mis te aie Sub-Varboniferous «a... cece cece cece ce wane ceice se alse ce cece eslee fs eatou/ae tee aisle ee mene alee ee ee Saint Louis quarries... :..... -.-- 22 ose. ened cos ac ce peca ts celan nn selecies «saa eeimele = sien = Ce ee 270: Jefferson City quarry -..---.. 2.200. cece ee ct en ence coms eeee ds one aane oe ano epe Eee eee ee Boonville Quarry . (22.55. -- oo done cc ce an nwles ceo a sn aiee sate ene Siete le ote ete alee ates ee eee 271 Sedalia Quarry... 2. wc 2c cece s cow ene cose ce cccle conan e vobuwie dees Veen mir etels nialel ests feta eesti 277 CMbON Quarry o.oo - 2 Seok ees s ene cee sue ce cwee mentale as mins cig) alam \siniets ete cere le ete petal e tet eee etter eta ieee! Kansas City Quarries 3... 22 2.225 22s 0 seen conn oie beim miafem a elaine Beles motte a ati ee 271-27. Quarriés.Of Sandstone «2122-022 % sinicin Scene ole bee we aiwiss eee cee ones plate alete vel cite stele ei ete eat 273, 274 KGNSGR 2h 2 2 othlole minnie ae cuisem och as aca eles ce mews once canis os cie, ope cik ome moet cles oles ee mete ete tere eee a ea 274-277 Geological section .2.2 03.0. 2-2. co se enc oo oe nae wa wie wm taielne ele ieieeeiala ttn alae erate tetas eee pene lee 274 General idescription ees s2<225--05..scsse cess oe cinicew ee Jain ese case code neces sfens skesine ssc ecee Cana ae ee 275-277 Sub-Carboniferous -..-.... 2.222202 S22 os wo os cde ete sonic eels ceimc Bale ola etree etne tee Sete ee 275 Carboniferous <2 ---- 2. -- 22.6 lke c ee noc bc does peeede welemee cattis am leaiee te eaten sete ae eee nr 275 Cretaceous = ow ek ane ose cleee ones Soc Se cele Be Poke m ere miele eee ae ote ate ae ee ae 275 QUATTICS oo oon oc on oti nee ejee ce oe ee ee ceide ob dopsbiadbe obi sle Sale claisia s/cis alee = erate cin ieeteeeee et ate = a eet Colorado, California, Montana, Utah, etc ...-2. -.2. 2220+ cnn ene cece ee cence cee t ee eee eee eee ce ee ce eee ence eens cenece 217-219 Crartur VII.—STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES.;.... 2.22.0 nccsesugeeaesspeenea=sen aaaacs masons sien as = oes ten 280-363 AKRON; }OHIO fsiccete cote see ca telcos 2% stewie buwiciod owidccn edness oem eee ne ae Bemeeelsae = See on nie cette eee Seer 280 ALBANY, (NEW1X ORK Sic cwee rc cies een yowicts Go dia nibe Doe wins wicin ce win bie nisin wie semimmietiaislacielale @ eee le ere ciie ee (ate teal ae _ 286 AVLEGHENY, (PENNSYLVANIAS occ alien's nce cele doe t ne alse cee ees snivne ci cee eae sep mee we eas cas eeee ae te =r te ean 280 ALLENTOWN, PENNSYLVANIA foe cdcbeit cic icc cele iccoce em wn etis Sue pac c@eleelcipeelsaeisicejem epi eee ee miele ete tee ae aa eee ers 280, 281 AT TOONA, PE ENNSSGUVANTA fe 20 oe ofa cp oe nic wyeict a\nic|= nie oicinainitich ma selec emimermee eee ne eee waesidelecce hue euMnccnes Ake 281 ATLANTA; (GEORGIA © scist seca s cee Geannd secs siecle wis cicipdicnnc Ghebm son ee Relea ae sme motels celia Coe See oe a 281 BALTIMORN UMAR VUAND er cesar neck cislse' as aciee as. cule se sc ceric sous eames SA os sori Bes soe 281, 282 BANGOR, | MAINE)! S2c2 och ealac cise tere sn fcc clsccdes co ceca sciec/ceweisclcaisemaicne ce nommaetentaa = ieee ee aoe te 282 BINGHAMTON, ONEW. DY ORK: tircccstcidscleec ote cls eieas oot, cjn,c one simininis'e aiminie eicieie ola ie Siena Ie ie eee 282 BOSTON, ‘MASSACHUSETTS 22.0 Gans Soc macsetens.ccvetcance socedcccnesas sede cee teed ys olde stee aeewt ed toate iam ee on 282-292 BRIDGEPORT;. CONNECTICUT in aieecnnhsbecinabors Uewcsclomestercasjssdaes soup eccner cs esa ee amie eet en mete ais etme 292 BURLINGTON, LOWA (2 cece te oe wile cccaie Seaba a dee qcn'vsle wine ncan acice joes parm sien ose ene oie ale eee ete we ee eee ee 292 CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS fy pete wes sie alee c's Sia aera = cise ioep wie ele n\nndm ina ec cieteam amin ine beietea ie ete peer anaie ofan ete creator 292 CAMDEN, (NEW (J BEAE Kiceesmet weeincas temicen tke biawn tance sas alanne nunc beans a nitncce ae eae ee Rane wien ak se en 292, 293 CANTON, LOHIO@ eos eee eee ere riers Bin ec ewes owe ses vencee s-aeslenieancicnes sac rene capes ==\c== = ass 1s5 esata ee eee 293 CEDAR: RAPIDS, IOWA wWarare mersie mses clean nc nn~s waecn smn Salaun e acc pmn clueless \efetie mais e een Riie Rimetia/e ae el eee eke ae 2 a en 293 CHATTANOOGA, TENNESSEE <2 <\- ston 20 ise sis paestn semecs copsas seb evisnince celsnen omeeen isis m©siebem spin eck ens side oc yint cae 293 CHELSEA, MASSACHUSETTS 222i nb pp ance nas cwnice meee be cama diem cdendmes coe accspabeatmecsio= ts cascas ancnae «esos inne 294 CHESTER, PENNSYLVANIA sicc00 co5e ssesns osnnisswesnecice nt ae wngrensececces sanccscns>hubhaeecancslunceescd tuucan aneaeee 294 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, 2.05 tnt ch we nlnmaicme mein bine Mame rec caiceeelecemecce nemncs cuce seem sen bisese wall ssenae sinus Je pe ene eee 294-297 CINCINNATI, OHIO 2.22 nce once Vaaipewia ss amen bm ob wsiemmisieie dds mmm soc eme\n dein ivan niieens teas cues one sch seals ss xls eee 298 CLEVELAND, OHIO) {Soa wae ds np ae en tnaieaas nly eam qr ncecicecs ba vens musesacwas sesame ser mmel tabnesled Ss acetieswapicae same men 298 COLUMBUS, ‘OHIO jo - aise y dare oie rin wae obs are Sia eileen armislosetyh pi ciwin:minja\ “ia. in= Rianne lm amine] lain 01a age pclae 22 apt 298 ConcorD,:, NEW: HAMPSHIRE ono defy nae acleramn © herds s bndid = oma ae ew pale Wala sien a Siaele we ine Usyq men ~ © ethse see ie et 299 CUMBERLAND, MARYLAND <2 oes iccntadeswe tween scae inch seme se ties uswen sce woceus pulses hoes abner RleerGs es ome e ne 299 DAVENPORT, LOWAis sc simn@ tons emp caachelens oem mecaaalensisitisina/qnqc.chjeaiyae'sl enh a bkla od ayhta tk. ce ieee ee ae te ee 299 TABLE OF CONTENTS. . vil Cuarrer VII.—STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES—Continued. aT DAYTON, OHIO ..---- 222-20 1 one cone een een ce cee ween ee one cece ns coc nne concen cocens paweee cemesecccccctscces wese 299 TPIS RANTS (OLE ETO eos GSC aC US SSCS SEES DH SG SIR CESSES SA0C) SH. HEI A Senta ee Aneel ie a 2 eae ee Se 300 DMREY, CONNBOTIOUT 2 sass i cccen cn ccen anew owes Fo bene cone cece cane cose cans mend ae sone necn snes cbadenniccmeesenes cd eccs tons 300 DES MOINMS, LOWA 255555 25a e cei os oe den cows mnccesinecc tp ene anne coca semoce cerdansese cone cnet nccececcccuseniccvocs ceccnn 300 DUBUQUE, TOQWA li ss fais sca ciewce scebes capecncews co cces ease cmnnsd sen cnanes meee oens wane cces occ mmenen nace cesar secs cece 301 FEASTON, PENNSYEVANIA 6 <5. - rgb waviaunrnnes pe casteeeaeladtccdeen oct 312 ee en A ee ene TY ee ee ete a os aida dir < ova e ns oom wou ne ss sus a Sot vlnwem =o 337, 338 IES BU gel LR GEN LAR eRe ee cio one oe cctacacleassles ae vines kien .s cinaincia sows lees semcews ces sense Sa GtHI SIEd CEC oS CORe IGS Cn ee 338 Vili TABLE OF CONTENTS. ‘ Page. CHAPTER VII.—STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES—Continued. PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA 0225 220 coc cee coc see coos sec cine cone ccts cece tance neccee nace aces cane aceececesaeuss sessiebel 338-346 PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA ~2s< ccvlpone sone sclesiae Woise snivinl ssa saalo once pein = ain welneninoennas.onseiwainn eae eels =mie[a 5 sielnie = =iaane 346, 347 PITTSFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS 2.22620 cece oie wees cc cee wen cece ce cece ee pewnen cens noes se cwes cece cacees oo nese nscs s+ scams 347 PORTLAND, MAINE - CBE KE ee od Pea cea E RE CCM Oc ine a tele leche migrate eicy sisie ob o\eeimel sisie ofemmieye aye alte ajetes|e oat 6 las efee ete tee ta POTTSVILLE, PENNSYLVANIA-- Daal ajatawa lel otatehe wintote ete nie eiatalctatelevs ol oalafaten ole ain vatala(a.cjayelsivie) anaid = wale phate sie ale ots aa ae a ate nee 348 POUGHKEEPSIE, NEW YORK... HSES AL ter NO etna ne Felsle ictala oka distohcrare w WWeleiatate' wleinwtstave leledmioie oleinieialerniaim eles lal'eic\a disia ots tele geet er 348 PROVIDENCE): RHODEV ISLAND a eaten Aaa ae Se ot steel datetninisiniata alorstotdanale/s/aials climwiole eiesiaie als iale/=i=inininte a fiain fee ee eee ee eee eee eee 349, 350 QUINCY, MASSACHUSETTS 1225.52 25-6 he cet sa coals cowie nese ee cue saaees odes wenivne wena malan wens eciniminisid a awe] na 6)c eal teas 350 READING, (PENNS YEW ANDAC orneys fel tae tet ate alnte diate ate ial nal ere Dat uis'd o) alee! «Sia minin’ inimiesaibeeyelapafei miata miele bs aie ete =e 350 RICHMOND, \INDIANAs Sess ae oie facie sul dcllwihel ins etulaWWietare a ivlereic'edieiel dive wie ewer ainw aueib eae ae a\nialeliad melaia sieheinis dyeteleldiste tn iols (atten re 350 RICHMOND sSV TRG INT Ase ote ieee tee fatto ae etoile irinvarss clare nici aim pies eb ater nwiarg- wisiitnale < oleispeieleve Sele mie maYa/sie 4 clatts\e le (cls seen 350, 351 ROCHESTER, “NEW! YORKi2 5526 1 a aecic asin aye rela alee ea oe bao d celacieicicle oa\sio Ja! S66 5 COCO. bo e SEOID BO CCO OOO SCO OOR EEO acer Pal Nernentinomc NostomCoun Uy ECOG Vl VaR se stneip cao weae en lesen ee tale wice aman aie ca tcin a aiwialniacic tats cicainernias ese soe XIX to XXVI.—Plates illustrating quarries, quarry methods, and machines used in quarrying........---- 22. -- 26. e200 -ee- eee CHROMOLITHOGRAPHS (at end of volume), PLATE XXVII.—Biotite Granite, Red Beach, Maine. XXVIII.—Biotite Granite with Epidote, Lebanon, Grafton county, New Hampshire. XXIX.—Biotite Granite, Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire. XXX.—Marble, Mallett’s Bay, Vermont. XXXI.—Marble, Mallett’s Bay, Vermont. XXXII.—‘‘ Lepanto” Marble, Isle La Motte, Grand Isle county, Vermont. XXXIII.—Marble, Sutherland Falls, Vermont. XXXIV.—Marble, Rutland, Vermont. XXXV.—Marble, Swanton, Vermont. XXXVI.—Marble, Mallett’s Bay, Vermont. XXXVII.—Marble, West Rutland, Vermont. XXX VIII.—Hornblende Granite, Peabody, Massachusetts. XXXIX.—Biotite Granite, Westerly, Rhode Island. XL.—Hornblende Biotite Gneiss, Middletown, Connecticut. XLI.—Hornblende Granite, Grindstone Island, Jefferson county, New York. XLII.—Marble, Port Henry, Essex county, New York. XLITI.—Sandstone, Hummelstown, Dauphin county, Pennsylvania. XLIV.—Marble, King of Prussia, Montgomery county, Pennsylvania. XLV.—Triassic Sandstone, Seneca creek, Maryland. XLVI.—Limestone Breccia, Point of Rocks, Maryland. XLVII.—Serpentine, Harford county, Maryland. XLVIII.—Marble, Swain county, North Carolina. XLIX.—Biotite Granite, Burnet county, Texas, L.—Marble, Rogersville, Hawkins county, Tennessee. LI.—Sandstone, Amherst, Lorain county, Ohio. LII.—Waverly Sandstone, SunLury, Delaware county, Ohio. LII.—Limestone, Dayton, Montgomery county, Ohio. LIV.—Limestone, Bedford, Lawrence county, Indiana. *LV.—Biotite Granite, Iron township, Iron county, Missouri. LVI.—Marble, Payson, Utah. LVII.—Stalagmite Marble, Solano county, California. LVIII.—Marble, Indian Diggings, El Dorado county, California. * Plate LV: for Maryland, read ‘‘ Missouri”’. As. 1s) PY i 1 y Hy \ “ E y Z i ’ , i 4 = } a i, ie Whee ‘ i ; 2 , vo) aes ; ) f a . ‘ va tog ae aa f | 6+ eae teckel WE I hate tale! 07) oN aa ma } ; ic ‘ a aan yi hed jhe sing ey : tmp pe ya, OD a ‘bf oitey ae (pis ota . ie Ny Vora ma ath wit, y Hepes ; “ -~ + ie. ; ; s * ae } r . rw - “we Ys e) Y . y . ; F, y , r . a eee t | ee ' (hy. ce. ‘ + f r - J : ag : J "ees +4 . ’ m7 + : 9 i : , f 5 \ ‘ . v td - i ‘7 roAn - tie 4 RARY . ' ‘ r , : LINGIS ® q =e bt) } sd ; \ ‘ 7 i> } ee Re i . 4 : The . A“ , Thay : : 4 id é — y “ U - - 4 ‘ ry ~ , ae + ry F i . - f , ‘ aa ‘ i, ’ . , 4 ? ‘ " _ B . ; We - af 4 wae - ; 7 jen Asean Peery } Ww j ' = “ ‘ 4 % ‘ if ‘ ' i hp 1 ‘ i) Ael Vise - aL ‘ # 4 ae hays ; , ‘ . PT ig bo Sal Fr ae is LETTHR OF TRANSMITTAL. WASHINGTON, D. C., February 19, 1883. Hon. CHARLES W. SEATON, Superintendent of Census. Sre: In accordance with your request, I have examined and revised the following report upon the building stones and quarry industries of the United States. This work was undertaken jointly by the Census Office and the National Museum, and placed in charge of the late Dr. George W. Hawes, then curator of the department of mineralogy and lithology in the National Museum. The work as planned by him comprised the collection of very full and complete statistics from all quarries in the United States doing business during the census year to the extent of $1,000, and the making of a collection of quarry specimens for examination for the purpose of this report and for deposit in the National Museum as a reference collection. These plans contemplated also a thorough study of the building stones with reference to their hardness, durability, beauty, chemical composition, microscopic structure, and geological relations. Dr. Hawes lived long enough to see his plans well under way, the collection practically completed, and much of the microscopic and chemical workdone. His health failed in the fall of 1881, and he was obliged to give up work, when his principal assistant, Mr. F. W. Sperr, was placed in temporary charge. Dr. Hawes’ health continued to fail, and at last, on June 22, 1882, he died, at Colorado Springs, Colorado. Not long after, Mr. Sperr’s health failed, and he was obliged to give up the control of the work, when it was left in charge of Mr. Thomas C. Kelly, by whom it was brought to its present stage. As assistants in the field-work of this investigation Dr. Hawes enlisted the services of many of the most prominent geologists and mineralogists of the country, and to them is duein great measure whatever success may have been attained in this investigation. They have devoted to it much valuable time and attention, and in every way have shown the utmost interest in prosecuting itthoroughly. Many of these gentlemen have also rendered valuable services in furnishing manuscript notes regarding the quarries of their respective districts, which, from the local knowledge of the author, is of great value. The statistics and the information concerning the quarries were gathered by the following gentlemen in the areas indicated : In Maine, Rhode Island, and that portion of Massachusetts east of the Connecticut river, Professor N. S. Shaler, of Harvard university, Cambridge, Massachusetts. In New Hampshire, Vermont, and that portion of Massachusetts west of the Connecticut river, and of New York east of the Hudson and above the latitude of the north line of Connecticut, Professor C. H. Hitchcock, of Dartmouth college, Hanover, New Hampshire. In Connecticut, and New York east of the Hudson and south of the latitude of the north line of Connecticut, Mr. Harrison R. Lindsley, of New Haven, Connecticut. In Manhattan Island and cities in the immediate vicinity of New York, Professor Alexis A. Julien, of the School of Mines, Columbia college, New York city. In the portion of New York west of the: Hudson, and New Jersey outside of the immediate neighborhood of New York, Professors George H. Cook, director of the geological survey of New Jersey, and James C. Smock, of New Brunswick, New Jersey. XI xil LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. In Pennsylvania, Mr. Charles Allen, of Harrisburg, Professor J. P. Lesley, state geologist, and Messrs. Ashburner, Lehman, D’Invilliers, and other members of the second geological survey of that state, and Messrs. F. W. Sperr and Thomas C. Kelly. In Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, Professor J. H. Huntington, Boston, Massachusetts, Professor Charles E. Munroe, United States Naval Academy, and Mr. H. K. Singleton, of Mississippi. In Ohio and Indiana, Professor Edward Orton, Columbus, Ohio. In Kentucky, Professor J. R. Procter, state geologist, Frankfort, Kentucky. In Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois, Professor Allen D. Conover, Madison, Wisconsin. In Minnesota, Towa, and Dakota, Professor N. H. Winchell, state geologist of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Mr. W. J. McGee, Farley, Iowa. In Missouri and Kansas, Professor G. C. Brodhead, state geologist of Missouri, Pleasant Hill, Missouri. The statistics in the southern states were collected by Mr. Henry E. Cotton and Dr. A. Gattinger, of Nashville, Tennessee, and those of the west by Mr. William Foster, of Denver, Colorado. A number of assistants, who also rendered much valuable service, was employed by the gentlemen above mentioned. In addition to the above list of regular assistants upon this work, a great many persons aided in extending the scope of the work, especially by bringing to notice some of the great undeveloped resources of the country. | The unfortunate death of Dr. Hawes necessitated a considerable change in the character of the report. It became necessary to curtail what might be called the scientific portion, that relating more purely to lithology, thus giving greater relative prominence to the economic side of the subject. With this exception the original plans of Dr. Hawes have been carried out as far as possible. The following is a sketch of the topics under which the report is arranged: Following the introduction, which consists of the discussion of general matters relating to the subject, are tables showing the number of quarries, the capital invested in them, product in the census year, and its value, and other details regarding labor, means of transportation, etc. These tables are given by states and by general classes of rocks, and form a general exhibit of the extent of the quarry business in the country. The quarries of each state which is of importance in this respect are then taken up in detail, the general facts regarding the individual quarries being given in tabular form, with location, kind of rock, structure, quality, color, geological formation, ete. Descriptive text follows each table, and is intended to fill out and complete the matter in the tables in such a way as to give the details which are desirable to be known regarding the quarries of importance. Then follow a description of the use of stone in most of the principal cities of the country, the extent to which it is employed, the kinds of stone principally used, and other matters of importance connected with this subject. This description is accompanied by a table showing the proportion of stone buildings in each city, the class of stones principally used, and their sources, and the stone employed for foundations, pavements, etc. A short table of exports and imports of stone and a brief discussion of a few notable foreign ornamental stones close the report. In the following report it will be observed that a comparatively small portion of the work bears the name of Dr. Hawes as author, but the amount of this matter must not be taken as in any way the measure of the share which he had in the work. Not only are the inception and plan of the entire work due to him, but a large proportion of the material from which this manuscript was made was collated and drafted roughly by him, though not put in shape for publication. He plowed, sowed, and cultivated that others might reap. The chemical work of the report and the classification of the limestones were done by Mr. F. P. Dewey, of the ‘Smithsonian Institution, and his report upon the general methods em ployed by him is included in the introductory matter. . The microscopic examination of the rocks commenced by Dr. Hawes was completed by Mr. G. P. Merrill, of the Smithsonian Institution, and his report upon this subject also is included in the introductory matter. The illustrations of polished rock surfaces, representing some of our most beautiful and serviceable rocks, were drawn in water color by Mr. Henry J. Morgan. The chapter upon methods of quarrying, machines, and tools used in such operations was prepared by Mr. F. W. Sperr. . | The great bulk of the text, consisting of descriptions of the quarry regions and individual quarries, and of the use of stone in construction in the principal cities of the country, was in the main compiled by Messrs. Sperr and LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. | xiii Kelly from descriptive notes furnished by the different special agents enumerated above. The degree of fullness of these notes depends, therefore, not so much upon the importance of the quarry industries in the different districts as upon the extent of the descriptive matter furnished by the different special agents; and it is doubtless true that undue prominence has on this account been given to certain regions. For example, the quarries of the state of Ohio have been described in great fullness of detail, while the marbles of Tennessee receive but a passing mention. It does not, however, appear to be advisable to throw away a large part of this information for the mere sake ot producing uniformity. The notes of Professor Shaler regarding his district are so full and elaborate that it has been thought best to present them, with little change, over his own name. The same is the case with those for Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan, by Professor Conover; for Iowa, by Mr. W. J. McGee, and a portion of the notes concerning Missouri, by Professor Brodhead, the state geologist. In the chapter upon stone construction in cities New York city is treated exhaustively by Professor A. A. Julien, who in addition to this furnished a paper on the very important subject of the durability of the building stones in actual use in the country. It should be borne in mind that the statistical tables deal in general oni with quarries which produced during the census year to the value of $1,000 or upward. This excludes not only a large number of small quarries, but also many which have in years past produced very extensively, but which were worked little or not at all during the census year. Nearly all the quarries of the southern states, with the exception of the marble quarries of Tennessee, fall within one or the other of these classes. For instance, out of a large number of quarries in North Carolina, scarcely one, under the above definition, should be represented in the tables. In this portion of the country this industry is yet in its infancy. The slight demand for stone in construction, owing to the relative cheapness of other building material, especially wood, and the fact that the region contains but a small urban population, have combined to delay its development, and to-day the south is but beginning to realize its immense resources of this kind. The reader will doubtless find in the text, and penecially a in that portion relating to stone construction, in cities, many references to quarries which are not represented in the tables. These apparent omissions, in the majority of cases, fall into one or the other of the above classes of intentional omissions, that is, of quarries whose importance is not sufficiently great to give them place in the statistical tables, or where the quarries, although large and important, are worked spasmodically, as occasion requires, and were not worked extensively during the census year. Still, as this is practically the first attempt which has ever been made to obtain the statistics of this industry, it is very possible that some important quarries have escaped notice, although every precaution for obtaining completeness which had suggested itself to those having the matter in charge was taken. Wherever practicable, the local knowledge of the state geologists, and of others more or less directly interested in this industry, was utilized, and it is believed that, under the circumstances, the omissions have been reduced to as small a quantity as possible. Very respectfully, yours, HENRY GANNETT 4 JIN ~ Geographer and Special Agent Tenth Census. f Lente " bee , Aral pac Veen | | “ Peer vat, ; ; roe a ? a) oe a ; ha? ; by Chelan ee ll Bae ee i ahs a ee eee J PT Ah! ; | alae | m4 ta al) Ft ; aa DAN 2 ‘ 4 ae Ve aay aah arian ’ és DUVEGAtTY WP ANLIBOTS et bs THE BUILDING STONES OF THE UNITED STATES AND STATISTICS OF THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTION. By Dr. GEORGE W. HAWES. Materials for building may be divided into two classes, natural and artificial. Ofthe former class may be mentioned, as the principal members, wood and stone, and of the latter class, brick, artificial stone, and iron. The industry of extracting stone for building purposes has been, for convenience in this report, denominated the quarry industry. This term is not accurately descriptive, since all the materials extracted from quarries or open mines are not here described. Coal, metallic ores, limestone when quarried for lime or for fertilizing, and phosphate of lime when quarried for the latter purpose, may be noted as exceptions. The importance of this investigation will be recognized when it is known thatthe subject has received little or no attention heretofore in this country, although immense sums are spent annually upon stone as a material in construction. The first, and indeed the only attempt, so far as known, to bring into notice our resources in building stone was made at the late centennial exposition at Philadelphia, when a general invitation was sent to quarrymen to forward specimens for exhibition. This was generally responded to, and a beautiful collection was the result; but it was by no means exhaustive or representtive, inasmuch as it was a purely voluntary collection. Many experiments upon the strength of building stone have been made, notably by the officers of the United states engineer corps, and the results, published only in a fragmentary way, are more or less inaccessible. Strength, however, is but one of the factors which determine the relative value of the stone. The factor, primarily, is its accessibility, as the most valuable stone is of but little use for extensive building operations if far from water or railroad transportation. Next in importance is its durability, as well as its capability of resisting climatic influences; and this is a subject upon which very little has been said or written. It is a subject upon which it is extremely difficult to experiment, and yet in this respect it is most desirable that we should possess information. Such knowledge can be gained only by experience, and in many cases dearly-bought experience, and it is therefore important that all facts relating to the durability of stone under the influences of climate should be collated and brought into juxtaposition with one another. THE COLLECTION. The considerations already advanced show the desirability, in connection with a work of this kind, of making a systematic collection of specimens of building stones. The popular names ‘given to building stones vary in different parts of the country, and the same name is in some cases applied to most diverse materials. Such words as granite, trap, blue-stone, flag-stone, etc.,do not designate stones in such a manner as to enable one to judge of their appearance or characteristics, and, beyond its necessity for purposes of classification, a collection is of such value to architects and builders as to justify its accumulation at government expense. At the centennial exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876 many of our best stones were placed in direct comparison with those from foreign countries, and visitors were surprised to find that our country possessed materials for which we have been in the habit of looking to other lands. This collection was made the subject of a report‘by Professor J. F. Newberry, of the School of Mines, Columbia College, New York ‘city, which report forms one of the most prominent contributions to the literature upon the general resources of the country in stone. 2 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. This collection, however, did not claim to be either systematic or complete. The Census Office has aimed at system and uniformity in the collection and treatment of specimens, in order to insure fair comparison. The size of the specimens was determined by such considerations, it having been the intention that every quarry of importance in the country should be represented in the collection by a cube with edges four inches long. These specimens are: dressed in the following manner: Polished in front. Drafted and pointed on the left-hand side. Drafted with rock-face upon the right-hand side. Entirely rough behind. Rubbed or chiseled upon top and bottom. The aim has been to show the appearances of the stone when subjected to such treatment as it will receive when applied to construction and ornamentation. The polished surfaces render prominent many peculiarities. of structure and composition which are not evident upon rough surfaces. The only modification that has been allowed has been in the treatment of the front face, which, when incapable of being polished, has received the highest finish which it can be made to receive. The specimens are of such size as to admit of easy handling and close examination, and are easily accessible to all interested in their study and comparison. The centennial collection has been united with these, and the whole forms one of the attractive features of the National Museum in Washington. A number of treatises upon building material have been issued in European countries, and the cradeness of their statements concerning the quarries of America is most striking when one notes the size of this collection and the diversity of its specimens. The statements, however, are not to be wondered at, since the authors. have had little accessible American literature. It might, however, be assumed that a country of this extent, possessing so great diversities in physical features, would possess a great variety of building stones. . It may be said in general that at this stage of the development of the stone industry in the country there are few quarries which do not produce material possessing something or other to recommend them and to give them an excuse for existing. This can scarcely be otherwise in a Jand which possesses such an immensity of undeveloped resources in stones of the finest quality. The collection, however, brings one thing most prominently forward, and that is that at the very doors of buildings constructed of stones brought from great distances materials equal or superior are often found. The lack of confidence in home resources has very frequently caused stones of demonstrated good quality to be carried far and wide, and frequently to be laid down upon the outcropping ledges of material in every way their equal. Development of local resources follows in the wake of good information concerning them, for the lack of confidence in home products cannot be attributed to prejudice. The first stone house erected in San Francisco, for example, was built of stone brought from China, and at the present day the granites mostly employed there are brought from New England or from Scotland. Yet we have no stones in our collection possessing more qualities to recommend them than California granites. Some of the results of this general ignorance of the resources that this country affords in the way of building stones is shown by the use of stones brought from the Atlantic sea-board in the public buildings of the Mississippi valley. Some of the prominent public and private buildings in Cincinnati, for instance, are constructed of stone that was carried by water and railway a distance of about 1,500 miles. Within 150 miles of Cincinnati, in the sub- Carboniferous limestone district of Kentucky, there are very extensive deposits of dolomitie limestone that afford a beautiful building stone, which can be quarried at no more expense than that of the granite of Maine. Moreover, this dolomite is easily carved; it requires not more than one-third the labor to give it a surface that is needed by granite. Experience has shown that the endurance of this stone under the influences of weather is very great. A. building in Bowling Green, Kentucky, which has been standing over forty years, retains the chisel marks with alk the clearness they had the day they were made. Yet, because of the want of some authority of an absolute sort, the fear to use this stone has so far kept it from finding a market and has led to the transportation of stone half-way across the continent. In all other mining industries the product shows the fitness for its use almost at the moment of its production, so that, if the government secures the exercise of proper precaution in the carrying on of the work, the character: of the products may be left to be determined by the laws of trade. But in building stones there is always the question of endurance under the action of the weather, which cannot be determined in any easy way. The external aspect of the stone may fail to give any clue to it; nor can all the tests we yet know determine to a certainty in the laboratory just how a given rock will withstand the tests of absorption of our own variable climate and the gases of our cities. The cities of northern Europe are full of failures in the stones of important structures. The most costly building erected in modern times, perhaps the most costly edifice reared since the great pyramid,. the parliament-house in London, was built cf a stone taken on the recommendation of a committee representing. the best scientific and technical skill of Great Britain. The stone selected was submitted to various tests, but the corroding influence of a London atmosphere was overlooked. The great structure was built, and now it. seems questionable whether it can be made to endure as long as a timber building would stand, so great is the: INTRODUCTION. 3 effect of the gases of the atmosphere upon the rock. This is only one of the numerous instances that might be cited in which a neglect to consider the climatic conditions of a particular locality in selecting a building material has proved disastrous. Stones having a high ratio of absorption, or which absorb water readily, are not likely to be durable in a climate subject to alternations of dampness and hard freezing; and, as before mentioned, the acid atmosphere of manufacturing cities is injurious to stones made up largely of carbonate of lime. Professor Hull, in his work on the building and ornamental stones of Great Britain and foreign countries, gives the following as the most instructive examples of “buildings in Great Britain of limestones and dolomites which have shown disintegration from the influence of rain charged with acid: Saint Mary’s, Redcliffe, in Bristol; the new houses of parliament, and the chapel of Henry VIII in Westminster Abbey. The first is built of oolitic limestone, the second of dolomite, the third of Caen stone, the white limestone of Normandy, of Jurassic age”. Professor Hull states further that the presence in humid or wet climates of smoke, or sulphurous, hydrochloric, and other acids, powerfully aids the destructive effects of rain or moisture, as the rain itself takes a considerable amount of the acid from the air and spreads it over the exposed surfaces of the buildings; and that, therefore, for such climates limestone of especially soft, granular, and porous kinds should as far as possible be avoided; also, sandstones which contain a notable percentage of caleareous matter in the form of cement should not be used. Some of the “black granite” or diabase rocks of New England decay rapidly when exposed to the weather, yet they are, in appearance, of enduring quality. In a communication to the Census Bureau, Professor N. S. Shaler, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, says: A few years ago I found the stone from one of these diabase quarries being used for the foundations of the most costly buildings ever erected by Harvard college. A century of exposure would be sure to convert a large part of the faces of these foundation stones into dry sand. It was by a mere chance that I was able to make an effective protest against its use in this building. I know that it has been used in scores of other buildings in the same region. There are many other stones in use in this country that are open to the same objections; they are fair looking, but have not the necessary endurance, under certain atmospheric conditions, which makes them fatal elements of weakness in any architectural work of importance. It is not possible for the architect or the builder to make tests and accumulate information concerning the particular qualities of this or that stone; nor is it possible for any association such as the national societies of architects to do justice tothe problem. The result is that it is very hard to bring anew quarry stone into use unless it is essentially like some of those already extensively employed. No one builder is willing to assume the risk that may come from the experiment, especially when he is not likely to have the profit that may arise from the use of the cheaper stone. There can be no question that in this way we are debarred from the use of many of the best and cheapest building stones that the country affords. Professor Shaler advises substantially the following plan: In proposing to myself a method whereby a source of necessary information concerning the building stones of the country may be established, I have taken care to make the element of interference on the part of the state as small as possible. It seems to me that the following plan may serve to accomplish the end in view without undue expenditure or overregulation. ‘There should in the first place be a national collection of building stones whereat the architect may be able to see a sufficient representation of all the building stones the country affords. The admirable system followed by the Tenth Census has already accumulated at Washington an excellent foundation for such a collection. By the simple plan of having large specimens of the stones heretofore used in all public buildings added to this collection, and further by letting it be known that architects would confer a favor by submitting specimens of the stone used by them, avery valuable collection could be accumulated. In addition to this interior cabinet there should be an open-air collection designed to show the effects of weathering upon the various classes of building materials. This collection would necessarily occupy a good deal of ground, for in many cases several courses of stone, one on top of the other, would be necessary to show the full effect of weathering. The attitude of the wall with reference to the sun, frost, etc., is a matter of importance. It should also include water-cement, roofing materials, and various forms of terra-cotta, from common brick to decorative work. In fact such a collection should be essentially an experimental station on construction materials. With the view of accomplishing more perfectly the large purposes that could only be accomplished by such a museum, I would suggest that the whole matter of strength of materials used in public edifices should be placed in the control of its superintendent; and that, on the payment of a small fee, the laboratory connected with the museum might examine into the composition and character of building material submitted to it. Each subsequent decennial census will give a chance to revise and extend the researches of this museum. In addition to the ordinary specimens of building stones, quarry-owners were invited to represent their material in the National Museum by a larger specimen, dressed by themselves and forwarded at their own expense. To this invitation many quarrymen have responded by sending dressed foot cubes or slabs, pedestals, etc., many of which are very beautiful. We have not allowed the prominence thus given to individual quarries to modify or prejudice our opinion of the material. No injustice has thus been done, as no effort was made to gather these blocks, and any one had, and still has, the opportunity, if he wishes, to supplement his exhibition with such blocks. Our 4-inch cubes are, however, to us the most satisfactory specimens, as showing the nature of the material and forming a systematic collection which it would be impracticable to attempt to make of larger blocks. One of the large halls in the National Museum at Washington has been set apart for the exhibition of this census collection of building and ornamental stones, and no trouble has been spared by the authorities in the attempt to show euch specimen to the best advantage. They are placed in glass cases, in front of a suitable back- ground; each rests on a block, and a card designating the stone and the features of particular interest in connection with it is tacked upon this block, where it can be easily read. 4 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The centennial collection before mentioned, or so much of it as was presented to the Smithsonian Institution, is placed in the hall. The addition which it has made to the census collection is mostly composed of foreign stones. The supervising architect of the treasury, Mr. Hill, has also kindly given a large portion of the collection which has accumulated in his office, to be used in the study and in supplementing the collection. THE MINERALS IN BUILDING STONES. A stone is of little consequence for purposes of construction unless it exists in large quantities, and therefore the principal constituents are the commonest of minerals and few in number. Microscopic examination increases the number of the species quite considerably, and at times those present in smallest amount are of great importance in the determination of economic properties. As these minerals are sufficiently described in any mineralogical treatise, it is only necessary to mention the names of those which occur in building stones. The mineral compositions of stones are much simplified by the wide range of conditions under which the commonest minerals can be found, thus allowing their presence in all classes of rocks. Thus quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, and pyroxene can be found in a mass cooling from a state of fusion; they can be crystallized from solution, or be formed from volatilized products. They are, therefore, excluded from no classes of rocks, since there is no process of rock formation which determines their absence. ; Most of the commonest minerals, like feldspar, mica, hornblende, pyroxene, and the alkaline carbonates, possess’ also the capacity of adapting themselves to a wide range of compositions. Feldspar, for example, can take more or less silica, lime, soda, or potash into its composition. Hornblende and pyroxene may be pure silicates of lime and magnesia, or iron and manganese may take the place of a portion of these bases. Lime carbonate may be very pure, or magnesia may take the place of any proportion of the lime. These considerations indicate the reason of the extreme simplicity of rocks.as regards their chief constituents, and that whatever may be the composition of a mass within the limits which nature allows, and whatever may be the conditions of its origin, the probabilities are that it will be essentially formed of one or more of a half dozen minerals in some of their varieties. But however great may be the adaptability of these few minerals, they still are subject to very definite laws of chemical equivalence; there are elements which they cannot take into their composition, and there are circumstances which retard their formation while other minerals are crystallizing. Therefore, in a mass of more or less accidental composition, other minerals may always be expected to form in considerable numbers and minute quantity. For convenience we may therefore divide the minerals into two groups: the first to contain those minerals with their varieties which compose the mass of rocks, and any one of which may be the chief ingredient of a rock ; and the second to contain those which never compose the mass of a building stone, and are, when present at all, usually present in small amount. The following is a list of the mineral constituents of most building stones: 1. Quartz. ELEMENTS. 2. Feldspar. 10. Iron. 2a. Orthoclase. 11. Copper. 2b. Microcline. 12. Carbon. 2c. Albite. 13. Graphite. 2d. Anorthite. SULPHIDES. 2e. Labradorite. 14. Galenite. (Lead glance.) ih see ia At 15. Sphalerite. (Zince-blende.) 29° Oligoalases ; 16. Pyrrhotite. (Magnetic pyrites.) 2h. Triclinic feldspar (undetermined species). 17. Pyrite. (Pyrites.) 3. Mica. é 18. Chalcopyrite. (Copper pyrites.) 3a. Muscovite. 19. Marcasite. (White pyrites. ) 3b. Biotite. y 20. Arsenopyrite. (Mispickel, or arsenical pyrites.) 3c. Phlogopite. 3d. Lepidolite. CHLORIDE. 4. Amphibole 2 Rorbiencs: 21. Halite. (Common salt.) 4a. Tremolite. 4b. Actinolite. FLUORIDE. 4c. Common hornblende. 9 F 1 4 “ bipyrosene: 22. Fluorite. (Fluor-spar.) 5a. Malacolite. OXIDES. 5b. Sablite. 23. Tridymite. de. Diallage. 24, Opal. 5d. Augite. 25. Corundum. (Emery.) 6. Calcite. 26. Hematite. (Specular iron.) 7. Dolomite. 27. Menaccanite. (Titanic iron.) 8. Serpentine. | 28. Magnetite. (Magnetic iron.) .9. Talc. 29. Chromite. (Chromic iron.) INTRODUCTION. 5 OXIDES—continued. HYDROUS SILICATES. 30. Limonite. (Hydrous iron oxide, rust.) 60. Petalite. 31. Spinel. 61. Laumontite. 32. Rutile. 62. Prehnite. 33. Pyrolusite. (Manganese binoxide.) 63. Thomsonite. 64. Natrolite. ANHYDROUS SILICATES. PR toe 34. Enstatite. 66. Chabazite. 35. Hypersthene. 67. Stilbite. | 36, Acmite. 68. Heulandite. 37. Glaucophane. Ns Harmotome. 38. Beryl. 70. Kaolin. 39. Chrysolite. (Olivine.) 71. Chlorite. — 40. Danalite. : 71a. Jeffersonite. . 41. Garnet. 72. Ripidolite. 42. Zircon. 73. Penninite. 43. Epidote. 74. Prochlorite. 44, Allanite. 45. Zoisite. PHO APTEATIe 46. Iolite. (Cordierite.) 47, Scapolite. 48. Elacolite. 49. Sodalite. SULPHATE. 50. Cancrinite. 76 51. Chondrodite. 52. Tourmaline. 75. Apatite. . Gypsum. 53, Andalusite. rina ae pte 54. Fibrolite. 77. Aukerite. 55. Cyanite. 78. Siderite. 56. Topaz. 79. Rhodochrosite. 57. Datolite. 80. Aragonite. 58. Titanite. (Sphene.) 81. Malachite. 59. Staurolite. 82. Azurite. METHODS OF STUDY. The methods usually applied to the study of building materials are eminently practical. The required qualities of good stones are well understood, and direct processes are employed in order to ascertain the strength, hardness, and durability. Experience most of all has aided in the development of knowledge, and this sometimes has been gained at great expense. Though the results of actual practice are the final criterions, they are too slowly gained, and hence scientific and practical study can be combined to the advantage of those using stone. On the other hand, the application of scientific methods to economic problems, while bringing the later results of study into the domain of daily life, has never been carefully performed without incidentally developing some things of interest and value to science. There are no absolute rules to lay down by which stones are to be judged, however simply such are recorded in the text-books. Stones which have lain in the quarry for years, and which show the effects which time can produce, are usually inferior specimens that have been rejected, and quarries which have produced bad materials may also subsequently produce the best, and vice versa. The methods which have been employed in the study of compositions and structures are, however, such as require some explanation. The purposes of the work demand a determination of the compositions and structures of the various rocks, as these in combination with the location and geological features determine the applicability of the stones and explain their peculiar properties. The microscopic examination of thin sections leads most directly to the desired results. This method of study in the hands of the microscopic lithologist has been most fruitful in developing valuable and interesting knowledge of a scientific character. By its means the nature and the composition of almost all of the commonly-occurring rocks have been determined, and geological progressin later years has been modified and directed to a certain extent by the results of microscopic study. Exactly those same features which are of importance in scientific study are the ones which determine the value and appearance of building stones; and there is no distinction between the scientific and the practical. The method will here be described with the least detail that will render the accompanying plates comprehensible to those who are interested in the results but unacquainted with the method. Any who wish to apply the method will seek fuller information in the treatises devoted to the subject. A thin fragment of stone with a circumference equal to that of a silver quarter-dollar is knocked from the larger block with a hammeror a pitching-tool; or when difficulties are encountered in obtaining thus a favorable 6 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. piece, the same is sawed off from the block with a diamond saw. When a flat, smooth surface has been ground upon one side of this chip, and which reaches the outer circumference of it at every point, the chip is glued firmly upon a slide of glass, by means of hot Canada balsam, in such a way that the new, smooth surface is very nearly in contact with the glass. The Canada balsam hardens on cooling, and the stone will adhere to the glass with great tenacity. The glass slide thus furnishes a support, by means of which the stone can be held in contact with a revolving disk supplied with wet emery, and ground away on the other side until it becomes thin and transparent. By means of graded emery the stone is reduced to a very thin film; a good section being less than one-thousandth of an inch in thickness; and under this treatment even the most opaque stones which are employed for building purposes become transparent. It will be seen that in a section thus prepared the film which remains is composed of sections through the components of the rock, and that its grains or erystals have been undisturbed. An examination of the section by means of the microscope will show not merely the various substances which compose it, but also the method according to which they are arranged and by which they are attached to one another. With a magnifying power the minutest inclusions can be recognized, and by the application of optical methods the ingredients can all be determined. It is found that a the stones which we ordinarily employ are much more complex in composition than once was thought, and the minerals which compose the stones are frequently different from what would be supposed by examination with the unaided eye. For the improvement and preservation of the section it is usually transferred to a new, clean slide, and covered with a thin film of glass, which is firmly fixed by gluing with Canada balsam. The examination of thin sections has been found most useful to botanists, zoologists, and pathologists, who have long employed the method for most important examina- tions. The method was recommended to the mineralogists by Cordier in 1816, but neither chemical nor optical methods were then enough advanced to render its use practicable. Thin sections were made by Mr. H. Whitham in 1831, when studying the microscopic structures of fossil plants, which necessitated making thin sections of materials practically according to the method described. Mr. H. C. Sorby first applied the microscope to lithology, and discovered many facts. Since that time a score of lithologists have oceupied their time in cutting sections of all possible stones, and have developed a knowledge of their compositions, struct- ures, and features, but as a rule with strictly scientific ends in view. THE OPTICAL EXAMINATIONS.—If sections prepared as described are placed upon the stage of the microscope, simple observation will indicate that most stones are com- plex; that their ingredient minerals are more or less im- pure; that they possess peculiarities of cleavage, fracture, and color; that in some cases they are more or less decom- posed; that they are united with one another in very different ways in different cases, and that a variety of minerals is frequently present in small amount not visible to the unaided eye. It will also be noticed that all the sections of the same minerals do not look alike, and that there is a probable difference between many which do look alike. This is especially the case in the white minerals which are present in considerable numbers in building stones, and other minerals with weak colors become white when ground so thin, In order to identify the minerals present it is necessary to use certain optical appliances which develop more individual peculiarities. When the polished surface of a stone is examined, its appearance is determined by the character of the light which it reflects. The amount of light reflected from the outer surface determines its brilliancy, the light reflected from internal surfaces imparts iridescence and reveals structure, and the light absorbed determines the color of the stone. But when a section of a stone is examined the appearance of this section depends upon the character of the light which it transmits. The colors which are reflected from a surface may be quite different from those which are transmitted by the body, and the general appearance of a section, therefore, is entirely different from that of a surface. . When light enters from a medium of one density into a medium of another density, as, for example, when it enters from the air into water, if its direction is oblique to the surface separating the two substances it is deflected toward a perpendicular to the surface. This is called refraction, and the relative amount of the deflection which 32 Fig. 1. INTRODUCTION. 7 is caused when light enters different substances from the same medium is expressed by the index of refraction. Minerals possess great differences in their indices of refraction, these differences being manifested in thin sections. A mineral which possesses a high index of refraction, and which consequently deflects a beam of light to a greater degree, is apparently thicker than a mineral with a small index of refraction, since the refraction causes a retardation of the light, which is equivalent in effect to the thickening of a mineral with a less refractive index. Moreover, the surface of a section being covered with Canada balsam, the appearance of this surface is modified by the refractive properties possessed by a section. If a mineral possesses a high index of refraction there is a greater difference between its index and the index of the balsam than in the case of a mineral with a low index of refraction, and consequently its surface will appear rough, since all the asperities which this surface possesses will become evident on account of the alteration in direction and the change of velocity which will take place when the light emerges from the surface of the section. The minerals of crystalline rocks possess generally quite high indices of refraction, and the beauty of polished surfaces is much enhanced thereby. The effects of refraction are much modified by the crystalline structure of the minerals, and are dependent upon this structure. A crystal, in the modern acceptation of the term, is a homogeneous substance, the ultimate particles of which are definitely arranged. The physical properties, such as cleavage and hardness, which are of importance in build- P ing stones, are determined by this molecular arrangement. If a crystal develops in a space surrounded by fluid or by plastic substances, it will develop into a form bounded by planes which, in position and direction, are character- istic of the substance. In rocks, as a general rule, there has been no opportunity for such crystalline development, and the substances by their mutual contact have so inter- fered with one another in their development as to give them forms which are arbitrary and, to a certain extent, accidental. The internal arrangement of the substances in crystalline form is, however, as perfect as if the external forms were characteristically developed. Iocks may there- fore be said to be made up of crystals which, in some cases, as in porphyries, possess characteristic form, but which usually are granular and irregular in form, and are either united upon their edges or cemented together by some interposed foreign substance. One of the fundamental properties of crystals is that the light which passes through them passes in definite directions and is submitted to definite modifications. An ordinary beam of light is composed of vibrations which differ from the vibrations of sound in that while sound is propagated by vibrations the axes of which are parallel with the direction of propagation, light is composed of vibrations which take place in all directions perpendicular to the direction of the beam. ‘The color of a beam of light depends upon the duration of the vibration, and the intensity depends upon the amplitude. Ifa beam of light enters from the air into a non-crystalline structure it -P suffers no further modification than the simple refraction; Bias s. if it enters a crystal it may pass through it as through a non-crystalline substance, or it will be modified in such a way as that the vibrations which have been stated to take place in every direction about the axis of transmission will all be reduced to two planes which are at right angles to each other and are definite in direction. As to the method in which the light is modified in passing through the crystal, that depends upon the nature of the substance and the degree of symmetry which the crystal possesses. The simplest illustration of such a modification is seen by examining a dot through a piece of the ordinary calcite or Iceland spar; the dot will appear double, and the two apparent dots will have different appearances, dependent upon the difference of refraction of the two parts of the ray, which are separated in the erystal and are vibrating at right angles to each other. If a ray of light has passed through a crystal, and has had its vibrations thus all reduced to two planes, one of the two portions of light is what is called polarized; and the effects of this kind of light can be much better observed if by means of some contrivance one of the sets of vibrations can be absorbed so that a light can be obtained, al] the vibrations of which take place in a single plane. Polarized light, then, as distinguished from ordinary light, is light the vibrations of which occur in one plane instead of taking place in an indefinite number of planes, as in ordinary light. Such polarization can be effected Po 8 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. in a variety of ways. By passing through a plate of tourmaline cut parallel to the axis of the crystal the light, as previously explained, is divided into two sets of vibrations at right angles to each other, one of the sets being almost entirely absorbed, while the other is mostly transmitted as a polarized beam. Polarization is ordinarily effected by passing a beam of light into a erystal of calcite, which is cut in such a manner that one set of vibrations is allowed to pass through while another set is reflected away. A crystal so modified as to accomplish this object is called a Nicol prism, as such prisms were first made by the celebrated scientist Nicol. Let us suppose that a beam of light is allowed to pass through a Nicol prism, and that its vibrations are all reduced to one plane, which vibrations take place parallel to the shorter diagonal of the Nicol prism, as represented in the accompanying Fig. 1; P P will then represent the plane of vibration of the light. If the aforementioned plate cut from a tourmaline crystal be now placed above this Nicol prism so that the long axis of the erystal plate shall coincide with the line P P, the crystal when looked through will be illuminated by light, the vibrations of which take place parallel to its axis, and it will appear of a color brown or blue, according to the variety of tourmaline thus examined. If upon this same Nicol prism the plate of tourmaline be laid with its long axis perpendicular to the line P P, as shown in Fig. 2, the light passing through the Nicol prism will have its vibrations confined to a plane perpendicular to the axis of the tourma- line, and in this direction, as has been before mentioned, the tourmaline allows but little light to pass. A tourmaline crystal, therefore, placed above a Nicol prism, will appear light when placed with its axis parallel to the short diagonal of the Nicol prism, and dark when placed with this axis parallel to the long diagonal; and in general the appearance of crystals may depend more or less upon the relation of their axes to the planes of vibration of the light which passes through. This difference is expressed by the word dichroism. A great many minerals are dichroic, as is abundantly illustrated in the figures. If the Nicol prism shall remain in the same position as before, and the tourmaline crystal shall be placed in a diagonal position, then the light which, after passing through the Nicol prism, vibrates in the plane P P meets the tour- maline crystal in a plane which coincides neither with its longer axis or the perpendicular thereto, as shown in Fig. 3; it therefore cannot pass through the crystal in the plane P P, since, as before explained, the only planes in which the light can pass through this crystal are a plane parallel or a plane perpendicular to the axis of the crystal. Meeting now the crystal in an oblique direction, the ray can only pass through it by resolving itself into two parts, according to the parallelogram of forces. Let a b represent the intensity of the vibration as it emerges from the Nicol prism; this ray will divide itself into the part b c, which will pass through the crystal in the plane T T and into the part b d, which is perpendicular to the line T T, and which, as far as possible, will pass through the crystal in this direction. The crystal in this position will be illuminated by the light which passes parallel to the two directions at right angles to each other in the crystal, and will appear as if examined by ordinary light. The above explanation of dichroism will explain a great many of the differences in the appearances of minerals when seen in their sections under the microscope; and it also explains a number of appearances which are commonly observed without the aid of instruments. For example, when one looks through a crystal of mica in a direction perpendicular to the lamineg, the color is determined by the light which vibrates in directions parallel with the lamine, and is of a certain color. If one looks at a crystal of mica in a direction parallel with the lamine the crystal is illuminated partly by light which vibrates perpendicular to the lamin, and the color is consequently different. The dichroism of minerals, thus determining a great many of their appearances, is of both economic and scientific importance. or KP Fia. 3. INTRODUCTION. 9 If the light which has passed through the Nicol prism in the plane P P, as before explained, shall be compelled to pass through another Nicol prism exactly like the first one, but placed in a direction with its short axis perpendicular to the plane P’ P’, the light will meet this Nicol prism in such a way that the light cannot pass it; for this Nicol prism, being like the first, reflects away all of the vibrations which enter it parallel to its longer diagonal. Through two Nicol prisms placed in this position light cannot therefore pass, and the portion of the field covered by both of them will appear dark; and if the tourmaline plate be interposed between them with its long axis parallel to the short diagonal of the lower Nicol prism, the light after passing through the lower Nicol prism will pass through the tourmaline as before explained, and will be cut off as before by the upper Nicol prism. The interposition of the tourmaline will therefore produce no effect, and it will appear black when thus placed between two Nicol prisms, as indicated in Fig. 4. But let it be supposed that two Nicol prisms be placed together, with their shorter diagonals if the directions P P and P’ PP’; that the crystal of tourmaline be placed between them in such a way that its axis does not correspond with the diagonal of either Nicol prism, as shown in Fig. 5, the light will, as before shown, be resolved into two parts. in order to pass through the tourmaline in the planes ac and ad. If we follow the course of the ray a ¢c, we find that it meets the second Nicol prism in a plane which does not correspond to either its shorter or its longer diagonal; as the light must pass into the prism parallel to one or both of these diagonals, the ray a ¢ is again divided according to the parallelogram of force and enters the Nicol prism in two planes with an intensity and a direction represented by ae and ag. The light vibrating in the plane ag isin the upper Nicol prism reflected away, and only the light represented by a e passes through it. If we follow the course of the ray repre- sented by a d in like manner, it is seen that it must be divided into two parts, vibrating in planes respectively parallel to the shorter and the longer diagonal of the Nicol prism, and in like manner represented in direction and intensity by the linesak and am; ak in the upper Nicol prism is lost by total reflection, and am passes through. We now see that by the interposition of the crystal with its long axis placed diagonally a decomposition has been brought about by means of which two rays, represented by ae and am, are caused to vibrate in the same plane after having passed through different experiences. The possibility of interference becomes immediately evident, for if a greater retardation has been effected by passing through the crystal in a direc- tion parallel to the prism than in passing perpendicular to the prism, then the two parts can no longer vibrate in unison, and when they are brought back into the same plane with each other they will be sure to interfere. This interference, in fact, takes place under such circumstances, and the result is the production of most brilliant colors,. the tints of which are dependent upon the nature of the substance, the thickness of the plate of the crystal interposed, and the position of the plate or section with reference to the diagonals of the Nicol prisms. As the position with reference to the Nicol prisms brings about such modification, it is evident that the employment of polarized light will develop many peculiarities of structure and arrangement which could not otherwise be detected. In polarized light, minerals which may give no indication of their nature in ordinary light may exhibit such distinctive properties as render their determination very easy. ; Those crystals through which light passes in two planes at right angles to each other, as distinguished from those substances through which the light passes without any further modification than a simple change of direction, are called double refracting crystals. These crystals show such peculiarities in their double refraction that it is possible to classify them into systems identical with those which would result from a study of their outer forms were they possessed of perfect external development. Sey P Fia. 4. 10 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The mode of crystallization determines, therefore, the way in which light is modified by its passage through a section, and individual substances possess in addition their own peculiarities which enable them to be determined. The optical characteristics depend upon the degree of symmetry which crystals possess, and the following are some of the properties which substances of like cfystalline character will exhibit: Amorphous substances, such as glass, which occurs in the volcanic rocks, and which are without any crystalline structure, will possess the property of single refraction, will not modify the light by changing the planes of its vibration, and consequently the effects of dichroism and of color with Nicol prisms will not appear, except as they may be caused’ by a strain or unequal pressure which may give to such a substance a temporary structure. A crystal belonging to the isometric or regular system is symmetrically developed about the central point. In such bodies the molecular arrangement is therefore sucb that sections cut in any direction are alike as regards two lines which’ may be drawn in the section at right angles to one another; there is consequently no double refraction, and such minerals are optically like amorphous substances, save that they may possess definite cleavage, - crystalline outlines, inclusions arranged in a definite manner, or some other peculiarities which may demonstrate that they belong to the group of regular crystals. Garnet, fluor-spar, and some other substances that are found in the rocks belong to this class. | Crystals built in the form of a square or of a hexagonal prism, like tourmaline and calcite, possess, however, a different degree of symmetry. In a section of such a prism parallel to the base, any two lines drawn through the center perpendicular to each other would intersect the crystal section in the same manner, and the two lines would be therefore crystallographically identical; there would be no cause for double refraction, and the section would therefore appear between Nicol prisms like the pre- ceding. ; If, however, a section be cut from such a prism parallel to the long axis, two lines drawn in this section perpendicular to each other will divide the section in very different manners, and these lines will bear different relations to the crystal section. A line parallel to the longer direction of the section or a line perpendicular thereto will each divide the crystal into two symmetrical halves, which, however, -in the two cases are quite different. Such a section will be double refracting, and when placed between the two Nicol prisms will modify the direction of the vibrations which will take place in two planes, one parallel and one perpendicular to the crystal, and one of these sets of vibrations will be retarded more and refracted more than the other by passing through the crystal. Such a section will therefore be colored in whatever position it may occupy between the Nicol prisms, save when its long or its short axis is parallel with one of the diagonals, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. If a crystal be developed in such a way that length, breadth, and height are all different, but so that the sides of the prism are perpendicular to the base, as in the case of mica, then sections cut in any direction parallel to the sides of this prism will possess the properties which have been above described as belonging to a section cut parallel to the long direction of a square prism, for such sections will possess the same degree of symmetry and therefore the same optical propertie If a crystal is developed in such a way that one of the faces of the prism is perpendicular to the base and the others are not, as in the case of common feldspar, then sections parallel to the base and to one side would be parallelograms resembling the long section from a square prism, and would have like optical properties. Other sections cut parallel to the oblique faces of the prism would be rhomboidal in form, and would not possess such lines of symmetry. Lines parallel to the edges of the prism would not divide the section into two parts which would be alike on the two sides of the lines, and these lines would therefore no longer determine the planes in which the light will pass through the section. No two lines perpendicular to each other in such a section can be erystallographic lines, and as the light must pass through such a section, like all others, in two planes which are at right angles, these directions must be independent of the crystal edges, and will depend on the individual mineral rather than on a general system of crystallization. One single example will illustrate all these principles. Wi INTRODUCTION. AEE Let Fig. 6 represent a crystal of feldspar which belongs to the monoclinic system, last described, and which, if thus simply crystallized, would have the planes on the two sides of the lines ac and ad at right angles to each other, while the planes on the sides of a b would form an obtuse angle. Sections cut parallel to the base and the front face of this prism would then be right-angled parallel- ograms, and lines through the centers of these faces and parallel to the sides would be at right angles to each other, and would divide them into equal and symmetrical halves. These represent, therefore, the planes in which the light must vibrate in passing through the crystal, and are the vlanes which must coincide with the diagonals of the Nicol prisms, or interference and colors will be produced. The plane on the side, however, is not a parallelogram, and lines parallel to its sides are not perpendicular to each other. The light, therefore, finds two directions, for ex- ample, eg and h i, which are at right angles to each other, in which its vibrations take place. These directions, which make a certain angle with the lines parallel to the edges a eandad, have the same position in all crystals of like substances, and occupy different positions in crystals that belong to this system, but are of different substances. These lines are the lines which correspond with the lines parallel to the edges of the crystal in the sections parallel to the other faces, and the angle made by the optical and the crystallographic lines can be measured, and its determi- nation may identify the species of the substance. Only one case remains to consider. If a prism is so developed that it possesses no right angles, then sections parallel to any face are like the face on the side of the prism in our example, and therefore all its sections will have the properties attributed to sections parallel to that face, and no sections will be found in which the planes of vibration of the light are parallel to the edges of the prism. Fia. 6. A great many more optical effects can be produced by causing other modifications in the light; for example, by making it convergent by means of lenses before it passes into the section. Effects thus ohiamed elucidate those that have been described, which are seen in simple parallel light. In this work only the optical features that have been described are referred to. When these principles are applied to the microscopic examination of thin sections we are able to identify all of the constituents which the rock contains by means of the differences which the minerals exhibit either in ordinary or in polarized light. The determination is simplified by the circumstance that the number of minerals which take part in the composition of common building stones is not large. When a section is placed upon the stage of the microscope most of the ingredient minerals are transparent, and the number which do not become transparent under this treatment is so small that there is no great difficulty in discriminating between them. To determine the opaque ingredients the light is cut off from beneath the stage of the microscope, when the color of these opaque minerals, as they appear by a reflected light, is seen ; magnetite is bluish-black, pyrites yellow, etc. Those minerals which are more or less transparent in the section exhibit the colors which they possess by transmitted light; but, in accordance with the principles already explained, sections of the same substance may be differently colored according to the directions in which their crystals are intersected. A considerable number of the minerals may be identified by their colors and appearances, and others may be identified by known peculiarities of fracture, cleavage, and decomposition. If a Nicol prism is inserted beneath the stage of the microscope it will not essentially modify the appearance of most of the minerals, but as it will reduce the vibrations of the light which illumines the section to a plane, the phenomena of dichroism will become apparent, and by means of these phenomena some of the ingredients will be identified. ’ If a second Nicol prism is placed above the first, so that the section lies between the two, then all the phenomena of polarized light become evident; and if these Nicol prisms are placed in such a position that their shorter diagonals are crossed at right angles, and that the direction of these shorter diagonals is accurately known, then the relationship between the diagonals of the Nicol prisms and the planes in which the light vibrates when passing through the crystal section can be determined, and little doubt concerning the composition of any mineral in ordinary rocks will remain after the application of all these methods. 12 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. CLASSIFICATION. The nomenclature in general use for materials of construction is very simple. It consists of a few popular names with no defined significations. These names are derived at times from certain characteristic appearances, and sometimes from the uses to which stone is applied. They answer most of the purposes of constructors ; but, when examined more critically, stones which pass under the same name are frequently found to be so different as to necessitate their wide separation from one another in classification. : Some so-called granites in the United States do not contain one of the minerals which compose certain other well-known granites, and possess nothing in common with them except their granular structure. Such differences in composition essentially modify the economic properties of the stone, and there is for this reason a positive advantage in a more extended nomenclature. Closer discrimination in this direction will also necessitate a more critical consideration of the stones from different sections of the country. We hear very frequently of such things as Ohio sandstone, Maine granite, etc., which are terms that include stones that are incapable of being grouped ;. and the cases are not rare in which, by reason of such gencralizations, the good or bad reputation of certain stones: has unjustly passed over to its neighbors. Individualities of structure and composition of the greatest scientific interest are usually identical with the features most important from a practical standpoint, and therefore for our use the scientific nomenclature of rocks can scarcely be improved. This nomenclature differs but slightly from that in common use, and this is due to the: circumstance that the old popular names given by miners and quarrymen to ores and stones have always been: used in mineralogical and geological studies. The great variety of practical applications which these studies find in the arts has rendered difficult and impracticable the introduction of such a system of generic and specific names as characterizes the more modern sciences, which are not so directly applied in common life; but it is noticeable: | that many old names, like trap, greenstone, lava, etc., which still are used in the popular nomenclature, have long since been banished from scientific works as meaningless. The earth is covered with hard rocks and the loose products of their disintegration. If the hard rocks have resulted from a cementation and consolidation of what once was loose material, they maintain the stratified character of the original bed. When heat, moisture, or any other agencies have rendered them very compact and resistant, they still retain some traces of their original stratified character; and whenever it can be shown that a given rock was once composed of those loose products of the disintegration of older rocks, it is called stratified. The different members of the stratified group of rocks are often very unlike one another. They are sometimes composed of merely cemented masses of sand or pebbles, and their origin is very plainly seen; at other times the original constituents and the original structures are both nearly obliterated by subsequent processes of modification. Their stratification is in some cases very plain, and modifies the processes which are used in quarrying and in dressing the stones, as well as the uses to which they are applied. In other cases the stratification is with difficulty detected, and shows itself only when large masses of the stone are seen, or in the greater ease with which the stones are worked in given directions. The process of cooling from a molten state, through which the earth has passed, has necessitated a constant change of volume and consequent strain upon its crust. Thus in every age of the world’s history clefts have been formed through which materials have issued in molten condition from the interior of the earth, and have been poured forth in greater or less quantity upon its surface. Such materials cooling from a molten condition do not possess stratification, but are massive and crystalline. The modern volcanic rocks belong to this class; some of these are light, porous rocks, which are easily worked and are much used in countries where they abound. They are not employed to any extent in the United States, because there is little construction in those regions where they are abundant. The older granitic rocks of this class are hard, compact, and durable. Mechanical forces which have acted upon their surfaces for long ages have worn down and removed any soft and porous material which might have existed. They are quarried with more difficulty, and consequently are not so extensively employed as the sandstones. and the limestones of the stratified group, but they possess such properties as make them favorite materials of construction. In general, the sedimentary and the volcanic rocks possess structures that render them more easily cut and worked, while the ancient massive rocks are more hard and durable. The ready accessibility of the granitic rocks in the most thickly settled portions of America has caused them to be more extensively used among us than in any other country in proportion to the amount of stone construction. These considerations divide rocks into two principal groups, each of which may be subdivided. The further Subdivision depends upon the mineralogical composition of the individual stones, as is indicated in the following classification. ; If this classification is rigidly adhered to, numbers of rocks which are related by those physical properties that. determine the uses to which they are applied are quite widely separated from one another. Gnéiss, for example,. is so much like granite that it is often used in the same way for the same purposes. The rocks which are related in composition are conveniently grouped together as being the material of one and the same industry, even though their mode of origin is recognized as different. INTRODUCTION. 13 The following tabulation forms the basis for comparison of the industries considered in this work, and for convenience a name is given to each group, which is either that of its predominant member or that by which the Stones that compose it are commonly known: 1. Granite. Conglomerates. Syenite. Breccias. Gneiss. 3. Carbonates (limestones). Crystalline schists. Common limestones and dolomites. Diabase. Crystalline limestones and dolomites. Diorite. Shell limestones. 2. Fragmental rocks (sandstones). Caleareous tufa. Siliceous sandstones. 4. Serpentine. Feldspathic sandstones. 5. Slate. In this report, then, the rocks at present used for purposes of construction in the United States are for convenience divided into the following classes: 1. Crystalline siliceous rocks. . Sandstones. . Marble and limestones. . Serpentine. . Slates. Rocks popularly known.as marble and limestone are classed together, owing to the difficulty of drawing a definite line between the two; all distinctively calcareous rocks are included in this table. The group headed “Sandstone” comprehends all the siliceous rocks not included in the tables of the crystalline ‘Siliceous rocks and serpentine. Materials commonly known as sandstone, freestone, flag-stone, some of the so-called “‘blue-stones”, quartzite, and all the conglomerates, except the calcareous conglomerates, come under this heading. In the class of crystalline siliceous rocks are placed those popularly known as granite, syenite, gneiss, mica- schist, trap, basalt, porphyry, and volcanic rocks. Serpentine was quarried during the census year, to a sufficient amount to admit of tabulation, only in Pennsylvania, and even here the product was small as compared with that of previous years. The greater part of the slate product tabulated has been used for roofing, though a portion of it was employed for sidewalk paving, ‘tiling, and other purposes of construction. States and territories wherein any one of the classes of rocks above described are not quarried for purposes of construction are, of course, omitted in the tables devoted to that particular class, though many states and ‘territories are rich in the undeveloped material. Or m= C bo DECOMPOSITION OF STONES. There are many more factors which determine the value of stones for purposes of construction than are often considered in the elementary treatises upon this subject, and the rules laid down are often determined by the local circumstances. A more extensive study of building stones frequently vitiates the rules which apply in limited areas. It is, for example, stated that, in order to determine whether a stone will withstand the action of the weather, one should visit the quarry and observe whether the ledges that have been exposed to the weather are -deeply corroded, or whether these old surfaces are still fresh. This is not a fair criterion, because the applicability -of such a test is modified by geological phenomena. North of the glacial limit all the products of decomposition have been planed away and deposited as drift formation over the length and breadth of the land. The rocks are therefore in general quite fresh in appearance, and possess but a slight depth of cap or worthless rock. The same -classes of rock, however, in the south are covered with the rotten products resulting from long ages of atmospheric action. They may be rotten to great depths, and the removal of the worthless rock is often difficult. This is due to the circumstance that no agencies have here operated to scrape off and remove the loose material from their surfaces in recent geological time. There are other peculiarities of decomposition regarding which too absolute rules have been laid down. Pyrites ‘is considered to be the enemy of the quarryman and constructor, as it decomposes with ease and stains and discolors the rock. But here, too, there are features which very seriously modify the effect of this decomposing substance. Pyrites, in sharp, well-defined crystals, sometimes decomposes with great difficulty. Ifa crystal or grain of pyrites is embodied in soft, porous, light-colored sandstones, like those which come from Ohio, its presence will with -certainty soon demonstrate itself by the black spot which will form about it in the porous stone, and which will permanently disfigure and mar its beauty. If the same grain of pyrites is situated in a very hard, compact, non-absorbent stone, the constituent minerals of which are not rifted or cracked, this grain of pyrites may -decompose and the products be washed away, leaving the stone untarnished. We believe that the microscopic study of these stones is, even in such simple cases as this, necessary for a -correct determination as regards the influence of decomposing agents upon the stone. * 14 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Again, some of the constituent elements of rocks are so frequently found in a decomposed condition that they are considered to be deleterious, when present in large quantity, on account of their well-known tendency to decompose. For example, olivine indicates a very marked tendency to decompose, as indicated by the vast accumulations of serpentine which are so frequently found to be a result of its decomposition; but the circumstances which in past time have brought about this decomposition may have been very different from those which are at present active, and the prejudice against olivine in a rock is not supported by any observations which indicate that it will decompose under the present influences. We wish to bring prominently forward that we consider that a decision as to the probable action of the agents producing decomposition in rocks should be largely dependent upon careful microscopic examination of the structure of the rock. Our experience has demonstrated that a rock of a given character, as regards ultimate composition and mineral constituents, may be easily affected by the weather if its constituent minerals, as indicated by their microscopic structure, are so fractured that they are laid open to atmospheric agencies through rifts, no matter how small, while the same stone, with the same constituents, may be eminently resistible to decomposing agencies if its constituent minerals are sound, whole, and impermeable, as indicated by the microscopic structure. In the old world, where immense cathedrals, planned long ago, have been in the process of construction for hundreds of years, it has not been uncommon to see portions of the building fail into decay before the structure was finished, and the process of restoration often consumes large sums of money while the process of construction is yet going on. It thus very frequently happens that a variety of stones is used in the construction of the same building, because in this process of construction experience is gained indicating inapplicability of the stones used for durable structures. In this case it is experience alone which finally dictates the most suitable material; and even to this day, here in America, there is no other criterion to apply to a building stone save the test of experience; and the result is that buildings can be pointed to which, like those old, immense structures before referred to, are already crumbling while yet in the process of construction. PRESERVATION OF STONES. Disintegration of stone and the method by which this can be arrested has furnished a topic for considerable study. The methods which have been applied with most success are to bathe the stones in successive solutions, the chemical actions between which bring about the formation of insoluble silicates in the pores of the stone. For example: If a stone front is first washed with an alkaline fluid to remove dirt, and this subsequently followed by a bath of silicate of soda or potash and allowed partially to dry, and then bathed again; and if the surface is then bathed in a solution of chloride of lime, chlorate of sodium or of potassium, according to what is used, an insoluble lime silicate is formed. The soluble salt is then washed away and the insoluble silicate forms a durable cement and checks the disintegration. If lime water is substituted for chlorate of lime there is no soluble chlorate to wash away. INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. In addition to the consideration of the humidity of the atmosphere, the influence of the purity of the atmosphere is also important in deciding on a building material. For example, in the smoke of Pittsburgh it would make very little difference what the material employed for construction might be, so far as appearances are concerned, since it would soon assume the gray color peculiar to all the buildings of the city; but the capacity of a stone to resist acid vapors would become very important, since the only point necessary to be considered in selecting a stone would be as to whether ornamental structures are defaced and disintegrated by the vapor fumes peculiar to this atmosphere. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. In practice it is not common to place stones where they are obliged to bear more than one-sixth or one-tenth of the weight which their crushing strengths, as determined by experiments, indicate that they are able to bear. Beside this, there are many considerations which demonstrate that reliance upon experimental data is unsafe. A stone that will crush under a given pressure to-day may, if exposed to the weather, crush under a very much smaller or very much larger weight after the passage of years, according to the action of the weather upon it. Stones, when they crush, usually break in certain lines of weakness, which lines may be arbitrarily situated in the stone and difficult to detect, or may be definitely situated and dependent upon structure. As stones from different parts of the same quarry, and even from different places in the same layer, frequently vary greatly in strength, it is quite important to develop methods by which the strength of stones and their variability in this respect can be more easily detected than by the laborious experimental tests upon small cubes. Results of studiés made upon the structure and composition of those stones which have been very accurately tested as to their strength are valuable contributions in this direction. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 15. CHAPTER II.—MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. By G. P. MERRILL. It is not the intention in this chapter to present a purely scientific treatise on microscopic lithology, but rather to give a short description such as together with the plates will enable any one with but a slight knowledge of the subject to appreciate the variations in structure and mineral composition of some of the more common kinds of building stones. What may be considered as typical specimens of the various kinds of rock quarried have been Selected, and from the thin sections, prepared as already described, enlarged photographs have been made from which the plates have been reproduced. They therefore show the exact structure as seen under the microscope, excepting, of course, in the matter of color. In preparing the text the manuscript notes left by Dr. Hawes have been utilized so far as possible. THE CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS ROCKS. Rocks that are commercially designated as granites are composed in some cases of minerals which are entirely absent in other rocks that are also designated as granites. For example, some of the so-called black granites are diabases or diorites. But the circumstance that the minerals, although different, are all very nearly of the same hardness; that the rocks therefore offer the same difficulties in cutting, in dressing, and in polishing, and that the similarities of their appearance render them applicable to like purposes, unite these rocks into a well-defined group. In it are included the various granites, syenites, trap-rocks, gneisses, and crystalline schists. The structural differences that exist among the rocks of this class, although indicating very different modes of origin, are fully recognized in grouping these rocks thus together. The nomenclature for these rocks in use among quarrymen shows that they are all related as economic products; for example, the gneisses are frequently called “bastard” granites or ‘striped ” granites, as are also frequently the mica-schists. The trap-rocks, where they are quarried, are very commonly called “black” granites or ‘‘gray” granites, and as a rule no distinction whatever is made between the granites and syenites. Therefore, in a tabulation which shall indicate the extent to which the hard crystalline rocks are quarried, and shall give the data for comparing one well-defined industry with the others, these rocks are naturally associated together. Although, as shown, these rocks do possess common characters that unite them into a well-defined group, they possess differences which allow the group to be subdivided both according to the appearances and uses of the stones. The granites and gneisses, for example, possess the common characters already referred to, but the resemblance extends no further. It is therefore a positive disadvantage to the industry to classify them, as is so frequently done, under a common name. Therefore, in the tabulation the common name by which the stones are sold will be given, accompanied by the scientific designation. These rocks are found chiefly among the older formations and in regions where there have been such disturbances as have cleft the crust of the earth and given egress to the fused matters which underlie it. The crystallization of these molten materials which have thus been erupted has given rise to many of the rocks which, on account of their massive homogeneous structure, are most prized. Quarries of these rocks occur in all the Atlantic states, the Lake Superior states, and in the mountainous regions of the far west. Thus the great interior basin of the continent is left without rocks of this class, if we except some isolated areas in Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas. It is not, however, to be inferred that all of the rocks of this group are as old as the rocks which characterize these regions. The gneisses and the crystalline schists are very old rocks, belonging mostly to the Archean period. The other members of the group are eruptive rocks which have at some period in the earth’s history been molten, and have been forced through clefts in these older rocks. There is, therefore, no method of determining their exact age in all cases, since the time of their eruption can only be determined as being later than the time when the rocks which they intersect were accumulated. It is, however, known that a great many of them are very old, and that the time of their eruption was probably identical with the elevation of the mountains and the disturbances which would have naturally resulted in producing the clefts through which they were erupted; and itis also known that some of them are quite modern in age, since they intersect sandstones which were accumulated in later periods of the earth’s history. 16 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. GRANITE. The essential components of the true granites are quartz and potash feldspar. Although the essential minerals are but two in number, the rocks are rendered complex by the presence of numerous accessories which essentially modify the appearances of the rocks and those properties which render them of importance as building stones. These additional minerals are either present in such amount as to be conspicuous and to exercise an influence upon the apppearance and structure of the rock, when they are called characterizing accessories, or they are present in such small amount as to be invisible to the naked eye, when they are called microscopic accessories. If all the minerals which by careful examination have been found in granites should be considered as constituents of the rock, then the latter would appear as very complex. At least two-thirds of all the known elements exist in granitic rocks, and the number of minerals that are liable to be present in special cases is very large. The following list does not include all of those minerals which have been identified in this rock, for many have been found under circumstances which are so isolated that their occurrence is entirely exceptional. All of the minerals in this list are liable to be found at any time, and may therefore be considered as common constituents of the rock, although the presence of them all together is not to be expected, and some of them may be present in such minute amount as to be of no practical importance. Any one of them, save the two essential constituents mentioned above, may be absent from an individual specimen, or from a granite from a given locality; and any one may be present in the specimens from a given locality in such amount as to give a character to the rock. Thus almost any one of those minerals which are given as microscopic accessories may assume the character of a characterizing accessory ; this is especially true of the iron oxides, which sometimes are present in such amounts as to become characteristic : Essential: Microscopic accessories: Quartz. Sphene. TFeidspar. Zircon. Orthoclase. Garnet. Microcline. Danalite. Albite. Rutile. Oligoclase. Apatite. - Labradorite. Pyrite. Pyrrhotite. Magnetite. Hematite. Characterizing accessories: Titanic iron. Decomposition products: Mica. Chlorite. Muscovite. Epidote. Biotite. Uralite. Phlogopite. Kaolin. Lepidolite. iron oxides. Hornblende. Calcite. Pyroxene. Muscovite. Epidote. Chlorite. Tourmaline. Acmite. Inclosures in cavities: Water. Carbon dioxide. Sodium chloride (salt). Potassium chloride. The feldspar, which is so easily recognized by its cleavage surfaces in all of the granites, is by far more complex in composition than has usually been supposed. It is exceptional to find a granite which contains but one kind of feldspar, and not merely are two or three species usually present, but the structure and condition of their crystals are far from simple. The potash feldspar sometimes exists in the form of orthoclase and sometimes in the form of microcline. Microcline is a feldspar of the same composition as orthoclase, but differs from it in crystalline form by belonging to the triclinic system, which possesses no right angle. The orthoclase is very commonly seen in crystalline grains, in each of which one-half bears the relation to the other half of one crystal revolved 180° about an axis in another. Such are called twin crystals. They render themselves conspicuous to the eye in some granites by the different positions in which one receives the bright reflections from the two sides. The microcline is divided MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 7 17 into such a multitude of twinned parts that they are only recognized by a microscopic examination, and in addition two different systems of twinning combine to make the structure more complex. Therefore, in the thin sections, while the orthoclase at the most is divided into two parts by a straight line, the microcline as seen in polarized light possesses a reticulated structure, which is due to the interweaving of the multitude of lamine that stand in the relation to one another of twin crystals. This structure will be noticed in the plates. The discovery of this species of feldspar has been one of the develppments of microscopic mineralogy, and examination has proved microcline to be one of the prominent constituents of granites. The albite, oligoclase, and labradorite are identified in thin sections by the circumstance that they possess also a complex twinned structure; but one system of twinning preponderates, so that they possess a banded structure which evinces itself in the fine parallel striation that is frequently seen on its bright cleavage surfaces with the unaided eye, and in thin sections the same is much more plainly shown by the banded structure that its sections possess in polarized light when the crystals are cut in some plane that is not parallel with the plane of the lamination. The optical properties of the individual species render it possible to still further identify them; or they may be analyzed when it is possible to separate them from the rock. The different kinds of feldspar that exist in these granites are sometimes separated from one another in distinct grains, and sometimes are interlaminated with one another, forming complex grains. For example, orthoclase and albite are frequently combined in the same crystal or grain. All of these circumstances of composition and structure are important, for the appearances of granites depend largely upon the feldspathic ingredient. The different species are often quite differently colored, and thus at times a beautiful mottled appearance is imparted to the stone; if, for example, the orthoclase feldspar is red and the albite or oligoclase is white, the effect of this mixture of colors is strikingly manifest. If both kinds of feldspar are white, one may be opaque and the other transparent, or one may be opalescent and the other dull. In general, many of the most striking characteristics and a large proportion of the immense diversity in granitic rocks are due to this complexity in the feldspathic constituent, and its consideration is one of the most important elements of their study. The feldspar has also an influence upon the cutting of the stone and its shade of color. The so-called hard granités consist of quartz with a compact, transparent, nearly glassy feldspar, which is quite difficult to cut, and which allows the light to enter it and be absorbed, thus imparting to the stone a dark color, as in the case of the Quincy granite. The cause of the hardness of these rocks is not entirely due to the quartz, as is often supposed Quartz is always brittle, and is not very variable under tools. The hardness of hard granites is due to the condition of their feldspathic constituent, which is variable. The soft granites, however, consist of the same constituents, but the feldspar is porous and is thereby rendered soft and less resistant to the tools. The light is reflected under these circumstances from the surface and the rock is rendered white. It bears the same relation to the feldspar of the hard granites as does the foam of the sea to the water, but of course in a less marked manner. The Concord granite may be mentioned as an example. The structure of the feldspar modifies the resistibility of the stone to decay, the quality of the polish which may be imparted, and the ease or difficulty with which the stone may be discolored or stained. The quartz is much more simple in structure, and is subject to many variations in form and appearance, but to none in composition. Although belonging to what we call the infusible substances, it is evident that in the solidification of the granitic rocks such agencies were active as rendered this substance more easily fusible than the other ingredients, and it was therefore the last element to take final form in the solidification. This is shown by the way in which it occupies the interspaces which were left after the other minerals had crystallized, and it therefore, to a certain extent, acts as a kind of cementing material to the other ingredients. Some granites contain large, imperfect quartz crystals, which must have been one of the first products of the solidification, but in nearly all granites the last substance to solidify is the quartz. The microscope indicates that the quartz almost always contains pores which are partially filled with fluids. The number and size of these pores are of considerable importance, as they tend to explode when heated, and this aids to disintegrate the rock at a high temperature. It is important to note, however, that the various minerals which compose granites possess different expansibilities, and this is a cause of the well-known tendency of granites to disintegrate in the fire. Granite usually contains about eight-tenths of one per cent. of water, and is capable of absorbing a few tenths more. The water permanently present is largely contained in these pores when the rocks are fresh, and the capacity for further absorption is due to the rifts and empty pores that are largely confined to the feldspar. At times quartz and feldspar constitute almost the whole of the rock, and at other times the accessories become very prominent. These accessories vary with the locality, and give the characteristics to the various kinds. Mica is the most common of the accessory ingredients, and its presence constitutes what is called mica granite. If the mica is the white muscovite, the granite may be very light in color and may be almost white, as in the case of the Hallowell granite, or the granite from Barre, Vermont. If the mica is exclusively the black variety of VOL. Ix——-2 B S 18 ; BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. biotite, the granite will be dark in proportion as this mineral is ‘present. If both species are present, as is frequently the case, the granite will be speckled with alternating black and white shining spots, as in the case of the Concord granite. The amount of the mica present is economically important. It does not polish as easily as do quartz and feldspar, owing to its softness, and the presence of a large amount therefore renders the rock difficult to polish, When polished it does not retain its luster so long as do the other minerals, and its surfaces become dulled by exposure. Its presence in large amount is therefore deleterious to stones which are intended for exterior use as polished stones. The condition in which it exists is also important in this respect. A large amount of mica scattered in very fine crystals through the rock influences its value as a polished stone less than does the presence of large and thick crystals of mica scattered through the rock in smaller number. The method of arrangement of the mica is very important; if scattered at hap-hazard, and lying in all directions among the quartz and feldspar crystals, the rock will work nearly as easily in one direction as in another. If it is distributed through the rock in such a manner that its lamine are arranged in one definite plane, it imparts a stratified appearance to the rock, and when this stratified appearance becomes marked, the stone is called gneiss. One or two causes may give rise to this structure, but so far as it exists in granites it is easily explained by the circumstance that slight motions in a given direction in a plastic mass will cause all of the flat and long constituents to arrange themselves in a definite plane. If, for example, some mica scales or any other thin flat scales are mixed in clay so that they lie scattered through it in all directions, and if this clay is pressed so that it is flattened out a little, a section through the clay will show that the scales have arranged themselves in a definite plane, an effect produced by the motion of the plastic mass induced by pressure. As granite is supposed to have cooled from a condition of fusion, the circumstances must plainly have existed under which this laminated structure could have been produced, for the mica was crystallized before the rock was . entirely solid, as is evident from an examination of its microscopic structure, which shows that the mica invariably crystallized before the quartz had taken form. The effects of the parallel arrangement of minerals in granites are often evident, even when this arrangement is invisible to the unaided eye. Apparently massive granites cleave more readily in one direction than in another, and this plane of more easy cleavage is always detected by quarrymen with experience. If hornblende is the characterizing accessory, the granites are usually without any evident stratification, as this mineral exists in the granites in granular form. Hornblende is subject to as wide variations of composition as is mica, but its white and very light colored varieties do not frequently appear in the granitic rocks. Its green.varieties occur and give a characteristic shade of this color to the stone, as is illustrated, for instance, in the granite of which the new Mormon temple is built. It cleaves parallel to two planes which make an angle of 124° with each other, and is thus distinguished from mica, which invariably has but one cleavage. It is easier to polish than mica, and its presence is favorable on this account. The hornblende granites are to be classed among the best. Pyroxene as a characterizing accessory in granites is more abundant than has usually been supposed. . Indeed all rocks which contain pyroxene abundantl¥ have usually been confounded with the hornblende granites. The distinction between pyroxene and hornblende is important from an economic standpoint, as horneblende possesses a much better cleavage than pyroxene, while the pyroxene is much more brittle than horneblende, and cracks out with greater ease in working. The cracking out of little pieces from the black ingredient of the Quincy granites has been frequently noticed, and is due to the circumstance that this granite is not the hornblende granite that it has been usually supposed to be. Hornblende is very tough, but the Quincy granite contains a peculiar variety of pyroxene, which is so brittle that it is difficult to make a large surface on a Quincy granite which does not show some little pits, due to the breaking out of a portion of the black grains of pyroxene. Although pyroxene and hornblende may be identical in composition, they are frequently associated together in the same rock, a circumstance which is very evident in thin sections, but not in the massive stones. The rocks which contain hornblende also frequently contain mica, but it is noticeable that under such circumstances the mica is always of the dark-colored variety, and an example of a granite which contains both hornblende and muscovite is not known. Epidote is quite characteristic when present in the granite, giving to it its deep green color. Its crystals are always green so far as observed in granite, and the polishing of the stone develops the brightness of this color. It is sometimes an apparently original constituent of the rock, and at other times a decomposition product. The Dedham, Massachusetts, granite is one of the most marked examples of an epidotic stone. Itis also frequently present in all the varieties of granite previously mentioned, and more or less modifies their appearances, The tourmaline granite usually occurs in veins of inconsiderable size. Such granites are associated with those that are extensively worked, and in themselves are often beautiful, but they do not exist in accumulations of such size as to warrant the opening of quarries to work them exclusively. The tourmaline gramtes must, therefore, be considered as accessory products that exist in connection with the quarried stones, but which are not extracted for economic purposes.—G. W. H. (a) a The chapter to this point is from Dr. Hawes’ notes. of rye far ; ona if ok Sas! yr ~ eh te i. | BOSTOA. a ae: ae wt YPE PRAWN T A ty) AVA} { BOSTOR PLATE ll. Ge eb MNES VER ALY 7 AA OO A LE Wh. PLATE Moa, el a Me eB Ps Dg WELVOTNRE PF MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 19 The granites at present quarried throughout the United States may be classified as follows: Muscovite granite. Biotite granite. Muscovite-biotite granite. Horneblende granite. Hornblende-biotite granite. Epidote granite. . ; Granitell, or granite without any accessory. Although it is possible to classify all the granites under these heads, the lines of distinction between them are by no means sharply drawn, but the different varieties merge into each other by continual gradations. For instance, nearly all the muscovite granites contain a little biotite, and vice versa ; also, nearly all the hornblende granites, as those of cape Ann and other localities, contain some mica, although not in all cases enough to be visible without the aid of the microscope. In these cases the dividing line must necessarily be drawn somewhat arbitrarily, and it is the prevailing accessory which has given the specific name to the rock; or when two are present in such abundance as to be both evident to the naked eye, then the two descriptive names are employed, as in the case of the muscovite-biotite granite of Concord, New Hampshire, which contains both micas in nearly equal proportions. MUSCOVITE GRANITE. Since muscovite itself is very nearly colorless, the granites bearing this mica as their chief accessory are very light in color, being in fact the lightest of all our granitic rocks. Pure muscovite granites are not at present extensively quarried. That found at Barre, Vermont (see Plate I), is a coarse, light gray rock of almost marble whiteness, a polished surface of which presents a somewhat mottled appearance due to the presence of quartz and mica. The prevailing constituents are quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and white mica or muscovite. When examined in thin sections under the microscope the interstices between the larger crystalline grains are found to be filled with very many smaller grains of quartz and feldspar, together with shreds of mica and numerous accessories, giving rise to the structure known to lithologists as “ drusy ”. The mica as seen in ordinary light is quite colorless, but between crossed Nicol prisms it gives a most beautiful iridescence. It occurs usually in ragged shreds, but rarely in small forms with definite crystalline outline. A very little biotite is also present. The feldspars are the predominating minerals and occur in more or less perfect crystals, while the quartz grains fill the interspaces. The chief accessory mineral in this rock is epidote, which occurs in small irregular grains without definite crystalline outlines and is traversed by numerous fractures. In the thin sections it is of a very faint greenish color. Some apatite is also present in the form of small, colorless, six- sided crystals, which are never large enough to be visible to the baked eye. - A fine gray muscovite granite of a slightly darker shade, though much more even in texture, is quarried near Atlanta, Georgia. This rock is richer in both quartz and mica than its representative from Vermont, but contains less epidote. A large part of the feldspar of this rock is microcline, as is shown by its peculiar reticulated structure when viewed in polarized light. BIOTITE GRANITE. This constitutes the most widespread group of our granitic rocks, and presents also the most diversified color and structural peculiarities. A large proportion of all the granites at present quarried in the United States is referable to this group. In color they vary from light to dark gray and almost black, according to the amount of mica they contain and the color of the feldspar; the red granites, many of which belong here, owe their color to the flesh-red orthoclase, which is the prevailing ingredient. As a general thing these granites are much tougher and harder than those of the preceding group, and, if we except the porphyritic varieties, possess a more even texture, lacking the drusy structure characteristic of muscovite-bearing rocks. The texture, however, varies almost indefinitely, and it is obviously impossible to select rocks from any one locality as typical for the group. Perhaps the more common varieties are those represented by the granites from Dix island, Maine, Westerly, Rhode Island, and Richmond, Virginia. The essential constituents of biotite granite are quartz, orthoclase, and biotite, but a plagioclastic feldspar is almost invariably present, together with some magnetite and apatite. The usual accessories are microcline, hornblende, muscovite, apatite, epidote, sphene, and zircon. Itis stated by Rosenbusch (a) that the biotite granites, as a class, usually contain less quartz and a correspondingly larger proportion of plagioclase than those of the muscovite-bearing group. As representatives of this group Plates II and III are given from sections of the granites from Dix island and Sullivan, Maine. These are both coarse, gray rocks, containing a considerable proportion of plagioclase in connection with the orthoclase. The biotitein thin sections is of a yellowish-brown color and bears numerous inclosures of apatite and magnetite. The pores in the quartz of these rocks are feither abundant nor large; in the Dix Island granite they are often arranged in fine wavy lines traversing the quartz grains in directions nearly parallel to one another. a Mikroskopische Physiographic der Massigen Gesteine, p. 20. 20 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The biotite granites from Manchester, Virginia, and vicinity are practically of the same constitution as these, although differing in details of texture. Small zircon erystals and scattering flakes of muscovite, together with a few garnets, are found in these rocks. The granites of Westerly, Rhode Island, are biotitic, but differ from those just mentioned in being usually of a finer texture and more rich in accessory minerals, containing frequently small crystals of fluor-spar, sphene, menaccanite, magnetite, apatite, epidote, and pyrite; the quartz contains also many of the small, thread-like erystals so characteristic of rutile. Many of the Westerly granites are of a flesh-red color, but otherwise than this they do not differ materially from the ordinary gray granites, the red color being as usual due to the red orthoclase they contain. The red granites quarried at Red Beach and at Jonesboro’, Maine, have biotite as their characterizing accessory- These are coarse, compact rocks of even texture, and tough and hard. They bear but few accessory minerals, a little apatite and magnetite only being observed. The mica occurs usually in small ragged shreds of a greenish color. The red granite quarried at Lyme station, Connecticut, differs from the last in being of a still coarser texture, and in the feldspars occurring in beautiful large glassy crystals. The proportion of plagioclase is much larger than in the Maine red granites, and it contains little if any apatite and magnetic iron. The quartz contains numerous quite large pores or cavities, in many of which moving bubbles were noticed, while in others the bubbles were motionless. jk The Leetes Island and Stony Creek red granites are of a much lighter shade than those of Lyme, the feldspars being only light pink or flesh-red in color, and of a more gneissoid structure. Some muscovite is present, together with the biotite and a little epidote; the quartz contains but few cavities. A part of the Leetes Island rock has a porphyritic structure, and is of a mottled pink and gray color, due to the larger pink feldspar crystals being surrounded by a finer admixture of small grains of quartz and mica. A coarse red granite is quarried in the vicinity of Iron Mountain, Missouri, a part of which differs from any of the preceding in containing no characterizing accessory, to the unaided eye the stone appearing to consist only of quartz and feldspar. Under the microscope a few grains of magnetite are visible, as well as a few scales of hematite. Other granite from this locality contains black mica, which is usually more or less altered into chlorite. A red granite comes from Burnet county, Texas, which is of a fine, even texture, and contains much plagioclase. So far as observed this stone is lacking in tenacity, but this is very probably due to the fact that the quarries have not yet been worked to sufficient depth to bring to light the better portions of the rock, the feldspars showing signs of decomposition such as are produced by weathering. The red biotite granite from the government quarries at Platte caton, Colorado, is much coarser than the last, and contains many blood-red scales of hematite. The biotite is very dark and opaque. So far as observed, all our porphyritic granites are biotitic. A part of the East Bluehill (Maine) rock is a beautiful example of this variety. This is a fine dark-gray rock, the uniformity of whose texture is broken by a plentiful sprinkling of snow-white orthoclase crystals of an inch or more in length, the crystals being usually in the form of Carlsbad twins. In many of the East Bluehill rocks the biotite is found altered into a chlorite, in which case it contains numerous inclosures of magnetite. Muscovite is also frequently present in small quantity, together with the usual colorless apatite crystals. : MUSCOVITE-BIOTITE GRANITE. As its name denotes, this variety combines the properties of both muscovite and biotite granite, and may be considered as intermediate between the two. Transition stages between this and true muscovite or biotite granite are continually met with, and, as already stated, no sharp line of distinction can be drawn between them. The essential constituents are quartz, orthoclase, muscovite, and biotite; small transparent crystals of apatite are nearly always present, together with more or less plagioclase; zircons occur quite rarely. Of this variety, the so-called Concord (New Hampshire) granite may be considered as typical. It is a fine- grained, light-gray rock, showing under the microscope a somewhat drusy structure. The feldspars are in nearly every case more or less turbid through decomposition and impurities, while the quartz is penetrated in every direction by small needle-like crystals of rutile. Fluidal cavities are quite small and not at all abundant. According to Dr. Hawes, (a) the plagioclase of this rock is oligoclase; some microcline is also present. The micas usually occur in small, irregular flakes, without definite crystalline outline, but occasionally a small, perfect crystal of muscovite can be seen. ‘Between the Concord and the lighter colored of the Fitzwilliam granites there is no essential difference. Microscopic particles of zircon were found in the Fitzwilliam rocks, which were not noticed in those of Concord. The granites quarried at Allenstown, Sunapee, and Rumney offer no differences of practical value. Asa general thing they are much like the Concord, presenting only slight variations in the way of color and texture. The feldspars as seen by the microscope are sometimes in a little fresher state and contain fewer impurities, while the quartz usually contains less rutile, that from Rumney having none at all, and fluid cavities are perhaps a trifle more a Min. and Lith. of N. H., p. 194. Hee. THE (iBRARY Reese OFTEN QAVERSTY Ge HINGIS ve ft , Nal Sele . . - i = =a) : vy “a : : ’ j “a ‘i ‘ Ba << y LJ . a — PLATE IV, WLaass: abady, ca ay E be MICROSCOI iC STRUCTURE. 21 abundant. The Manchester granite differs from any of the preceding in, being of coarser texture, with a flesh-red color, and containing very little biotite, but a much larger proportion of microcline. The quartz frequently contains small colorless crystals resembling fibrolite; brilliantly red scales of hematite are also occasionally met with, as well as many large opaque grains of magnetite. Outside of New Hampshire, muscovite-biotite granite is quarried quite extensively at Ryegate, Vermont, and at North Jay, Lincolnville, and Hallowell, Maine. The Ryegate rock is of coarser, more even texture, and contains a larger proportion of quartz than that of Concord. The quartz is almost entirely free from rutile inclusions and the feldspars are in a very pure condition, in both of which respects it closely resembles the Jay rock. The Hallowell and Lincolnville granites resemble the Concord closely, both in color and in structural peculiarities, even to the presence of the rutile inclusions. It contains, however, a much larger proportion of the feldspar microcline. A few garnets unobserved elsewhere are present in the Hallowell rock. A rather coarse biotite-muscovite granite is quarried near Fredericksburg, Virginia. The feldspars in this rock are quite impure and frequently contain numerous inclosures of muscovite. Microcline is quite abundant in this rock, as is the case also with that of Hallowell and Augusta, Maine. HORNBLENDE GRANITE. As has already been stated, no sharp lines of separation can be drawn between the different varieties of granite, and in no case is this better illustrated than in those rocks bearing hornblende as their chief accessory, nearly all of them containing more or less black mica. This is well illustrated in the case of the granite quarried at Gloucester, Rockport, Lynnfield, and other localities in Massachusetts. From specimens of these rocks forwarded to the Museum it appears that while with one or two exceptions they would, from a simple macroscopic examination, be classed as hornblende granites, the microscope shows a constant gradation from those in which biotite is easily distinguishable in the hand specimen to those in which apparently there is none, more or less mica appearing in all. The distinction must, therefore, be somewhat arbitrary, and only those have been called hornblende granites in which no biotite was visible to the naked eye. (a) As typical of this group, Plate IV is given. It is from a magnified section of the rock quarried at Peabody, Massachusetts. This rock, which agrees so closely with that quarried at the other localities named that a single description will do for all, is a coarsely crystalline rock composed essentially of quartz, orthoclase, and hornblende, the orthoclase being frequently cf a faint greenish or bluish tinge, while the quartz varies from light glassy to dark smoky tints. The rock is of quite uniform texture, exceedingly hard and tough, and may be ranked as one of our most durable granites. Under the microscope it is seen that the feldspar of this rock is nearly all orthoclase in a very fresh and undecomposed condition, and as orthoclase is the hardest and toughest of all the feldspars the predominance of this variety over all others easily explains the hardness of the rock. In none of the granites quarried during the census year are the plagioclastic feldspars entirely absent, though sometimes prevalent 1n very minute quantities, as is well illustrated in the hornblendic granites of Gloucester, Roxbury, Lynnfield, Peabody, ete., and especially in that of the last-named locality, where it exists only as minute microscopic crystals, filling the interspaces between the larger crystals of orthoclase. The quartz, which is quite abundant, contains the usual cavities, in some of which moving bubbles occur. The hornblende is of a deep green, almost bluish, color, and never occurs in perfect crystals, but rather in broken fragments and ragged shreds bearing numerous inclusions of apatite and zircon. Zircon is especially abundant in the Gloucester granites, where it occurs usually in small, square prisms scattered irregularly about or clustered around the ragged edges of the hornblende crystals. Some magnetite is usually present, and an occasional shred of black mica. A very beautiful deep-red hornblendic granite is quarried at Otter creek, Mount Desert, Maine. It is a very compact rock, though not quite as tough as those from cape Ann. Under the microscope the feldspar is found to be quite opaque through impurities. The hornblende is deep green, nearly black, and some chlorite and apatite are present, together with quite large epidote granules and a few zircon crystals. Two varieties of hornblende granite, one red in color and the other gray, are quarried at Saint Cloud, Minnesota. They differ, however, from their Massachusetts representatives, being of more uneven texture and containing a larger proportion of hornblende. The hornblende, which is frequently much decomposed, is of a deep brown color in thin sections and strongly dichroic. It contains numerous inclusions, such as apatite, magnetite, and zircon, although these last are not as prevalent as in the Gloucester rock; some biotite is also present. The feldspar, as in the Massachusetts rock, is nearly all orthoclase, is quite impure and opaque, and the quartz contains many inclusions and cavities, some of which are quite large. Although of the same mineral constitution as the Cape Ann granites, these are of decidedly inferior quality, being softer and less tenacious. It is more than probable, however, - that when the quarries have been worked to a sufficient depth a far better quality of rock will be produced. a It is very probable that much of the black mica of our granites is not biotite, but lepidomelane or annite, these being the names given by Professors Dana and Cooke to the black mica of the Cape Ann granite. Such differ from biotite in containing sesquioxide of iron in place of the protoxide, and in being more opaque and less elastic. Their optical properties are, however, identical with biotite, and in the present work no such distinction has been deemed advisable. All black dichroic micas have, therefore, been called biotite. (See Hawes’ Min. and Lith. of N. H., p. 82.) THE LIBRARY OF THe Ve te LLINGIS L= a» * 7 — oe THE LIBRARY | | OF THE GHIVCASITY we sLLUNgIS ae! : a - = eae hs PLATE VI. Hornblende Biotitte Goeiss, Middletown, Lonn, AMY Gs MLINOIS ie i | be ce <= an Ss = eS Laly PLATE Vil. Washington, UO. O, NELAD TYRE PRARTING GO. BOSTON, r, Ne ‘ = 7 ‘ Ye a MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 23 such a way as to always possess two parallel flat surfaces, a circumstance which simplifies the construction of walls from them. The stratification is caused principally by the arrangement of the mica with its flat cleavage planes arranged in parallel directions. ; Quartz and feldspar are again the essential constituents, and the same accessories constitute a series of gneisses identical with the granite series. We thus have biotite gneiss, muscovite gneiss, hornblende gneiss, pyroxene gneiss, ete. There are no uses to which granite is applied to which the gneissoid rocks cannot also be applied; and some of the largest quarries in the United States which are called granite quarries really produce gneiss. In common nomenclature these rocks are called granite, or at best “bastard” granite or “stratified” granite, or granite with some other adjective prefixed. There is reason for this in the circumstance that they are used for the same purposes and very often have had the same origin, and differ from one another only in that some slight movement in the ~ mass at the proper time gave a stratification to the rock. In certain cases also the stratification is very faintly evident, so that it is difficult to recognize as stratification. Indeed, there is no line of division between the granites and the gneisses when the structure alone is considered. There are many gneissoid rocks which are very markedly stratified, which consist of alternate layers of very different compositions, and which were apparently deposited like the limestones and sandstones, and subsequently hardened and crystallized. Even in scientific classification it is now impossible to separate gneisses that have been deposited in stratified layers from those which have become stratified, as explained, by movements in a plastic mass. In this work there is no necessity for any distinction, and rocks of the composition of granite, but stratified in, structure, will all be considered as gneisses, for, from the economic standpoint, structure is of more importance than questions as to the mode by which it was produced. MICA-SCHIST. Mica-schist is a rock that consists essentially of quartz and mica. It usually possesses a distinct schistose structure due to the parallel arrangement of the quartz and mica, as was noted in the gneisses, from which it may be said to differ only in its lack of feldspar. It is a rock which is supposed to have been formed by the deposition and subsequent crystallization of sediments, and consequently the structure of these minerals and their arrangement are markedly stratified. The peculiarities of the schists are not such as to render them favorites for purposes of fine construction. They are, however, broken out from the ledge with great comparative ease, and for rough construction, such as foundations and bridges, they are extensively employed. The mica of the schists may be either biotite or muscovite, or both; in short, the schists may be characterized by one or more of the same accessories as are the granites and gneisses, and we may have just as many varieties. Through a diminution of the amount of mica these rocks pass into quartz-schists, and, by an increase of feldspar, into gneisses. The relative amounts of quartz and mica vary almost indefinitely. The percentage of silica, which is dependent largely upon the amount of quartz, varies from 40 to 80 per cent. The finer grained, more compact varieties of mica-schist make very fair building material, but the coarser varieties are not to be desired, especially if the mica be biotite and in great abundance. In accessory minerals mica-schists are particularly rich. Some of the more common of these are garnet, feldspar, epidote, cyanite, hornblende, chlorite, staurolite, magnetite, pyrite, tourmaline, and rutile. Through an increase in the amount of hornblende or chlorite the rock frequently passes gradually into hornblende and chlorite schists. As an illustration of the microscopic structure of a biotite schist, Plate VII is given. This is from a magnified section of the schist quarried in the vicinity of Washington, District of Columbia, and popularly called ‘‘ Potomac blue-stone”. As will be noticed, this rock consists almost wholly of quartz and biotite, the quartz being in irregular grains, while the mica occurs in ragged shreds. The prevailing schists throughout the vicinity are, however, by no means of so simple a structure. As a general thing the District rocks are distinctly schistose, the mica laminz being arranged in parallel layers, and the rock consequently splitting easily in the direction of its schistosity. In some cases, however, the various mineral ingredients are so evenly commingled that all traces of schistosity are lost in small specimens, and the rocks, especially if they contain hornblende, more closely resemble basic rocks of eruptive origin, for which they have at times been mistaken. Under the microscope the mica is seen to be frequently of a greenish color and to bear numerous inclosures of apatite, magnetite, and garnet. More or less white mica is frequently present, though never in sufficient abundance to give any distinctive character to the rock. Hornblende, when present, is usually in the form of slender rhombic prisms, which are often broken transversely. It is of a yellow or greenish-blue color, polarizing in deeper blue, or the lighter varieties in lively yellow and red, closely resembling augite. The crystals are quite imperfect, and are in many cases filled with inclosures of apatite, magnetite, and mica. It is frequently observed to have undergone an alteration into a greenish chloritic product. THE LIBRARY Of THE WVEASINY HE ILLINGIS - < ’ % y PLATE IX. Ulivine Liabase, Addison, Me. WELADTAPE PRLATIAG GO., BOSTON % = ~ THE LiBRARY oy aie OF THE. : E nee - BAERS MF LLUIOIS , - : u i os eles ins Pcie the ; Pe a iri i Mk Ih 2 Align ® may ; st oe faa 8 ee — Po bv ‘i PLATE X D —_— VY =e } Basalt, Hriddeport, Cal, WEANGTVRE RRLATING GOL. BOSTON a oe. SASS w]e Vili u PLATE Xl, Fairfield, Fa, 4 GG. , BOSTOR PLATE Xtl, Urthoclass Porphyry, Ea 7 \ /T | Vinountain, Mo, MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 25 occur as secondary products, lining the walls of the small cavities or amygdules with which the rock is frequently filled. The feldspar of basalt can be either oligoclase, andesite, anorthite, or labradorite, and it is usually the prevailing ingredient; the spaces between the individual crystals are frequently filled with an uncrystalline, glassy magma, containing often numerous opaque, elongated, hair-like bodies, called ‘“trichites”. Microscopic sections of basalt present many interesting features. The plagioclase usually occurs in small, slender crystals, showing in polarized light the customary banded structure, due to twinning. It is usually quite pure and free from all inclusions or cavities. The olivine appears rarely in well-defined crystals, but rather in rounded grains, traversed by many irregular curvilinear lines. They are sometimes of considerable size, so as to be easily distinguished by the naked eye. The augite in basalts is generally rich in inclosures of glassy matter, and in rocks which have undergone considerable decomposition both the augite and olivine are often represented merely by pseudomorphs of a green matter, either serpentine or some other hydrous silicate. Plate X is from a basalt quarried at Bridgeport, California. This is a fine-grained, brownish-gray rock, in which the included olivine crystals appear as small, greenish, rounded grains, often the size of a pin’s head, scattered throughout the fine gray ground mass, the separate ingredients of which cannot be detected by the unaided eye. In the plate they appear as large, rounded, dark grains, surrounded by the smaller crystals of augite and plagioclase, like islands around which the semi-fluid mass has flowed. PORPHYRY (PORPHYRITIC FELSITE). Under the term porphyry it is usual to include a class of fine-grained, compact, felsitic rocks, the composition of which is not determinable by the naked eye, owing to the minuteness of the constituent minerals. The rocks consist essentially of quartz and orthoclase feldspar, one or both of which substances is frequently, though not always, present in crystals of considerable size, which lie embedded in the close, compact ground mass. Under the microscope these rocks, as represented by the building-stone collection, can be divided into two classes, (1) those in which the ground mass is easily resolved into a crystalline aggregate of quartz and feldspar grains, and (2) those in which the ground mass gives between crossed Nicol prisms the polarization colors of an aggregate, which, even by high powers, cannot be resolved into its constituent minerals, owing to their minuteness. In both classes larger crystals of either quartz or orthoclase may or may not be developed to give rise to the well- known structure called porphyritic. According to which of these minerals is thus developed we have two kinds of porphyry—quartz porphyry and orthoclase porphyry. These two varieties are shown on Plates XI and XII. Plate XI is a quartz porphyry from Fairfield, Pennsylvania. The large white body in the center of the field is quartz, while the surrounding material is an intimate mixture of the same mineral and feldspar, but in so finely divided a state as to be inseparable by even the highest powers. Plate XII is of an orthoclase porphyry from Stone mountain, Missouri. In this rock it will be noticed that the ground mass is distinetly granular, and the porphyritic structure ‘is due to large crystals of orthoclase, in piace of the quartz as in the preceding. Both rocks are much alike in general appearance, although differing so decidedly in microscopic structure. Porphyries are usually of eruptive origin, occurring in dikes, after the manner of what are popularly called trap-rocks. The well-known porphyries in the vicinity of Boston are, however, according to some authorities, metamorphosed sedimentary deposits. (@) Porphyries present considerable variation in color; whitish, flesh-colored, red, blue-black, black, and green are common varieties. They are very close-grained, compact rocks, and take an excellent polish. They are also almost indestructible, withstanding for ages the effects of weathering without appreciable change. Their hardness and lack of stratification, however, are great drawbacks to their extensive use, since they can be taken from the quarries only in small, very irregular blocks, and are cut with extreme difficulty. They are at present but little used for building purposes in this country. In Great Britain they are used chiefly for causeway stones and road metal, for which their hardness and toughness render them especially suitable. SANDSTONES. Sandstones are composed principally of rounded and angular grains of sand that have become cemented together through the aid of heat and pressure, forming a solid rock. The cementing material may be either silica, carbonate of lime, or an iron oxide. Upon the character of this cementing material is dependent to a considerable extent the color of the rock and its adaptability to architectural purposes. If silica alone is present the rock is light colored, and frequently so intensely hard that it can be worked only with great difficulty. Such stones are among the most durable of all rocks, but their light colors and poor working qualities are something of a drawback to their extensive use. The cutting of such stones often subjects the workmen to serious inconvenience on account of a sharp and very fine dust or powder made by the tools, and which is so light as to remain suspended for some time in the air. The hard Potsdam sandstones of New York state have been the subject of complaint on this score. Professor a T. T. Bouvé, Proc. of Boston Soc. of Nat. History, 1862, p. 57; 1876, p. 217. 26 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Geike, in writing on the decay of rocks, (a) mentions an instance in which a fine siliceous sandstone, erected as a tombstone in an English church-yard in 1662, and afterward defaced by order of the government, had retained the marks of the defacing chisel upon its polished surface perfectly distinct after a lapse of over two hundred ears. i On the other hand, those rocks in which carbonate of lime is the cementing material, although soft enough to work well, are frequently too soft and crumble easily, beside disintegrating rapidly when exposed to the weather. On many accounts the rocks containing the ferruginous cement are preferable, since they are neither too hard to work readily nor are they liable to so unfavorable alteration when exposed to atmospheric agencies. These rocks also have a brown or reddish color, which is usually considered as something in their favor. The celebrated Portland brownstone, used so extensively for building purposes in New York city, is a good representative of this variety. Sandstones are of a great variety of colors; light gray (almost white), gray, buff, drab or blue, light brown, brown, and red are common varieties, and, as already stated, the color is largely due to the iron contained by them. According to Mr. G. Man (b) the red and brownish-red colors are due to the presence of iron in the anhydrous sesquioxide state; the yellow color to iron in the hydrous sesquioxide state, and the blue and gray tints to the carbonate or the protoxide of iron. It is also stated that the blue color is caused sometimes by finely-disseminated iron pyrites, and rarely by an iron phosphate. (c) In texture sandstones vary widely, from an almost impalpable fine-grained stone to one in which the individual grains are the size of a pea. The looser varieties, in which the grains sometimes reach an inch or more in diameter, are called conglomerates, or if the pebbles are angular instead of rounded, a breccia. Sandstones are not always composed wholly of quartz grains, but frequently contain a variety of minerals. The brown sandstones from Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania are found on microscopic and chemical examination to contain one or more kinds of feldspar and frequently mica, (d) having in fact the same composition as granite or gneiss, from which they were doubtless originally derived. According to Dr. P. Schweitzer, (e) a fine- grained sandstone from the so-called palisade range in New Jersey contains from 30 to 60 per cent. of the feldspar albite. That quarried at Newark contains, according to his analyses, albite 50.46 per cent., quartz 45.49 per cent., soluble silica 0.30 per cent., bases soluble in hydrochloric acid 2.19 per cent., and water 1.14 per cent. This, however, must be regarded as an exceptional case, as very many sandstones contain no feldspar at all, being probably derived from a quartzose rather than from a granitic rock. Some sandstones are thought to originate from chemical deposition rather than from the disintegration of pre-existing rocks. Certain of the crystalline sandstones of Ohio are of this class. (/) The minute cavities and moving bubbles so frequently seen in the quartz grains of granite are, as would naturally be expected, also occasionally found in sandstone, as is well shown in a white Potsdam sandstone quarried at Fort Ann, in the state of New York. The cavities in this case are extremely small, but the imprisoned bubble, as it glides unceasingly from side to side of its minute chamber, is readily seen with a microscope of high magnifying power. Iron pyrites is a common ingredient of many sandstones, occurring frequently in cubical crystals or irregular grains of considerable size, and of a brassy-yellow color. Unless quite abundant, however, the chief danger to be apprehended from the use of such stone is the change of color it undergoes through the oxidation of the pyrites, which causes rust-colored or dark stains to appear wherever it exists. The beauty of many fine buildings has been sadly marred through the discoloration of the stone used for cappings and cornices by the oxidation of the included pyrites. Stone for such purposes should be subjected to careful examination, and all pieces in which the pyrites occur promptly rejected. Nearly all sandstones are more or less porous, and hence permeable to a certain extent by water and moisture. Manifestly, then, in localities subject to any extremes of temperature, only those stones in which this porosity is reduced to the minimum should be used for buildings, since disintegration must certainly result if, after the pores of a stone become filled with water, freezing ensues. It is on account of the destructive effects of freezing water that such porous limestones as those of Bermuda and of Florida are totally unfit for use in countries in which the temperature falls frequently below the freezing point, although very durable in warmer climates. All sandstones absorb water most readily in the direction of their lamination or grain. It therefore follows, as every stonemason knows, that stone to weather well should be laid with its bedding (lamination) horizontal, as it was first laid down by nature in the quarry; the stone will also offer the greatest amount of resistance to pressure if laid in this manner, and, it is said, will stand a greater amount of heat without disintegrating; an important fact in cities, where any building is liable to have its walls highly heated by neighboring burning structures. The porosity of some sandstones is characteristically shown by their manner of drying after a rain; some will dry very quickly, while others containing a larger amount of water in their pores will remain moist a long time. Ordinary sandstones will absorb from 3 to a Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad, p. 87. d See Plates XIII and XIV. b Quarterly Journal of the Geological Soc., xxiv, p. 355. e American Chemist, July, 1871, p. 23. ¢ Notes on Building Construction, Part III (South Kensington series), p. 35. f J. Brainard, Proc. Am. Soc., 1860. a . PLATE Xin Sandstone, Fortland, Lbonn, WELLGIALE THE UBBARY OF THE aRivER Sy we RALINOIS . PLATE XIV, oiliceous Sandstone, Piisneni, N.Y: WELAOTYRE PRAVATING 60., BOSTON se " a. ae ~ : =~ JHE wi@raay z at F OF THE WRIA STTY we HLLINOTS Ne dala wv < ’ - 7: Al PLATE XV TBE 8 RARY _ OF. THE URIVERSIEY Ge LELINGIS é (a ’ _ y ad + ee ’ c > ‘ wit + f9 ai i f t ~’ #4} PLATE X hist, 7 ae a ~ = Lluar tie eh MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 27 10 per cent., by weight, of water in 24 hours. Stone weighing less than 130 pounds per cubic foot and absorbing more than 5 per cent. of its weight of water in 24 hours, and effervescing somewhat actively with acid, is likely to be a second-class stone as regards durability. (a) Some stones liable to the destruetive effects of frost on first being talen from the quarries are no longer so after having been exposed for some time to the air, having lost their quarry water through evaporation. This difference is very manifest between stones quarried in summer and those quarried in winter. It frequently happens that stones of very good quality are entirely ruined by hard freezing immediately after being taken from the quarry (this being particularly the case with some marbles and limestones), while if they are quarried during the warm season of the year and have an opportunity to lose their quarry water by evaporation prior to cold weather they withstand freezing perfectly well. This phenomenon is easily accounted for if we admit the claim put forward by some that the quarry water of these stones carries in solution carbonate of lime and silica, which is deposited in the cavities of the rock as evaporation proceeds, thus furnishing additional cementing material and rendering the rock more compact. This will also account for the remarkable hardening of some stones after being quarried a short time, long since noted by those engaged upon stone work. When first quarried they are so soft as to be easily sawed and worked into any desirable shape, but after the evaporation of their quarry water they become hard and very durable. (b) Conglomerate differs from sandstone only in point of structure, being coarser and of more uneven texture. This structure is well illustrated in Plate. XV, which is from a magnified section of a conglomerate from Estelville, New Jersey. The large white grains are of silica and the dark cementing material is an iron oxide. These rocks are but little used for building purposes. Quartzite is a hard, siliceous sandstone occurring in regions of metamorphic rock, and partially metamorphosed. It differs from ordinary sandstone in being harder and less friable. It sometimes possesses a well-defined schistose structure. Plate XVI is from a magnified section of a schistose quartzite from Berks county, Pennsylvania. Such rocks are very hard and compact, and would make very desirable building material. LIMESTONES AND MARBLES. Limestones consist essentially of carbonate of lime, though they are often more or less impure through the presence of organic matter and clay. It is usual to apply the name marble to those limestones that are highly crystalline in structure and susceptible of taking a good polish. The term is, however, very loosely applied, being sometimes made to include even siliceous crystalline rocks like granite. Limestones are mainly of organic origin; that is, they result from the deposition of organic remains, as shells, corals, ete. In many limestones these remains are still plainly evident, while in others they have become almost or entirely obliterated through metamorphism. The shell and coral limestones of Florida and of Bermuda are good examples of the first kind. In these the broken and water-worn fragments are simply cemented together by the same material in a more finely divided state without a trace of crystalline structure; and from these to a perfectly crystalline marble, without a trace of fossil remains, there is a constant gradation. The red-mottled and black marbles of Tennessee and of Isle La Motte, Vermont, are good examples of the semi-crystalline varieties. In these the microscope shows very plainly the remains of minute organisms, while at the same time the surrounding portions of the rock are crystalline. The oolitic limestones used so extensively for building purposes in Kentucky, Indiana, and lowa are composed of the rounded grains of shells and corals closely cemented, and forming a very durable stone. They are generally quite soft and easily worked when first quarried, but become harder by exposure. The size of the individual grains is usually about that of a fish-egg, though they sometimes are larger, reaching the size of a small pea, when the stone is called pisolite. Some limestones are scarcely at all crystalline, nor do they show any trace of organic remains, but are perfectly homogeneous throughout. The stones quarried at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, and at Kokomo, Illinois, are good examples of this variety. These stones are somctimes quite easy to work, though, being dull in color and not capable of receiving a good polish, they are not very desirable. They are usually very impure through the presence of clay and earthy matter. Of the perfectly crystalline limestones, the white and the blue marbles quarried so extensively at Sutherland Falls and Rutland, Vermont, are the best examples. These are supposed to have been originally common fossiliferous limestones, and to have become crystalline and had all their fossils obliterated through the aid of heat and pressure. In some of these marbles the process of metamorphism was incomplete, and the traces of fossils still remain. According to some authorities (c) many limestones result not from fossil remains of animals, but from chemical precipitates from sea-water. a Notes on Building Construction, South Kensington series, Part III, p. 36. b See Chateau, Vol. I, p. 265. ce T. S. Hunt, Chemical and Geological Essays, pp. 82 and 311. 28 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The white crystalline marbles vary greatly in texture, the finest being found in Vermont, and coarser varieties . farther south and west. According to Dana (a) the texture is less coarsely crystalline in Vermont than in Massachusetts, the crystallization of the limestone as well as of associated schists increasing in coarseness from north to south, or rather southwest, which is the trend of the limestone belt. The whitest marble of Rutland is not as firm as that mottled with gray, owing apparently to the fact that it was made white by the heat that crystallized it burning out any carbonaceous matter, while at Pittsford, 16 miles to the north of Rutland, it is very firm, and is white, probably because it was made with less heat from a anion limestone. Statuary marble is a pure white crystalline marble of very even texture; it is sometimes called saccharoidal, from the resemblance of its grain to that of pure loaf-sugar. Ophiolite or verd-antique is a mixture of limestone and serpentine, as will be noticed further on. Carbonate of magnesia is a common ingredient of many limestones in varying proportions, and such stones are called magnesian limestones. When, however, the substances are present in the proportion of 54.35 parts of calcium carbonate to 45.65 parts of carbonate of magnesia, the stone is no longer called a limestone, but a dolomite. These stones are highly valued for building Pur and “the best varieties are those in which there is at least 40 per cent. of carbonate of magnesia with 4 or 5 per cent. of silica”. The nearer a magnesian limestone approaches a dolomite in constitution, the more durable it is likely to be. It is not merely the nature of the constituents or their mechanical mixture that gives dolomite its good qualities; there is some peculiarity in the crystallization which is all important. : In the formation of dolomites, some peculiar combination takes place between the molecules of each substance; they possess some inherent power by which the invisible or minutest particles intermix or unite with each other so intimately as to be inseparable by mechanical means. On examining with a highly magnifying power a specimen of genuine megnesian limestone * * * it will be found not composed of two sorts of crystals, some formed of carbonate of lime and others of carbonate of magnesia, but the entire mass of stone is made up of rhomboids, each of which contains both the earths homogeneously crystallized together. When this is the case, we know by practical observation that the stone is extremely durable. (0) The impurities in limestones are numerous. Many contain sand, which greatly injures their weathering properties; others contain clay and earthy matter, which are also elements of weakness, since they possess no strength in themselves, and, in addition, absorb water with the greatest ease, which renders the stone more liable to disintegration by freezing. Iron pyrites is a common impurity of many limestones, and such are to be avoided. Many of the Pennsylvania marbles contain tale or mica. » fact t) ( aaah 4 r. ig Ge iLL ING EASITY: UNIY PLATE XVIII. Chester Go, Penna, MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE. 29 SERPENTINE. Serpentine is essentially a hydrous silicate of magnesia, consisting, when pure, of nearly equal proportions of silica and magnesia, with some 12 or 13 per cent. of water. The massive varieties used for architectural purposes are, however, always more or less impure, containing frequently from 10 to 12 per cent. of iron protoxide, together with small amounts of chrome iron, iron pyrites, clayey matter, and the carbonates of lime and magnesia. It is a tough, compact rock of quite variable color, usually greenish, though sometimes yellow, yellowish-green, brownish- green, or, more rarely, red, its colors depending, according: to Delesse, (a) upon the degree of oxidation undergone by the included ferruginous material. The origin of serpentinous rocks has been a matter of considerable dispute. Formerly they were supposed to be eruptive, but later investigations have tended to show that this is not the case, but that they result from the metamorphism of magnesian sediments, (b) or from the decomposition or alteration of gabbro, diorite, and other hornblendic rocks, or from rocks rich in olivine, as lherzolite. We have already noted the extent to which the olivine in the diabase of Indian River, Maine, had become altered into a serpentinous product, and it is hence easy to understand how large masses might be derived from the alteration of rocks in which olivine was the prevailing ingredient. Plate X VILL is from a magnified section of the impure serpentine from Chester county, Pennsylvania. It is a fine-grained, porous, dull green rock, and so soft as to be easily cut with a knife. In thin sections under the microscope it is of a faint yellowish-green color, showing in polarized light a somewhat fibrous structure, the fibers forming an irregular network, the interspaces of which are filled in many cases with calcite. Many black grains are present, which in some cases are magnetite and in others chromite; the chromite usually occurs in small black kernels, which are quite opaque, or at best but faintly translucent upon the thin edges, where they show a faint reddish color. It is strongly magnetic; the magnetite is distinguished from the chromite by its entire opacity and its metallic blue Inster as seen by reflected light. Serpentine is sufficiently soft to be easily carved into any desirable shape, and can be readily turned on a lathe. It acquires a good polish, and is one of our most beautiful stones for mantels, table-tops, and all manner of indoor work. For outdoor work the polished stone is entirely unsuited, since when exposed to atmospheric influences, especially in cities, it soon loses its gloss, and, the surface weathering unevenly, it soon becomes as unsightly as it was ounce beautiful. Verd-antique is a marble or limestone through which green or yellowish veins of serpentine are disseminated. According to Hunt(c) the verd-antique marble of Roxbury, Vermont, is a mixture of serpentine with tale and a ferriferous carbonate of magnesia. a Zirkel, Petrography, Vol. I, p. 320. b T. S. Hunt on Ophiolites, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIII, p. 239; also Chemical and Geological Essays, p. 317. e Silliman’s Journal, 2d, xxv, p. 226. 30 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. CHAPTER III.—CHEMICAL EXAMINATION. By FRED. P. DEWEY, Smithsonian Institution. The optical method of study is not suited to solve all of the problems of lithology, and it becomes necessary to supplement it by chemical examinations. Even when the optical properties of a mineral have been thoroughly worked out, it ean generally be determined with certainty only when sections of known relations to its crystalline form can be prepared. The sections of minerals ordinarily obtained in the preparation of microscopic sections of rocks are, however, hap-hazard in their relations to the crystalline forms, and it is only by ascertaining these relations as far as possible, by an examination of outlines, cleavages, and other crystalline properties, that mineral species can be determined in rocks. The degree of accuracy which is thus obtained is sometimes insufficient for the desired purpose; for example, it can be determined that the feldspar in a rock is either the monoclinic orthoclase, the triclinic microline, or some one of the other species of triclinic feldspar, but which one of these it may be cannot with certalnty be determined by optical examination. This is sometimes an important point. Again, in the case of minerals which can be determined with the greatest certainty, it is sometimes quite desirable to know the chemical composition of the species; for example, hornblende can, with almost entire certainty, be determined in thin sections of rocks, but this mineral is variable in its composition, and its properties as a constituent of a building stone may be quite different according as its composition varies, and especially according to the percentage of protoxide of iron it may contain. The composition of a rock as a whole, although important geologically, is of ~ much less importance from an economic standpoint than the composition of individual ingredients, for the properties of the stone which fit or unfit it for use as a constructive material depend much more upon the peculiarities of its special ingredients than upon the ultimate composition of the whole. As is well known, a rock of a given ultimate composition may be a granite, a gneiss, a schist, a slate, or a sandstone, according to the circumstances of its origin and its subsequent transformation, and may be composed of very different mineral species; therefore, rocks of the same composition may be very different in their physical properties, and hence, in their capacities for resisting decomposing agencies and disintegration. It is therefore desirable to subject many of the stones which are to be considered as materials of construction to processes by which their individual mineral constituents can be separated from one another and analyzed. This indeed has been the object of those who are interested in the science of lithology, and various extremely complicated methods have been proposed to accomplish the result. A method has recently been proposed, however, which is much more efficacious than any previously applied, and as some of our results have been achieved by this method it will be briefly described : The red iodide of mercury (HgI,), possessing the high specific gravity of 6,is but slightly soluble in water; itis, however, very soluble in a solution of the iodide of potassium (KI), which has a specific gravity of 3.08. If, therefore, a saturated solution of the iodide of potassium is subsequently saturated with the iodide of mercury, a very heavy fluid is obtained, and the specific gravity of this fluid is such that many of the common minerals present in a rock will readily float upon it. This method of separation by means of a heavy fluid is said to have been proposed by Fleurian de Bellevue et Cordier at the beginning of this century. The solution of the double iodide of potassium and mercury was proposed by Church, in 1877, for use in the separation of minerals from one another. (a) The method was improved and new apparatus was proposed to be used with it by Thoulet, (b) who applied it with considerable success in the separation of minerals from granite and in determining the relative proportion of the various species in rocks of this nature. A further advance in the perfection of this solution was made by Goldschmidt, (¢) who succeeded, by a careful study of the most favorable proportions between the two salts, in increasing the specific gravity of the solution and in extending the utility of its application. He also fully studied its properties and demonstrated its great advantages asa separating fluid. According to Goldschmidt, the heaviest fluid is not obtained by saturating with iodide of mercury a previously-saturated solution of iodide of potassium, but by dissolving the two salts simultaneously in water, using a smaller proportion of iodide of potassium than that found by analyzing such a saturated solution. After some experimenting, the method of preparing this solution adopted by myself, and which gives a solution of the very high specific gravity of 3.28, is as follows: One part of iodide of potassium is weighed out and placed in a beaker, and one and one-fourth parts of iodide of mercury weighed out and placed on top of the iodide of potassium; then water is added in the proportion of 10 c.c, per 100 grams of the mixed salts; in the course of a few hours, with frequent stirrings, the salts will go completely into solution. After filtering from the impurities of the salts, the solution is gently evaporated on a water-bath a Mineralogical Magazine, November, 1877. b Bulletin de la Soc. Min. de France, 1879, No. 1. ¢ Inaugural—Dissertation, Philosophsche Facultét der Universetét Heidelberg, Victor Goldschmidt. Stuttgart, 1880. ~ CHEMICAL EXAMINATION. 31 until crystals just begin to separate upon the surface; it is then removed from the water-bath and allowed to become thoroughly cold, by which means a considerable crop of crystals separates and a fluid of between 3.10 and 3.20 is obtained. By pouring off the fluid from the crystals and again heating gently upon the water-bath until crystals begin to separate, a further portion of water is driven off from the solution, and upon cooling there is a further separation ot crystals, and a fluid of the gravity of 3.28 is obtained. My experience in using this solution indicates that there is a double salt formed of the formula (HgI,) (KI), soluble in water, much more soluble, however, in water containing a small amount of iodide of potassium; but any increase of iodide of potassium beyond a certain small amount decreases its solubility, and consequently the specific gravity of the solutions obtained. This solution is a very remarkable one, and besides its use as a separating fluid it finds many other applications; especially is it used by the physicists on account of its high index of refraction. For use in separating the mineral constituents of rocks it possesses peculiar advantages besides its high specific gravity, the most important being that it can be mixed with water without suffering any change in volume, thus allowing fluids of any desired specific gravity to be prepared; and also by a simple calculation the reduction of any known volume of fluid of any specific gravity to any desired specific gravity, the formula for this reduction being ee a in which V equals volume of fluid, D its specific gravity, V; the volume of water to be added, and A the specific gravity which it is desired the final fluid shall have. There are, however, some disadvantages connected with the use of the fluid, the most important being its poisonous and corrosive properties. In order to separate the mineral constituents of a rock by the use of this fluid, the rock is first pulverized so that the particles will pass through a fine sieve, the size of the mesh being governed by the fineness or coarseness of the texture of the rock. It is desirable to reduce the rock to as fine a powder as possible to avoid the presence of composite grains; at the same time it is not practicable to reduce it to anything like the fineness of dust, as that would remain for a long time suspended in the fluid without either sinking or rising. The powder thus obtained is washed with water in order to separate from it the exceedingly fine portion which of necessity is formed during the pulverization; when the mass has been so long washed with water that the particles all settle very quickly to the bottom, it is dried and placed in a tube with two stop-cocks at the bottom, provided with a perforated india-rubber cork at the top, with a bent glass tube and an india-rubber tube for making connections, and also a capillary tube from between the two stop-cocks rising nearly to the top of the tube; the tube is also graduated to admit of the ready measurement and consequent calculations of the fluids during the separation; the double iodide solution is added, and the whole throroughly mixed, preferably by drawing a curreut of air through the apparatus by means of the Bunsen pump; after remaining at rest for some time all those minerals present in the rock which have a higher specific gravity than that of the fluid fall to the bottom, and all that are lighter rise to the top; by opening the stop-cocks the portion which has settled to the bottom is drawn off; by closing the upper stop cock and drawing water into the lower portion of the tube by means of the capillary tube, the powder can be thoroughly washed from the apparatus; by adding water in successively calculated amounts to the fluid which remains in the tube, the other ingredients can be caused to fall to the bottom and be drawn off one by one—not, it is true, in a state of perfect purity, but in such a condition that the analysis of certain ones will very frequently lead to very important and desired results. The material which falls to the bottom when the fluid is at its highest specific gravity, generally complex in its nature, can be further analyzed by a variety of methods; a separation can very frequently be effected upon the ferruginous minerals by employing electro-magnets of successively increasing power. In some cases a separation can be effected by employing a mixture of chloride of lead of the specific gravity of 5 and chloride of zinc of specific gravity of 2.5, which fuses at a low temperature. ' = re - =, a Dept. of the Interior. PLATE XXII. Tenth Census of the U.S. ae 2h a wid | i Dept. of the Interior. PLATE, XXII. Tenth Census of the U. S. rh va, ani i tn * . & . . P : “s ° ’ ° - 3 - i ae pad > toe Saal S* ad a ia = e. cae - ae wale ee sabe. ; r : ‘ o ' ’ = vi rive * 2 oar. -—~ 7 PI = ry. q “ ae + = i n vat \ f * * Vice ‘7 5 - ‘ : ater ae “ . bs * %, =; D a7 é- a ’ , i . * ; ‘ 5 a = . ‘ « . - - a = . * v = * ‘. 1 * =” neem o- mac ‘ 77 4 ms U ys 7 - +» . 4 wad pm , 4 . x aa er oe . ae Gs oe Ne eee : ai a er 9 ~ r : ” : patie wrt eas Seer . - - ; f + ae =m » i ? : f Atti, “| J 2, Y ~ 4 ’ - p B 7 » . ‘ J = ' * « A ae & \ x 7 1 x ] ~ re a4 4, i ' te * fi t ‘ s “Pe i's 7 dew ‘ 3 = s > ‘ a, “= * eel By : a A =. ae | 5 J ‘ * * - i 4" or ? - mys - Ar ‘ . ee rr a : : ie 4 a> cre Pare : med i A r des a ae ; 4 ‘ s . * | , x d Z € r Dept. of the Interior. PLATE XXIII. Tenth Census of the U. S. Sw SUANEES ery, Steg Ke tH Hh i A a a ry | en Ne i ‘ \ | i pina hy — _—SS=_== = ——— SSS =. 4 it t ; . ; ' x : P = tr THE-LIBBARY SS al 2 AE Ae 255i ae DRIVES) GE iiss ; * fi 7 | » - t : i aa 4 . * y 74 7 , e : 4 . x ‘ } ‘i - .! | J : s . 7 4 7 4 7 / 2 ' AP 2) - Mae ine fe i a + i cong : a ¥ iby ta ite a PEAT ER xXx lv: Tenth Census of the U. S. Dept. of the Interior. hp SS SS => ss WY ve palyieAs GF sry WE TRLERGNS [ Dept. of the Interior. PLATE: XV. HSA: at Ml} H| UA aes Hy Tenth Census of the U. S. jeaee eo. + ¥ me ee Ar > cS tad 2a Foe is pany a> 7 a < " L vA 1 ares, as 2 COG de ee / ~ i ohghe - eo iz an . 4 ene < * ik LiGasat ey i | 3 Se PRIVGRSTET oP ALLIRDES i st . r 3 : es y | iL : ‘ Us ; ' _ ni - id Phd Y a) et » : A, : \ bo) as Mas : -4 j Pony, ; ae a | Me. od? ey ee ; } : Ts fale US bold ieee ae Tie 6) Aa eee Dept. of the Interior. PLATE XXXVI. Tenth Census of tne U. S. = vo ons 4 = = PES nF — Brea aay LTT QO ‘Goh Tia ‘igen Nr te _ — anes ~ ——- ———" “ Ul : GF ARE a iiniecostee Sp ALUMS: «RS ee i ae = “A oa at 4 eS ie x4 Me, > = ’ i ae ae j ats CHAPTER V. SEs it@s On BULLDING STONES: 46 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. — TABLE I.—GENERAL STATISTICS OF THE QUARRYING INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES: 1880. aoe WW ere wn oan & onrmb vw w SOONG NUMBER OF MACHINES EM- PLOYED. : Value of ex- Number +407 3 ; Value of pro- : Capital in- Product in A losives used States and Territories. oh auars wanted? census year. duct in jenaus Pp in Hemi ; Mh For quar- |For hoist- For dress- “year. rying. ing. ing. Dollars. Cubic feet. Dollars. Dollars. Total for United States ....-......-..------------ 25, 414, 497 115, 380, 133 18, 356, 055 339 2, 290 1, 308 192,175 TOTALS BY KINDS OF ROCKS. Marble and limestone (a) ..--...-------------+----+------ 10, 565, 497 65, 523, 965 6, 856, 681 190 709 499 61, 408 Sandstone siccencseccsssctencesc ce cave as enise cme esaan 6, 229, 600 24, 776, 930 4, 780, 391 40 634 95 27, 571 Crystalline siliceous rocks..-.....---..---------------- 5, 291, 250 20, 506, 568 5, 188, 998 64 763 322 70, 397 Slate is-caneccstesce dues) eccmmee semesk eeeeecemacsencecens 3, 328, 150 4, 572, 670 1, 529, 985 45 184 392 32, 799 TOTALS BY STATES AND TERRITORIES. California. coc ec see «cadens see eeece ce saseelenan sempre 100, 000 413, 000 172; 450) hs teoaice 6 14 1, 000 Colorado ss.s.c-c sen =< -reees coos seas eece eee renee 6 13, 500 662, 790 50, 400 Po acese see 8 |s2cceveee 500 Connectiont .- .os=-. sec sceeunaleseeeasseneeeeeesceneae 38 1, 730, 560 3, 527, 400 1, 087, 425 27 116 5 13, 590 Dakota ics cacsseeessaen teem eeniakae ts ROCA OA CR IBCs c 1 3, 500 38, 400 22;'000 fie one. oce 2 pie eee A 324 Delaware). scnc:ech-ansnsseaesaappniee ses sabsnninaccr estar 3 4, 800 45, 900 T2600! We aacre-- was 8 |.wcccn’ wesllsoeee eee aie Georgia scc.cs sons necc eee eate eae eee ee ar aeniena st aeeten ee 3 60, 600 288, 960 68, 980 2 Ph ese 5 615 Tilinois 22.02 cse'ss ace onwocevenontcwneconsaseeace sess 43 2, 120, 000 13, 321, 199 1, 342, 572 15 68 22 6, 805 TOWS sa ccce cusoctsnscecseteeneeeeeceeceratehensemananaes 131 556, 775 10, 929, 783 670, 754 2 109 11 6, 859 Indians -2ecct sececeles eee none en see snes teeesp= Se nee ene 70 613, 560 8, 413, 827 633, 775 13 107 14 2, 300 Kansaa 0.20 022-s.s acces peaeeciieen sesascciacemer senses 19 73, 700 1, 406, 346 1425570 | ecevece see 34 3 85 | Kentucky.2-is-s+-ccsccsvcuverscnsiscnees susussccestussan 19 143, 250 1, 724, 675 92, 216 2 18 2 927 Maine .o2csssnccusscssess saneeupaeaetiaebae sean aen seas 74 2, 285, 500 | 2, 465, 670 1, 259, 086 29 178 95 14, 744 Maryland... cs. oscccuspececsedslecsrencews stadeceeueesen 17 307, 935 1, 375, 917 346, 629 4 31 19 5, 725 Massachusetts '2.cse2c-+ ace- such annessncsue sas a te aaae 113 1, 616, 850 5, 468, 030 1, 711, 104 22 265 169 29, 355 Michigan .l.0sssccasvescnschusntenne cancers cane hesceee 9 74, 700 648, 060 79; 165 ,)|(s2e eae se 13) |. eeeesas 1, 222 Minnesota geoesedeccceesce se shaes o/c eos ewe u'amuin gas Qe iap 41 284, 225 8, 169, 113 255) S18" ||t--ceee > os 67 3 3, 812 Missourl ..--s 39 128, 800 1, 920, 340 303, 066 ay 109 14 4, 216 Wow ss Orse yee ves aecsdeer one er see Peon e nae emneeit estan 25 231, 900 3, 251, 621 514, 420 2 29 | oicetenater 2, 596 New Work ssc. cscense eens ssesscscaesceasccemaee sneer 251 | 1, 080, 445 6, 057, 278 1, 261, 495 | 14 152 52 14, 819 Qhio =. ..\-2.cs sasenesenartn wees beck eeneree fase ee creer 245 4, 166, 802 19, 673, 309 2, 541, 647 16 447 79 18, 763 Pennsylvania cescce ener eonaen ceases was ace S os eeee te 164 3, 077, 885 15, 310, 184 1, 944, 208 56 173 213 33, 820 Rhode Adland ss Jsviececoreensaa escorsese ane soeacmeensee 17 476, 000 1, 352, 900 623, 000 6 43 22 2, 228 Tennessee 202.0 he ce eee nee ee 13 131, 700 | 792, 621 192, 695 14 30 4 605 Vermont css iscncialesscpenes nase neces ce one ae cn eine 61 4, 732, 040 2, 468, 150 1, 752, 333 88 183 537 12, 300 Varginis cc. ocaeas cscs sense nana sane ert ees heemaRene oe 14 721, 250 1, 316, 556 410, 678 | 2 30 24 3, 911 Washington! << scenssanis= buen ieee esis an forces ame team 2 2, 500 32, 500 B O44 ie ncrewas BW iabetcccc 20 Wost Virginia /.s2-- an 16 Gi] conc aetaate 1G) Galeeeeee cee uilbeeia ccs cc ouciet ecm ain dd dalata sta eae ene eta aa ciat eames Parca n ils ota BRP aa os o's o'| a's a’ameeiacis 154 gb Ol ory spee” 75 42 QS ic anu be sans) swesiee n'a i1 3 Peery eo See 481 4 3 820 817 3 729 91 489 6 14 95 2 WAAC ESSe os | j ' “so 48 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. TapLE II.—STATISTICS OF THE QUARRYING INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING NUMBER OF QUARRIES AND PRODUCTION, BY KINDS OF ROCK AND BY STATES AND TERRITORIES: 1880. | J ae 5 Number of | t207 s Product in census | Value of product States and Territories. quarries. Copital invested. year. | in cengud year. | 7 = Pa? | ie aa r Dollars. Cubic feet. | Dollars. Total. United States. ..2<..c.0 cc cence carers ce eclce se cade ee aine na seesine Mena een Soe 1, 525 25, 414, 497 115, 380, 133 | 18, 356, 055 MARBLE AND LIMESTONE (@) .--.--------- 22 eee eee ee eee rene eee seen ene eee cece ten ceeeee 616 10, 565, 497 65, 523, 965 | 6, 856, 681 | . TlinOiss: dosc- cscs noseens sa eeeeeec te Sees wae sncce auee a Aae eee me aaa eileen een siae 38 2, 101, 200 13, 013, 139 | 1, 320, 742 Wndianad cock = atjoe an atielocoac cleo est = Selec slate Greate eee mae meee ee min patel ete rete mt teeta teeta a at 65 539, 660 8, 102, 115 | 593, 375 TOWacdebood ccc Mewdiien den en ois ane eatg hie ante eae ae ae ee 6 1, 167, 500 988, 200 680, 200 Dakotas ccoucdesap seen eeeics pet oes ee sees Re GhCene Esa eepen: Rete e Reet ss mec enet keh a ema 1 8, 500 38, 400 12, 000 Wlinois.. .. ..2k sis sae ween ass 2285 cues heehee soae ws Bech asp danacbeteseses meee res cease eee 5 18, 800 | 308, 060 21, 830 Indiana . 2.4: saan eR enee eee Kigald en epee serneiaes se LO wee ccees cas bao cn ete eee pales sletistes meld ee neicia Biotite granite... ---j-smeeue= sees sljceme scikooke ener a $10) wontevenewcnees|ves AO. Secnasiicens tc cete eee een rire Wiasd pine le Selesine tt ots Granite. .:..5......+| Bictite gneiss..5..5. 2. cesses Paper sepa foto oo 14-00) ceceess-ce+--5e) D10tLS PTONIte si. 4..0n— aes ee ees asttd neal eee leeire Rae WO cress esas et Oo. ce acuis ce bed. ca cele see eee ene Bebe debby ecueeee ss Joh GO Fienccumd tos cae. 5:0 San cele's CSU een anes ele aia a fe aol Oe he ad a a eee Beads (Reeeene tamer hinne SEer( (Sree rem enremenege norma osc. Sac | Jel varia ae eens eee |) Granite..1....3/..-.| Blotite granite, ...~.-- esse kaesipn aa sceenetse os Heals 3 LO elaine cn ewan esate el cic AO /ewicn's.~ aloes sala Sie eee Se ab ececbat Rae nnee sis BAGO ie aa seis an telctielec |e as UO ae as naw daeebae audi aerne eee tne eye apare alesis Seikig Stages Heim HLO: (ain Lisa di dig po mtl oie,e VOLO! c te td arovarm mee eter ale eae Ree eso pce ele ne wean als MPAs dad slas es sre bei lam 450 /o peed anise we Seas ce eee eee el aga Voeeale aaah eels Granite .<..5 2.2. ....|) BlOtUtG BIUNLtG. euaesnenine oe ae eens BOE AAs PAS IE: mint dO cose sasicdideaawcl- oO. Sscwaaeangeco es bony ated ecneaueene ie mt eta nicl are le Sa ChO! chan ceimiets cymamtawells Bere setacene dp ee saceuews||s sas OO aca natuesemasqoaee> als Biba ano acess: Be eae OD axed sae nadg re nee ns Br ODay aicisteen anim Peet UOiecnt scr cae voces tenes BING si scct acne anise Boece indietinely lamingGednass tiem. UO)iscenctoactsan ames ses a SARLO Me Briaa ree acme i Year in which D3 Onn oUrwrno = oo 54 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. TABLE IV.—TABLES INDICATING THE AMOUNT AND KINDS MAINE—S.LaATE. SPECIFIC VARIETY OF STONE. f th ati a Location of quarry. County. Name of the ‘Nudividmal. company, or Popular name. Scientific name. Valero wlville nec sccceeste a ueceaes Piscataquis ..... Adanrs a. Merrill, ste ace cou scee wade sereee SlA6 coo ce tee edule os ai lic.ce Sess od acca ees see ee ae 2 | 2 miles northwest of Brownville ..|..-.do ..-.-.-.---- Piscataquis Central Slate Company -..---- $2 MO seidaleol sclb swinedille weisiciecls's se 25S qaieh ee See eee [| SVG SO eo eee ne er eee ne a UO esse hess ee Monson Pond Slate Company ..-.--...--.-.. =O sie Sod ate etise ms | emcee decades ln aces che ne eee AL Wado Greet hee sus Cees eee ee meine ct ele Pa Oneesetweniceek Dirigo Slate Company Seb UaInee Reigeca nee He GO Wneed anucecaabd| Seeded d.cme cals boas ven eee ea Biles ote Rue seen ue ok ere neater SIA Ce Cie ees tbo Hebron Pond Slate Company.scsse-sccecee 5210 cele ners « Shalem sete tenes oales oo eleiee oaiceee Soe nr 6 | 3 miles north of Blanchard..-....-. Piscataquis ..-.. Blanchard Slate Mining Company......--- Slate. sos ccs ccencse| ace tions cota anise aus,¢ «dane ee MASSACHUSETTS—CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS ROCKS 1 Stephen PsA ndrewes soy) ecto mstsunaweblens Pyenibe dsc s-a-ceses Hornblende-biotite granite.......----- Dis Cape Ann Granite Company ...-....--..--- Nita AO Wermacrsiety BL heen Hornblende granite). 2-0-2. ee speemeeme 3 Trumble Granite’ Conmipany 2-5-2 -cces-5.- 2) MOO Antec tees e an) aes GO .s0oice selene eS oie eee eee nee 4 Solomon rumble a2 se weieacs ee one eee ope SRCGOUY osarantalee sh ee ners CLO ss 2)hi: daa aie i ree ea 5 John, Buti ses 5 fac a ewe e ee we cares tee OO lesen open eas i6do hogseee eee 6 | Barker Brothers ear pu sect e ae seit eer : SY ONMEwersee erases parse ts granite 5... -saadeeserone Ti. Mernom brothersyco ot ts gine ewe teeter Pewee Oo cede de csemdiaee |. 45.00: occ tut iaie tele e eee eee ee 8 | Rockport Granito Company .-..---.--..--- NO. uae be ae ctdrece y Hor nbilende: biotite granite.......--..- 9 ir Pigeon Hill Granite soupy. clneinainelew pin oe | (LON eye stn iatnctalie aly : asses neanee sa Seeo eae eee 10 pe Ri Ovdars oeeen st. aoe see oto laea eeeer | Granite..co. sou icaaen Hornblends ‘granite sudbee sacaaeae eames 11 | JER ROR Sappeccescad Woo tadoosoosese TSS 6 yee eerye a= eT SI Wilson) Scare mists mclaren wir ott meta tervee ee | AT ATITEG Ae elo eect 2 Hornblende granite.--.1...-.6.-.:---- 12) Peabody). oss 25-50 tess samo cancels Be 10) f chee eee ae Samuel Prowl -esass.casece steps acces meal a Aoi wesedet[eectO Ll. bccke's (face ee aeons 13)\M5. sO Sem Cele ot hoe eee dee mee eee WOU eelenese Putnam & Linneham: .....225.<.2e.cece es EMU O Miah s anceete alison do)... b2cdssc 452 Seu eee ee eee 14 Ne die sadede samen: sotece emantee nen i Re O eee aes Scott Brothersmiecd-tosasoe soc nene eee low sti Mattos vee ee a0 a's else eisie cae ee eee ee TOTS lO eceeete eee sitter eee ee eee en WaTOO mcincsieat ers HAs Newhall ieccccasens pecisse rsmeseaaee EO 26M calc 200 v.45 2. o cael ee ee eee 16: (dpenfisld.:.acdee yey te eaattee maae EBS6Xi pesos Thomas R: Newhall’)... 2. s.22s.f see ce ese | Syenite2rs22 etewce. Hornblende granite............-.----- TT: ec 3.0) don cines sameinn stots memos Selle 1D) Seis nos ao Pd New hall 222... seen eee Reece eee oes GYUNITOs Sone a ee ee GO» 22 4 .ca.skmegen eee eee 18\f West Andover 2n.cee horses eee sae gOlsesese sa nee J Maddox. 2 siiiese chactehoce dec wens seuenes | Bastard granite. .--. Muscovite gneiss :-22..2ss0.eeeseemeee 19 |) LLawrente <2 scsaschep eae tranetcees ee LG |e ne cet oe Jesse Moulton oe. wiecescesewm sae a warpetstants SELALO eiltelcintg powder nel ieees 7 (eer es eR A es. 20 | Lowell ae ee epee shee e aren. Middlesex ...... Dre Ward otis ace sacisit ep wneemaws mers au Gipltie kaa doseliee. Biotite gneiss (granitoid) .........---- 21 WeMedford jaccecccseecee eee ees Middlesex .....-. | Town-of Medford ox 22. .\aewicnienem sea sepa Dighase. a. s.ccees ene Diabase (micaceous) 7.22 522.22ce eens De No. OG a tere teene lem ater Mea eee nee e000) pase nes sey 1 Nicholas Whiteis.c oencsateeanee eee eee Saas Ke ee tery een [seh OO .2bdscetews dacen ee ease eee 23 | Aghia | Uh Uke eek cae LOE OSS eee aes Hudson, WaUolemaes.n.ccs ccmncuslseenemr eee Granite - 26052. 22 3as|ece eben woes ane ene ee o4 \ Hramin Gh dmcn Aer cageenie sees Onesie eect Ds Go ClOV SG te varomcins Come cttel ne nannies patel Porphyryiecs-sssemne Biotite granite /..2).22.-0 ce) aeeeee ar 25° | Wieshiord ocirvoee hei a oamratna ened) oes AO ssneae ek ace | Andrew Wether: oot ean penn ae teenies Granite.die a deee ae Muscovite gneiss (granitoid) .....---. 26: |) Wiestlord cota. ute cadenae ara cect Middlesex .-...-. \ Prescott, ce Sono. cane: pease =o eeeeaee eet Granite i22.eoeeseos Muscovite gneiss (granitoid) .....---. OT eet sO a eur a eee eee teen re eae Time GO Buea sates | (David Resa esc sc cmaee em sa eeeeaeeee Pe OOns cen cileate aa nae eee (i (ee oe ee 28 OO cones dime ae eeitel > plea ntine os iO, Re esate acne | Swett S& Snuthss.5.20. serene setae ce sese ee weil, Adaeeeseeem sees Biotite-muscovite gneiss (granitoid) QO RRO! sc memes ers em oe toe ree a ee MO Giseree ere | (SOL SpPatMainow, oon bck sles eee tan See HA CL) "La carn acter esate cee GO .sced35 se58 saeco eee eee BO\eR TCO ee rea belomisine Cee t een tere e st (Of Wepre. eres Pt | Benjamin Palmer & Sons...-...-...--..--- se rOO! 2 0e ae eee Muscovite gneiss (granitoid) ....----. | 31) Westford Eazn pee cowscclece nner ace Middlesex ...... William Reed. jase deee ere sec ete staat ane ne Granite... Joe eee Muscovite gneiss (granitoid) .... .... Bo tots. C0! see cec au ects cme komeheenenimewalies ALG: epee ipctamee | Samuel Pletcher: eet nace te eemewecee cad i ome Petes ® Sees woe AO acne a fe bee wind lee i eee ee 33 AVP scuseceemssien eee ces sah ea nee iO) Aveo nawetee Dek Ot: 0s PL NRE ie ore 2c ea tt eee Metal nic ae le £2 eGOU ale eee eee GO... abso ise edeeee peer ee eee 34.) Fitchburg a... otensae=seleee tate “Worcester ...... GaN EE he a Na Eos - do ......... | Muscovite-biotite granite -7 waswelges «pCO ein ceweyetaniede ee aap s 3 Spo oo eee ae BERNE wren cys SCOR 4 Dark gray Trrepulareecqsaessee cca 5 Dark gra Hew jomtsse-5 -.os.sc= 6 oa 0 ee aaa sic sen 34 “ 3 Trrertlartcesescesese aes Pea 7 se a Reena cece sew oes = ModiuMucen es semeeee= eee e aoe (UG) pane S AEBS Se ene Horizontal and vertical. - -. QO rete tented alee sean needs salar <.- | 1830] 8 ME so nurse yeaa cine nC ae em eee fetter eine EL Ofelia aint a cla alas esnicig =, c)m.- | wink COCO RIE dering Secale gee eae OO seigenesaciad|enaciec wscsesom sed 200) sohsecpebedeenese sane Horizontal, inclined, and ||....do ....----.--+-|--esee-eeseeeseeee 1850 | 10 vertical. Dark greenish gray...-..- OUST RO an ane semaine near MSE BLY 0 feteclateiela «ain (cmm eles Horizontal, inclined, and vertical. Pinkishieray 2222. ssn osc dit) seep eB aces ape asec ~ AUD) SS egos neenEgSnoretBe AUrracularie peepee ss scs- 5: : SICH EA Volts oleins ees e acces feo OO 3S sbernsesSs5 55555555 _ Ale! Sos imescencsecpoar. Horizontal and irregular, Pinkish gray . ha ee ENP EE TAY recaisis'e/de's so 2's EIB OT NY: oats seca < Cote cccsneresecreaecae seals GO asa tcns meen nn ee Muscovite granite <. 2. ociecs ate VERMONT—MarBLeE AND LIMESTONE. 1 -Swanton 2c. sls. scseseesaeencene Franklin........ Gide Ro. Barney). oc.ce22 so sceeeree se seese Lyonnaise marble...| Magnesian limestone . a coe s nen eee 2 Wisle. La Mottes.s 2s. seeaepe reser Grand Isle...... Ira & Pi Bal. Seconds oscecstateees see arbleand limestone|....d0 ........---.«sstes sseneebeneeane 3 WO ler see esac ae acaren See Ree ESI sa Saab Ab or: Estate of Peter Wleury <<. '/scaioa-cince- be «lf osetia wee smpe eens Be -G0 sje w ss coe selnene eee Bee toe LON. Manis rae neat ea ade) sete ae Rats luve eaesa te Goodsell’ @Hursh 37.2252 6 ces sone meee se ‘Limestone and mar Yo d0 nev cks os sce clce see ee ble. Dn tavee QO anne BS i ene Gree eaepeane Obscure: essscccnsccccensnille MOG RET Ts pece acl cetsuseeeeeeren ee || 1844 | 13 IW Obese. se snccee tere ls Be CO) ap ccsaeeteaccaaees ss BEA LO) ee ee ctetcamernetase ven, PhICK: case aes acee=|l PeMON Sera sens esee sea dele ean eens = s 1867 | 14 | White and mottled .......]|.... Ov sees cee ee cas: SHUG wamesdase Ueowaskanaaapseet dG s.sheee Kobra ceticqamee PeOO eee estas melo cater sm eemonaaanos 1850 | 15 60 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. TABLE IV.—TABLES INDICATING THE AMOUNT AND KINDS: VERMONT—MARBLE AND LIMESTONE—Continued. SPECIFIC VARIETY OF STONE. Location of quarry. County. Name of the isin te wg aed ih : Popular name. Scientific name. 16 ||) Dorset -tacncssecccaceseeseeseanicee Bennington ..... Rreedly; & Son fs... sssace.ccstsscanceenp Marblecced.tersstes Limestone 22.5: 2scesceees AP rap 17 eWastaDorset. aces sence cee ou wacer loans Gonnveste ae Hollister, Tyrell & Co. :(New Dorset: Mar- ||. do ioce coctue osc op|acateecescccccc cc Ua seebereeeeeee poet ble Company). 18 soe cOGieecascesaccccms ee eee ese eee ser ih Agogo e) Dla Kentite Co secsesasecers sicedeeeee memes seeclO feceeaees Eton Magnesian limestone ........--.------ VERMONT—S.LaTE. DasNorth field Ge cesnces + sess ek asamee Washington ....) Adams Slate and Tile Company ....--..--. 2) Castleton: tocccepsceche= === eana] Rutland ........ Richard Conwiyareuncese cep acaseee -veped’ elle Bills see Ol cemaisateaies icin ls steteistetistie= = eaare JonO eaamsee noes Clifford éesitchA eld seceneee. poster ee seecile OW Sect Oe se gisbssocenaedo fest: Ades). Lake Shore Slate Company..........--.--.||---- B Wee cn eee n et osatce actte cues st Blue/Slate Company s-2-\...s>~-s-ceeninesnellle 6 Castleton ....-..-----+++-+-2-2+-+| Snowden Slate Company ......... ans 7 | Fair Haven Pierce. Roberts . 2-5. svsccescuesasisc ae 8 dO kcecws foscen bene ceecs senor Jones, (Owens h CO. sero. oe etn ce awe eels OW ERUO cose teead csi nicnessisnis anahseeel Vermont Union Slate Company ..-..-.----- NOW ates 0 eiowccvnacataaaes ose een aoe bce Oeepeseen sa Fair Haven’ Marble and, Marbleized)Slate)||-22-00 cx ----.-.scoscl coneese. se uen ans cena eeaneeee see seas Company. AiG pairs Haven: vcecser cea raeeancee a Rutland ........ Griffiths, Owen & Co. (north quarry) ...--- SAGs scce5 scscc ects |socckweseseecbocus ss bene cee nn a Vy SCG (ees AS Sa eens nao SO oeepstee Griffiths, Owen & Co. (south quarry) ------ 2+OO iccecseccrccceclecccvorcosenccbancssoc esc sonnuneaeeneeee 13 Poultney ziceine ene ne's\e wie ear aa siete necOOi see atiesuee Eureka Slate Company sosne~ ne-s--neees Ua) Gee -O Jacaieaasssimen das|woene wees one font cscamce saalanp sea Te Sd ea soeise Ae aa gash asc soe | 361 AO) manetasaae Globe Slate Company ....-....-....-..--..||- SeGOOceSiceweinbivenae |sqnccehelet au seedcecees sae pe em 15 | Evergreen Slate Company...............-.||---- CO caacebman cpcuan} seme an eee samo sem ese ee tenis e sae ee 16 Lloyd, Owens & Co 17 Re pO VG aon ceo apdemss gated saa enone alle 18 Griffith & Nathaniel 19 Daniel: Colyer t2u2-- Sie.crecsumenensteeaaee 20 Williams Brothers & Co 21.) ‘Poultney <2... cassee 5 mentee c= re Ihutiand -]-.sese Se Vans ies CO). csuseotceceepescoaces se sres 22 | Pawlet: 23.22 snc eseeier ee aceon see 2. GOs tes see seee IMA W elohiat Se onacttasceweceesbesteseerae 23 5-0 2 occa tesa see E eee ene are ee 0%. -2eecae eee USA ORE TP Gee a a ets ae Geiser 24 4 LO Sanu cam ebee Sean eet entios LMOi cshaece cere He INOEUOME eo soe cshe concer le ceareeeeenee 25 ¢CO eis dewaste mat hoe oe eee eee tos POO: See Secepees J SY Waren! pool. acs -ctbes dere cee asce oe 20 | Pawlet.c sccscaseacsareen uses seen Rutland . tere: WiaidtWVaNSeoae- pec. bk eis epessneeaeeee SHBLOs Ue aston. caren 27 | West Pawlotics.2 ces oes ees on en dos beceee FL WitHuchesssacces scene cae tate oe Wace OO etpime coves eee 28 Nines 10 voce ace seine aa ease ee sr een Teer OO eocceceere: Rising’ So Nelsons i Sscee hae cee i ee Oi 200 ts. tem daecnsess 29 JO 2Sicl macstececseneomemore eee tt Ci eee nea A Owen Evans 6c Som :tes.. ce sce petee voeaces beg ehUh eccamasen ee cses 30 \)so2-00 2oc ronan stereo eek e ae aeeeeee s:dO\.cceadaeet The Browne4 Slate and Flagging Company.||... do ...........-..- 31, | West Pawiletne- co scan segoce sae Rutland (22... H. Dillingham ...... Woes seteene Mees am MIAtG 2 eee ae wevan ns CONNECTICUT—CrysTALLINE SiticEous Rocks. 0 1) Hast Killinglyo cesses sees eee Windham ...... posepl: Oatley st. ck 2t2 ot date cees emcees HMGMNCISS . . eum csceunhs Hornblende-biotite gneiss...-.-...---- 2 | Sterling ..-.,-----22-.-seeee seen ee lees i EC eee: Jeremiah We Goswell: oscesece occ sseescane W Granite ss. cc-steees Biotite gneiss .-....---.--22ss-scnsne- 3 |.---dO .---- 2-222 -e een ee eee e ee nnn ee Sac es esc Samuel Uawnsend ¢----1- 0. sseme tel acee Hain SAMO: wen niclendean s:cuin| itn Mies Sia nines die degen deals ee eee ee cayauoae Wea as6 5805S 4S tahoe Gear ae Foae0O etek nent Oneco Ledge Company ............-.:- = CQO bo oea ee a ees Biotite gneiss oo eee ee ewww ee ceeene 3 | Wiallimanbives: cu sta weal cs NOR ween eee Aijanson/ Humphrey -.2-24..)-2-22--25 488 Geiss oo. ider ance: lewodee's ocgakdle’ upkeuaeau sae G}) BOON oo. sey peiente sees see ee ces oni Tolland: eo. Bolton Quarry Company (S. Beldon & Son)|| Mica-schist -.....-.. yee SNES... -..002.-5-p-- ess eeees i) ‘Glastonbury. osscad ese seen eee eee Hartford. 2:1. 22. Chester Hemntz6.c 6-1. eee es recente Gneiss .sesscen tees ase OO 6 aad case te dee eae eee 3)! W est. Norfolkis2 os eae eee Litchfield....... Snow. 8" W Ooster seis soak Jone os Uoane coset eee. 2 Jae ena te eee "Blotite- muscovite granite .......-..--. 9m) (ENOMASLONY 24s teeg eas eter eae ee SEL SARS aertine Plymouth Granite Company .........-.-.-- “Gneissoid granite-’..j... 0-00 5 3-aoseeoh ea eeees 10 | IE. MOW6E oe eissween ak: toes een ee eee 11 | JONRY OOTNIS isis enaeeneen nes etnias sae 12 Sylvester D. Hill ........... 13 |. William: Ritehorss-eeeence he 14 Thomas Ritch oe. 2e-e esse sateen cones ceseres ae 15 Wheeler Beers. -5 2428. scapescernesnteuneee 16 Spring di WilCoxhe se seers et esse eee ees | 17 | Patrick eben foo" ee a Ee Reds rei Sh et 18 |. PTANGIs LOUDLY aes Ente e te et oeastemcet 19 OW Blakeslee; c-5 ee csaeco ee ence oeneee 20 CoD Allen (2'quarries) 24. 32s2e-4es20 hee ee 214) eetes island: 2-500. casecce 5 oraees John Beattie io 3.<- = ccwecaieecsusonseeemeaee edi Stony Creek tasers. s es eeesecicae ee John Robbins’s..cu oe eee eee eee eed Recor hee ® | 2. 0007. aiare aeons 23 | Haddam ............-...2.-2..+--- Isaag! Arnold 232) Sse. shpecose Md ceseeeee Ginsing Sele sates "Hornilonde inte eneiss 22s 2saneoee eta Middletown (21 anno e eerenes Barr. & Wihitmoressessies nen c eek ee eee eee FOOD nsee beeen cor QO! fe Soret cies ner ecterne seen 20 WLYMOGn 2 saee= seen wesrese te eee C.J. McCurdy and E. E. Salisbury......--.| Red porphyry granite ‘Biotite Pranite 2 Js. pees e eee 26 Ly me (6 miles east of)............ Luce é& Hosking \.i..ke deceec cnc loe eeeen Gray granite 21 ew OLEtOrd 2 eee dames ene ee J.B. Palmer:& Cov. sAbeeune. sede een Granite ....... 28 | Niantic (24 miles southeast of)... =|) Warren ‘Gates’ Sons sno sccec cheats coceeey oie BE AO a seca ere 20EGTOtOne toauianes see etnes sence en sae -| Groton Granite Company..-.-.......------||- EEG) OC SS eeedemeel peri ROS SAEO OTe chal ibe cucetoe eee ake Charles i. Stoll ess232220. see eee eee PUB cere BO aene OL. | Groton s -zancectnes kotmice ete scan 2 ater Gray. & Company... ccs as -eeeeee Granite pc esace ster $2/) Mason's island cece: cescck veces laces F, K. Ballon BAAR Bat 5 J sebtwastsek aoe cas eae do Sia aAono rood son STATISTICS OF BUILDING STONES. 61 OF ROCKS QUARRIED IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. VERMONT—MARBLE AND LIMESTONE—Continued. i) at STRUCTURE. GEOLOGICAL AGE OF FORMATION. | 3; Eo Color. | as ; ; Jointing, bedding, or natu- , 5S Texture. Stratification. af ahi es hy Period. Epoch. e r White and mottled.-...... SUS OSE Sos Sanaoberesccse Massive -....- Serene Mivenytbick=2ac.vescsesee 6 LowerSilurian ya. |saecas mere cece eee 1840 | 16 eee 1) a eee ween ee tenee TEE sees tee eee wee eee ween te ah ween wee we eee eel ewes Ogee cescenacecescs cs Ser Sen eneuswwd veleccoens cence cocneepee 1850 17 Peri sspiniceaws'sisspe- == 0000) ap etesceée me cteoke Beet OO facets es siteaicneccassae| seer CNL are ea Si eae se atae Oleeses ve cits cs lsainsetne seaecuertas en 1827 | 18 VERMONT—S.3atTe. ; - fippiae-piack ............-..- HiNO@ericce rete omeae aes ca nen Rectangular ............-: Even and smooth.......... Lower Silurian. ... 1 pa) Se sre Oreo easctosmamee tence Mhomboidalv. ss ose. e =. ip ic AOkeentocaensscciecsecas 2 oc G a a Beet UO teincuensiessnseanae sone ea get BNA TOCtAN aster 1 AO secs as emeenaceccell ae 3 ’ ar. | Purple and green .......-.. we elae Rhomboidalyaca..casas0s~% Reonlary. casesuscoasiaacs vice 4 Blue and green.........-.- - Trapezoidal .........-..--. pees OO teen eee sem eies a acases's 5 IRE Done s> aca sock eee Rectangular .............-. Regular... cceess 6 Darnis and green ......... e BhOmpO Mal ease se aes Even, smooth 7 WanMerated 22.4: .s.2--20<. . Sor OD anses jeskaass sass aie rece teat, 8 Purple, green, and varie- UO) aes daca endaceae PoC Oaacesiacinastssoocess secs 9 gated. Variegated, variousshades.||....do ......-.--......--..- TITCCUIAT EL ce tc eccedes aes HV. OWacss sob seecst cnocased: Ea One oe ee ie coekalsec eee detent carezee 1852 | 10 pet And purple, varie- || Fine ................--.--- Shhompo dal ee scec es een~ « VGN tage amteiate cinaniaioes niaatas LOWer Siluvian- <5 |scecsncs scsscwscccas 1876 | 11 gate PRTG RV ATIC LACM ace won| - 10 cons) sac stisecscesiaind OSes aenasa loon sie ess sameOOngsescacessesdessccns. Sec GO) aeitacs Seances |= saeco ona casseeees 1876 | 12 tO RMR itieiawin ecu .s a> < x0 pode ON panne ces cjainiee eins below ‘Trregular - sfareesucerasces Bee Obcccerseceraeserececes FeO aoe naicanteallseee -|, Glens Palla Company -. 2.22. seencn- sees SErGO doshas ace cemsen ca 0 os Jen ante lee eee | (Crown Point... tieceecenece osname Hiss0X Want aeeoey Era Clarice cece cman aes oem eons SHULO scene rh emew nls » SCO ys ain sale 5 viesp niece sia eee ete 9) | Willsboroughssc2---sssseeace eres =O eto e mere. Lake Champlain Quarry Company .-...... pa hO Cotcsspee seet eae Oe Coenen 10 || Plattsburghy..2 ote seecte eee ereee “Clinton .......-- Burlington Manufacturing Company.....- 20 oss casmae sods caf secles Sk matine da cloacae See eee 11 | Gouvermeur 222) sececsee eee eee Saint Lawrence.) Gouverneur Marble and Whitney Granite || Limestone ......... Magnesian limestone .......-..-....-- | Company. 19.|" Three MileiBayseesseusaseee sees Jefferson ......- Oven Wishk -cossacctpeencdstectsecacisesse Sere |-ne OO ..2-cnseeecnens 600. .coss, cece at Sees tee eee eee 18} Bowvilless.. S22. sees deeeee peers Lewisiecse cena TS Carter 2 user se ecae ne dene een L100 psnsarceaserer™ | Limestone « aniee cael tacatablee see Ente 14} Taleottivillesscsseecesssebeneneemer wee teen Fane |} Meichor Aner itr soso case fewer aene seen see 02 acc eccaccee lata eed an suid deeds aus arene ane eee 15° | Prescott .2<-ccic2 cee tons sete ste Oneidass.= 3.5025 Byan LChOM ss one seme gi eweaneac ese eile GO te ce ctaveceeue Magnesian limestone .........-------- ! 16:| Prescott: .sGencsse ce cosesemscseere QOnelda.cs5.- Vane JEL OG Asha, ODER aceite miele erase sera eras Limestone)... >see. Mapnesian liméstone ..-.. 7.2252 seeee. 17)| Canajoharie=. 2. sneuescee esos Montgomery CHarlesiSba pers te ere slehewin soto sciete ies eae WECOO Win en aahereene ono 6OO Ss cle nnis ed enn sae ee eee ee eae 18) -Slribes Ai) \- ee eae coe reece ae OOo dames Shanahan w.0<. sesh. ce waeise sieaeeae DE (1 oe Merrie $2.00! saves esc e vache pee eee ee 19 12 dove. Jb obec ote seer enn ae eee AOA wer e-lseee EG ig gle ti i eer RSS rere Sear asso ee Sees Wes ee cea he seme 210) a one's wate velo Se see ea ee 20'|), s2edO".. 2 een cape eeem een semen ees OOP es seenee | James Shanahan & Co ......-.-..---+----- BiG weecel settee cee (OOo cbs vecna's ode pic we poets eee 91) Amsterdain 2.22.6 ese easeeeener es Montromery..24 James Griswold 2.0 cee meen ee eeeeeeue eas Limestone .........- Magnesian limestone ...........------ QO WES sO. samlatna tem eem tect Cees pM GOSCD aan pakeee | James Shanahan 2 catacseeds see qsceaeeane 2800 aaiceniapiaio suet d wosO' vs cares accsacssco aan 23 }2ccO™% Mu sancs akc es eeae ate ae eee ee Oo secs wees | DOL Nee witie scones meses es sbaccinc see LOGinescscccesmoueele o2sQO .vemclneedaecsnenee pete eee 24.\ Sharon Springscecess-s-eeaceeene Schoharie....... \iOhatles J: Srmthe acne scs ean sate eo celamice amare ..do ean ca.aaisininia| sje) ce nein cn soo aa ee ee 25 Cobleskill 42222. smeseen ceseceee an sc QOie sastaneeee Rely co SCANLON aa awe cree se eee e ee aioe es Pee OM eon ee ree ame J-=--GO -- 222 sone eee e es nenennsannnanees | 26.1 Howe's Cavecse susueceeneeseeeeenn Schoharie. ......| Howe’s Cave Association ..........-.....-- Limestone .........- Maegnesian limestone ................. 27 | Springfield Centre................ Otserxorsss.ssee MeCabe: Brothers Coceecccecsse cece ceoas oO pine scnme scenes} cca cAO ccceoed ta sesame ny eee ett 28: Onondaga -pecseaseases esses emaaeeel Onondaga....-.. Hoghes; Brother & Cor 2222 2s ede ceenie SeoOOi don weceeurensies 2010 Sai ac clea see oe oem ae oe eee 20) '}. ce Ol 2 cose alec ence ene meee een 22:00 =. poaeeee He OUT GUL CN WR 7c reteinete tain o's bisa ete erste lanl e CIOS Ene OSes ceca ra donaasascga 5: Je COR eseee eee Patrick McElroy | 31) || Hairmonnty---seeee eee pee eee Onondaga....... bd OO OD NOLS eae celeste senha ale nesias eetes a Bey. oO. ae ee See eee ee #3 OO ee echeceare UB INE a cece can Shae cree aeeneecicicecion eet dd 33°] Momlius 22.25 3ee5s aie ee AG eas ee POupe Hughes at Serene mas Be See Mane Sener Re OGioae wsme terete eee Ci (1 RR ts eS hs 54) SA aDUrn sane eer oar ceeenclee eet | Cay WGA = Pe. sctncls Goodrich & Son . Se emck a eetmmieee en pO. Si aretdame aetna SAO etib ce cea bfe's ele te ete 35: Idee dO:. seas eke eben ees be eee eee dO See JOHN Bennet cis seccesuc sie a see sels tates cu WOO Davee deci 2200O .calese ae cicle hey n'e sine aaa 26 | Awburn-s!sy col pete tee eee Cayngas-..22-% Alberti Garretceserae +=: aeseheresena eras Limestone ........--| Magnesian limestone .--...-....--.--. of 4 Union Sprin case sass ce eee meee S100 asweccet se At BONG Gio ice ce Zhe eb, eee eer een ee be 20 384° Waterloo : 3.2.24 2tesecueecee eee anee Seneca. .ce5..c.e| suoren Thomas: 2 ..1aeccn os coeee ees e ener < do 39 COs sec eRe eRe Pee heme Atle Sears terrae OT Hmmety eeepc. bet cece cee st sete cere i|..+.d0 40 | Rochester stele ee creer reeves MONTOO se saner ee JAB. Pikesaceeosemeecacsyadaeets anctanaee mol eete do 4\\ | Rochester:..222.-4 +205 aoe Monroe .......- I JB. Bennett 2ass-cerede ces cc eeee ee teiace Limestone 42 | 00.4 clvagciios sens a Sees eae eee Ld Se omen ee | 3. Browns: © 2388 cetacean ee tee tare 522206 43 LOUROY ) ck erel Cee hearers Genesee .--. 252.2 HDs, WW WU COLTON ser. claae teen Soe ue aeons meee AP eich) Co See at Lier eer, kepen eee ay ye 9). be (Oe ouesaen ee Wim SOLO wit! sae asace ee eerste eee centote Hl ore Ck) 45 | Loekport {pepe aera ae aes Niagara ........| Rite Ji Carpenter 3.2562. 2s sede seems capesie| eres do J. BA WOUNE te stcbee henna = Salgisimalnenan eatetiats Limestone Lantz 6 Coes. wae ces helo soca ectae, ean. --do Wie HOplOSan 26 rec ene aisle aa weiner atomic ven a UOvene J. UODGINOGr ecu waccters sn asa shes ecammaeee -- do WY Be fio yaa nn eae sea aisnr coon ecn ead, ly wer GO | de Debellioent2.- 222, sata cee eeoeenaeanas Limestone John Gehaln ne seca Peek a sae x tes ae peta Y2do Mins. AR@HTGS ma mciccaue =o: ances Heal) | obn: Ortners cere snca has sare eas eee wea ee Pe GO AS Napletesecr ese se eras aapeeee eee --do i STATISTICS OF BUILDING STONES. OF ROCKS QUARRIED IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. 63 CONNECTICUT—SanpbstTonE 3 STRUCTURE. GEOLOGICAL AGE OF FORMATION. 5 ES Color. 7 | | 88 a Texture. Stratification. aig ak fig OF Day Period. Epoch 3 2 Tectia Se ee ee SHALES ee mee oe Neti os wage ee Massive se eos ceke ore ce ATTOP RIA aca etipeissia = tenia. HD NSU EB LAG Ws Ba coat tenors sj ators are a ares ta ow mea earae 1855 th Ry ARE aE WGAPEO.uscireos cast cree casie eet Cons ae ee eee Ses Be SRUOge Soe ees neces tare oncllex aie QO eigen se sacar) Stee s cater sien aneet 1840 Otte cr se ae ce ess.ces||-—% QO as csteccetncies ee allrca: Oi ioccmar see nic saree insects OO Sa aetaw ces celtuciae sans OQ tienes cee silcacadcwue toms oc aes oes 1874 Ta @ive eee eee | ANG ss ce eo Clivin store Kiet no aeate WeEOrs cesiinrgecs we eecariteee | QOzeeetconetakasses coenilew ce TCE ETS Senge ened [Gals apa Ge ha Ls 1700 2 ees AK dann maga Sater Aa A EN cs i AA pedor tans Pag tom ee tee 1826 GMa ces c en ean a | HunGresaseaac so neasee a eee Massiv @rceciegs-eeneaneh == | Wrregularicsmarceescrsa. see PTIAASIO ee aytwews el lent ahsasas tice eens 1827 NEW YORK—CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS ROCKS. PONG PLAY emeetine || 1834 Dark gray --d Bivens thickccscvcsescs pce. : «ll 18: FA sae, =2-00 emu CLO eet eae en idaais viclas Sc : 2 “Dark drab ---do ityreonlan eo scbcwss cs see4 << OMMIGOLAD ecesisc cine ne cass Fine f TrreS WlaR ees tear cieralae ess 3 D6VONIAN Ei osecc essen ence sates s oa 1872 IBimOs IAC Kae. eels odlecc 0:3 {le0-. a Uneven, MMOCIUMMs cece cies WO PPOL PilALIgIh Solicas cece eee pe ae || 1869 oak PEAY po sicinn ace sel oi Fine, semi-crystalline § bare RSC Las wbs.ne: rib es ce eer eee [eceeee eter eee esses -|| 1850 6 OS a ees — aware MEA Secon ena tos aq wisie whic a Silste QO Lens tegecdince| sedeeswwte dk sache = 1874 Light PRBS secs enh aia = oss Medium, semi-crystalline.|....do .-...--.......------. ED BiCktemar cts cat sis eimieiniai x <= Upper Sifurian’ Piette casera ve ce 1836 ONG PRAY cam clive secs mia Medium, semi-crystalline.| Massive .....--..........- Uneven, medium .....-.... Devonianlesceco- auleetice = his oec se seisiss | 1838 | BROAD ue caw ices veces vebeset|s Pee CO eases as ececls cae | sen OO wcaerndoccsesedesmeapels SeROOuasc eles c cca ciees san Se OOleee cen ameaten leeks tale does ses nee 18.8 DcelO en cemch acces sadeecebs BECO We wcities wcecsadewasec |e Bey AO -cascaneaecsesson ose Cite SS osc steer rere POC wacwacetes zoos tek velssievs vee ea 1854 | Pre Oise cote teks aed TE ee Oin seen ce antes ect c asic dO ere tou cue ee eee aes ‘Even, medium thick ...... DA (ya MEP AR 2 Fee lh nh ee 1870) | (COA Cor ee aan Sen He Bet CO eee cise Secs teresa ail Na S:00\ sone scuree remem s esd Obeseee awe races mee nes lloras OG erates ane cccusoas hess eeee 1885 | QP Cbwye wre CSCOmRNAQ Af Whe - BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. TABLE IV.—TABLES INDICATING THE AMOUNT AND KINDS NEW YORK—SANDSTONE. Location of quarry. County. Name of the corporation, company, or individual. Popular name. SPECIFIC VARIETY OF BTONE. Scientific name. Tule OCS RIN ce sree sree a nee eee Saint Lawrence.| Potsdam Sandstone Company ..-.--..----- 21 Hammond sresdssisseismasecascccnas sO yeteemonsor JAMES MINNOPAD .accccceeecarsetseeeewsemelie Soh FOL Agim ceess sce ape ceas least “Washington .. SeNKWS AW DUG rs eee cee ar er towle aoa 4) Schenectady... <- 2.2 os-scance Schenectady .... -| Upper Aqueduct Quarry Compuny.-..--.-.- Bil) WMINGNCOssescecs sees ceeewce coe ae Schoharie....... Simmonds’ & Bopardus.<.s.-secesnses-n sc | 6 || Hunter's Land "iccee. cece e ccencaee Schoharie. ...-.. Middleburgh Bluestone Company-.--..-.--- 7 | Reidsville William Stoneburne & Isaac Brate........ ord Bolded eescesmcssacweseeosse: meeeae aes Hdward Udell ns stascndteeeites cecease se % O ec eeGOe cepeswccceutase comeecemeenee AMES W MDGs cece sae euriee ates lene er ee 10 | Dormansville Allén Kin itffenSsccisiar osiesist omaclesenaecsess 21) deeds. esas... Leeds Quarries sen. case ss cseeean ceo aasae 42 | Kiskatom... erOseup co MC Carth ye cece asesensaekawe cies 4 TS eee CO coaeesetece ce tek come cette ee Moon eco MGYVOr ie rcccsseseceVicesescuce dd Wer dons ectiisccoste ses see cn eee JaMes Butlers see ge aes hea ewe ke ena Be | ey Ubi ten, mixes ceaasaseces bees ee cares Peters ssup)& C0 ences seetocaae ne seen s ue, 16 | Kiskatom McCabe & Co. and William Dorsey...-.--.. 17 | Palenville Alfred Gyittin sosene -seesea ce ete wees sear Merit 1S) Jee sdO Revues Comancscpeccicass=-seaemle IB UW Givers eecessies at wen sneere antec es 19 Peter Daly & Coico... sescceecn ee csc ts 20 tee GOR ea ccnaeanas soser one aan nae oleate aS. Onder adOn Wen cacaeee once ace extracel alee CO tae te oot ec 2 cacecentcss Mende 21 Asa Cook G00. - so. cen erccner sens wiaeh ama Bine-stone..0.cees2° Sahdstone.....-.-.censess een eee DO OG arose eces seas cane ee oe eee Schoonmoker & Cook os... sc .c. ategs ents eec ome .-.do Phillip Stan leis sect acnexisataes aenteee el Blue-stone dno. Carle. &: Cos 22.2 scans dsaecbesmane Sedo Mean, Goldbaugh, nil ds Sam eee ee cts cere Bete ts" do | Carle & Van Se paioabar oh do Patrick Maoniress sas cce sc ktnaae ss ecleet eile) Burke'éo' Cob cscttesascacest cece sae eee Pea citi | Christopher se pues SRR nA AGeeicescicnAosse Blue-stone | Leahy & Co .- sg am/SG sim a pclae lain a wa isia wl eiete oO O peepee iste ctaret tee es 25200! ocak sac steels ccuvewenee eee David Uende Hees MRL R Ob apes RAR) | TOS | LO es Aan ae ai ae bop AO niece de ss 6 cece bes eee ee Osterhout.& Sheehan-.i1.20-25.c05.-cscent Pr: boys pene ener ee te Pi ey ee cece Robert & Robert J. Charlton ............-. SIRBAO Sok teas saunas PS (0) ne So William Ufaritons 2s descesiecamsace reer Blue-stone..........} Sandstone ... 22 ..<...csee eee eee Michael Coogany -aten4 cece neu ese =sualelens SLO! toresemctelcapcio mia oma ocsceecesckicaue ke ee seen tenee Morrissey, Brothers co. ewscncscri new eesemine Blue-stone-.--.---.- Sandstone: ..c0cccveeycasesne teenie ee Patrick Oonlondy.csde.nceaseconeeteeere ee: BIAOO pebvacacctetees 2:0 scape lc cbcbconems ce eee eee James FE Barkex cin. cascesieceameaeeme cic aod O pain ee ae sete as Di -( «| eee SAE HN whee Michael Lam Diec-c seen beeanmeemmeceeeee Teen CO yaisiscicinecine oats ale 200i cecaneccokee os ausaeeee ee oe Hw Michael‘ He Pisher soseeessc= ceutaan cine te Weed! Seed sama chemeas Are i () een ee eemeery Shae eo James Highland, P. Urel.......2.0..esece- Blue-stone .........- Sandstone sesecas-ocaee ica ons ceeeee James Haggerty cece vesssesces enesadoiscr ReaO meee cee saan 2 2nipGO wenceccaeetesvech tence teee eae rea Thomas Conlony ca oncose sae Caceee eee eemeee EtOO Soa eane crete teal Bee i Ce eer BACAR EES AS icc Thomas (Grant wicennmaesecccatec mace aneece PSO Set pag ced cone els gechO! sue e tel ee Sbedeneancees Eee ae eee Patrick Bahan Ga.ticsadiex osowcduawccceaee eer OTe N ceae tees le do STATISTICS OF BUILDING STONES. OF ROCKS QUARRIED IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. NEW YORK—SANDSTONE. 65 STRUCTURE. GEOLOGICAL AGE OF FORMATION. | 5 | ES Color. ~ | a! Pai Srey | Jointing, bedding, or natu- : | eS Texture. Stratification. ral aneface, Period. Epoch. é RS a as Cece CORTRD Msn aocn c= sas casi tec 3 yer parallel (tcc cee ces Even, thin to medium...... Tower Silurian’. .ilasccsee-scuonpcheese 1856 “Clive | RBS gar PACES Sar | GaeeG Ce Mets ae Teter TROLS ULTLOD seratat atcha | JOVON, PALAllel oo... seater sec Even, thin to medium ..... Devonian 23... cto -wsecreee se oeee seeay fie ee WORTSO. 2 eocs ce geetcaareeels COO tesde aces cen esiccases es Odes Cea sents Rambe as LTRS SB ieee VE SR Ts yg pins as THE? Ast Seese nee iG. Se hc cee eee aes BAe Par 62 aa IIT Lae OTS tece ae eee a C0 te aca heseus Gaerne waren note ti oe 6 eee Set ti AS ET fees Boyar eA es GO esdotasorceeeee Ev en, thin to thick........ SoU eae ae NSA ete ae eee see eee fon o 34 3) Se BOO hone ccd eae ees cente Ses OO meee we ta coe eae Even, thin to medium..... Pe U0 eters ste ase eclcuceue Som cones meee DUS CS hoa oe eRING 6 ieee cee arene Even, parallel.........--.- Tven, thin to medium I GMONIIG sa ei teciat| Lec meate cn eces se ae 0 OS 6 eee eee PAG as et tte ec coats RAO ae AS ORS ST to JOO) caste Stay rda Zeina 's sania © PROOF aks Gie eee ssl ca ute arn oan ene au Or cet the soba sa cate GOs eee ate ew a eee ae cal Fores COs rest crea ee “sea el ee em IE A 2S... 4d Oe eee ne tae eee eee ee? aa Seca ores CO fae aas sia sam ce gene CRIT TARRY Bois aoely Op ee meres fp Se re BEEGO Ee Sarma @ AS S52eeree BAO aca ee dete cae tue SOLD fea Ee lab alata ee ate ots Medium to thick ........- BEA se teee ete cie te | Serc ele ae ase cae cael MUSTPTAV ~~... sce ---- i Ep ha 7: We ast Mae Mee 2 lig Even, parallel............ Even, thin to medium ..... DEV OTUAN aise agi nal noes z CA Se A Les Oe [toes OG a seen as Beers PO sane ae sere wera PLO Aces ice te. ete ne SAR oar OBS COR GIRCC EOD CE Sette eae oh Cp ee UG ne ee ee ee BEE Ge aa RE Ng yee SA ab as aorts at as eee BO OEE ME oe ca Lonaas wen oe acne ous a) ee | Pees UY ee RR se Se eee Ie BLO acters ema ere eS alae Be Es Res: pets BA ee rae 296 fs (VE Ot Se Se MP eae Renee Breer ec oe oe ace ae Ne Se Get ee eee weet eee lee EE CLG ae ate al alla ating x e/a Pehalataia WhO Micawscac seaencenccae ROR came arene cee oe oe goearet NOREEN RI BY tes cristo ns o5es WING Heese ese ane tena NGS Oblate ato ee Bree thin to medium ..... DEVONIAN toa acto eteleease cies sccencanes s OMe aisentiee os clcec asics We Oma be weh een stcme see Re HELO) ocr tinsiciag Sea's eae ope SOc at casks ons eels eae nee E.On Saeie ata a zcld seeae ce ec eee otras aaeels = kt he hace TRCOIS cot a tae ee eae Br QO ene once caeg eee. ‘Ev en, thick Geass cee ai aees DRG (DI See ee pete eed Ce Ber HETE CENCE Pe OG GS ta ee SALON ena ae oe eno Peck Me acicalinteisiaeic cm aaia's ats Even, thin toi thi¢k= 225. ~~. See Oe er tte sera bs eal ean oer ae miaee eas adilitcas. eo pr Motivates eo tee nb ec dotteseeeazseenoes SEE RG cee Bamber een bi sascce [eaten ner bicduay cal vanes bomen tea sehen =— RU SS ee i | ae OO} saest sees eee eee sa Ke Bree UO eoa tues cen cmaneine Soa Oo ae ee als SIAC C1 ee NES | sett AGH RAS Sas) ais i CB tage elas fae ae SUS es Be PAUO we rise caine enincecehas eaeema seca eesioa Hap stone -akees ene W77 Weslo Pek eect eee 2500 eet ese ea te Philander Ee wesdellis senses saner esse BSA leer era eee 178 | Castile SO Ome ioe acters George Sutherland -222-oonesessee a ceieeoce= Sandstone ..:.....-- 179 | Belfast Allegany -......| John Lang .....:-.-..---------.. .------- Par O sack ie ceaneeeeel 180s kamestowi rece -ceeees oe ese = Chantauqua ----dohn McVeigh o.-emesn esse ee laene sO. tas tieteccet anal 181. | Jamestown s- ---e-oaWere co=- wees Chautauqua 2o-.).d. O sorienaere.s veer cee des tees eee as eeeee | Sandstone ......---.|- . | NEW YORK—S.iAgTE. Si Lani p ton eeeece: ache ke ebiee sa eece Washington ....) New England Slate Company ...-........- SAL oon ote cae cwee cae |a cin se ee ein aeleia sip ein tet ae Ol Seed ocean cbocee ecterek es tena aeatelee ne WO wel awecn eae Boston and New York Slate Company...--. $s UO sin eminelcicnsocedals cesses ena ennrec a0 lita selene eee aa res ats tsa seen et es GAA Ae nD Col ride ee Saga Oe: David Williams & Brothers ............... 2 Ble SCS ass oSPeR ei oncracacimacen be |i a2 WE asncaaca Lyman lS WiALteny a= cs sence ss senser eee Buea cOO Get ccs cecc nas see ae eee eens So Pa saeabe aac foe QO ee eels oss ae Soe eee ee eerie eeree 6 | Middle Granville = <2 ----- es Washington ....] Penrhyn Slate Company ..--.--.---.-.-.--- Teed o-beacehanteanes cas eeemeowrasalls besOO Ran eeeezecc Albany Slate Company. ......-............ eae Boe LO ee en mere etre ate enrol eater ete aaa re tee CES asec Middle Granville Slate Company 9) Granvillé). scn.e-ceneeewenmesoecetet ema GOeernce=seen Empire Slate Company’ ............-.--- 10 fos Gd OSS tea enc ce satiate cee eae eee males scOO Mecsescvees Mettowee Red Slate Company .-........-..||.--. 11°) Granville oo scuvestesosceeceesces om Washington ....} North Bend Slate Company .............-- 12") Salom. < ccnceeeserassanteteeeaee eet OG. eee secant Salem Slate Company ....................- NEW JERSEY—CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS Rocks. 1 Bergen Hills. co.cerg ee eces atest Hadson: ss.2o25- Béerpen. Hol Ce cee eee ne eee eee | Trap-rock ..25.s<2<- Diabase . ..s2 20 snemonessenriee on eens 2 | SDOVEL Ls ccseececanenteet eae tone ae MOorris.. Coarse, conglomerate -- - - . Trregular 1873 | 20 eee atone shew cs sats'a's 5) | BHT G Goce eat Se nioe Sass Helle cab atoiaa an seamen aren sneal eee wean tcneiu oa stcicsasst | IEYIASEIG) ~-0.--seecee Dusemers ooo Philip Gankerac. cet eee ance teeeerunes $54 DAG RBIS cee eee oe eamine eters SAS Ope 5-35 ck Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western R.R.||.... 16 | Shickshinnytceccess::) setae ore 3s) LIU ZOTNO aecw nets George Nicely, o2- sce. cceus Seemest canoe ee ss | 47) Danvillesescescns pee etemeen bees Montouriiasce.<- CAC. Hangh agent." chee doe eceemees oe eee of 18 ees ae ee B cS e se beinbc abitee selaee | Wyoming ...... Brownscombe & Kings). ~ cs. ss eccos eens lm asQO ccacwlcicesnipene| susmmencceneece pees SSeS 19 |. Neti « meeen ee EEO ee a eae ene eee ae eee ee | Flag. SEONG «ioe wninee dl ccaaneeupcecesee seen ee eee ae 20 Sap Gio Seah Wyoming Stone Company...-..-..---..--- || Sandstone ...-.---:|-sc«se-be-usace.s 6. ee 21 Wyoming .....-. A.R. Fordyce & Co ...-... Fae aouis cae cee 22 ek CES Se oA ee Brink ad nippy. cece se eee eae on eas vans 23 BG) eran Moses Shields & Son.....-- 24 | Br: “Susquehanna - Harmony Brick Company.. Sie ae ae re See poe On teaacmnae -| Joseph Botte) Rai ceige ete 2 een fae? be dic oe Sinise cin otal eae Se cin be divipe 5:2 ele aie See eee ene 26 Susquehanna ---| MoCoy &Co) 2.5. Sete wn nace setae se se soe Ping-stone 5.02. 2502). sence ds << oe. o0t nce eee Ree re 27 | Mainsburg.---.-....---. Sais seeee| ODN eee eae Mainsburg Flagging Company ......------ SaNdstone occ ee~ slosh ecwin ve was ene nan as =e eee 28) || Antrim 32> See eee ee eee mn LD ieee es Patrick Bradle bY 2 Sais ns el Doweeeiak nee aieele oad) ccicaciccs ceases) Seine cco acs vc eden ae's's eae 20) -Marrandsyill@2.-.ceeceeemceeeiacts Clinton . alates Bich Balke Seon ceo sec en eee ees Sia wt OO Sicis wag waite been \ ccs cane «abies 6 ce ee eee BO tes. CO ces ctan aceite aaa mame eae ate Sale lOYe cutlets lay DLO NEON RILEY) wees cece ince aaa e tele ere poe 31 |} MeV eytown -<.--S222256¢ Carboniferous -... ROTA. 2s avictsisma in sates. Medi esesiae: wlecneccae Massivelaccotes cases seen Even, medium .....-.-.-.- Carboniferous .... ae 2A SHES Cncne tbe ee CoatTsBGse sas sess = 5. ac - Endistinetsstsesceaesecens- Uneven, medium to thick. .||....do ......-....-- POO oonacocscaca soscceue Seni ae Soe Oe eee Massive se22e8es2 sent st eee Even and thick..-.......--. | oO Waesu rahe ute: Gray and light brown..... SOR CU Ree meet doen tons Trresulaneeaeccene eters Uneven, medium ..-.....-.-.- ba. UO eaten eee se. REUAVeo sews s:cccsisesscaacen|l's ee Og tee cemee soe tae see. Mew is tears = see eens Soe eee Migeny thick s.seceesteaacnn « mee CO eee eniselsatard EMME eintieanis’s = oe oe 1868 1861 1840 1870 1756 1849 1840 1800 1825 1808 1831 1840 1830 1881 1866 1836 1869 1840 1840 1840 1860 1879 1850 1878 1812 1875 1874 1840 1856 1878 1868 1780 1867 1843 1850 1878 1865 1864 1860 1850 1840 1835 1830 1867 1876 1860 1870 1860 1870 1878 1878 | 1878 1871 1872 1836 1830 | 1880 1868 1880 1810 1830 1865 1867 1872 1865 1870 1850 1840 | 1881 ae 876 11 12 13 14 15 = SCOEOBND AFWNe e SCOBNIA UPWNe 72 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. TABLE IV.—TABLES INDICATING THE AMOUNT AND KINDS PENNSYLVANIA—Sanpstone—Continued. SPECIFIC VARIETY OF STONE. : Name of the corporation, company, or Location of quarry. County. individual. Popular name. Scientific name. 46 | Connellavilles.-ceocheccss ceaeeee se Fayette. .......- Christian Shibley anes .. esses eee e en eene ae Sandstone 47 | Uniontown (3 miles southeast of).|....do .--.---...- James Fraser.......-.------------+---- Zee) |fomne! Okseane sic fence bea 48 | Uniontown (4 miles southeast of) BIR So dagacsee D. Shipley ..---..----.--+--++2--++--------|]- ae AQ) bineieaneis ee oman lone 49), Waynesburghiccess--02-eceeeeeee Greene. ......... Simeon Rincharticssn-cceecnessncecite cei: eG Peewscelanpe caer peter HOS West DU nionicesvecsieseee cen eeeerl: SEI OS eosctener John Lapham oo. << aceon see eC weievio ewer ise COO SBece eee mcse mi) Peck 51 | Washington (5 miles west of)..--. eee a ema Desa OP OLbY icc camisienouisice's se eis alta viealamele Sandstone 52 Washington (3 miles east of) a Hallam r0s Geemene see tea a cacieictele se aiteteta = Sets Olek s saccicn sesame aloes 53 Washington See BOS SEAR John Brady .-.-.- 100 ceewaceee ete nee 54 Canonsburg eee eee canceeenie John Cook “Freestone 55 | Monongahela city -.....-...-..---|- Williamp Nelson saeeecs es sees cenae cee s a Sandstone SS eSewiCkley esenee a= aoe eee ence United States Government .............-.. Sandstone 57.) Walkers Maisto enuaeasens sce ee re Pee pute gb, Cincinnati, and Saint Louis R. ||....do -...--..--..---]- R. Co 59 WSO eeskws pear th con atten tence a 2 Ohana scepene Fsaac: Welker: opeosenianscreweeiieescniieae parC enianaemamens eats 59 | Mansfield Valley............------|- Bet! (Oboes IM). Browil saan. wccetatssnsaececene = === ==|\ aan O's Seton emnle aerate 60 W Pittsburgh esa. s-cs nes eemseemee| Beil hs seecuro EROS OROUEC Gos. copeasurecse ea ceeeremae tee POO o snesenlesocel 61 Allegheny ...-.- Jesse’. Scharite.. s: scks nore se ane sanes oes Sandstone 62 BR dotsce ss ceseae Hive ONOS). cee cvee ce pee cav ce cmwaies cece ee eas sno cenacacuebeels 63 Be COP ees ae Seely eSOs eee tare cne sae re aac ae eee emer a OO sense car esas is 64 |. SEU yas 5a George. Wright. -2.c2..202¢cesveeeccaios size WEG een ca ae.e Tae 65 |. ar hlO; Seeeewerees ALE Hartigan scncescncgsceanmekees ee cere BECO eae cosines emel ence 66 Allegheny ..-..- Henry JiaMes has cuss nce wcmecedemanm seme eet Sandstone 67 Ree UG i eee er asec Ritchie & Sauerbrier d 68 bsROO) eee cca JoOhn Schetwzel jtesactcssteseecws ee ecene es 69 -do een cs | eo Obn Mirekenstem' sus. ssceasewenese cence 70 Bee Cp orrenecnGso Charles King Sesee qos ence saa ee eas aes ae nea #1) ANG DONY -cece seer ese eee eee ees Allegheny .....- | Hred::Altevater ...2.2secceres eacpsecns= acl 72). Baden. «ks ween ceeesee yeeieetesee SOAVELiewace skies To Gk Gallagher: Ses) ssssssm cen anne cohen ones 3 oe 93° | Baker's Landing cocnecsc-seeeee ra EXO eure sitar oe cle Reedids win pene psc eecen eee eee 74| Beaver Walls’ d22co-ece se semmeaeee ES dO athoccceaen JOS. Arman oe aoe st a rigewne es eee meee 75 |) Homewood Soiczccesemmencseus seals asl Oere ms taal ates AL SOV cose iechaeren « getaennine minciaine nie eee 76°) Wampum scccp mete comers ss cetsner Lawrence....--. DACOD LTIdAY ss «nese nae << vecat ees eee 07) Sharon ho escc ee ovectemineinss weiss IMOreerie. vale= lo | JuOv DL PARGErsOll. en. <2 ene+ a ceuouseeaecens ae ED Pet Corer enn cima a see San Soc fale ClomensiHermmann s,s ens eeeaer eee eee 79 | Greenville P. LOG ie ae see eta aaceue aan ae £0"| Shenango -eeeceanscese eee eee eee Craigs, Pinkerton & Co 81 | Greenville Amy & Kappenberger << eae | 1880 | 75 US Yiewee Ge cmissaacs scence. OVE isch. eine Ayncinacricr: IMASSIVOisacsicisies sisscseaine EVEN thiCk meen = 1860 | 76 (Se 00 2-62-66 eee eee Pe eC Olean katwa eas cists a= ant Ce AM eee e ete see come Medium to thick ....-....- ines al 1872 | 7 Pee ee ee cieniceaes ca wes Se OE AEEER Les Co OC ORE Se Oise eee ete aac nae Even, medium to thick. ...) aC Os sete eiee ene lactic aceon aueiee anes 1878 | 78 JSUSC Oa eee eee Hin Oisereweteeme eee at stems “Even, Parallelyes sz cca scas VON OUI sama seines sexes lees CO's sseeee tecnocliast. cette te aia eeiere 1868 | 79 DELO gS ee ees aoe wcrc cis BAO ce atennmae sama acietaa £200 G) Bend SPyioe caper pone Merk SR eile oT, CO eo tec cmslare ovedauxenateteaes 1876 | 80 COST On So Oe ee Jey i SEE ta) ele oe irc Even, parallel. ............ Byen thins... sn denser es Oarboniferous ... | 1871 | 81 MPC taal sclesicaces nic asco POO sr easee car keecen sacs De AD eis tame aioe ea ean = al ial nd abel seat samme tet Eee. See One asia s aeate 82 Ci Beate tates cea ccsein< Alem OO acacmesiausucaas'sis sisi ee AOsss ro -mise aan aaa nee GOcnsuts Sissons oecacee eee O haces eases 83 ‘Gray and light brown - COatsCeeeesre or ecc=- Anca i Mansive.gc. ul ert ieds os. ‘Inre gular, medium to thick.||....do .....--..--.- 84 Gray Fine Even, parailel.......:..... Even, thin to medium ..... || Sub-Carboniferous 85 Gray Even, parallel. ..------.--. Even, thin to medium ..... | Sub-Carboniferous 86 ---.do Massive Hens thiGkie. septate re Carboniferous .... 87 arene oes eG ae 88 Axe aG Geer do : 89 .-.do “Sub-Carboniferous 90 Gray Corbonifereue Sate Ssere ecebecreccce \| 1879 | 91 ee ee eT eee oe fame a 2 aiciae sel tine | Aa odio ow emaw ontstaneelles O0s cass cavanacececeemccilae OO Jew sence caat|cecwen desde awe tees 1835 | 92 beg 1K) Warinbie TS dopceeetnes : “Uneven, Medium se seeaee- ‘Sub: Garhoriiferods NcioWcm ae ewtad vais || 1868 93 --.do Even, parallel............. Even, medium........----- Dovoniann ce. nceulsscseckerewoeee esse || 1840 | 94 == .00) Endistitotecs aed tc. look: Goce iesay meee Pe Oe sem cecaticcinncetenabeeworns. 1835 | 95 PENNSYLVANIA—SLATE. | DAMN OG sascineniscoss. ca. iG yee sgecces See Seeecct: Nba ty niece aotincd SAE Aaa Smooth, even.......-..-..- Lower Silgrian<..-|-0 05. s5--2-se-nnseee 1863 | 1 U2 8ULGY «Gee SCE? BBS: Saas meee AOhe rac ete netin waclseacele Seek On adams aes wicieee were se Smooth. g2c sn asocee ae oie Pe OMe setae secon nace cc coca es cicmeecae 1867 | 2 Pe CO LE ei ciicn pe acecn seca POO neseas ce tate sseuenec DidGiac coeeee at als. cinew eins Lk LO ae eee ete eee eee eat at One seen a cache ce cuit cca saz euls sec 1865 | 3 SPO eein acta Siaisiasccie sicin's-< 0) “Compact inte Reme cectteeiale te mse Os toes aisisinlciacisisisiele wis’ « EVena- oc tesseeesastesseat Bere Ota eee neta | sncisis enema te aleere ss 1872 | 4 [Loe bie HOO c sae deine naa canoes oe Le Ci Be oe 8 She ee a a Foc. COS ee See aL OE eee ee One eee he cranial cisnie ataleimeichin cleus sents 1872 | 5 ? sri PG ccsacs cows cc sas. Compactoas-act-ssseeense Irregular ecvscessee cesses Smidothssusves see osecer oats NoMOWer Silurianess-ke cs accaencste s/s ocecrs 1875 | 6 BGO eles cesses cc cacecens ea Oka cmaine ds capeiaaedeee ee Oneal ee Beceem ceo = a CLOs crete wine er mame ces ca Beer Cd eee acieete ate aileu card see caielatae ane ters 1853 | 7 MUON ate wn tvecceccecas- [Wing etee oe aac, wees eG eee eee ee one ene OGs Pilec tet deeee corns BI OMe a | es sees ae see 1872 | 8 HA) eee Bee eee Pere sa cs teitas Wore as O10 Renee cade sak eeces ‘Smooth, OVEN ster eae ce ores eI Ol cnc mnes omens lon auels one anaes 1875 | 9 ie tint. -..5-...-.---. 0-00 022-2. 2s wenn een eee ‘Variable ...-..- ee eee oe Be Oi maccsmecesocleas aes seamen aera eel 1875 | 10 JAC 0) FC) SS eee HUNG meopee ct ances aces ses Rhomboidal 11 BlNOssea cer ans tesco gecass Bast O wecisecisntscacecvoe nds Trregmlars: scsceses x ncncris See anes 12 (ERS oA ee Shea anonspe endl) Seebeoaseecrr BE AISO04 Rectangular | 13 THE oes Aen rete ronice oo dH®) ciel sSencectbaéeenser anc lliad raonccse mcbenan50: See | 14 Dir Kap LUG ams ce. oc 2 ciesac. EE Oto tats oo me rive wie cies ce cle = fem CO Weancoeddatas tae eaten ee | 15 Dark blue and black ...... PinGtemmanel is a aawn seis WEIN Oy sete inapise te aerial a oe eee Res ere Pa Ae ala all etal CLO se cinete oom ma eicie amie ie cigs ete fs. ctere Comeranecasctel voce dO sesee cesses | ena 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 VIRGINIA—CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS ROCKS. PIR EEOTR icc etic us oe snes | HOM tants PS e se Soe eee MI GESLVIG «nor oeraleis hn cmities TB ikep TIPE CRIA ene ae ae MesozoiG, (UPA): sle- ae sce se wears ese =| L880 PGW OTAN ao Sone mess ae. ME GOITETIN seeipirie oigty aces ais ata =< Indistinctly laminated.-.-.| Vertical and horizontal....|| Archean. ........-|...---.---22----200- 1880 | 2 peter a la sicinca's den al (= Dod 2 apse eidacobbsSsesee WARTS. 6 Beenie igoncsmeror SEU SAS A ROOE SAGER eet eC Meee cremeisie afte mates ern nae'alahe atatony wats 1880 | 3 BR ee, ies wn ain.n.clo ar MUO concn cane aan scnsca = naw’ AO) s Sinise aecalcia snes sees ‘Trre OTUAL Sos 's eisisws s oe sais SOO He Shes areas scs anseasewaeteannd 1835 | 4 eatin) 205 Eee eee eae |e For GO! Ss saiseeeneecancasse|= Ee OO rep mcd cess saceralsarine Inclined sheets .........--- ECO ge fos es cat eae nctonaean cee wa 1850 | 5 TAC STAY oe mataa a ainieniene > Ue Reg be Seeger Bane Mags1V.6 feasts (<= sents = Horizontal sheets ...-...-. ENNIO SEEN OG. codeebad eeoariogt panconcgume 1837 | 6 Tie. DO oe ee ae ae (ASL ati ig as at ae oA Se een MAMINALEC. 2] = eencee sateen ITTEPUIBE ee atevesac esse STS GAGE SERS Boies] Pete: aba i, bys A eee || 1867 | 7 oh Of SESE eee POO gra ee eee ae aeser volt MASON Ort. ree oe astwend~|| LoGlined. sheets 1858 | 8 “Gre Biish WULY ee ok seems “Medium .-.. Indistinctly laminated....| Few joints 1840 | 9 ite = SEE SS ese eee bac SLO eteeeyae a smite sierststeis'= gape Gnhe)Goseceeebeasaee SURGES Ssginoodescoaceasant || 1879 | 10 VIRGINIA—ManrBLE AND LIMESTONE. [UNO Ly Soca SSeS soe CeEEree WIN Ok eseeisdessnio ses ssich enc Bven;, parallel c- cs.csece.-- Vertical and transverse -.-.;| Lower Silurian ...|....-----...----.--- / 1379 he L EAS OTIY |. acc. - ai,’ Fine semi-crystalline, fos- | Indistinct.........-..-..-. Uneven, thick 2.26 5.<5<-. Upper Silurian... esse a= scsesescass ar | 1879 | 2 siliferous. | VIRGINIA—S.LATE. 7 Blois pPisok.---.-+--..--. BINGE eee sess nice sence a Rectangular ........-..-.. Even, smooth ............. AT Ch wane fossa ssieteaicse ccna eats nae : 1840 | 1 SOIL acne eae eae | eae BGO ce atenscce@oneaness ieee CO ete see ta teat aoe cai sep OG se ete eee ee Sek cc celia os Ee Sse bre ence One Bee 1859 | 2 | WEST VIRGINIA—SANDSTONE. MONS ROT Yas cee ne aa sien CORTESE Seciisins acecewenccccte TITePW AN. soa. cota sisew sic Carboniferous ....| Upper Coal Meas- || 1856) 1 3 ures. Behe wan cies ad serine ioe le Eee Oe tena nisi dmintsinct 2 cba l= 2300) Sacawseccwsacietsadac| cas enO. Se geaeeaae scale Se eee eae 1860 | 2 BBQ rae clas |slueecis waissemiaell| BML macs ccicae dels sari aisle BS sO. es Sais wre te meceya oc eia ees wey AO sce arte Ueeen SoH tp wee tee ieee ss 1852 | 3 jae tS Bee Bam Preece SUE Ase BO SEES tS ane 00s Ga casen secre sis ccate| e-ats< By nee eoeoere A epee en 1852 | 4 Dark g YB aoadycanae tenn ‘Fine, COMIDACES ern a5e «4 Dames Hay COX oc -tecer ae - cece cwciena ess Mee Ueracio ioc Sc Ie Se Sac sccvens oso cme ee « sakes POee eee eee eee ete ae naee ae Sen nee es ne | Os b. IRCAMET Galo cee cietea en scics senistioe naans s PEOR BR eessiacoceisar sic) oo nic tele ccs s'cie.5.0 cae e eel PO) ee saat nse Stee seers sd fe=OMiegsane sais Wi Ge NGH Sa eoe ete nese oetenes eens ne GO 2 cee cme cee Sage] anc Bi see adeccas ste os oe hese [2700 cp teseccchet ce none eee e ee BeaeO Seb se ences It, PX Gale ass 2cecees paves see c des ens caikes see GO) textarea eet voles, .4..42-eeecne nee eee vb S00) 5 22 Sa donee uel see OO). case ee enc oe gee ee - EE TING aero AHS aC eRe SHE BINT h Sapp ene goer a GP Garkeld 22 Pee. on ces occee cee etetnater Be OO tee ncisnne es on GO 8 is nice cee neice ee ee IO Rete ees Noise | Seer eae pe dorcee ee ets Maxwell & Malone...... Bet uae ecaneee ee emer Bn Saag a a2. 0 2. atone J acte.c ocean eee eee BAGH ere eos cae gestae kee WSO Ne ae pte ete iss John Warner 25.2 cnc esiecw Morro weds Maller; .. iecicme semis ane teem ere MEG CRA ee Prie Sac ais (GO 62s ete ecbloc clic apiaeee eee | ’ Piymouth -si0 seen es ceases ieven bev l= nea ase Si Wr, Dottle 22 secs aint cane ee eee ree |, Sandstone .......-.. ) Sandstone... 0.20.32. eee eee un hO nes cates seinet See ee eee ater Hg UL ana eese | William J. Bevier....-3 0,-0.5 amuee eee fos OO assess peeec oes 20:2 sO). 52 5.<.50:65 5 Sae ne se eee Manstield?.:3s-s:525-ceseesescnsees pp edOhrsecetonest OHriatiany VOStsGh).=.5s2.ssneese - eau sigitlOls ames ete 22st0O 2 Se sccs sends cet en eee EaCOe eae ea et Sat ah Be O eee sare a o'- Poebias CNG... cc cc ecace cane cee Rene eee wwasQO cleveece socstadl c+ C0 eckucee dence eae ee Wieller townshiptsscctecimpiestc ss eye 00 eietecte ocr. | uphesé& Cotter: <- i). ace meseneneee eee Seedovnes sewer omed tale cLO Yas ascg scien aa'ncin es ae Weller township ................. | Richland......-- SMShIVOLY = -s0cvecnen eco eee || Sandstone ......... Sandstone ..:..2.3..cseeeeeee eee Belblyitle's2. 22sec es scecoee ree eees elon ee hereeee Di WrZeit . vas sak ok acre eas anes eee ge eat a ee ek 125500 a .cenlscberar ce ot eteEe AC ASIG SOR age gsrose otlocnecttoge "Wa Une: ieeceten | Coe Brothers. 2.0 ckences se acoeseoaeeenen (Eat Ser ee edema fe nde lOviecuclksc Seen sta. beer IW airwitk paces teneece ee aamace ae Sey Ol see oaatcemnie | Walnut. Grove Stone Company..........-. [Geel eeanPRaoeosse cee [eens « o-oscnaces wine Kept ceesieaaaeene Wiest of Massillon=-- pee. ceeeee SHEE hea erie em. [MW arbbOrstie GO ot anc sen ane aciets see seen We SoG & aaiciduien estes wate 0 tQO osceescuwes sacaep enna eee i | Northwest of Massillon ..........! Dtackee.dsscen = | Suter & Everhard..........--...ssseeeeee: 1 Sandstone .......-.. Sandstone ......+.:s- octtsoci.c. sate vos eee ee SOOO ata top a eee Delaware ....... H. Fleckner.. | : BredOnsse ae cide phver eee eects Se dO eee wan ee! C. B. Gaylord aes AMI 10 niles east of Columbus ........ Franklin... ..0.-< Willem ACeMorres ter... Sent cate ws Soho ae EME Os. esse hese eee MIS GSIV. Gy peers ees Leleee 1 WMeven\) UHiGko iacstewae ]||| SANOSLONG!--2..--- 2c = £4600! Soin dd ce oe cba cece eeu eee OST SeeR MO Mae tomate meen catine sibeteecalmes do OSZeEMGry ee eecctase< erence eee oer Cp OGie adure «atataresttias|(s SEO sia ces sin winn wcteouee saved tae 94 | 2 miles southwest of Coshocton...) Coshocton Moses Cheney so -22- ncn oes eeu cme nmens reals wee LON.t anaemia mae al|is beet CL Onatersiaiars Rae iate iate os'e sine siete enon ete G5 a ROSCOO ero aneurin ce ee arena [sae Oot ek acter Robert: Dickinson)... o--- s<<-ses wees as-]ia==" TCS er Boer rid 755 2 eQO: sccaudovees amSeses scene OG WHanenville..cs2-seenteccesseeiecg= as Muskingum ....| T. B. Townsend...-..---.------+++0++-00--- |, Sandstone ..-......- Sandstone ....-...6.sss021= sss | - O7eCumpberland se. cscsee sees acess Guernsey and |....d0....-....---------2 core e see ns cceonne: OO em in eee raies| os MO views wtsiopa vic calv'cta Hlestate(sis sere eae Noble. 98 | 24 miles northwest of Cambridge -| Guernsey ..----- Samuel Barr ..-.---.--------------+--+---- \insneQlO' Sai ceeccs ene seme GO dices cindierd de ceevee serene Stee 99 | 2 miles southeast of Tippecanoe..| Harrison. -..---. Robert Hosie........-.---2e-.----+ eneee ee BEC UO ene asians seeeeelte ser OO de cepsevkctes arenes sadenetiesaet 100 | West side of Steubenville ......-. Jefferson. ..-... Plots: Brotherss-ssssseneen=coseeneemeeee JOO Rieedeogaessconeede GO sewn beduckisee Une ene aaa ee 101 | West side of Steubenville .....-..) Jefferson ....... Archer S) Boe) (ane cseeeeseceeenas seaeanaas Sandstone ........-. Sandstone .....020cssseseee ee eee 102 | West side of Martin’s Ferry..-..- Belmont ..-..---. Charles Seabreght issn es tuicce sshesscisne sae Bs AOS sem mati aninesaee | wn QO fone t enon cms on nee eee 103 | 2 miles west of Bellaire........... Ay ene Jobm Ra Robins0nsss.e-oerr = -eeone eee ener Ei tlo aemm ee plesk ter BA | SR 104 | West side of Bellaire ............- Ope sae oe eene BWC shoe el OYE Be A He Se ceBomicoaasce oc SOO p sisa tee iene mamallle PP Ee en LOS We wis Mills: sas Nemec sce seeessrc enone OWES aciesere ot Joseph Hutchinson 2.2. .c0 e+ ce wees sewers HACC Core mstetn assim menue (EP on 106) |) Barnesville’ 22-2: cesa ssc -eecenl Belmont........ Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company ....|| Sandstone .......... Sandstone «..c:~...) 0. 5. LO wnsenGce ees sessces=ne eee 108 | 2 miles southwest of Marietta....|....do ........... Gs Winch 2s. steecenes tease Sette eneete sere 109 | 6 miles southwest of Marietta ....|....do ........... Marietta Stone Company..-......--...----- 110 Be Ome se cbs cicero ae ane nlee tae a | ae ae Constitution Stone Company......---.---- 111°] 7 miles southwest of Marietta -...; Washington .-.-| P., . Cole. .-0 2.22.2. cewcncencesauancuus | 112 | 8 miles southwest of Marietta ....| ...do -.......... ) Di Brigga. 3s sscceccetassatecteeesiten satu vaslOiL cposce nese eeeans 2 550) cons ove cana 5 ewan eens ate tes maaan 113 | 84 miles southwest of Marietta....|....do .......-... 1D BY Calder: \sacen 3.cm aneaen a cee nee cee ‘ z 114 | 23 miles west of Constitution ..... LO Mew apieise are Constitution Stone Company -...-...---.--- SiS) | MArhopolisyjeccoseece we cess acon aeee Fairfield 222-2522 Joseph Leydecker..........200 cece secs RIG dua Castonices sere es verter er eemmees Mairfield= 222... Charles Bowmaster 2-52 eeneess semen ne eae 117) aancaster \(@aSt) s. 5222. sens s555> ee Pd aysre se ho eee ta Recor t tte cabl a) tiene - mf tetae | A. Rebert TE CAUSE AG Soe) os ee aa Mae MLOne wants eevantrete se Seer Pee eee RG A 2 miles west of Springfield ......-- Clarkd scesse- sce Ana EDDIGY ts..n son vase nalenie =e aatuitee wen i Limestone. soses52s6 Dolomite .- =... -.+ 52 5---- sca 08 pees 4 miles west of Springfield ..-..-.. Wot st eee Mrs. Be. MOOTES se oven see icnsmpe ens emmeen ail coe GOlcp conan scienigan Arenaceous dolomite ...-.. -...------ Ndig = testastnt- cae ste ncaa we Bc ups «a eg SAS TOLCOM Doo acer peer anes eee aeons WrcesOO, aecoxas se domeareer GO ..nc-2ece5c cet e seed eee eee | 9 ‘miles west of Springfield........|.--. Gi neeer ey atcn ee Robert, Moores seocsuecls tee es paves ete OAD oh as oes ake a 3 Fo fare ee he < ae seu Doe are crap bisae 14 miles west of Springfield-...--. Seer e Seca Pa RINGS MOWAUU scot) paces ced sepa ee ania ee dO ROLE see sages eee GO .vccevs 060 otic. c abe eet an aera 1 mile west of Springfield.......-.. @larke van) osc George Sinta..-.-.--2--++--2---+-2------+- Limestone .......... Arenaceous dolomite.....-......-- =f ore edge of Springfield......... DOs. tascan si Petticrew, &) Brose tence dence viaere estes == I) nL ee me wer es eee i) Wa I mt Suck cette Meer ee ea ates -40..3...-5..5.| George H. Breyrseaneg,b--dt1ben hes sace al (i es eR RRM 3 intitle west of Columbus..-.....-- “Franklin........ Wilooxs Bios; 26.5. seheece as asicquseieceeans nin: O0) Kim um apee scenes Limestone .....---aJensaeeeen een 4 miles northwest of Columbus....|..-.do ...-......- AL MC WLI 8 fois oo sce anions no = ee aiid slafe « 1Qustabiventé loa aj (asi. cae. CONS J 200. an ens eee een Tek as 4 miles northwest of Columbus....| Franklin........ M.D. SLYN. --y) be ese conse see seascpescosseil| GIMOSEONG .40see5000), DUMESLONC 2. ce nue ce gte eee AO Eesasnae eeenarc cee trea etre SO eC ee Peter Burns 6 05.0 o ese eis ween as on sie pe =apinwae Oi ses scat uaeeced lade MUD ee ec ce nee ete 3 miles west of Columbus .....--.. Piro. Sea Andrew MGNim¢Kk 46-06 -e-spesemreeaerees SSD: city ac a veets souee ca eee eee nee re Saupe © Lilley & Poston: o2% sceuneincsicwe dale dais ce gic cel |aOac4l@ ccs 5 ce © nner ase alll en wre OMe eee ee 4 miles west of Columbus........- BTN be eee AL. Jj- PLCS, & CQ. 6 wince nae coseewes ness opis pile HOO, un mua nn ac = Sa BOeO Eble OMB Maleccte © )o em ae dele ae 4 miles northwest of Columbus-...| Franklin... .... Smith & PricO),... 20 -scesenccseoceces-s-> ex), LAMESTONG,.<.<.-canh WIMIOSTONG 2.c. < ames ue eee INOW LONVING sce ckeies sees cans aeee Muskingum ....| .T..B. TOWnS@NGia. <5: ...ccncccececdemees cess] ood sccucac snemne ots > SEOs clase +: tales sees eee 4 mile southwest of Zanesville....|... do .-...-..... Philip Moran, 2.5 .20c..905 ccd oeeawcsiaeec asl |s se G0 ae tadcnwecaee sally te elG a daans Gece ae ae ea L ROCK VILLO: sn ec angie age aicins os senieed Fayette. ...- LN, Bonu -22 2002 sseeene cocess crescents peellnsaO eess.ereecch of Bitaminons COlOMiItG .a=aa een CLOW SDI BE Sinc. cere os Seen eae GLCCHO sce haan. || Wi SlOULG. cnc cWac cont apmisinhees ss nak eeetee 200-00 socpcnncoone.--| APgillaceous dolomite .-s..sss-eeeeene 43 miles east of Xenia............. Greane.-....... Boots: & BiGkethe.aceisbedecret sevewneen ee 4 miles southeast of Xenia.....-.. Saath Q, Sothern W. McDonald 6 miles east of Dayton ........2.2.). 22. dO: yiveaceas JON ATCO. -2t5,.c fifa fae wea hh ae ee ee ; a : Jointing. bedding, or natu- s u E ; Texture. Stratification. Salanctares Period. Epoch. K: Dari drabi sce. cessscess- = Compact and vesicular....| Even and parallel. --...-.- Even, medium thick .-..-... Upper Silurian ...| Helderberg(water-|| 1854 | 31 lime). Toi Gieray ces anes e ek Semi-crystalline, vesicular} Even, parallel, and mas- | Uneven, medium thick....||....do .........-... Rk AO ite oer 1876 | 32 sive. psi ee Seo eo arcs: Vreslioulars. + css. seess Even, wavy, and irregular.| Uneven, thin .............. Dae + Odes eee rate e Be Cry ie nek a 1878 | 33 Sa: VS Be oe ee oe ee PAGte cw siemteaseesee ct eoet Irregular ...... Pelee a hetia | Uneven, thin and broken..||....do ..........-.-- 544-00). es225042eo as || 1868 | 34 Drab and blue-black...... | “Compact and vesicular..-.| Massive, irregular, and | Even, thin to medium...-.. Lee ere pee anaes AL (ya eee eee || 1840 | 35 even. ID) Sa ee Compact and vesicular....| Massive, irregular, and | Even, thin to medium ..... ‘|| Upper Silurian ...| Helderberg (water-|| 1877 | 36 even. | lime). MORTASOTAD acl ectens csissa. Compact and porphyritic | Wavy and irregular ...-... Bven and thin. ./:2-.-..-.. Le ek Re a ae ee GOR aie ts aeeae an 1880 | 37 PPE OUR obser aam'n 0’ a\elnialore's's SOG: ed aot remote ihe © at PO OMewelfet mo eaaie seh es dG 4 eaten n ates. LOMAS eee Peep Ore Laces seeee en 1878 | 38 IBIS Ay)... 25 <- 200-5 ‘Fine and compact eae. oe Massive ict) +.tsen claus ‘Even, thin to medium ...-. Devonian ---. .\.. =. Corniferous.....-- 1840 | 39 Gray and bluish gray... pO Peete tence ree Sebo) pooch pene Aas Even, medium thick ....-.! aa Gi eaeee ere 3 Eek REP eee i | 1878 | 40 Gray and bluish gray..... Fine and compact. --..-- : i Even, mediam thick ...-... | | 1877 | 42 PEO Roto cane wit aces See EO) WORE BAe Spee oaGrHesoe Line SOs. oI ee Sock dsc Leosd 1845 | 42 hat ie So Rae ee eee cee Oe ot = Badr OOl ssi ae he eeeiaes 2 1878 | 43 PERC OG fe -3 0c aw a ze cous POO Wa eioe ain atetiewin= eels tact NaepMOLiaeeeZEOes too es sh 1825 | 44 5350 eee “Compact nf SOCCER En Se aeeee : RAR hen Se eae See ee 5 | 1860 | 45 | (rab ete oa ceclaeceseiad sa | Vesicular Even and thin..........--. Upper Silurian ... sag Fiend a thal 1855 | 46 ime) (Dag 2528 te a er TE DEQUS fe attse eeabaa oie see asia i | Even, medium thick .-...-. Devonian ...-..... Corniferous. -.-..- 1877 | 47 CS ee wt See Ci CC ee 2) es en Cee a Sa! Oke See eo Sek eas eee seed, Beetles aoa LO xara ee 1830 | 48 iiay ee \Wesicular.........« TUBING CHAT El dee eee ne \oRosaaeeoee ween Gd) Rucker & Sot. «-c: ss sesseeeame es ane «s+ dO ----20.05-----. Bituminous dolomite ....--..--------- DOO ee dO cee neces osatcnsneessesebicesa Highland VIOUS eed tec es sabe seetnee orice oe spe sieles BG ae ery oe 111 | 2 miles south of Lexington -..-.--.. Highland TID aetO) Acct ec hmacnepesmecncceeottss ete. GOLenenasee a= 1135) Point, Pleasant: 2: <<. .cccc cs teen | Clermont TSS Cima etd Sees seen can saa sateen ses Hamilton I TG Geese OR a eee reat eee ek eee cae See O le exkmtase se Tas GQLOVON ee eis Sein cls he a ae a eetele ae eee aan QO: cesinieene senses wie OO :...sdta vuenccaee pace yeeros quatre ALBFEGING nNat eee ee che cece ee eee i Hamiltonia.eces. J, Delinoy t= 2. <.sceeee saneraee cemeeeeg Limestone ...-cecen: Limestone. ......saeeseeee ose ee eeaee DUT esos 10 sce ae coe se riehetos oes eee ae ON sectasckse Li Lutterbey ost sence caccense setae cree eacon ee CO ireccaeceemens cel 22 OO «fone nists occ a eee eee PISCE AOR aa relee eens -aeae melee Bed O wee aoe e ems J (Cine: ccc5 oct cogent s acecdbingamaeeeeeee lant GO acteaticarc messes AO i (: ee he Ce IG eG Soe cee ee eee eae eels BEIT Meee eee BH; Howe cc.< 5. Sek scasveneencenasse renee Dee OM Gade tate axes mralelelis RPP |) SMP ss ne INDIANA—MARBLE AND LIMESTONE, a Decatur: sane o eaceen ements eee Adams tse eaone | BoB. Rite ica vecass se aeieenes cigeieantie eee | Limestone .....-.-.- Dolomite. .00002s00nsisssnten shee eeeeee 2: ) BlomTtoncse sec esas eh tee es eat eae e Wels 2. occtce= | Kapp é& Gardner <.c-- 52 es caren ene 100% ssp aseum eee ee: PEPE ea Bh Wabash scec= sc tate eee eerie Wabash .-...<.. | Bridges 65: Scott sc, avacccenecesseaeesene ce met ays tarn at eae Limestone ~ MRO Cy epee, Fey a Mir hns ee p ae, oa See O diocedecce=c| Dubbard s&j/Smithie. cos. ee senescence ROO ER Aoelks ways ee 225200 5 ceecce ueuce cede ee Eee tenes Sle deido'. see Gees ence ee ae ee has gma seen wes i Philip -Hipsicin so: eee ee See eee Pome, (sy Siar SORA Oe. wa 000, . ve cee sion es eee eer 6 Wabash*®.2o- ocaeketceereseereacet Wabash .......- | William 'd: Pordsi22 ncen- seen ose see eee Limestone ..-........| Limestone .........s5seree eee eee A acc. stone Gute sae oe aetea sents seiee ei StELOue ata tides cnet Moellering: & Paul st2.t-sess2s-eeeeeesse ae bin GO ss sioeee © pores Dolomite. ... |s.s5+200eeneeee eee 8) (PIANO ace ce cere ete pee tee eee een | eA See | Juillie: & Shoemakertecsssotattoe guess eeee ee pat AO oe re ee oct Limestone ... ..-..ns000 ssn =e see eee a4 Rometspert ipise fv cee wean see | Cans a cides sobiaera | i - LUX) oi 2cecacchae dat ae hanee acento oes cocked pisces Limestone and dolomite .-.-...-..-..- Jf edO Sit he de eae eae ste erence seca or: Ose ee oclawttels | J < HW Barnes..)5 cote s eee so oe eee eee ee yas SAO. wares oc oa Saree Pee On me eee eat eel rose walkie’ asi s iene 11|)| Logansport. saoc.caeuades coos Gages ceectee Js. | August Gleitz 12 | 33 miles southwest of Kokomo...., Howard ..-....-.. | J. V, Sinith’.....- sss hatgugeuaneseenseledtan tole wine ttn nee Magnesian limestone... .-0r++-ankeaaae 13'}) Kokomo 22:2 45sceamecaesineceecee: [eye= AO, ro artesenine | George W. Defenbaugh Limestone ....65ccccsseseep oes eee 144 Marion’ (A202. wees sees caesar: Grant:2. + cha D. KR. MoKinney.«.6- ssesee eres eee eeen oes wo GOl nna chia.w cannes Magnesian limestones. -+.0252--seeee AS cSidoscast deem eee eee gf Oxseeeen eee | Silvester Pankbon6rwc-cesaseseeseeeeesees aaiG0i chcccseeeeeeeee «ofa GO) s o.con vals oclsmlee ee clean 16" | Marion Sis .cescucdepe onsen ee paw Granitecnc estes | John Murphy 2....55525:-4eseee eeoaeeaes Limestone .........-. Magnesian limestone.........-....-.<- 17 |. Montpelier. 2 accnscame ccs emeceme Blackford. ...... ; William’ T'wibell) Scee stss-cee eeu 300 vacminen ee eee Dolomite .....-+cssso!<.seeee eee 18:\| Maton: 32 osctes st pene cee Delaware ....... George W Carters: coanccecesssccseecaconn® 3$00's sckaee sacar eatss ~-00 ..scccs cree cheep eee eee 19 SPO sc oe ae eee ee (3a ee AS ore Bosman Brotherg_fespec sacs eee Nee. siccee ms eae ede «2-40 2.0 5c0.sdncsceneenties eee 20) | AMOTIStO Wapinae soeg ees oe eee ees SCO suc csee oa Li DYER GontZ .. See ee kee eee eee 3.40 Oieratgyo'sia an need ane CO: one's oa Seve ata bu plaunseteta ee eee on reap Pedi Sipe SSa= so gan a3 oka ee ine eee Bs Orit. Soop cece nae actecwanenenees Limestone .......... Magnesian limestone....-..-----.----- E UO cs ors sleet 2 me ete ee RE ees Loew QO:2cceminl ty ate): Os) Ve ADS DOLE Vperdals pecs heise eee nee een 6 LOU neem 23 | Greeneastio. 2202722077220 122221) Butmam 201.02. Patrick Ash 'n..710 cc or ea “ido {licssc222t-) Chmestome --): 5 24 2 miles southwest of Greencastle -|....do ...-....... | William Steegsvece:<. ce. . esa cee eee Fi dOM Seo eaentna ease wee (10: -cccige sec esecesentse ae eee MO Ws car OO 1162 aoe Peano eae sae eee Neer CO 225m is weed AJ: Grawford:<éxcmmatacpaaste ees BELG han ee eee ee vce GO . onaecce 24 oescense peeE eee 26 | 2 miles southwest of Greencastle .| Putnam......... Vandalia Railroad Company .-.....-.......- Limestone Limestone atc Oakalla:s7eeeecr. ooo. ae eee eee {stat 0) on se ree | Mons & Hillta 12 2ee oe Cente Se een ee STAG vedbeccctecccs.|-no+@O jcea den cote lesen za ia PED ae Gs Ones AB 7, WP Be eee ee Boe seein oer sy reed BB eam 2 : RPP ¢ hepe ani oie at UO. kcetemite ames Lee: 2525 ssseaee chodee sateen eee 30°) Dons wdod:..a.cumsse si bane ee Fayette......-.. Wilson Ballez.. 2 tess: st anecusdseasas sacar SL MBOn ewOO = ae ee desc ee ae ee | Fayatter ccs cnes] R. H. Moffitt... i ferrugi i 32 | 2 miles northwest of Laurel, ... do 2.20.22... Hy ones 2. obese eae er reese Dolomilter cass , a ote COUN BY) SM Sey) ay Pe | Ce AN eae naa ek eae peak cnr ea Pa mada eth ye eS: eS" a Re é 24 miles west of Laurel ........... Wai goeay ebb ts es oe M. E. Secrest do ad 34 | 24 miles west of Laurel ........... [3.0 do Ce eee Jobn McGlin @c0. se ee Calne eee hick Sik Wee RIC g5\|'daniles areihoreat Be Legreaie ils (aye ea at Wil MEM Maou R pie 36 | 3 miles south of Laurel ....... Franklin J. A. Thomas Lime i 5 south of Laurel -..........) Franklin........ J. A. TOMAS son ceesaaee can se aise nema StONG wate eect: Dolomite....-...5-.s0:sseeaeuspeneeeee 37 New I oint..-.-.... eet cae ee ieee Décature ca: sac. W. W. Hollensbe ey Raa r 38 | 5 miles southwest of Greensburg ..|..- ao Saint Pauls) a aes eee eee ; SAO aie arsine atteae woe be os ee eee et 41 | 2 miles west of Saint Paul Shelby G. W. McNeel i i : , aul ........ DOLD Yi f= eres ele are Vs BLY ede deWack wa ehareaemaneeneee Limestone .......... Dolomite ....... + «s ..c nce essen eer eee en ee Seer es eo bara CO .2.6sic's ce chionacte ee eee 46 | Stinesville..........- Davis & C , i itumi i 47 reget CORO oes og ea Cassner aimestong tecsisec= =< Bituminous limestone. .........-..--.- SPen Cel eer ame ae aetna B: Schweltgeressceeen 2a ee eee Lees iy Bape es Limestone ...i.2....0<.osoe eee 48 | 3} mi ; “a 33 a northeast of Spencer.....|.... ele * TAT CHOE ccs cs tnyae eee eee a. on xg eas Phare Bituminous limestone. .......-..------ aie Ne Shae clin ae «\ainielainisin mas (phn eiuiniea ~ DDLBALODS © is aisjn'n aio-as wae sera ea see eee rs 60 Ea, Sse eee ai Ct ee eS an 50 be 00 47 cawgs tte se sth astseabaabeue [ae Howard’ & Deénig 5.2.5 sect aeseeeeeeeeee ee Ber AG rawt se cmece esc 3 ao aecbaccteacueteccasp tae 51 | 5 miles west of Bedford. N.C. Hin i i es west of Bedford........... » C, sdale:& O0': .-- «cn cecverenes enetee Limestone .......... L vats eee be oe west of Bedford..........|. WVoris, Rodgers &(Co.- 2. anaes BUENO mae ee ace eee| Se Li phe eee etal BA doe Oe Pane. gee as ite ee Stone Company.......--- DaaG (ials Sree eee AX papers Soy ek Sa 9 Sic a a nice eninisibia illion MIth oe. beer ask serie tetas OO wen eseianae cast She 55 | Lawrenceport .................... ALB. Berry sities ee oe ae Sieee “ ae 56 | Fort Ritner..... E. B. Dix Tyee ae ae Das aPvinimieivintelaiei= Bisiar A) WIIRON) cerescedcuple ae ees b stare beatae leeier Timestoue -2e pee ee i i i 57 | 3} miles north of North Vernon.. Hickade Holtien clic = ck a fee esr etter Bituminous limestones oo aaa a North ‘VOTO hosase ence ah eee Oe P. Conklin & Co do are imestone eid) £Oh CT eal ee 59 | miles south of Nortit Vernon’. H. G, Herrman. co; cicicc-aSs ccs epastd asec ie ie ee en tale siete iataisic cic pee | Hicks & Holmes ...........2.2..++.ceee0--||----dO...1.......-...| Magnesian limestone STATISTICS OF BUILDING STONES. OF ROCKS QUARRIED IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. OHIO—LIMEsTOoNE—Continued. Year in which opened. 85 STRUCTURE. GEOLOGICAL AGE OF FORMATION. Color. ares : Jointing, bedding, or natu- x Texture. Stratification. eal aurtina: Period. Epoch. rome te. Yc. see Semi-crystalline, highly | Irregular -................ Lower Silurian ...| Cincinnati.......- fossiliferous. Meraiees sates ten ck eobcss Semi-crystalline .....--... WEY pe bea co cehe yonte does pp Uppers Silurian ...| Niagara .......... ~ oui te oe ee Sa Compact and vesicular. -.-..| Even and massive sat Ors sas won ee haveteter (watery, lime). aati <3 ee SP ae ee eadO Wise teats ateeeeeeeee lk SAAC He Seat ceeldes stale bdOads ms .O. Ee vane eseeeee SENT 833 on eee ee | COwine te namemeenccnensl ae eA as nee peas sem oge aos ae ot --do Katie a Mose Ata thsnek eee soe TIGA dete se eh iae saa sjcaoic S Wegener s/s ferqsactas Even and parallel UEDFE Silurian Niagara, sso. <25 - li) oh a a re POEs en es ene ee A ee eA Ong ease ao ot a2 ode s.cbu Pe OM acer Se UGie-h ee eee Riess. Peers ye Semi- crystalline, fossilif- | Irregular -..-.-........... har Silurian Cincinnati ........ erous. oo. 0D G52 See | AG SRE hag Jupadesscesest- Pee AO pei cece case (saa Lea Coe ere SS | Gee ec ye ees ditt se sO SA a 2 Betas eco ad Pre ClO Ie sree we ios see = etiam BRIO he exe tase een Eee (LO Peon: cancers MATT k aoa veo Cece Semi-crystalline, fossilif- | Irregular ........-........ Lower Silurian Cincinnati ...:...- erous MEPLOOWRE SS oe Se catcudiis ss LG Nise Oe eee aed SPQ easentonees asp outs sods HEAD ose cioe soe aa ae We ON nt aa ee _. ie Se ree UES = ake ey eal ee AO fsa ete ect snn tweet sae - SSiMOi ees seeeee oe le EE OF eae eee hee nics CEL SS Laan eee aa ae | EE fhe, 5252 Gee eee ceC Seema Ret Oe) eee tee es ee eal. SiC ye ee ee pa dome cteeee NDIANA—MAaRBLE AND LIMESTONE Compact and vesicular. -.../ Even and parallel......... | Thin to medium........... Finely vesicular .......... MBSRIVO Sis< oi. esc uicieabaciox | Even, medium thick....... Semi-crystalline ....--.--. Wavy and irregular ...... Even-and think.! sticsa.4s,2 BEI GO he hia salslomsteleasisin ss!) BENGLO) ite Sates pce cada sae in Selst ss dos s5ee Sheer re. asta! eR CLO fee ate nae nts areinl HS ORO Sas eo, See Se Dee BAC! Coogee se Scie a0 py nae Semi-erystalline ........-: Wavy and irregular ...-.. Even and thin. ...--..2-..: AES CA TEE Ht, SEAR eS poe ae Trregular Even, medium thick gba (os kip Pees Be WR ans ep (ITS eae CO picstet soci ce ens ease | Uneven and thin .......... Semi-crystalline .......-.. Massive Uneven, medium thick .-...||. Fine and compact...-.-.-. Even and massive ........ Even, medium thick....-.-. Fine and compact......... Even and massive ......-. Even, medium thick....... SRO G Rice aan PREM OAS Lisa te to eee ccnieee ane - = 3215 ae ae ee eed Heth Fe pee ape ip eS eS Me OOMer ae ee ec aoe sce MdOtases atest cee ae BE Sos cet 3's Ses asl Po crore ee nee tre ean Oe se ewe ee oS keeles ‘Even and thick............|. “Drop me pari o. ons. <5. 1) Vesicular 2.02.6 .codse. Wavy and massive.....--- Even, medium thick. -...-..| draprand baits... -5.....% Vesieulnweres vanecd taee ce Wavy and massive......-.. Even, medium thick......-. HTM ean uses ceneeiince a 5s Semi-crystalline ........-.|---- Gira eerie sae c tints im civieln'w hs fiat COM. feasts: sae aoe Pere etea's = coca ceckcs as eee GUNEe wees sated or ae eats MOO Met a ae se sere ae se enhs BOO ted so aiaee sae a eee Pee EAM risticiscce ss sian eossa'ie|| FeO acta seat eetnmwe ele ae (1) ance AoA eRe eine ee eee GO eaeradcwees ceetaeoes. : ee Os te MOS cne oceee see SEG) BAR ie eee ea ae Een Ocb celica gan at ee ce manent ac Semi-crystalline ........-. Wavy and massive......-- Even, medium thick. ...... So CONsSiee genladiceiss cease wee MTASSIVOl core enas ee. ee Even, thin to medium ..-... PRR OOS. cota c eda sacar er oes. ee kee nat ss LAG OER A ie eae aA Orntece ne ded was ce eacesel Se Wits) Yo Se) oS Ge oe ee ‘Even, medium thick....... PisetLOM op As anna cs Seca sae eas er ene mencaaec us ciasie sccm if PERO 7a Semi-crystalline .......-.- IMagaly@recess kes ose scenes Even, medium thick....... Granular (oolitic).......-.|.--. Otte ee eee been ws Even and thick 2......-..- Bee UL eet 2 Wee en Ont oe case calteas CO ett fet cet cenoeb is lexce dO Ses tebe ates cess BreetLOy ae ac -tetctate te wistvie ease ete < qe ewer eel eee 11 | 6 miles north of Bruse station ....| Clinton ......... | Josepht Daylor | sco: .ee--00- CO ee | Limestone ..........| Siliceous magnesian limestone .....2.. Adit SQINBa A oan chcabiera ee eee danas | Madison. ..22). ..- ) Shophan Berdiy pes sac seo ee yewe an eke eee | Black lime.......-.. Calcareous dolomite ..-2.....--.. bees 13 | 4 mile below Grafton ............. | WiGTSON .j. eae 1856 | 10 SGT tlers oc oe \n/is cinie'w'nineoss'six Fine, fossiliferous...-..--. IMSSBIMON semainic cs ons ciseie cine Even, thin to medium ..... 1879 | 11 Dark gray: coc s52 o.vcce soe Medium, fossiliferous - ..-. Jos WIRY | emtue See teeeeopee nese Myen, thieks 2. f25%0.0) |... 1867 | 12 Loman avis ere csut so. se. a seers sewcalacieane scideenn ne SQ ciby coop okeass Saco ee OO wactwoenaedeccseste cee Bt Oe eee eta ats Stacie PEN OOl ee hs og ceeminaniless cs qataseamea aces 1850 | 2 ogodititserebepoaeca eeecenis Radiat VesiCular s..s-<-21s ae CLO ite ete ait otclatata ae wiial sia. “Variable, thin to thick - ower Siarian: - -\s.2ssssc—sssmraeane | 1840; 3 MEE O Mea tac nis Set alclarcic|l| sina OO'|samece de cicmie ove weiss ocniels BER OO cama a ciea sinicinnieceratesinas Even, thin to thick -.-...-.. Se Nicos vasigaa onesie de sta cme e emesis 1878 | 4 PapROOur er ecessee ccc caseem= = Coarse, variable. ........-.|. ous LOVemiteisi eae oo slosircc em Uneven, thin to thick...--- BF A Octarcinis ax’ cnid | ae oeiats) gate asin siae tees || 1860 | 5 BRUT ein aA cles on) 2 slaislnieis (= 5'5,0 Medium, compact ....-..... IMASSIVO Varennciceacinelnce ais Medium to thick.......... Lowerpilurian.. .:)-.--s-saceas soem 1857 | 6 LBA GL) bt a eee BING; COMPACh. < -cescce~ mn are SLO facisiviniaitin vic aeime.cied Sass Varia Dlenuiin tO ohiCkeo =n: 2x COls cea» oid acces | winmre aad etd sineteiaeto me | 1869 | 7 ioe ARS ee pee EeeorCeere Wert Diets. een net cocks es |e Be OO oa ees tad pcials wee Even, medium to thick . 8 TUE he Soca pe Sepre aes Fine, compact... <.-..-----|- FeO emcee seeninn sence ae 4 SE ee Ee 9 poet! (Ee GE Sere Seer aenpen AiGhd Pe Se gocoesrnodcere cols SA) bonne tebe Secnis (enace “Even, thin to thick ........ | | 10 | DRE ae mana ccc s es <= Warlabletcecse< cescasces sec INERSRIVG cose cece i= sce Even, thin to thick......-. pe fa SULTAN eo. cen cease enon 1856 | 11 sen Wh CoeRaO Sanaa OReoe pees COSTSGE | Fass agin waded ats May CO Vote oeicane ascites weiss 2 Bede ett OW on cdO: «dea anzeebe «| one ee ee 1845 | 12 BEE Oe aia's co? Fine, compact..-.....---.- Even, parallel...--.....--.|- 3: ao Peete scat joan = les Jo---CO ---0 0. een ene fenn een eeenne eee e eens || 1873 | 27 POO cals 2 civ a aiatuerte isa once lit Hin@ 2 Fa RES ae a Se ee Oa seiaeia bictsiaye John: Conkling)... 320-22 sscqncccnuarsnnees ROO eee pee ee Siliceous dolomite and dolomite-....... Fi ain ean] eh. Mee Ris eee ae Ramsey ..---- -- WML, ROGHO. (Sxcmieusion nace eceane eeete eae Sa OO) cakes qutattin 2 Magnesian limestone ..-... coset bee Gaps I UNC TICL Bieehe eet a ue recat re 2 ere RA DISOY or stetese William Zollman ...----------+---+-+------ 7 PLEO ae ee x aca neete eas sacle el ea Oe.) Sewer William Dawson, lessor See OMe eset teat scree sete ecee aa OO) es vous saee Breen. vy OUNE 55.5. 3s cy alee eee ees 9 ML Deettte ao erat aris dsian Seman ese rlaser GO Fetters "A. GObzIOME 260 selec cena eee ee eee TOW ee Wop AAs Aaaqeeboeen Neola goa ase” AOieze secretes William Dawson, lessor IBT\ ASRnER RRP eee eb ose sea sen ee coe Se Ramsey <<-5=« =- William Dawson, lessor ...........--..-... Limestone .........- Siliceous magnesian limestone ..-..... 123) Wiest Saint Paul (o-.2 02. sec OOD pe enignece Adam Raw .....-.----- --202--esee- eee c ees CAE Ree Magnesian limestone ......-.:issecsne 13 | Minneapolis curd ehenie & Rt, tle ecidiwkcs muna Hennepin Seelam Wie WW HUSiS BRET Soca sie omer) os wie ele ale lnietore ater SRULD Povece shemale eels = 0:00; fo0 Ben « aac 0 9 \a/ncenehe tae TaN ee OOlacee got ah pate bet ese Geneaaes Sed One sl-eeasia Pranklin Cook 123. <.4dea0em seam Simpinehotee ee eG scieihe wae easier ei er CO) ooo 2 2 nisi oe ame eee a lee 15 RilO!< Ya win vieie usa sla oema name ening ee ea AGS Ss tecsec OO CAR Be ws = OSES Seen na eeeoiscscnes. * HOO Seon saath eer ple 10) bold. + enkanaaasiqs annette 16 kimMeapous-s.scce-eteeeee sees a Hennepin »...-.-| Charles:Sandhoff 5 ci rceche ceceusence ee Limestone .......... Magnesian limestone ...--.....---.---. ee U1) SoS aw hole cre hee he poe atin rart aed arora MO erste oaee| Weeks-& -Holecher ce ssesteereeeereeee STU eee oer te WO oc. .aes prac e ae 18 | CO. eb nee temeebepacaseeore ae .do >| Dames BAXtE? 225.02 eects ee MBAS ee br mchs WeSdO 2 ak case eee rren Magnesian limestone and siliceous | dolomite. 19 | AO cne oceania sae ns eee em acen liek COs chied centers Holey & Herbertiewses ones esas emma efers GO J teninte oe ese cee CO, b..nie esis sic cinn 2 os Gn eleva ale eee ree ZO. Red Wine wees Zone ee eeecencers Goodhue. ....... GA, Carlsonico.ceeeee cc toceene eee PeRO Rene ss emeee sees “Dolomite .;..-..1+ccsecasate ee een tied. Wines. ..:0s2ceeteeeeer ee oe Goodhue.....-<- | RS. Berclond 2265 2 =. acces biiees semis Limestone.........- Dolomite, ..o.. s+ -c+2.ioaecese sees seen 22) || PPOn{eNaG: ki zewclece veeeah eo eee -e-GO ean dee etees |*Posterin @ CO.t2522 eacwcaesoneeeee ceeneees GO Che vides osiesie Og «04 ante wie ae ae soca er cenieeta teres 23.) Cannon Oy o.cnbejstecers Soporte ee IK eaet serinca on PAUL piCTOMek cae eaies seas eee eee eee OLE Riemeasnees “Calcareous dolomite and limestone ... 24.) aSota, jas 128+ wens acienta a sehaete Le Sueur ..-..-- JW. Baboock.o. & 2.2 ddencvescacneeeeas “Sand- OOK J}2 des eeers DOLOMITE . 22.2... ad. foe oe coe D5 hee OO... a6 Coe ose meme baise ae aesere BOLO Sosa s ase Breen, Young’ & Co. eos. see neeer encase

sieseeee es meee 26 | 4 miles north of Mankato.....-...| Blue Earth ..... J. R. Beatbyk& CO-oseceeewccctereesisseerects} Sand-rock ..2.5- .- Fine, semi-crystalline = ACIUBC SEE ear epee cern k Heat Or eae o6 Sere ee a GY So 5 aE eA te Prenton. y-1)scesn | 1856 | 5 ioe [hs CRE Seer ee Per cr Fine, semi-crystalline. .... Tb gdh Cea So Hep dock te: ven, thin to medium..... || Lower Silurian Trenton .......... | 1s56 | 6 MerOar 2c fae okoaae seh. OG dei aid sane bb 6 sneer ese HE GUS) AG dce SSE AAS tent AG Oe ate ie epee Sena e See Wel ae ve wtticn sess EGO aenesce setae | 1870 | 7 oy oy eee Setar hae zie SO Oiecsisce cena ac testes alls ond Ohsec tees sane esa ses covet thick so) ten. c:. NEG we | tor Sate Be AGie ss aaa era ee | 1856 | 8 “han Tee ete eae ap ed BeaNO cam se ba cisbwis sats ine allies MO en eereme cee e ase Even, thin to medium..... BAO Neds see e ns allie AG e nett healt 1870 | 9 BE echo e most as csces ee OPretec his testcase «2's git One cletwste Rese ate oe Even, MOMMIM ote ee OOO waste eitet sa SAG 8 ees peat 1869 | 10 1} PEN PDVOG 5 fect tents elar Fine, semi-crystalline .---. ATVORUIAE ee csisic as sisisieein ce Even, thin to medium ..-.-. '| Lower Silurian TTeNtONG «esas oe | 1858 | 11 gi Eee ere Jom GO 2a - 52 be weene denen CES Bae ee Even, medium......-...-.- Mr (cy ee aS eR: Rite eee ae 17 |L18 oe Bee cede eae acerca Fine, COMPACU Je nc esiccnciee Plgesivod crc oe eh rence. ven Thickparcack ee se en | Pel Ovctetctares pasorcta'e ALO Pie eevee ofall 1865 | 18 Se Leet alctat phan a nae me om WO cence wenn ne cb ane: dire mln eee wens cal Even, thin to medium ..... Bet Oia gas sre sac Oe eases eas 1873 | 14 List blue and drab ....-. Sob Phsaasoericppsanacerc oe MABSSIVO <== <-rinpax -oenneyh Even, thin to thick. ...... SGN) 5 onc ee 0: 3827 Soe || 1879 | 15 NOME oc taats anes 2 oae are Hine, compact .--5--.ss<-.- TpPe gular ais sei emisic.caes acts Bven, medium......-...... || Lower Silurian ‘Trenton. os-ceeeer | 1876 | 16 rant Wivtsse Feta agente Bee (lies § Sue sareur ope a2 EES Rs ake Se a ae ae Even, medium to thick....||....do ..-..-.-.-.--- AO eee 1! 1864 | 17 LS pS olen aap iam oi ai dal RID VCSLOUIAT vsi5 c= 22a Denese es ce san. Even, thin to thick........ ME Son Oe te geese Sint eh OG nee eee || 1878 | 18 BME Abe Sale sen dercica ne ote QOree ae ene ative tsi sc Irregular, wavy-.--.---.-- Thin-toimediam.. 22.2... HO ere wistars Sa ot arets MOS Siomaas etatee | 1879 | 19 TRE oh ee Fine, vesicular, &compact:..| Massive ...--....--.------ Even, medium to thiek....||.-..do ............- Saint Lawrence...|| 1868 | 20 Light drab .......... ;----|| Fine,vesicular, & compact.| Massive ........-.--..-... Even, thin to thick.-....-. Lower Silurian Saint Lawrence. . | 1868 | 21 ED GOAN «ws cl'clw Seharee mis =: Medium, vesicular ..-..-..|. AQ) soAScaoncerncsee oe ssee HD EN UIC Keer gegen seme als oe Ole eee saa lon 08% s-peseeee 1855 | 22 REN A Sot ce wou ae se 4 a6 Fine, compact Hosdsc esses en Oe mshi seamone acc cer Even, thin to thick........ 21 OY See Se Oe eee | -Lrentonscessssce=- | .1865 | 23 RES uae ee ohciaats aalelel qeias'e os Semi- -crystalline, vesicular, Irregular ........--------- BVenVthiCk en et2) .\-2100 <2 =< Ba Gy ee are ee Shakopee .--...--. 1870 | 24 Rae aos citew esp ese BEEN tee Ree Sean Ae aie ae pare OO oe me eee at yalar calor Even, thin to medium ..... BAC (iy Ate ee BOYS 5 rh otek 1868 | 25 UR Ere ete Sais OE ig eee ae Semi-crystalline, vesicular Irregular ................. Even, medium to thick. ...|| Lower Silurian Shakopee......... 1879 | 26 oath 8D) Be) ee eer ae ee ERGs semaines sti 2 ebocasiee COP ee ecionctinare ot rete Even, thin to thick. -.-....-.| WS dO pea act ameen FADO aes | 1858 | 27 ~c a TIS Se See eae Fine, semi-crystalline. .-..|- S-,OOW. = sec ccmenene ek sic. Even, thin to medium ..... Y cha awk Oupckaat tans a Sie atall sie = dO yn woe te ented 1854 | 28 TL Se Ie arnt || Fine, compact ..--....-..- Pr Otro ciate ceeecccis ees inlet ed aol dee nh OGiesedee cles sac Hudson River ....| 1868 | 29 USMY DOT sxe ccc at lenanc Variable, vesicular .......|.. 2wliktga5a cqscndendotcbce Even, medium to thick....||.-..do ....-...-.--- Galenii-c.2e.bteces- || 1856 30 PACH ULSD. 50's a0 rae eo oe Pine; Vesicular... ...-..--.» Irrepularsscccen caters: Even, thin to medium ..-.. Lower Silurian Saint Lawrence...) 1876 | 31 MOL ee tees cbancesces- ROO eet aot eee mee eK once QOL e awislacercceconed=s Even, thin to thick.....-.. BEA Eee eee s'2 QO lamas cate ae te 1870 | 32 RAL cic ic sees aja oc ein aac all'= BO Veale cals icine ccmiate, aia are aia Si Oa oei a aisicisele wats alee im yen thick: ic. eos so soma REET Ce Res Sees COP. Sei 5 reper 1854 | 33 MINNESOTA—SANDSTONE. BLOW Mies Joke tamed ccc IM GGi UI s- So seceee cee IMBRBIX Gite Jas ceceseteese Even, thin to thick ........ | Lower Silurian ...| Potsdam..........|! 1870 | 1 IROOM eras tam seis peed PAO LAS he ace aaa seer eS CG 0 se ESS i tle ae VOU PMGAIOM se. +> s sees ois e Ci Ce es Serie Saint Croix ....... 18704 2 Wight OT apes. stec-oss se 25 Fine, SAW PN OIC) orn once sr soe ETS CULE eral et se berets a falat Even, thin to medium...--./].--. Ove ead acres Jordan ...........|| 1862 | 3 HALO PH to cee MESS IAPS Ue eet eole. AGUS Vs aabad selects. 2 aera cn ee nek ice ane eS es Som ee ae do At eee || 1858 | 4 Bd esas Lone PHT E EL ot ‘Fine, COMPACh 5. 6.- - 002 =. IMS RS1VG) «cscs of bs 550 elsin ste Even, thin to thick........ Nese G0 h Meee eae Potadante.- see ae 23 | 1 mile northwest of Waterloo. .--. Black Hawk....| William Love ..--.----------------++------ 2-2-0 ---0-2.- 2222-5. Siliceous dolomite ..........---..-.... O45 Cedar Balls teeter eee itd Ge. Sees, Edwin Carp nter .------------+-e20- +--+ 40 = pi ei Sigs = me Dolomite ..--- 6. <<. - +050 -epaneeeees 25 | 3 mile west of La Porte..-----.---. We Oe tee se ee G. A. Knowles....-..---------+--+-+--+---- pomp O aie ae ap see sisi OO tein a ind ope x eis ==> = 26 | 4 mile east of Independence -.-.-..- Buchanan .. .... James Forrester pate o peceee eect ere rete eee Limestone ....-..---. Limestone 8 ee een clan els ob aphid 27 3 miles southeast ? Manchester..| Delaware ...---- Charles A. & 8, A. Davis .....-.----------- j= GO ..----+---++-- Dolomite eee cer ease os eee ae | 98 | 1 mile north of Farley ..----...--- Dubuque ...-.-. B.N. Arquitte.-..--------+++-----++-++---- eee -2+-GO -..---- 220. grccctccccsese: Focseeee 9 si neashot Havies MO aes bate Eee O/Eide Rome &. Cou. cabs eperee se es Serer ner ree eee err a 30 Die 43 Sere ; Z Bis bee er Beek potas SeanO ee see elie Martin & Strane ........--.--------------- |----dO ..------------- sac GO ccancesesescetecee eee eae beta ry ee 21 gi AA gk ae as. Dubuque ....--- Speer & Let..4 Jo2 1. - aces p sees -n eamieeens | Limestone .....-.... Dolomite ....->-10- > +s>s=paaeee eee 3 rei NES seu) sas ee, Fee i ah Ai Rie Joseph Hug cn c.0eneean sane aree ee maene rene ee eee p22. 00 heaeeere ane ce + ceee eee Ba | Awa Gea d NaN a ei ONGC PLND Neri (i ean Se William’ Rebman... =: ooo. jecess cancer eae Bee C0 ares age Arians dua 0) ease sos osleve nate see Be OMS gh Ph eae tues OAL Wed ne fete Se aS PMO Be eccoeeaits Wy We SS DISIGT. cnc ce eae earn e aaa ake Wecoit ier bore S553 ere =n UO) J-n\0 san> sce e sha cena eee nee SERN GRIT Sab ulate een aan an ‘Jackson .....-- BGA W OO08 22 5-eteee sae ses Eee tae aeons |----O --..---0------- “Ferruginous dolomite. ..-22...202-c++ 36 | 4 miles east of Maquoketa........ Jackson ..------ Be Conmell eens sehen nee ee eee seas Limestone ..-..----- Ferruginous dolomite.......---.------ 871) Maquoketa .---< 242 00-i-eSeheess WEP seems Blush, Seaner, Becker & Dunham ......--. o2-00 Sree cinnesasseels Ovni wee eine me on oe ole oe 38 | 4 mile east of Hale..............-- SONOS Se sec soa ONBOrion tas ase oace a ae ee eee eee re Beetles mae aie Sele Bituminous dolomite........-sss-s-+-+ 39 | 14 miles south of Hale ..........-- Eni heir Beene Solomon & J. N. Garrison and others ...... 28= sO domme nse sins sao ois sO) Gemn opie cles sesh cea er ere eee 40 | 14 miles southeast of Olin......-- O50 cae sees ats A. Rummel... 02 .22-2---202senssaeseenesse soe- gees O ee eees pate ar ele hia se ae ee 41 14 miles southeast of Olin......... J. Easterly eee ee ee i Bituminous dolomite .........-.....-. POR eat (ema ee ee ee ees RRS ae William Gordon....-.-.- amore 100 o ccs nic see ashes - see ee 43 | 1 mile northeast of Monticello ....|--- J.S. Puller .......---------++----022 eee eee soe “Dolomite ..2.......-.<.79 een 44 | 2 miles northwest of Anamosa....|.-- (0 -..-------- Iowa State penitentiary 102 O ..cc cece ses seneneseeese cise smneen 45h Stone. City see eee eee ee BRO eee cota Jonn A; GY6ON Jnccd vecceuics cus paonaeeee hese ae. GQ.'s te ceceees oicnkc es nCee eee AGH dO Le Ga ees Deere MGS ee eee at James & RONG 2.2. s+ cs emis atm cu cloneate tele i Dolomite |. 25.5 0.0 au noccemeasmeeeen ATi) cae O aaa ee ee ee te RIGO demesne Henry Dearhormecs-n = adore -oeakona tens pee bec «QO haces weber skeen 48 13 miles north of Central City..--. TdT cece kota ee | S. T. Granger....-.. +--+ -2- 2-22 ee ener eeeees ~ fap OO vw aence oale hee faceteetalas Jae eer ee cee we sees enenccsees 49 | 2 mile southeast of Mount Vernon.|---.do ...--.-.--. | D. S. Hahn q... 2-2. .-20- eeee eevee ec eceses --- Dolomite... /.22255-2ene sem eee eens 50 | 2 miles southeast of Cedar Rapidsy)= 006. onee ae )=ac Three Bohemians 5 -2.<< 2.0 nn aenweeieienes||= === ween ain 28 ceiro omelets wee else ste eae Se 51 3 miles southeast of Cedar Rapids.; Linn.-.-.-.....- BH. J.C. Bealer .-- 02.22 sna ccenes caves cant =| waneingiaie sate se eee eo 52 | 3 “mile south of Vinton......-.... Benton -.<-.25- ye Qin. nn een ea eee ee eee 1 Bituminous limestone ......---..----- 53 | 3 miles northwest of Vinton ...... Nees CO acatend sens Samuel ‘Aungst:..u..o:2.c0suey once comeunex rarak BPE | () RAT Sr a ai 54 | 2 mile east of Garrison...........- CR ELO iets nicotene Kokbrick & Irazver...... sac .ce..cesseeeeen Seu Bituminous limestone and dolomite. -..}. 55 | 44 miles northwest of Garrison....| Benton ......-.-. Stonley'& Co. 5... snckvenawbeteseemeeceas His fh! o cenceiviecdue ad 82] canctye kommt soils be tam natied= aan 56 | 1 mile northeast of Le Grand...... Pamact secxc\scsai Le Grand Quarry Company ............... | Limestone -~........ Magnesian limestone ...-.....-------- ; Dvin) (Quarty Soames dcseeek meee seeeee ka Marshalls) =<. We no AOa 2 sia cinta chal Sinle Sratleisie sin elece minis mre eee Sree ees Pais lOc tee amie sane acts Calcareous dolomite and limestone. --. 58 | 14 miles north of Dillon........... dO J senecee net 5 xe OO) me lowe sone Sok ees Seneca eine pe sROO ks ere oer teen Limestone <0. os sc< wa. eee eae ; 59 | 2, 3, and 4 miles north of Ames ...| Stor V ocr cesses es P. R. Craig, R. Coe, and R. Hannum........ reglO 6 sacha c otaes Dolomite |..--22 - 1.5. 2lin oceania eee 60 | 3 miles northeast of Earlham .... | Dallas -......-.. Laird Sc ROY Cesk ob ness aeen sea eee Here @ OU tetetore sieteciae nik Limestone o6 cin. ) a GOS: core i Rowland Pilkington Zeta a fateis tale \s'm: aN MNS eles Se ees | 22 dO ....0e2 sd ssee. 222d. 122222 eee ee eee ee eee ee ee eee. é 8s | 3 IOS north of Sigourney A. SAS Wa Gikcws ate ets | William S. Booton....--------------------- A egal dO... nee eee es > GO - 22-2 -- 002 es eee nee a seeene Bb | aenlIe bok On Givens ote ce Mahaska ...---- | Francis Castles. ...---------------+----<: 5 LOVE UO IE Be SR Ferruginous and siliceous limestone -. 99 | 4 miles north-northeast of Pella...| Marion ..--..--- F.C. Mathes --...--..----------+-20-02--2: eee Limestone .-...-------------++-+++---- 91 | 24 miles northwest of Durham .. | Marion .--.-.--. | C.C. Collins ...-..---.-- +--+ .20e--2--e---- || Limestone .-.---.-.- Bituminous limestone ---.......------ 92 | 14 miles southwest of Tracy -----. rc een AE ae Regan Brothers & MeGorrisk......------- J----dO..----4-------- Limestone ttt ers rte e eee cn eee cere ce ones 93 | 3 miles northwest of Knoxville ... td Ous en ae coc | ;dedohnsont /) 025.522.0110 etna aceeiaetene Hee -dO .---------+---- Siliceous limestone......-...----.+.--. 94 | 4 mile south and southeast of Win- “Madison .....-.- | G. W. Hetzler ...-..--.-----------+---+---- |----dO --.------------ Limestone .-.-..-----+---++-+2-+---+-- terset. : OB ieztdoueh i = Seen ee ais ee SOE Sos ces | TDR. Mardis. 025.50 c.0 Jccenteuseu cis essen as tise CO able ttre =| ocleee ele 1 dO oie wesc ae = clone ane sees te eetea eet 96 | WahGersets cc .. cleeert on. sek: Madison ......-. City of Winterset ...-------------+++-++++- Limestone ...-.----- Limestone .--..--..-.- see eeeeceeer eee 97 | 6 miles southwest of Winterset -..|....do...-.------ W.H. Lewis .-.---.--.-----022+-e+eeeerees +++ dO see -e2) eee eee. 2220 - 2.2022 sees eee re eee sees cone nes 98 | 2 miles east of Earlham........--- = dow 2 bey Regan Brothers & McGorrisk ...----.----- ace Pest See mecior 220 22-2. eee cece eee eee eee e gene nn nee 99 | 22 miles east of Karlham....-...-. PAOasho eee eee Robertson & Willoughby <2 sst2. '2)='* Bee Eee eee bee C0! teceenacs- sci 2-- Even, tlin to medium ...-.. I eeat/ Owe oes er ee ciene (sf eee a Lips | 1874 | 88 (2 aga Oe pboltend 0 et eens BU Mae yRe nuke oc. yen, medium thickness -.||,..7d6).)...22.2---.|..-.00's.cecse-ce--<}], 1870 | 359! Licht fh ee eens | Granular and porous....-.|.-.. WO Resawdas ets eescee Hyon, chick tomedigny...ssi\) = GO lc cseeen coaecileeee DOse cee ell 1856 | 90 SO OS) de | Granular and porous...-.-- IMBSSIVOr accmin secickiccascs 5 Even, medium thick....... Sub-Carboniferous| Saint Louis....... 1880 | 91 Light and dark drab ....-.. |, Compact and porous -.-...-.|---. CO esas geceescemasece ss ee Oa enc cece ce Eh Ways act ol al io See ll 1880 | 92° PARC UAN Soe ici ba eins cis: || Coarse, semi-crystalline...|.-... MO toscmmaa sir ass ewiewes Se Uneven, thick to medium OO oni nee LO san en ce one | 1862 | 93 PROM MATAR Es oe cipcinceeer eo: Granular, fossiliferous ---.|.-.-. UO ocr cient eee ciecsiwis 2 Uneven, medium thick ....|| Carboniferous .. .. Upper Coal Meas- || 1860 | 94 ures. . Oo 4 Nesey MlOat AE a2 S755 4 simon teooeeleeete (1) aS Ape Sedind ceeecr pee CO maEEP ean ee eee poet OO see ee nam owes een aoe teeeeu eee 1878 | 95 VSR OTAD: cna pcs csceecees Granular, fossiliferous ..-:| Massive ......-..--.-----+ Even, thick to medium. .-.|| Carboniferous ....| Upper Coal Meas- || 1860 | 96 ures. Pen da eeeneee MISSOURI—SANDSTONE. 1 | Miami Station Carroly ssc. sacs White Rock Quarry Company .-.-.-....-.-.- i] 2 Warrensburg Jobnson ..-...-- Bruce: & Weitch -ceecss ales cease acetal ees See OL. ca case te mane eee bea eee eters PROC ae sea 3 arate Pickle Brothers = sctcos-5 -nccinnp atasemmoemallireme 4 | Clinton Del rie eo Serene: Gebhardt Quarry) <5... 2. mes =eeeeeensep aay eeee 5 | 4 miles southwest of Sainte Gene- | SainteGenevieve Sainte Genevieve Sandstone and Granite vieve. | Company. | KANSAS—SANDSTONE. | 1 | 7 miles west of Fort Scott .....-.. Bourbon .....-- Gilfillan Brothers) 22-<2s--eanernseeas ee eses Sandstone ........-. Sandstone (calcareous) ..--.--..-..--. 2 | 4 miles southwest of Pawnee ..... Crawford ....... Pawnee Flagstone Company ....-.....-.-..||.--- CU PRECINCT ES elem O oise's sien sme canis soe 2 sae eee KANSAS—MARBLE AND LIMESTONE. | IW Bigelowasssen Ges -neoen eemane ese Marshall 2. 2.-.- HOP Gallagher seoccco.ss-eae eee ae ease Limestone .......... Liméstone ......2- Morvis sc cea.s en Wolf, Piekens'&’Co-c,cccenmeenssbemecens Limestone .-.....---- Magnesian limestone .-....-.--.------ : 7 | Soa One SS: tae ece oe faye koe Se eee Tirankin ee esas Hanway Brothers ak Sordice he seinem eels ctesep acted acbOO cincstccesceanies Limestone .....--1..0. sends 8 | 3 miles east of ‘Cottonwood. ....... Chasevrscssse see L. W. Lewis 2620 wae ws wale oe tale bain ee ee 9 2 miles east of Cottonwood. - a ~SdOvGee sm eeeeion Tweeddale & Parker Magnesian limestone ..-.....---.---.- 10 | Cottonwood BIRDS Aoyente donee ease ale EEO. sake see oe Emslie & Rettiger we sO 5 we cntec ose bs omcinnnletelelteetaraemes | 11 | 1 mile west of Cottonwood Lantry & Burr Limestone .....5.-sssacsstee NZ eNiarion Center cuss sssece ese se oe Groat Brotherss2es24. eee eee eee eee -d Dolomite 3... 2). -/-vaceueee SP PLOTER Ce... cept ar ee ee eee ece erate A. F. Horner 2 Maegnesian limestone 5 14) Augusta... J.C. Haines : Magnesian and siliceous limestone - --- 15 WF ore Stott -uone 2 dovedek acme W.. La Wilkinson): cscccnccetens sateoneee tle MEGOnS cacccet eeewene Magnesian limestone and limestone. -. | 16 2 miles east of Winfield........--. Cowleyenooese-e Charles Schmidt 2 -cnseeoceueeetconmeeeeees Limestone .-.....-.-- Siliceous and bituminous limestone. -.. 17 | 24 miles southeast of Winfield ....|....do ........... Hodges, Moores Coie smcescenecseneeeees -aus QOtiaubeckneamesie Limestone .......-... Dees Sacer” CALIFORNIA—CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS ROcKs. | LA CRONTYD o. ane edocs sopne esse nwaee Placeraessestece Griffith (Griffithas 220302 eee eee Granites cc2ass set ece Hornblende-biotite granite............ 2 | JER UN Me Weegee sare cao Een ocoben: Sovuomaneeseeee John Codden & Bros. and others .......--- Basalt tense eeeceee Basaltio.dso.-.2 oho fel eee WASHINGTON TERRITORY—CrysTAL.Ine SILIcEous Rocks. 1 | iWalKe@800 F.-scnesasdsseseeceecaae | Pierce e-eease ese | Northern Pacific Railroad Company..-.-.-- | Girenite-.ssssmsese> | Jeasiivsahacs'pesccs cesses ces sean eeemnEm | \ 1 WASHINGTON TERRITORY—SaAnNDSTONE. ees, a 1 Belligham Bay.................... | Whatcom......- Gi Seidel 6¢ Coiscup3. cence nese ee Sandstone ......---- | Rindittode dicots ie ee wl NEBRASKA—MARBLE AND LIMESTONE. ee. ee i | Limestone STATISTICS OF BUILDING STONES. OF ROCKS QUARRIED IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. MISSOURI—MarBLz AND LimMESTONE—Continued. 97 aq STRUCTURE. GEOLOGICAL AGE OF FORMATION. :-| x ES Color. = ag ' P Jointing, bedding, or natu- : i & Texture. Stratification. ent wietade! Period. Epoch. é CS) . emheasominny DTAD Ee cc csiee seataeee nas Fine, semi-crystalline..-.. TUE) one sradorepapee Even, medium to thick. ...|| Sub-Carboniferous| Saint Louis -.--.-- 1864 | 11 Se ON oee au ocetacasaeae clas Fine, fossiliferous ........|.-.-. QO Sacto cats eoseeaaeilier 0 Sear opt ae ae 5" Tope eS I ae, PS ee 1860 | 12 Sel eb ae SARS ene SAE Ceeees Fine, compact ....------..|..-- Gh) sont arma Aocm-eereooedle eeLOY a tat See Seema Bega ty ie Ret See ee | Dt d oa ae Sunn 1878 | 13 Peet Gbabectes cede vs cwiaicos as ¥ Fine, semi-crystalline..-.. Far LO esieeisie bese ssiegeisizjeie se ACs (of, Seb Seal i Are a Rear Cae ERT (ical ae Said I dO, Sloe es 1850 | 14 BEUOb cscs ncitscelsec a= ae ate Fine, fossiliferous. -...-.-.- Toate PRO a. cesaeondondseor ‘Even, thiC ke aac meet eee Dd ghee coe we eeE RAF on Sone one eee 1873 | 15 TDs ie ates ae arate = ero'= ee an » Fine, semi-crystalline. ---. WEI SINE eae aeogecsocke Even, medium to thick. ...|| Sub-Carboniferous| Saint Louis ....-.. 1860 | 16 BE Oras ccisicnasaccsas-sc Fine, fossiliferous ---.....|. es AO Miisicc'uaeyae sedees aa Medium, thick ..........-. dat ere p edo te Ae 1860 | 17 eo ea Gli PARAS GS SER Eee Sen eee pe ote CLO eat rat etnree stats ete tetee 26 (UO Sane Sanne gocpesee Even, medium thick....... Bri Cee hs aye AYN BT ree. eeey Ma A 1875 | 18 Re Oecswesisbeaacask o's. Fine, semi-crystalline . -. SOO feb sala ateie eerie iaiete sinto'ainsa Peete tt ti sae ack tF-AG0)9- he eee fs CP Toda oe 1845 | 19 BEER eh ecarc ossascecdccs ss Fine, compact..-.---....«. .| Irregular Blase utaleieasisigeto'siallis a a ae Ser Cee VAG Aa he eee a eee does ee) 1850 | 20 DUIS I See acta c's oc'se meu me Fine, fossiliferous .-...... irregular .-....--.--...-.. Medium, thick .......----. Sub-Carboniferous| Saint Louis.....-- 1878 | 21 EAP NINGTAD Ss oc.56< sce s a Fine, vesicular ....-.--..-. IMASSIV Giese =e ean seen Even, thin to medium thick |) Lower Silurian ...| Potsdam.......-.. 1876 | 22 JO) 2G hil ae ee Medinmfossiliteroussese) ea OO ws cee an. alec se sen Even, medium thick ...... Sub-Carboniferous! Saint Louis. ...... 1856 | 23 Brown and drab .......--- Sea Gb) 2 cusohneysaccesssenar 200) ieee asnneesccce= sneer GV One UOC Keates: ceircaneae pat 0 fem. le beeen sleet he Lease te 1866 | 24 RTE OGG [ac xicis0 svieu vec Fine, compact ....--...... ‘Even and Wit Ma feccoreaccee Even, thin to medium ..... Carboniferous ..-.| Lower Coal Meas. || 1878 | 25 ures. (Ck Sigg ReGQOSOEe GP etEBAeE Granular, fossiliferous....| Massive ..........-...-.-- Uneven, medium to thick .|) Carboniferous ... | Upper Coal Meas- || 1869 | 26 ures. ra brsecscrs:sccceccscress Fine, fossiliferous......-.. aceA0t) spond ghorcacseoesnase Thin to medium........... Te cigs LO baz 2 st maitre eee dO} 3s theses 1865 | 27 MISSOURI—SANDSTONE. Light gray..... ohare Medivm ees seee one ae MABSIVGbiee cftamciesseo nes PP HICK ee cteetatsectice 2 datas Carboniferous ..-..| Lower Coal Meas- | 1839 |} 1 ures. (HN eodee oe Pere ete CL Oleeraiets aici sets atelier are SRY oe ie cee OSE aCenne IVOW) CHICK esa =e sec ccs Medium, vesicular ..-..... Trregulanecc.ccns~sseiece Even, thin to thick. -...... Permian -S.c2ce 2s: | secu seee see aeese 1878 | 6 Gray and baffs.-.-<.....-- Medium, oolitic, & vesicular)....do ..-..-..-----.------- Uneven, thin to thick -..-. Carboniferous, -- =.||-sss.. 14) Vicinity onc sco. scene lente vo] owe sche coe soe Pa 10 3 7 0.30 |; 10 | Vicinity and Amherst, |--2...:).-. 5.005. 0-os-e.seeccb cs gn|esoces|enssc/c 2 eee | Ohio. | WY? 22 20 2) 1.88 17 Amsterdam. 22. <2. d.0e-< Does ee cae n cee cecslen ame dais a a|vusweni |e eat <5 aetna Gaze, 8 | 3 5 ORT seven ae a SS Ae re Senay mtd | pomicie Ie Salas Aaa es AG cn 8 | Stone mountain an | vicinity. T. 17 25 52 a ee kis 1 | Connecticut. ............ 76 | Vicinity 2) ce. se cane Setee ae eeee eeetee 7 | Stone City .-- 201 cece eee | 220250). shes ses ee eee (Ta Gee 8 1 7 0.11 8 | Connecticut ..........-. |\gw wininicl| a an'e misten's 2 m= aiainiv'ein mle we tee) oe = aaa) aie can Tenn 4 it 3 0.14 | He A Hoare eb cctoasoncr che 3 | Vicinity 1 | Georgia:.-.eecso eee : Mass 4 2 2 0. 125 2) ViGinity icc or eee citan cen lsc oe leases eaten 2 | Cape: Amn?<..2 creer Pali BT pe Seem bea nek De 1.00 lsc caine tek E55. erate ners veklge se] ems aenices neat eae cee eens 30:|. Vicinity <= 2ns-scewees i eee 5, 003 453 | 4, 550 5. 00 500 | Ohio and Michigan ..... 4,500 | Cook county and Rut- 2 | Maine-2cencces seco land, Vt. ; Ohio ... 8 7 1} 0.40 8 |o-< eis dadmadedenekscnecwas ree ote 1 Ena deeace san: saacns|onws eutaa eat Ohio 2, 500 100 | 2,400 8.00 ||1,499 | Portsmouth ........-... 1, 000 Cine, Dayton, and 1 | Maine and Missouri -. iana. Ohio 250 170 80 0.78 249 | Amherst, Independence, 1 | Sandusky... cs. sccnes os] deccus | ooeeee ee eee “wen and Euclid. Ohio. 40 10 30 0. 43 34 | Berea, Waverly, Black 6 | 4miles westof Columbus |:-..:-}.2.ceseesceeseeees wwaetes Lick, and Sugar Grove Nero 6 Giscaee eee Dee ye Beads sees oe ceon terreno heres Ps sas eocase AA cota ie 6 | Concord ......... cence Mi dices 8 6 2 0. 50 8] Vicinity cna c.c cesisms cose cases] soccces commceseiscclesisne peels oak os teeea eects Towa 50 30 20:1 OIA. COW ecdeee snes ce weedeee eases 48 | Davenport, Buffalo, Le |.....-|.--.-- 0-42 =3ee eee Claire, and Stone City - Ohio. 125 25 100 1. 64 50 | Portsmouth and Berea..| 75 | Dayton ............-...-|...... |c ane ccnthe tne s See Colo... 50 12 38 CREE Reh te! WOME rst canaries acm mre On neme Geos am arcetn aR aemesaGen 8 | Castle Rock .......... Conn 12 ION eee ye oe LRG Ss B= SS pn oe iaeeO aceonOeecT ao boG fs ania Scat sed sere ates on seesec 12 eee and Birming- am. Iowa 12 2 10 (URE Berens ncensn Ags ssc Seaeocogec 12 | Earlham, Pella, and 1 | Sauk Rapids, Minn., Tracy. Iron Mountain, Mo., Grundy and Bu- chanan counties. Mich ... 75 15 60 0.27 || 60] Amherstburg, Essex 15 | Trenton and Kelley's }--::--|.--.-2occecesceneeeeeee | county, Ontario, and island, Ohio. Berea, Ohio. Iowa 200 150 50 45/00 | eeoaacnlemaacies sabres dee caataisae ae 200 | Dubuque and Farley, |:--..-|-<.....sss-s-eeeeeeeeeee and Nauvoo, Ill. PO sotee 35 20 15 1.40 | 15 | New Jersey amd Penn- 10 }, Vidiniby 22222 once od) cones acon a5 esse er | sylvania. N.J | 15 3 | 12 0. 27 15 | Newark and Belleville..|......)..... ghdshicet ae cca neeceacelscnear nerd S .saicdes sae ea eee | E ON 15 3 12 0. 37 | 2 Vicinity. -0 25 eo eee indsens 100 1 99 T66: \oocss e eos See 100 |, Ellettsville and Bedford -|.-<: ..|\...... 5-1-0 sees eee Mass 67 50 17 L. 09 Wes eesl cede cmcectincegucoomunepios eRe R alee eeeen es Meanctas ee arses 45| Fall River=-o,-sseeees Mass 4 2 2 Le RS eee nore etes ar er an cinema RAny oe bo sguaeineaee 4 | N. H.and Fitchburg .. Indes 5 2 3 0.17 1 | Amherst, Ohio .......... 4 | Joliet, Il., Wabash .. wee [eceeee| senses eee eee eee ee eceees Tex 2. OOM <= wonst on 102 | R.40ifl. cosa) cos sks omens heaeeen Ome nee ba nee Seem = eee see er ea | 102°] Conn .....c2ceameee Mass ... 10 6 4 0. BB I] ee Saas | ad over dubace tambo tee cee amen s ceenae wane mae aeidete mea mee 10 | Gloucester........--.- Mich ... 12 3 9 0.19 | 9 | Buena Vista and Am- Bile VCO) asec ke ease se| cnn oe [+ -202 ses +o -semnoeeeeenen herst, Ohio, and Ionia | h county, Mich. Ohio... 8 3 5| 0.25 || 5 | Near Portsmouth, Ohio. Sil) Hamilton. Os-..05 Joan \inqwe| vans soe ee eee Pas 17 13 4 0. 28 || 6| York and Lancaster 10 | Texas, Maryland, and > 1 | Bluehill, Me., and near counties and Hum- Cumberland county, | Richmond, Va. | melstown. Pa. Conn 136 86 100 1/9471 0112)’ Portland ssceeescaantaeee 9 | Hast Canaan............ 15 | Westerly, R. I., and Glastonbury. Mass 16 1 15 D264 Sac doheud aks smc we ceer seeen coe oki Reet eh nee TUNIS ae oa aetna 2 Sakae |i so Seal sae bar ne ome eee eee Ind..... 234 9 225) 1.59 7 | Portsmouth, Ohio ....... 227 | Indiana? ye. ces Poo. alecowedl Saceee eee Nis Viretete 15 ABW oases 0. 60 | 15 Vicinity 22-cecoteecene Rec ae ells ectet aa seee caiscmceae ee oles «| aaesmanie reas ee senpiecaeet Wis ... 10 5 Bil 10.86 Matas chcobta.® 20. 2 cae eee tO lar clhy ys coli chews yeaa OES Ponanese ied eer seteae SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES. STATISTICS OF BUILDING STONES. 101 | | | i | t STONE PAVEMENTS. Stone employed for foun- : Stone commonly used ationn: Street. Sidewalk. roe peered Extent used. Location of quarries. Extent used. Location of quarries. RTOS LODO oe sents oo sae tao TAGHGs ise «cone steas tee IMGOING Comaiearemiennieania TAT POl Yee y ocsh Fan terces Berea, O80. 2 ee eee cos Sandstone IMBSTONG <-ceneeaeccs ae 3 argelyacescesageeae New England. ............ PUD pee rele ateeter csc.cr'e dao river oes steerer ee Blue-stone .-. Sandstone. cecesc- sess ss See CONS «serene ee eee stone) Allegheny ‘Considerable ......... Allegheny and Fayette |; Sandstone counties. Lime and mountain stone.|| Little. .............--- (Conble-stone) PVG) sae Little csi adetent asoe oe Lehigh and Wyoming val- || Limestone ......-..-..-- leys and North river. Sandstone and conglom- || Largely.-.-.......-..-- (Cobble-stone) streams -...}....do ........-....---- Eastern Pennsylvania ...... Sandstone .......-.-..--- erate. f Dai gSUARa plyeraee 2 Ba ae aaa aces ae aie ap Mie Mapes ark 8 Payers wececees es ln) EEN) hebeeoRemeroscoce Wicinitvaer sce sueaes poem once ( imestorie:.o5 eouee aman Granite and gneiss...-.... LO! Miles See eee «ge Sec = Stone mountain and vi- | One-half .............. Stone mountain and vicinity || Granite. ..............-. cinity (macadamized). PSTMEStONO a. 2c 6... cence Littlets.. soacenseses. Medina) scamsccaaesesees > IEBTOUY 2 teens. ci< 2 asain’ 3 East bank Caynga lake ..... Sandstone -.- 2.2.22. SG) oes So eee About three-fourths ..| Baltimore _ county SIGN ee GO sete mcce cen arate: Resdout; N.Y ssc8.e05- one Gneiss . ee ee Jones’ falls and vicinity. Slate and bowlders........ Lithlemeesesert emacs: I opp e eee CINIAHURTOR Wises nye tec OSS. et male vacuous voc kucals veosoetete Granitesoe.-2.22es22.858 Penobscot. POT EMED IG het arg Se oe te ells ate i ce ee oe nite siaara sfemyaie so cce es eeereee wee eneces ATR FREY ey rap a Pennsylvania se sees aah ell Mae es eae eae Granite, slate, and Rox- || 67 miles.....--........ Quincy, Bergen Hill Nadie 3c wee te ek. North river, Rockport, Bol- || Granite and blue-stone - bury stone. Rockport, Me. ton, Conn., and Quincy. (Chi EE ae eo Sane, alee Bless saree aaa New Haven..---.-..-..--. Considerablo.-.......-- Northriver ts. .a-ses eects Blue.stone and gneiss. - bee GaSe Ue eee ase Eee Largely....-....-..+-:| Medina .......-.......-...| Largely........-...--.| Medina .....................|] Sandstone .. 5 Sree HGIMESTONG |. )- 32 ess ene NSP Gee face aera ae Wi GEL Vanetore ateteaiess)el~ sie annie oe Lr Ss sebegauocsemes Sagetown, Ill., and Mount |} Limestone, Sagetown, Pleasant. | Il, and Mt. Pleasant. Slate, diabase, and granite.|| 100 miles...........-.. (ADR hipaa am eaecodg te aclactaal Mere GOnenec an meece vesis ssl LLNOSOR FIVER es sets wes oe Granite and blue flag- stone GA Ci (is 68h Bea ee Largely: osceeencse a Connecticut: .--2=-- a2. =2-|- 4: Dyess vecsn oa ceais ae Williamsport, Pa .......... Graniteee cas eeeesen DANUStONE) oo ccc hale eck Uonsiderable.......--- NATUR Che petit cdapatnnee Considerable. ......... Berea, Ohids.o- sacecetec soo oe], SANUSLOMO Ia seats a eee LMS REE. casigoac @asbigd | ha RIOR ORS bs SARE ee Seer on Mee Banas te eepccatee orem LUUG. wae welencces noms cone City 2-2. ce seen pen tees Limestone, Stone City and Farley. aia a cpamicciaie ss ste «sells ee ae eae ee mene rate toe ee cemien eta! LIT SOLY's wane nite a= eIINOW LOUK scieccienssamees «o| LOLOL treatm atane oem PAMEBLONG on 5 coe -se- <5 - Lareely, macadamized.| Vicinity ................-- EAC pean seeesee- a5 MaCini iy eas ae ae ae eae Limestone aaeeee +52 ae TARO tess pens st cesees tT MItHLOL che aecen' su on ne anor nman(, QiuEM Cea | Pee rematan evince avsterse qiuecdnot seas 52 cvs sseiseece ose ||| Graniteycc Recast acres REROISK ema ee eee wea ee acs Fe EG (ese ee ABR Sae, (Cobble-stone) Delaware | Little..........-...--. IN OLCHITIV OL! S. soeee oan cess li Gneisu ic n. kee eas river. TAUNESUONG 2hc2 2 sc cs ees 2 miles paved, 25 miles | Waterloo, Wis., Lockport, | 36 miles............-.- Lemont, Cook county....-.- Limestone, Lemont..... macadamized. OMe and other parts 2 of New York. . STI BUON OM ics ine eco ss +2 PAlttlore. ot aticeece seer SLO UID Vane eee aieeimiete ae tele aha lals sistas meee St = sio|| vie sin ciel hosassmine wee a9 ee/alds Sandstone a Ditters asswesccae Concord coisssc-e esa secin se MUL UG Gimterere alee alae isco | se Se elo cre tee ain thas eters wim Grantitocic sss csecewdewste MANGSLONG «5-6 .sc065-o~ st ae gelyewenn emcees <2 (Bowlders) Potomac river.|....do .......-.-..-.+-- Southampton, Pa ..-..-.-.-.|| Sandstone ---....-.....- PWAMESLONG -< -- 210s «1 = = = 5 Largely macadamized.| Davenport....-..--.------ Ths Age asoon Stone City and Joliet ....-.. Limestone and_ sand- | stone, Stone City and Joliet, Til RdOPwee ses ach nsec cassie Largely s.sacercnctos =. DAVUON em etude stele oe arvely: cslonn se eae eekeeateneeeee ae 4 | Massachusetts and vicinity. Ogdensburg ...... Neer 260 250 10} 13.00 2. \\ORIO sas. Aebeesteeereres 268") Vicinity iccet cccemescematinmee cmlameneee ee Jaeaven Cee iy Oranges: conse Neoware 25 QD Wiens eae 0. 50 22") Orange 8 rat. acer aca -on|hcanes|e cise ces sc ac eee eet eRe ee aaee 3.) Orange’. ...-seseneeeee Oshkosh .......... Wisc By | Psoncnae: 5 0.14 1\|; Marquette: — 22. ecm aes 4| Vicinity. 2... cot ce. Principal streets, also | Medina, N.Y ...-..--...- IIE Gi eke seagce es | Winfield, Fort Scott, Flor- || Limestone, Kansas City.| 58 macadamized. < ence, Kans., and Joliet, I. |! | 222 GO 2-2 - ee eeeee eee eeee ellen. epee es Seren Peer Hes GhU Bre bo SAB AS eacee jaVaeinity wen, ceeeeceee es ses Limestone in vicinity ...| 59 Wa Geng ae esas cen ne Little. .....- 2-5-2 0..|- ae i--2 e- een n ne CLOSE Ge eee eee | Kingston, Ulster, and Hurley|) Blue-stone ....-..--.---. 60 MAIMIGS LODO sess -/s2-26-<- == ZT OS senna hetee eee ae Hast of city...-.-...---.-. Jka bias soerSSocobdad As Hast of citysetescrasescece ce Limestone .....-.......- 61 PES on cis c'csvaeces Mitile vee oki enee amo (Bowlders) vicinity ...--..|. SO hate wna tevaacesae Greensborites onasese ee EEG eee em ee ed 62 CO eE css bnsia'dcicle > vase Ware OL yiee assem! taets ViGINIGY pee sn nme emis em slnje ae Mansel Vecenenescee as a: Wyoming county .....--.... Doleritect sass. ses ase 63 fEPUMee tedcecelsc sino cen 52 bit COtecenatarecc ee as Cape Ann and Westford ..| Little......-.....-.-.. CaperAnnneccr.seaca. soot Granites cotciece see c ee 64 TGIMGSTONGIS. oo. 2-0 oe a= si] JNO) Rance Shosencarce INOMILG Vere n meen eer aa Dery sqaent Ceca su aeer Fort! Scott (near)=! se. -ceceseliieeces soe dsce ee see sceee 65 PEA TGAUONO aiaram ols ae <7 s01 aa = Little .-.....- Suewnislnns Medina ....- vo vesscetcnees BU tbh Omens) sais cses a's oie Wicinitiy. se: wncs oo cee Sandston6).22s-ceocss ce. 66 50 UY) 2 oC oe eet 222-0 - 2220-2 2eees- ee: (Bowlders) vicinity .----.-| Largely...-..-.--..... Southern Indiana.........-. Himestoneiee sense esata 67 PROG Mee a acw aia en's tcvassos er eelyeeecs soc abe = 6 IUOUIS AMO feeea ae se eit aaa TU Gecen sas ess =a eta eee ticut and vicinity. Rae INGaY ee 24 5 19 0. 96 16 | Ohio and Portland ...... 3 | Westchester county -.-.-- 5 | Vicinity -...-... Sens RALseee. 100 65 35 | 0.64 || 85 | Connecticut, Nova Sco- 2| Tuckahoe, N. Y.-....... 59 | Smithfield, Quincy, | tia, and New Jersey. Westerly, Crans- ton, and Providence. eee 100 20 80 2. 00 28 | Cleveland and Berea,'| 72 | Vicinity <.. 2500-00 oo cose] case - oo nee Ohio, Warrensburg, Mo. Mass .. 7 il ates OAD We we nictellite -t.- +2055 | Largely macadamized. aoe Louis and southeast | Little...-......-...... Saint Louis and Joliet, Ill ..|| Limestone, Saint Louis =| 124 issouri. ROME Ofte socic Ssslcee sic doce. EAL Grsces miner tee: tee meememas oe eas hee c seein Considerable. ......... paintiPauls aoe sees aeons Limestone, Saint Paul ..| 122 (CE TD). See eae eee Considerable .......... CanerA til ance Maine meme omen ee a\emel ice noesemcacltar sac caacas lssGasecssscceses Granites 2seee eee 123 BARTEL EC)) XTC REC ATE OE ate tee eee oie als eee ae fae eee atcteieis 0 enielm mets oleleiaejn\cinin css v's cic «| Csemesiesscvaucaces «ocreetenses|\aeseueusnedeoeaanceneaasee 124 DaiMORCONOG sees co. 5- cess JELUD] Greets attests ome wees eae ae cele mceaicats « ISRO hye ooopesaae dee City quarries aes ses. eee see Limestonesseese- steer: 125 Granite rubble............ g Pasi rht (ye seaneAm ar Sonora and Penryn ....... i bbl Oats seater 2 Folsom and Vermont. ...... Granites... 25 3..eseee 126 ERMOGSEONG kee see seecisena 2 - WEN RIN cont ccogder bad tee gaacbascneuoa cebeceeEaeee Business streets -..... North river and Vermont ...|| Blue-stone and marble -.| 127 Penne Pierce seca vesess Business streets ......| Cobble, ballast from ves- | Little.................| Hudson.....................|| Flag-stone............-.|128 sels, and New York. SHIP ae eee Nebervelybesea-te ccc Glenville; seer ane eas Soke: WEAR OLY sagaeeintak oa oe Heldevberm atc cece onsen cook | Re eerie oeehe SS 129 Seral conglomerate ...-... Wittleee se esses )an is (Cobble-stone) vicinity....| Considerable.......... Lehigh and Susquehanna || Sandstone .............. 130 counties. HT i eked shtised de otal |e bee C oh Teen eh MEADE A aeAE SY SAAS Se Ne aeeae es Muargel yim sis s2sic=25 TOUS tus ee Ree eae eee Bree: Joliet and | 131 ton. : Sandstone ss. 5 .25--52-25-. Macadamized withtrap| Westfield ................ LAREN Sona canedoscnsce Hudson river and Monson ..|| Sandstone and gneiss - - -| 132 PANE BTONO/.~ocios cies s.e-<. Dorttlel seme eS scr eres Spring eld is sonscecs ae alas soe sy Poschesionoate Ase Springfield and Dayton ..... Limestone. .0-scessea- 133 Maa ShONO tec. accu cass <<< Per OO) sacecdetcoccacewes ( ‘obble-stone) ODIO iver. eee: CO. a s.0< ls sein weenie Steuben villovscaseeen seen. Sandstone .--........... 134 Wi LISLONG) <2. cob -icd ec emc vo Be OO loateaa cetaninn sel oe Fields in vicinity ......... Beet OO ee tet eens tains aaat Acushnetssyi 722322 e es Granite s2-t3222hs esse 135 Ei Se OE ORE eee are Oly = seneeee sess ses HO DCUCEL 24452 sen—-ece.| Uargelys......-...-s..| Bedford and Elletisville -.--}| Limestone .---2-2+--2.==-| 106 AMIOBUONO {45 oc. 2 voce cn LACH OR een ate scwens Medina yee sete once en ae: PI GLIG erecta een oe Sere Berea and Euclid ....-...... Sandstone and limestone) 137 Beth ene ene ere ce ots Nai Grama mite oc) eins ean emicliviameine sie a n)ac piciaislss.<'6.a vie slots so ED areas toctoa tents Mey county and near Fort || Limestone, Safford...... 138 scot | PSNAStONG < osc. easel c ee: lb Ocean cine eee == Lambertville -............ Considerable. ......... North riven) seece--ess-ces 0 Blue-stone <2. 52-2.2--25- 139 LIS Bae oases anaes Targelyseccsnssceess Clark’s island, Me........ argselysaae ce cose stares SWORE Cs e 0 SoBe scoscor She OO ain Ser heise inant 140 HaNGstONG:..-cc~ces-c5- ce. Largely 7s... 2o.2-5-ee Medina and Hammond....| Largely. ..-..--...-..-.. Cayuga and Hudson river ..|| Sandstone ...-.-..-..... 141 CPP LOOK Sas Ch ooo en | see ae eda geet thetels Sass lore te oe mts Sel. os cc One-half of principal |} North river..-....-......--. Blue-stone, North river.| 142 streets. PEE OTONE Sento ae cece | cs scenes decine as psec else ase cade tek eee seca TD GGIGL ee seeseecatee sia SW SILONCOW I we ete cesta ni son nie Me SlONe}- ces sce eee 143 DED AStONG a aesiveepceein ss Latgelly oss e-scics-2 you (Cobble) Ohio river ....--- sits LO teens aceaniee oara BUSTA VISES ema malacre ce beta Sandstone’ .2sss-0502 55 144 Red sandstone ............ UbIt ble ene sacha (Cobble) Susquehanna | Largely....-....-.--.- WACTINI Nee ese Soho Bosch soe Red sandstone ..-.-..--- | 145 river. SEL NTGHC) oocShooRCnerbeen iPod CP BoroserroemAntet OVAL CAIN Veta ee cid a a akfa alee os = ttl eenasscaneees es ste Meshoppenle. antisense ses Slaty and conglomerate.) 146 Cam iGo «24a asses aes =ca5 5% Cnet ITO LSI OOUS eee OMe ERP Enn Bee ee Ree a ret oa == Sere cle ninaciesooe selene mo cinnitacicce ec te.< cde cialnece Granitess-2esceresaneret | 147 MIIMNG-POCK: 42 Seis cons fon ose ee Ree et hy Bie aa ae Littlhooscccntee sesecce iWinODas. tec cact- oe werent Lime-rock, Winona ..... |148 Granite and mica-schist. ..|| Little...........-..... Vicinity and Massachu- |..-.do ...-.........--- IM GRON TIVO ee ons oe wien Granite, gneiss -........ 149 setts. Gneissoid granite......... Main business streets.) Fitzwilliam, N. H......... Business streets ...... Local and Fitzwilliam, N. H |} Gneiss.-........-.......- 150 Trap and gneiss -.-........ DAitilozes sso2- ac eases Tomkins Cove ...--...---- Largely s2s-eoscee seat North river .... Blue-stone..)<-2)-..6-1.< «me Bimestone'.--.-.-....5-... ar QOly Nescccssage seas RWACANT Yeo ee ete ee oie =< lyin Cee Seeeeoaecancsss Work COUNLY.2--5- 5. snes Brown sandstone SANAstOne voce. cae seen ae — ral (8, GSS S 4 BSBUE DoS Cer aCy AASB NeA Fane eee Considerable. .......-- ‘BOrOdisn ces oes ena eecncae a e limestone and sand- | 153. stone. ae Cait ok aia aN cart Beet am ny We ‘ Set et See wa . . q i y t y i Het a ne 0 ve wwe nie ; F : es ‘ i j + fi ‘ ax tent ie Pe So phe hit ya } Vali on ba ee iweoae” we : : tes) +. : a a iy ' V i ant - ’ 7% ’ ‘ 1 a . 4 ied 4 b dod bee es un ; o « A t 3 ‘ i , ‘ way.) ( ae ¢ ’ i y é ‘ > bd , ok P; ih: ) oo i 7 be Me r ' So) a ‘ { + = « . =) { - ' \ » a4 ‘ Lat 4 +% 4 : | 4 \ A ty f 1 > ‘ J . : . t 4 4 yp bY ys ‘ 4 fiat ' / - AY ' vey" { P ba, ¥ ci wet ’ d a ae) wa 5 ¥ y f nie § ; ‘0 1 pal ‘ . ‘J rig ¢ re Hv ut a) 4 a 4 4 i v i Wie ; ul Pree wi us out yee iva + mM v3 at . Ld ., L A ‘ > o44\ toed be alates hax i 7 pee ps 4 pet ver re oY sag baa : : 3 4 el ’ can ae * Bay ' renege tes La ad pete is ‘ " ay iat ny ee iy bee rere a Pag We bai DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 107 CHapTER VI.—DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. GENERAL REPORT ON THE BUILDING STONES OF RHODE ISLAND, MASSACHUSETTS, AND MAINE. By PROFESSOR N. S. SHALER. In the following report I propose to give a short general account of the geological conditions in which the building stones of these states occur, with some remarks on the conditions that have retarded or favored the development of quarrying industry within their limits. This discussion will not include any matters of a purely scientific character, nor will it have to do with the statistical matters presented in the tables. The end in view will be the presentation of the most important facts connected with the quarrying industries that have not been made clear in the statistical reports. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE BUILDING STONES OF NEW ENGLAND. It is a fact well known to geologists that the New England peninsula, or the region east of the Hudson and of lake Champlain, has a more varied geological structure than is found in any other region of equal area within this continent. In the manifold nature of its geological elements it more nearly resembles the territory of old England than that of the rest of America. As the possible variety of the building stones in any country depends upon the number of kinds of rock that appear at the surface of the earth, this variety in the geological structure of New England has exercised a beneficial influence onthe quarrying industry within its bounds. A much greater variety of rocks is quarried within its limits than in any other equal area of America. The greater part of these quarry products is derived from the very ancient rocks which owe their utility to the extensive metamorphism to which they have been subjected by the action of heat and pressure. Nearly all the rocks in this region have lost their original character, being much denser and more crystalline, and are frequently penetrated by joints and cleavage planes that at certain places and for certain purposes are a great advantage to the quarryman. The following list of native quarried stones used in New England for building will give an idea of the variety of materials existing within this area. In the list the distinctly-bedded rocks which have been but little changed from their original condition are given first; below these the more highly metamorphosed materials. Considerable as this list is, it affords but an inadequate idea of the actual variety of these materials, inasmuch as it is not possible to set out in such a list the lesser differences that often serve greatly to alter the appearance and the use of particular stones. Moreover the purposes to which the stone is applied are often too numerous to be set forth in such a brief statement. LIMESTONES. WHITE MARBLE.—Ranging from qualities only a little less perfect than that of Carrara to blotched and variegated stone; used for building stone and the various minor constructural and ornamental purposes to which such stone is usually applied. RED MARBLE.—Mostly used for building purposes and for table-tops, are ete. BLACK MARBLE.—For inlay work, floors. All the limestones that are charred in New England are crystalline in their texture and are tolerably free from admixture of clay or magnesia; they are therefore all available for making lime and are largely used for this purpose. In their distribution they follow somewhat peculiar conditions. They are most abundant in western New England; i. ¢., the western parts of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, yet they appear again in considerable abundance on the eastern face of this region. In Rhode Island north and east of Providence occur large areas of limestone, probably belonging to the Lower Coal Méasures or the sub-Carboniferous limestone, and in eastern Massachusetts, in the counties of Middlesex and Essex, some small areas of crystalline limestone of Archzean age occur, but not in sufficient quantities to afford a basis for industries. On the coast of Maine we have very important deposits of limestone that afford the basis for the largest industry in lime-making that has been developed within an equal area in the United States; but the physical conditions of the rock do not favor the quarrying of building or ornamental stones at this point. None of these limestones are well suited for road-making materials, as their distinct crystalline structure causes them to shatter and fall into a powdery state beneath the wheels. I estimate the area occupied by workable limestones in New England at not exceeding about 500 square miles; in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Maine the area ite than 200 square miles. 108. BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. SANDSTONES AND CONGLOMERATES. These rocks occupy an area considerably more extensive than that occupied by the limestones; it probably amounts to not less than 800 square miles of surface in all New England, and in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Maine includes about 600 square miles of area. The varieties and uses are approximately as follows: FINE-GRAINED, REDDISH, AND BROWN SANDSTONES.—Used for flagging and the external walls of houses principally the latter. CONGLOMERATES AND COARSE GRITS.—Used only for external walls. . ee Of these building stones the first group is very limited in extent, being confined to the immediate vicinity of the Connecticut river, between the northern part of Massachusetts and the mouth of the stream. The greater part of the material is composed of very uniform sand, in which oxide of iron is plentifully mingled. The material, quarries easily and works well under the chisel and the hammer; its endurance to weathering is, however, but slight in the variable climates of the northern United States, yet, on account of the ease with which these stones are worked and their very rich color, they have come into very extensive use in all the eastern cities north of Virginia. There are lighter colored and more flag-like stones of this same series that occur most abundantly in the region near Turner’s Falls. These beds have been, at various times, worked for sidewalk flags, yet their use has not been large; it is from the rocks of this age and character that the foot-prints of various amphibians have been so plentifully obtained. / The conglomerates of New England have a very wide extension, but only in a few regions have they been worked to any extent. The only region where an extensive quarrying industry has been based upon them is in the neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. They are the building stones most accessibte to that city, and so have come into very extensive use for wall work in buildings of a costly character. This stone is extremely durable and of a handsome reddish-yellow or gray color. Owing, however, to the infrequency of the joints in the rock the process of dressing is costly, the stone being perhaps the most expensive of any that has ever come into considerable use in this country. Its peculiar pebbly structure makes it singularly unsuitable for ornamental purposes, as it cannot be worked into any other than a flat surface. Except in Rhode Island, where the inferior carboniferous conglomerate is somewhat used for rough walling, the neighborhood of Boston is the only place where conglomerate has been extensively used for any building purposes; indeed we may say that conglomerates have been more generally used there than in any other city, European or American. SLATES AND CLAY-STONES. This group of rocks is very abundantly developed in New England, and has been made the basis of very extensive industries. The area occupied by workable rocks of this class is probably not less than 1,500 square miles in all New England, and perhaps exceeds 700 square miles in the states especially considered in this report.. This group of very argillaceous rocks is to be divided into the two classes of slates proper and clay-stones on the basis of the relative fissility of the material given by the joints or cleavage planes. The slates proper are affected by true cleavage, and are almost indefinitely divisible by the cleaving-tools of the quarrymen. The clay-stones. have only a jointed structure and are not indefinitely divisible in this fashion. The following are in brief the uses. of these two stones: CLAY-SLATES.—Used for roofing slates, billiard and other table tops; chimney mantels (with or without artificial overfalls) ; flagging stones, school slates, bath-tubs, wash-tubs, ete. CLAY-STONES OR ARGILLITES.—Used only for wall work. The geographical distribution of these slates and’ clay-stones is rather peculiar; they occur in one form or another over all parts of New England, yet the area of the deposits of workable quality is small and widely scattered. Of true slates Massachusetts has no workable deposits that have yet been discovered, and I think it very unlikely that any will be found; none are known in Rhode Island, though it is not impossible that both there and in Connecticut available deposits may yet be found. In Vermont and in Maine there are large areas of good roofing slates, and their development has been the basis of extended industries. The clay-slates have only been occasionally used, principally for road material and rough, dry walls. About Boston there are some quarries that have recently been used as sources of building material for churches and other large edifices. As yet, however, this class of stones has been much neglected. The first quarries in this country, certainly the first in Massachusetts, were opened in stones of this description. These are the quarries in Neponset, formerly Milton. The material was used for grave-stones, mile-stones, and, to a small- extent, for flagging. (See second part of this report.) HIGHLY METAMORPHOSED ROCKS. Under this head I Shall, for convenience, include all those rocks that have lost their original character by fusion or by a very complete metamorphism. The classification has no other merit than convenience. First in importance among these is: GRANITIC ROCKS.—Used for a great variety of constructive and ornamental work. | SCHISTOSE ROCKS (GNEISS AND MICA SCHIST),—Little used for building save for rough walls. No important industries resting upon them, ‘ DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 109 TRAPPEAN ROCKS.—Very little used save for road material. SERPENTINES AND STEATITES (VERD-ANTIQUES AND SOAPSTONES).—Extensively used, particularly the latter, for stoves, chimney-guards, ete. This group of highly metamorphic rocks makes up the greater part of New England; perhaps three-quarters of its whole surface is composed of them, but the several kinds are found in very different proportions. The granitic group occupies several thousand square miles, and the schistose group an even larger area; the trappean rocks are found almost everywhere in small masses penetrating through the other groups of rocks, while the steatites and serpentines occupy the least area of any of the New England rocks, their whole surface not exceeding a few square miles. The granitic rocks of workable quality lie principally in the eastern parts of New England, and are found in their best shape along the coast of Rhode Island and the coast-lines of Massachusetts and Maine. They are the cores or centers of old mountain ranges which have been worn down to their very bases, principally by the long- continued action of the sea and the glaciers of the ice times. Some excellent granites and syenites occur also in the New Hampshire district and in central Maine. Although the granitic rocks of Scotland afford some ornamental varieties that are more beautiful than those of New England, I know of no region in the world where this class of rocks can be found in greater abundance or in more workable forms than here. It is possible in several of the syenite quarries of Massachusetts to break a single block from the quarry that shall have a length of 150 feet, a depth of 10 feet, and a width of 30 feet, the whole mass without a flaw. The schistose rocks of this district, like those in other countries, have few qualities that fit them for any architectural purpose, and the same may be said of the trappean rocks. These old lavas in this district are invariably characterized by the presence of many joints that tend to make them cleave in various directions. These joints are readily opened by the weather, and so the rock crumbles into small polygonal blocks. This material is used only for road material, for which use the ease with which it is fractured and the great hardness of the ultimate masses peculiarly fit it. The large amount of iron oxide it contains also serves to bring about cementation of the macadamized material in the road-bed. In the serpentines and steatites of New England we have the foundation of some small but interesting industries which promise a very great development in the future. In Massachusetts the most important localities for this class of materials are near the west end of Hoosac tunnel, and in the eastern part of the state between Lynnfield and Newburyport. At both these points a little work has been done in former years, but bad management shipwrecked the works before they obtained any considerable development. It now remains to notice a class of building materials which has not been considered in the preceding list, viz: The drift or glacial bowlders that abound in New England. If we consider the whole of the existing walls in New England, those used for fencing as well as those in the more important foundation walls of the wooden or masonry buildings of the region, we shall find that at least 95 parts of the whole are composed of this glacial waste. Sometimes the stones, where the work is to be bound with mortar, are riven with wedges so as to give a better face for the attachment of the cement; usually, however, the stones are used without any such precaution. I know of no other district where these rude stones have been of as great service in the rough economic architecture of a country, although this use of glacial pebbles is common in other parts of America and in the glacial districts of Europe, from the lands of Scotland to the valley of the Po. A GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUARRY INDUSTRIES OF THE DISTRICT. Whoever has made himself acquainted with the singularly great variety of the building stones that exist in New England must in the end be surprised at the limited extent to which those resources have been applied to the arts of the country. Although the finest quarries in the country exist within its limits, there are fewer masonry houses in proportion to its wealth and population than in any other region of like extent in the world. By far the larger part of the houses are of wood, and when stone is used, save in the larger cities, it is unwillingly taken as a building material, and is generally brought from a distance, though better sorts may be close at hand. Thus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, a city of 60,000 people and of very considerable wealth, there are but a dozen stone buildings, and none in which the material has been made the basis of any considerable ornamentation. In other words, there is but one stone building to each 5,000 inhabitants. There is not a single dwelling-house of stone, not more than a few hundred of brick, and these generally of a very inferior sort. Despite its considerable cost and perishable nature, timber has remained the principal building material for dwelling-houses and shops. In the university that owns the best edifices of the city, out of about thirty important buildings only five are of stone, the rest being of brick; yet within 10 or 12 miles of the place there are many beautiful building stones, some of which have been known for half a century. This neglect of stone as a building material may be understood after a little consideration of the history of architecture in New England. The first settlers of this country brought little wealth with them, and a love for architectural effect was the least of their pretensions. Until the rapid development of mechanical industries at the beginning of this century wealth did not begin to accumulate, or the culture to take on a type favorable for the 110 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. development of a taste in architecture. During the first two centuries timber was the natural material for construction; it was by far the cheapest material, and required the least skill for its working. Wherever architecture develops, as it had to develop here, in a plentifully-wooded country the first stage of its progress gives us purely wooden edifices. All or nearly all the earliest Christian churches north of the Alps were of timber, and the houses of the common people were of the same material down to the time when timber became scarce. It is the opinion of many students of architecture that the original types of the Greek temples were also built of wood. The continuance of wood as the principal building material in New England was favored by the fact that during the first two centuries after the settlement of this country the people found themselves exposed to earthquakes of considerable severity. Those of 1685, 1727, and 1755 were of such force that, happening at the present day, they would do no small damage to masonry buildings. Many hundred chimneys in Boston were overturned. It is not unlikely that these shocks had some effect in causing the people to adhere more firmly to the old fashion of building. But the conservatism of art, in nothing so manifest as in architecture, will, sufficiently explain the retention of ancient methods in the architecture of New England. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were positively no beginnings made in quarrying industries. The only quarries I have been able to trace back to the eighteenth century are some few of clay-stones near Boston. These were very small, and only furnished a part of the grave-stones, a few lintels, and a few mile-stones. Stones for cellar walls were obtained from the glacial bowlders, which were used either in their natural state or after being riven with wedges. Even down to the time of the Revolutionary war a considerable part of the grave-stones and masonry blocks were still brought from the mother country, probably as ballast in vessels that carried away timber or fish to Europe. The first New England stones abundantly quarried were the syenites near Boston and the sandstones of the Connecticut valley. These stones began to come into considerable use in the second decade of this century. As yet these kinds of stones, with the various deposits of slate and marble that occur in Vermont and Maine, afford the only quarry materials extensively produced. The advance made in their development has been very great, and is likely to continue for a long time tocome. In the present state of wealth and of taste the demand for building stones is taking other directions from those which of old led to the working of the few materials that have been brought in use. The syenites that have hitherto satisfied the needs of simple strength and cheapness in architecture have little variety of color, and an intense hardness that quite unfits them for the ordinary uses of the decorative architect. There is needed a wider range of stones for use in the decorative parts of our buildings, which shall contribute to embellishment in either of two ways: by means of their attractive colors, or by having a constitution that fits them for the use of the carver who may work them into embellishments. In the following pages I propose to call attention to the various sources of supply whence these qualities of stone may be obtained, as far as they have become known to me during the inquiries which have been made during the present census year or in the twenty years during which I have been a student of New England geology. These resources will for convenience be enumerated under the heads of the several states. It should be noted that these lists are not in any regard exhaustive accounts of materials suited for building stones, but only designate varieties and localities as far as they have found a place in my note-books or in those of my assistants, Messrs. Davis, Wolff, and Chase. RHODE ISLAND. The only stones of this state that have attracted my attention are the syenites, conglomerates, and limestones. The quarries in the syenites of Westerly are among the best of New England, the excellent quality of the stone being one element of their success, another being the advantageous position that these quarries occupy with reference to New York and other large markets of the sea-coast. On the point of land south of Bristol other syenites occur, distinguished by the amethystine nature of the quartz they contain. They have never been quarried for exportation, but they seem to me to offer a promising field for inquiry. North of Providence there are some: crystalline limestones that are extensively worked for lime. Aithough these limestones have their mass extensively rent by joints, as is the case with all the limestones known to me in New England east of the Connecticut river, they may with proper search disclose some beds sufficiently free from this defect to give building stones, or at least stones suitable for certain particular uses in architecture. This region affords the best promise of such results of any known to me near the Atlantic coast. The conglomerates of the Coal Measures are extensively developed in Rhode Island, but they have never been: to any extent used for building purposes. Although they vary much in the different localities where they appear, they are generally as well fitted for architectural purposes as the similar but more ancient deposits near Boston. These rocks are abundantly exposed near Providence and at various points along the shores of Narragansett bay, whence they could be readily conveyed by ships or barges, or by rail to Boston. They seem to me to invite experiment. MASSACHUSETTS. In this state the variety of unused stones is very great. In the group of granite rocks a fair amount of search has been given to the field; yet some classes of this group have been entirely neglected. The blue-gray Quiney syenite having first established its reputation, all subsequent search has been given to the finding of stones DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 111 sufficiently like it to command the same market. This search has been so well rewarded that at haif a dozen other points in Massachusetts good syenites of the same grade have been found, while other and handsomer stones have been passed by. These other granitic rocks occur at various points, but I shall only mention one district which seems to me to offer a profitable field for inquiry. In the ranges of hills which lie to the west of Boston, extending from Melrose through Arlington to Dedham, there exists a great variety of reddish and yellowish blotched granites or syenites that have never been quarried, and are only known to me by chance sections. I am satisfied that these stones can be found in workable masses, and, though they want that evenness of grain that makes the Quincy syenites and other similar rocks so easy to work, I believe they can be quarried without undue expense. I am sure that when polished their extremely effective colors will give them a high place among our decorative stones. In this connection and on the same field I may note the existence of a large area of porphyrites. This field extends from Malden through Saugus and Lynn to Marblehead. These stones are as handsome and as varied in hue as those of the Mediterranean, which have furnished the supply for decorative uses to Europe for two thousand years or more. In fact, they are as handsome as such stones well can be. They have not been quarried, but it is probable that large blocks without many flaws can be obtained. The peculiar hardness of these stones, which has always been an obstacle to their extensive use, is now less of a disadvantage than of old, for the modern appliances for the use of power very much reduce the cost of working such stones. These materials are in excellent positions for working, forming cliffs of considerable height above the sea. At Marblehead neck it is possible at high tide to load the material directly from the quarry into vessels of considerable burden. This class of stones is found nowhere else in the United States in similarly beautiful forms, and nowhere else in the world, so far as my knowledge goes, in such a favorable position for exportation. In Stoneham there are some deposits of marble that have been the object of several desultory efforts at working at various times in this century. So far all the stone found, though of an admissibly pure white color, is too much cut up by joints to be useful in the arts. Despite these failures I am not without hope that other deposits now covered beneath the mantle of drift that envelops this region may yet be discovered. In this same section of eastern Massachusetts there is yet another source of building materials that is full of promise. I refer to the extensive deposits of serpentine that lie in the country between Lynnfield and Newburyport. This deposit has long been known to exist, and nearly half a century ago it was worked at one point as a source of supply of material from which Epsom salts were made. This serpentine has never been fairly opened save at one point, in Lynnfield, where a pit 15 feet deep has been sunk into it. From this opening some beautiful blocks of serpentine have been obtained, which show that the rock is well fitted for architectural purposes. Near Newburyport the rock seems to be more divided by joints, but it is of harder and more beautiful texture. Near Lynnfield it appears to be of a softer nature, yet not too soft for the best uses, and the blocks are of larger size than elsewhere. As yet the means of observing this deposit are too limited to afford the basis for exact statements, yet I know in America no other rock of equal promise. In the vicinity of the east end of the Hoosac tunnel, in close geological relation with the well-known deposits of steatite that occur there, exists an extensive deposit of serpentines in which quarries have never yet been opened. The quality of the polished specimens I have seen seems very good indeed, and the deposit seems well worth a careful investigation. I may also commend to the consideration of quarrymen the many varieties of clay-slate that occur at various points in Massachusetts, particularly near Boston. These clay-slates have long been worked for road materials, but have not been much used for construction purposes. These stones generally break well in the quarry, and are tolerably well suited for hammer-facing. Their main joint-planes are generally richly colored by iron oxide, which gives them a handsome effect in a wall. The only important edifice that has been constructed of this variety of stone is the Shepherd Memorial church in Cambridge. The cost of quarrying the stone was much less than that required for the Roxbury conglomerate, and when placed in the wall the actual cost was only about one-half as great as the conglomerate in the Mason chapel, a very similar edifice a few yards away. The distance of the buildings from the quarries where the stones were obtained is about the same. The general effect of these stones is nearly alike. In the neighborhood of Boston there are some trappean rocks that are free from the general objection that must usually be held against New England traps in general, and which are capable of making excellent building stones. I refer to the amygdaloids of the Brighton district. These rocks occupy but a small area, not exceeding about half a square mile, yet they lie well for quarrying, the joint-planes being quite favorable for working. The color is a dark mottled green, which would seem to enliven the architecture of the structures built of the similar colored stones that prevail in this region. In the same series of rocks, apparently also of trappean nature, are some deposits of a lively green color. These are best shown near Newton Upper Falls. They seem to me to promise a useful decorative stone. In western Massachusetts, although the district lies beyond the limits of the work specially undertaken by the survey, I may notice a few of the most important features connected with the prospective quarry industries. In this section we have none of the free-splitting granitic rocks which are so remarkably abundant in the coast 112 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. region of New England. The rocks most like them have a gneissic form that causes them to break irregularly. They were splendidly exhibited in the central portions of the Hoosac tunnel, and their extreme resistance to the action of powder as well as to the drill made that great work very costly. This rock is well exposed at the surface in the district just south of the tunnel in positions favorable for quarrying. Although it is not easy to work in the heading of a drift, such as a tunnel requires, I believe that a skillful and ingenious quarryman would manage to deal with it in an open working. The stone is extremely handsome, having the peculiar banded structure of gneiss, with a semi-opalescent quartz in large crystals. It is exceedingly resistant to transverse pressure, its structure making it, when strained across the fiber, almost as elastic as wood. It should not be used as a decorative stone in any position where it would require dressing, but it is very suitable for long lintels, and I believe it would furnish excellent edge-stones. As some of its faces are smooth it could also be had in forms suitable for rough walls, even in buildings of the highest grade. At present the American taste is rather opposed to the use of stones that do not show the use of the hammer upon them. This is, however, a mere prejudice, for some of the handsomest structures in the world are built of undressed stones. The city of Florence, in many regards the most beautiful city in Kurope, has its finest architectural triumphs built of unhewn stone. The Strotze and Pitti palaces owe to their rough stones the wonderful dignity that makes them nobler in aspect than thousands of more costly structures. When our builders accept a similar simplicity as the worthy object of their efforts it will open this class of rocks to use. There are some good white marb!es in this section that deserve more attention than has been given to them. They are somewhat worked about North Adams, but are perhaps too much jointed and of too coarse a grain to come into general favor. After considering all the other resources in the way of building stones that are found in Massachusetts, we come again to the granitic rocks as the most extensive and surest basis of its quarry industry, and until the taste for such stones changes they are sure to be the most valuable of all its rocks. The principal fields for these stones have already been occupied. The most important of the regions which may be designated are the Milton and Quincy district, the district of cape Ann, the district of Fitchburg, and that of Fall River. The Milton and Quincy district gave the beginning to the granite industry of New England. Its first success was great, and to this day it has more quarries within a given area than any other district in New England, or perhaps in the United States; yet it was not naturally the best locality in the New England region. As far as the quality of the stone is concerned, it is surpassed by the quarries on cape Ann and by those in Maine. The stone lies well for working, as it occupies a set of steep-faced hills divided by several valleys of considerable depth. The site is near the sea, with which it is connected by the first railway built in this country, and it is also upon the extensive railway system of the Old Colony railroad. It is thus one of the few granite-quarry districts of New England having the advantages of both methods of transportation. At present the product of this district does not seem to increase as rapidly as that of cape Ann or that of the Maine coast. The general structure of the stone appears to make the production and shipment of the stone a little more costly than in other regions. There are few large rocks now produced there, the greater part of the work being cemetery monuments and other decorative work. Cape Ann was the next district opened to work. The quarries at that point give an excellent but little tried sort of stone. The only hinderance has been the absence of good harbors and of satisfactory railway connections. The lack of harbors near the quarries has been met by the construction of breakwaters built from the waste stone, but the provision is yet inadequate, and the cost of new harborage is too great for small capitalists. South of Boston harbor, in Cohasset and a part of North Scituate, there are excellent sites for quarries. The stone is of a light red color, and works well, but the difficulty of harborage at the quarry point has led to the failure of several experiments in quarry work. At present the land along this shore is so valuable for villa-sites that it is not likely to be used for quarry purposes. The Fitchburg and Fall River districts, as well as the large area of granitic rocks along the line of the Boston and Albany railway, are capable of extensive development. That near Fall River is, however, the only one that is likely to secure cheap water transportation—an absolute need in the case of any new granite district seeking to compete with those already established in New England. So far the Fall River quarries have supplied only the considerable local demand. They seem to me, however, to be the best placed for extensive shipment of any in Massachusetts except those of cape Ann. The stone in the district along the line of the Boston and Albany railway is of good quality. It is, however, of a rather gneissoid structure. Lastly, I may notice the fitness of the abundant glacial pebbles to the construction of more important walls than those to which they have been applied. | So far these stones that lie about nearly every New England field have not been much used save for dry walls or fences and for foundations. Their rounded form does not readily lend itself to the mason’s use, yet by sizing the stones and using them with a little patient skill it is possible to make a strong and handsome wall from these fragments. The only considerable structure which I know that is made of bowlders is a church in the town of Medford. It is a handsome and ornamental structure, and I am told that the walls cost Jess than if built of any other masonry. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 113 In the valley of the Po,.in northern Italy, glacial pebbles of small size, often not exceeding 3 inches in diameter, are extensively used for building. Sometimes a frame-work of timber is first built to take the strain of the roof, and then these pebbles are built in between the timbers. In all New England these stones left by the glacial period are always very enduring, for the reason that the rough handling withstood in their making fully tested their strength. They are often very smooth, and show their natural colors to great advantage. It isto me remarkable that so simple and evident a source of construction stones has been neglected for generations in a region where good, easily- worked materials for masonry are not generally accessible. It is only to be explained by the natural conservatism of architecture, a field of activity where the penalties for rashness are often great and the profit from any one successful experiment is usually very small. MAINE. The building stones of this state are less known than those of any other New England state. There has been but little demand for them save for export purposes, and the distance of carriage is so great that but few of the great variety to be found there have ever been brought into use. Along the coast the limestone of Rockland and . the neighborhood bas long been quarried for lime, and at certain points the excellent syenite that abounds in this region has been quarried for southern markets; but nothing like a search has yet been made for the available building stones of this coast. This region is peculiarly adapted to afford a great variety of building stones. The shore is formed by the extremities of many mountain ridges, which have been planed down by the sea and by glaciers so that they no longer appear as mountains. These old mountains, which are evident only to the geologist, stood at right angles to the shore. This disposition of the rocks causes a singularly great variety of stones to be exposed at the coast-line. The harbors are numerous and deep, so that the products of the quarries can generally be loaded directly into large vessels. These conditions make this region more favorable for the development of a large quarry industry than any other region known to me in this country or in other countries. It is much to be desired that a careful study of the stones on this coast should be made. In the meantime the following notes which have been gathered during the census, and other studies, may have a certain value as indices of the resources in the way of building stones that may be found there. Beginning at the eastern extremity of the state we may note that in the neighborhood of Calais and thence toward Perry and Eastport there are extensive beds of a very reddish feldspathic rock, probably to be classed with the granites, which deserve far more attention than they have yet received. In the town of Perry and in the towns that border upon it there are some distinctly- bedded rocks that are likely to furnish good flag-stones of fair hardness. The same may be said of the region about the winding shores of the South bay, an extensive sheet of water near Hastport. We find there many beds that would yield good flagging stones. There are some very red conglomerates in this district that might be useful on account of their brilliant colors, but they are too much jointed for the most favorable working. Passing to the westward from Passamaquoddy bay we are for a great distance principally in granitic rocks. There are, however, many distinctly-bedded rocks of a much metamorphosed character at various points which may ° afford flag-stones. Itis impossible to give particular localities, as the rocks have never been quarried, but the section between Lubec and Doverboro’ seems to me the most promising region for search. Between Machiasport and Harrington the granitic rock is the only important material. The stone in this section, like that near Calais, is of a reddish color. Indeed, this seaward face of Washington county is characterized by the reddish tint of its metamorphic rocks, which in turn has given a reddish cast to the slates and conglomerates that have been formed from them. The best of the granites of Washington county are found in these red granites, which are probably all of about the same age. This set of rocks extends far into the interior, but they are so much more available along this shore district that it is not worth while to seek them elsewhere. I am satisfied that when the diverse qualities of these reddish granites have been determined by proper exploration it will be found that this part of Maine will afford a wider variety of these stones than any other district in New England. Near Addison there are quarries of diabase. These rocks are commonly classed as dark-colored granites. which they somewhat resemble. The principal objection to this block granite for building stone is that in some localities it shows a tendency to decay with great rapidity. A similar stone exists near Boston, in Somerville, Melrose, and Medford, Massachusetts ; but, though handsome and easily worked, it is unfit for out-of-door use, as it will often lose color in a few years and fall away in flakes. This objection does not seem to hold against the stone from this part of Maine. . Between Harrington and Gouldsboro’ there are excellent exposures of granite of various colors which have not yet been quarried. We next find worked quarries at Sullivan. At this point the granite has a set of cleavages which causes it to break out in long rectangular prisms, a form peculiarly favorable for the quarryman’s work. Connected with this easy breakage we have numerous slight veins in the stone that seem to make it break too easily for the best uses, and somewhat affect the color of the blocks. The rather reddish granites outcrop along the coast to the westward. On the shores of Somes sound, a deep inlet that penetrates the island of Mount Desert, there are quarries of a light red granite. Here, as elsewhere along the shore, the best quarries are found in the sides of the hills. As these hills are the parts of the rock that have best resisted erosion, it follows that they are the most solid and enduring*of the rocks of the country. It may be said that throughout New England VOL. IX——-8 B § 114 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. the thickly-bedded enduring rocks are in the hills, the softer and more thinly bedded in the valleys. It seems never , worth while to seek for good granite in the valleys since a slight depression shows some element of weakness that makes the rock unsuitable to the quarryman’s use. Excellent granite quarries exist at the head of Bluehill bay, to the west of Mount Desert. Deer island and Vinal Haven island have exterior quarries of the same stone. On the latter island the stone splits in larger blocks than anywhere else in New England, except perhaps in the quarries of cape Ann. On the west side of Penobscot bay there are exterior quarries in Thomaston and Saint George, near Richland. West of the Penobscot the quarries are not limited to the coast-line, but some are situated on the Kennebec, at a distance of 60 or 70 miles from the sea. This is not because the granite is particularly better or more abundant there than in the inland region of the Penobscot, but because there is more local demand for stone and the means of shipment by railways are much greater. There are also considerable quarries of roofing slates in this section of the state west of the Penobscot river; they lie, however, much north of the belt of granite quarries. The granitic character of the coast is continued to the New Hampshire line, and the numerous small and a few large quarries attest the general goodness of the stone. It will be noticed that the only building stones quarried along the coast of Maine are granites, or crystalline rocks closely related to them. It must not, however, be supposed that no other kinds of stone occur along this coast. The limitation of the production to this single quality of stone is to be explained in part by the fact that this stone is the only one for which there is an extensive market, and the search has naturally been first made for it. Even more, however, must be attributed to the fact that the continuation of marine and glacial erosion which has gone on upon this shore has worn away almost all the softer rock exposed to its action. The larger part of the limestones, slates, sandstones, etc., that find their geological position on the folds along this coast have been so worn away that they lie beneath the surface of the deep indentations of the sea which are so conspicuous here. These granitic quarries afford very excellent conditions for working. The stone opens easily, having the peculiar inchoate joints that are such striking features in the syenite or granite of New England. There are generally at least two of these rift-lines. Then there is a more or less complete division by what appear to be true beds, as well as joints, so that the division of the rock is as complete as could be desired. At the same time the lines of weakness in the rock are not so numerous as often to make the quarried masses too small for use, as is Sometimes the case in other districts. The impurities in the way of spots and veins, which often seem to mar the appearance of granitic rocks, are not found in any great abundance save at a few points. Added to these advantages this shore affords a frontage in its islands and inlets of not less than 2,000 miles, the larger part of which lies in workable granite or kindred rocks, though of course not always of the best kind. Although the extreme erosion has left little of the more wearable rocks along the coast-line of Maine, the inland regions seem likely to yield a good variety of stones. The principal trouble at present is that the coating of forest and the layers of drift mask the greater part of the surface, except where the very hardest rocks occur MACHINERY AND LABOR.—In the larger New England quarries steam cranes or derricks are generally used to move the stone to the carriage that carries it away from the quarry heading. In the smaller quarries the hand- crane alone is used. These cranes are generally conveniently arranged for their work. In the iatter class of quarries wagons for conveying the stone to the shaping- or dressing-grounds and to the shipping-grounds are no longer employed. ‘The road out of the quarry is generally occupied by a tramway, and locomotives, generally of the light dummy pattern, are used to drag the carriages to the shipping-point or to the dressing-grounds. : From a considerable knowledge of the European quarries I believe that the amount of manual labor used in their quarry work is at least twice as great as that required in the better class of American stone pits. The result is that we can furnish rough Stone at a lower price than that at which it can be produced in Europe, despite the higher price of labor here. In the treatment of the stone after it leaves the quarry the American methods show no advance upon those of Europe; and it is in this part of the work of preparing building stones that the cost most rapidly increases. The wages for all sorts of hand-work in dressing are very dear, and so far little effort seems to have been made to replace these methods by mechanical contrivances. When stone is to be dressed into ornamental shapes it does no seem practicable to gain much by any mechanical processes; but when the aim is merely to polish the flat face of the stone or to bush- or face-hammer them, it ought to be possible to replace hand-work by automatic machinery. One reason why more effort has not been made in this direction is doubtless that mechanical power derived from steam is generally costly in the quarrying districts of New England. This may perhaps be met by the use of tidal water-powers that abound along all this coast-line. These water-powers can often be brought into use at a very small cost for plant, and as they do not depend on drought, and generally involve no damages for flowage, they will be much cheaper than fresh-water power. Their general utility is sufliciently proved by the frequent use made of them on this shore for ordinary milling purposes. TRANSPORTATION.—The carriage of the quarried stones to market is generally effected by-rail or water: The quarries near. the sea-board have a great advantage over those upon the railways, inasmuch as they can ship at much less cost, the carriage by sailing-vessel being only a small fraction of that which must be charged by railway. On these vessels the stone is generally laden upon the deck, except the smaller sorts, such as paving stones, which are DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 115 stored in the hold. It seems to me that vessels of the sort known as catamarans, i. e., those with two distinct bodies, with a pavement covering the whole, would make safer forms of ships for this carriage, as it is the heavy deck burden that makes an ordinary ship very top-heavy and liable to accidents. GENERAL RELATIONS OF NEW ENGLAND BUILDING STONES TO THE MARKETS OF THE UNITED STATES. It is worth while to notice the general relations of the New England quarry industries to the rest of the country, as we may thereby gain the basis for a forecast of their future. A glance at a geological map will show that the rocks that characterize New England are not found in an equally extensive development in any other district south of the Saint Lawrence and east of the Rocky mountains. The same highly-metamorphosed series of rocks is continued in a less extensive way south along the whole chain of the Appalachians as far as northern Alabama; but it leaves the sea-board region at New York, and south of that point is not readily accessible to tide-water navigation. Moreover, when we get even as far south as New York we find that, owing to the progressively less and less considerable development of glacial action in southern regions, the rocks show the effect of decay to a much greater depth than they do in New England, where the last glacial period stripped away all the incoherent decayed portion of the rocks, leaving only that which was well suited to the use of the quarryman. The result is that even near New York, and in a greater degree for every step eastward, the stone is decayed along the joints to such an extent that we can rarely find good solid blocks within from 20 to 50 feet of the present surface. This deep “cap” of decayed rock is a serious hinderance to the development of good quarries of crystalline rocks in a large part of the southern Appalachian mountains. These two advantages, the neighborhood of the crystalline rocks to the sea and the absence of any worthless decayed upper part, will always give the New England rocks of the granitic group a very great advantage over those of any other part of the eastern United States. Jt should also be noticed that the cost of quarrying granite of good quality is perhaps less than that of any other work of the same general utility, certainly much less than the cost of our other principal building stones, so that, for all large structures where rude strength is the only need, quarries of this stone are always likely to be at a great advantage in production. There are no other sources of supply of granite that are ever likely to compete with this stone district of New England. The same qualities of stone are found in southern Nova Scotia with the same advantages of quarrying but this region is on the average several hundred miles farther from the principal points of consumption, so that the tax due to distance will always amount to about as much as the present profits of the New England quarries. The cost of carriage on a ton of stone from Nova Scotia above that from cape Ann, supposing the distribution to be to New York or Philadelphia, is at the present low rates of freight about 50 cents. This is probably more than the average profit that is made upon the stone itself. Thus there could be no effective competition save for such stones as have been carved or finished, so that the actual value bears ‘a very large proportion to the original cost of quarrying and conveying to market. It is quite clear, therefore, that the position of the New England granite quarries is particularly favorable, and that they are likely to command the market for cheap stones for a great while in the future. The same may be said, though ina less emphatic way, for the other building stones of this region. The roofing slates, particularly those of Maine, the exploration for which has hardly begun, are very well placed for marketing, as they have the same advantage, arising from the small amount of waste rock on their surfaces, that the Santke quarrieshave. Theslates have rather more drift matter upon them than the granite quarries have for the reason that they generally lie in rather lower ground; still this drift is loose material requiring no other than pick-and-shovel ’ work before the profitable work is attained. In Maine, especially, these quarries lie near enough to tide-water to share the advantages arising from their method of carriage, being not more than from 30 to 60 miles away from the nearest tide-water navigation. There are no certain supplies of good marble within a remunerative dist ance of the shore-line of New England, the nearest approach thereto being the extensive deposits of serpentine rocks that lie in Middlesex and Essex counties, Massachusetts. Between Lynnfield and Newburyport there is an extensive deposit of this character that will afford a material suitable for the carver’s art. lam not without hope that it will be possible to find some marbles suitable for buildiig purposes in Rhode | Island or in Maine, and it is greatly to be desired in the interests of American architecture that more good carving stones should be brought into market. Though New England abounds with excellent and beautiful construction stones, it leaves much to be desired in the way of stones fitted for the work of the sculptor. None of its marble is really fit for the best statuary purposes. 116 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. DETAILS REGARDING QUARRIES. MAINE. [Compiled mainly from notes of John Eliot Wolff.] The Red Beach granite quarried near Red Beach, Jonesboro’, and Calais, Washington county, is used principally for monuments, and to some extent for general building purposes. It is quite largely used for polished columns. The principal markets are Boston, Providence, New York city, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Buffalo; Cincinnati, Cleveland, Zanesville, and Columbus, Ohio; Springfield and Chicago, Illinois; Milwaukee, Saint Louis, Saint Joseph, Kansas City; Charleston, South Carolina; Wheeling, West Virginia; Washington, District of Columbia, and San Francisco. In the Red Beach quarries there are two sets of principal joints, both nearly vertical, which seem to be continuous through the granite of this region. ‘The finest set has a direction 8S. 55° W., and the other 65° E. There are also some less regular cut-off joints running 8. 60° W. and slanting east. The sheets are fairly regular, running from 7 to 4 feet and less; the jointing is remarkably regular for granite, and the almost rectangular intersection of the vertical joints gives the blocks a cubical and rectangular form rare in granite. The stone is free from blemishes as seen in the quarry. Little quartz veins and black concretions (one of which when tested appeared to be principally magnetite of small size) are the principal ones. The rift of the stone is parallel to the S. 65° E. joints. On the surface rock this stone weathers with a snow-white appearance. The feldspar, both red and dirty white in color, turns to a dazzling white, the quartz remaining unaltered, while the mica and magnetite and other minerals become inconspicuous. The granite-workers here are very largely Aberdeen Scotchmen, and some of the polishing-machines are adapted from Scotch models. The stone compares very favorably in appearance with the Peterhead Scotch granite and the Nova Scotia red granite. The rock is a biotite granite, is.a good working stone, and quite hard and brittle, taking a high polish. Blocks 7 by 7 by 2 feet thick have been shipped) and blocks 30 by 15 by 24 feet might be quarried. The columns of the court-house at Providence, Rhode Island, and those of the custom-house at Kansas City, Missouri, the Centennial block at Portland, Maing and a porcon of the basement of the custom-house at Fall River, Massaohasetts, are of this stone. At Jonesboro’ the quarries are shillow and extend over a comparatively broad area on the top of the hill on which the quarries are situated. The sheets thin out, but deepen on going downward. There seems to be but one good set of joints, standing nearly vertical and running north about 80° east. The rift of the stone does not seem to have a very determinate direction, but approximates to a parallel with these joints. The grain is horizontal, the sheets become thicker at the bottom of the quarry, and run from 5 to 3 feet and lessin thickness. The stone splits well and straight.in any direction, and by drilling and wedging rectangular blocks are obtained. Both light and dark patches appear in the stone. The greatest defect of the stone, which causes considerable “grout”, is the frequent occurrence of red stripes or veins of red feldspar crossing the stone. Some of these stripes appear to be small, very tight seams, along which the stones have become sappy, giving the red color. Veins or dikes of fine red granite run through the quarry in one or two places; often the tongues running out from them are red on the outside and white inside, resembling the patches in appearance. This belt of red granite is locally thought to be continuous with that found at Red Beach, on the eastern edge of the county, and also to cross into New Brunswick and form the Macadare red granite, becoming redder toward the east. Wellington Brothers’ building, Boston, and the Hunnewell building, New York city, are among the buildings in the construction of which the Jonesboro’ red granite was used. The trap dikes in Washington county, furnishing white and black granite, properly a diabase or olivine diabase, are quarried chiefly for monumental purposes and shipped to New York city, Brooklyn, Boston, Washington, Montreal, and Quebec. It was used to some extent in the construction of the inclosure-walls of the Capitol grounds, Washington city, for a bank in Montreal, and extensively for monumental purposes in Greenwood cemetery, Brooklyn. Blocks 16 by 10 by 20 feet have been moved in the quarries, and natural blocks 90 by 10 by 15 feet oceur. Six miles southeast from Madison point, on Pleasant river, one of the principal quarries in this rock is located; it is a remarkably favorable location, being at the water’s edge, and the waste is easily used in extending the wharf. The stone is extremely hard and takes a good polish. The principal defects causing the waste stone are the so-called “knots”, consisting of irregular patches of very coarse, white feldspar, mixed with fine, large, black hornblende crystals; little seams also occasionally split off part of a block, but the stone usually presents a uniform surface, free from the frequent patches and other irregularities of ordinary granite. The stone seems to weather remarkably well for one containing so much hornblende. This quarry is called by the quarrymen a “block quarry ”— that is to say, the horizontal or concentric sheets of ordinary granite are few. There are two sets of vertical sheets, the best run due east and west and give blocks, as far as the quarry has been developed, from 15 feet down in length. There are also north and south vertical joints less perfect, but more frequent than the others. The rift or easiest splitting direction runs parallel to the east and west joints; the grain, or next easiest, north and south, while the lift or horizontal sptitting is hardest of all. Hence the natural blocks are appr pounately rectangular in shape. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 1 by Near West Sullivan, Hancock county, a light gray biotite granite, sometimes having a pinkish tint, is quarried for general building purposes, for paving and curbing, and is employed to some extent for monuments. The principal markets thus far have been Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Albany, Philadelphia, Washington, and other places on the Atlantic coast accessible by water transportation. Blocks 25 by 25 by 2 feet thick have been quarried; the sheets of stone vary from 6 to 3 feet in thickness and have a slight dip to the north. The rift of the stone is, as the quarrymen express it, ‘‘on the lift,” that is, horizontal or parallel to the sheets, and this is usually the case in the Sullivan graniteregion. The grainis vertical, running 8. 70° E., and has a remarkably straight and plane cleavage, so that the stone frequently comes outin long rectangular prisms. It may be said here that these beautiful cleavages are among the characteristics of the Sullivan granite and are of great advantage in making paving blocks, as the blocks are shaped from the material with ease, a few slight blows often sufficing to reduce the stone to a proper shape. There are also vertical joints running across the grain 8. 20° W. The principal defects are the black patches, and some of the stones have very thin seams called by the workmen “pencil-mark” seams, from their appearance; these are an element of weakness. A mile north of West Sullivan is located a typical sheet quarry, the sheets running from 2 to6 feet in thickness, having a very smooth almost plain though gently-curved surface, dipping slightly to the northwest. Vertical joints are few. ‘The rift is on the lift, or parallel to the sheets, and the grain is vertical. There are some large vertical joints running through the quarry; some of the quarrymen distinguish seams running across the grain obliquely as “orain” seams; seams oblique to the grain as “tight” seams, and certain seams coated with decomposed feldspar as ‘‘chalk” seams. There are several very large black inclusions seen in the granite. A quarry producing excellent splitting stock is situated three-quarters of a mile north of Sullivan. The sheets run from 7 down to 3 feet in thickness. There are some large vertical joints running northeast occasionally filled with trap dikes. The stone has a somewhat conchoidal fracture and shows the usual black patches. The rift is parallel to the sheets, and the grain runs east and west at right angles with the vertical jointing. Near Franklin, Hancock county, a light gray, massive, biotite granite is quarried for curbing, paving, and cemetery work. The principal markets are Boston and New York city. The texture of the stone is medium fine and porphyritic. Blocks 30 by 14 by 34 feet thick have been quarried. On Somes sound, 24 miles south of Somesville, Mount Desert island, Hancock county, a light gray, massive, biotite granite is quarried for general building purposes, bridge construction, and paving. The stone was used in the construction of the Brooklyn approaches and towers to the East River bridge, and in the arches and foundations, and the new bridges in Back Bay park, Boston. Blocks 150 by 50 by 18 feet thick have been loosened in the quarry. The position of the quarries on Mount Desert island is peculiarly good for shipping, as they lie near the head of Somes sound along a narrow and very deep fiord, running several miles inland from the southwest harbor, between the mountains. One of the quarries is situated on the side of a hill and at the water’sedge. The sheets of. stone are very thick in some cases, one being 18 feet in thickness. The sheets have a steep dip from the summit of the hill down to the water’s edge. There are a few north and south vertical joints or headings, usually not less than 60 feet apart. The rift is on the lift of the sheets, and the grain as usual is parallel to the great north and soutk joints. In connection with the dip of the sheets away from the hill, considerations concerning the form of the granite hills of New England suggest themselves. It is held by some that these hills have been rounded into their present shape by ice, while others believe that their form is due to the structure of the granite. In Maine not only are the quarries of great extent and depth, and generally located on hills, but these are generally sufficiently bare of vegetation to conceal the outline. Many of the larger quarries of Maine are sheet quarries, and in every case where vertical joints are not present, breaking up the sheets to such an extent as to conceal their direction, the round form of the hill is plainly seen to be due to the gentle curve of the sheets. Two miles south of Somesville there is a granite quarry, the opening of which is yet shallow, and the sheets are consequently thin. The rift is on the lift and the grain is approximately east and west; the infrequent joints are mostly north and south. Near East Bluehill, Hancock county, alight gray, sometimes pinkish-gray, massive, biotite granite is extensively quarried for general building purposes and for paving. It has been used in the construction of the city hall (trimmings), the art gallery in Fairmount park, and the Pennsylvania Railroad bridge, Philadelphia ; in the East River bridge, New York city; the post-offices in Chicago and in Harrisburg; and the Thomas monument in Washington city. In texture the stone is medium-fine porphyritic. Blocks 90 by 80 by 6 feet have been moved in the quarry; a block of 80 tons was loosened and moved out some feet in one of the quarries. It is a compact, good, safe, and free-working stone, and takes a good polish. Specimens were tested at the centennial exhibition at Philadelphia which showed a crushing resistance of 108,000 pounds to a 2-inch cube. The quarrying here has been to a considerable extent done on the surface, although there are some large openings. The stone lies in sheets, often irregular, from 3 to 10 feet in thickness, and the jointing is sometimes irregular in many of the openings. In one of the quarries there are sheets 9 feet in thickness, though the usual thickness is from 4 to 5 feet. The stone contains a few black patches, the joints are not frequent, and their direction when present is east and west. 118 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. In another quarry the sheets are from 6 to 8 feet in thickness, the dip steeply southeast; the rift is east and west with the dip of the sheets, and the grain north and south. The vertical jointing is irregular; patches and occasional veins of white granite are present. At another opening the sheets reach a thickness of 20 feet; the long seams cut down through the mass, but are usually far apart. Near Deer island, Hancock county, a light gray, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite-is quarried for general building purposes, bridge construction, and paving. It has been used in the construction of the Broadway bridge, South Boston; base of columns of elevated railroads in Brooklyn; and grain elevator of the New York Central | railroad, New York city. Blocks 14 by 8 by 20 feet have been loosened in the quarries, and the dimensions of some of the natural blocks are as much as 150 by 15 by 15 feet. It is a compact, good, safe, and free-working stone, . and takes a good polish. The sheets in one of the quarries reach a thickness of 18 feet, though the usual thickness is from 6 to 12 feet. They extend into the hill nearly horizontally, and are intersected by occasional vertical joints. The rift here is vertical, running north and south, parallel to the joint; the grain at right angles, or east and west. In another opening the stone lies in very thick and broad sheets, nearly horizontal, with a slight dip toward the water; the sheets are from 6 feet downward in thickness, and are intersected by a few joints. The rift here runs north and south, and most frequent vertical joints also run north and south. | Another quarry in this vicinity lies in a steep hill, the slope running down to the water’s edge. Where they are now working the sheets average 3 feet in thickness, the maximum being 5 feet and the minimum 1 foot. The dip is very steep from the top of the hill to the water’s edye. There are few vertical joints; the rift runs best toward the top of the hill. At the north end of the quarry the sheets are horizontal, of great thickness, one being over 20 feet thick, and having considerable length and width as well. In another of the principal quarries the sheets occasionally reach a thickness of 20 feet; the vertical joints have an east and west direction, and are found at intervals varying from 5 to 60 feet. A mile and a half south of Frankfort, Waldo county, a gray, massive biotite granite is quarried for general building purposes, bridge construction, monuments, paving, and polished columns. Itis sent as far as Mobile and New Orleans. It was used in the construction of East River bridge, New York; basement of the State, War, and Navy building, Washington city; art gallery at the centennial exhibition, Philadelphia; art museum, Central park, New York city; Saint Louis bridge across the Mississippi river; pedestal of the statue of Admiral Farragut, ° Washington city; forts Knox, Popham, George, Preble, Schuyler, Constitution, and other fortifications. The texture of the stone is coarse and porphyritic. Blocks 80 by 40 by 20 feet have been moved; a block of 30 tons was cutand shipped. Itis estimated that blocks 150 by 50 by 12 feet might be moved in the quarry. The principal quarry is situated on mount Waldo, overlooking the Penobscot river, and at an elevation of some 320 feet above high tide. It is a situation allowing of easy disposition of the waste; the stone lies in immense sheets dipping off from the mountain, varying in thickness from 1 foot to 20 feet, the usual thickness being from 4 to 5 feet. The quarry is traversed by frequent head joints running S. 75° H., but there are comparatively few joints at 90°. The rift is on the lift, or parallel to the sheets; the grain runs 8. 75° H., or parallel to the headings. Two varieties of stone are obtained—coarse and fine; the local impression is that a belt of fine granite runs through the coarse prevailing granite. This stone was used in the construction of many of the eastern forts before the late war, but a year or so of the war demonstrated the comparative inferiority of stone for this purpose and caused the building of stone forts on the Atlantic coast to be discontinued, and the business of several of the Maine quarries was for a while diminished through this cause. Near Prospect, Waldo county, a gray, massive biotite granite is quarried to a limited extent for street work, basin heads, platforms, and bridge construction. It was used in the construction of the railroad bridge at Bangor, and in the East Boston dock. The texture of the material is rather coarse; the stone lies in sheets, and the rift is on the lift; there are two sets of joints. Blocks 6 by 4 by 4 feet have been shipped, and blocks 30 by 35 by 10 feet might be moved in the quarry. Near Swanville, Waldo county, gray biotite granite is quarried for cemetery work, paving, platforms, and columns. The principal markets are New York city, and Boston and Quincy, Massachusetts. It was used in the construction of a soldiers’ monument at Buffalo, New York. Blocks 20 by 9 feet by 1 foot and 10 by 10 by 2 feet have been cut, and blocks 40 by 20 by 2 feet might be moved. The stone here is uniform in texture, free from blemishes, and is a compact, good, safe, and free-working stone, taking good polish, and lies in regular sheets varying in thickness from 1 foot to 4 feet. The quarry is located on a hill, and has not as yet been developed to any great depth. The rift is vertical, and runs north and south, the grain east and west; the vertical joints cut through the quarry east and west parallel to the grain. At Lincolnville, Waldo county, about 6 miles west of Camden, a very light gray, massive muscovite-biotite granite is quarried to a limited extent for underpinnings and local stone-work generally. Thus far it has been used only in Camden and vicinity. Blocks 12 by 2 by 6 feet have been quarried; blocks 50 by 25 by 6 feet might be moved. This stone has a good appearance, is uniform in texture, and is a good, safe, and free-working stone, taking good polish. It does not lie in sheets, but rather in blocks. There are frequent vertical joints in one direction. The rift is vertical and about parallel to the vertical joints. The quarry lies near the base of a mountain near Camden, but it is small and not worked regularly. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 119 The extensive quarries at Vinal Haven, in Knox county, produce granite for general building purposes, monuments, and paving. It was used in the construction of the East River bridge; half of the Masonic temple, Philadelphia; Sailors’ Snug Harbor, Staten island; half of the railroad bridge at Saint Louis; basement of the State, War, and Navy departments, Washington; custom-house and post-office, Cincinnati; polished work in Chicago court-house and city buildings; part of polished work in Philadelphia city buildings; a portion of the basement and quadrangle of the Patent Office building, Washington city; the Butler monument at Greenwood Cemetery mausoleum; and smaller monuments in various parts of the country. The color of the predominating material in these quarries is light gray; the texture is medium coarse. Thereis a dike of trap in one of these quarries, producing what is locally called “black granite”, and used to some extent for building material. In what is known as the Harbor quarry the rift is very good, and is vertical, having a direction east and west; thereis avery frequent vertical jointing in this same direction, giving long, narrow blocks; north and south joints are less frequent. The sheets vary from 3 to 8 feet in thickness, and immense masses of stone entirely free from joints occur. The Sands quarry, adjoining the Harbor quarry, is bounded by two sets of great vertical head joints, running respectively northwest and southeast, and the easiest rift is vertical, parallel to these joints. In the center of the quarry there are not many joints ; the sheets average from 4 to 5 feet in thickness, but some are 7 and 8 feet thick ; they have a slight dip west, with quite smooth surfaces. The obelisk sent from this quarry to serve as a monument to General Wool, at Troy, New York, is said to be the largest quarried in modern times. Its dimensions are 60 by 5 by 55 feet. Four long blocks were quarried before a satisfactory one was obtained; one of these lies on exhibition near the quarry. Natural blocks 240 by 32 by 8 feet can be seen in the quarries. Occasional black micaceous patches occur in the stone, which, together with vertical dikes of light-colored stone, constitute the principal defects seen. The East Boston quarry is a sheet quarry of fine-grained stone, the sheets running from 2 feet downward, and dipping slightly east. The rift is horizontal; some long east and west head joints traverse the quarry, but between these the jointing is irregular. The stone has been most used for paving and platforms. ' In a quarry at Duschane there are vertical joints running regularly through the quarry at intervals of from 5 to 10 feet, in an east and west direction, and, as the grain of the stone or next easiest rift runs north and south, the blocks come out in rectangular shape. The rift is vertical and parallel to the east and west joints. The hardest splitting direction is on the lift, or parallel to the sheets, and the sheets are irregular. In one case the vertical thickness is 12 feet. The material has a pleasing appearance and is now used for polished work. In the town of Vinal Haven there is a very small granite quarry, in which the structure of the stone is such as to be a very convenient source of paving material. The stone is extremely good, occurring in regular sheets of from 1 foot to 3 feet in thickness and nearly horizontal. There are occasional black patches; some long east and west vertical head joints bound the quarry, and there are also a few north and south joints. The peculiarity of the stone is its beautiful and even rift, and paving blocks may be shaped from it by a few blows of the hammer. At Hurricane island, three miles southwest of Vinal Haven, a dark gray granite, sometimes having a pinkish tint, is quarried for ordinary building purposes, monuments, columns, and paving, and has about the same markets as the other Vinal Haven quarries. The stone was used in the construction of the following buildings: All the superstructure of the new post-office and custom-house, Saint Louis; the basement of the new city hall, Providence, Rhode Island; superstructure of the post-office at Fall River, Massachusetts; polished columns of the Chicago city hall and court-house; portion of the Indiana state-house, Indianapolis; Douglas’ tomb, Chicago, and numerous monuments at Saint Louis. The structure of the stone differs in different parts of the quarry. In one portion it lies in comparatively thin sheets, while in another there occur immense masses of solid stone extending 50 feet downward without any perceptible jointing. A block of 80 tons has been moved, and a shaft was produced 23 feet 6 inches by 3 by 3 feet, when dressed, and a mass 80 by 40 by 25 feet was loosened in the quarry, and natural blocks 500 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 50 feet deep occur. The east rift runs east and west, while the grain or next easiest splitting direction is horizontal. The principal joints run east and west, but there are occasional north and south joints. Three miles north by west from Vinal Haven granite similar in appearance to the Hurricane Island granite is quarried for similar purposes. It is used to some extent in the construction of the Brooklyn bridge, Chicago post-office, and the Raymond jail, in Brooklyn. It is a very superior sheet quarry; the stone lies in very smooth, slightly-curved sheets, having a thickness from 5 feet downward, averaging 3 feet. The sheets have a gentle dip to the west, or toward the water. Vertical joints are found in either direction, and the sheets are smooth, so that the stone is eminently fitted for large platforms. The rift is on the lift; the principal defects are patches, which occur occasionally. At Muscle Ridge plantation, Dix island, Knox county, a dark gray granite was, until recently, quarried for general building purposes and ornamental work, but the quarry is not at present operated. Among the buildings in the construction of which this stone was used are the New York post-office and custom-house, docks at Castle Garden, and retaining-walls for basin and barge office, New York city ; Densmore fort, Hyde Park, New York; Philadelphia post-office; Treasury building (extensions), Washington city; and basement of custom-house, Charleston, South Carolina. Nearly the whole of Dix island has been quarried over, large bluffs having been entirely removed, and 120 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Jeep excavations contain over 50 feet of water. The rift of the granite here is on the lift, the jointing irregular. Blocks 17 by 17 feet, and of varying thickness, sometimes weighing as much as 72 tons, have been quarried ; natural blocks 25 by 25 by 15 feet may be seen in the quarries. The stone is coarse, porphyritic, and indistinctly laminated or massive. Specimens dressed at the National Museum proved to be of more than usual hardness and took a good polish. Steam-drills are employed in the quarrying. . At South Thomaston, Knox county, at Spruce Head island, 8 miles from Rockland, a dark gray granite is quarried for general building purposes, bridge construction, and for monumental work in the cities throughout the country. Among the structures in which this stone has been used are the Albany, New York, post-office (first story); post-office and court-house at Atlanta, Georgia; forts at Portland, Maine; in the East River bridge, New York, and in the Philadelphia city buildings. One of these quarries at Spruce Head, known as the Bodwell quarry, which has furnished so much building stone to the coast of New England, is in the form of an excavation, commenced at the water’s edge and pushed far into the hill, where it reaches a great depth. It is a sheet-quarry, the sheets increasing in thickness downward, and the thickest ones now exposed are from 9 to 10 feet in thickness, and show superb masses of stone. The sheets incline slightly away from the hill with gently-undulating surfaces. There are few vertical joints, almost the only ones having a north and south direction, and the east and west headings run through the quarry, forming the boundaries on some sides. The rift of the stone is vertical, and east and west, nearly parallel to the head joints. The Spruce Head granite has established a good reputation for its quality of resisting weather exposure and retaining its color. The greatest defects have been the black patches which are conspicuous on a bushed surface. There seem to be fewer of these patches in the present deep sheets. The Sawyer quarry, adjoining the preceding, is similar. The stone lies in very regular and nearly horizontal Sheets, varying from 3 to 12 feet in thickness. There are few vertical joints; but there are two sets of large head joints running respectively north and south and east and west. The rift here is reported as being horizontal, or on the lift, which, if true, is remarkable, since it is vertical in the quarry immediately adjoining. In the Jameson quarry the stone lies rather irregularly in sheets. There are nearly vertical north and south joints; also east and west seams, to which the rift is parallel. The stone has very few blemishes, and specimens dressed at the National Museum were compact, safe, and free-working stones, taking a good polish. The quarry is drained by means of steam-power, and steam polishers are used in dressing. Near Saint George, Knox county, there are granite quarries extensively operated for general building purposes, monuments, columns, and paving. The following are among the structures in which the stone has been used: Butialo city hall; United States custom-house and post-office, Hartford ; national bank, Albany; government storehouse at League Island navy-yard, Philadelphia; entrance to Chicago post-office; entrances to Utica, New York, post-oftice ; Albany post-office and custom-house (above the first story) ; MceClintock’s building (trimmings), Pittsburgh; pedestal of the La Fayette monument, Union square, New York city; post-office and custom-house at Portland, Maine. This stone is of comparatively fine texture and is sometimes indistinctly laminated. It is a free and safe working stone, taking a good polish. Blocks 30 by 12 by 8 feet have been loosened and moved in the quarry, and natural blocks 75 by 60 by 6 feet exist. Of the three principal quarries the Long Cove quarry has large parallel joints traversing it S. 70° EB. from top to bottom at intervals of from 1 foot to 20 feet, and there are sheets of greater or less depth, so that natural blocks have a somewhat rectangular form. The grain is parallel with these joints. The hoisting is done by steam, dressing by hand, and steam polishing-machines are used in dressing. In the Clark’s Island quarry the arrangement of the stone is in sheets from 6 inches to 15 feet in thickness. The sheets have a gentle and sometimes slightly irregular dip toward the water and away from the crest of the hill. The easiest splitting directions are horizontal and parallel to perfectly vertical joints, which traverse the quarry at intervals of 6 feet and upward. In the Wild Cat quarry the sheets are thin and rather irregular. There are south and east vertical joints, and the rift is parallel to them. Four miles east of Saint George there is a quarry which was opened in 1879. Blocks 20 by 10 by 7 feet have been moved in the quarry, and natural blocks about 90 by 30 by 6 feet exist. The granite in the Saint George quarries varies from a light gray biotite granite to a hornblende-biotite granite, which is usually darker in color than the other. Hoisting is done by steam, and cutters, polishing-machines, and circular saws are used in dressing. One and a half miles west of Waldoboro’ is a small quarry the product of which has been used in small quantities in the neighboring towns for underpinnings, steps, posts, bases, and to a limited extent for cemetery work. The stone lies in moderately regular sheets varying from 2 to 7 feet in thickness. The rift is horizontal and the grain runs northwest. The quarry is quite free from vertical joints and could be made to yield large masses of Stone. Blocks 40 by 10 by 4 feet have been loosened, and blocks of perhaps 100 by 30 by 3 feet exist in the quarry. The stone is a fine-grained, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite. At Jefferson, Lincoln county, 9 miles north of Butter Neck bridge, on the Knox and Lincoln railroad, there is a quarry operated to a limited extent chiefly for monuments and cemetery work. The dressing and polishing of the stone are done at Waldoboro’, by water-power, and the material is transported to this place by water. Although | DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 121 called granite commercially, it is more properly a muscovite-biotite gneiss, of a light gray color and fine in texture. Blocks 10 by 20 by 2 feet have been quarried, and natural blocks as large as 20 by 10 by 2 feet are found in the quarry. Half a mile east of Round Pond and 9 miles south of Damariscotta, Lincoln county, granite is extensively quarried for monumental and for building purposes. Among the structures in which the stone was used are the Seventh Regiment armory, New York city, and several monuments to Admiral Parrott in New Hampshire. The stone in this quarry for 20 feet down is much broken by joints and sheets from 1 foot to 2 feet in thickness. There are frequent vertical joints having a southwest direction, and others at right angles with these occur, but are less frequent, and the grain of the stone is parallel to them. The rift is on the lift, or horizontal. A large dike crosses the quarry parallel to the southwest joints, and large veins of granite coarser in texture than the predominating material occur. The most common rock of this region is gneiss, which outcrops in straight parallel lines after the manner of roofing slate. The gneiss is very curiously interbanded with a massive or gneissoid granite. This is illustrated in the quarry where bands of contorted gneiss, worthless for building purposes, run to the surface at a steep angle in the massive granite quarried. The quarry is so broken up by the irregular sheet-joints and mineralogical accidents that the waste of stone has been very great, and but few large blocks can be quarried at present. The dimensions of the largest block quarried here are 15 by 2 by 2 feet, but blocks about 6 by 6 feet by 1 foot 6 inches may now occasionally be obtained. The material is a dark gray biotite granite, and is a compact, free-working stone, taking a good polish. Near Augusta, Kennebec county, granite is quarried largely for local use, but some is shipped to New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston, and Chicago. The following are some of the structures in which it has been used: The United States arsenal, Cony academy, and a Unitarian church in Augusta, and the Old South church in Hallowell; Mills’ building, corner Broadway and Exchange street, and a monument to Recorder Hackett, New York city; Roberts’ tomb in Woodlawn cemetery, Long Island; Wood’s tomb, Greenwood cemetery, New York. The material is a gray muscovite-biotite granite, massive and of fine texture, is a compact, safe, and free-working stone, and takes a good polish. Blocks 40 by 9 by 24 feet have been loosened; blocks 20 by 24 by 24 feet have been dressed and shipped, and natural blocks 100 by 30 by 7 feet are found in the quarry. In a quarry 2 miles west of Augusta the stone lies in sheets from 9 feet in thickness downward; east and west head joints traverse it, and the rift is horizontal. In a quarry 1 mile west of Augusta the rift is on the lift, the grain vertical, having a northwest direction, and the material lies in very regular sheets, usually not over 24 feet in thickness. Half a mile to the eastward of this the stone resembles that at Hallowell, and lies in sheets of 1 foot in thickness, with northwest vertical joints. Near Hallowell, Kennebec county, is a well-known quarry, producing granite very extensively for monuments, columns, trimmings, and general building purposes. Among the structures in which this stone was used are the new capitol, Albany, New York; the Bank of Northern Liberties, Philadelphia; the state capitol and Allen block, Augusta, and the Emery block, Portland, Maine; Odd Fellows’ Memorial hall, Equitable building, and part of the old Quincey market, Boston; Ludlow Street jail, the Tribune building, and the old Tombs prison, New York city; the statues of the Pilgrims’ monument, Plymouth, Massachusetts, said to be the largest statues in the country; the soldiers’ and sailors’ monument, Boston, and soldiers’ monuments at Marblehead, Massachusetts, Portsmouth, Ohio, and Augusta, Boothbay, and Gardiner, Maine; Odd Fellows’ monument, Mount Hope, Boston; monuments to General Stedman, Hartford, Connecticut, and Stephen A. Douglas, Chicago, Illinois; the Riley monument, Buffalo, New York; Cowan monument, Lewiston; Allen Lombard monument, Augusta; Lyman Nichols’ monument, Auburn ; Swazey monument, Bucksport; Mitchell monument, Gardiner; Fuller monument, Hallowell, and Meady pedestal and statue, Pittston, Maine; Tenney monument, Methuen, Massachusetts; Washington Artillery monument and Hernandez tomb, New Orleans, Louisiana. In this quarry tbere is no sap on the sheets, or at most a very thin film; there are few vertical joints, and the surface of the sheets is smooth and level, while the stone is remarkably free from black patches, those occurring in the quarry becoming smaller in going down. The sheets increase in thickness downward, and are about 1 foot at the top and 10 feet in thickness at 50 feet from the surface. The sheets have a gentle dip to the north. At certain intervals there occur long vertical joints or headings cutting vertically down through the quarry, having an east and west direction, but north and south joints are rare. There are occasional quartz masses in the stone. The rift is horizontal; the grain east and west or parallel to the main seams. Sheets having level surfaces 36 by 34 by 9 feet deep have been loosened, and natural blocks about 200 by 40 by 9 feet deep are found in the quarry. The material is white or rather very light gray muscovite-biotite granite, and is often indistinctly laminated. At Wayne, Kennebec county, a coarse, massive biotite granite is quarried to a limited extent for cemetery and general building purposes. The market is local only, the stone being used chiefly at Lewiston and Auburn. It was used in the construction of the Free-Will church, Continental mills, and county buildings, Lewiston. The jointing is irregular. Blocks 12 by 12 by 10 feet have been moved, and there are natural blocks about 40 by 15 by 10 feet. It is a safe, free-working stone, and takes a good polish. 122 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Near Canaan, Kennebec county, granite is quarried to a limited extent for underpinnings, and is used chiefly at Waterville, Canaan, and Skowhegan, Maine, and at Newport and vicinity. The underpinnings of the churches in Skowhegan are of this material. The stone lies in very regular sheets from 1 foot to 2 feet in thickness. There is a very convenient rift, but there are many patches. It is a dark gray biotite granite, rather coarse in texture and indistinctly laminated. It is a safe and free-working stone, taking a good polish. Near Norridgewock, Somerset county, there are quarries producing granite extensively for general building purposes, foundations, and monuments, and to some extent for polished work. Among the buildings in the construetion of which the material was used are the following: Stone-work of the Goff block, Auburn; Dunn block, factory, and bank in Waterville; residence of Captain Holland, Lewiston; Coburn hall, Skowhegan; High Street church, Skowhegan; business block in Dexter, and Langley’s monument, Lewiston. The principal quarry lies on the top of a hill; the stone is in sheets of from 2 to 4 feet in thickness. The main seams have an east and west direction, and north and south seams are rare. The rift is horizontal. Blocks 30 by 25 by 7 feet have been loosened in the quarry, and natural blocks 150 by 12 by 4 feet can be seen. At North Jay, Franklin county, granite is quarried for general building purposes and for railroad construction. It has been used in the construction of factories in Lewiston, chiefly for trimmings, and by the Maine Central railroad. It lies in sheets generally quite thin, from 1 foot to 2 feet in thickness, but the excavations thus far are not deep enough to display the jointing very well. The stone is a fine gray muscovite-biotite granite. Blocks 10 by 4 feet by 16 inches have been cut, and blocks 70 by 12 feet by 6 inches have been loosened in the quarry. The stone works well and takes a good polish. Four miles east of Chesterville, Franklin county, granite is quarried to a very limited extent, chiefly for underpinning, and is used locally. The underpinnings of some of the houses in Farmington are of this stone. It is medium fine-grained, and occasionally porphyritic, indistinctly laminated, lies in very regular, smooth sheets, and varies from 1 foot to 5 feet in thickness; long east and west joints traverse the quarry at intervals; other joints are very rare; the rift is horizontal and remarkably good. There are few patches, but quartz and feldspar veins disfigure the stone to some extent. It is a good working stone, splits readily in the direction of the lamination, and takes a good polish. Blocks 20 by 3 by 4 feet have been moved, and natural blocks about 100 by 35 by 5 feet are found in the quarry. Three-quarters of a mile east of Bryant’s Pond station, on the Grand Trunk railway, in Oxford county, there is a quarry operated by the railroad for its own construction. It was used in the construction of the Bacon Falls bridge near West Paris. The stone lies in rather irregular sheets, generally from 2 to 4 feet in thickness; there are frequent joints having an east and west direction, and dikes parallel to these joints bound the quarry on two sides. The rift is on the lift, the grain vertical and parallel to the jointing. Quartz and feldspar veins are frequent; some patches occur. Blocks 9 by 2 by 2 feet are the largest that have been shipped from this quarry; blocks 60 by 10 by 7 feet have been started by blasting; there are natural blocks in the quarry 75 by 20 by 4 feet. It is a dark gray, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite, is a safe and free-working stone, and takes a good polish. Three and a half miles south of Turner, Androscoggin county, there is a quarry producing granite for general building and cemetery work, and used chiefly at Lewiston, Auburn, and vicinity. It was used in the construction of the Lewiston dam, the Episcopal church, Lewiston, and in the Phenix block, Auburn. The stone lies in sheets of from 1 foot to 6 feet in thickness; the principal joints run northeast, and the grain is parallel to them. The rift is quite good, and is horizontal or in the lift. There are occasional patches in the stone, and white stripes are quite frequent. In producing the material for monumental work these defects cause considerable waste. Blocks 9 by 6 feet by 8 inches have been quarried. It is a dark gray biotite granite, is a good and safe working stone, and takes a good polish. Two and a half miles south of the dip in Brunswick, Cumberland county, granite is quarried to a limited extent for underpinning and wall work, used at Brunswick, Harpswell, Topsham, and Bath. It was used to some extent in Denison’s block, in Brunswick, and in the foundation of Memorial hall, Bowdoin college; Parish church, Portland; Bowdoin College chapel, cotton factory at Brunswick, Exchange building at Bangor, and paper-mill at Topsham. Memorial hall, Bowdoin college, is quite a large stone structure, with two tall towers, in Norman style of architecture. The stone has stood exposure to the weather very well, but from the use of inferior mortar is greatly disfigured by white efflorescences running down from between the stones. The material itself has a uniform color aud the appearance of a quartz in color and splinty cleavage. The mica gives it a glittering appearance, even when seen at a distance. Blocks 40 by 2 feet by 8 inches have been moved, and natural blocks of about 70 by 2 feet by 1 feot are found in the quarry. The stone is a light gray, massive biotite granite, and is a good, safe, free- working stone, taking a good polish. A few miles south of Pownal Centre granite is quarried for monuments, general building purposes, and street work, and to some extent for columns and polished cemetery work. Paving blocks are sometimes shipped to New York city. The following are some of the buildings in the construction of which the material was used: Gorham normal school; a section of the Lewiston dam; in the lower Lewiston bridge, and the trimmings and foundations of factories there; the stone-work of the Lewiston and the Portland water-works; a portion of the Yarmouth bridge, in Maine, and the larger part of the lower story of the new capitol at Albany, New York. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 123 Tn one of the quarries the sheets vary from 6 inches to 2 feet in thickness; the rift is on the lift, grain east and west. No sap on the sheets except on the joints, which have an east and west direction, and a dike crosses the quarry parallel to them. In another quarry the sap is quite thick on the surface of the sheets, remarkably so compared to other quarries in the vicinity, but on the lower sheet it is almost nothing. The sheets are usually less than 5 inches in thickness at the top; the rift is horizontal, the grain has a northeast and southwest direction, the sheets dip east, and great head joints run northeast and southwest through the quarry, though but few of them appear. The stone is quite free from defects. Dikes cross parallel to the headings. Near Biddeford, York county, granite is quarried for general building purposes and cemetery work, and to some extent for polished columns. It has been used in the construction of sea-walls at Gallup island, point Alton, Long island, and Boston harbor; in the Cross Ledge light-house; the foundation of the new railroad elevator, Jersey City; fine building on Broadway, New York city, in which the material is carved and polished; forts Preble, Scammel and other forts in Portland harbor, and in numerous breakwaters along the coast; supports of the columns, ip part, of the Brooklyn elevated railroad; outside structure of the monument to Abraham Lincoln, Springfield, Illinois; Boone Island light-house, Maine; Whalesback light-house, in Portsmouth harbor, and Cochecho mills, Dover, New Hampshire, and new docks in North river, New York city. In one of the quarries great seams and occasionally a dike parallel to them traverse it in a northeasterly direction, dipping steeply east, and being perpendicular, with a thickness of 12 feet or less. There are also large joints crossing at right angles in sheets, so that the blocks are irregular in shape. The material contains the usual patches of the Biddeford granite. In another of the principal quarries frequent northeast and southwest seams traverse it with a steep dip to the east, and run through the quarry from top to bottom, and other, though much less frequent, seams at right angles tothese. The stone consequently lies in parallel sheets, dipping steeply, and occasionally so cut by the cross-seams as to be inrhomboidal blocks. The rift is vertical and oblique to both sets of joints. There are black patches. Adjoining this quarry is another one having very much the same conditions, but there are long, nearly vertical, northeast and southwest seams cutting through the quarry. The rift is oblique to either set of joints. The grain or next easiest splitting direction is horizontal, and the hardest splitting direction is parallel to the main northeast and southwest joints, which is very unusual. There are some horizontal joints also, so that much of the jointing is irregular. In some new openings in the vicinity there are two sets of long joints similar to those described in the preceding, and the stone lies more in horizontal sheets than in the other quarries; these sheets are from 1 foot to 7 feet in thickness. The rift is vertical and oblique to the two sets of joints. The material is a gray biotite granite, is a compact, safe, and free-working stone, and takes a good polish. Between Kennebunkport and the Boston and Maine railroad, in York county, granite is quarried to a limited extent, chiefly for underpinning, and used at Kennebunkport, Saco, and Biddeford. The stone lies in sheets about 4 feet in thickness and in regular shape; it contains patches and white feldspar streaks. Blocks 15 by 2 feet by 6 inches have been quarried for underpinning. There are natural blocks 75 by 30 by 4 feet. Itis alight gray biotite granite, coarse in texture, and massive. From 7 to 10 miles north and northwest of Kennebunkport there are quarries producing granite for general building purposes, polished columns, monuments, and cemetery work. Among the structures in which the stone was used are the Creshore works at Portsmouth, and the vault of a bank at Exeter, New Hampshire; Newburyport Savings bank and a Catholic church; and the foundation of the Boston Bridge Company’s building, Cambridge, Massachusetts. In one of the principal quarries the stone lies in rather irregular sheets and is irregularly jointed. The sheets vary in size, one being from 9 to 12 feet in thickness. The most prominent joints run southeast, and the rift is parallel to these, though not well defined in any direction. There are occasional patches. In another one of the quarries the sheets are not well marked, and the stone lies between great headings running N. 50° E., and dipping steeply to the westward. The rift is vertical.and at right angles to the course of the headings. There are few patches. In another quarry the stone lies in sheets varying from 5 to 9 feet in thickness. The principal vertical joints run southwest through the quarry at intervals, and there is a dike crossing it parallel to these joints. There are also some large headings at right angles to these. ‘The rift is vertical and parallel to one set of headings. Patches are few. Blocks 18 by 20 feet by 20 inches have been quarried, and there are natural blocks of 50 by 80 by 12 feet. The stone is a gray biotite granite, massive, and coarse in texture. Four miles southeast of South Berwick, York county, granite is extensively quarried for general building purposes and cemetery work. The following are some cf the structures in which it was used: Stratford Company’s house, near Dover, New Hampshire; stone-work of the Cunningham shoe factory, and a large tomb in the cemetery at South Berwick, Maine. This quarry has not been sufficiently developed to show the jointing, which at present seems very irregular. The stone is free from patches and the rift is horizontal. 124. BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. NEW HAMPSHIRE. [Compiled mainly from notes of Professor C. H. Hitchcock.] GRANITES. At Plymouth, Grafton county, a massive, gray biotite granite is quarried for general building purposes, culverts, and monumental work. The culverts of the Boston, Concord, and Montreal railroad are built of the Grafton granite. Natural blocks 20 by 15 by 10 feet are found in the quarry, and the material of the stone lies in horizontal sheets from 2 to 10 feet in thickness. At Lebanon, Grafton county, the granite, properly a biotite-epidote enelss, is quarried for general building and cemetery ie The principal markets are Lebanon and Hanover, Vermont. Natural blocks 10 by 10 by 40 feet are found in the quarry. There are obscure signs of stratification, and dips about 70° northwest. All the quarries here show the same features of dip. The workable granite is in horizontal sheets, and the workmen follow the material horizontally into the hill. The joints dip 70° easterly ; one or two have a southeast direction. The rift is horizontal. (See Geological Report of New Hampshire, Vol. II, p. 355: “ Inverted Dip.”) At Hanover, near Enfield village, Grafton county, a gray, massive biotite granite is quarried for general building purposes. The principal market is Hanover, New Hampshire. The stone lies in sheets varying from 6 inches to 9 feet in thickness. It is coarse in texture and not susceptible of a good polish. Natural blocks 200 by 12 by 9 feet are found, and blocks 23 by 9 by 8 feet have been quarried. Discolored joints are found at all depths to which the stone is yet been quarried. At Rumney, Grafton county, a gray, massive biotite granite is quarried for monumental and building purposes. The stone was used in the construction of the Franklin monument at Plymouth. It lies in horizontal sheets, and the largest natural blocks are 20 by 5 by 5 feet. It is pronounced by Professor Hitchcock to be of the same horizon (Montalban) as the Concord granite. At Sunapee, Sullivan county, a massive, biotite-muscovite granite is quarried for monumental and building purposes, and is used principally at Newport and Claremont. There are two principal varieties as to color, a light eray and a dark gray. The sheets have a dip of 25° west. Of the two kinds of granite which have been protruded through the porphyritic gneiss at this place black granite is the oldest, which is known from the fact that pieces of it are found in the light-colored granite. This light granite is really the equivalent of what, in Professor Hitcheock’s report on New Hampshire, is called the ‘‘Upper Bethlehem”, but he pronounces it an eraptee granite. Dr. George W. Hawes, in his first catalogue of lithology for New Hianeehirs calls this black granite a mica schist. The black granite has the usual appearance of an erupted mass; the ledge of white granite does not reach 100 feet in width, therefore the quarry is limited though well situated. The seam of epidote lies between the two granites. Both varieties are compact, good, and safe stones to work, and take a high polish. At West Concord, Merrimack county, a massive, gray biotite-muscovite granite is quarried for general building purposes and cemeteries. Among the prominent buildings in which the stone was used are the Horticultural hall, Security bank, the city hall, and Masonic temple, Boston; the Philadelphia city and county building (part), and the Massachusetts state prison, and the Herald building, Boston. At Concord a massive biotite-muscovite granite is quarried for monumental and building purposes. Among the prominent buildings in the construction of which this stone has been used are the Life Insurance Company’s building, Boston; monument to the discoverer of anesthetics, at Public garden, Boston, and the Cadet monuiment Mount Auburn cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts; soldiers’ monument, Concord, Massachusetts; Charter Oak Insurance building, Hartford, Connecticut; Jordan & Marsh’s building; soldiers’ monument at Manchester, New Hampshire; Equitable Life Insurance and Germaria Savings Bank buildings, and the city hall and Horticultural hall, Boston, Massachusetts. It is a good, safe, and free stone to work, and takes a high polish. For commercial purposes this granite is divided into four classes: 1st, the best for monumental work; 2d, the next best for general building purposes, where one good face is sufficient; 3d, second quality of stock, including much of the underpinning for ordinary dwelling-houses, steps, capping for walls, and hitching posts; 4th, foundation stones, piers, and abutments, and other uses in which uniformity of color is not desired. Some of the principal quarries are situated on what is known as Rattle Snake hill, which elevation consists almost wholly of a granite formation. The stone on the south side is very light colored; that on the north side is darker. The elevation is 600 feet above the Merrimack river, and the distance from the river to the crest of the hillis 2 miles. The surface of the rock is polished down by glacial action as smooth as an earthen plate. There are some patches of a darker color than the prevailing material, some of which are 18 inches in diameter. Masses of quartz from 1 inch to 6 inches in diameter occasionally occur in the stone. The riftinclines to the west about 1 inch to the foot, and the grain is vertical, having a north and south direction. There are also some joints having a southeast and northwest direction crossing the regular east and west joints. In one of the principal quarries on the east side of the hill the stone fractures best with an east and west line. Oak hill is a similar elevation to Rattle Snake hill, and is also a granite formation, but the material is usually coarser and more broken. Dikes running through the hill cause variations in the structure of the mass. A massive, gray biotite-muscovite granite is quarried at Allenstown, Merrimack county, for general building purposes and cemetery work. The natural advantages of this quarry are of the very best, and few of the New DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 125 Hampshire quarries are better situated for drainage, size of sheets, availability, and convenience to railroad and markets. It is on the Concord railroad, midway between Concord and Manchester. The material is of medium fine texture, and is jointed horizontally and vertically. There are natural blocks 80 by 20 by 10 feet. At Durham, Strafford county, a massive, gray biotite granite is quarried for foundations and for flagging. It was used in the foundation of Sawyer’s mill, and most of the buildings in Dover, and is transported by boat and wagon. It is coarse in texture, and isa good and safe stone to work, taking a good polish. It liesin sheets of from 6 inches to 2 feet in thickness, inclining to the west. There are natural blocks 20 by 15 by 4 feet in thickness. It lies at the horizon called by Professor Hitchcock ‘‘ Exeter syenite”. At Raymond, Rockingham county, a pinkish-gray, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite is quarried for general building purposes and cemetery work. The principal markets are the large towns in the neighborhood. The stone was used in the foundations of the custom-house at Portsmouth. The texture is medium fine, and has a jointing similar to the granite quarried at Manchester. Blocks 24 feet Square have been'quarried. This granite works well and takes a good polish. Professor Hitchcock reports this stone as weak and not likely to be much used save where good stone is scarce, as in the lower part of New Hampshire. At Peterborough, Hillsborough county, a light gray, laminated muscovite-biotite granite is quarried for general building purposes and curbing. The principal markets are Worcester, Lowell, and Lawrence, Massachusetts. This stone is sometimes called a gneiss from its distinctly-laminated structure; it would perhaps be more proper to term it a gneiss than a granite. It splits readily in the direction of the lamination and takes a good polish. The texture is coarse, and the sheets incline 70° to 75° west. Blocks 28 by 6 by 10 feet have been quarried, and natural blocks 36 by 6 by 12 feet are found in the quarry. At Milford, Hillsborough county, a gray, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite is quarried for general building ‘purposes and cemetery work. The prominent buildings in the construction of which this stone has been used are the Merchants’ exchange, Nashua, and the engine-house at Lowell; the town hall at Wakefield and court-house in Worcester, Massachusetts; and the Wilcox block, at Windsor, Connecticut. There is quite a number of different quarries in this granite near Milford, and the material is generally a good and safe stone to work, taking a good polish. Blocks of any desired size are found in these quarries, and in many places there are irregular, large, vertical dirt joints, and in some of them coarse sand from 2 inches to 2 feet in thickness separates the sheets. At Mason, Hillsborough county, a gray, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite is quarried for cemetery and street work and general building purposes. The principal markets are Lowell, Worcester, and Walton, Massachusetts. There is quite a number of very coarse granite veins, varying in thickness from 2 inches to 2 feet, which are called ‘salt veins” by the quarrymen. The larger blocks of granite are quarried with facility, by reason of the existence of these small veins. The stone is of medium-fine texture, is good and safe to work, and takes a very high polish. In one of the principal quarries the typical two sets of joints cross each other, and are very regular, a fact which is not, however, unusual in the granite of this region. Seams of clay sometimes are infiltrated into the joints. With regard to the joints Professor Hitchcock states that all the New Hampshire quarries have usually the following: 1st, a set of horizontal seams or joints, enabling the workmen to raise the stone parallel to the surface ; 2d, vertical joints, usually well pronounced; 3d, scattering joints, often causing the rectangular blocks produced by the first two sets to become wedge-shaped. Sometimes only one of these wedges is worked. Invariably these seams that are highly inclined, if pronounced, carry some dirt derived from muddy water. Many quarries have no scattering joints at all. The line governing their occurrence has not yet been discovered. Near Nashua, Hillsborough county, a light gray, indistinctly-laminated muscovite granite is quarried for foundation and dimension work. This stone is well adapted to foundations, buildings, and street and cemetery work, where simple rock-faced work is required, but is not adapted to ornamental or fine hammered work. For better classes of building purposes in this vicinity the Nashua granite is used, and the Concord granite for ornamental work. Slabs 20 feet long, for cemetery borders and underpinning, have been obtained from this quarry. At Wilson hill, 14 miles from Manchester station, Concord railroad, Hillsborough county, a pinkish-gray, indistinctly-laminated biotite granite is quarried for foundations and underpinnings and trimmings for buildings. The principal market is Manchester. It is assigned geologically to the lake gneiss. The texture is coarse, and has the usual horizontal and vertical jointing of New Hampshire g aoe It is of value chiefly because within the limits of the considerable city of Manchester. At Fitzwilliam, Cheshire county, a massive gray granite is quarried for general building purposes, ornamental work, and paving. "The principal markets are New England and the west. Among the str ene in which this stone has beech used are Saint Paul’s church, Worcester, and the trimmings of Murdock block, and the national bank, Winchendon, Massachusetts; soldiers’ monument at Granville, New York; Keene (New Hampshire) court-house ; court-house at Albany, New York ; trimmings of Morse Institute, Natick; court-house at Fitchburg, and Kruff’s block, Pearl street, Boston, Massachusetts. The Fitzwilliam granite is of a fine or medium-fine texture, and varies in its ingredients so that the microscope shows specimens from some quarries to be muscovite-biotite granite; from others, biotite granite; and some of the material is laminated so that it may be termed a gneiss. In one of the principal 126 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. quarries there is a light gray muscovite granite and a dark gray biotite granite. The geological horizon is that of the Montalban Archean rocks. The position of one of these quarries is mentioned as particularly favorable ; it is located on the broad north slope of a hill, drains itself, and a very large surface has been exposed to view. If at all defective, it is in the existence of many thin sheets. The Fitzwilliam granites are generally compact, free, and safe-working stones, taking good polish. . One and one-quarter miles east of the depot of Marlborough, Cheshire county, a gray, massive biotite granite is quarried for building and paving purposes. Among the prominent buildings in the construction of which this stone was used are a church and the Union depot, Worcester, Massachusetts; stone mill at Harrisonville, railroad bridge at Keene, and library building in Marlborough, New Hampshire. The stone lies in sheets which are inclined from 2° to 5°, and vary in thickness from 3 inches to 3 feet. There are natural blocks as large as 36 by 14 by 24 feet. The stone is good and safe to work, and takes the highest polish. Geological horizon, Montalban. At Troy, Cheshire county, granite is occasionally quarried for local purposes. It was used in the construction of the bank and court-house in Fitchburg. Some of the quarries there produce excellent material for curbing, being hard and brittle, but free from iron. At Roxbury, Cheshire county, granite is occasionally quarried fer local purposes, and it was used to some extent in the construction of the state-house, in Albany, New York, which was in fact the chief purpose for which the quarries were operated. VERMONT. [Compiled mainly from notes of Professor C, H. Hitchcock. ] MARBLES AND LIMESTONES. The noted marble districts of Vermont are in the vicinity of Rutland and Sutherland Falls, Rutland county ; Dorset, Bennington county, and on the islands and near the shores of lake Champlain, in Grand Isle and Franklin. counties, known generally as Lake Champlain marble. The marble of Rutland and Bennington counties is used very extensively throughout the United States for general building and monumental purposes, and is among the most widely known marbles in the country. According to the classification adopted in this report, this material varies sufficiently in its composition so that some of it may be properly called a limestone, some of it a magnesian. limestone, and some calcareous dolomite. Like nearly all the other material known in the markets as marble which is quarried in this country, it belongs to the Lower Silurian formation. The strata of the rock are usually inclined. at various angles, and the courses are of such thickness and the jointing is of such a nature that blocks of any desired size may be obtained. In color it varies from white to a dark bluish, and some of the white is of such quality that it is used for statuary purposes. The Lake Champlain marble from Swanton, Isle La Motte, and other places in this distriet varies in its. composition so that it is sometimes a magnesian limestone and sometimes a dolomite. It is used chiefly for interior work, mantels, tables, inlaid work, and tiling, and may be seen in many of the most important structures in the country. It is of various mottled and variegated colors. Some of the quarries produce black marble. The: variegated appearance of some of this marble is heightened by its highly fossiliferous nature. GRANITES. Nearly ali of the granites quarried in Vermont are of the Calciferous mica-schist, a formation which Hitchcock. states may be as late as Devonian, certainly not earlier than Upper Silurian. They are usually biotite granites of various shades of gray, and have not as extensive a use throughout the country generally as the New England granites situated on the coast—a fact probably due to the less expensive means of transportation of the coast granites. The Saint Johnsbury granite, which, according to Winchell, belongs to the lake group of New Hampshire, is quarried extensively, and is marketed chiefly in the neighboring cities of New York. SLATES. The important slate formation of Rutland county, Vermont, is, according to Hitchcock, of Cambrian age.. The principal quarries are near Northfield, Castleton, Fairhaven, Poultney, and Powlet, and produce material for,roofing, mantels, billiard tables, tiles, school slates, trays, sinks, furniture, and for ornamental and various. other purposes. The different colored slates obtained are chiefly a bluish-black, purple, and green. They are used throughout the United States for the purposes before mentioned. CONNECTICUT. [Compiled mainly from notes by Harrison W. Lindsley. ] BROWN AND RED SANDSTONE, TRIASSIC FORMATION. The surface rocks of Connecticut are Archean rocks, covering most of the area of the state; a small Lower ‘Silurian area, chiefly in the northwest corner of the state, producing limestones which thus far have been quarried’ only to a limited extent for purposes of construction; and the Triassie rocks of the Connecticut valley, extending;. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. . 127 according to Professor J. D. Dana, from New Haven, on Long Island sound, to northern Massachusetts, having a length of 110 miles and an average width of 20 miles. This formation furnishes the celebrated brown sandstone quarried at Portland and at other places in the Connecticut valley. The principal quarries are at Portland and at Middletown, on the east bank of the Connecticut river, near the junction of the Air-Line and the Connecticut Valley railroads, in Middlesex county. These quarries are operated on a very extensive scale, and the most improved methods of quarrying are in use, the work being largely done with steam channeling-machines, as the stone is of such a nature that it is readily cut in this way. The “‘ Connecticut brownstone”, as it is known in the market, is extensively used for all kinds of building and monumental! work in the principal cities of the Atlantic border, in Canada, and in Chicago. Most of the fronts on Fifth and Madison avenues, New York city, are built of this stone. Transportation is by boat and by rail. The wharves are situated within 100 yards of the quarries, and railroad tracks are extended into the quarries. The material is very uniform in character and appearance. A considerable quantity of stone from each of the quarries was used in the construction of the Vanderbilt brownstone house on Fifth avenue, New York, and was used indiscriminately in the front of the building. Blocks about 30 by 7 by 7 feet have been moved in the quarry, and there are natural blocks as large as 100 by 50 by 20 feet, so that blocks of any desired size may be obtained. This stone splits in uniform layers from one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness to 15 or 20 feet thick. The texture is medium as to fineness of grain compared with other sandstones, and is very uniform. According to Dana this sandstone is largely a granitic sand-rock made of pulverized granite or gneiss. The following analysis of a specimen was obtained by Mr. F. W. Taylor, chemist of the National Museum : Per cent. PLL eee alot erates eens ale fetes ain, sinicinia clots twice eitaciawe ae aise ns a eana ema aire aan ea. c0 Birlefaia elas aisle) lam etere cate sete 69. 94 Thoin, CARGOES) See eh B ENS HBA CRA DOMA SEC EI anm IS eee un Tie Sd Bn AOS Mi i hoe ieee eee ee Pana k 2.48 AU DTOTEY Vo Se cB co eb OBE SED SARS OSB EEE OR BEE CES SoC NOSE OO aaah eee ee a eae ees 13.55 NERS coche! (dc connditiche dete codd Kaden ogee ator ads CeeBe RAs bh econ tad es ie eS ae ea ee eS 3. 09 RRO OS Letom Mele ae aiere 2) a Sea eae onmtecc Sab aicste ee Ree ee Oe neater aS ES Helse) aS ecw tem sea coon cde be aleee trace SOS, case doctsasopadSs Gest koecoqh See bees Gor Nee Ret AGeOt SOPH SEA AeoOet axe Dee le ea een Se 5. 43 LEGS IN, Sot RUS Sbelaea tacoihe 6 ConOcR OUD RE BOBSICd LSE Sel HOSOr ea At At SS UE Oo CAD RO ON San ase 3. 30 ea Ne ree i ee cles Wetkle ae eee oot ee a asia s Sue nla eters mie has SH eave lc np ae aces Sec ans wceens ness 1.01 Rrra R MLC eae re ania 2 a iiaiatcle we mnie e =o a'b on wants na ode diate ened sereces ceca esen sess 0.70 99. 50 The Connecticut brownstone should invariably be laid in walls as ‘i tay in the quarry bed, as the signs of stratification are usually distinct, and the material has a tendency to split when set on edge. There are also extensive brownstone quarries at East Haven, near New Haven, on the Air-Line railroad. The stone at these quarries differs in some respects from that quarried at Portland; it is here a reddish, rather coarse stone, containing much quartz in grains, and is employed chiefly for foundations, underpinnings, and railroad work at New Haven, and by the railroad companies of Connecticut and Massachusetts. It was used in the construction of Saint Paul’s church, New Haven, and for the abutments and piers of numerous railroad bridges. The stone is in quite uniform layers 2 or 3 feet in thickness, and blocks 20 by 4 by 3 feet have been obtained. The joints are not frequent and are quite irregular. Small quarries of the Triassic sandstone are operated at several other points chiefly for local use. Among these points may be mentioned Buckland station, Hartford county, on the Hartford, Providence, and Fishkill railroad, where stone of a very beautiful reddish color, but slightly coarser grained than the Portiand stone, is obtained. -The material here seems to be in every way suitable to all general building purposes, and can be obtained in blocks of any size ordinarily required. The quarry has also good facilities for transportation by rail. . At Hayden’s station, within a few yards of the New York, New Haven, and Hartford railroad, is a quarry cf brown sandstone formerly operated to supply stone for the dam at Windsor ferry. It has been operated for local uses for a hundred years. The stone is similar to the Portland stone, but somewhat redder in color, and as there are good facilities for transportation, both by railroad and river, it may be of importance in the future. At Suffield, Hartford county, there are a number of small brownstone quarries, none of which have been operated except for local or private purposes. Other quarries are operated for local purposes at Newington, Hartford county, Farmington, and Forestville. It will be noticed, however, that the extensive quarrying in Connecticut on this formation is done only at Portland and East Haven. The principal quarries on the trap dikes of the Triassic age in Connecticut are at East rock and West rock, north of New Haven. The material hereis diabase, nearly black in color, fine and uniform in texture, and itis used for cellar stone and street paving in New Haven. This rock is much cut by irregular joints, so that blocks of a size suitable only for cellar work and paving stone can be obtained; however, it serves well for these purposes. GRANITE AND SYENITE. Extensive quarries of granite and gneiss are located at various points in the state, especially near Thomaston and Roxbury, in Richfield county; on Long Island sound, in Fairfield county ; near Ansonia, Branford, and Stony creek, New Havencounty ; Middletown and Haddam, Middlesex county; and near Lywe, Niantic, Groton, and Mason’s 128 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. island, New London county. The Connecticut granites and gneisses are usually fine grained and light gray in color, and the appearance is usually so characteristic as to distinguish them from other granites of the Atlantic Coast states. At Sterling, Windham county, a biotite gneiss, rather coarse ‘in texture, and varying in color from gray to light gray with a pinkish tint, is extensively quarried for general building purposes, monuments, and street work, and is shipped chiefly to Willimantic, Jewett City, Danielsonville, and Baltic, Connecticut, and to Providence and Warwick, Rhode Island. Among the structures in which it has been used are the Furnace fipcka in Willimantic, the Baltic mill, and mills at Warwick, Rhode Island. Near Thomaston, on the Naugatuck railroad, a light gray biotite-muscovite granite is quarried extensively for general building purposes, and shipped to Waterbury and the towns in the western part of Connecticut generally. Among the buildings in which it was used are the United States building (front), New Haven, and the Episcopal church, Waterbury. The material in the quarry lies in quite irregular sheets, usually inclined about 20°, and has a slightly gneissoid or laminated structure. At Roxbury, the granite quarried for curbs, foundations, and paving, and employed chiefly in Danbury, Connecticut, and New York city, is similar in structure and composition to the Thomaston granite. The quarries on the shore of Long Island sound produce a hornblende-biotite gneiss, used extensively for foundations, underpinnings, footings, and piers in New York city and Brooklyn. Transportation is by schooner on Long Island sound. The color of this material is a very dark gray, approaching black. Near Ansonia a bluish-gray muscovite-biotite gneiss is quarried for general building purposes and used in the vicinity, at New Haven and Bridgeport. Among the structures in which it was used are the copper-mill and clock shops in Ansonia, and Howard Avenue church, New Haven. This gneiss splits very evenly in slabs of almost any thickness. Slabs of 4 inches in thickness can be obtained about 2 feet in width and from 4 to6 feetlong. The rock on the natural surface looks fibrous like a piece of straight-grained wood, and splits vertically in the direction of this grain as well as in the plane of the quarry bed. It can be successfully polished only at right angles to the plane of lamination. A large seam of quartz about 6 feet square in the section crosses on top of this quarry in almost a straight line, having a direction northeast and southwest. This rock is exposed at many points in the vicinity, and probably could be profitably worked at nearly all of the outcrops. Near Branford the material, though locally called granite, is a biotite gneiss, and has thus far been used for breakwaters and coast engineering works at fort Jefferson and New Haven. A portion of the breakwater in New Haven harbor was constructed of this material It is shipped in barges. This stone is not very uniform in texture and color; even in the same quarry it varies in color from dark gray to a pink. A nee ty granite is quite extensively quarried at Leetes Island station, 6 miles east of Branford on the Shore Line railroad, in New Haven county. It is used for general and ornamental purposes, chiefly in New York city. Among the Surnannkee in which it has been used ¢ are the bridges at Springfield and Harlem. It is transported by boats. The stone quarried at Arnold’s station and i Stee station, on the Connecticut Valley railroad, in Middlesex county, is a very dark gray or black hornblende-biotite gneiss, varying from fine to coarse in texture, ane used chiefly for curbs, flagging, and steps and street work at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Camden, New Jersey, and Spring- field, Massachusetts. It is transported by schooners and boats. This rock is considerably marked with fine white veins from one-eighth of an inch to 2 inches wide running irregularly through it. There are occasional quite large veins of quartz, much stained with iron, running through the ledge, but the iron stains are only on the surface. This stone was called blue-stone in the market before the North River blue-stone was extensively used. There is a streak running through portions of the ledge of very much finer and darker colored stone, which splits with a smooth, almost black surface, due to the black-mica scales. Nearly all the mica in this rock is black, and to this fact is due the very dark color of the material. Material of a similar nature has been quarried at Deep river, at Saybrook, Hadlyme, and Haddam, on the east bank of the Connecticut. In the principal quarries the cleavage is nearly vertical and at right angles to the beds, thus making it easy to obtain blocks of required shape. At Maromas station the quarry rock is without any jointing or division into sheets, being a solid mass, excepting near the surface. It splits, however, very easily in horizontal planes in any thickness, is very uniform in appearance throughout, and very easily quarried. The quarry is at such a level that it can be drained by the siphon. It is close to the Connecticut river and the Connecticut Valley railway, so that the facilities for transportation are good. The quarries near Lyme, Niantic, Groton, and Mason’s island produce chiefly a gray biotite granite. There is, however, one quarry near Lyme producing ared granite, locally called “‘ red porphyry”. The texture is coarse and porphyritic; itis used for general building and ornamental purposes, chiefly at Newport, Rhode Island. Some of the material may be seen in the Chaney Memorial church, Newport, Rhode Island. The other principal quarry near Lyme produces a plain gray granite, rather coarse in texture, and shows on all dressed surfaces fine parallel lines of alternate dark and gray. These lines prevent its use for the most highly ornamental purposes, as they usually run obliquely across some or all of the finished surfaces. Portions of the material in this quarry are slightly pinkish in color. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 129 The Niantic quarries produce a light gray granite of rather fine and uniform grain, used for general building purposes, monuments, and paving, chiefly in New York city, though it is used in various places in Connecticut and Rhode Island, and has been shipped as far south as Savannah. It is transported by boats. Among the structures in which it has been used are the Norwich court-house, the New York reservoir, and fort Adams, Newport, Rhode Island. The surface rock of this and other granite quarries in the southeastern part of the state is thought to be looser in texture than the rock below and much more easily broken. Itis often coarser and less uniform in texture. The usual thickness of this surface rock is from 5 to 15 feet. It is utilized for riprap and similar rough purposes, and may be considered as the lowest grade of the production of these quarries. At the Niantic quarries there are two grades, the finest grain being a perfectly uniform gray in color on a polished surface, and the second having a polished surface covered with spots from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, quite uniformly spaced from 1 inch to 3 inches apart, and looking much as if a wet finger had been repeatedly applied to the smooth surface. The discoloration in natural joints does not penetrate the stone at all, but discolors the whole surface of the joints as far as it extends. These quarries are the largest located on Long Island shore between New Haven and the Rhode Island line. They have supplied material for a large number of the ports along the Atlantic coast and for government works at many other places. A small portion of the material at certain sections in the quarries is slightly pinkish in color. The granite quarried at Groton is a light gray material of a rather fine and uniform grain. It is used for cemetery work, monuments, curbs, trimmings, and breakwaters, chiefly at Providence, New Haven, Hartford, Buffalo, Erie, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, and Chicago. The transportation is partly by boat, but chi fly by rail. Nearly all of the material of the best quality produced by these quarries is used for ornamental work, as it is uniform in color and texture and takes a fine polish. Much of the stone shipped from these quarries is dressed and finished. At. Mason’s island, south of the Mystic river, Long Island sound, a gray granite is extensively quarried for riprap and breakwaters. The ledge is very much broken by joints, and blocks of large size are not readily obtained, though the quality and structure of the material and the location of the quarries make it we!l adapted and convenient for the purposes for which it is used. The material thus far quarried has been chiefly the surface rock. At several places, however, large sheets of what seemed to be much more uniform and better granite have been reached. The rough rock overlying these sheets is from 15 to 30 feet thick. At Mystic River there is a granite quarry producing a fine quality of gray granite, which may be obtained in blocks of any desired size. As yet, however, it has not been much operated. This quarry is situated on the side of a steep cliff or ledge, very accessible and conveniently located for quarrying, near the Mystic river. At North Bridgeport, Fairfield county, and Killingly, Windham county, gray and rather coarse-textured hornblende-biotite gneiss is quarried for local use. A material of similar character is quarried at Willimantic for curbing and flagging, chiefly for local use. Fine-grained gray-biotite gneiss is quarried at Bolton, Tolland county, for flagging, and used chiefly in Hartford; it is, however, shipped to some extent to other New England cities. Daik gray biotite gneiss is quarried for street work at Glastonbury, Hartford county, and used chiefly in Hartford. At West Norfolk, Litchfield county, a very beautiful light gray, fine-gruined gueiss is quarried. It is uniform in texture and color, and has a bright, fresh appearance. It is nearly al! distinctly laminated, and is a biotite- muscovite gneiss, though specimens forwarded to the National Museum are properly called ‘“ granites ”. SERPENTINE AND VERD-ANTIQUE MARBLE. In the Archean rocks near New Haven are deposits of serpentine and verd-antique marble, which have not thus far been quarried to any great extent, although if worked they would furnish excellent material for interior decoration and other ornamental purposes. The serpentine is gray, mottied, yellowish, and greenish in color when rough; when polished it is dove-colored, with lines of yellow and green. The verd-antique marble is of a grayish color when rough; when polished it is dove-colored, yellow, greenish- yellow, and black and white. The difficulty of dressing and polishing this material seems to have prevented its extensive use thus far. NEW YORK. [Compiled mainly from notes by Professors Cook and Smock. ] GRANITE. Granitic rocks are quarried for local use in a number of localities in Westchester county, and the material is generally fit for rough work only. The gneiss quarried near Hastings by Messrs. Munson & Co., however, is used principally in New York city for foundations and general construction purposes. This is a rather. coarse grained material, and is striped by alternate layers of light and dark, varying in thickness. Nearly all varieties, as to color, texture, and composition, occur in this region, though no very valuable exposures have been developed in loealities convenient to water transportation. VOL. Ix——-9 B § ot BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. In Putnam county the granitic rocks are well developed, and have been worked in various localities in cliffs along the Hudson river. On Grindstone island, one of the Thousand islands, Jefferson county, a beautiful red granite is obtained! which is rather hard to dress, but is susceptible of being very highly polished. The product of the quarry is at present manufactured into paving blocks and stones for monumental work ; the former are used in Chicago, Illinois, and the latter are shipped to Montreal. The quarry is favorably located for transportation ‘by the great lakes and the Saint Lawrence River system of navigation; it is on the west side of Grindstone island, about 5 miles west of Clayton, Jefferson county, and at the dock adjoining the quarry vessels of 400 tons burden can land. SANDSTONE. At Malone, Franklin county, the Potsdam sandstone is crossed by the Salmon river, and here some stone is quarried for local demands, but no quarries were reported as worked during the census year. Three miles south of Potsdam, Saint Lawrence county, the Raquette river cuts across the Potsdam formation, and quarries are worked along the banks of this stream. The outcrop of the sandstone where it is cut across by the river is about 2 miles in width from north to south. The strata dip in a southerly direction at an angle of 45°, The formation shows signs of disturbance, and the layers near the surface are thin and are used for flagging. As the excavation proceeds downward the layers gradually increase in thickness until, in the bottom of the quarry, at a depth of about 40 feet, the layers are from 2 to 3 feet thick. These layers split readily, when first quarried, into any desired thickness. The stone works well when first taken out, but becomes quite hard upon exposure. Much of this stone has a pleasant reddish-brown color, which is very durable, but some of it shows a rusty discoloration upon long exposure. It is quite refractory, and is used for lining cupolas in the furnaces at Potsdam. A large amount of it has been shipped to New York for use in the construction of the new buildings of Columbia college; three churches, the Normal School building, and the town hall at Potsdam, are also built of this stone. The most westerly point where the Potsdam sandstone is worked is at Hammond, in the extreme western part of Saint Lawrence county. The strata here are very nearly horizontal, but the jointing is irregular. The stone is of good quality, and varies in color from gray to red. Thin layers also occur at the top at this point, and heavy layers are found lower. The quarry is conveniently located for transportation, and the stone is used for curbs, flagging, and paving, principally in towns of central New York. In Washiiiton county the Potsdam sandstone is from 50 to 60 feet thick, generally covered by alluvium, and nowhere extensively quarried. At Fort Ann it is almost pure quartz, and is quarried for use in the steel-works at Troy, and also for the construction of hearths. There are some small calciferous-sandstone quarries in the vicinity of Fort Ann, which furnish excellent paving stone and stone for underpinnings for local use. In Schenectady county, at a point called Aqueduct, a valuable development of a sandstone stratum in the Hudson River group occurs. It is a very fine-grained, stratified sandstone, in layers separated by thin seams of slate, and the sandstone grades almost imperceptibly into slate. The strata dip slightly to the southwest, and a system of parallel joints, called side seams, runs nearly northeast and southwest, and is cut across at right angles by cross joints. There are main side seams from 30 to 55 feet apart, very regular and filled with mud, and between these there are irregular parallel joints at distances of from 2 to 12 feet apart. In the southward extension of the formation the strata of slate run out and several sandstone layers unite and thus furnish large-sized blocks. The quarry is located on the bank of the Erie canal, by which the stone is transported to market, and the quarrying is done during the season of canal navigation. The stone works well and is used quite largely for buildings in surrounding cities. BLUE-STONE DISTRICT. The ‘flagging ” or * blue-stone” of the Hudson River district belongs to several geological formations from the Hamilton upward. The district is confined to comparatively narrow limits west of the Hudson river, and mainly to Albany, Greene, and Ulster counties. It begins with the quarries in Schoharie county, passes to the southeast and euters Albany county near Berne, and from there passes around to the south and southwest, across Greene, Ulster, and Sullivan counties and across the west end of Orange county, to the Delaware river and into Pike county, Pennsylvania. There are no quarries known in any of the formations below the Hamilton down to the Hudson River slate, and the typical blue-stone flagging may all be said to come from the Hamilton formation, which, according to. Professor Hall, is succeeded by the Oneonta sandstone, the equivalent of the Portage in the eastern part of the state. The Chemung shales and sandstones have not been identified, and the gray and the red beds of the Catskill mountains probably belong to the Catskill group. It may yet be found that the main blue-stone belt, which extends southwest through Hurley, Ulster county, belongs in part to the Hamilton, while the upper or western beds are of the Oneonta formation. The flat plateau or terrace to the east and southeast may be oceupied by the softer Chemung rocks. If this be the case, the quarries of West Saugerties, High Woods, Shandaken, Phenicia, Boiceville, and Brodhead are all in the Catskill group. The stone from these localities is generally coarser grained than that from the more eastern range, and the gray or the reddish tints predominate over the dark blue-black shades. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 151 The quarry at Eminence, Schoharie county, is probably intheChemung group. The quarries which are probably in the Hamilton group are the Middleburgh quarry, Schoharie county, the Albany County quarries, those of Greene county and of Quarryville, Saugerties, Kingston, and West Hurley, Ulster county, and those in the southwestern extension of the blue-stone district near Ellenville, Ulster county, and at Pond Eddy and West Brookville, Sullivan county. There is.a great number of quarries in this district, and many of them are very small, as little capital is needed to develop a quarry, on account of the small amount of cap-rock to be removed and the little machinery necessary to operate the quarries, as they are worked almost exclusively for flag-stones of small size and small * edge stuff”. In Schoharie county the character of the flag-stone is much the same as in the quarries along the Hudson river. There are in the blue-stone formation always two systems of joints crossing each other nearly at right angles. Those of the principal system, which usually runs nearly north and south, are called “ main side joints”, and the others ‘““cross joints”. In the Eminence quarry the main joints run nearly north and south, and the strata dip slightly to the south or southwest. Several ledges are quarried here at different elevations, and the stone varies in texture, the highest strata being coarse-grained and varying in color from gray to red, and the lower layers are blue-black and fine-grained. The product of these quarries is principally flag-stone, which is used to supply the local demands of surrounding towns. The quarries of the Middleburgh Blue Stone Company are about a dozen small openings near Hunter’s Land, and from 5 to 10 miles east and southeast of Middleburgh. The quarries are nearly all in side hills and the strata are very nearly horizontal. Near the surface a hard, thinly-bedded stone is found, which is suitable for common flagging, cross-walks, and rough work. The quality of the stone is found to improve as the quarries are worked to greater depth, heavier beds of finer-grained and more valuable stone being found. ‘This is a newly-developed blue-stone district, and some of the best stone is suitable for trimmings. The material goes principally to Albany, Troy, and other cities to the northeast. The stone from the Albany County quarries is coarser, harder, and more gray in color than that from the same formation in Greene and Ulster counties. The Reidsville quarries have an average thickness of workable strata of only 4 feet, covered with from 2 to 14 feet of earth and slaty beds. The quarries in the vicinity of Dormansville were formerly worked quite extensively, but for several years past they have been worked but little. The beds in these quarries are thin, and the stone goes principally to Albany for flag-stone. At Stephensville, 6 miles west of Coeymans, a more easterly range of flagging stone occurs, which, however, has not yet been developed. The blue-stone belt, extending south from Albany into Greene county, crosses New Baltimore and Coxsackie townships, in each of which quarries have been opened, though very little stone has been taken out. At New Baltimore stone is quarried for dock filling at Albany. The Leeds quarries consist of six or seven different openings, which are worked at intervals by farmers. The product of the quarries, most of which is for small flags, is carted to Catskill, a distance of about 2 miles. The Kiskatom quarries have been worked, but not continuously, for many years. The blue-stone belt is here quite narrow, and in the ledge worked approaches near to the limestone formations that lie between it and the Hudson. The structure of the beds is similar to that of the same formation farther south. The shipping points for these quarries are Catskill, Malden, and Smith’s Landing, from 7 to 8 miles distant. The cost of carting the stone amounts to about 25 per cent. of the value at these points. The stones produced are mostly of small size, and are worked into curbs, caps, sills, steps, ete., called “edge stuff”. At Palenville a large number of quarries was formerly worked, extending over a large space, but the decline in prices has put a stop to many of them. The quarries are all at the base of the mountains and several hundred feet above the surrounding lowlands, and a good quality of stone and large-sized blocks may be obtained. The strata dip westward into the mountains, and the thickness of cap-rock increases rapidly in that direction. The distance of these quarries from Malden, the shipping point; is 9 miles. Ulster county has by far the largest number of quarries in the blue-stone district. Quarryville, in the northwestern part of Saugerties township, is a noted quarry district, which has been worked for 40 or more years, and a large amount of stone has been taken from it. The stone is sold at Malden, and is drawn there over.a tramway constructed of blocks of stone. There is much less stone quarried here at present than was formerly produced, as the depth of stripping has increased to such an extent that the quarries can be worked with but little profit. The stone is of good quality and is used for turned and general dressed work at the Malden yards. The quarries lie in lines along three parallel ledges which have a general direction from northeast to southwest. There the blue-stone belt makes its nearest approach to the Hudson, the limestone belt, 34 miles in width, separating the most easterly ledge from the river. The beds of sandstone overlie each other from west to east, and strata of slate and hard sandstone occur between them. The vertical side seams are very regular and run north 40° east, and the joints at right angles to these are irregular and not continuous. The quarries in the easternmost ledge extend about a mile in length, 175 feet in width, and have been worked to an average depth of about 12 feet. A large area has been left on account of the heavy stripping required. The line of quarries in the middle ledge extends over an area about 14 miles in length, from 150 to 500 feet in width, and has been quarried to a depth of from 12 to 20 feet. Quite heavy beds occur in some of these quarries, and the joints often allow blocks of very large size to be obtained. In the western ledge the quarries are in a line about 132 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. 1,000 feet long by 150 wide, and are worked to an average depth of about 12 feet. These quarries are about 5 miles from Malden, being the most distant of all quarries here noted. The total thickness of workable layers in the Quarryville region is from 4 to 20 feet, and the stripping is from 6 to 17 feet in depth. Much of the heavy or thickly-bedded stone is taken to Malden to be worked into edge stuff. In working these quarries little capital is used beyond the value of the necessary tools. Leaseholds are common, and the royalty paid is at the rate of one- half cent per square foot of stone quarried. The larger sizes of blocks have bed dimensions of about 15 by 8 feet, although some 25 by 15 feet have been taken out. The quarries near Saugerties extend in a line from northeast to southwest, about 2 miles im length and half a mile in breadth, and are known as the Fish Creek quarries. A large area has been quarried over and a large amount of stone has been taken out. The quarries have been in operation from thirty-five to forty years, but the product is now small and is carted to Saugerties, which is from 4 to 5 miles distant, and the cost of carting amounts to one-third of the value of the stone at that place. The quarries now worked are in the midst of the old works, many of them previously abandoned. They are now not very productive, and a considerable amount of stripping is necessary. The quarry bed is from 34 to 8 feet thick, and the stripping or cap-rock from 34 to 7 feet thick. The stone is fine-grained and is used mainly for edge stone. The Kingston quarries are all in the same belt, and may be separated into several groups, as the Dutch Settlement group, the Hallihan’s Hill group, the Sawkill group, the Jockey Hill group, and the Dutch Hill group. In the Dutch Settlement group the quarry beds have an aggregate thickness of from 5 to 12 feet, and the strata vary from 5 to 16 inches. Generally two or three men work together in a quarry, and some of the quarries are contiguous and admit of a common system of drainage. The amount of capital invested in this region is very small, as the quarrymen do not often own the land on which they quarry, but pay a rent, usually at the rate of half a cent per square foot for the stone taken out. Formerly a large amount of quarrying was done in this locality, but the increasing expense of working the quarries and the low prices for stone have reduced the extent of the industry. The work is now mainly done by men who have their own boys to assist them, and very few men are hired. In some portions of this region the dip of the strata is to the northwest, and in others to the southwest. From the quarries of the Dutch settlement the product is carted to Glasco, Ulster county, a distance of about 6 miles, and is there sold to dealers for flagging and edge stone. The Hallihan’s Hill series of quarries is on the same ledge as the bed of stone extending southwest from the Dutch settlement to the Sawkill creek for a distance of over 2 miles. At the southern end the ledge is quite elevated, but dips to the northwest and descends until it is lost. It is the extreme eastern one of the blue-stone belt, and immediately to the east of it the land descends to the low district extending to the Hudson. The bed worked in this ledge varies in thickness from 4 to 12 feet, and the cap-rock to be removed is from 4 to 30 feet in depth. The entire length of the ledge has been quarried over. The quarries now worked were opened, abandoned, and then reopened; most of them were left on account of the depth of stripping necessary when prices declined several years ago, and are worked now by the men who were unable to leave with their families when wages were low. The Jockey Hill and Dutch Hill line of quarries is southwest of the Halliban’s Hill quarries and forms one continuous opening, and nearly the whole surface of the ledge has been quarried over. The strata are from 2 to 3 feet thick, and the quarry beds are separated by strata of hard blue-stone which breaks and splits irregularly. The joints are vertical, and the north and south system is very regular and continuous; the east and west system is less regular and not continuous. Excepting for its quarry stone this district is almost valueless; its surface is very uneven and broken, and covered with forest trees. The stone from this district, as well as from the Hallihan’s Hill quarries, is carted to Wilbur, a distance of from 7 to 9 miles. The bed dimensions of the largest blocks obtained from these quarries are 20 by 15 feet, but the possible dimensions of blocks from the quarries are claimed to be 60 by 18 feet. Each quarry has from two to ten quarrymen, very few of whom are employed for wages. The Stony Hollow group is near the Ulster and Delaware railroad, and is the last group on the belt passing from northeast to southwest through Kingston township. The quarries are small, and some of them are on old abandoned sites. The product is taken to Wilbur on wagons, a distance of 6 or 7 miles. The quarries of Hurley township are in four principal groups. The Bristol Hill quarries are west of Stony Hollow on the southwest extension of the Stony Hollow line. on both sides of the Ulster and Delaware railroad, but the stone is taken by wagons to Wilbur, a distance of 7 or 8 miles. A large space has been quarried over in the thirty or more years in which the quarries have been worked, and the quarries are at present doing quite an extensive business. An excellent quality of stone, applicable to the finest kinds of work for which the North River blue-stone is used, is obtained here. The West Hurley quarries proper are northwest of Bristol hill, in a noted quarry center, where blue-stone has been taken out for forty years. The area worked over is large. The stone found here is remarkable for its evenness of stratification and regularity of jointing. The joint systems are at right angles to each other, the one running northwest being open and continuous, but the one to the northeast is less regular and interrupted in places. Some of the largest quarries of the blue-stone district are in this region. There is generally a lack of capital, and therefore a loss in efficient working. ‘These quarries are on the line of the Ulster and Delaware railroad, but the rates of transportation by railway are so high that the stone is drawn on wagons a distance of 9 miles to the canal at Wilbur. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 133 The Morgan Hill quarries are on the line running southwest from Stony hollow and Bristol hill. They are six in number, all of them quite small, and others in the same range have been abandoned. The locality known as Steenykill marks the southwestern limit of the main Hudson River blue-stone belt, which exhibits the same characteristic features throughout from Quarryville to the Esopus creek, in Marbletown township. Some small openings have been made in the formation just southwest of this creek. ; The quarries to the northwest of this belt are, as already stated, in a higher formation. The West Saugerties range of quarries is west of Quarryville and near the foot of the Catskill mountains. Its structure resembles that of the Quarryville ranges, except that the layers are usually thicker. The principal joint system runs north 40° east, and the strata dip slightly toward the southwest. The overlying beds are shale and slate with interstratified beds of rough stone unfit for flagging or edge stuff. The West Saugerties stone has a medium grain and the characteristic color of the North River blue-stone. All the stone is carted to Malden, 8 miles distant, and here the heavier stone is manufactured for various architectural uses. It is quite soft and works easier than much of the North River blue-stone. In the Highwoods quarries the aggregate thickness of the quarry beds is from 4 to 10 feet, and the stripping varies from 4 to 23 feet. Heavy stones are also obtained here, and are cut into sills, caps, and other edge stuff at the yards at Saugerties, 8 miles from the quarries, and at Glasco, from 4 to 6 miles away. At one quarry the layers are from 20 inches to 3 feet in thickness, and a block now exposed is 220 feet long, 26 feet wide, and 1 foot thick. Blocks 25 by 15 feet by 1 foot have been taken from this quarry. The quarries in the vicinity of Woodstock are on the southern foot of the Catskill mountains, and 1,000 feet above the Hudson river. The strata dip to the northwest, and in some of the quarries the bedding and jointing are somewhat irregular. The layers are usually from 2 to 10 feet thick; the aggregate thickness of the beds is about 20 feet; the stripping is mainly slate, and usually heavy. The product is carted to Saugerties, 11 miles distant, except from the quarries of Messrs. Elting & Maxwell and P. H. Lapo; these two quarries are northwest of Woodstock; the latter is farthest in the mountains, 1 mile northwest of Cooper’s lake, aud several hundred feet above it. The product of these quarries is carted to Malden, from 16 to 17 miles distant, and is used almost exclusively for cut work. The Shandaken quarries are in a locality known as Fox hollow, a short distance from the Ulster and Delaware railroad, by which the product is shipped to Rondout, and thence by river to New York city. This stone has a gray color; the layers are from 10 to 12 inches in thickness, and large-sized blocks are easily obtained, but the material is not so much desired on account of its color as the typical blue-stone. There are only two quarries as yet opened on Woodland creek, and it is quite probable that the entire eastern bank, for a considerable distance, is bordered with ledges of sandstone suitable for building and flagging. The rock is of good quality and works freely. Two distinct grades are obtained; the upper part of the bed worked is of a reddish color and rather coarser in texture than the lower portion, which is grayish in color. The bed dips toward the valley, and as it is worked back into the mountain it rises so that the stripping does not increase rapidly. The bed has been worked to a depth of 18 feet and the bottom is not yet reached. The layers are from 2 to 12 inches in thickness, and increase in thickness with the depth of the quarry. Many of the quarries in the vicinity of Phoenicia have been opened quite recently. The amount of stripping in the Phoenicia quarries is about 20 feet, making the working of the quarries rather expensive, but the excellence of the stone and the large and heavy blocks to be obtained make the quarries profitable. The Ulster and Delaware railroad also furnishes cheap transportation. The quarries near Brodhead are all west of Esopus creek, and from 24 to 4 miles from the station. Nearly all the stone from these quarries is dressed at Brodhead, and thence shipped to market over the Ulster and Delaware railroad. This stone is of good quality, but there is a lack of capital to open workable beds. The ageregate thickness of the beds is from 4 to 11 feet, and the stripping from 4 to 14 feet, and in some places increasing rapidly. As has been indicated, the blue-stone formation is traceable to the southwest from the Hudson River quarries through Rochester and Wawarsing, Ulster county; and occurs in Neversink, Fallsburgh, Mamakating, Thompson, Forestburgh, Lumberland, and Highland townships, Sullivan county; and in Deer Park township, Orange county. The Rochester and Wawarsing quarries are all small openings, and generally worked on leases, along the valleys of Vernoog, Beerkill, and Lackanack creeks, all tributaries to Rondout creck. At the quarries on Vernoog creek the beds dip at an angle of 20° to the north, 60° west, and the average inclination of the strata in this region is 20°. The stone is coarser grained in these quarries than in those nearer the Hudson, but is thought to be equally strong and durable. There are many abandoned openings in this region. Al] these quarries are small, and the workable beds are soon exhausted on account of the steep inclination of the strata. The quarries along Beerkill creek are not now in operation; they were worked quite vigorously for a time to supply Ellenville with stone for sidewalks—a town of about 4,000 inhabitants, which has 14 miles of stone sidewalk. Along the Delaware river the flagging-stone belt is exposed from near Pond Eddy up the stream nearly 25 miles to Lackawaxen, Pike county, Pennsylvania. The principal quarries on the New York side are in the vicinity of Pond Eddy. From one of these two large flags were furnished, each 255 by 154 feet by 7 inches, and their width was limited only by the size of the boats which could go through the locks of the Delaware and Hudson canal. 134 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. These quarries on the Delaware river are noted for their excellent quality of stone. The strata are here again nearly horizontal, and from 1 inch to 1 foot in thickness, and the maximum amount of stripping is 10 feet. The product is mainly taken by canal to New York city. The quarries along the valley from West Brookville, and those along the line of the Monticello railroad, in Mamakating and Forestburgh townships, Sullivan county, are usually small. Their total production has declined greatly within ten years. The West Brookville quarries are on the mountain side, several hundred feet above the canal-level, and all the stone is carted to the canal at West Brookville. Some of this stone has a reddish color, and is said to be stronger than the Ulster County stone; but the market prices are higher for blue-stone, and there is a prejudice against red or gray shades of color. Along the Monticello branch of the Lake Erie and Western railroad there are numbers of small quarries, all of which open into steep side hills, and have a rapidly-increasing amount of stripping. There is a great number of imal openings in this region which have been abandoned. The amount of stripping is always considerable, and the aggregate thickness of the quarry beds is small and the layers are thin. The stone has the color of the Hudson River stone, but it is very hard, and none of it is equal in quality to that obtained in the Hudson River quarries. A new flagging-stone district has been made accessible to the markets by the New York, Ontario, and Western railroad, running across Sullivan and Delaware counties, and stone is being shipped both rd and westward. The hasine SS was insignificant during the census year. In Delaware county the flagging-stone quarries are along the lines of the New York, Ontario, and Western and the Ulster and Delaware railroads. All these quarries are probably in the Catskill group. The quarries at Westfield flats and near Trout Brook and East Branch are near the New York, Ontario, and Western railroad. The stone is a rather coarse grained sandstone or grit of a grayish to a greenish-gray color, thus differing from the darker and finer-grained blue-stone of the Hamilton formation. Various openings have recently been made in this region along this line of railroad. At a quarry near Margaretville the depth of stripping is 8 feet, and the blocks, as limited by the natural joints, are very large. The product is carted to Hartville station, on the Ulster and Delaware railroad, and from there transported by rail to Rondout. A quarry has been opened near Halcottsville. The beds here so far as developed are from 1 inch to 4 inches thick and the depth of stripping is 8 feet. The joints are ve: tical and very regular; the stone is reddish in color and rather coarse grained; blocks 15 by 6 feet have been taken out, and larger sizes might be obtained. The quarries in the vicinity of Roxbury are also near the line of the Ulster and Delaware railroad. Ina quarry about 1 mile from Grand Gorge station, 70 miles from Rondout, the workable beds are 12 feet in thickness and the depth of stripping’is about 30 feet. The stone has a grayish color and is coarse grained. In Otsego county both the Hamilton and the Chemung groups are quarried in a quarry located’on the east side of Otsego lake and about 70 feet above it. The jointing is rectangular, the beds are even, and the depth of stripping is 8 feet. The stone is soft, works easily when first quarried, and hardens on exposure. ‘Where used for steps for a number of years it has not worn smooth, and shows considerable durability. At present this quarry supplies only the local demand for foundations and general building purposes. The quarry at Oneonta supplies the local demand for flagging and cut work. In Chenango county there was formerly quite an extensive quarry industry at Guilford, but at present only one quarry is in operation. The market for this stone is at Syracuse. Blocks of large bed dimensions may be obtained here, but the layers are rather thin. The quarry at Smithville flats is also remarkable for the large size of the © blocks between the joints, and some of the layers are 2 feet in thickness. The aggregate thickness of workable beds is about 12 feet, and the depth of stripping is about 15 feet, but it is mostly loose material and easily removed The stone is shipped principally to New York city for flagging and building purposes; but it has to be drawn on wagons to Greene, 8 miles distant, on the Utica division of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western railroad. In Oneida county the Oneida conglomerate quarried near New Hartford is hard and difficult to dress, and therefore is used only for bridge work and foundations. The quarry at Camden is probably in the Medina sandstone, but the formation has not been well identified. The stone is light gray in color and rather coarse grained; the layers near the surface are thin, and are used for flagging, but they increase in thickness as the quarry is worked downward. The stone is used to supply local demands, and some is shipped to Oswego and neighboring towns. The quarry near Atwater, Cayuga county, is in a good flag-stone stratum, but its distance from the nearest railway station and the depth of cap-rock to be removed prevent its extensive development. The Tompkins County quarries are worked chiefly for flagging. The quarry at Ithaca supplies the local demand, and the one at Trumansburg supplies flagging for the town of Geneva and some for Ithaca. The layers in these quarries are rather thin, but large blocks can be obtained. The quarries at Covert, Seneca county, also furnish flagging, which is at ACOH used mainly at the towns of Geneva, Waterloo, and Auburn. The quarries are located but a short distance from railroad and water transportation. The quarry at Watkins, Schuyler county, is a fine-grained, evenly-bedded blue sandstone. The stone is used | along the line of the North Central railroad for general construction purposes, and it seems to be well adapted for DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. Tao heavy bridge construction. No good building stone is found on this line of railroad either north or south of this point for a considerable distance, and the stone from this quarry is used southward on the railroad as far as Williamsport, Pennsylvania. The Steuben County quarries furnish stone for general building purposes, mainly for local demands. The stone dresses easily, but it is not a safe stone to use, because it is liable to disintegrate. The demand in this county for good stone is supplied from distant quarries, and flagging has been furnished quite largely from Mainsburg, Tioga county, Pennsylvania. The quarry district in the Medina sandstone extends from Brockport, Monroe county, to Lockport, Niagara county. The stone is very hard, and therefore seldom used for cut work. There is a light gray and also a reddish variety, the latter has a bright and pleasant appearance both in dressed and in rock-faced work, and both varieties are sometimes used together with good effect, but the red is used more than the gray for buildings. Most of the stone buildings in Lockport and in Buffalo are of Medina sandstone. Perhaps the most important feature of this stone is its special applicability for street pavements. It was first introduced for this purpose in Cleveland, Ohio, and it is now used in many cities and towns from New York to Kansas City. The blocks are made of the same size and shape as the granite paving blocks ; they do not wear smooth, and are nearly, if not quite, as durable as granite blocks. The stratum of quarry rock is about 30 feet in thickness, and the thickness of the layers varies from 24 to 18 inches, the thinner ones supplying an excellent material for paving sidewalks. The remaining quarries in the state of New York are small and supply local demands. The stone is of an inferior quality, except in the Belfast quarry, Allegany county, where it is of good quality, though so far from any route of transportation that it cannot be worked for anything but local use. MARBLE, TUCKAHOE MARBLE.—The quarries which furnish this are, according to Newberry, in one’of the belts ot dolomite of Archean age which lie to the north of New York city, and cross the country in a north-northeast direction. One of these belts reaches New York island, crossing the Harlem river at Kingsbridge; another crops out on the sound near Rochelle; others strike the river at Hastings, Dobbs Ferry, Sing Sing, and other points, and furnish stones good for construction purposes and of varied colors. The best marbles obtained from these deposits are those of Tuckahoe and Pleasantville. The first is white, rather coarse in texture and regular in quality, and the better grades have been used for some of the finest buildings in the city of New York, notably Saint Patrick’s cathedral. The color changes to light gray by exposure. At the quarry of the Tuckahoe Marble Company the finest grade is nearly a pure white, but this is available only in small quantities, and is used for monumental and ornamental work. In Mr. John F. Masterdon’s quarry this same material is quarried more extensively. Tn composition the stone from these quarries is a dolomite, containing a small amount of iron and some mica. The buildings constructed of the stone from the Tuckahoe Marble Company’s quarry are those of the New York Stock Exchange, New York city, and the Mutual Life Insurance Company at Boston. Those constructed of the material from Mr. Masterdon’s quarry are the New York Life Insurance building, New York city, the city hall, Brooklyn, . New York, and the hotel Vendéme, Boston. At Pleasantville, a few miles north of the Tuckahoe quarries, a coarse, crystalline white marble occurs; formerly this was quite extensively quarried for building purposes. The front of the Union Dime Savings Bank building in New York city is built of this stone. Its structure being quite coarse, it is not well adapted for carved work. It has also been found to break easily, especially when used for long columns; and it would not be a safe stone on this account for all kinds of work. The stone is remarkable for its crystalline appearance, the crystals being usually large and conspicuous, and, from this peculiar appearance, it has received the name /of ‘‘snow-flake” marble. This quarry has recently been furnishing about 25 tons of stone per day for making soda water. At Dover Plains and South Dover are three other marble quarries, the stone from which also shows a coarse structure and is easily broken. A quarry of bluish-gray limestone was opened in November, 1880, at Clinton Point, about 5 miles south of Poughkeepsie. The material that has been extracted has been used for bridge abutments at Newburgh. At Greenport, Columbia county, Mr. F. W. Jones’ quarry is worked on a stratum from 60 to 70 feet in thickness. Blocks of any desired dimensions may be obtained. The stone is employed for general architectural and ornamental uses, principally at Hudson and Troy, New York. » The Presbyterian church at Hudson is constructed of it. It is a nearly pure limestone, containing some protoxide of iron and a little magnesia. The quarry of the Kingsbury Blue Stone Company at Sandy Hill, Washington county, is located on a branch of the Champlain canal and near the railroad of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, and has superior facilities for transporting the material to market both by canal and by railway. The quarry proper covers an area of 40 acres. A face half a mile in length and 30 feet in height is opened. The stone is very nearly a pure limestone, containing a very small amount of iron, a little magnesia, and a little siliceous matter. It was used in the construction of most of the locks upon the Champlain canal and the city dam at Cohoes, and it is now being used for the construction of the ' Harlem bridge for the West Side and Yonkers allevatet aie pak okhy, BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The quarry of Mr. Prince Wing, near Saratoga, has been worked for many years, stone for burning lime having been taken out before 1800. The lime produced from it is very white and of excellent quality. In composition it is almost a pure limestone, containing very little magnesia and some graphite. It is used for general building purposes and for flagging, mainly at Saratoga and Ballston, New York. The quarries at Glens Falls are worked on both sides of the Hudson river, which breaks through the formation at this point. The same formation crops out a short distance east of this place, is crossed by the river, dips under the,overlying formation, and disappears just above the falls. On the south side of the river there are three distinct strata of limestone; the upper one, about 12 feet thick, being overlaid by about 15 feet of rough limestone and some slate. Itis fine-grained and makes a good material for cut work. Below this is a stratum of about 15 feet of the slaty- structured stone, and then a stratum 2 feet in thickness of a coarse crystalline limestone. Below this occurs the valuable black-marble bed, about 12 feet in thickness. From this a large amount of tiling is manufactured. The stone is taken out in large blocks, and is either sawed and rubbed in the mills at the quarry or is shipped in the rough, mainly to the neighboring cities and to New York. The tiling and material for ornamental purposes go ts all the principal cities in the United States. The stone is shipped both on the Champlain canal and the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company railroad. It is a limestone in composition, containing a little magnesia, some iron, and some graphite. None of the products of the lower stratum are allowed to go to waste, though a very large proportion of the material is not suitable for architectural or ornamental work. -A large amount of the marble of the lower bed on both sides of the river is burned in the extensive kilns of the Glens Falls Company, and produces the so-called “ Jointa” lime of remarkable purity. The stone is quarried by blasting, and, therefore, much of it is shattered so as to be fit only for burning. The slaty-mixed limestone of some of the layers and of the stripping was formerly used for flux in the iron furnace at Fort Edward, New York. On the north side of the river, where the quarry of the Glens Falls Company is located, the two upper strata above mentioned do not occur. The formation has here been worked to an average depth of about 30 feet and 60 feet in width for a distance of half a mile eastward from Glens Falls. The next point to the north of Glens Falls where the Trenton limestone is quarried is at the quarry of Mr. Frank Clark, near Crown Point, Essex county. In general appearance and composition this stone resembles that of Glens Falls, but its texture is finer and more brittle. It is used for curbs, trimmings, and various kinds of cut work, principally at fort Henry, Plattsburgh, Saratoga, and Schuylervide. The rock is considerably fractured, and large blocks suitable for sawing cannot be readily obtained. Of the marble and limestone deposits on the west shore of late. Champlain only two localities have been extensively developed, one at Willsborough, Essex county, and the other at Plattsburgh, Clinton county. The quarry of the Lake Champlain Quarry Company is located on the extreme northeast portion of Willsborough point ; it is well equipped and favorably located, the blocks being swung by derricks directly from their beds to the decks of the boats used for transporting the material to market. The stone is, for the most part, a fine-grained, compact, blue limestone, containing fossil remains; the different layers differ slightly in color and texture. Formerly a large amount of this stone was shipped, but during a few years past the demand has been much lighter. It was used in the foundations of the piers of the East River bridge, and in the foundations of the new capitol at Albany. There are several layers worked which are separated by thin seams of clay; large-sized blocks can be obtained, and the stone is worked into all kinds of cut work and can be sawed and rubbed. Some of the layers furnish a fine black marble, which is susceptible of being highly polished, and it is used for various kinds of ornamental work. The rock comes to the surface and no stripping is necessary. The formation dips east of north under the lake. A porphyritic dike crosses the formation from east to west; it is from 12 to 14 feet wide and exceedingly well marked, extending from the shore of the lake until lost beneath the soil beyond the quarry. The quarry of the Burlington Manufacturing Company is located near lake Champlain and not far from Plattsburgh. Large blocks are channeled out and shipped by boat to Burlington, Vermont, where they are sawed, and from the slabs all kinds of ornamental work are produced. Two varieties of limestone occur at this point, and are known in the trade as French-gray and Lepanto marbles. The latter is beautifully variegated with red and gray, and is largely made up of fossil remains, which give a beautiful appearance to a polished surface. The variegated marble is quite extensively used for inside decoration in public buildings, often in connection with white marble. It is shipped, for mantels, tiling, table-tops, and general decorative work, to all parts of the United States. Another marble quarry has recently been opened by this company at fort Henry, Essex county. This marble is composed of a ground mass in which are patches of serpentine, numerous crystals of pyrrhotite about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and some graphite scales. The quarry of the Gouverneur Marble and Whitney Granite Company is situated one mile west of Gouverneur, Lewis county. The limestone is crystalline and lies immediately on the granite; in fact, in some places the granite overlies the limestone. The surface is glaciated and rubbed smooth. It is usually called ‘“¢ Whitney granite”, on account of its close resemblance to several kinds of gray granite when polished or finished with a patent hammer; but it is properly a marble, being, however, too coarse-grained to be finely carved. There is” reason to believe that it will withstand the action of the weather, as head-stones in this immediate vicinity have been standing from 40 to 70 years. In the Riverside cemetery at Gouverneur there are about one hundred of these DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. : 137 old head-stones; they present a good, clean, uniform surface, are very free from moss or any discoloration, and the corners and arrises are sharp and perfect. This marble is easy to work and takes a very fine gloss, and, being dark colored when polished and white when chiseled, any scroll-work or tracing makes a nice contrast. Much of it is finished with a patent hammer, some partly patent-hammered and partly polished, or polished and margined. On account of the thickness of layers in the quarry, dies can be furnished 7 feet high that will stand on their natural bed and be of good uniform color. All dies 18 inches square or over are quarried to stand on their natural bed. Smaller sizes are quarried the other way. The entire limestone formation is marketable stone, and there is no cap-rock to beremoved. The upper portion, which is coarsely crystalline, is used for building purposes. Farther down the grain is finer and the color darker, and inost of this is shipped directly to Cleveland, Ohio, and to New York city, where it is sawed and manufactured. In this locality there are several quarries of the same stone now being opened. An excellent quality of granite is also found here, but as yet has not been worked. Soap-stone is also found in workable quantities, and asbestus appears. A large variety of serpentine is found in this locality, though as yet none has been put into the market. A quarry at the head of Three-Mile bay, Jefferson county, is favorably located for water transportation. The rock is a rather hard, compact limestone, but works quite well for fine cut work. Two varieties, blue and gray, are used. Several quarries have been opened in the same formation at Chaumont, a few miles from the Three-Mile- Bay quarry, and on the Rome and Watertown railway. A quarry at Lowville, Lewis county, in the cliff of Trenton limestone caused by Mill creek cutting across the formation at this point, has a face of nearly 90 feet, which is almost the entire thickness of the blue limestone in this section. It furnishes an excellent building stone, for local demand mainly, and also stone for flagging and curbing. A quarry in a gorge through which the Sugar river passes, at Talcottville, Lewis county, can be worked with the least possible amount of labor and expense. The stream has cut through the ledge and left cliffs of solid stone 30 or more feet in height in an exposure of a quarter of a mile or more. All of this is valuable stone. The top layers are used for lime and the lower ones for building stone. The layers are from 3 to 15 inches thick, and furnish an excellent working stone, making good cut work. Between the layers of stone are thin layers of slate. Marine fossils are found in abundance. Formerly large amounts of stone were sent from this quarry to the towns along the Utica and Black River railroad, but at present the building stones taken out are used in the county. The jointing of the formation at this point is remarkably regular, and the layers of the bed are free and easily separated. No other quarries of any importance are opened in this vicinity. At Canajoharie, Montgomery county, an extensive ledge of Trenton limestone occurs south of the Mohawk river. Quite a variety of stone is obtained in the different layers in the quarry worked at this point. The topmost layer is a hard, rough, somewhat calciferous sand-rock, and below this is a gray rock, gray limestone, etc. The layers vary in thickness from 2 feet downward. Only the gray limestone is dressed, and the sand-rock is used quite largely for foundations; a number of the houses in the town of Canajoharie are built of it. The stone from this quarry is also shipped to Utica and Little Falls; at the former place it was used in the construction of the steam cotton-mills and the Mohawk River Valley mills. Farther down the Mohawk river, at Tribes Hill, the Trenton group is partly cut through, and valuable building stones are obtained on each side of the stream. The quarries here produced in former years much of the stone used in the construction of bridges on the New York Central and Hudson River railroad, and much of that used in building the locks of the Erie canal. The locations of these quarries are. convenient for transportation, those on the north of the river being on the line of the New York Central railroad, and those on the south on the canal banks. The stone is strong, compact, and durable, and is little affected by atmospheric action, though some of the strata which occur here are not valuable for building stone. At the top occurs a shell limestone; below this a stratum of gray limestone about 4 feet in thickness, then a dark blue limestone 7 feet in thickness, then a stratum, about 4 feet in thickness, of rough, hard, flinty sandstone, somewhat calciferous, and below this is the stratum which furnishes the best stone. This last has been worked to a depth of 28 feet, and the bottom has not yet been reached. About 1 mile north of Amsterdam, Montgomery county, there are two distinct strata of stone quarried, differing in color and quality, that of the upper stratum being quite largely burned for lime, and also used for cut work; the lower stratum is more brittle. The layers are from 4 inches to 24 feet in thickness; the weathered portion of the top is burned. Most of the product of thesequarries is used to supply local demands, though some of it has been shipped for use in important structures, including the New York Central Railroad bridge at Albany, the Cohoes dam, and the state capitol. At Sharon Springs, Schoharie county, is a dark-colored, firm limestone, in beds varying in thickness from a few inches to 24 feet. The thin beds are used in the vicinity for paving sidewalks. The stone, though quite hard, dresses easily, and is used for general architectural purposes, though mainly to supply the local demand. This quarry has been worked at intervals for many years past, but during the last eight or nine years it-has been worked ‘but little, though the stone is of superior quality, and might form the basis of an extensive industry with sufficiently - low rates of transportation. 138 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Near Cobleskill the Corniferous formation occurs in strata of cherty limestone, and gray and blue limestone, separated by layers of chert nodules. The stone dresses quite well, and is used for buildings and monumental work. Just south of Howe’s cave there is a high cliff of limestone of the Lower Helderberg formation, in which the quarry of the Howe’s Cave Association is located. The total height of the escarpment above the valley bottom is about 150 feet. The vertical section of the quarry is as follows: Feet Gray stone; used for heavy WOrk -n-2 2 -<-nne n-ne oe ss eet bmewiheh ag bee we Fens weer scieepe e ule aa! sae cae an pee 15 Gray and black stone mixed, used for ballast ....-.-- 2... 222s ee cwee oon one ene ne re wens beeen noe nes ence sees 12 Blue limestone—building stone.-....---..--. iow 6 Ciba. 6 Sam hie famaietm ale wiele im etaiel = tele a eral etare e itonnte te Ratt sole) siete felt ee 10 Shaly be@s, used'for ballast... 275.021. 552. co2 ee ook e tence eee une ane wee secceinr a -ECeein ses sises nice ss eee eeeen 10 Blue limestone—building stoners se co lece case paces ot sca tombe elsee ease eee ee ae atte soe nom meets) eee 6 The heavy gray limestone is taken out in large blocks and is used chiefly for the construction of bridge abutments. It is not susceptible of being polished and is not well adapted to fine work. The blue limestone dresses well, and the material readily finds market along the line of the Albany and Susquehanna railroad. A considerable quarry industry has been built up at this point, owing to the excellence of the stone, especially for heavy masonry, and to the convenience in working the quarry due to the slight amount of cap-rock to be removed, the height of quarry face, and natural drainage. There is also an advantage gained from the fact that the material which, for one cause or another, is not suitable for building stone is broken up and used for railroad ballast. The Onondaga limestone occurs in beds from 1 foot to 24 feet in thickness. One mile north of the village of Springfield Center, Otsego county, on the west side of the outlet of Summit lake, the quarry of Messrs. McCabe & Brothers is located. The top of the limestone is polished and grooved by glacial action, and is covered by from 15 to 30 feet of glacial drift. This covering of clayey and calcareous drift has protected the stone against atmospheric influences, and no discoloration has taken place. The rock has a bluish color, which on exposure becomes somewhat lighter. The massive character of the stone makes it suitable for heavy work, and it also seems to possess the properties of strength and durability; however, no examples are known where the stone has been exposed for a very long time to test its power of endurance. Several buildings have been constructed of it, including the Otsego County jail, and the hotel Fenimore, at Cooperstown. In Onondaga county the Onondaga limestone was formerly quite extensively quarried, during the period of the rapid development of the country. The quarries at Onondaga are within the Indian reservation, and furnish an excellent quality of stone; but the amount of cap-rock to be removed is considerable, being from 16 to 18 feet, and the lack of facilities for transportation prevents an extensive quarry industry. The stone is used fur buildings and monuments chiefly at Binghamton and at Syracuse; in the latter place the university building, the court-house, and Saint Mary’s church are built of this stone. The quarries at Fair Mount and Manlius were first opened to obtain stone for locks on the Erie canal. In this vicinity there were formerly also a greater number of quarries than at present, and the demand for the stone is still gradually diminishing. The beds are not so heavy as those at Onondaga; they are here from 8 to 12 inches thick, and at Onondaga some layers are 4 feet in thickness. Fine exposures of the Tully limestone also occur in some localities, but it is not found in places where facilities for transportation are afforded, and has therefore not been at all developed. The quarries at Auburn, Cayuga county, supply the local demand for general construction purposes, and some - of the gray limestone from the quarry of Mr. John Bennett has been used for monuments. Some quarries are also worked in the vicinity of Auburn for stone used in macadamizing roads, and some for lime. The rock is nearly a pure limestone, containing a little magnesia and iron. At Union Springs the Seneca blue limestone is quarried principally for railroad work along the line of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western railroad. The stone is suitable for bridge construction and other heavy masonry in which undressed stone may be used, the beds being even, some of them 20 inches in thickness, and the blocks being readily broken out in rectangular shapes. This limestone contains little magnesia, some graphite, and some protoxide of iron. A favorable development of the Onondaga limestone occurs at Waterloo, Seneca county, on the Erie canal. The quarries at this point were opened when the canal was built, and have been worked more or less ever since. The stripping is from 5 to 8 feet, and the limestone has been ace out to a depth of from 18 to 22 feet. The stone is used chiefly at Rbanester for general construction purposes. At Rochester the Niagara limestone occurs in broken strata and is quarried for rough foundations. The stone is easily accessible, being covered with only 2 feet of loose material, and conveniently supplies the local demand for foundation stone. At Le Roy, Genesee county, the Onondaga limestone is quarried for the Elnira market, chiefly for foundations and for bridge work on the Erie and State Line railroad. The stone is too hard to dress, and is used only for rough masonry. Some stone has also been quarried in this vicinity for blast-furnace flux. At Lockport, Niagara county, the Niagara limestone has been quite extensively quarried for many years for general construction purposes, and the stone has been shipped to New York, Buffalo, and Rochester. In some years the value of the product sold has reached $400,000, but the demand for this stone has diminished in the last — few years. The quarry is favorably located for transportation both by canal and by railroad. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 139 The corniferous limestone crops out quite extensively in the vicinity of Buffalo and within the city limits. The quarries at Williamsville, about 10 miles northeast of Buffalo, are worked tor the Buffalo market, producing material for ordinary purposes of construction, and some stone suitable for sawing and polishing, which is manufactured for ornamental purposes, principally table-tops and mantels. The Buffalo quarries supply most of the stone for rough masonry, such as cellar walls, foundations, cribs, piers, and general railroad work in the vicinity of Buffalo. It is not adapted to cut work. A number of quarries which do not appear in the tables are worked at intervals in this vicinity. The deepest of the quarries have been excavated about 30 feet in depth, and several acres in area have been taken out. A considerable amount of lime is manufactured in the quarries of the corniferous limestone in Erie county. The rock is nearly pure limestone, containing small quantities of magnesia and iron, and very little siliceous matter. NEW JERSEY. [Compiled mainly from notes by Professors Cook and Smock. ] ARCHAAN GRANITE, GNEISS, AND MARBLE. The gneisses make up the great mass of the Archean outcrop. The areas of granite and of crystalline limestone are comparatively small, and are confined to the highlands in the northern part of the state, in Sussex, Warren, Morris, Hunterdon, Passaic, and Bergen counties. The Morris canal, the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, the Central New York, the Susquehanna and Western, the New York and Greenwood Lake, the Belvidere Delaware, and the Sussex railroads all traverse the district. The New York, Lake Erie, and Western and the new Lehigh and Hudson railroads also run close to outcrops of these Archean rocks. The facilities for easy transportation to large cities and towns are good. : The beds of gneiss are in many places very regular, and the stone is generally free from pyrite, magnetite, or _ other injurious constituents; but care is necessary to avoid these minerals, as they are found widely distributed. Granite is not common, except in small masses, and the outcrops are too limited for quarrying. LOCALITIES WHERE GRANITE QUARRIES HAVE BEEN OPENED. . Near Franklin Furnace, Sussex county. Geology of New Jersey, p. 503. Port Murray, Warren county. Geology of New Jersey, p. 503. . Dover, Morris county. Geology of New Jersey, p. 502. loomingdale, Passaic county. An. Rept., 1873, pp. 99, 100. . Near Charlotteburg (granite), Passaic county. An. Rept., 1873, p. 100. om oo bo MARBLES. 1. Warren Marble quarry, Warren county. An. Rept., 1872, p. 26. 2. Marble mountain, Warren county. Az. Rept., p. 28. 3. Rose Crystal Marble quarry, Warren county. An. Repts., 1872, p. 27; 1881, p. 42. A white limestone has been quarried near Stanhope, in Sussex county, but without much success, as the mass appears to be traversed by seams. REFERENCES TO GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF GNEISS LIMESTONE.—Geology of New Jersey, 1868, pp. 64, 312, 316, 319, 321, 502; An. Rept. for 1873, p. 101; ibid., for 1881, pp. 41,42; ibid., for 1879, p. 104 (Mendham limestone). The only locality in New Jersey where gneiss has been quarried uninterruptedly for any considerable period is at Dover, Morris county, on the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western railroad. The material is quarried for bridge construction and general work for the railroad company’s use exclusively. Quarries in the other gneissic-rock localities in the state have all been abandoned after short periods of working. The convenient location at the side of the railroad track, the very light stripping, the facility with which the stone can be quarried, and its excellence as durable and solid stone for heavy work make this quarry a profitable one. The direction of the outcrop is northeast, and it is cut by the new High Bridge railroad a few rods from this quarry. The New Jersey Central Railroad Company proposes to open a quarry near the railroad in the same hill. With the two lines of railroad and the Morris canal, all crossing the ledges, the transportation facilities are unsurpassed. The great amount of stone which can be obtained in the clearing of ground for agricultural purposes in this neighborhood and in northern New Jersey generally has retarded the development of quarries in the gneissic rocks of this part of the state. As the country becomes more cleared and the land more valuable, these sources of supply are gradually restricted and other quarries similar to the Dover quarry will be developed. or ordinary foundation work and for cellar walls, bridges, wharves, and work of that class, the supply is inexhaustible, and stone can be furnished at comparatively low rates. The use of the gneissic rocks of New Jersey is increasing, as they are excellently adapted from their strength and durability to many purposes. 140 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. POTSDAM SANDSTONE AND GREEN POND MOUNTAIN CONGLOMERATE. The sandstone considered of Potsdam age occurs in narrow outcrops bordering at intervals the gneisses. For localities see Geology of New Jersey, pp. 71-79. A little less has been quarried at (1) Franklin Furnace, Sussex county ; (2) Danville, Warren county; (3) Oxford Furnace, Warren county; and (4) in the Pohatcong valley, near Washington, Warren county. The sandstone of the Green Pond mountain belt (of Potsdam horizon) has been quarried on Kanouse mountain (near) 1, Newfoundland, Passaic county ; (near) 2, McCainsville, Morris county. REFERENCES ADDITIONAL TO ABOVE.—Geology of New Jersey, pp. 503, 504; An. Rept., 1872, pp. 28, 29; ibid., 1881, p. 42. | The Green Pond mountain conglomerate has been used with good effect at Morristown and at Boonton, but the bowlders of the country around the towns have furnished an adequate supply. The same stone can be obtained at many places in Morris and Passaic counties. It can be had in blocks of any size capable of easy handling. The stone is very hard and solid, and free from all minerals other than quartz; and the sharp, angular edges and numberless glacier-polished bowlders which have been exposed to the weather for ages attest its ability to resist atmospheric agencies; but it is not easy to dress on account of its excessive hardness. The quarries in this formation were not in operation during 1880. MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. This rock is the predominating limestone of the state, and is found in Hunterdon, Warren, Sussex, Morris, and Somerset counties. For the localities see Geology of New Jersey, pp. 9-130; alsomap. It has been opened at many points for stone to be used in lime manufacture. For building purposes the localities in which this stone is found are numerous, particularly in Sussex and Warren counties; and it is in general use in these counties, and in parts of the adjoining counties of Hunterdon, Somerset, and Passaic, for building foundations, and for buildings of all kinds. For heavy bridge work it is used largely. The railroad and canal companies use a great deal of it in heavy ” construction. (See Geology of New Jersey, pp. 513, 514 and 392-396; An. Rept. for 1873, pp. 100, 101; ibid., 1881, p. 41; also schedule of Newton limestone.) [or analyses see above references and An. Kepts., 1875, p. 36; 1876, p. 55; 1878, p. 104. HUDSON RIVER SLATE. This rock yields the roofing slates. The principal quarries are: (1) La Fayette, Sussex county; (2) Newton, Sussex county; (3) Delaware Water Gap, Warren county. REFERENCES.— Geology of New Jersey, pp. 135-145 and 518-520; an. Rept. for 1872, pp. 29, 30. The flagging stone of Flag-stone hill, Wantage township, Sussex county, belongs to this geological horizon. Geology of New Jersey, 1868, p. 522: Flag-stone; An. Rept., 1851, pp. 64-66. The only quarries of roofing slate in New Jersey that were operated to any considerable extent in 1880 are- those near La Fayette, Sussex county. They are within a mile of the Sussex railroad, and but little farther from the new line of the New York, Susquehanna, and Western railroad. These quarries dip to the northwest. The geological horizon is that of the Hudson River slate. The reputation of the La Fayette slate is good; the color is usually a blue-black. ONEIDA CONGLOMERATE AND MEDINA SANDSTONE. These rocks constitute the mass of the summit and western slope of the Kittatinny or Blue mountain, stretching from the Delaware Water Gap to the New York state line. They have not been opened by any regular quarries, although the outcrops are many and the stone of the conglomerate formation is solid and durable, and can: be had in quite regular beds. The sandstone is, in most places, too slaty and shaly in structure to make a good building material. The only quarry or opening worthy the name is in Sussex county, and in Montague township, where the red stone is got out in thin beds of large size; but it isnot near transportation. (Geology of New Jersey, 1868, pp. 146, 149, 513.) LOWER HELDERBERG LIMESTONE GROUP. The rocks of this group are found in place in a narrow belt in the valley of the Delaware from near Port Jervis to the Nalpack bend, and are confined to Sussex county alone. They are quarried extensively for lime manufacture, but not for building, except a little which goes to Port Jervis and the adjacent country. The quarries are in Montague township, Sussex county. UPPER HELDERBERG GROUP—ONONDAGA AND CORNIFEROUS LIMESTONES. The above-mentioned belt in Sussex county is bordered on the west and northwest by the very narrow belt of Oriskany sandstone and Cauda-galli grit (both unfit for building material), and these latter are followed by the Onondaga and Corniferous limestones in a very narrow outcrop bordering the alluvial plain of the Delaware river. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 141 They have yielded considerable stone for this part of the Delaware valley, which is used for bridge piers, abutments, dwellings, etc., but there are no large and regularly-worked quarries. The outcrops are many, and no excavation is generally necessary to meet the occasional demands of the valley. REFERENCES.— Geology of New Jersey, 1868, pp. 165, 166, 514. TRIASSIC AGE—SANDSTONE, FREESTONE, AND BROWNSTONE. The most noted quarries in the state and some of the largest in the country are opened in the sandstones of the Triassic age. The formation occupies a broad belt of the state, ranning from the New York line southwest to the Delaware river. Its boundaries are shown by the geological maps of the state. For general descriptions of its rocks, see Geology of New Jersey, 1868, pp. 206-225; also An. Rept. for 1879, pp. 18-35. The Little Falls, Paterson, Belleville, and Newark quarries are the most celebrated of any on the eastern side of the state. In the central part of the belt there are quarries in Washington valley (north of Plainfield), at Martinsville and Princeton. Along the Delaware river there are large quarries at Greensburg, 4 miles above Trenton, and farther up the river valley at Stockton and Prallsville. The localities where quarries have been opened are given in the Annual Report of the New Jersey Geological Survey for 1879, pp. 21,25. There are other places where stone has been quarried, but the above list includes those which have been worked for sale of stone. The principal building stone in Newark, Paterson, Orange, Elizabeth, and New Brunswick comes from the Belleville and Newark quarries. They furnish a large quantity of very superior building stone to New York city. The new Mills building in that city is one of their monuments. ‘Trinity church, New York, represents Little Falls. In beauty of shade, solidity, and durability the selected stones from the Little Falls, Beileville, and Newark quarries are unsurpassed. It is not superfluous to add that the stone of these quarries is the best of the New Jersey sandstones or freestones. It is not so micaceous as many other sandstones, and has not their laminated structure ; hence for ornamental work it is well adapted. The absence of bedding lines admits of less care in laying it up. Some horizons are more argillaceous, and so-called ‘clay-holes” are observed in them. The Belleville quarries are at North Belleville, and on the right, or west, bank of the Passaic river. They are located on a nearly north and south line, and are about 100 yards distant from the river front, which affords wharfage room for vessels of moderate size, as the tide comes up to this point. The railroad line (Newark and Paterson branch of the New York, Lake Erie, and Western railroad) runs nearly parallel with the river and about a quarter of a mile west of the quarries. There are three different openings. The following are some of the principal buildings in which this material has been used: Fort La Fayette, New York harbor; Stevens’ house, Fifth avenue and Fifty-seventh street; Ruppert’s house, Fifth avenue and Ninety-third street; building corner of Madison avenue and Twenty-eighth street; the Mills building, on Broad street, and A. T. Stewart’s buildings, New York city. There is considerable variation of the strata in the different parts of the quarry. In the southernmost of these quarries the glacial drift is 20 feet thick; then there is a thickness of 30 feet of red, fine-grained sandstone, most of which is of inferior quality, and the best of it is only fit for foundations, cellar walls, ete. Under this thickness comes next a coarse-grained, thickly-bedded, reddish-gray sandstone; beneath the latter is a fine-grained red sandstone, which can be rubbed and polished. The reddish-gray stone is equally durable, and looks well, but it cannot be rubbed. The former brings $1, the latter $1 50 per cubic foot. Explosives are used mostly for throwing down the top stone. Canisters or conical charges of black powder are always employed in working off blocks of the best and most valuable stone. There are disadvantages of considerable stripping. Working in the direction of the dip, water must be pumped out, as all of the quarries are below tide-level in the deepest points, one of them being 35 feet below the Passaic River level (tide). Near Avondale station, Belleville, is a quarry of this material which was opened about the time of the Revolution. The principal markets now are Newark, New York, and Brooklyn. The ledge here extends S. 5° W., the strata being vertical. At the west end of the quarry there is a fine-grained chocolate-colored stone at the top, under several feet of stripping. The light-colored stone is a coarse, granular mixture of quartz and feldspar. The shade of color is very pleasing and the stone is solid, occurring in thick beds. It was used in the construction of the Presbyterian church, Fifth avenue and: Fifty-fifth street, New York city, and of various bank buildings in Newark. In one of these quarries the total area of the opening is at least 5 acres, being about 500 feet square. The vertical section on the northwest includes 60 feet of stripping, of which one bed 3 feet thick can be used for cutting ‘into stone for foundations and cellar walls. Then there are 20 feet of the thick and solid beds of grayish, coarse-grained stone at top, and fine red stone used for rubbing at the bottom; underneath the latter there is an excavation 14 feet into a shaly rock. These varieties are sometimes designated ‘No. 1” and ‘No. 2” stone, respectively. On the south side of the quarry there are only 20 feet of stripping, and then comes solid stone. A fault traverses this quarry in a north and south direction, displacing the beds to the extent of 4or 5 feet. Its plane dips 65° to 70° west. This fault also appears in one of the neighboring quarries. ’ On the south side of Bloomfield avenue, Newark, is located one of the principal quarries. The opening is at least 400 feet long from north to south, and the quarry progresses west and northwest in the line of the dip. The 142 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY.. ° stripping consists of earth and shaly rock, and varies in thickness from 10 to 30 feet. The dip is very uniformly in a west-northwest direction and at a slightangle. The joints show no apparent system. On the west the vertical section is approximately as follows, beginning at the top: ; . Feet 1, Glacial drift... 2.023. Se cose oe ste ntebiss = nininicc e dese woo sadelcene mes ekrue oaliaementarienueerere ates oe ae re eaee 12 2.. Shaly rock so 20s eee es wsweie aeiacin oceews woe erase shecs pales pmeh Hoyos ere sw se rele Gat ie eae ep ven’ ohno=- < § Corry sandstoneséiecn.4 secs Seeee sat ce eae eee ems Berea grit. But so far as the economic value of these different formatious is concerned their identification is of little consequence. The highly valuable deposit of Berea grit in northern Ohio becomes an almost worthless rock within 100 miles east of where it has its maximum development. The Chenango sandstone is usually an ordinary coarse- grained rock, but near Franklin, Venango county, Pennsylvania, it is a uniform, fine-grained sandstone, and is perhaps the most valuable sandstone deposit in western Pennsylvania. The Sharon conglomerate, existing over an extensive territory and locally known by various names, as “second mountain-sand”, and “ Ohio,” “ Garland,” and “‘ Olean conglomerate”, is in some localities a mere mass of quartz pebbles loosely cemented together, and in texture varies from this to a fine-grained blue-black stone. It is quarried near Greenville, Mercer county. CARBONIFEROUS.—AsS before stated, the Carboniferous rocks in western Pennsylvania and the isolated tracts of the same area in the anthracite regions of the northeastern part of the state, have thus far produced scarcely anything but sandstones for building purposes, and the general statement may be made that they were quarried only for local use. These sandstones intervene between the different beds of coal in the Coal-Measure formations, and are often of coarse and conglomeratic texture, though occasionally fine and compact. The anthracite region gets its supply of building stone mostly from the Chemung, Catskill, and other Devonian rocks quarried at Meshoppen and Nicholson, Wyoming county, and at various places in the mountains extending through the region, and the Carboniferous sandstones are but little drawn upon. At Shickshinny, Luzerne county, on the Bloomsburg division of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western railroad, there is a quarry of sandstone of Carboniferous age quarried chiefly for bridge-building and other railroad work on the line of railroad above mentioned. It isa dark gray sandstone of medium texture, evenly and distinctly stratified, evenly bedded, the layers at the top being 2 inches thick, and at a depth of 100 feet 4 to 6 feet thick. The top stone is used for sidewalks at Wilkesbarre and other towns alon g the banks of the Susquehanna river, and at Danville, Scranton, and Lancaster, The jail at Danville is built of this stone, and also the side walls of the Bloomsburg jail. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 163 Progressing northward and westward from the anthracite region we come to the Carboniferous rocks in Tioga -county. At Antrim, in that county, they are quarried for bridge work and general building purposes, and are used chiefly at Corning, New York. An Episcopal church at Antrim, and a court-house at Wellsboro’ are built of this stone. It is light gray, massive, and coarse in texture, evenly bedded, and in thick courses. Much of the material obtained here is almost a purely white sandstone; itis a strong and durable rock, and holds its color well. It presents - the best appearance when used in connection with a dark-colored stone, as is well shown in one of the county buildings at Wellsboro’, the white sandstone structure being trimmed with white Medina sandstone. It works rather hard under the chisel, and its use is thereby greatly limited. There are indications, however, that if the excavation were carried farther into the bank a softer material would be obtained where it has not been so thoroughly drained; or, in the language of the quarrymen, ‘ where it still contains the sap.” Near Somerset, in Somerset county, there is a flag-stone quarried and used locally for sidewalk paving. It is gray in color, of medium texture, irregularly stratified, very evenly bedded in thin layers, and but little jointed. The total thickness of the ledge is not exposed; it is quarried to a depth of 6 feet only, coming out in blocks varying in thickness from 2 or 3 to 10 inches, the average being from 4 to 6 inches. The general shape of natural blocks is exceedingly regular, presenting, however, an apparently ripple-marked surface. The flags are very hard and would be difficult to dress to a smooth surface, but they resist foot-wear exceedingly well. At Johnstown, in Cambria county, the Mahoning sandstone, at the top of the Lower Productive Coal Measures, is quarried for general building purposes and used locally. It is dark gray, massive, medium, but uniform texture. The stratum of quarry rock is about 20 feet in thickness, the courses varying in thickness from 8 to32 inches; there being one 32-inch course near the middle of thestratum. This is the firmest and most uniform in texture, and the most durable material for steps, for which purpose it is largely used. There are thin beds of ferruginous, shaly material between some of the layers. Sometimes this ferruginous material amounts toa thin layer of rich, compact iron ore. The stone itself is ferruginous, and when freshly quarried presents a compact, bluish appearance, flecked through with minute spots of peroxide of iron; and when exposed for a time it changes to a rough reddish-brown color toa depth of 5 or 6 inches. There is alayer about 4 feet in thickness about the center of the ledge. Itis so ferruginous as to render it inapplicable to building purposes. The Homewood sandstone (which is the uppermost of the three subdivisions of the Pottsville conglomerate formation, No. XII, underlying the Coal Measures) of the Pennsylvania geological reports is quarried for bridge construction at Iowa station, Jefferson county, onthe Allegheny Valley railroad, and used on the low-grade division of that road. It is a gray, massive, coarse stone, evenly bedded, and in thick courses. Ordinary stone for foundations, bridge abutments, and work of that class can be obtained almost everywhere along this line of railroad from Driftwood to Red Bank; the best perhaps is found in the immediate vicinity of Brookville. It has been used in this town extensively, but only detached blocks have been quarried. The railroad company does not always obtain stone in the same locality, but moves from place to place according to convenience. At Freeport, Armstrong county, the Mahoning sandstone is quarried for bases and steps, and used along the line of the Pennsylvania railroad from Allegheny to Tyrone. It is gray and light brown in color, irregularly stratified, coarse texture, unevenly bedded, and in courses of medium thickness. This stratum has a much better development farther north, in Clarion county, and it has been quite extensively quarried near Catfish in that county, and near Logansport, Armstrong county. The stone for the construction of the court-house at Kittanning and that for the construction of the new jail at the same place were obtained near Catfish. The texture of the stone differs but little in these two localities, but the color of the Catfish stone is lighter and more uniform than that of the Logansport stone. At these eines the materialis quite free from mica. About 2 miles north of Penn Junction on the Allegheny Valley railroad the full chieh nant feet—of the stratum is exposed ; here the upper and lower portions are quite micaceous, and the middle portion contains very little mica. At the Fieeport quarry mica scales are found in abundance fiom the top to the bottom of the stratum ; here the color of some portions of the rock is brown and other portions light bluish or nearly white. The darker portions have the reputation of being quite durable, but the lighter portions are not so. The stone from Catfish and Logansport wears away rapidly when used for Steps and door-sills, but lasts quite well when merely subjected to atmospheric action. It is easily broken by concussion, but is capable of withstanding considerable pressure.. A quarry near Cowanshannock, a few miles north of Kittanning, has been worked quite extensively from time to time. From this and the Catfish quarries stone has been largely shipped to Allegheny and Pittsburgh. Mahoning sandstone is quarried at Lucesco, the junction of the Allegheny Valley and West Pennsylvania railroads, on the Allegheny river, in Westmoreland county, and used chiefly for cellar walls and foundations for manufacturing establishments at Pittsburgh. It is employed to some extent for caps, sills, and other trimmings; it is gray, irregularly stratified, and of medium texture, evenly bedded and in thick courses, though much broken at the outcrop. The total thickness of the ledge of the quarry is 60 feet, with indications that it will be found thicker as the quarry progresses in the hill. The hill is so steep at this point that the stripping must increase rapidly unless the ledge sets in more heavily to compensate. The material of the upper 40 feet of the ledge is rather coarse in texture; 164 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. with considerable iron in it; that of the lower 20 feet is of a bluish color, close, compact, much finer and more uniform in texture, and proves to be superior to the upper for building purposes. Only the outcrop has as yet been touched, and the ledge presents a broken appearance; but layers 10 feet in thickness are occasionally seen, indicating that as the quarry progresses in the hill the base will not be broken. The Mahoning sandstone is quarried at Derry station, Westmoreland county, on the Pennsylvania railroad, for ordinary building purposes; it is coarse in texture, with signs of stratification distinct, reddish-gray in color; it is used at Greensburgh and other places in Westmoreland county, and at McVeytown. The supply is obtained from large surface bowlders found along the west side of Chestnut Ridge mountain; in this part of the state large surface bowlders of the Mahoning sandstone are found and broken up to obtain material for ordinary building purposes. The stone splits readily into regular blocks, and is variegated in color by alternate different shades of a reddish color parallel with the stratification. Near Derry station, on the Pennsylvania railroad, another ledge of sandstone belonging to the Upper Productive Coal Measures is quarried chiefly for the construction of coke-ovens by the Loyalhanna Coal and Coke Oompany. The stone is gray, massive, uniform, medium in texture, and unevenly bedded in courses varying in thickness from 2 or 3 inches to 3 feet. The total thickness of the ledge quarried is about 19 feet. Large, irregular, detached masses from 6 to 8 feet thick, heterogeneous in composition and useless for building purposes, are frequently found embedded in the other stones; these are locally called “nigger-heads”. The blocks break up with rather irregular fracture, and the stone is not esteemed for any other purpose than the rough work required in the building of coke-ovens, and as these ovens are lined with fire-brick.the stone is not subjected to any great degree of heat. The quarry is situated at the foot and on the west side of the anticlinal axis known as Chestnut ridge; and there is considerable dip of the strata toward the northwest, away from the crest of the mountain. At Greensburgh the sandstone of the Upper Productive Coal-Measure series is quarried to a limited extent for cellar and foundation stone used locally. Itis gray, irregularly stratified, of medium texture, and unevenly bedded. The total thickness of the ledge quarried thus far is 15 feet, though in sinking a well close by the whole thickness of the ledge was found to be 37 feet. The layers as observed in the quarry vary from 3 inches to 2 feet in thickness, and a thin vein of coal lies beneath the ledge of stone. In Webster, near the Monongahela river, in Westmoreland county, a sandstone of the Upper Productive Coal Measures is quarried for paving and used in Pittsburgh. It is gray in color, fine in texture, evenly and distinctly stratified, evenly bedded, and in courses varying from 3 to 16 inches. At Scottdale, Westmoreland county, on the Southwest Pennsylvania railroad, the sandstone of the Upper Productive Goal-Measure series is quarried for the construction of coke-ovens and house foundations locally. It is of a brownish color, regularly stratified, and evenly bedded in courses varying in thickness from 2 to 8 inches. The total thickness of the ledge of the quarry is 44 feet, which thickness seems to continue regularly throughout. From the hardness of this stone and the ease with which it may be taken out for flagging, it seems better adapted to this purpose than to any other. At Layton station, Fayette county, on the Baltimore and Ohio rsilroad, there is a sandstone (between the Upper and Lower Productive Coal Measures) of the Lower Barren Measures quarried and crushed into sand for the manufacture of glass; it has, however, occasionally been used for building purposes. The abutments of the suspension bridge across the Youghiogiieny river at Connellsville, and those of the Saint Clair Street bridge at Pittsburgh, were constructed of this stone. It is light gray in color, of coarse texture, irregularly stratified, evenly bedded, and lies in two courses of 10 feet each in thickness, making the total thickness of the ledge 20 feet. The stone increases somewhat in hardness from top to bottom. This material seems very well adapted to all ordinary building purposes, but it serves so well for glass-sand that so far it has been found more profitable to quarry it for that purpose. ; Three miles southeast of Connellsville, Fayette county, on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, is a sandstone of the Lower Productive Coal Measures also quarried for glass-sand. It very much resembles the material at Layton station, and is of such quality that it might be used for local building purposes. It is easily dressed, and exposures of the ledge which have not been disturbed artificially seem to indicate that the stone is durable. There is no regular division here into layers, the rock being usually found in one mass. The quarry is located on the side of the mountain, and the dip of the stratum is about 15 degrees at the point where quarried. In Connellsville, in the same county, the sandstone of the Barren Measures is quarried for ordinary building purposes and used locally. It is gray, coarse in texture, indistinctly stratified, and evenly bedded in courses varying in thickness from 2 to 3 inches at the top to 12 feet at the bottom of the ledge, the total thickness being about 40 feet. The nraterial of the uppermost 30 feet is of a light brown color, and appears to have a little clay in its composition; it cracks under the effect of water-soaking and freezing, is soft when first quarried, but hardens considerably on exposure. The stone breaks or splits rather easily in almost any direction; wears away rapidly under foot-wear, but seems very well adapted for use in caps, sills, and other trimmings. The color of the lower 8 feet of the ledge is bluish, and the material is variable in texture, full of nodules of iron, and holds a good many fossil coal-plants. * Three miles southeast of Uniontown, on the side of the Chestnut Ridge mountain, surface rocks of Mahoning sandstone are found and broken up for ordinary building purposes, used chiefly at Uniontown. The material is gray, coarse in texture, with signs of irregular stratification. The blocks are sometimes as large as 30 by 20 feet DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 165 and 12 feet in thickness. When the large rocks are first broken the material is comparatively soft and easily worked; but it becomes hard on exposure to the air, and small fragments that have been long exposed to the atmosphere are extremely hard. This stone seen in houses in Uniontown built fifty or sixty years ago exhibits every evidence of durability. Near Waynesburgh, Greene county, sandstone of the Upper Barren (above the Upper Productive Coal) Measures is quarried to a limited extent for building purposes and for bases of monuments and other cemetery work, used locally ; it is gray, massive, and coarse in texture. Thus far only large surface rocks, some of them 30 feet square and 5 feet in thickness, have been quarried. There seems to be no exposure showing a ledge in place; some of the rocks are on top of the hills. It is uniform in color and texture, works well, may be split horizontally and vertically, and takes carving well for a stone of coarse texture, as raised lettering is sometimes worked on monuments of this material; it stands exposure, becoming harder after leaving the quarry. Near West Union, Greene county, on the Waynesburgh and Washington road, sandstone of the Upper Barren Measures is quarried for caps, sills, trimmings, and for ordinary building purposes and cemetery work. It is used at Waynesburgh, and the stone-work in the college building at that place is of this material. It is gray in color, massive, of coarse texture, and is obtained by breaking up surface rocks, which are from 10 to 20 feet square and 5 or 6 feet in thickness. These rocks where exposed are covered with a thin, cement-like crust, on which grows a grayish moss. When the crust is broken the stone beneath is found not to be discolored by weather. Five miles west of Washington court-house, Washington county, on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, sandstone of the Upper Barren Measures is quarried for caps, sills, curbs, steps, and other building purposes, and used locally. It is gray, coarse in texture, with signs of irregular stratification; the stratum is 20 feet thick, and solid, there being no division in the courses and few joints. The stone-work in the Washington and Jefferson College building at Washington, Penusylvania, and that in the town hall at the same place, are of this material. The texture and appearance of this stone are uniform throughout the ledge, and the material is among the best found in the vicinity, though the supply of good building stone in this section of the state does not seem to be either abundant or widely distributed. On the Pittsburgh and Southern railroad, 3 miles east of Washington, Pennsylvania, and on the National pike, about a mile east of that place, there are quarries of sandstone of the Upper Barren Measures, quarried chiefly for foundation stones, caps, sills, and other ordinary building purposes, and used locally. The foundation of Le Moyne’s crematory is of this stone. It is gray, coarse in texture, with signs of irregular stratification, uneven bedding, and in courses from 1 foot to 6 feet in thickness, the thin layers often intervening between thicker ones; and in blasting, the thick layers often divide into four or five thin ones. Near the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Saint Louis railroad, 15 miles north of Canonsburg, Washington county, sandstone, locally called freestone, of the Upper Barren Measures, is quarried for paving and hearth stones; used also for sills in Washington, Mansfield Valley, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The stone-work of the Pennsylvania Reform School building, in Washington county, is of this material. It is gray, uniform, of medium fine texture, evenly and distinctly stratified, and evenly bedded. The total thickness of the ledge in this quarry is about 6 feet; the top layer varies from 8 to 20 inches in thickness, then follow two or three layers each about 2 inches, and next the bottom are layers from 8 to 12 inches in thickness, with thinner ones intervening. The bedding is exceedingly even and regular, the surface of the layers being as smooth as if sawed. For paving and hearth stones no dressing is needed except at the edges. The stone splits straight in the direction of the lamination, and vertically, but is hard to dress. It is a favorite in this region for paving and hearth stones. Near Monongahela City, Washington county, sandstone of the Upper Productive Coal Measures is quarried for ordinary building purposes, and is used chiefly in Pittsburgh and neighboring cities, and in the construction of the Monongahela bridge, Washington county. It is transported by rail and by boat. It is gray, coarse in texture, massive, evenly bedded in courses from 4 to 6 feet thick, and has a good local reputation. On the Ohio river and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railroad, at Stoop’s ferry, Allegheny county, the United States government quarries sandstone of the Lower Barren Measures for building purposes, to be used chiefly at Pittsburgh, and to some extent in the construction of bridges at Rochester and Davis Island dam, Transportation is by boat. It is gray, of medium fine texture, massive, evenly bedded, and in thick layers. This quarry has been opened for many years, and worked in a small way, but never to any great extent until the building of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railroad, many of the bridge abutments and culverts of which are built of this stone. A house standing near this quarry at Stoop’s ferry, built of this pecne forty-two years ago, is still in a good state of preservation. At Walker’s mills, on the Cairo and Saint Louis railroad, 12 miles west of Pittsburgh, Allegheny county, sandstone of the Lower Barren Measures is quarried for railroad-bridge masonry, and used on the divisions of the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and Saint Louis railroad between Pittsburgh and Columbus, and also on the branches running from Pittsburgh to Washington, Pennsylvania, and Wheeling, West Virginia; it is gray, of medium fine texture, irregularly stratified, and unevenly bedded in courses varying in thickness from 18 inches to 5 feet, except the bottom: layer, which is in places 18 feet in thickness; none of them, however, are of a uniform thickness throughout, but vary considerably within short distances. Partings of shale from a few inches to over a foot in thickness often intervene 166 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. between the layers of stone. The lower part of the bottom layer is full of nodules of peroxide of iron, often weighing several pounds each. Coal-plants, known as calamites, are found in the lower portion of the ledge. These quarries are situated on the same ledge (the Morgantown sandstone of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania), as the local quarries in the vicinity of Pittsburgh and Allegheny, and the character and appearance of the stone are the same as those of the stone quarried at the latter place. The total thickness of the ledge is about 80 feet, setting in thicker as the quarries progress in the hill. A thickness of about 30 feet at the top is of a thin, shelly, broken character, suitable for railroad ballast, for which it is extensively used by the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Saint Louis railroad. Beneath this there are 50 feet or more of solid stone, lying in regular layers varying in thickness from 18 inches to 5 feet, except the bottom layer, which is in places 18 feet thick. This sandstone, as well as nearly all of the sandstones in the region immediately surrounding Pittsburgh, has some calcareous matter in its composition, and wherever a face of the ledge of stone has been exposed for a long time it is very much honey-combed into fantastic shapes, apparently by the disappearance of this calcareous matter, leaving the more siliceous portions intact. The stone when first quarried is very sensitive to the action of frost, and quarrymen say it is best to get it out long enough before winter to allow the “‘sap” to dry out. At Mansfield Valley, Allegheny county, also on the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Saint Louis railroad, Morgantown sandstone (near the top of the Lower Barren Measures) is quarried for bridge masonry, and its character is the same as that of the stone from the other quarries on the formation in this region. The Morgantown sandstone is quarried quite extensively in the hills within and near the limits of Pittsburgh and Allegheny, and it is used almost exclusively for cellars, foundations, sewers, and other underground work in those cities and vicinity. While its character is such as to exclude it from other building purposes, it seems to answer quite well for underground work, and supplies nearly all the stone used in the cities named for this class of construction. It is a bluish-gray in color, medium to fine in texture, with signs of irregular stratification, the bedding moderately even, in layers varying in thickness from a few inches at the top to 4 or 5 feet at the bottom of the ledge. Thin partings of shale sometimes rest between the thin layers at the top, especially at the outcrop. The usual thickness of the ledge is about 35 feet, though at Wood’s Run quarry and other places in the neighborhood it reaches a thickness of 100 feet. There is considerable calcareous matter in this stone, and in such a form as to make it liable to decomposition, especially in the smoky and acid atmosphere of Pittsburgh, and at present the inspector of buildings forbids its use for any purpose of construction except underground work. It was, however, frequently used in the construction of important buildings at Pittsburgh ; the court-house was built of it, and the stone in its walls is decomposing so rapidly that it is probable that within a few years a new building must be provided. The material when first quarried presents a substantial appearance, and it was formerly thought that the immense cliffs of it which were projecting gut of the hills everywhere in the vicinity would furnish an inexhaustible supply of building stone of superior quality for all purposes of construction, and many important buildings were constructed of it before the error was discovered. At Baden, situated on the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad and on the Ohio river, in Beaver county, sandstone of the Lower Barren Measures is quarried for foundations and other ordinary building purposes, and is used in Pittsburgh, Brownsville, Greensburgh, and vicinity. It was used in the construction of the post office at Pittsburgh. It is gray, massive, coarse in texture, evenly bedded, in three courses, 8 inches, 8 feet, and 7 feet, respectively, and is considerably broken by irregular joints. It was operated for the two years expiring in August, 1880, by the United States government for stone used in the construction of Davis Island dam. At Kiasola station, on the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railroad, in Beaver county, sandstone of the Lower Productive Coal Measures is quarried for ordinary building purposes, and is used in Pittsburgh. The bridge masonry and canal locks in the vicinity are constructed of this material. It is gray in color, of coarse texture, massive, and evenly bedded in thick courses. Near Beaver Falls, Beaver county, on the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad, 30 miles northwest of Pittsburgh, sandstone of the Lower Productive Coal Measures is quarried for steps, fronts, curbstones, trimmings, monuments and other cemetery work, fences and walls, and is used in Pittsburgh and vicinity. It was used in the construction of Hostetter’s stone front on Fourth avenue, Pittsburgh, and in important buildings in that city. It is gray in color, rather coarse in texture, with signs of irregular stratification, is evenly bedded in layers varying from 6 inches to 5 feet in thickness, with thin shale sometimes between. This is a strong and durable stone, and surface blocks which have slipped from the ledge, and which have been exposed for ages, indicate that it stands exposure well. The quarry is on the crest of a hill 300 feet above the Big Beaver, which flows half a mile from its base and discharges into the Ohio 5 miles distant. The following is a slight description of a section of this quarry: The top layer is a material of uniform color, red when quarried, taking its color from the red iron ore immediately overlying the quarry. A thin bed of shale intervening between each two strata facilitates the working of the rock; between the first and second layers are some thin beds varying from 6 inches to afoot in thickness. No. 2 isa very fine, close-grained, white stone, occasionally of a buff or straw color. It is reported to be the best in the quarry, and ranks well with the different stones used in Pittsburgh for building or cemetery purposes. The supply from this bed is not sufficient for the demand. No. 3 is a hard, heavy, fine stone, always brown in color, except along the cleavage, where it is white. No. 4 is usually a straw or buff color, strong and fine in texture. No. 5 is softest, DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 167 sawing well, and variegated in color so as to be objectionable for rubble work ; intervening is a thin bed of shale of bluish color, under which lies No. 6, resting on a coal bed. No. 6 is blue in color, except the sap coloring, which is buff, penetrating from 1 foot to 2 feet. Nos. 5 and 6 sometimes come together, forming one course. Nos. 3 and 4 sometimes contain “nigger-heads” weighing occasionally from 10 to 20 tons. They are blasted out and thrown over thedump. The lower (No.6) contains fossil coal-plants; in the other rocks the fossils are silicified. Between Nos. 1 and 2 there are fossils of stigmaria quite perfect and entire, and the joints are frequently filled with stalactites. ‘There is a slight dip from northwest to southeast. At Homewood, Beaver county, sandstone of the Lower Productive Coal Measures is quarried for ordinary building purposes and bridge construction, and is used chiefly at Pittsburgh. It varies from a gray to a brown in color, is coarse in texture, shows signs of irregular stratification, and is unevenly bedded in thick courses ; it ranks among the best building stones in the western part of Pennsylvania. Near Wampum, Lawrence county, Homewood conglomerate of the Lower Productive Coal Measures is quarried for bridge construction on the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railroad. It is gray in color, coarse in texture, massive, evenly bedded, and in thick courses. The Homewood sandstone, which is the upper stratum of the Conglomerate Measures, furnishes most of the building stone quarried in Lawrence county. It is usually a coarse-grained, white or grayish- Shite sandstone, but in some localities it is colored brownish-red by peroxide of iron. Other strata, especially the Conoquenessing sandstone, are quarried now and then to some extent in different localities. The quarries near Wampum are operated by stone-work contractors on different lines of railroad passing through the place. At Sharon, Mercer county, the Homewood sandstone of the Lower Productive Coal Measures is quarried for bridge construction and foundations; it is gray, massive, and unevenly bedded in layers not usually exceeding 3 feet in thickness. Several members of the group near the lower limits of the Carboniferous rocks, known in the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania as the Conglomerate Measures, crop out in the vicinity of Sharon. Different strata of sandstone in this series, and the Chenango sandstone in the Lower Conglomerate, have been quarried for building stone in this locality, but none of superior quality has been produced. The stone from the quarries now operated is a hard, coarse-grained sandstone that is seldom dressed; it seems to be quite durable, however, and is perhaps the most economical material to be obtained in Sharon for cellar walls and foundations, and blocks as large as are ordinarily desired for bridge work can be obtained in some of the quarries. Since the Erie and Pittsburgh canal was abandoned its stone locks have furnished a large amount of cheap and usually quite good building stone to the section of country through which the canal passed, and particularly from Newcastle north. Some of the quarries from which stone for these locks was obtained have been worked but little since the building of the locks, though when the supply from these is exhausted some of the quarries will doubtless be worked again. Sandstone can be obtained almost everywhere in Mercer county, but it is not all good building stone; the localities that do furnish good building stone are but a few miles apart. About 40,000 cubic feet of stone have been quarried for the foundation of the new county infirmary at Mercer. The rock was obtained from quarries located within a radius of 4 miles surrounding the town. The Sharon conglomerate is quarried near Greenville and Chenango, in Mercer county, for flagging, and is used locally. It is gray, fine in texture, has signs of even and distinct stratification, and is evenly bedded in layers usually not exceeding 8 inches in thickness. This formation has bere a peculiar development; the stratum is about 12 feet in thickness, and not solid as usual, but in courses from i inch to 9 and sometimes 12 inches in thickness. The rock is a blue, fine-grained sandstone; in some places where it has been thoroughly drained, and the particles of iron have been thoroughly oxidized, it has a gray or buff color; it is an excellent paving material, and is shipped to various points in western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio for paving sidewalks, and is used almost exclusively for this purpose in the town ot Greenville in the first- named state. Sometimes the heavier courses occur in the upper portion of the stratum; the iron in them has been peroxidized, and the stone is used to quite an extent for lintels and water-tables. The natural blocks are seldom rectangular, and there is considerable material broken off in shaping up the blocks. Most of this stone, however, finds a ready sale for building foundations, At Stoneboro’, Mercer county, the Homewood sandstone (top member of the Pottsville conglomerate) is quarried for foundation and bridge construction. It is gray and light brown in color, coarse in texture, massive, unevenly bedded in layers from 1 foot to 4 feet in thickness, and is used chiefly in the vicinity. The stratum of quarry rock is about 20 feet in thickness; it is very much fissured, and the natural blocks are variously shaped, though easily reduced to any required form. At Rockwood, near Oil City, Venango county, detached blocks of the Conoquenessing sandstone (the middle member of the Pottsville conglomerate) are quarried for bridge construction. The stone is gray, coarse in texture, massive, evenly bedded, and in thick layers where found in place. In Report 2*, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, p. 57, Professor White describes a honey-comb rock found in Crawford county, and near Franklin, in Venango county, id thinks the blocks found in these different localities have come from the same bed, possibly the Conoquenessing sandstone. Some of the blocks at Rockwood show that the lower portion of re stratum from which they were detached has the same peculiar structure, and is probably the same bed. At Garland, Warren county, detached blocks of the Sharon conglomerate (bottom member of the Pottsville conglomerate) are quarried for bridge construction in the vicinity, and on the. Pennsylvania and Erie railroad. 168 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The stone is gray, coarse in texture, massive, evenly bedded, and in thick courses where found in place. The principal quarries are located about 400 feet above the level of the Pennsylvania and Erie railroad. The stone is lowered from the quarry to the railroad on a small car running on an inclined track; two cars are used, connected by a cable passing arounda drum. The stratum from which the blocks are quarried, as detached, caps the hill about 100 feet above the level of the quarry. The blocks referred to vary in size from the smallest to blocks containing several thousand cubic yards. Most of the building stone that has been used in this part of western Pennsylvania was obtained from such blocks, and from long exposure the material from them is almost” universally very hard and difficult to dress; but since it can be obtained without stripping, it is cheaper on the whole than the softer material which might be obtained by stripping the stratum from which the blocks are detached. It is also less expensive, because, the blocks being already detached, a part of the usual work of quarrying is saved. It is difficult, however, to obtain a large amount of this kind of stone of uniform color; a more uniform stone can usually be obtained from the undisturbed stratum. This variegated coloring is due probably to the unequal effects of exposure on different portions of the surface blocks in the oxidizing of the iron in the composition of the stone, and to the unequal effects of exposure on other ingredients of the rock. Other localities worthy of special notice where building ‘stone has been obtained in this vicinity are near Sinnamahoning, in the southeastern part of Cameron county, and near Ridgway, in the western part of Elk county. — The amount of capital invested is small, considering the real extent of the business in this part of the state. Most of the stone quarried is taken out by builders and contractors, and is used chiefly for foundations and bridge . construction, the only considerations being cheapness and durability. Detached blocks are found almost everywhere in the ridge except in Erie county. As these detached blocks have been exposed to atmospheric action for ages it is seen at a glance whether the material is durable; and if it splits ‘well it is-quarried, and is used in localities to which it can be most conveniently transported. The sum paid for the privilege of quarrying is seldom more than 10 cents per cubic yard for any amount. Near Meadville, Crawford county, the Sharon conglomerate is quarried for general building purposes and is used locally. It is a light gray, coarse sandstone, massive, evenly bedded, and in thick courses. The stratum is about 45 feet in thickness, though only from 20 to 30 feet of the upper portion is suitable for building stone; the lower portion is coarse, and sometimes a mere mass of quartz pebbles. The upper portion or quarry rock is quite uniform in texture; it is light gray in color, is easily broken into rectangular blocks by means of wedges; is soft when first quarried, easily dressed, and is quite strong and durable. The quarries are located in the summit of the hill, about a mile and a half northeast of Meadville, and the highway is down-grade all the way to the town. Quarries have been worked in other localities in the vicinity, producing an equally good building stone, but from none of these localities can the material be transported readily to Meadville. The Chenango sandstone, here a brownish-gray stone, containing numerous concretions of peroxide of iron, might be quarried to an unlimited extent near by. It has been quarried to some extent and used in some of the finest buildings in Meadville. QUARTZ PORPHYRY.—Mr. A. E. Lehman, Second Pennsylvania geological survey, sent a number of specimens of quartz porphyry from near Fairfield and Graefenburg, Adams county, and from Pine Grove and Laurel Forge, in Cumberland county. These rocks are identified by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt with the orthopelsite porphyries of the Huronian system of Canada; they underlie the Potsdam sandstone of the South mountains, and overlie the Philadelphia gneiss. They are of a purple color, usually indistinctly stratified, and regularly bedded in courses of varying thickness. Thestructure of the rock is a fine, compact matrix, with distinct crystals disseminated through it; it is well adapted to ornamental work, as it is rich in color, durable, and susceptible of a good polish, and in many places could be obtained in abundant quantities. It has not as yet been quarried for purposes of construction. SLATE. The slates of Pennsylvania are used for school slates, for roofing, for mantels, and for flagging, both in foreign countries and in the principal cities of the United States, especially from New York westward. The quarries of roofing slate at East Bangor, Pen Argyl, and near the Wind Gap in Kittanning mountain; at Chapman, in Northampton county, Slatington, Lehigh county; and in fact all the slate quarries in Northampton and Lehigh counties are located on strata of Hudson River age, overlying thin beds of Utica shale, which in turn rest on the Trenton, Chazy, and Calciferous limestones (the magnesian limestone of the great valley, Siluro-Cambrian). The Hudson River slate formation, 5,000 feet thick more or less, makes two-thirds of the floor of the great Lebanon, Cumberland, or Shenandoah valley, as it is variously called in the states through which it extends, the- valley being bounded on the north and west by the Blue mountain, and on the south and east by the South . mountain. The Hudson River slate formation occupies the valley from its middle line northward and westward to and up the slope of the North mountain, while the Trenton and magnesian limestones occupy the southern and eastern side of the valley to the foot of the South mountain. | The roofing-slate belt is a continuous strip of varying width extending through Lehigh and Northampton counties close to the foot of and parallel with the Blue mountain. It is not, howevey, of such a character at all points on the formation as to be suitable for roofing slate. The localities where the material is of such character as to be suitable for the purpose are carefully selected. In fact, the roofing-slate quality is characteristic only of certain beds or small groups of beds at various geographical horizons in the great Hudson River slate formation. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 169 From Report DD D of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, which is soon to go to press, and the revise file of which was kindly loaned for use in this report by Professor J. P. Lesley, state geologist of Pennsylvania, we learn that the whole slate belt referred to as Hudson River slate is an irregular hill country, strongly contrasting with the magnesian limestone country, which borders on the south, both in the comparative number and ruggedness of its water-courses ; and that with the exception of Schoharie ridge, in Lehigh county, and perhaps Sandstone ridge, north of Hockendaugua, there are no well-defined ridges marking the outcrops of harder subdivisions of the great slate formation, so that it is difficult to separate the main belt into subordinate belts. The whole mass is one formation equivalent to the Hudson River slate of the New York Geological Survey, excepting that along the southern border Mr. Prime reports occasional traces of Utica black slate immediately overlying the Trenton limestone. The southern border of the slate district is everywhere a one-sided hill or steep descent toward the limestone lands. The whole formation is divisible into an upper and lower mass, the upper being more massively bedded, and therefore supporting more elevated country. Its uppermost beds constitute the southern slope of the Blue mountain, but the large and important roofing-slate quarries are all in the lower subdivision of the formation. It is further stated that these same slates extend along the north side of the valley, through Berks, Lebanon, Dauphin, Cumberland, and Franklin counties, into Maryland and Virginia. There are no slate quarries open west of the Schuylkill on this formation, but the same slate formation goes on across the state, and the cleavage shown by the outcrops has about the same appearance. Red slate outcrops through the western part of Berks county, and a careful examinat’9n may disclose that some of the outcrops will produce suitable roofing material. In New Jersey, at the Delaware Water Gap, a thickness of 3,000 feet is assigned to the whole mass. Mr. Prime’s measurements along the west bank of the river make it more than 5,000 feet. Mr. Chance’s independent measurement at the Water Gap places the roofing-slate quarries at 2,350 feet respectively beneath the Oneida conglomerate, and his estimate of the whole thickness of the Hudson River slate formation is about the same as Mr. Prime’s. In Berks and Lebanon counties the total thickness is stated at 6,000 feet. The following is an approximate estimate of the position of the quarries on the formation, beginning with the highest and going down: First, quarries at Pen Argyl; second, Hindbeck quarries; third, Slatedale; fourtr , Steinville; fifth, Slatington; sixth, Bangor. The “ribbons” in the slate, described by Professor H. D. Rogers, are very thin layers, from a few lines to an inch or two in thickness, traversing the rocks in bands parallel to each other and at various distances, not generally exceeding 2 feet. These ribbons indivate the direction of the dip of the strata, being seams of somewhat different composition from the rest of the mass. Between each two of the ribbons the layer of slate is homogeneous or of uniform texture and composition, but a difference in the quality of the slate on the two sides of one of these thin layers is quite common. When we examine a new surface of the slate, the usual and permanent color of which is dark bluish-gray, the hue of these ribbons is nearly black, but on exposure to the atmosphere they show, after some time, signs of spontaneous decomposition, and display a whitish efflorescence which indicates that this part of the slate contains sulphuret of iron. The ribbons are therefore carefully excluded from the slate when the latter undergoes the operations of cleavage and trimming in preparation for the market. In most of the slate quarries near Bangor, Northampton county, which is the northern end of the slate belt, the slate is tough and possessed of some flexibility, cleaving readily, the proportion of waste being comparatively small. Toward the southern end of the slate district of Lehigh and Northampton counties the texture and quality of the slates are slight'y different from those in Northampton county, and a greater proportion is manufactured into school slates, and some is also shipped for sidewalk paving. Most of the large qua:ries in this district are producing on an average twice the amount of slate produced two or three years back, with but one-third more force of men and machinery, showing that within ‘certain limits a large force is more economical than a small one. This is true of the quarries at Pen Argyl, East Bangor, Slatington, and in fact of the whole district. J’rom 1876 to 1880, the foreign demand was so great that but little attention was paid to home trade, there being in fact scarcely any home trade. Slates were so low in price that foreign merchants could purchase here and ship to England cheaper than they could buy at home; at present the increase in price of slates created by the home demand has stopped shipments to foreign countries altogether. In Report D DD, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, there is a chapter on the slate region of Northampton and Lehigh counties, covering all that part of the great Lebanon and Cumberland valley which lies between the Delaware and the Schuylkill rivers, and between the Blue or Kittatinny mountain on the north and the edge of the limestone on the south; and there are notes describing the individual quarries. We are indebted to this report for some of the measurements and descriptive matter in the following remarks concerning some of the quarries which were in operation during 1880. The details given will aid in obtaining definite ideas as to the quarries themselves and as to the structure of the slate. The Bangor Union Slate Company’s quarry is 250 by 130 feet deep at the deepest place, with from 10 to 20 feet of drift on the surface. The largest bed is 4 feet thick. The synclinal axis which shows in the Bangor quarry also shows in this one, but the plane of the axis dips slightly to the south instead of to the north as in the Bangor. The 170 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. quarry is worked by five cable derricks, which supply the material to twenty shanties, ?. ¢., the sheds in which the slate is cut into shape for roofing. The derricks are run by an engine which, working a line of shafts, connects with the cable derricks by conical friction-wheels. Bry & Short’s quarry, 300 yards east of the old Bangor quarry, is 200 by 150 by 60 feet, with a dip of 10 feet north; the cleavage is 20° south, and the largest bed is 4 feet thick. The quarry is worked by cable derricks run by steam-power. The school slates are planed at the quarry. The Star quarry, 500 feet west of the east Bangor No. 2, is 200 by 200 by 50 feet, and the cleavage is 20° south ; it is worked by cable derricks run by steam, and there are also horse-power derricks, beside appliances for cutting roofing slate and circular saws for cutting school slates. The ribbons in this and the other quarries usually indicate the direction of the stratification, which in this slate district is usually not parallel with the cleavage, but crossing it at varying angles. Much of the material is quarried in such shape that it may be worked up for © ornamental purposes instead of being split into roofing slates. In the Bangor Slate Company’s quarry there is a synclinal axis passing through the center of it about 70 feet below the surface; the cleavage and the plane of the axis dip 5° to the north. There are 30 feet of drift on the top of the quarry. The largest bed is 9 feet 6 inches thick. The synclinal axis, being the same that shows in the Washington quarry and in the Bangor Union, pitches to the west. The hoisting is done by cable derricks run by steam, but horses and carts are also used. The north Bangor quarry No.1 is 200 by 200 by 40 feet at the deepest place. There are 20 feet of drift covering the slate, and 1 foot below the drift the material is of such quality that it serves for roofing slate. Cleavage, 10° south and 30° east; dip, 45° south and 30° east. The two largest beds are 4 feet thick, and there is a bed measuring 10 feet along the cleavage. The series of beds extends all the way across the flooring of the quarry and all of them are under 4 feet each in thickness. The north Bangor quarry No. 2 is a few hundred feet north of No. 1, and is 150 by 100 by 40 feet deep. The dip is 35° south and 30° east; the cleavage is 15° south and 30° east. The beds that are exposed are mostly small, each under 4 feet in thickness.° Jackson quarry is 300 by 200 by 100 feet deep. It is worked by cable derricks run by double cylinder steam- engines. The slates come out in good-sized blocks, some of them 20 feet long. The Jory quarry is 400 by 200 by 80 feet deep. It is worked in the center of a synclinal axis; the dip of the rocks is slight in the center of the axis; the plane of the axis is vertical, while the cleavage is horizontal. This is the only quarry in which the cleavage can be seen at right angles or at any considerable angle to the plane of the axis. The beds worked are not large, but the cleavage makes such a slight angle with the bedding that large blocks can be taken out. The west Bangor quarry at Pen Argyl is 125 by 150 by 40 feet deep. The dimensions of the largest slab quarried were 13 feet long by 4 feet wide by 18 inches thick, but slabs 15 by 6 feet by 12 inches thick might be obtained. Stephen Jackson & Co.’s quarry is 400 by 200 by 80 feet deep; dip, 28° south; cleavage, horizontal; beds from 12 to 25 feet long along the cleavage. The Chapman quarry is 500 by 300 by 130 feet deep. Cable derricks run by steam are used in hoisting the slabs out of the quarry preparatory to working them into roofing slates. Splitters here make from two to six squares a day, averaging about four. The hoisting apparatus is very complete; a slab weighing 2 tons is hoisted 150 feet vertically and 300 feet horizontally in about two minutes. There is a factory here for making and planing slabs and other sawed material, the appliances consisting of diamond saws, planers, gig-saws, and smoothing table— the diamond saw, by reciprocating motion, cutting through slate at the rate of an inch in five minutes, making about 50 strokes a minute. The slates are all thinly-bedded, split well, and are tough. The blocks come out of the quarry in large, even pieces, some of them 20 feet long. The usual dimensions are 8 by 10 feet or less. Irederick Prime, jr., in Report D D, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylwania, says substantially of the slates toward the southern end of this slate quarry district, in Lehigh county, at Slatington, White Hall, Slatedale, Lynnport, and Steinville, that they are distinguished by bluish-gray or black color, cleave readily into thin slabs, and when the cleavage forms a high angle to the bedding and the slates are free from grit and are otherwise of good quality, they are quarried and are excellently adapted for roofing purposes, school slates, blackboards, and other articles of this nature. Owing to the property they possess of cleaving readily the slates are usually observed with the cleavage predominating to such an extent as to obscure and often to entirely conceal their stratification. As a rule their true bedding can only be observed by means of the wavy lines of a slightly different color from the body of the slates, which are constant and persistent in their passage through the cleavage, these lines indicating the stratification. The quarries of the Lehigh and Northampton district in Pennsylvania are distant about 100 miles from the city of New York and 75 miles from Philadelphia. In 1875, according to Professor Silliman, but five quarries were worked in Lehigh county—the Washington, the Franklin, the Trout Brook, the Bangor, and the Douglas. The North Peach Bottom Slate Company’s quarry is in Whitehall township, on the Lehigh Valley railroad, east of Bethlehem. The largest slab which has been moved thus far was 42 by 10 feet by 20 inches thick, and DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 171 blocks 40 by 20 feet by 20 inches thick might be loosened. The custom is to reduce the blocks to such size that they may be conveniently hoisted out of the quarry. The form of the natural slabs here is rhomboidal. The slates come out remarkably even and straight; they are 16 feet long, a straight edge touching at nearly every point on a slab of the material. Transportation from the quarry is afforded by means of the Lehigh Valley railroad and Lehigh and Delaware canal. There is but one grade of material quarried, it being all similar in structure and texture. It is reported that roofing slates from this quarry exposed for thirty years are not yet discolored and need no repairs. The slate is sawed, planed, and rubbed by steam-power. The method of draining the quarry is by a siphon consisting of a pipe 14 inches in diameter and 450 feet long. Mr. John Crump, of the North Peach Bottom Slate Company, states that in his examination of the slates in Pennsylvania and Vermont, and those of Wales, in Great Britain, and of the Angiers district on the Loire, France, he found that the material from this quarry ranks very high in respect to size, thickness, and evenness of the slabs that may be quarried and the hardness, toughness, and uniformity of texture of the material, and for its freedom from ribbon or spots, stains, or quartz veins. The dip of the cleavage in this quarry is about 50° northeast to southwest. The main joints are about 50 feet apart, and about 35 feet below the surface soil sound slate commences half an inch thick, increasing in thickness of strata as it descends. At about 45 feet below the surface the beds are 6 inches thick; at 60 feet, 12 inches thick, and at 80 feet, 20 inches thick. This is the greatest depth quarried thus far, and the proprietors believe that the beds will go on increasing in thickness at a like rate to a depth of 200 feet, at which depth they expect a deterioration. The color of the slate is blue-black. This slate has been much used by the United States government at Albany, New York; New York city; Topeka, Kansas; Austin, Texas, and Saint Louis, Missouri. The Patent Office building at Washington city has tiling on the top floor of the north side from the North Peach Bottom slate quarries. There are also Chapman slates in the flooring of this building. Henry & Co.’s quarry, near Slatington, produces material for roofing slate, which is at present transported on wagons 5 miles from the quarry to the railroad station on the Lehigh and Susquehanna railroad opposite Slatington. The largest slab that has been quarried was 10 by 4 feet by 6 inches. The form of natural slabs is irregular. The method of drainage is pumping by water- and steam-power; the hoisting is by steam, and the dressing by hand. Caskie & Emack’s quarry is located 14 miles northeast of Slatington. The form of the natural slab is rectangular; the dimensions of the largest slab quarried is 30 by 8 feet by 20 inches thick. The quarry is drained by means of a pump worked by steam-power; the hoisting is done by steam-power, and mantel stuff is worked by circular saws and iron planers run by steam. James Hess & Co.’s (Slatington) quarry produces material for roofing and other architectural purposes. The dimensions of the largest slab quarried here are 10 by 18 feet by 6 inches, but slabs 18 by 20 feet by 12 inches might be moved. The product is marketed throughout the United States. The hoisting and pumping are done by steam. This firm has a factory for manufacturing school slates, and one for manufacturing mantel stuff, blackboards, and tiling. The Penryn quarry, at Slatington, operated by W. H. Seibert, produces roofing slate, school slates, and the material for blackboards for public schools; also hearth-stones, mantel stuff, and register-stones. The peculiarity of some of the material of this quarry is that some of the beds are a shade or two darker and softer in texture than others, and are easily distinguished in the quarry. The dark stone or beds, when used for roofing, discolor when exposed, while beds of lighter shade, which are harder, when made into roofing slates hold their color, and are very durable. Frequently hard and soft beds lie side by side in the ledge. In the quarry of David Williams, at Slatington. the form of the natural slabs is irregular. The transportation from the quarry is by rail, ‘on the Lehigh Valley, the Berks and Lehigh, and the Lehigh and Schuylkill railroads. The power employed in draining, in hoisting, and dressing mantels and blackboards is steam; the drilling and dressing of roofing and school slates are done by hand. The Columbia Slate Company’s quarry is situated half a mile west of Slatington, on a branch of the Lehigh Valley railroad, from whence the slates are shipped to various states and some exported to foreign countries. The hoisting and draining are done by steam, the drilling and dressing by hand. At the Franklin quarry, half a mile west of Slatington, there are two different varieties of dark blue roofing slate, but no soft beds of school slates. The form of the natural slabs is rhomboidal. Griesimer & Brothers’ quarry produces roofing slate exclusively. The form of the natural slab is rectangular. The dimensions of the largest slab which has been quarried are 16 by 5 feet by 4 inches, but slabs 22 by 15 feet by 6 inches might be moved. The slate is transported on the Lehigh and Schuylkill railroad. Keever & Lutz’s quarry produces roofing slate, which is marketed in Berks and Lehigh counties, being transported by wagon and by railroad. The form of the natural slabs is irregular. Hoisting is done by steam, the drilling and dressing by hand. Lanrel Hill Slate Company’s quarry produces slate for roofing purposes. The form of the natural slab is irregular. Hoisting is done by steam, the drilling and dressing by hand. The Lock Slate Company’s quarry produces slate for roofing, school slates, tiles, platforms, and steps. The form of the natural slabs is irregular; slabs 27 by 8 feet by 5 feet thick might be moved. A branch of the Lehigh 172 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Valley railroad is built to the quarry. Draining, hoisting, sawing, and planing are done by steam, the drilling and dressing by hand. The machinery consists chiefly of saw-beds, planes, and patent machines for dressing roofing and school slates. Joel Neff’s quarry, near Slatington, consists of three openings on the same ledge of slate. The material is quarried for roofing, and is marketed chiefly in the United States, though some is exported. The form of the natural slabs is irregular; size of the largest slab quarried, 500 cubic feet, but a slab of 600 cubic feet might be moved. The draining and hoisting are done by steam, the dressing partly by steam, and the drilling by hand. Krum & Moser’s quarry, formerly known as the Blue Mountain quarry, produces roofing slate exclusively, which is marketed in the middle, western, and northwestern states, and is transported by railroad and canal. The form of the natural slabs is rectangular, and the dimensions of the largest slab that has been quarried were 18 by 5 feet by 18 inches. Hoisting and pumping are done by steam, the drilling and dressing by hand. The Industrial Slate Company’s quarry, west of Slatington, is operated for roofing slate exclusively. The form of natural slabs is rectangular, and the dimensions of the largest slab that has been quarried were 15 by 4 feet by 6 inches. The draining and hoisting are done by horse-power, the drilling and dressing by hand. PrAcH BoTToM QUARRIES.—The ledge of slate in which the Peach Bottom quarries are situated furnishes the dark blue, indurated clay-slate almost devoid of calcareous material, as it is of Archean age, and therefore older than any of the calcareous rocks of Pennsylvania. The following is an analysis of Peach Bottom slates, specimen from J. Humpbrey & Co.’s quarry, half a mile east of Delta, York county, from Report COC, Peer Geological Survey of Pennsylvania: Per cent. Silicicvaeidncaeeoe vas ot - ses wane asip me bic ome ci) = 2 shen oo 0 vinc'nw oan sous esas seeniseeh oc enaw en cerecincoreensa | Oy 10 1.50 BLOGs Sey kien sc ba nam sa acest edn nee eesatwceed eets sa sendicensesescdaes, OOnOo 99. 57 Tt is thus seen that the rocks are very nearly typical dolomites. They vary somewhat in composition, but not so as to at all influence their value as building stones. They possess an open and porous structure, and are incapable of assuming a polish or being used for ornamental purposes. In their microscopic structure they are seen to be of the crystalline granular type, the fossiliferous character being obliterated from the microscopic structure, although fossils are not rare in the rock. The Yellow Springs quarries produce a magnesian limestone which is very easily worked, and the larger part of which is durable. These quarries are upon the same horizon as the Springfield quarries, and produce stone of the samenature. The courses vary in thickness from 4 to 14 inches, and some of them answer very well for cutting stone. The same qualified commendation can be given to them for flagging, but the quarries have not been extensively developed with the end in view of producing this material. For general masonry the stone has proved very serviceable, and for economy is not surpassed by any stone in the state. ‘There are two colors, which are obtained .from different courses, and which are denominated as blue and drab; the blue courses weather to drab in exposed a Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. I, Parti, p. 474, 206 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. places, but it is not certain that all of the drab beds have been made by oxidation of blue layers. The blue beds. sometimes prove treacherous, and even the firm and massive appearance of the stone furnishes no safe guide in judging of its power to withstand the atmosphere. By far the larger portion, however, is excellent in this respect,. and the drab courses are almost without exception satisfactory. Three-quarters of the gross earnings of these quarries are, on an average, obtained from the sale of lime, sent to market under the name of the Springfield lime, which is the standard for southwestern Ohio. A section of the quarry shows at the bottom some layers of building and cutting stone, above which is a 10-foot bed of solid limestone containing pentamerous fossils, and above are 18 feet of the ‘ shelly” limestone, which is. burned. The principal quarry at this place produces stone for bridges, steps, and sills, which are principally used in the vicinity of Yellow Springs. The composition of the stone from this quarry is indicated by the following: analysis by Professor Wormley : (a) Per cent. Calcium ‘carbonate. 223 -- hos cb wae 3 scree cg ein el eee slate oie oe eels Sem on nie ee pias ae Snip eS SELON eee eID LEG Magnesium carbonate ....-. .--------- --22 222) eee cee eee eee eee eee ee eee ee wo Sree (e Sin Bam ae ap eeLs ae ae ean oer mee 41,12 Sand ‘and silica soos cde ec cae eee ere oe ale sie a wx cee cia areal a ater oat allns ats) me oot eather ate estat arate et tte ete eae tet ae ate 5. 40 Alumina, with a trace of iron oxide... ... - .-22. 2-220. oe one eee eee eee ce en een cee nee cee eee on enn e woe e nee 1. 40 Total occsiesee cctleic toes meniwrne eae e Ste Mie oa) eee tole ate sey ao eR Cate a eran perm ob ft ee eee The quarries in Miami county resemble those at Springfield, and are located in the same geological stratum.. They are rendered valuable by the circumstance that for 50 miles in some directions there is no other developed quarry. To the northeast, north, and northwest the region is heavily buried under beds of drift, and consequently building stones are inaccessible. The material from the Covington quarries is distributed, therefore, very widely. The stripping is light, the drainage easy, the quantity and quality of the stone are both excellent, and great variety exists in the thickness of the various strata. The Covington stone is chiefly used for building and bridge construction, and it is mostly consumed in. Covington, Ohio, and Winchester and Marion, Indiana. Some bridges on the Pan-Handle railroad have been constructed from this material. At the town of Covington there are six quarries in active operation, as indicated by the table. Some of these must soon be given up, for they lie within the city limits, and houses are being now constructed in their immediate neighborhood. The material resembles that which is quarried at Springfield in being porous and easily cut. Of the specimens. sent to the museum one was blue and one yellow, and upon examination it was found that they differed not merely in the circumstance already mentioned, in that the blue layers contain unoxidized pyrites and the other’ hydrous iron oxide, but the blue specimen was a dolomite which would not effervesce in acids, while the yellow specimen was much more calcareous. In microscopic properties this stone presents no peculiarities. It belongs to: what we have designated as the porphyritic type; that is, it;contains rhombohedral crystals of dolomite developed in a mass of formless grains of calcite. In Shelby county the upper portion of the Niagara formation is developed, and several quarries have been opened, the products of which are almost entirely burned into lime. Building stones can be there obtained at any time and in any quantity desired. Hancock county is occupied by rocks of the Niagara and Helderberg periods, and although the Niagara rocks. which from here extend in a narrow strip northward to lake Erie appear to be separated from that great area of Niagara rocks in which the Springfield and Dayton quarries are situated; they probably extend beneath the- Helderberg rocks that intervene and form a portion of the same deposit. The rocks quarried at Findlay possess. characters almost identical with those of the Springfield stones. ‘They possess a rather porous and open structure,. are drab in color, and occur in courses from 3 to 12 inches in thickness. The stone is strong and durable, and none. of it has as yet shown any bad effects from exposure to moisture or frost. It is rather hard to dress, and stone- workers call it “plucky”. The horizontal surfaces are generally roughened by small angular prominences which fit into corresponding depressions in the superimposed layer, forming the structure which is known as “suture” jointings. The dip here is very slight, and the top course in all of the Findlay quarries is evenly bedded and about 1 foot thick. The “seams” (open joints) are from 25 to 100 feet apart, and those joints usually run at right angles to these seams at greater or less intervals. For this reason, if the quarry is stripped over a sufficient space, the rock can be obtained without blasting. The material from these quarries is used for foundations of buildings and tor bridge abutments in the county, and last year some was shipped to Seneca and Allen counties. In composition the stone from the Findlay quarries is dolomitic and possesses the characters of the upper Niagara beds. In microscopic structure it is beautifully crystalline, the whole mass of the rock being made up of an aggregate of more or less well-defined rhombohedral crystals. it appears that blocks much larger than can possibly be required are obtainable here, and that the material, although at present used only for rough construction, could be safely applied as a building stone. Although the present quarries have been opened quite recently along the same streams upon which these are situated, and within a short distance of them, quarries have been in operation for more than twenty years. OS SN a Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. II, Part i, p. 672. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 207 HELDERBERG.—The Helderberg formation is exposed in a narrow strip (a) upon the boundaries of Highland and Ross counties, and indeed more stone is taken from the quarries at Greenfield than from any others in the Helderberg formation of Ohio. The stone is regular in its bedding, and, therefore, curbings and crossings of excellent quality are easily extracted. In the Cincinnati market it is largely employed for these purposes. Slabs 3 or 4 inches thick, with a superficial area of 4 feet, can be obtained with surfaces as smooth and regular as if sawed. These stones can be used for door-steps and like purposes without any dressing. The courses are never heavy, seldom exceeding 14 inches, and usually ranging between 4 and 8 inches in thickness. The stone is exceedingly strong, 2-inch cubes having been found to stand a pressure of over 50,000 pounds. The quarries produce no waste material, and their spalls are saved to be burned into lime of fair quality. Perpetual kilns are set upon the edge of the Greenfield quarries, the floors of which are kept clean and free from accumulations of refuse of any kind, and the lime produced is similar to that obtained from the Niagara formations, but it possesses in some degree hydraulic properties which make it especially adaptable for outside work. The stone produced is drab in color when first raised, but upon exposure it generally acquires a yellowish- brown shade. It is ordinarily used only for the rougher purposes of construction and for flaggings and curbings,,. but, by proper selection and skillful dressing, stone can be obtained from the quarries that produce a good architectural effect. Without such an exercise of taste and judgment, the stone does not appear well, owing to its. monotonous gray color, which contrasts unpleasantly with the white lines of mortar. On the other hand, its regular bedding renders it peculiarly suitable for ordinary purposes, as it can be laid upon its even bed surfaces easily, and therefore can be worked with facility and economy. The stone finds its principal market in Cincinnati. It will be noticed that of the large quarries which supply the Cincinnati market but one is in Highland county. The other is situated in the town of Greenfield, in Ross county. In the Highland County quarry one-twentieth of the profit results from the sale of lime, but in the Ross County quarry more than one-half is burned. In the Ross County quarry the section shows 42 feet of stone disposed in layers, all of which are available. The quarry is capped by 10 feet of drift material, which constitutes all of the stripping. The Highland County quarry shows 35 feet of stone of a like character overlaid by 6 feet of drift. The stone in the main is non-fossiliferous, but upon the surfaces of a few layers there are found the forms of the Leperdita alta, which is a characteristic fossil of the Helderberg formation. A layer of concretions from 1 inch to 3 inches in diameter is found in the upper part of the section, ahd short cylindrical columns which fall out, leaving cylindrical cavities in the stone 3 or 4 inches in diameter, occur in considerable numbers, and which are supposed - to be due to the effects of pressure. Nodules of zinc-blende are not uncommon in the Greenfield stone, and the fossil corals are sometimes composed of silica, which also is distributed through some of the stone in bands that separate the layers. In composition the stone is nearly a typical dolomite, as is indicated by the following analysis: (b) Per cent. CFs CLUE OCD OT UL0 ee et een ebette tear tate a cttw on s\olcicid/ dus claie'cis'c a\saclace dow mo bicccs ane Sine ede ceisimaiaciee aes eins 53. 67 Magnesium carbonate...... EE ee eee Te Sts cage alae Nenad ose h'n mania ua'e W's Sadie me helaae bilge eee eer 42, 42 PRECMID IAN CMESS TLC ON 5 et eee ene Pe Mots tis gs SOL detest et om cic cine alicia e swale triste able ead ale Bouche eneislelete ser SSO Clee te etme PR ne eet cr. cena te isis dvi ciao Saints ecalcw eerie cj-pecuidieh cies cise Cele s ae ebemeciels 1.30 Calcium and magnesium silicates ....-....-......-. 2-22. eeene- ee BSD Selene Sec wale ats Sonata tate Melatenade ste aerene eee 1, 44 ee re ee eee ee ey ToS es oie ca eo amc ow bach saduie uns) due ces dace bush snes scoenmesivaseeeas 1.00 Fra eee re a eee reel e's ele oe cine wea ne sa css omens. cornctiaepaanixese Wane cneee ewe dae 99. 83 When examined under the microscope the whole stone shows the characteristic crystalline granular structure of the Helderberg formation. There are streaks of iron oxide and carbonaceous matter which proceed in regular wavy lines through the sections, and these bituminous substances are what give to the stone the strong fetid odor which is produced by striking or cutting it. The quality of the lime produced is another evidence that magnesian limestones may be converted into lime of excellent quality. Quarry operations have been carried on at Greenfield since the first settlement of the country to satisfy the local demand, but in recent times the business has been greatly enlarged for the more distant markets along the line of the railroads, and especially for the Cincinnati demand. The supply of stone is practically inexhaustible. In the southern and western part of Champaign county the Helderberg or Water-lime rocks have been quarried - in numerous places; formerly a quarry at Salem supplied most of the local demand, and the building and flagging stones used in Urbana were obtained there until the sandstone of Berea superseded them. The stone obtained in the neighborhood of Urbana is of indifferent quality for building purposes, but here it is found in a drift-covered region in an area which for 25 or 30 miles in each direction is devoid of stone. Only about 14 feet of the upper strata have been much quarried. The floor has been sunk to a greater depth, and the stone from the lower courses is proving itself to be a valuable building stone for rougher work. There is no so-called cutting stone in the quarry, a Geological Survey of Ohio, Report of Progress in 1870, p. 255: ‘Geology of Highland County,” by Professor Edward Orton. b Report 0° Progress of Geological Survey of Ohio, 1870, p. 287. 208 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. and the accompanying section will give an idea of the method in which the strata of the Helderberg are arranged at this point. It will be noticed that there is much greater diversity as regards stratification than is shown in the Greenfield quarries. The specimen sent to the National Museum is'a light drab stone, somewhat streaked with red. Its material is of the same character as that of the other Helderberg stones—that is, a dolomite with a fine, crystalline, microscopic structure, and which emits a bituminous odor when struck with a hammer, although the odor is not so strong as in the case of some other Helderberg rocks. Allen county is almost entirely covered by limestones of the Water-lime or Helderberg formation, (a) and all of the quarries that have been considered worthy of note extract stone from these beds that is used for the more ordinary building purposes and for foundations and underpinnings. The upper beds of the Niagara formation occur in the southeastern corner of the county, and a few quarries were once opened in those rocks, but the building material that was extracted was inferior, and the production of quicklime from them was not profitable. Although the building stone obtained from the Helderberg is, as a rule, not of excellent quality, still, as it is the only accessible material, it is of much value. The stone quarried directly in Lima is an inferior building stone, and is seldom used for foundations above ground, but is in demand for the underground portions of foundations. The quarry is worked more to obtain stone for macadamizing than for any other purpose. It occurs in thin layers, and a block 6 inches thick is seldom obtained. This thinly-bedded character renders it spencer as a flagging stone; the bedding, however, is uneven. The material obtained from this quarry is a dark gray AONE! which is quite porous in its character; it dissolves in hot acid with very little residue, and the solution is found to contain only traces of iron oxide, which the microscope provés to exist in the state of pyrites. The polishing of a face upon this stone renders its fossiliferous character very prominent, which is not common in the rocks of this formation. The stone is very bituminous and gives forth a foul odor when struck with the hammer. A quarry 4 miles north of Lima is said to produce some material of a much better quality. It is situated near the Dayton and Michigan railroad, but a side track could not be constructed to it without considerable expense on account of the heavy grading ee would be necessary. Some of the courses are over 1 foot thick, and some from 4 to 6 inches thick have been used for sidewalk paving in front of the Lima machine works, where it gives indication of both strength and durability. The following is a section of the strata in the quarry: Feet. Boll .. oc sels i a eet n adda cc cb kes SEO RARER RRS Soe hee nes Sou w cn s Mile eee wallace eh ot yo ele hei anraans ese 3 Building stone for ordinary foundations. eu. 0 -ccce oc ses cece mines emcnekenee ce Leeper ee emer a onE eee 3 Dark gray paving stone..--.-.-...--.. Sebictalejefe alats'ncic/n'/= nie os (sale ale actei ater rele seis $e ately tetas ae eae ene ee 14 Blue shaly material. .\:22.\4.3< 5288 seep seesaw eacles Jakis Soot beeee seb asise ede aes a ae are ee Cent ee Saeteeaaa oe Blue-stOne 22... cccee cals os anlnccls semedemaeeee Sslepes aussie cin 2 sch ob pede sce on eee nels ese a tte eee — There is no natural drainage below the paving stone, and for this reason the underlying blue-stone has not been extensively quarried. According to the testimony of all builders and contractors the stone in the bottom of this quarry is the best building material found within a radius of at least 30 miles. The shaly rock which overlies the blue-stone forms good material for the macadamizing of roads. The material above the paving stone, which is used for foundations, occurs in thin beds which are never more than 3 inches in thickness. The specimen which was sent from this quarry was taken from the lower or “ blue-stone” layers; it has a dark gray color, finely banded with yet darker lines, and much more compact than most of the stones sent from the quarries in the Helderberg. Indeed, no pores or cavities were found in it, and its texture was such that it admitted of a fair polish, as indeed do most of the Helderberg limestones. The stone from this quarry is a dolomite, but on being dissolved in hot acid quite a large residue of argillaceous character is left undissolved, and it contains bituminous substances which impart to it the character of a fetid limestone. It contains little or no iron. A quarry is situated 54 miles northeast of Lima, and the following section indicates its character and the uses to which the stone is applied : Stripping 2. onc wan cc ee oho s |e al ae cite ere ae aR breloom ool b Gynec eae eee erg feet... 5 Road stones oie co cee as ak See ee Oe aie we im oo dia in ea ee es ee CPE os] Gray building stones |... 5202.02 2. Gee eee eee ae Nese cess ccs ca-s- Joanne anaes eee ne eeleE mee nee bres pe ee do. s-su0 es Two courses of blu6-stone: 22 20 ce arate eect ttc cele am Sent st ak ake Se een ene eee ene eee eee erate ae inches... 6 Blue Clayis. 22-4) ssidsredheae ced od done )a ca ac ke aeRO aE eels Dre eS cetera) See ee ee ne fee ee Set es doisceet Gray: building. stone. .: 52 605: 4s sooo es See ee aan caso we calchde 4 dew en eee ae eee pea aE eee Ue do....5 — As in the case of the preceding quarry, the thickness of the stratum of the gray building andes is as yet undetermined. It occurs in courses from 3 to 6 inches thick. The upper 3 feet of stone, which is used for the purpose of macadamizing, is extracted with neither profit nor loss. The material is a more or less porous dolomite of a gray color, mottled and streaked with black, which is due to the arrangement of the bituminous substances contained in the stone. Of the two specimens sent to the National Museum, one was polished upon a surface parailel with the stratification, and this treatment developed a beautiful structure, due to the presence of a Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. II, Part i, p. 397: Report on the ‘‘ Geology of Allen County”, by N. H. Winchell. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 209 a fossil bryozoan, which filled the layer that was cut. Thus the presence of a fossil in abundance was demonstrated although the rough stone gave no indication of a fossiliferous character. This stone and the one previously described from Lima are the only stones of a fossiliferous character which were sent to the Museum, and which were obtained from the Helderberg formation. These stones are thus most markedly contrasted with those from the Niagara, which are almost all fossiliferous, as is indicated by microscopic examination, which very often renders the forms evident when they are invisible to the naked eye. In the eastern part of the township of Bluffton the quarries are better adapted to supplying flagging than building stone, since the thickness of the strata usually varies from 1 inch to 3 inches. When properly laid down these slabs make a very durable paving material for sidewalks, cellar bottoms, etc. They are very hard, but break quite easily into any required shape. The stone is dark-colored and of the same character as those previously described. Its color is imparted to it by bituminous substances, and the dark streaks with which it is filled are very irregular, so that a pattern not at all unattractive to the eye is developed upon the smooth or polished surfaces of the blocks, and when dressed in the usual way and laid with white mortar they make a beautiful wall for smaller buildings. Such large blocks have been moved as to insure the possibility of obtaining blocks as large as might be desired. Although the quarries described have been recently opened, the stone has been quarried in the immediate neighborhood for fifteen years. Scott’s Crossing is situated 4 miles east of Delphos, on the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad. A quarry at this place produced a drab-colored limestone, which occurs in courses from 3 to 11 inches thick, and which serves very well for foundations. Samples which have been in walls for over fifty years show no signs of decay. The quarry is situated in the bed of the Auglaize river, and is not worked early in the spring nor late in the fall, when the water is high. A slight dam is built about the quarry, which is washed out every winter, and in addition heavy rains in the summer frequently destroy the works. No more permanent dam is built, since the site of the quarry is often changed, and no excavation has been made in the vicinity to exceed 6 feet in depth. The material is mostly used in the vicinity for bridge abutments and at Delphos for foundations for buildings. It has been sent, to a limited extent, into Mercer county, over the Toledo, Delphos, and Birmingham railroad, to localities where the Piqua stone is not so readily sent. ‘Ten inches of coarse sand, gravel, and other river deposits cover the stone, and about 18 inches of the cap-rock is used upon the public highways. This is one of the best building stones quarried in Allen county for the purposes to which it is applied. Van Wert county is covered in its northwestern part by the Niagara beds. The Helderberg limestone underlies the rest of the county, but only a few exposures of the rock of either kind are known, as the whole region is mostly covered by drift. (a) ‘The county is entirely agricultural, and the stones where quarried furnish materials that are used only for foundations in that neighborhood or burned for lime. The lime-kilns at Straughn have caused the most extensive quarrying operations, and the Helderberg stones there extracted are said to burn easily and cheaply to a beautiful white lime. The Van Wert quarry, which is the only one reported as producing any considerable amount of building material, also produces quicklime; and during the last census year the value of the lime produced was about equal to that of the building stone. The Van Wert stone is a light gray dolomite, which is found in courses from 3 to 7 inches thick. The material thus far has given evidence of being a good building stone. Openings have been made in the limestone at several other points in the county; for example, on the Little Auglaize, in the nertheastern part of the county, a stone very much like the Bluffton limestone has been _ quarried to a small extent for the Delphos market. In the northwestern part of the county some building stone is said to have been obtained in much thicker courses than in any other part. A very light gray limestone has been quarried at Charloe, on the Auglaize river, in Paulding county, which belongs to the Corniferous formation. This Paulding limestone is a soft stone which occurs in courses about 3 feet thick. It has been sawed, and was used in the foundation of the court-house and also in that of the Russel House at Defiance, where it has suffered from the action of moisture and frost. As other specimens of the same stone do not show this disintegration, its defective character is very likely due to the circumstance that it was quarried too late in the season. A blue limestone is also quarried about 5 miles farther: down the river from Charloe, which occurs in courses from’6 to 18 inches thick, and has been used for the construction of locks on the Miami and Erie canal. It is not durable when exposed to atmospheric action, and the quarries have been abandoned. The demand for the material has been destroyed by the introduction of the White House stone from the north and the Piqua stone from the south. Tiffin is situated exactly upon the boundary between the Niagara and the Helderberg rocks, in Seneca county, and its quarries, although producing only Helderberg rocks, show at some times at their bases exposures of the underlying Niagara limestones. These quarries are located onthe eastern side of the ridge known as the Cincinnati axis, and the characteristics of the rocks are much the same as those in the quarries on the western side of the anticlinal in the Helderberg formation; but the stones at Tiffin are more massive, and are therefore more suitable a Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. II, Part i, p. 314 : “Geology of Van Wert County,” by N. H. Winchell. VOL. IX u4Bs 210 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. for heavy construction. The courses are often 26 inches in thickness, and the stones produced are used largely for foundations and bridge work. The product of quicklime from these quarries is also large. The stone is light drab in color; it is bituminous, and gives forth a strong odor when nae but this characteristic is not so marked as in the dark-colored varieties. The principal market for all three of the quarries situated in Tiffin is furnished by the immediate neighborhood. Beside the quarries in the table there are several smaller ones which are worked in the vicinity of the town, and which produce the same kind of material in less amount. | A short distance west of Fremont several quarries have been opened in the strata of the Water-lime or Helderberg formation. The only quarry at this point of sufficient importance on account of its production of Bandi stone is situated one mile to the west of Fremont, and in this the value of the lime which was produced from the quarry during the census year was ten times that of the building stone. The strata suitable for building purposes are from 1 foot to 10 feet in thickness, and the material which does not make an excellent quicklime is comparatively small. Asa building stone the material is superior to much of that used in counties to the southwest, although not equal to the Sandusky and Marblehead limestones. It is of a light drab color, full of small cavities, and works very easily, and some of it is soft and pure enough to be sawed. The stripping issold for macadamizing. It presents the usual microscopic characteristics of the Helderberg rocks, and it dissolves in hot acid, leaving a very slight residue. The qualitative analysis indicates that it is composed of remarkably pure dolomite. CoRNIFEROUS.—Quite a variety of stone is found in the neighborhood of Columbus, for although Franklin county is flat it has a number of geological formations within its limits. To the east lie the Waverly sandstones and the Huron shale, but the limestones of the Corniferous, which lie to the west of Columbus, are by far the most important from an economic standpoint. Thick and heavy layers of stone exist among the strata. From the different layers material suitable for the most diverse uses can be obtained, good quicklime can be made, and being in part a very pure carbonate of lime the stone is desirable as a flux for smelting iron ores. Of late it has been very extensively applied to the latter purpose, especially in the Hocking Valley region. The quarries are all situated a few miles to the west of Columbus, and have been operated for a long time. Some which have been the most important, for instance the state quarries, from which the material for the state-house and for the walls of the state-prison was extracted, are no longer worked, but all of the quarries mentioned in these tables are immediately about the old quarries and extract the same material. While the state-house was in process of construction, and stone of the best quality was in demand, the Corniferous limestone was worked to a greater depth than it is at present, for the finest quality of stone is found in the lower layers. At present the production of building stone is subordinate to the production of lime and flux. The Columbus limestone is dense, compact, and strong. There are 12 feet of the upper courses in the present quarries that average 93 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and frequently the percentage rises to 95 or 96, while, on the other hand, there are localities where the Corniferous limestone becomes nearly a typical dolomite, as at Bellefontaine. The stone is fossiliferous, but the fossils are very firmly cemented and do not appear to weather out; in some cases, indeed, the fossil appears to be firmer than its surrounding stone. In microscopic structure the stone bears the appearance of a fragmental stone, being composed almost entirely of fragments of fossils. In the finer ground mass very perfect little rhombohedrons of dolomite are developed, which in number are apparently disproportionate to the amount of magnesia contained in the stone. Many of the fossils have apparently retained their primitive condition, but others have been dissolved away and the forms filled with crystalline calcite; and this will perhaps explain the different behavior of the fossils in weathering. The stone is somewhat bituminous. in character, as evinced by the odor emitted when struck. Its gray color is pleasing to the eye; it works easily, and will even assume a good polish. Dynamite is used as an explosive to alarge extent, any desired number of charges being exploded simultaneously by means of electricity. Although the common stone for foundations and underpinnings used in Columbus is obtained from the quarries, still, during the census year, no great amount of building stone was extracted, and no important structures were built from the material. The quarries can at any time be operated much more extensively, and will produce a superior quality of stone for fine construction. In the eastern half of Logan county a large island of Corniferous limestone occurs, the center of which is covered with shales, but all around the edges small quarries have been opened for the purpose of obtaining stone both for building purposes and for lime. (a) At the present time the only quarries of special importance that are located in this district are those which are situated a short distance to the northwest of Bellefontaine, and the material which they produce is used chiefly for rough work. Although capable of producing excellent building material, the more important stone structures in the neighborhood have been built of materials brought from a greater distance. The quarry operations are carried on in a quite primitive manner, and at present the lower strata in one quarry are inaccessible, since no means of a Keport of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol. III, Part i, p. 482: ‘Geology of Logan County”, by Franklin C. Hill. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 211 drainage have been supplied, and the quarry is filled with water to a depth of from 12 to 15 feet. The top Jayers of the stone are being extracted, although the lower layers are best suited for purposes of construction. The quarry of Angel, Miller & Co., situated a half mile west of Bellefontaine, exhibits the following section: Be a eae ote tao eee lets setae ete oe eet at oriete ena ale aia ater nia =) ae e/a alninin nina a sem rasvarvae in tie Soa eines on eiee acl feet 5 Cellar stone..........-- Simdedai roe able en oh ann cma d nih en 4 Chat hears nae op wee dans ane pene nn san een hae do 10 TIGRE CUBES ROUGH. 5 aa tends oc cape iene doe cueieas oMaa net an oe es at ee hse avec cumenice watt Sree Saeieiad 3 do... 5 Pioneer Covent NOLOUM BCOUG cata a ano Paremwett ob oo marae Opteas te Me came cara pe sane Cine va uewne tosieaus nee oe §s inches.. 9 PICU V MRT MBUOUGL OO. ou co ctens dctnt eas de ceine aa aes emule cons isinc stint anc sae Sana cel ua leap ose’ ec Duds ous ae feet.. 5 Occasionally some lime is burned at this quarry, although its amount is small and its quality inferior. The material that is at present produced by these quarries is a typical dolomite, and in microscopic structure consists of a perfect mass of sharply defined large rhombohedral crystals of dolomite cemented together by a mass of minute little crystals of the same form and composition. In many places the crystals are only attached at their corners, leaving angular interspaces, and this accounts for the avidity with which water is absorbed by this stone. The fossiliferous character, if any originally existed, has been entirely obliterated. In color it is light gray, and it works easily and safely. Its microscopic structure is illustrated upon the plate at the end of the chapter. The first quarry in Marion county was opened in 1825 in what is known as the Marion limestone. Ten acres only are considered as belonging to the quarry. It is situated in the southeastern part of the town of Marion, and is the farthest south of any quarry in the neighborhood producing good building stone. A gray stone occurs about 12 or 14 feet below the surface, and is probably underlaid by blue-stone, but as the gray is considered the best the lower courses have not been opened. Other quarries are located in the northeastern part of the town which extract material for building and quicklime. The largest quarries are, however, operated on the Columbus and Toledo railroad, one mile north of Marion. The stone is considered very strong and durable. The average thickness of the rocks extracted is not more than 8 inches, although blocks 12 and even 15 inches thick are sometimes obtained. There is no difficulty in extracting blocks of any required dimensions in the bed for all ordinary purposes of construction. The stone is easily quarried, being lifted with bars and broken with sledges, no blasting operations being necessary except to make an opening in the floor of the quarry for deeper workings. The material is chiefly used for foundations and bridge work, and was largely employed in the construction of the depots and shops of the Columbus and Hocking Valley railroad. Itis commonly called blue limestone, although the color differs at different horizons, and the layers also vary in texture and hardness, each layer, however, being homogeneous. The stone is usually quite fine in grain and rather hard. The following may be regarded as a typical section representing this and all other quarries in the neighborhood of Marion: Feet SON pemeete eretters maha octets ceteters Chen ecient s eietaue ba tenecle rane wa ro ale ain aie etais aicinave abi cte cibiala sige Saw roa o es See eee aeons 1to4 NWWiSRENOELOOETOC he nce meus stamens eerste lena ee arsine ce centn ne ctee alain eielnn a cebesidaisio eee eters aleiee oe nena oala ae aia cee 1to4 IEDR DA NES Tees sa ea SEEMS aSe SARE CRRE SES MA re i EEE ea ete Oe pis a ae RP ia ae ri ee ee Re ee 1 to6 Gray-StONe .. ~~... --- = one 3 oe we ne oe ee ree oe wenn ne wine nee eee cee wenn ee nnn eens cane cence cone 4 IBLUC- NUON GS: jess sates Semiosiiscs se lowes seca mnce ete steaectccsc covcitsoe socsimccmaces Sch stiegancceacst tee seats . The overlying blue-stone is found in blocks from the exterior of which a gray color penetrates to a variable depth from the natural joints. It is liable to contain flinty nodules, from which the underlying gray-stone is almost entirely free. The blue-stone in the bottom of the quarry is free from this gray covering ; but the intermediate stone, which is all gray, is considered the best material. In these quarries the gray-stone is found near the top, but in the other quarries reported from this township, being about 14 miles to the southeast of these, and.in the direction of the dip of the strata, this gray layer is not struck until a depth of from 12 to 16 feet from the surface is obtained. A very large amount of the cap-rock has been used for macadamizing streets and for ballast on the Columbus and Toledo railroad. The quarries in this township furnish the greater part of the stone used in the northern part of Union county and in quite a large portion of Hardin county. The material quarried at Marion is dolomite, containing some calcite. When microscopically examined it is found to consist of a multitude of perfect little rhombohedral crystals, each one of which contains a little black bituminous substance accumulated in its center, and all are cemented together by the calcite, which, although crystalline, does not assume a definite outline. The rock, when treated with cold and dilute acid, effervesces for a while, and the residue when examined is found to consist of a multitude of perfect and beautiful little rhombohedrons. The Marion stone has been selected for representation in the plate of microscopic sections, and some further remarks concerning its chemical composition and structure will be found in the general remarks that close this chapter. At Owen’s station, in the southern part of the county, there is a quarry in the Corniferous limestone from which over 9,000 tons of lime and broken stone were shipped during the census year. Six miles northeast of Marion,in the township of Grand Rapids, the same limestone is worked quite extensively. A ridge occurs at this point in which a number of quarries are located. Crawford county is well supplied with building material. The limestones are quite well adapted for construction of foundations, but they are not at the present time extensively quarried owing to a number of causes. There are 212 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. no great demands for stone in this agricultural region, and the home resources are thrown into competition with the Berea grit, which is quite extensively quarried at Leesville, in the southeastern part of the county. In Holmes township, about 6 miles northwest of Bucyrus, and near the Ohio Central railroad, three quarries are at present worked in the Corniferous limestone. The material has much the appearance of ine Marion limestone, but, while it may be of the same quality, the courses are generally thinner and not so well bedded. In Lykins township the same limestone is also quarried to some extent. The material from all these quarries has been used for bridge building and for foundations, but it is more and more displaced by the Leesville sandstone, especially for bridge-building purposes. A large quantity of quicklime has been produced here which has been shipped from Nevada, in Wyandot county, by the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad. For building purposes the limestone which is quarried from the Corniferous formation at Bloomville, Seneca county, has a higher reputation than the Helderberg limestones, and indeed it is said that these quarries produce one of the best limestones in northwestern Ohio. The material has been quite extensively used in Tiffin for many years for trimmings and stone fronts, and also for general building purposes in Mansfield and in the surrounding country. Good material for flagging, bridges, and foundations is quarried, and a slab 25 feet square might be obtained. It has already displaced in a measure at Mansfield the sandstones which are quarried in that vicinity. , The specimens sent to the museum are of an attractive gray color and are highly fossiliferous. Some fossils have apparently been entirely removed at some period and their places subsequently supplied with a clear crystalline calcite, and some of the fossil forms are therefore strikingly apparent upon polishing the surface of the stone. Under the microscope the stone is found to consist of a grand aggregate of fossil fragments, among which here and there the rhombohedron crystals of dolomite are developed in much perfection. The number of these rhombohedral crystals is, as usual, proportionate to the amount of magnesia in the rock, which in this case is about 16 per cent. The limestone industry in and about Sandusky is one of the most extensive in the state. This is partly due to the abundant and excellent supply of building stone furnished by the Corniferous strata of this region, and partly to the facilities for transportation by water and by rail. The city of Sandusky is founded upon a ledge of limestone, and excavation of any kind necessitates quarrying operations. In early days the stone thus extracted was the cheapest building material accessible, and came to be used very extensively. As a result the use of stone is more general there than in any other Ohio town. At Sandusky the upper layers of the Corniferous formation are composed of a blue limestone of a thickness from 20 to 25 feet. This is underlaid by the white Sandusky limestone, which is found in thicker courses, cuts easier, and is capable of making a better lime; but at Sandusky this stratum, which is also from 20 to 25 feet in thickness, lies beneath the level of the lake, and is not readily accessible. The dip of the strata is, however, away from the water, and consequently this layer of white limestone is brought to the surface at Marblehead and on Kelley’s island, as is shown in a number of quarries. The largest quarries are situated at these points. Sandusky itself, owing to the circumstances mentioned, possesses quite a large number of quarries, and the city itself constitutes in fact a great limestone quarry covered with but a very shallow layer of soil or earth. These city quarries have been worked very largely for home and foreign supply, not less than 12 acres having been excavated to a depth of 8 feet. The Sandusky blue limestone is found in layers of convenient thickness, and the range work furnished by it presents an attractive appearance. The courses vary between 4 and 10 inches in thickness, and the material is used largely for flaggings, although not very well adapted for this purpose. It is laid in slabs from 4 to 8 feet square, which are not very smooth or regular until they become polished by wear, and then they are dangerously smooth. For construction purposes the stone has proven very durable, and the best foundations cam be secured at small expense if made from this stone. It is also used for macadamizing the streets, and recently it has been found that a foundation of the Sandusky blue limestone can be advantageously overlaid by a thin coat of the white limestone which binds and cements the road-bed, All of the quarries which in the tables are indicated as existing in the corporate limits of Sandusie are essentially one, as they produce the same material, and only ina single case has a quarry been sunk to the level of the underlying white limestone. About one hundred and eighty houses in the city have been constructed of this stone. The specimens sent to the National Museum from various quarries are identical in their minutes structures. They are bluish-gray in color, compact, and present a fineappearance, however dressed. Although they effervesce rapidly in acid, they are quite magnesian, and under the microscope they are seen to consist of fossil fragments, among which a multitude of little rhombohedral crystals are developed. In the center of each one of these rhombohedrons is a black spot, which, upon close examination, is found to consist of pyrites. Sometimes, instead of a single spot, there is a large number of dust-like particles, which give to the stone a very marked and characteristic appearance. These are so numerous that it can scarcely be doubted that they impart the characteristic color to the stone. That they are situated, however, in the exact center of compact crystalline material cannot but have an influence in protecting them from disiategration, and there is no evidence that the presence of this ingredient has proved deleterious to the stone. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 213 The white underlying limestone is what is called a cutting stone, and can be raised in blocks as large as can be handled. It is more highly fossiliferous to the unaided eye than the blue limestone, but under a microscope it is less so, and there is a much larger number of the rhombohedral crystals which correspond to its more magnesian character. At point Marblehead the limestone quarries are all located in a terrace lying a few rods from the beach, where the thickness of the formation quarried is from 15 to 25 feet. Already 20 acres, as estimated, have been excavated to this depth. These quarries are among the most famous of northern Ohio, and their location directly on the shores of lake Erie, and the heavy stones that some of them produce, have led to very large use of the stone, especially in the government works along the line of the great lakes. Latterly they are losing their place as building stones to some extent, but the production of lime has increased. Some quarries have been worked for at least fifty years. In these quarries the lower 6 or 8 feet are cemented into one solid sheet from which the large dimension stones ‘for which the location is famous are extracted. It is from these quarries that a large part of the heavy stone used in the Sault Ste. Marie canal, in the northern light-houses, and in other government works has been derived. Many of the most important public and private structures in the region of the great lake were built of the Marblehead stone. The Detroit and the Cleveland water-works, the light-houses at Spectacle reef, Marblehead (built over fifty years ago), and Stanard’s Rock, lake Superior, were all wholly or partly built of this material. It is particularly valuable in situations where it is exposed to the action of water or frost, as is shown by the condition of the old locks of the Sault Ste. Marie Falls canal and the light-houses in exposed situations. The material from these quarries, like that at Sandusky, is a magnesian limestone, which contains beautifully- preserved fossils; the centers of the little rhombohedral crystals that characterize all of the Sandusky limestone are free from the grains of pyrites which characterize the blue Sandusky layers, and the difference in the color of the two stones is to be attributed to this circumstance. The following analysis, made by Mr. J. Lang Cassels, represents the composition of the limestone from these quarries: Per cent. CALCLUTCALD OUMUOR same sear ochre ed ec cincale shctivin cc acer lca craic deine sale adane setlemale wane scuea 83. 20 cs ORI ALC AL DOGO same emer ste tetas ser cie wists omiie de'a nel snc ce ciels vec alaeinte ss chs necle ake alasin ode sell os cenit Sat atete 15. 83 RS RET eee reece eee tire ren een Cielareia rm late ete Woe cisions eee ona bce uratdecels wie ota whaouiecie ade bacdlorccumteccd es eurcee 2 0.15 RUC TOMA GUO CT abe tgs wae alco ats code ih ain ono aly avn Videcd ge S/n ab hela slad emiaelee oes Se Swish tiee tat sees waged one's we 0, 02 IMEOESHIETOMeene cert ee mecca dm cbrcnc atone Bie Meise cates o/h ninya Sale weiad « ave eta baa wie oeinimnaaie ss Meacne. cians eles tina << \a5ee 0.80 POC ch ete ers eee rete pata EN See ee Ses igh eee ete os wale Re cismie Cine e oe ec ancieis ma Semon oo: Stee we 100. 00 The proprietors claim that they could easily extract a block of stone equal in size to the Egyptian obelisk recently introduced into this country, its extraction being simply a matter of expense. The block-stone proves to be a source of excellent lime, which has long been used, but which of late has been more abundantly produced. All of the waste material is devoted to this purpose, and nothing remains in the quarries except flint nodules. The modern kilns of the best construction are attached to some of the quarries, and 300 or 400 barrels per day are turned out from one single quarry. Part of the thin stone goes to lake Superior for furnace flux, where it is highly esteemed, and a large trade in the lime has been built up at Duluth and in the northwest, and the best stone of the quarries is now being burned. Much of the stone is shipped to other points to be burned, and all along the lakes are kilns which are supplied from Marblehead and Kelley’s island. The Michigan Insane Hospital building at Pontiac and the government breakwaters at Hrie were constructed of the Sandusky stone. At White House, in Lucas county, the same lower beds of the Corniferous are worked, and this is the only quarry which is operated to any extent on the Toledo, Wabash, and Western railroad between Toledo and Wabash, Some of the material is shipped to Toledo, as there is a demand for it in the winter, when, on account of the ice, the stone quarried near Sandusky cannot be shipped to Toledo by water. | Near Defiance there is some stone quarried from the beds on the Miami river, and the same is true at Antwerp. The quarry at White House was not extensively worked until 1879, when the railroad track was laid into it. The cap-rock has been used for ballast on the railroad, so that the stripping is accomplished without expense. The weathered rock which is used for ballast is from 2 to 8 feet in depth, and this is underlaid by 6 feet of gray- stone in courses of from 6 to 10 inches in thickness, 6 feet of blue-stone in courses from 6 to 18 inches in thickness, and one course of gray-stone 1 foot 10 inches in thickness. The bottom course is nearly uniform in thickness and is used for heavy bridge work. The blue-stone is not of a decided blue color, like that of the Upper Corniferous at Sandusky, but is a kind of grayish-blue. Napoleon and Defiance, Ohio, and Fort Wayne, Indiana, furnish the principal markets for this stone. In the townships along the Muskingum the sandstone, which is situated below the coal, affords an excellent building stone and is extensively quarried. The Waverly sandstone also occurs in the western portion of the county. The limestones which also occur in the county are, upon the whole, of rather inferior quality for purposes of construction, and would scarcely be worked if the lime which can be made from them was not of good quality and demanded for construction in the neighborhood. 214 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. SuB-CARBONIFEROUS.—A quarry situated at Newtonville, about 8 miles west from Zanesville, is the only one in Ohio from which limestones of sub-Carboniferous age are raised for building purposes. There are several large quarries in other exposures of this same horizon in southern Ohio that are worked exclusively for furnace flux and for lime- burning. The Newtonville stone is « beautiful material, very fine grained, quite even in color, and of great strength. It is very compact, highly fossiliferous, of light gray color, and has thus far shown no ill effects from exposure to the weather. The Muskingum County court-house, at Zanesville, one of the finest in the state, is built from this stone, and it has also been much used for caps, sills, columns, ete., and although the production at present is small, it may at any time be increased with a demand for the material ; but at the present time most of the product is burned. A thickness of about 10 feet of stone is quarried, that being the depth to which natural drainage extends. Several feet more of the best of the stone lie below this level, and the thickness of the layers increases with the depth; upon the top there are only very thin beds, while at a depth of 10 feet the beds are 16 or 18 inches in thickness. The material is nearly a pure carbonate of lime, containing only traces of iron and magnesia. In its microscopic structure it appears to be quite highly fossiliferous and very compact, containing only small traces of iron pyrites, the oxidation of which imparts the faint yellow color which the stone generally possesses. CARBONIFEROUS.—A quarter of a mile southwest of Zanesville, near the Muskingum river, a quarry has been opened in the limestone of the Lower Coal Measures, from which some material has been extracted which has been used chiefly for caps, sills, and top courses of foundations. The main product of this quarry is burned into lime. It is not used for the ruder purposes of construction, as it is too expensive. The ledge from which this stone is taken is a. solid mass of a bluish color, and about 3 feet in thickness. The stripping which overlies the 3 feet of stone is 25 feet thick. The material is a compact, earthy limestone of a very dark color, containing considerable protoxide of iron and very little magnesia. It is very highly fossiliferous and difficult to work, and is called by the stone-cutters hard and plucky. The outcrops of this stone are found abundantly in the neighborhood of Zanesville, and the material is quite extensively used for macadamizing streets. The national road for some distance west of Zanesville is constructed of it. There is quite a large number of quarries situated in the outcrops of Carboniferous limestone in southeastern Ohio, the products from which are used as fluxes and for burning, but the two quarries which have been mentioned in Muskingum county are the only ones which are of any consequence as producing materials of construction. The Carboniferous limestones of this area are hard to work and do not possess the highest requisites of a good building stone, but these quarries are capable at any time of producing material for building, and in fact does so under special circumstances. Although these quarries are worthy of consideration in connection with their ability to produce building stones, still the industry is so insignificant that it has not been considered important to tabulate the products of any of them. To recapitulate: The line drawn nearly through the center of the state from Erie county on the north through Adams county on the south will form the boundary between the area to the east, in which the chief quarrying industry is devoted to the extraction of sandstones, and the western area, in which the only quarrying industry is devoted to the extraction of limestones. The geological formations in the limestone area follow one another in a quite regular order, the oldest being situated in the southwestern corner, and the youngest in the eastern part of the state; and the character of the Stone is entirely dependent upon this geological arrangement, as regards both the character and the quality of the material. A considerable quantity of stone is extracted from the Cincinnati group, but, as already indicated, this is chiefly owing to the circumstance that the material is in the neighborhood of the large city of Cincinnati. In quality the material is surpassed by the stone from other formations. A narrow band of Clinton limestone surrounds the area of the Cincinnati group, but at the present time this formation furnishes no building stones. The Niagara or Cliff formation, which succeeds, is one of the great building-stone formations of the state, and in numerous places most excellent and durable materials are obtained; but even the subdivisions of this group determine largely the character of the stones extracted. The lowest or the Dayton formation produces at all points a hard, compact, light stone, while the Springfield division produces a less compact, more easily worked stone, and the top beds are almost universally converted into quicklime. The Helderberg or Water-lime rocks, which cover a large area, are almost without exception bituminous dolomites, but in character vary from dark to light and from compact to open or vesicular. The Corniferous limestones are most extensively quarried in and about Sandusky, and furnish one of the finest materials obtained in the state, while all of the overlying formations are almost devoid of building-stone quarries. As regards composition, the stones from these various formations vary from almost typical limestones to almost typical dolomites, and there seem to be no rules which will enable one to decide upon the quality or durability of the stone from its composition. Experience also demonstrates that the composition, as regards the proportion of DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 215 lime and magnesia, does not determine the value of the stone as material for the production of quicklime. It would therefore appear that the value of the stone is more largely dependent upon its accessory constituents and its microscopic structure. There is a progressive increase in the amount of magnesia from the Lower Silurian limestones to the Corniferous The Cincinnati limestones of the Lower Silurian contain from 1 to 5 per cent. of magnesian carbonate, while the Clinton limestones of the Upper Silurian contain on an average about 12 per cent. The Dayton limestone of the Niagara period contains about the same amount, while the upper divisions of the Niagara and the Helderberg formations are made up mainly of nearly typical dolomites. As regards composition the next following Corniferous limestones are very variable. At Bellefontaine the stone is a dolomite, and at Columbus it is as good a limestone, containing on an average 93 to 95 per cent. of carbonate of lime, and the Hocking Valley furnaces are largely using it for a flux. In structure there is less diversity in the Ohio limestone than in those of some of the other states, since the oolitic and concretionary forms do not appear; but all other types are found, and therefore the greatest diversity exists in the ease with which stones may be worked. There are the open, porous varieties, and the varieties which once were open and porous, but which have been again partially consolidated by the filling of the pores; others in which the pores have been entirely filled; and other varieties in which large crystals have developed themselves in a ground mass, giving to the stone a porphyritic aspect. There are the compact fossiliferous stones and the compact non-fossiliferous stones. As regards colors, they vary from very light to very dark, but all possess the drab, gray, or yellowish tints which are characteristic of what are called limestones. In microscopic structure the limestones of Ohio can all be classified according to certain types of structure which are found to be correlated with composition. It may be at first remarked that the microscope indicates that the stones are all highly crystalline. A crystal is a body which possesses a definite internal molecular structure, and if it is further assumed that the external crystalline form is a property of crystals, then many Ohio limestones are more crystalline in their structure than are the so-called highly-crystalline marbles; for in a great many cases the - very well developed crystals with external. planes are developed in the mass of the stone, and in other cases the stone is entirely composed of such erystals with the form characteristic of the species of the mineral which composes it. Inno case has there been found in any Ohio limestone anything which could be called in any correct sense of the word uncrystalline; and, indeed, in the light of the microscopic study, any distinction which can uniformly distinguish a limestone from a dolomite is very difficult to find. The progressive increase in the amount of magnesla which is contained in stones is indicated in the microscopic structure by the development of little rhombohedral crystals the sections of which appear quite conspicuous with their sharply-defined edges. INDIANA. [Compiled mainly from notes of Professor Orton. ] The rocks of the Cincinnati epoch of the Lower Silurian period occupy a small area in the southeastern part of the state, but no quarry rock is developed in this formation. Its western limit is roughly defined by a line drawn from Winchester, Randolph county, to Madison, Jefferson county. The rocks of the Niagara epoch of the Upper Silurian period occupy a more extensive territory north and west of this line. This formation furnishes stone for foundations, underpinnings, and bridge work in nearly every county which it occupies. In a few localities the stone is suitable for the better architectural purposes, and in some places an excellent flag-stone is produced. The Helderberg formation has not been identified in Indiana. The approximate northern and western limits of the Upper Silurian formation are marked by a line drawn from Fort Wayne to Logansport, and thence to the eastern extremity of Clark county. The Devonian formation occupies a narrow belt to the west of the Silurian. It has a meager development, its entire thickness being only about 200 feet, and it furnishes little building stone. The line between this and the sub-Carboniferous formation may be roughly drawn from the northwest corner of Benton county to the northwest corner of Clinton county, and thence to the southern extremity of Clark county. As to production of stone, the sub-Carboniferous is the most important formation in the state. It furnishes the famous “Bedford limestone,” and also some valuable sandstones, which are, however, mostly noted for their adaptability to the manufacture of grindstones and whetstones. The Coal Measures occupy the southwestern part of the state, and the dividing line between this and the sub-Carboniferous formation is nearly that from the southern extremity of Perry county to a point about 5 miles southwest of the northeast corner of Warren county, and from there west to the state line. The coarse sandstone, commonly known as the “conglomerate”, at the base of this formation is found in a region on all sides of which for many miles little sandstone suitable for heavy masonry is available, and also near large districts entirely destitute of building stones; but as yet no large quarry industries have been developed in this formation. The northern portion of the state beyond the line drawn across it through Fort Wayne ofl Monticello is deeply covered with drift material. The granitic bowlders found quite abundantly on the surtace in some localities’ 216 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. furnish the only local supplies of stone in this extensive district. It is in this region that a considerable market is found for the sandstones quarried at Stony Point, Michigan, and Berea and Amherst, Ohio, and for the limestone quarried in the Bedford district in southern Indiana, and in the Joliet district of Hlinois. LIMESTONE. The localities north of Indianapolis where limestone is quarried for building stone, with a few exceptions, deserve but a passing notice. At Wabash quite an important flagging stone is obtained at the quarries of Messrs. Bridges & Seot, Hubbard & Smith, Philip Hipskin, and William J. Ford; important because it is the best stone for sidewalk pavements to be obtained for many miles around. It occurs in layers from 1 inch to 7 inches in thickness, those from 2 to 5 inches thick being most commonly used for flagging, and the heavier courses for foundations and bridge work. The joints run quite regularly, and occur far enough apart to.allow the largest required slabs to be obtained. The surface of the natural slabs is, however, rather too rough to allow the stone to be classed with the best of flag-stones. The quarry of Messrs. Moellering & Paul is in a different stratum of the Niagara limestone; the beds vary in thickness from 3 to 15 inches, and the stone is shipped to Fort Wayne, where it is used for foundations and underpinnings. The quarry of Messrs. Little & Shoemaker is in a thin, irregularly-bedded limestone, commonly called “‘ shell-rock”. It is easily worked, and is cut through by the Wabash and Pacific railroad, which furnishes direct transportation for the quarry product to Fort Wayne, where such stone is in demand for ordinary foundations. The quarries in Adams, Wells, Howard, Grant, Blackford, and Delaware counties furnish stone for light bridge work and for foundations. The most valuable deposits of limestone that have been quarried for building purposes in northern Indiana are in Cass and Madison counties. . ; The quarries of Messrs. J. E. Burns and August Gleitz are located about 3 miles west of Logansport, Cass county, in the south bank of the Wabash river, and in a stratum of compact, though easily-worked, uniformly- colored limestone, in layers from 4 inches to 4 feet thick. These quarries have furnished the stone for the - superstructures of some fine church buildings and for quite a large number of dwellings, stores, shops, etc., in Logansport. This stone presents a very pleasant appearance in a building when dressed rock-face. The stone _ from the quarry of Messrs. Lux & Lux, at Logansport, is used for foundations. The Anderson, Madison county, quarries are located in an evenly-bedded limestone which works quite well under the chisel. This stone lies in beds from 4 to 12 inches in thickness, and is used in the town of Anderson for flagging, foundations, caps, sills, ete. It is rather beautiful and quite durable. There is a number of localities in northern Indiana, south of the drift-covered region, where limestone is quarried for the manufacture of quicklime. A large amount of lime of excellent quality is burned annually at Huntington, and considerable amounts are burned at Peru and Delphi. In the Upper Silurian or Niagara formation there are quarries of considerable importance in the southern part of the state, but by far the most valuable building stone of the state is obtained from a stratum of limestone in the sub-Carboniferous formation. This limestone is supposed to belong in the geological scale to the Saint Louis group of the sub-Carboniferous period. It occurs in massive beds of almost pure limestone, varying in different localities from an ordinary gray to an almost pure white color, and having a granular or oolitic structure. It is known by Indiana geologists as the ‘oolitic limestone”, and is commonly known in the trade as Bedford stone and Indiana stone. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 221 nd Io the vicinity of Sterling, in Whiteside county, there are two considerable quarries in this formation which are especially notable. The rock is here a very compact, hard stone, and one quarry has been worked to a depth of about 30 feet. The upper beds are quite thin and can be taken out in very large slabs, which make very excellent flag-stones. The lower beds are of moderate thickness with a compact, argillaceous limestone, furnishing an excellent building material, and have been quite largely quarried. Samples of this stone were tested by the United States authorities at Rock Island, and showed a strength to resist crushing varying from 7,000 to 10,000 pounds per square inch; in specimens 2 inches square and 4 inches high, a strength nearly equal to that of similar specimens from the Joliet and Lemont quarries. That this quality of stone has a very limited extent, however, in these beds the small quarries and other exposures within a limit of 2 miles show very conclusively. In Hopkins township, east of Sterling, is another similar quarry, where almost, if not quite, as good stone has been quarried considerably. A much less thickness of the strata furnishing good building stone is exposed here. In these quarry stones the addition of a considerable pereentage of the carbonates of lime and magnesia has made the shales impure magnesian limestones and given them locally strength, durability, and reliability. At all other points where they are quarried, however, though they may in places appear to yield durable stone, they are liable to furnish occasional stones which, upon exposure, will rapidly disintegrate, and they are extremely unlikely to furnish anywhere any stone which will have more than a small local value, or be the basis of any regular industry. NIAGARA GROUP.—The limestones of the Niagara group show in no place a thickness of more than about 100 feet, but are the surface stone over a very large area in the extreme northeastern, northwestern, and western part of the state. Nearly everywhere when exposed they furnish at least a good ordinary building stone, while in very many localities the stone quarried from them is of unusual excellence and applicable to almost all of the uses for which stone is required for building purposes. Their principal area of occurrence, in point of territory covered, lies in the extreme northeastern part of the state, where they extend from the northern boundary along the lake shore, and as far south as the central part of Iroquois county, in a band whose varying width averages about 40 miles. In Jo Daviess, Carroll, Whiteside, and Rock Island counties are two very irregular areas of considerable extent. Farther south, in Pike county, and in Calhoun and Jersey counties, are two small areas, the latter of considerable importance, while! in Alexander county, at almost the extreme southern point of the state, they occur again in a narrow area extending two-thirds the length of the county from near its northern boundary along or closely adjoining the Mississippi river. In the first-mentioned area they are almost every where quite deeply covered with deposits of powlder drift and clays, except where rivers or streams of some considerable magnitude have cut through these coverings. This is especially true of the extreme northeastern counties, McHenry and Lake, where the covering is very deep, and where those exposures which do occur or have been made show the rock to be too flinty and thinly-bedded to be of any value. To the southward, espetially as they approach the southwestern limit of the area, the main valleys of the Fox and Illinois rivers show numerous exposures of the rock, most of which are capable of furnishing an excellent building material. The most important of these are found extending along the Illinois river from 2 miles above Lemont to a few miles below Joliet in an almost continuous line. The exposures of value for building stone are almost entirely confined to the left or south side of the valley, except at and below Joliet. At Lemont the stone quarries lie on both sides of the Illinois and Lake Michigan canal, which here skirts along the valley above the base of the hills on the left bank of the river, though principally on the southwest. The beds are quarried to their lower limits through a variable thickness of from 12 to 40 feet. The stone here is uniformly a very fine grained, homogeneous, light drab limestone, occurring in beds from 6 to 24 and some times 30 inches in thickness. The beds are divided vertically by seams occurring at somewhat irregular intervals of from 12 to 50 feet, and continue with quite smooth faces for long distances, and also by a second set running nearly at right angles. with the first, but only continuous between main joints and occurring at very irregular intervals. This structure renders the rock very easily quarried and obtainable in blocks of almost any required lateral dimensions. The stone is easily worked into required shapes and takes a fine, smooth finish, which can hardly be called a polish. At the works of the Singer & Talcott Company large quantities of the stone are planed by machines closely resembling those used in planing surfaces of iron. ‘This forms a very rapid and cheap method of finishing flagging stones and preparing stones which are to receive a smooth finish for the polishing-bed. Very large quantities of flagging stone are gotten out by this company, which for the past few years has supplied nearly, if not quite, nine- tenths of the stone for that purpose put down in Chicago, as well as large quantities for other places. The finer and more homogeneous varieties can also be very readily shaped into any of the forms which lathes are capable of turning out, such as balustrade work, and a great deal of this sort of ornamental stone-work is made here. The stone can also be readily carved in bas-relief, but is not sufficiently tough for high relief work. Its color is a bluish-gray to nearly white, and that quarried in this immediate vicinity seems to contain less iron oxide than that quarried lower down, at and below Joliet, and does not tarnish so much. Quarrying has hitherto been largely done under very light stripping, but most of the future developments of these quarries must necessarily be done under very heavy stripping of clay and medium-sized gravel. This is her~ all done by hand. The stone here is injured by exposure to the frost while containing its natural moisture. Ts is a cause of either a considerable annual expense in making earth protection, or annual loss in destruction of stene, except in a few of the quarries so fortunately situated that they can be flooded during the winter season. 222 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The principal market for the stone quarried here is the city of Chicago, but large quantities of the stone are: also shipped in every direction to points throughout northern Illinois and the adjoining states of Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, and Wisconsin. These quarries extend for nearly 4 miles below Lemont, where a gap occurs,.to just below Lockport, from which point a line of closely-adjoining quarries extends to below Joliet. The finer varieties of this stone do not seem well fitted for heavy masonry in damp situations. Fine clay seams abound, which are invisible when the stone is first quarried, and when it is used under ordinary circumstances generally do not develop at all, but in such situations as expose the stone to heavy moving loads, or to alternate moisture and dryness accompanied by frost, they are soon developed and often render the stone worthless. Even the purest and best of the stone, especially in cities where much soft coal is burned, becomes somewhat tarnished to a light yellowish tint after long exposure, but does not become of a strong buff color. The quarries of the Joliet group extend from about a mile below the village of Lockport to about the same distance below Joliet. The total thickness of Niagara strata exposed here is apparently much greater than at Lemont, and two fairly distinguishable varieties of the stone are quarried. That quarried at the lower beds, in the vicinity of the penitentiary, on the right bank of the river, and just below the city closely adjoining the river, is generally a rougher, more irregularly-textured stone, occurring in beds as much as 24 inches thick, and is now chiefly used for ordinary and heavy masonry, and very little for ornamental purposes. This stone, upon exposure, becomes tarnished to a very decided and sometimes a quite deep buff tint, which is not a handsome color for face or ornamental stone. It appears, however, to be especially well suited to the purposes mentioned above. In the quarries back from the river, at higher levels, the stone is generally a fine-grained, much more homogeneous rock, much of it quite equal in this respect to the best of that quarried at Lemont, and it occurs near the bottom of” the quarries, as now worked, in beds often from 3 to 4 feet in thickness, and is obtainable in large blocks. Most of it appears to weather-stain rather more than the Lemont stone, but to be otherwise exactly like it. It is very largely used as a building and an ornamental stone, and large quantities of it are shipped by rail to points throughout northern and central Illinois, and to every one of the adjoining states. Thevalue of the stone quarried at these two. localities is probably fully equal to that of all the other stone quarried in the state. Along the Fox River valley, from Elgin to Aurora, there are occasional exposures of the Niagara limestone, some of which are considerably quarried. In all of them, however, there is a heavy covering of drift, which renders - the quarrying quite expensive. At Batavia there are extensive quarries. The drift covering necessary to be removed is from 20 to 40 feet deep, almost entirely sand and medium-sized gravel. There are three large quarries on each side of the river whose products are all entirely similar. The stone is rather rougher, coarser, and more irregular in texture than that at Joliet and Lemont, and is more compact and difficult to work. A few of the beds furnish stone fit for ornamental : work in fairly large sizes. The expense of quarrying has been very greatly imcreased by the heavier stripping required. At Aurora there is also a very large quarry of the same excellent and durable stone, the product of which is. mainly used for rough foundation and heavy masonry. There are also quarries of some value at Thornton, on the Illinois Central railroad, and at Blue Island, on the- Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific railroad. There is also within the city limits of Chicago a quarry in the limestone - of this formation, which is there impregnated with organic matter that gives the stone a dark and dingy tint upon exposure, and soon imparts to it an appearance of great age. It was used in the construction of one of the principal church buildings in the city, but it was most largely quarried for lime and ordinary wall stone. At Kankakee, Kankakee county, there are two large quarries. The stone quarried there is a compact, coarse,. somewhat irreguiarly-textured dolomitic limestone containing rather numerous small cavities and sand-pits, but it is @ strong and durable building material, especially valuable for resisting and enduring under very unfavorable- circumstances when exposed to dampness and frost, and has very considerable strength. It has been largely used as face-stone in building work, but contains numerous crystals of pyrites which decompose and stain the stone dark. yellow in patches, badly marring its appearance. Large quantities of the stone are used in bridge work along the. lines of railroad passing through this place. In the area of Niagara limestone lying in the northwestern part of the state, in Whiteside and Jo Daviess counties, are numerous exposures, and the beds furnish everywhere a rough-textured, heavily-bedded, durable - stone, excellent for all kinds of ordinary heavy masonry, but they are nowhere peencively quarried... Farther - south, in northern Rock Island county, these beds, when found, are softer and excellent for lime-burning, but furnish . no eG rate building material. In Pike county the Niagara rocks form the base of the Mississippi River bluffs for a considerable distance. They are here of somewhat rough-textured, compact, buff-colored limestone of great durability, a building material for ordinary and heavy masonry quite Saal to the best Joliet or Grafton stone. The same stone is also found high up on the river bluffs in southern Calhoun county, and also all along the Illinois and Mississippi River fronts of Jersey county to just below Grafton, and everywhere presents precisely the same physical characteristics. At Grafton the stone is very extensively quarried, principally for the Saint Louis market, but considerable quantities of it are also shipped to other river points, the river having been, to the present time, the only channel: for transportation available. The stone quarried here is of very great strength and durability. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 223 The rocks of this group also occur in the river blutfs of Union and Alexander counties, in the extreme southern part of thestate. Like the Trenton beds which they overlie, they are there mottled, semi-crystalline rocks, occurring in very heavy beds, the stone taking ‘a fine polish and capable of yielding a very handsome ornamental stone, as well as a thoroughly reliable and handsome building material. They are not, as far as I could learn, yet worked. DEVONIAN. The Devonian age is represented in Illinois by a series of shales and limestone, of small total thickness, varying from 10 to over 100 feet. The exposures of these rocks are not numerous and are of very limited extent. In Calhoun county they include about 10 feet of a coarse, gray limestone, useful and slightly used as a building material. In Jackson, Union, and Alexander counties some of the beds might be utilized for the same purpose. In Jackson county there are beds in the Devonian series at Bald Hill and at Back Bone which are very hard ande ven-textured and take a fine polish. They are of variegated color also, and have been worked to some extent. Other beds in the same series also furnish excellent rough building material. CARBONIFEROUS. The rocks of the Carboniferous age underlie the greater part of Illinois. They form a series of very great thickness in their greatest development, probably over 2,500 feet, and are of very great importance not only because of the mineral wealth, especially of coal, but also because of the vast, almost unlimited, quantities of most excellent building stone they are capable of supplying, and very cheaply, at great numbers of points over the state. This is especially and particularly true of the lower division of the group, the sub-Carboniferous limestone, so called, which furnishes a maximum thickness of limestones, sandstones, and shales; principally limestones of over 1,500 feet, in the southern part of the state, which gradually thins out to less than 1,000 feet total average, toward the northern limit of their exposure. A very large proportion of these beds furnish excellent building stones wherever found. The most northerly exposures of these beds occur in southern Mercer county, and from here they extend southward in an area of very variable width from 5 to 30 miles or more, always along or close to the Mississippi river, and nearly the whole length of the state to southern Jackson county, where they swing to the eastward and cross the state, through Union, Johnson, and Pope counties to Hardin county, at whose easternmost limit they cross the Ohio river into Kentucky. They form the whole or the greater part of the Mississippi River bluffs throughout the entire distance from Mercer to Jackson county, with the exception of the limited localities already described, where the river front is occupied by older rocks. Five main subdivisions of the rocks of this group were made by the Illinois geologists and traced throughout most of the area. KINDERHOOK GROUP.—The Kinderhook group, the lowest and least important of the series, has at its greatest development a thickness of less than 200 feet, which in places includes limestone strata of no great thickness available for building stone, but which are not always a reliable material, and nowhere extensively quarried. BURLINGTON LIMESTONE.—The Burlington limestone, next in the series, occurs in beds whose variable thickness amounts in many places to over 200 feet; it is a very pure carbonate of lime, highly fossiliferous, and for almost its total thickness is an excellent building material. In Henderson county it outcrops along the river bluffs through the whole length of the county. It is a fairly even textured light blue or yellowish-gray, moderately thick-bedded stone, but little affected by weather. The beds have been quite largely worked in the eastern part of the county, and also at Sagetown, where a very extensive quarry furnishes a large quantity of material, principally used in railroad constructions. The stone for the piers of the Mississippi River bridge at Burlington was taken from this quarry and has stood the exposure and abrasion with great success, and seems also to have been discolored little or none. It forms no part of the surface of Hancock county, but in Adams county is again exposed along the whole line of river bluffs, from Quincy to the southern line of the county, having everywhere about 40 feet in thickness of moderately heavy beds of excellent but rather rough-textured building stone. At Quincy, within the city, a thickness of about 100 feet of this limestone is quarried, and is most of it available for building stone; an excellent and durable material, but not a fine ornamental stone, Some few of the layers contain pyrites and become badly discolored upon exposure. Throughout the whole river front of Pike county, both on the west and on the east, these beds form a continuous outcrop, including, as in Adams county, about 40 feet in thickness of beds available as building material. The stone is here often found in beds from 2 to 4 feet thick, and is, wherever free from flints, an excellent building and dimension stone. Numerous exposures are also found along the creeks in the northern part of the county. In the vicinity of Jersey landing, Jersey county, it forms the entire river bluff, and is a nearly white, somewhat uneven-textured, medium-bedded limestone, containing occasional seams and flints, and furnishing a very good building stone for rubble and ordinary cut-stone masonry. It is very little quarried now. _ Krokuk GRoup.—The. Keokuk group, next in succession, consists chiefly of limestones. Its rocks extend in Illinois from central Henderson county along nearly the whole band of sub-Carboniferous rocks to Hardin county. Only the middle beds of this formation furnish good building material, and in these there are a number of noteworthy quarries. Their extreme thickness is about.70 feet, and the rock is an even-textured, light gray colored, 224 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. -easily-dressed stone, which does not discolor or show any signs of disintegrating upon exposure. In most places its beds are separated by clay seams sometimes of several inches thickness, the beds themselves varying from 6 inches to 3 feet. In eastern Henderson county these beds are exposed in numerous places, especially in the vicinity of Biggsville, and there furnish only an ordinary building stone in blocks of very moderate dimensions. In Hancock county these beds form the base of the river bluffs for a long distance, and have been extensively quarried in a number of places. Near Nauvoo large quarries were at one time worked, and furnished the material of the once famous Mormon temple at that place. Stone from these quarries was used also in the construction of the United States court-house and post-office buildings at Galena and at Dubuque. South of here about 4 miles the Tallant Stone and Marble Company has opened a considerable quarry in the same beds, and furnishes a rather coarse, uniform-textured, white, and very light gray limestone, which is easily cut, sawed, and shaped, and does not tarnish upon exposure. Some of the beds furnish stone which can be polished, and in places some of the beds contain much cherty material, while others are entirely free from it. Very large blocks are easily obtained. The same beds have also been much quarried at Hamilton and Niota in the same county. The analysis of this stone (Illinois Geological Report, Vol. J, p. 99), specimen from Nauvoo quarry, gives: Per cent. Catbonate of Time! osetes 2 cojec cock estos cae werseisis sin smi clnleruleials almip aialateta ale tele oba ctata ave ieteieyape ial aerate et sete atte eet een 82. 48 Alumina and iron 503i Soe sl2 Sis olaeid swam ae se wicinee asin e atecie lon cin oeleak o wetest cele cits oem te cee ihe er ere 2. 10 Insoluble mattersit aiid Seek feces Be ee ete amen ete BE Hs oink ahah. widen vice con ee pane ee 12.50 Water and loss.cun. ccc c ces kieteticwe cee siscne ecsinec cases ce ipin smal e cae sae en as spac a eenice aele en pein = a eee 2. 92 Total s csccgaciceccedvca dace CoGescisateicee sacs cle ste cnics seem thse motte a aneeeatee one mee nent ee tee eee 100. 00 Throughout Adams county where these beds are found they furnish, when free from flints, a stone precisely similar to that at Nauvoo. They outcrop in very many places throughout the northern and northeastern part of the county. In Pike county the beds of this group, which rest directly upon the Burlington beds, furnish an excellent building material very like that of those beds. They outcrop, especially in the vicinity of Griggsville, where the beds are unusually free from flints. In Jersey county, though there are numerous exposures, they furnish no excellent building material on account of the number of flints they carry. In Hardin county a heavily-bedded limestone, in layers from 1 foot to 3 feet thick, outcrops along the Ohio River bluffs, but is not quarried for building material. Saint Lovis GRoup.—The beds of the Saint Louis group furnish a very large amount of- building stones of considerable variety in texture and properties. In Hancock county the lowest beds of the series are of a somewhat arenaceous magnesian limestone, generally of alight yellow or buff color, darkening upon exposure. ‘The stone cuts readily and can be obtained in quite large blocks, and possesses very great durability in the most trying situations. Large quarries in these beds were opened and extensively worked just at the head of the Keokuk rapids, on the Illinois side, and furnished nearly all of the riprap for lining the government canal around those rapids, beside considerable of the cut stone used in the locks, where it has resisted very successfully. These quarries have been abandoned for several years, however. This stone readily breaks into blocks for the better class of rubble, very square and of convenient sizes. Below Warsaw these beds attain a very great thickness, and are eaacaee considerably in a good many localities. They nearly everywhere contain minute crystals of pyrites, which decompose upon exposure and discolor the stone. There are also numerous exposures upon the creeks in the eastern part of the county. These same beds are also found in the northern and northwestern part of Adams county, where the rock is of the same character. In Pike county they are only found in the extreme northern and northeastern part, and where occurring furnish the same brown magnesian limestone, a most excellent and durable building material. In Calhoun county they form a continuous exposure along the river bluffs, and are everywhere a rather thinly- bedded and hard but very durable building rock, and would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply. In Jersey county the principal exposures occur along the Piasa; and on the Mississippi river, just south of the Piasa, at its mouth, in Madison county, are also large exposures. The beds here are nearly true dolomites, are often found with very heavy layers, and furnish a very excellent heavy wall stone. Some of the upper beds at this last locality take a fine polish, and could be used as an ornamental stone; they also furnish excellent flags. The bluffs at Alton present a thickness of over a hundred feet of these beds, the whole of which is quarried for lime and building stone. The middle and lower beds furnish some excellent hard, even, close-textured rock, in every respect good building material. The brecciated beds found here have been largely used for rough, heavy masonry, vut observation shows them unreliable for that purpose, gradually becoming separated into irregular fragments. In Saint Clair county a total thickness of about 200 feet of these beds is exposed; nearly all of good building material and available. Some of thé thinner beds furnish an excellent flagging, while the heavier beds contain a light gray, compact stone, excellent for every variety of mason work. They form the river bluffs through most of the southern part of the county. In Madison county the beds exposed are also dolomitic to some extent; at places pure DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 225 dolomites (specimens analyzed at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, proved to be calcareous dolomites). They furnish everywhere an excellent material for building purposes. Occasionally the stone is sufficiently hard and compact to take a fine polish. : In Monroe county the rocks of this formation are pretty well distributed over nearly the whole of the county. They are extensively quarried at Columbia and at Waterloo. In the vicinity of the latter place the rocks quarried are especially suitable for cut-stone work of every variety. They are of a bluish-gray color, sometimes nearly white. In the vicinity of Columbia there is exposed in the lower division of these beds about 20 feet in thickness of heavily-bedded, light gray, granular limestone entirely free from flints, splitting easily and furnishing blocks of any required size. There are also in the lower division of these beds heavily-bedded buff limestones which make most excellent heavy wall-stone. These are exposed in about 100 feet thickness at and in the vicinity of Salt Lick point, on the Mississippi river. In Randolph county they also occur in the northwestern part of the county 200 feet thick and in beds similar to those in Monroe county. In Jackson county these beds furnish some good building material. In Union county, in the vicinity of Jonesboro’, are numerous quarries, not now much worked, of massive, granular, nearly white limestone, an excellent sgh: stone for ordinary situations; they are of fine appearance and obtainable in large blocks, but are said not to resist when exposed to frost in damp places. In Johnson and Pope counties also these beds would furnish excellent building material in large quantities, but they are nowhere worked. At Roseclair, in Hardin county, large quarries were worked for many years in the beds of this formation, and are yet worked, though not on so large a scale. Oolitic beds occur in the bluffs just below the village, and are somewhat quarried. They furnish a very hard, fine stone which takes a high polish, has a dark bluish-gray color, and is a very durable and handsome stone. Large blocks are readily obtainable. Places for several large quarries conveniently located on the river can readily be found here. CHESTER GROUP.—The beds of the Chester group expose a thickness in places of over 600 feet of alternating limestones, sandstones, and shales, capable of furnishing large quantities of fine building material. One of the sandstone beds of this group is found capping the bluffs at Alton, where it is a clear, white, pure siliceous sandstone, fine-grained, perfectly homogeneous, and occurring in massive beds from which very large stones might be obtained. It shows no tendency to discolor upon exposure. It is little quarried, and not at all for ornamental purposes, for which it appears very suitable. In Saint Clair county the lower sandstone of the group furnishes a durable stone, buff or brown in color, easily quarried and cut, hardening upon exposure, and obtainable in blocks of any required size possible to be handled. Overlying this is a thinly-bedded limestone of the same group available for common wall masonry. In Monroe county the lowest sandstone of the group shows in a thickness of 60 or 75 feet, generally evenly-bedded and uniform-textured, but occasionally concretionary. This outcrops in numerous places in the southeastern part of the county. Some of the limestones of the group outcrop here also, and furnish good rough building stone. In Randolph county, where this series finds its greatest development, the lower limestone of the series is 150 feet thick. Itis all fit for ordinary building stone, while some of the beds also furnish excellent dimension stone for cut work. Some of the upper limestone beds of the series also furnish excellent material for cut-stone work. The Penitentiary quarry at Chester is worked in these beds, and much riprap, rough building material, great quantities of paving blocks, and considerable cut stone of fine appearance are obtained. The lower sandstone of the group is here precisely similar in characteristics to the same beds in Monroe county, but is here more than 100 feet in thickness. It has been somewhat quarried just above Chester, where it can be made to furnish blocks of great size. It is a stone of great strength and durability, and presents a uniform and good appearance, its color, however, being somewhat against it. The other sandstones of the Chester series furnish a fine-grained, soft, even-textured, buff and brownish colored stone which cuts with great ease when first quarried, but hardens upon exposure and changes color very slightly. It is a rather handsome building material. The southern Illinois penitentiary is built largely of these sandstones, and presents a fine appearance. In Jackson county, where they occur, the limestones of this group are generally too silesone and too hard to work, and usually furnish stone only for ordinary building purposes. The sandstones, however, can furnish large nannies of excellent building material. They are soft, fine-grained, harden on exposure, are durable, and usually of dark brown or strong yellow color. In Union county, when not too argillaceous, the limestones furnish good building material. At Cobden there is a very heavily-bedded, compact, dark blue, very hard limestone, very difficult to cut, but which would make a most excellent bridge and culvert material, and has been somewhat used for that purpose. In Johnson county the ‘sandstones of this group occur in easily workable position in numerous places, and would furnish excellent flagging and dimension stone. Some good building material is also obtainable from the limestones. VOL. Ix——15 BS 226 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. In Pope county, while some few of the sandstone exposures furnish a fine building material, most of the outcrops show the stone to be too hard and uneven. Where exposed near the Ohio river the limestones of this group furnish excellent building stone for the finer classes of work. In Hardin county some of the sandstones are very refractory and are used for furnace linings. They furnish also some good flagging and some fair building material. The Coal Measures underlie the greater part of Illinois, probably three-fourths of its territory ; the greater portion of the territory is deeply covered with the more recent clay deposits, and exposures are rather scarce. In the southern part of the area there is, however, a less depth of these deposits, and more numerous exposures, many of which furnish building material of some sort. Their rocks comprise here, as elsewhere, alternate beds of sandstones, shales, limestones, and conglomerates. Most of the sandstones are coarse and irregular in texture, and generally disintegrate upon exposure. In the southern part of the state there are, however, many places where they are hard, fine, and tolerably durable, and in many localities furnish excellent flagging and good building material. The limestones of the series are generally rough-textured, thin-bedded, and shaly, and in but few places furnish a material fit for ordinary use. In comparison with the sub-Carboniferous beds, these, however, will furnish but a small total amount of really excellent material. The points where beds in this formation have been worked are few in number and of little importance generally. Between Cobden and Mahanda, on the line of the Illinois Central railroad, and adjoining the track, is a small quarry in a medium-bedded limestone, which might be very greatly enlarged. The beds are regular and even, and the stone appears to be quite durable. Three miles south of Carbondale, on both sides of the little creek through whose valley the railroad runs, are exposures of a reddish sandstone of considerable value for building material. It is a medium-grained, even-textured stone, fresh fracture, dark red, weathering to a purplish-gray tint, easily quarried, but becoming quite hard upon exposure. At the top of the eastern bluff a large quarry was once worked but is now abandoned. The convenient outcrop could supply a great quantity of the material. The bed seems to be about 14 feet thick, and would easily furnish sawed stone 4 by 10 by 40 feet in one piece. The stone for the State Normal School building, a very handsome structure, was obtained at this quarry. On the west side, opposite, are excellent exposures of the same rock, forming a similar ledge low down on the bluff. The beds lying above this ledge are thin and hard, and furnish a fair flagging, which is quarried in moderate quantities at this place. At Xenia, Clay county, there is a small thickness of drab-colored, fine-grained, even-textured sandstone exposed in a creek valley for 2 or 3 miles, furnishing a fair building and ornamental stone, and is quarried and shipped in moderate quantities. There are also said to be sandstone exposures along Crooked creek, in the same county, of considerable value for building purposes. . At Carlyle, Clinton county, are small quarries in a rough-textured, durable limestone; and on Shoal creek, a few miles west of Carlyle, limestone strata of fair quality for both ordinar y and cut-stone ae) are found outcropping in a number of places, and are quarried in a small way. In Greene county are beds of sandstone which would furnish considerable quantities of fair building stone, and there are numerous other exposures of like character. In no place, however, are there any beds which are likely to prove of more than local importance. In the northern part of this area the covering of the rock formations is so deep and the country so level that large districts are without rock exposures, and depend entirely for their supply upon the means of transportation. The county, however, is crossed in every direction by railroads. While the resources of the state within herself are sufficient many times over, it is quite likely that much of the building stone for the state, especially in some portions of it, will be brought from Ohio and Indiana, because of its great excellence and proximity to the market. Nearly all the northern, western, and southern counties have ordinary building stone in great abundance and well distributed. Increased facilities for transportation have been rapidly extended throughout many of the counties richest in this particular commodity, which have hitherto had no railroads, and this must undoubtedly result in the development of considerable industries in quarrying and shipping of these materials ta the less favored districts. I have to acknowledge my great obligation to the Illinois geological reports for facts about much of the territory having no present quarrying industries, which could not be visited, and for other facts gleaned from that report and incorporated herein. MICHIGAN. By PROFESSOR ALLAN D. CONOVER, Special Agent. The state of Michigan contains rocks representing a larger range of geological formations than those of any of the adjoining states, but within her limits their lithological character and mode of occurrence, as also those of the later and looser deposits, are such that there are comparatively few points where the quarrying of stone for building purposes is ever likely to become an important industry, but at some of these it is of very considerable importance. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 227 The Archean rocks occur only in the northern and northwestern parts of the northern peninsula, and have not as yet furnished any building stone. The Huronian subdivision, however, carries beds of very cousiderable thickness of slates of very great value as roofing material. These have unusual development in the vicinity of Huron bay, » on the coast of lake Superior, and were during the last decade opened and worked at a number of points, all in the same vicinity, in township 51, range 31. Several stock companies were formed, with large capital, each owning large tracts of land in this township, and some work was done in developing quarries, but the difficulties of transportation and shipment and small market for their product led to their temporary abandonment and the failure of the companies owning them. These beds furnish slate very readily cleavable, generally of black color, but also occurring in places of green, purple, and gray colors, in vast quantities, and so far as their exposures and the limited trial given them go to show, of very considerable enduring power, and they bid fair to be of very considerable value as the development of this and the adjoining states creates more market for material of the kind. Besides these deposits I do not know that these rocks furnish any material now used in building, or any whose character, so far as known, renders them likely to be quarried for that purpose even to supply local demand. Beds of limestone, altered to marble, occur associated with the granitic rocks of the Laurentian, which furnish very numerous handsome specimens, but do not, I believe, occur anywhere, as yet discovered, where large blocks of material of homogeneous character can be obtained in quantity. It is quite possible that the granitic beds may some time furnish valuable building material of that class, and also that the quartzites which occur in large quantities and are easily reached may also furnish valuable paving material where the location of outcrops of the suitable quality occurs conveniently to cheap transportation facilities; but as yet nothing of that sort has been developed. The Potsdam sandstone is likely to furnish the largest quantity and the best of the building material found within the state. Its eccurrence is mainly in the northern part of the Upper Peninsula, where very numerous exposures occur, especially along the lake shore. The lower beds of this formation furnish a rather coarse grained, homogeneous, siliceous sandstone, rather soft when first quarried, and easily hewn, but hardening on exposure. Its color is generally reddish, or some shade of reddish-brown, and, when uniform, renders it a very handsome material for outside and ornamental work. It often occurs of mottled-white or yellowish-white and red-brown colors. These parts of the stone are usually rejected, though some buildings have been built of them at Marquette and also in Chicago, and present a rather handsome, picturesque appearance. They seem to be equally durable with the rest. The stone usually occurs in approximately horizontal but usually very uneven beds, and is always readily obtainable in large masses. In most places where quarried the stone carries occasional, sometimes numerous, pockets of clay of very various sizes, which considerably affect its value by causing much waste and rendering the stone unreliable. Where free from these, however, the stone is a durable and reliable one, and always commands a high price and a‘considerable market in all the large lake cities. It was, during 1880, only quarried regularly at one quarry, which is within the city of Marquette. Numerous attempts to quarry elsewhere have usually failed, principally from the difficulty of obtaining a safe harbor at the quarry spot. This difficulty is very likely, however, to be overcome, so that quarries will be opened in numerous places. These beds occur especially in the vicinity of Marquette, in many places along the lake shore, west of Keweenaw point, and also near the eastern end of the coast of lake Superior along the lower valley of the Laughing Whitefish river and the country around it. In this latter locality the stone is very hard, compact, reddish, or speckled, is heavily-bedded, readily splits to required thicknesses, and is especially suitable for heavy masonry, but, because of its hardness, not well suited for an ornamental building stone. It is found underlying a very large territory and is easily obtainable almost everywhere. The Calciferous group occurs in the Upper Peninsula only where it extends in a very narrow band from a point some distance northwest of Menominee, northeastward, swinging to the east, to the extreme eastern end of the peninsula. It exposes an extreme thickness of about 100 feet of calcareous sand-rock of very variable character, the more calcareous beds of which sometimes furnish good building material in rather thin beds and blocks of moderate size. They are, however, nowhere regularly worked as yet, the country they underlie being still entirely a wilderness. The Trenton group is represented on the Upper Peninsula by beds of perhaps 100 feet greatest thickness of thinly-bedded shaly limestones, which have nowhere been discovered of such character as to furnish a first-rate building material. At places it is thick enough and sufficiently even bedded to quarry out in good shape, is of compact or crystalline structure, but everywhere yet worked contains too many irregular argillaceous seams to render it a safe and reliable building material. It also extends in a narrow band from west to east, through nearly the whole extent of the peninsula, just south of and adjacent to the band of Calciferous rocks. It is crossed by all of the important streams flowing into lake Michigan, and, in most cases, forms upon them falls or rapids of considerable extent, so that exposures are very numerous. To the southward lie the Niagara beds, in a similar but wider band, which covers most of the southern part of the Upper Peninsula, extending from Big Bay de Noguette eastward to the limit of the state. They furnish usually a hard, compact limestone, often in very heavy beds, but generally containing so many seams of argillaceous material as to render them liable to split and crack under the 228 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. action of frost. Some of the beds are free from these seams. Most of the region where these beds occur is a wilderness, and the beds are, moreover, heavily covered with drift, except where the streams have cut their way through. A few quarries have been opened and worked to a limited extent. The beds of the Hudson River shale, lying in a narrow band of country between the last-mentioned formation, are everywhere too soft and too easily affected by weather to be of value as a source of building material, and can never be expected to supply material fit even for ordinary purposes. The Helderberg group furnishes limestones of considerable hardness in places, but everywhere occurring in a brecciated condition which renders them unfit for building material. In the rocks of the Onondaga Salt group there are on the Upper Peninsula some beds of fair gypsum, and quarries were formerly worked in them near Point aux Chénes, but were long ago abandoned. This completes the list of the rock formations of the Upper Peninsula. Passing southward through the Lower Peninsula, we cross successively the beds of the later formation to the basin filled by the Coal Measures, which cover a disk-like area in the southern-central part, around which the earlier formations occur in concentric rings. The rocks of the Helderberg group occur on the Lower Peninsula at its northern extremity and upon the adjacent islands, and everywhere furnish impure limestones of some value for lime, but so brecciated as to be entirely unfit for any building purposes, except the lightest and most ordinary cellar masonry. They occupy also a small area in the southeastern course of the Lower Peninsula, and there furnish beds of some considerable value. At Trenton, near Detroit, in Monroe county, is a very extensive quarry in these beds. They furnish a somewhat — impure limestone, occurring in beds from 1 inch to 12 inches thick, from which no large stone can be obtained owing to numerous dry seams which occur throughout the mass. The heavier beds only are utilized for building material, and are close, compact, and rather fine grained, sufficiently hard to take a fair polish, but fit only for ordinary rubble work, while blocks selected with the greatest of care furnish material fairly fitted for such ornamental work as caps, sills, etc. Very little of the material, however, is utilized for such purposes. Upon Macon creek, in the valley, are a number of small quarries in the beds of this formation which expose a total thickness of about 8 feet of beds 6 inches to 2 feet in thickness, and a much more compact, gray, crystalline limestone of considerable strength, and very free from the dry seams found in the rock at Trenton. The beds in the valley are covered only by from 2 to 6 feet of loose earth and can be very easily quarried. They furnish excellent material for all ordinary mason work and for very good-appearing cut-stone work, though somewhat difficult to hew. Some of the upper beds in this locality are also brecciated. A sandstone bed of small thickness also occurs among the beds of this age which in places contains a considerable proportion of calcareous cement, and is a firm, compact rock obtainable in fair-sized blocks, nearly pure white, and to all appearances a fair and quite handsome building material. This bed was seen at the surface on Fritz Rath’s farm, near Raisinville. There are also in the limestones a number of small quarries along the valley of Raisin river and Plum creek which furnish good building material. The most important of these are at Monroe. There are in the southern part of the Lower Peninsula no beds representing the Hamilton period, but in the northern part they occur in great thickness and form the surface rock over a very considerable area adjoining that of the Helderberg group, and extending across the whole width of the state. They consist of alternate beds of limestones and shales, some of the former furnishing fair building material, quarries in which are worked at Alpena and vicinity. The stone obtained is very hard, compact, and durable, but is obtainable only in moderate- sized blocks. It is well suited for all ordinary plain ornamental stone-work, but has a rather dull, light drab color, rendering it not very attractive for the latter. It appears every way a durable and reliable stone. It is not obtainable anywhere in large quantities, but in numerous places supplies the local demand for common building stone. Where it outcrops along the shore of lake Michigan it can be quarried in several places and loaded directly upon barges in the lake. The black shales, next in order in the geological series, furnish no material for construction. The Waverly group, next succeeding, is by far the most important of the series in the Lower Peninsula, and furnishes a large proportion of the good building material obtained. The rocks of the group consist of alternate sandstones and shales; the sandstones, which furnish the building material, vary considerably in texture and composition, but furnish in many localities valuable building stone. Along the south shore of Saginaw bay from Point aux Barques southwest there are numerous exposures of the sandstones of this group. At the point itself a thickness of about 16 feet of these strata is exposed, which would furnish excellent building material. At Grindstone City, just southeast, are other exposures which are extensively worked for grindstones, for which they furnish excellent material. Some of the stone has been used for building purposes, but it has more value for its present use. There are numerous exposures elsewhere, especially in Jackson and Hillsdale counties, very few of which have been much worked of late years. The increase of railroad facilities has greatly increased the use of the superior Ohio stones. The most notable quarry in the formation is that at Stony point, in Jackson county, where a DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 229 thickness of about 40 feet of fine-grained, buff-colored sandstone, very soft and easily dressed, but hardening upon exposure and retaining its color well, is quarried under very heavy clay stripping, and blocks of any required dimensions are easily obtained. | Beds of the same formation are also exposed at and near Jonesville, Hillsdale, Osseo, Moscow, Homer, and Condit station, in the same region, and on Black river, near Holland, Ottawa county, farther northwest. There are, however, no very important quarries, and at only a few of these places can really good stone be obtained. The Carboniferous limestone at the base of the Coal Measures has a comparatively small development in this state, and nowhere furnishes building material of much importance. There are quarries in these beds at and near Bellevue, Eaton county, and north of Jackson, at the junction of Grand and Portage rivers. At these places the beds furnish pure, light-colored limestones in beds of moderate thickness, avery fair building material for ordinary uses. These beds also occur on some of the islands on the east side of Saginaw bay, and furnish an excellent building material for foundation walls. The sandstones of the Coal Measures sometimes furnish very good building material. The most noteworthy quarry in these beds is that near Ionia, Ionia county, where a bed of dark red and mottled yellow or white and red stones occur in horizontal position in layers of moderate thickness, and furnish an easily-quarried, medium-grained, easily-cut, and hardening sandstone in blocks of considerable size, and a very handsome building material. The beds from the lower part of the quarry are of an even brown color; those near the top are mottled. This stone has been much used in the vicinity both for ornamental and heavy masonry purposes, and has proved itself well suited to all classes of building construction. A very handsome church edifice has also been built of the brownstone at Detroit. Beds of these sandstones are also found at Jackson, where they are somewhat quarried, and near Lansing, at Grand Ledge, and at Flushing, near Flint, but they are nowhere regularly worked, nor do they furnish any very desirable material. The resources of the southern peninsula in building stone are comparatively very limited, except in such ordinary grades of the material as are necessary for house-foundation purposes, and even for that purpose stone is frequently lacking in very large districts. This isin part compensated for by the numerous railways which traverse the state, the close proximity of the numerous excellent building stones of Ohio, and the cheap lake transportation by which the resources of the Upper Peninsula can be reached. WISCONSIN. By PROFESSOR ALLAN D. CONOVER, Special Agent. SILURIAN. The great bed of Silurian rocks which almost completely encircles the Archean area of northern central Wisconsin had previous to the census year furnished practically all of the building stone quarried within the state. Every one of the grand divisions of the belt furnishes in one or more localities material fit for ordinary building purposes, though stone suitable for the finer class of work is as yet quarried at but few places. Within the Silurian area, to which the more thickly-settled portions of the state pretty closely correspond, except where a very deep covering of glacial drift exists, there are but few regions where rock fit for the most ordinary building purposes cannot be obtained everywhere within a few miles, and almost every large town or city has within its limits, or near by, quarries of sufficient capacity to supply its own most pressing needs for that sort of building material; but there were previous to 1880 no localities (except at Bass island in the Lake Superior region) where building stone had been quarried in any quantity for export beyond the state, (a) and but few where it had been quarried for other than a local market. There are indeed but few places where the Silurian formations yield large quantities of easily-obtainable stone of such character as to be in very general demand. The Niagara group furnishes several of these places in the vicinity of Milwaukee; the Trenton group (Galena limestone), a number along the Lower Fox river and Duck creek, in Outagamie and Brown counties; the Saint Peter sandstone, a barely possible one at Red Rock, near Darlington, La Fayette county; the Lower Magnesian but one, at the Prairie du Chien quarries and in their immediate vicinity, Crawford county; and the Potsdam sandstone, in the Apostle islands, and possibly along the coast of Bayfield and Douglas counties. PoTsDAM.—The main body of Potsdam sandstone in southern Wisconsin is made of a medium-grained, somewhat rounded, siliceous sand, the particles cemented together either by a fine siliceous powder of the grains themselves, or by a coating of carbonaceous or ferruginous cement. Where the first is the cementing material the stone is exceedingly friable and useless as a building material, but where the cementing material is either of the other two, the rock is generally of a compact and durabie character and furnishes some excellent building stones. Sections of this formation in different parts of the state show a varying thickness, reaching as much as 700 feet in the central southern part. Of this the middle and by far the greater part is loose friable stone, much of it easily separated into sand by light blows. Exceptions to this occur in numerous places where the sandstone was deposited close a A temporary exception to this statement occurred during a period of about two years after the Chicago fire, when such building stone was sent into Chicago from a number of quarries in southeastern Wisconsin. 230 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. to the Archzean area, as at the Stevens Point quarries, and those near Grand Rapids, at which last place the stone is a very valuable one, and is referred by Professor Irving to the middle portion of the Potsdam. Another exception of like character occurs along the quar tzite ranges of the Baraboo region, where many facts go to show the probability of two separate sandstones laid down at different periods. Wherever, along the quartzite ranges of that region, the sandstone is found resting immediately upon the quartzite it furnishes a medium-grained, compact, massive sandstone of great durability, which can be quarried in very large blocks, is of uniform texture throughout, free from flaws, and of colors from light straw and nearly white through various shades of light pink, the varying colors being due mainly to changes in the cementing material. The two large quarries in this sandstone at Ableman’s have furnished a very large amount of stone for bridge and culvert purposes along the line of the Chicago and Northwestern railroad. The hardness of the stone and consequent difficulty of dressing have so far prevented its use for general building purposes. There is a large number of localities throughout the same region where this stone occurs, and it everywhere presents the same character, and has in many places been quarried to the extent of a few cords. The upper beds of the Potsdam also furnish in the southern part of the state two layers—one of sandstone underlaid by the other, an impure dolomitic limestone—which immediately underlie the Lower Magnesian limestone, and occur everywhere just below the base of that formation wherever the latter is exposed in the half circle in which it comes to the surface. These beds have been given the name of Madison sandstone and Mendota limestone. The Madison beds, wherever they occur, are rarely less than 35 feet thick, often more, and furnish frequently a slightly caleareous sandstone, which is generally a very good building stone, although never occurring in layers of a thickness suited for large ornamental stone. It is of various shades, from yellow to a light dull brown, and has been much quarried wherever found, because of the ease with which it can be shaped into appropriate forms. It gradually hardens and changes upon exposure to a rather dull yellowish-brown, and has been quite extensively used at Madison and in the surrounding country, and in many villages in the region where it occurs. The Mendota limestone is equally persistent in occurrence throughout the same area, and includes a total thickness of from 20 to 45 feet in different localities. It furnishes a stone varying from nearly white through all shades of yellow to dull brown, is quite regularly bedded, occurring in layers up to 5 feet in thickness, and is more extensively quarried than the Madison sandstone, since it can also be burned for lime, of which it furnishes a very fair quality. Wherever it occurs it furnishes valuable building material, especially for heavy work. The Potsdam sandstone of the region of lake Superior is of a character somewhat distinct from that in southern Wisconsin. Its rock where exposed in Wisconsin is composed of siliceous grains, medium to somewhat coarse, held together by a cement usually either ferruginous or argillaceous in its character, and is generally stained from yellow to deep brown by the ferruginous matter. It furnishes a very handsome building stone, and is quarried in masses of almost any required size. The chief difficulty with the stone as a fine building material arises from the fact that it contains, wherever yet quarried, numerous clay pockets which are liable to badly pit the finished surface. They are likely to be found anywhere in the stone when it is worked, and where ornamental relief work is being done the nearly-completed piece is often entirely spoiled by opening into one of these pockets, or the completed piece is badly defaced by the subsequent breaking away of a thin skin of sandstone and the dropping out of the clay. The difficulties which arise in this way can, of course, be partly overcome by having all the cutting, shaping, and finishing done at the quarries, thus saving the cost of transportation of useless pieces. This characteristic of the stone has proved a great drawback to its general use. Many exposures from which the stone could be readily quarried and shipped directly upon vessels are found on the islands of the Apostle group, and some are found along the coast of Bayfield and Douglas counties. At Bass island (Apostle islands) a large quarry was opened in this sandstone, and was extensively worked during the first three or four years of the last decade. Quite heavy stripping of clay is required, and below this there is exposed a quarry face of 26 feet of good stone; below this the stone is inferior. In this depth there are three layers which in places unite. The joints are inclined about 60° and are spaced about 50 feet apart. Between these and within the beds the stone is uniform in texture and color, and without seams or cracks. It is of very much the same grade as the Marquette stone, but free from its vexatious variations of color. The quarry has been abandoned for several years, and was not worked during the census year. LoWER MAGNESIAN.—The Lower Magnesian limestone forms the surface stone over a very large semicircular band everywhere skirting the wide Potsdam belt. Its beds consist largely of a quite siliceous dolomitic limestone, sometimes nearly pure, the siliceous or arenaceous material sometimes predominating. Ina great many localities it furnishes a rather rough and irregularly but heavily bedded limestone, a good material for heavy masonry, and it is quarried in a large number of places, though nowhere very extensively. In a few localities a very excellent building stone has been quarried from it, usually from its lower or lowest beds. The most noteworthy of the places are the southern part of the town of Westport, Dane county, just west of Bridgeport, near Prairie du Chien, Crawford county, and at the summit of the Mississippi River bluffs, in the vicinity of La Crosse, La Crosse county, and northward to a point across the river from Winona, Minnesota. In the town of Westport, Dane county, is a number of quarries of considerable size, not much worked during the census year, which were nearly all opened for the purpose of DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 231 supplying stone for the Insane Hospital building located in that township. They were opened in the lowest beds of the Lower Magnesian, just above its beds of separation from the Potsdam. The Venhusen quarry has supplied the greater part of the stone for the hospital building, a heavily-bedded, compact, hard limestone of rather fine but . slightly uneven texture, in color varying from very light straw to light buff when dressed, and having occasional small sand-pits. This stone does not discolor upon exposure, and its chisel marks remain after more than 20 years apparently as sharp and definite as when the stone was first built into the wall. This quarry is a very difficult one to work because of very heavy stripping. O’Malley’s quarry, 14 miles northwest and not far from the horizon, furnishes a whiter, clearer stone. A considerable thickness of good rubble stone is succeeded by some heavy beds, 28 inches thick, which were quarried for the face stone of the United States court-house and post-office at Madison. This is a hard, somewhat arenaceous, white, uniform-textured stone, which an exposure of over ten years in that building has only turned to a very delicate straw color. It was somewhat hard to dress, retains its chisel marks unchanged, and shows no tendency to scale off on the dressed surface. ° [The trimmings of the post-office water-table caps, sills, joints, etc., are of selected stone from one of the Joliet, Illinois, quarries, and have scaled off in large thin scales, entirely defacing the tool marks.] This stone is by far the handsomest stone quarried in southern Wisconsin, except at Waukesha, in the vicinity of Milwaukee. There are several smaller quarries in these beds and numerous places in the locality where quarries equally good could probably be opened. The Chicago and Northwestern railway traverses the town, and is not farther than a mile from these quarries. At the Bridgeport quarries, near Prairie du Chien, the Lower Magnesian limestone is also quarried quite. extensively in Marsden’s quarry. The beds quarried cannot be many feet above the base of the formations. They have a ledge near the crest of the river bluffs, just west of the village, which is there perhaps 80 feet above the river, and dips gradually westward, coming to the level of the river valley before it opens upon the Mississippi river. Numerous quarries have been opened in this ledge and large quantities of stone removed, but all the quarries except Marsdew’s have been abandoned, and an examination of them indicates that probably none of them could be worked profitably, except for an unusually favorable market. One or two places remain where good quarries could probably be opened. The stone quarried from the heavier and more regular beds is a nearly white, somewhat creamy-tinted limestone, which does not iron-stain or change much upon exposure, except to take a slightly gray dust-colored hue. It dresses rather easily, and seems to harden somewhat on exposure. It is on the whole an excellent stone for all building purposes where a very fine finish is not required. This and the adjacent quarries furnished the stone for the state capitol, and from this quarry the stone for the extension of that building, now in process of construction, is taken. Large quantities of dimension stone are also now being shipped from here to Minneapolis, Minnesota, and much stone furnished for bridge work upon the Prairie du Chien and River divisions of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and Saint Paul railway. On the bluffs next the river valley, and near their summit, in the region around La Crosse, there outcrops and is quarried a limestone (lower beds of Lower Magnesian) the lower beds of which yield a clear, creamy-white tinted stone, very fine-grained and of quite uniform texture, which makes a very handsome ornamental building stone. At some places it is pitted with occasional sand-holes, but at others stone of considerable size can be obtained free from these imperfections. It can be very readily worked into different shapes and even carved in fine figures in considerable relief. There are doubtless many other localities where these lower beds of this formation yield equally good stones with those here described, but no other extensive quarries have, so far as I have been able to learn, been opened in them SAINT PETER SANDSTONE.—The Saint Peter sandstone consists almost everywhere of somewhat rounded siliceous grains, sometimes entirely uncemented, forming beds of very pure sand, and sometimes cemented to a quite hard and durable stone, which is everywhere, however, where I have seen it exposed, very much cut up by irregular seams or joints, themselves filled with arenaceous material dividing the rock into angular fragments. The material of these seams, however, sometimes cements the fragments well together. The rock has some slight use as a building stone in the town of Portland, Jefferson county, and in the southwestern part of the state, but only for cellar-wall purposes. At Red Rock, in the valley of the Pecatonica, in southern Iowa county, near Darlington, there is a remarkable exposure of this roel which appears to have been an upheaval. In the north aie of this exposure a large quarry was opened in 1872 by William T. Henry, of Mineral Point, which was worked only one season. The stone was shipped to Chicago, but the heavy freight charges prvented the business from paying, and the quarry has remained unworked since. Better freight rates can now be had to Chicago and Milwaukee. Some of the stone has been sent to Chicago for trial, and if it meets with favor there the quarry is likely to be opened on a large scale. The stone can be obtained in blocks as large as 6-foot cubes, apparently without flaws. It is, however, much cut up- by the fine, irregular seams alluded to above, and it seems 232 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. doubtful whether the desirable deep tint of brown is the color of more than a small portion. The stone in the railroad cut approaches a brick-red in color, and this grades to a deeper color, nearly brown at the quarry ‘spot, beyond which it gradually passes into a erayish-pink. It is in general appearance much the handsomest building stone found in that part of the state, but some considerable stripping of worthless stone will be required should the quarry be extensively worked. TRENTON GROUP.—The Trenton group in Wisconsin contains two rather distinct divisions—the Trenton limestone and the Galeua limestone. The Trenton limestone or blue and buff beds furnish, wherever they occur in the southwestern part of the state, in what is called the Lead region, an excellent and durable building stone, but not often a handsome one. The buff beds, the lower, occur in layers from 6 inches to 2 feet, and sometimes thicker, and furnish a rather coarse, hard, somewhat unevenly-textured stone which is not difficult either to quarry or to shape and work. Its color, owing to uneven leaching, is usually, or at least often, blue at the center of the layer, but a decided buff for some inches from the bedding-planes, while often stone taken from near the natural surface is leached throughout to 4 buff color. The blue beds in that region usually furnish a very thinly-bedded, hard, dark grayish-blue to dark drab, fine-grained, often fossiliferous stone of pretty uniform texture, rarely occurring in layers thicker than 10 or 12 inches and not obtainable in very large blocks. Atsome places these beds remain unchanged by leaching, at others the leaching affects their color almost as much as it does the buff beds. They furnish very hard, durable stones, which are very hard to dress, but take a very fine, soft-feeling polish, and often, because of the fossils included, present a very handsome appearance. These beds have been considerably worked at many points in the Lead region, as at Mineral Point, Darlington, Mifflin, Platteville, Highland, ete. There are, so far as I could learn, no quarries now worked on a sufficient scale, or enough distinguished in former working from hundreds of others, to warrant a special report. In the adjoining parts of Saint Croix and Pierce counties there is a considerable area where the bluffs are everywhere capped by the Trenton limestone, often only the buff beds; and this is quarried in a number of places, notably at Gibson’s quarry, near Hudson, and in Walker’s guarry, at River Falls. They present here almost exactly the same physical characteristics as in southwestern Wisconsin, and furnish an excellent and durable though not a handsome building stone. Owing to their position close to the surface the beds are more generally leached to a solid buff color. In the southeastern and eastern portions of the state the blue and buff beds present very little marked difference in texture and physical characteristics, the heavier and more regular beds being still characteristic of the lower beds or buff, and that being much the more profitable portion of the formation for quarrying. The blue beds generally furnish little or no material fit for other than the commonest masonry, while deep quarrying into the buft (away from the originally-exposed surface) often develops a bluish graystone of rather rough, uneven texture, but suitable for a fair quality of the ordinary ornamental building stone. The quarries in these beds in the eastern and southeastern parts of the state, upon which special report has been made, are those at Beloit, at Janesville, and at Neenah and Menasha. Along the line of its outcrop, as it passes from the northeastern part of the state southwest and then bends to the westward and southwestward, and also where it outcrops in the Lead region, are very arenaceous small quarries. The upper bed of the Trenton group, the Galena limestone, is the surface formation over a large area in the’ Lead region and extends in quite a wide band southeastward into Dlinois, then bends to the northward nearly parallel with lake Michigan, and at a distance of from 25 to 50 miles inland to and across the state line into northern Michigan. In the central and eastern part of the Lead region the stone of this formation is everywhere of the same brown or yellow color, often much iron-stained, and also somewhat rotten and honey-combed throughout with large cavities often an inch or more in diameter, almost everywhere unfit for any building purpose, though sometimes compact enough for rough cellar-wall work, and is occasionally used for that purpose. There are several horizons, however, at which, when it is exposed, it furnishes an excellent, heavily-bedded, rather coarse-textured, strong and durable building stone, well fitted for ordinary and heavy masonry. These beds outcrop at Cassville and along the Mississippi River bluffs in western Grant county, and in numerous other places in that part of the Lead region. In the southeastern part of the state for some 60 miles north of the state line the Galena limestone has the same physical characteristics as distinguish it in the central part of the Lead region. At Watertown, however, beds of sufficient firmness and freedom from honey-combing are found to furnish a fair building material. From here northward the stone gradually undergoes a change, mainly through the addition of argillaceous material, which very materially affects for the better its appearance and usefulness as a Duilding stone. At Waupun a large quarry was once worked in this formation, which furnished an axvellent coursing stone. At Oshkosh are two large quarries which furnish a dark drab stone of considerable hardness and durability, but which dresses with much difficulty, and has been little used heretofore for facing or for ornamental purposes. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 233 Northward from here there are no noteworthy quarries in this formation until we reach the rapids in the Fox river at Kaukauna, where large quarries have been opened and great quantities of unusually large dimension stone taken out. Here is opportunity for opening many extensive quarries in stone of a most excellent character for all mason work, except that requiring the very finest of finish. Many of the government locks on the Fox river have been built with this stone and others are to be built. The stone is a medium-textured, light drab or gray limestone, and occurs in beds from 6 to 30 inches thick, from any one of which it can be split in almost any required size, and it can be quarried for dimension material almost if not quite as cheaply as for rubble. The quarries at Duck creek, on the Chicago and Northwestern railway, near Green Bay, are in exactly similar rock, and-have furnished the railway with large quantities of a most excellent stone for bridge purposes. NIAGARA GROUP.—The Cincinnati shales, é. ¢., limestones, furnish no building stone. The only Upper Silurian formation in Wisconsin furnishing any building stone is the Niagara limestone. This formation is the surface rock in a strip of country 30 to 50 miles wide along the shore of lake Michigan. There are four well-recognized subdivisions of the formation, which maintain the characteristics with considerable persistency throughout the whole country where the formation is exposed: 1. Guelph beds; 2. Racine beds; 3. Waukesha beds; 4. Mayville beds. The lower of these, the Mayville beds, forming the surface rock in the country adjoining that immediately underlaid by the Galena limestone, contain some beds which furnish stones fit for ordinary building purposes, but no especially noteworthy quarries. In the upper part of these beds there is, in some places in Fond du Lac county and the counties immediately adjoining, a very pure calcareous sandstone, whose occurrence has been mentioned in the reports upon the quarries in the vicinity of Fond du Lac. It is a pinkish-gray stone of varying compactness, which cuts with very great ease and seems to harden some upon exposure. It would be a valuable building stone but for the fact that no spot has yet been found yielding a large quantity of stone of even a tolerably uniform character, or from which pieces of large size could be taken out. The Waukesha beds throughout Waukesha county furnish a hard, compact, very light drab, sometimes nearly white dolomitic limestone, which yields an excellent, fine-appearing, and durable building, stone suitable for all grades of construction. It is quite a hard stone to cut and finish, but presents a handsome appearance when dressed. The typical occurrence of these beds is in very thin sheets, from 1 inch to 6 inches thick, very well fitted for flagging, but these often unite to form much heavier ones, furnishing stones of almost any ordinarily required size. The quarry of the Hadfields, at Waukesha, is the largest and most worked, and sends considerable quantities of stone to Milwaukee and many other Wisconsin towns. In the quarries owned by these gentlemen the typical Waukesha beds yield flagging stones and heavily-bedded building stone. Throughout the country where these beds occur are numerous excellent quarry spots awaiting development. South of this point there is a considerable quarry, 2 miles from Genesee station, which furnishes some stone rather easier to work and somewhat freer from slight defects than the Waukesha. Northward also from Waukesha these beds have been worked at a number of places and furnish fine flagging material especially. In the country to the northward where these beds emerge from under their intermediate heavy drift covering their stratigraphical equivalent presents three very well-marked divisions, the first only of which furnishes any considerable amount of valuable building stone. This division, called Byron beds, from having its most marked exposures in the town of Byron, Fond du Lac county, forms in that county what is called “ the ridge” and ‘the ledge”, a considerable rise of ground, with an abrupt and rocky western face, which runs southward, swinging somewhat westwardly, just east of Fond du Lac, and which is quarried at numerous places near that city, as, notably, at Eden and Oak Centre, and at Sylvester, in Green county. Here good building stone—a compact, medium to fine textured and quite homogeneous limestone—is obtained for ordinary and ornamental purposes, though somewhat hard to shape, and fine flagging stone of any required thickness between 1 inch and 8 inches. Many quarries have been opened in the ledge, but only a minute fraction of the easily-quarriable stone has been as yet uncovered. These beds pass to the east of lake Winnebago, through Calumet county, where they occur in places as a very pure white and sometimes handsomely-mottled stone, which is locally called marble, and can be polished fairly well, presenting a handsome appearance and being well fitted for ornamental building stone. The two upper divisions furnish very little material fit even for ordinary building purposes. The Racine beds, which rest upon the Waukesha beds at the south and the upper coal beds at the north, are the surface rock along and parallel to lake Michigan, from the state line on the south to the extreme end of Door county on the north, attaining in places a width of 30 miles.- They are beds of quite pure dolomitic limestone, and present a great variety of texture and structure, from a porous, granular, and irregularly-bedded to a fine, compact, homogeneous, and evenly-bedded rock. They are very extensively quarried, and furnish most excellent common and fine building material at a great many points, notably at Milwaukee, Cedarburg, Grafton, Sheboygan, and Manitowoc. The Racine quarries in these beds have furnished large quantities of ordinary building stone and stone for lime, but very little material well fitted for ornamental and the finer classes of stones. The Milwaukee quarries furnish every grade of building material and almost any necessary size, and are remarkable for the great depth of excellent building stone which their working has developed. 234 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The Guelph beds, forming the uppermost series of the Niagara group, have pretty much the same general physical characteristics as the Racine beds upon which they rest. In a number of places they furnish excellent building stones, similar to those of the Racine beds. Theyskirt the shore of lake Michigan as far north as Kewaunee county, and are somewhat quarried at Cedarburg and Grafton, and at Sheboygan. The Niagara group as a whole furnishes by far the largest number of extensive quarries of any formation in the state, and almost the only ones, except the few in the Archean, in which the depth of excellent stone is more than a few feet, and which therefore warrant the expenditure of large sums of money in removing the covering. For this reason the number of places in this formation where quarries can be profitably worked is very large. None of these quarries as yet opened are in convenient proximity to the lake, so that the development of these, as well as of all those valuable Archean quarries inland, will depend upon transportation facilities furnished by railroad companies. ARCHZAN. The vast area in northern central Wisconsin which is underlaid by the Archean rocks is almost everywhere covered with an irregular but heavy covering of glacial drift, and there are large areas where rock exposures are very rare. Sauk and Columbia.| 75 square miles ..... 100 to 700 | Quartzite, quartz-porphyry, clay- 60 schists, and quartz-schists. i pruaker mills: -.. . 24, 25 8| 135 | Jefferson ......-.... ZO ROTesi ego eae Low. Quantztew. .- wees cals beeen eee 90 Tih eortand 0.2... 33, 36 9 13 Mh DOd PO. se-neeace< a vs Square mile ...... S0:to Vor | Ouartzitel. S22) sous striking object. The rock consists of white- Renee Gea Yi gray and flesh-colored crystals of orthoclase NORTH AND SOUTKK SECTION THROUGH PIN BLUR and of glassy feldspar set ina very hard gray 1. Quartz-porphyry, Pine Bluff. Lower maguesion limestone. 3. St. Peter sandstone. 4. Tease limestone. 5. Galena limestone. or black quartz-felsite base. The crystals of feldspar vary in size from three-tenths of an inch in length downward, but are rendered conspicuous by contrast of color. The rock is susceptible of a very high and beautiful polish, but is wrought with difficulty on account of its hardness. The dip is about 20° to the east of south. Obscure glacial strie, still preserved, testify to its endurance. Their direction is south 45° west. The accompanying profile exhibits its relation to the Silurian formations, from which it will be seen that it rises to about the base of the Galena limestone. Marquette—Near Marquette, a little more than 12 miles west of Pine Bluff, very similar quartz-porphyries display themselves in more considerable force, constituting a group of prominent hills. A portion of the rock is precisely identical in character with that of Pine Bluff, and the greater mass is but an unimportant variation from it, but certain portions depart from the porphyritic character, and become almost or entirely crypto-crystalline. One variety of this kind very closely resembles the more homogeneous of the red Huronian quartzites, and another is a compact, close-textured rock, usually of dark color, but sometimes greenish. Neither of these varieties occupies exclusively any one horizon, but the quartzite-like variety is found in the more southern outcrops, the last-mentioned kind immediately north of that, the darker porphyries next, and the coarser, lighter-colored ones in the most northerly exposures. The bedding is very obscure, but the laminations of certain portions and belts of particular varieties of rock show the strike to be northeastward. The dip is made out with much less certainty, but appears to be to the northward, and to vary from 15° to 45°. Though the Berlin porphyry differs from that of Pine Bluff and of Marquette in the absence of glassy feldspar, yet the close lithological alliance of the three is very evident, and they doubtless all belong to the same group of the Archean series. The general strike of these formations, projected westward, encounters several similar outliers that are described in Professor Irving’s report, and still farther southwest he has found similar quartz-porphyry overlying the Baraboo quartzite.. There seems to be sufficient reason for regarding the latter as Huronian, so that the porphyries must be regarded as a newer portion of that formation. All of these masses present the rounded contour of glaciated surfaces, and still bear the glacial groovings, and, in some cases, even remnant polished spots, and from all these trains of porphyry bowlders stretch away in the direction of the striz. Portland and Waterloo.—Thirty-five miles south of Pine Bluff, over an area entirely covered by Paleozoic rocks, some as recent as the Galena, we again encounter the Archean rocks in the form of the quartzites of Portland and Waterloo. The outcrops in the town of Portland are several in number. The most southwesterly is an oval island lying mostly in the S. HE. quarter of Sec. 33, and is entirely surrounded by lowland or marsh. The outcrop attains but a slight elevation, and its rounded contour shows abundant evidence of the glacial agencies that have swept over it. Not only striz, but deep, broad furrows, show the direction of movement to have been 8S. 15° to 20° W. Bowlders appear in great force upon the protected side of the island and doubtless thickly underlie the deep morass in that direction, as they appear again upon the hills beyond. Directly to the east, in Sec. 34, there is a slight exposure near the base of a somewhat elevated north and south ridge, of which it doubtless forms the nucleus, if not the chief portion. Less than 1 mile north of these outcrops the quartzite again discovers itself on the brow and west flank of the ridge facing Waterloo creek. There is no evidence that any later formation overlies the quartzite between Fia. 19. 244 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. this and the two preceding outcrops, and so the three will be found mapped as constituting a single Archeean area, A short distance farther to the north (N. W. quarter Sec. 27) the quartzite rises in the midst of a marsh-like lake, constituting Rocky island. It may be characterized as a low dome covered with unsymmetrical roches moutonées. About 2 miles southeast, at the foot of a hill, and on the edge of a marsh, occurs a low and limited outcrop . (Sec. 35, S. E. quarter, and Sec. 36, 8. W. quarter): One-half mile to the northeast, across a marsh, there occurs another exposure, similarly pirated in a southern extremity of a north and south ridge, and about the same distance to the southwest still another one may be seen, the three lying nearly in a straight line and separated by marshes. They are regarded as being projecting knobs of a common area, and are so mapped. Between these and the three outcrops first mentioned, as also between both these and Rocky island, later formations intervene, ‘so that they must be regarded as forming three distinct, though closely associated, stiveane areas. MINNESOTA. [Compiled mainly from notes by Professor N. H. Winchell.] CRYSTALLINE SILICEOUS ROCKS. More than half of the state is underlaid by that general class of rocks—the crystalline—to which granite belongs, and consequently the state has almost every variety of crystalline rock. These rocks also exhibit all degrees of durability and value for building purposes. The granular crystalline rocks are generally very durable ; and, whenever they are exposed above the drift, can be wrought with profit and with the most satisfactory results. While in the northern part of the state there are large exposures of very fine light-colored granites, beyond the limits of settlements and roads, and particularly at lake Saganaga, those in the valleys of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers are of more special and immediate interest. These have been somewhat quarried, and their products as building materials can be seen in some of the principal buildings in various parts of the state, as well as in cities outside the state. The gray granite that is quarried at Sauk Rapids, and which generally is seen in Stearns county, consists largely of quartz embraced in a matrix of orthoclase, with but a small proportion of mica or chlorite, ‘Hence it is hard and very durable. The dark mica is biotite, and there is but occasionally a grain of hornblende. This last sometimes prevails largely over all the other minerals in small areas or veins, making a very dark-colored and also generally a coarser-grained rock. There is also occasionally a grain of triclinic feldspar and of magnetite, and some minute erystals of pyrite. These minerals have a relative hardness when expressed on a scale of 10 as follows, 7 being the hardness of an ordinary knife-blade: Qu arty Stic ce Asiske mae exc au tins c-ciGie cans vor Jicklee sole ma ltaei mes eae ete elas ete eit tote ae ee 7 Triclini¢ AGlOSpAr soya. e we rete we ame. - oes Selec latoine n= lorem [sie sic etl = ale ae a Oreo eee eet ee 6 to7 Orthoclase! L222 2 he ae we tapes eye ie bwin. s os o's we ere says Se win a tyeare hha, ate a anes em tee geet nr ate fan 6 to 64 Hornblende &. 5.-ie cesses ree sc nice sk th wise winter cman cleiw oie eine eo Se ater sta ete mele Spe a ie ce ee 5 to6 Biotite , .< 50 cisisa oldie pou Se SES, cake cee ao Ss Asian ale. w SIS ore el nleinta ly pie te male Depo et So Se OE ee Muscovite <-2i-4.Faiep shee pubes s resent eS eeeten ae Saisie ais win a enw Satan te al era ies ero Ee ahi a Se RG Ree ene eee 2 to 2} Chlorite . anion stig ee Bie aaleie etna ate eG ees salen via ec ch ethan ete eke era nate eee ante ater alate anes eye eo ae 1 to2 About one-half of the whole rock is made up of quartz, and two-thirds of the remainder of orthoclase. About one-half of the rest is triclinic feldspar, and the residue is divided between the other minerals, biotite predominating. It is plain to see that such an assemblage of minerals constitutes a very firm rock, and one that is rather hard to dress, but when once cut to form and placed in a building it will endure indefinitely. The biotite, muscovite, ‘and chlorite serve to make the granites. easy to cut and to quarry; and particularly when they lie in sheets or in indistinct belts through the rock, giving it a faintly striped aspect, constituting. a gneiss, the rock can be got out easily in large, long slabs or blocks. When these are evenly scattered through the whole rock, the rock is simply softened, and in quarrying the fracture will have to be more completely guided by the plug and feather. For taking a polish the absence of these soft minerals enhances the value of the rock. The durability of the Sauk Rapids granite was tested at Washington under direction of the chief of engineers, and was found capable of sustaining a crushing pressure of from 15,000 to 17,000 pounds per square inch. A quarry at Sauk Rapids has been longest known of all the granite quarries in the state, but it is not now (1880) as vigorously operated as those at Watab or at East Saint Cloud. Blocks 12 by 3 by 14 feet thick and 10 by 44 feet by 1 foot thick have been quarried, and blocks as large as 26 by 22 by 5 feet thick might be moved if desired. The material is now used mainly for monuments, formerly also for building and for bridge construction. Among the principal structures in which this stone has been used are the capitol buildings at Des Moines, Iowa (trimmings); the city hall, Minneapolis; Nichols & Dean block, Saint Paul. The color of this granite, being a neutral gray, makes it suitable for a wide range of architecture. Light-colored and reddish granites are found at Watab, a few miles north of Sauk Rapids, and also in a few places near Saint Cloud and Rockville. At Watab there are three principal varieties of different textures and colors, each being quarried from a different’ opening, so that the stone in each quarry is uniform as totexture and color. The red is located to the north of the gray granite, and is separated from it by a distinct line, a change being abrupt (within 6 inches). Although the DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 245 quarry was opened some years ago, it was not operated during 1880. This stone is being used in the construction of the bridge over the Missouri river at Bismarck, and about 7,000 cubic yards will be used for this purpose. The following is a report on this stone, by Captain Edward Maguire, U.S. A., chief engineer, department of Dakota: Two kinds‘of granite were used by the Northern Pacific Railroad Company in the masonry work on their bridge at Bismarck; first, a light-colored and reddish granite, found at Watab, a few miles north of Sauk Rapids, Minnesota. The quality of this stone was good, but its use was abandoned on account of the cost of quarrying it. The bed is very much cut up by seams, and in order to obtain the requisite sized blocks it was necessary to quarry about ten to one, The largest blocks that have been quarried are 6 by 4 by 2 feet thick; some blocks 30 by 12 by 5 feet thick have been moved, but were cut up for transportation. The texture is rather coarse and uniformly erystalline. Captain Maguire reports an examination of gray granite from the Rock Island quarry, situated in a prairie about 4 miles from Saint Cloud, and there are at least 4 and probably 10 acres of this gray granite from which blocks of any size or shape may He quarried. While the granites of Stearns county are massive or non-gneissic, those of the Minnesota valley are almost invariably of a laminated structure, and of a reddish color. One of the principal exceptions occurs in the large granite outcrop near the foot of Big Stonelake. The Minnesota Valley granites differ from the Saint Cloud granite, ‘ also, in being softer, on account of having less quartz and more of the cleavable minerals, orthoclase and mica. They are also easy to quarry, but they have not been much worked yet. Some of the recent cuts in the red granite near Montevideo, by the grading for the railroad, show a very superior variety of rather coarse grained red granite, which cannot fail ultimately to be in great demand. There are great stoneless tracts of prairie lying south and west of the upper Minnesota Valley region, and extend from near New Ulm to the foot of Big Stone lake. The so-called granite of Duluth belongs to a very different class of rocks, and is more properly styled “ gabbro”, a new term derived from Italy, and applied to an igneous rock consisting of the triclinic feldspar, labradorite, augite, and a magnetic oxide of iron containing titanium. These minerals are all softer than quartz, which is wholly absent from the Duluth rock, but which makes up so large a part of the Saint Cloud granite. It is strange, therefore, that the Duluth rock should have been so generally regarded as harder than real granite, and particularly as harder than the Saint Cloud granite. The mineral augite, which makes up generally less than one- fourth of the whole, has a hardness of from 5 to 6 on the scale of 10, and labradorite is but little more. When this rock begins to decay, the augite changes first, making a greenish, soft mineral like chlorite, and this change sometimes is found to have gone on to a great depth in the rock without any change being seen in the other minerals. In such cases, while the rock is not much injured for building purposes, it is more easily quarried and dressed. While taken in a mass this Duluth rock may correctly be said to be softer than the Saint Cloud granite; it is tough and firm, being perfectly crystalline and compact. The magnetite in this rock sometimes becomes so abundant that it spoils it for building, and even becomes an iron ore, and has attracted attention as such. The iron ore reported some years ago at Duluth, at Herman, a few miles west of Duluth, and at Iron lake, north of Grand Marais, is all of this variety, and in some cases it is pure and valuable; but it is damaged by the presence of the titanium. The titanium is not so much a damage to the iron as an impediment in the reduction of the ore. At Duluth this rock has been used in some foundations, but the difficulty of dressing it, as well as of quarrying, has prevented its acceptance as a general building material. Its strength is about 17,000 pounds per square ch: The gabbro quarry at Duluth, Saint Louis county, is from a mountain-like range extending verona from Rice’s point at Duluth. It is cneneeds in geological reports of Minnesota for 1879 and 1880, it being No. 1 of the Minnesota Geological Survey series. The rock is of the age called Cupriferous in Minnesota, the equivalent of the Potsdam in other portions of the country. Blocks of as large a size as could be handled might be quarried here. The mass of rock is but'little jointed; its texture is a uniform crystalline, and it has been used thus far chiefly in trimmings for buildings and for rough walls at Duluth, and some for trimmings and steps at Saint Paul. A trap from this formation has been quarried by the United States government to be used in the construction of breakwaters at Duluth. The stone is roughly and basaltically bedded, and it may be called imperfectly basaltic; its texture is uniformly crystalline; itis No. 53 of the Minnesota Geological Survey, report of 1880. It is a basaltified layer of igneous rock intercalated between sedimentary beds. There is an excavation made in trap-rock for the site of a new school-house in Duluth, and the stone is putin the foundation and basementof that building. It is seenin outcrop conspicuously in front of the engine-house in that city, and extends northeastwardly in the form of a low hill range or ridge; it seems to be that which forms the falls of Kinichiguaguag creek, near Duluth; it is No. 43 of the Minnesota Geological Survey, report of 1880. This store is massive, close, and fine in texture, sometimes finely porphyritic; the mass of rock is distantly jointed. No. 42 of the reports of the Minnesota Geological Survey of 1880 is not quarried; it is so situated in many places near Duluth that it might be quarried with profit where a stone easier wrought than No. 1 of the series is desired. Inthe weather it has naturally assumed numerous conchoidal-fracture planes. These make it difficult to get blocks of a given size and shape, since the pieces break in dressing along the old fractures, which are not parallel nor perpendicular, but cross at acute angles in all directions, like some massive shale in disintegrating. This rock is believed to be derived from the red shale of the Cupriferous or Potsdam series by the semi-fusion incident — 246 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. to the igneous ejections; other stages of crystallization, even to red granite and other less changed conditions as a perfect red shale, can be seen along the shore at points farther down the lake and at Duluth. Within the limits of Duluth it can be quarried as red granite; it is in the hill range’on the slope facing the bay, and at the quarry at Rice’s point is associated with No. 1. In the hills back of Duluth it changes suddenly to a red granite, supposed to be derived from the fusion and metamorphism of the Fond du Lac red shales and sandstones when the igneous rock was poured out through and over them. These two kinds of rock (red syenite and gabbro) are closely intermixed in patches, sometimes of large area, and extend thus all the way to the northern boundary-line of the state, the red rock showing various stages of metamorphism and crystalline condition. The red granite in some places is very coarse grained and beautiful, something like Scotch granite, and in other places it is very fine grained and compact, as at Duluth. It contains quartz, generally in large quantity, red orthoclase, and green hornblende or chlorite. At East Saint Cloud, Sherburne county, a massive Archean granite is quarried for general building purposes and used chiefly at Saint Paul, Milwaukee, and Minneapolis. The trimmings of the United States custom-house at Saint Paul are of this material. There are three varieties, differing somewhat in texture and color. The one most used and highly prized is of a fine-grained uniform texture and gray color. It is often slightly gneissic or laminated in structure, and works more easily than the others; it is probably not so durable nor firm under pressure. The second variety is red, and contains a good deal of quartz, but takes a finer polish. It was not quarried during 1880 so much as in former years, chiefly because the plant of the establishment is situated some little distance from the favorable exposures, but there is abundant opportunity in the neighborhood for working this red granite. The other variety is not now quarried, but large quantities of it were formerly taken out and used chiefly as trimmings in the custom-house at Saint Paul, where, however, stone of both the other kinds is also to be seen. It has outwardly, and especially when chiseled for construction, as in the custom-house, very much the aspect of the gabbro quarried at Duluth, and might be mistaken for that stone on a casual examination. It has the reputation among the quarrymen of being very hard, and is said to require more frequent sharpening of the tools than either of the other varieties, which circumstance has prevented its extensive use. The East Saint Cloud granite, when used for paving, is dressed roughly in blocks of about 10 by 3 by 5 inches deep. Blocks 50 by 12 by 6 feet thick have been moved; the size of blocks which may be quarried is only limited by the ability to handle; blocks 20 by 6 feet and as long as 60 feet may be quarried if desired. There is a very firm syenitic granite near Motley, on the Northern Pacific railroad, which is similar in outward appearance to the Saint Cloud granite, and will furnish stone for a large tract of stoneless country west of that point, this being the most westerly outcrop of rock known on the line of that railroad within the state. At Beaver Bay, Lake county, a red granitized shale of Cupriferous or Potsdam formation (metamorphic group, and is one of the conditions of the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of the Cupriferous series) is somewhat quarried for dock construction. The ledge lies conveniently near the docks, in the construction of which this stone was used. The rock was taken out in the north side of the bluffs facing the bay. The material is rather fine in texture. The structure of the rock is somewhat basaltified, yet jointed transversely. Four miles below Beaver Bay, on an island in lake Superior, a so-called red granite of the Cupriferous series is found, but has not as yet been quarried. Itis No. 811 of the Minnesota Geological Survey reports. It is believed to be derived from some of the original sedimentary portions of the Cupriferous beds, and would make a very good building material if in the course of the settlement of the country it should become desired. The rock is uniformly crystalline in texture; at most points it is little jointed, but it is occasionally imperfectly basaltic. There is a labradorite rock of the Cupriferous series exposed at the lake shore, 24 or 3 miles east of Beaver Bay, which may be used for ornamental purposes as well as for genera] construction. The supply is abundant and easily accessible. The rock seems to graduate into the gabbro exposed at Rice’s point. The texture of the stone is uniform and coarsely crystalline; it is bedded in some places and in others a solid mass. At the lake shore, near the mouth of Baptism river, Lake county, there is a porphyritic felsite of the Cupriferous series; it is Nos. 138 and 139 of the Minnesota geological report for 1880. The stone is porphyritic, with quartz and perhaps adularia, and it is indistinctly laminated and basaltic in structure. The rock is also exposed 2 miles west of the great palisades, on the north shore of lake Superior, Lake county; it may possibly be used for ornamental purposes, and 4t illustrates the gradual change from the red shales of the sedimentary beds of the Cupriferous to crystalline rock. (See proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for 188081.) In this locality there is also a metamorphosed shale (with adularia) of the Cupriferous series; it is No. 140 of the Minnesota Geological Survey. Specimens of the stone in the National Museum are a brick-red in color; it is usually banded and porphyritic, with quartz and translucent grains that seem to be adularia. On Encampment island, Lake county, a hyperyte rock of the igneous group of the Cupriferous series is found ; it has not been quarried for building purposes, but is interesting from a scientific point of view. In texture it is uniform and coarsely crystalline, and is irregularly jointed and bedded. On the shore of lake Superior, at Two Harbor bay, in Lake county, there is a dark, heavy, uniformly fine-grained rock, probably of the sedimentary group of the Cupriferous. It has not yet been quarried, but has a scientific interest in connection with the investigation of the crystalline rocks of this formation, as its outward characters have not been sufficiently distinct to indicate its DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 247 affinities so as to warrant its being classed in either the igneous or metamorphic group of the Cupriferous., In the Report of the Minnesota Geological Survey for 1880 it is placed in the sedimentary rocks (metamorphosed), but this point is not well established. With it many comparisons have been made, and references in field-books, whenever it has been seen to occur, or where a rock like it has been met with, making it a sort of datum for the mapping geographically of rocks in other places. A trap of the igneous group of the Cupriferous is quarried at Taylor’s Falls, Chisago county, and used in the construction of foundations and rough walls at Taylor’s Falls. The walls of several business blocks at this place are constructed of this stone. The color is dark, almost black, and as to the texture it seems to be made of pyroxene crystals embracing the other minerals, these causing a spotted exterior; otherwise the texture is uniform. This rock, from its proximity to Minneapolis and Saint Paul, is of economic importance because of its adaptability for paving blocks, for which purpose it would supply a most durable material. It may be described as tough rather than hard. It is the most southerly known exposure of theCupriferous in the state, though in Wisconsin a similar rock outcrops a few miles farther south, near the Saint Croix river. Some interesting copper mining has been excited at this point by the discovery of the native copper in the rock and along some of the ravines. It is No. 820 of the Minnesota Geological Survey; the rock seems to have the characteristics ascribed to melaphyre by Pumpelly. SANDSTONES. The red quartzite at New Ulm, which also is seen in Cottonwood, Watonwan, Rock, and Pipe Stone counties, is sparingly used for a building stone at points contiguous, and one or two car-loads are known to have been shipped to Minneapolis. It is the hardest stone in the state, or in the United States, probably, that can be said to have been used for building. It consists almost wholly of quartz, the red color being due to iron oxide, which is disseminated among the grains, but does not enter them. As a layer embraced in this rock the material known as ‘pipestone” or catlinite is found in Pipe Stone county and other places in southwestern Minnesota. This rock it is very difficult and costly to dress into dimension blocks, but it is indestructible when once placed in a wall. There is a quarry of the red quartzite in Courtland township, Nicollet county, near New Ulm, operated for ordinary building purposes and bridge construction, used at New Ulm and surrounding country. It was used in the construction of Sommer’s block and the residence of Mr. Frank Erd, at New Ulm. The stone varies somewhat as to texture, some being loose-grained and sandy, and: some firm, hard, and uniform. It is evenly-bedded in courses varying from half an inch to 4 feet in thickness; the joints and water-cracks are not distinct, but rather frequent. There is but little systematic quarrying done at this place; quarries are contrguous, and exhibit the same kind of rock. Some of the beds are shaly, and the dip about 15° toward the north-northwest. As compared with rocks at Sioux Falls, in Dakota, the opportunities for quarrying are greater here and the stone is much more easily wrought, owing to the fact that the beds are finer and softer, though it is probable that if it were to be deeply excavated it would be found to be firm and of a purplish color within; but at Sioux Falls a greater area of stoneless country surrounding the quarry will create a greater demand than ever will be felt at New Ulm. Next in ascending order, as building materials come the sandstones proper, if we omit the black argillyte or roofing slates and their associates seen at Thompson, which will be treated under “ Roofing slate”. The red sandstones at Fond du Lac are probably the most valuable deposit, taken on all accounts, that the state possesses as a building stone of that kind. They are of the same formation as the New Ulm quartzite, but were less hardened at the time of their upheaval. They lie tilted toward the south or southeast, and are associated with and overlie a vast thickness of soft red shale, which passes sometimes to a shaly red conglomerate, the same that in other places about lake Superior is in contact with the igneous rocks, and becomes copper-bearing. This red sandstone is well known in Milwaukee, Chicago, and Detroit. The quarries in it farther east furnished the red sand-rock used in the Milwaukee court-house, and a great many brownstone fronts in that city and in Chicago were obtained from it. It was formerly quarried on Isle Royale, and sold in Detroit as ‘‘Isle Royale brownstone”. While it consists almost entirely of quartz, the grains are not so firmly cemented or united as to render it objectionably hard. Its grain, color, and texture vary slightly. On Isle Royale, when quarried, it is fine-grained and rather brittle, being more highly metamorphosed than at Fond du Lac. At some points it has a mottling of red and gray, or even of green, as at Sault Ste. Marie, at the eastern end of lake Superior, where the ship-canal is cut in it and largely built of it. In some places it is so loosely cemented as to crumble and to be rendered useless for building, and in others it contains rounded quartz-pebbles of a nearly white color, or becomes wholly conglomeratic. At Fond du Lae some of all these features can be seen, but there is still at that place a great abundance of fine stone of the best quality. This great formation forms the southern rock barrier of lake Superior, almost without interruption, from Duluth to Sault Ste. Marie, but it is not always of so dark a color as it is at Fond du Lac. The famed “+ pictured rocks” of the south shore are formed of it, and the Apostle islands are caused by remnants of it that withstood the erosion of the glacial forces. Its strength, as tested at Washington, proved to be from 4,000 to 5,000 pounds per square inch. Several business blocks have been made from it in Duluth, and the new Westminster church at Minneapolis is being constructed of it. This formation is seen not only at Fond du Lac, but (probably) at Pokegama falls, on the Upper Mississippi, and in the base of the bluffs at Winona, but the most favorable and promising points for quarrying it are at Fond du Lac. 248 | BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The principal quarry at Fond du Lac has been mainly engaged in getting out and shipping stone in the rough, but little being dressed at the quarry. The rock has in some of its heavy bedding stripes of light sand-rock and light spots in some of the brown. Sometimes scattered quartz-pebbles are seen in the light rock of the sizeof a pea, or even a hen’s egg, but not much of it is conglomeratic. Lumps of red shale from 2 to 5 inches in diameter occur in belts coincident with the direction of the bedding. The bedding is even, in courses varying from 4 inches to 2 feet in thickness; the joints are distinct. The stone is used for general building purposes, chiefly at Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Brainerd, Duluth, and Fargo, Dakota, and Superior, Wisconsin. Among the buildings in the construction of which this stone was used are the Clark & Hunter block of Duluth, the Westminster Presbyterian church at Minneapolis, and some of the railroad buildings at Brainerd. There is a quarry on Missouri creek near Fond du Lae, . the product of which is wholly shipped to Winnipeg for use by a contracting builder of that city. The Manitoba college is trimmed with stone from this latter quarry. The freestone at Hinckley is probably not of the same formation, but pertains to a higher horizon—the Saint Croix. It is exposed on the banks of the stream passing through the village and at points farther down. As a building stone it is considerably lighter colored, or more nearly that of the Kasota stone, and more easily wrought than the Fond du Lac stone. It is in even, heavy beds, and can be easily got out. It is as firm and as desirable for all purposes of architecture to which it is adapted as the Cleveland freestone which is so largely used. It can be dressed more cheaply than the Fond du Lae stone and can be cut into ornamental forms for capping or for columns. Its compressive strength has not been tested yet. The stone from this quarry is evenly bedded in courses varying from 6.to 18 inches thick ; there are but few joints. The Saint Paul and Duluth Railroad Company operates the principal quarry at Hinckley, Pine county, for bridge construction, and the stone has lately been put into the foundations for the high bridges and trestle-werk on that railroad along the dalles of the Saint Louis river. It is the only rock known between White Bear lake and the slate region of Thompson, which begins’ near Goose Lake station. At Dresbach, on the Mississippi river and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and Saint Paul railroad, in Winona county, sand-rock of the Saint Croix, which is the lowest sand-rock in the geological scale of Minnebobes is occasionally quarried for ordinary building purposes and shipped to Minneapolis and Saint Paul. The stone promises considerable usefulness in the future, though as yet is but little quarried. The rock has been quarried to a limited extent also at Dakota, 2 miles north of Dresbach, and much attention has been attracted to the material at both these places, as it nearly resembles the Berea sandstone of Ohio, which is now largely used in first-class buildings in Saint Paul and Minneapolis, it being transported there by rail at considerable expense. The development of this industry in Minnesota, so far as Dresbach and Dakota are concerned, is due to the direct and immediate efforts and recommendations of the geological survey of the state in calling attention to it during 1880. There is an unlimited ~ supply of this stone in the bluffs of the Mississippi river, but its best color is found only near the level of the water of the river. The stone is of a fine texture, and varies from a light gray to buff in color, some of it showing even and distinct stratification, and some being massive; it is evenly and horizontally bedded in courses from 3 inches to 5 feet thick. Blocks 8 by 4 by 4 feet have been quarried; and blocks as large as 20 by 8 by 6 feet, or as large as could be conveniently handled, might be quarried. The other sandstones of nearly the same geological horizon are not very good for building, being too friable. They are exposed in the bluffs of the Upper Mississippi below Hastings, and of the Saint Croix below and above Taylor’s Falls, where they have been put into one or two business blocks. They are of rather coarse grain and friable on first quarrying, but the weather operates to harden them somewhat in the course of a few months. When they are finer, and mingled with an aluminous sediment, they are also somewhat magnesian. They are then fit for rough walls, but for first-class architecture they cannot be used, owing to the thinness of the layer and the general incoherency of the grain. Still in some towns this kind of shone is employed exclusively for the general home demand, as at Hokah and at Lake City. The Jordan sandstone of the geological horizon of that name in the Lower Minnesota valley is very much like that at Taylor’s Falls, but i is in a much higher geological horizon. It has been used considerably at Jordan, and serves a good purpose for’ general building, but it cannot be recommended for first-class structures. It is of a Teh color, but stained and clouded, or striped. by a yellowish or rusty iron cement. It is likely that the darker-colored beds of this stone will be found most durable. This rock appears in the Minnesota valley, forming islands and rapids near Carver. If it were to be wrought along the Minnesota river, where it has been for a long time subject to the rusting and cementing action of the waters of the river at periods of flood, it would be found much harder and more valuable. The bedding is even, and in courses varying from 2 inches to 2 feet in thickness, jointing irregular, the texture fine, sometimes friable, and there are signs of irregular stratification. There are two principal varieties in the quarry; that from the bottom is of light gray or bluish color; that from the uppermost 16 feet of the ledge is the stone which has been hitherto used exclusively in building. The gray is very similar in appearance. to the Berea, Ohio, sandstone. Among the buildings in the construction of which this stone has been used are the Foss & Wells flouring-mills, at Jordan, and the City mills and the American house (first story), at the same place. Ordinarily the Saint Peter formation is very friable, and particularly where it is freshly exposed, or is being continually reduced by the action of winds or by running water. But when the river water occasionally or DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 249 periodically overflows it, the repeated evaporation of the water leaves a deposit of iron- rust, which on entering among the loose grains of the rock soon so firmly cements them, especially on being thoroughly dried: as to make a useful building stone. Such a process goes on in all low Pemuae where water evaporates without free escape, and generally causes a rustiness on the mud or on the dead twigs or roots of the place, or even goes so far as to form a bog-iron ore. If a rock be exposed there it becomes more or less rusted, and if before incoherent it becomes firm. Although stone quarried from this formation has been put into the piers of the bridge at Fort Snelling in large blocks, it can hardly be said to constitute a reliable supply of good stone for the cities of Saint Paul and Minneapolis. When evenly and thoroughly cemented by the iron-rust it will form a durable rock, but its liability to inequalities in the hardness of the mass, to variations of color, and to the exhaustion of the supply will operate against its extensive use. At Mendota, Dakota county, sandstone rock of the Saint Peter subdivision of the Lower Silurian is quarried for bridge construction on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and Saint Paul railroad. The piers of the bridge over the Mississippi river at Fort Snelling are built of this stone. This stone, which serves well for heavy masonry, and could be cut for ornamental work in structures, shows the effect of the waters of the Mississippi river in hardening the very friable _ white sand-rock, known as the Saint Peter sandstone. The outcrop in which the quarry is situated is in the bottom land of the river and rises but a few feet above low water. It is annually overflowed and has been for an unknown period evidently, at least since the glacial epoch, and it is to this fact that the cementation of the siliceous grains is due, the evaporation of the water as summer advances leaving a sort of iron cement. It is also probable that the cement is partly’siliceous, since the waters of the river are slightly alkaline, and thus might dissolve some of the silica of the rock, depositing it again as a cement. No other such effect on the Saint Peter formation is known but in the valley of the Minnesota river. Above this place, the Shakopee formation is thus affected at Kasota, the Jordan at Van Osser’s creek, near Louisville, and the Saint Lawrence at Jessen Land; in all cases the change of character being due to the interpenetration of iron oxide on the evaporation of the water of the river. The stone used at and below Austin, taken from the low banks of the Cedar river, seems to belong to the Upper Devonian. It is believed to lie conformably over the Devonian limestones that are seen in outcrop farther down the river, a few miles south of the state line in Iowa. The stone itself in its natural color is of a light blue, and that color shows on most of the quarried blocks about the heart of the bedding, and on deep quarrying it would doubtless show only a blue color. Yet the stone as now used is very generally of a buff color to the depth of from half an inch to 3 inches, depending on the amount of weathering and oxidation. The thinner beds are altogether changed to that color. The texture of the stone is close, and the grainis homogeneous, Some large slabs and blocks are sawed for bases to tombstones, and worked down to a very smooth surface. It is more safely sawed to any desired dimension than cut vr broken, yet it is not in the least crystalline. Its aspect at a distance is that of a fine-grained sandstone, yet it contains no apparent grit. It is so soft that it can be cut without difficulty, appearing much like an unusually indurated blue shale, but it hardens in use and serves a useful purpose in common buildings, but cannot be depended on for first-class structures. Its argillaceous composition will ultimately cause it to crumble, especially if it be subjected to frequent changes of moisture and dryness. At several points in the banks of the Minnesota river between New Ulm and Mankato a hard, siliceous sandstone of Cretaceous age is exposed, which has supplied some very good building material. The layers are about 4 inches in thickness, and are tough and firm. They are associated with alternating layers of a friable sandstone, which aids in their extraction. These beds are sometimes so coarse as to justify their being designated as conglomeratic. The stone is very durable as a building material, but the toughness and hardness of the texture and the thinness of the beds, make it more suitable for flagging than for building. It is typically exposed on the land of William Fritz, Sec. 16, T. 109, R. 29, in Nicollet county and other places near. LIMESTONES. The lowest limestones in the geological scale are those seen in the bluffs of the Mississippi river and in the Saint Croix valley. They generally form the tops of the bluffs, and cause the precipitous portions, the sloping talus being taken up with one or more of the sandstones above mentioned. These limestone beds present a varied lithology, and cause some very interesting topographical features. . As a building stone they are wrought at all points where there is a demand (except Lake city), between Stillwater and Winona, along the Mississippi valley 01 the Minnesota side, and also at several places farther west, as at Caledonia, in Houston county, Lanesborough and Rushford, in Fillmore county, and at points in Winona county. The material they supply is in general a magnesian limestone of a light buff color, a firm but sometimes vesicular or porous texture, and often having a considerable proportion of quartz. An analysis of a sample from Sugar Loaf, Winona, gave the following result: Per cent. i Teeta ema NE LED Yes «5. UL ss Sa nmgods nds ane eRe ete sete Aas me on ds Monae, ode cece «eee ee aeepe sit sesas 24.21 f Ferric and aluminic oxides ...-....---- +--+ ---5--- een Sea Sala vc sala haves sais se wak Aas et. shoe FAkE wears ot 3. 32 Calcium sulphate .........--.- RoE 1 Usk pees See ES eto a,, Pee atonal Ggadaba hoset Los hs lu ve 2 4.32 Calciamir iat bata te rate t ee tacos oon boule ae ne Rae gaa bogie one's Sang shaban wae bona ee Shh nce ssa dvamte's = 47.11 Magnesium carbonate ..---....--- ------ e+2-e+ eee eens eee eee ieee jue ana ne ewe ea era ci ricki > side me shane ea aa 20. 67 250 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Showing that nearly one-fourth of the whole consists of quartz. In other places would be found less quartz; and this is particularly the case at Frontenac, where the rock is so even-grained and so free from quartz that it is sawed by machinery into such slabs or blocks as are wanted. The quarries at Winona and Red Wing are in beds of this stone that are quite similar as to texture, being open and loose, or having small scattered cavities. In these cavities are sometimes linings of drusy quartz crystals. In other beds this quartz is gathered instead into nodules of chert or flint, which, although having a white exterior, are hard, and often gray within. This is the condition of the quartz in the stone at Frontenac, but these flint lumps are not common there. In other places whole beds are cherty and worthless for a building stone. This formation, which probably at the present time furnishes more stone than any other in the state, is destined to be still further used for the same purpose, as it is most favorably situated at its exposures both for excavation and for shipment and transportation, and supplies one of the best materials for all purposes of architecture. It varies from a light buff to a light drab color. When placed in a structure it has a lively and cheerful expression. At Frontenac it is cut into ornamental forms with comparative ease, and the same kind of beds as those at that place are found throughout the southeastern part of Goodhue county and the northern portion, at least, of Wabasha. It is but slightly changed after many years exposure to atmospheric influences; indeed, it has not been in use long enough yet in the state to show any change whatever by lapse of time, although it is in some of the oldest buildings of the state. The homogeneity of its composition and texture, as at Frontenac, and the regularity and thickness of its bedding, are qualities that enable it to supply slabs and blocks of any desired dimensions. Its resistance to pressure, amounting to 5,000 to 7,000 pounds per square inch, is sufficient to warrant its use in all ordinary structures, while for door moldings and caps, for sills and water-tables, and for all trimmings to brick structures, it is unsurpassed. The limestone of the Saint Lawrence horizon, the lower portion of the great magnesian limestone of the west, in the vicinity of Stillwater lake, is often somewhat siliceous, and the determinations made at the National Museum for this report show it to be properly sometimes a dolomite and sometimes a siliceous dolomite. A chemical analysis of the samples of the stone usually show a high percentage of magnesia, considerable iron, and siliceous matter. At a quarry of this limestone at Stillwater, on lake Saint Croix, and on the Saint Paul and Duluth railroad, the ledge is about 45 feet thick, and extends still farther below. It alternates in bands of compact and of vesicular rock from 3 to 6 feet each, and there is about an equal amount*of each kind, all lying in horizontal courses. The coarse and vesicular dolomite is used for the heaviest masonry, such as bridge construction; it is in beds of from 18 to 30. inches thick, and is more firm and durable than either of the other varieties. One variety is called ‘ sand-rock ” by the quarrymen, though plainly containing very little, if any, quartz sand, and has a uniform and granular texture. The other principal variety is most useful for general purposes; it is especially sought for and adapted to use for sills, water-tables, and caps, making a stone which is fine and uniform in texture, and of uniformly light buff color. It yields a good surface under the hammer and chisel, and is employed for bases and tombstones ; it is also used for ashlar, pilasters, and copings. The use of this stone thus far has been only local, and the following are some of the buildings in the construction of which it has been employed: The state prison, public school-houses, one Catholic church, store building of Mr. Isaac Staples, Universalist church, and the Fayette-Marsh block, all in Stillwater. The Saint Lawrence limestone is quarried at Stockton, Winona county, for bridge construction and foundations, and employed in the railroad work along the Winona and Saint Peter railroad and in the towns on that road. The stone was used in the construction of the railroad round-house at Winona. In texture it is generally uniform, but sometimes vesicular, cherty, and geodic; in color it is buff; it is a dolomite containing a small percentage of iron. The stone is evenly and horizontally bedded in courses usually from 9 to 25 inches. There is a coarse concretionary (apparently brecciated) condition sometimes seen in this formation from 25 to 100 feet in thickness, which has to be entirely thrown away or used as filling by the railroad. A concretionary condition occurs in isolated masses and nodules, and does not extend far horizontally; at least it is not always present at any given horizon. The quarry is operated by the Chicago and Northwestern railroad, and most of the best stone is used in bridge and other construction. The Saint Lawrence is quarried also at Winona for general building purposes and flagging for local use; some of it is burned for lime and shipped to Minneapolis and Saint Paul. The location of the principal quarry is on an eminence known as Sugar Loaf hill. The stone has been used in the construction of a Congregational ehurch, an Episcopal church, and the jail at Winona. It is usually fine and uniform in texture, but some of it is porous and contains quartz lumps. The color is usually buff; it is evenly and horizontally bedded in courses from 4 inches to 3 feet in thickness; there are signs of irregular stratificatioy. Blocks 8 by 6 by 24 feet thick have been quarried, and blocks of any size that can be handled may be quarried. The perpendicular joints are usually from 10 to 20 feet apart. The magnesian limestones of Minnesota are generally buff in color—at least the dolomites are— the only variation from buff being in some of the aluminous parts of the Trenton, when the term “ dirty drab” | might be used, perhaps. ’ The Saint Lawrence limestone quarried at Red Wing, Goodhue county, is used locally for general building purposes and for quicklime. It was employed in the construction of Christ church, the Red Wing and Diamond flouring-mills, the first stories of the Saint James hotel, and the residence of Dr. A. B. Hawley; all at Red Wing. It is a dolomite, fine in texture; some is vesicular and some compact, and the color varies from buff to light buff. It is DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. aad | evenly and horizontally bedded in courses varying from 4 inches to 3 feet. Blocks 8 by 6 by 24 feet in thickness have been quarried, and blocks of any size that can conveniently be handled may be quarried. The quarries at Red Wing do not differ much in the manner and kind of stratification, or in the quality of stone produced, from those at Stillwater. At Frontenac, in Goodhue county, this formation is quarried for general building purposes, and used to some extent also for bases and tombstones. It was used in the construction of Barney’s block, in Saint Paul. It is here also a dolomite of medium fine and very vesicular texture, buff in color, and evenly and horizontally bedded in layers often as thick as 54 feet; it is jointed at irregular intervals. The dimensions of the largest block that has been quarried are 11 by 7 by 54 feet, weighing 18 tons; this is about as large as can be obtained from the quarry. Saws and rubbing-beds are used in dressing this stone at the quarry. This stone is considered one of the best in the state; it is seen in some large first-class buildings in both Minneapolis and Saint Paul, and-the front of a large block in Minneapolis is being constructed of it by Mr. H. D. Wood. That limestone formation (Shakopee) which is wrought at Mankato, Ottawa, Kasota, Shakopee, and Saint Peter lies about 100 feet higher in the geological scale than the last mentioned, but it is in nearly all places where . wrought of nearly the same character and as useful for all purposes, though f does not present the evenness of texture and freedom from quartz seen in the Frontenac stone. At Kasota the river has at some early time stained it in the same way that it has the Saint Peter sandstone, near Mendota, giving it a rusty pink color, or a fawn color, as described by Featherstonhaugh, and at the same time greater tenacity and endurance under pressure—10,000 pounds per square inch. For its beauty, its regularity of bedding—which is sometimes nearly 2 feet in thickness— and its homogeneous texture, which renders it easy to shape into all forms, it is adapted to ornamental work as well as heavy masonry. It is cut, as at Mankato, into posts, sills, caps, and water-tables. For its adaptability to all uses it is worthy of being ranked with the Waverly sandstone, which is beginning to be imported into Minneapolis and Saint Paul from Ohio, and it is more enduring even than that under the action of atmospheric changes, owing to the more general and abundant dissemination of the caleareous cement, while its variegated coloring and its more lively expression make it preferable in many kinds of work. It is used in the State Lunatic Asylum building at Saint Peter. The Episcopal church and the old asylum building are also constructed from it. The Baptist church in Saint Paul is built of the Kasota stone. In old structures where it has been exposed for a number of years to the disintegrating action of the elements it shows as hard and sound as ever. It even becomes harder at first on exposure as the quarry water dries out. The Shakopee, the upper member of the Lower Magnesian, is quarried at Kasota, Le Sueur county, for general purposes of construction, and especially for bridges, flagging, and tombstones. It is used throughout Minnesota, and in Eau Claire, Madison, and Hudson, Wisconsin; Le Mars, Sioux City, and Muscatine, Iowa; Sioux Falls, Dakota, and Winnipeg, in Manitoba. The following are some of the principal buildings in the construction of which it has been used: In the Insane Asylum at Saint Peter; trimmings in Saint Mary’s chureh, Minneapolis ; Plymouth church, Minneapolis, and Gilfillan’s and Odd Fellows’ blocks, in Saint Paul. The stone is a dolomite, ferruginous, and contains considerable siliceous matter. Specimens of the stone at the National Museum are dendritic. The stone at Kasota is all, or nearly all, stained with iron having a faintly-pinkish color, although originally buff. This stain comes from the flooding of the Minnesota river at early (glacial) times. The stone is suberystalline and vesicular, with signs of irregular stratification, and is evenly and horizontally bedded in courses from 3 to 4 feet in thickness. Blocks 10 by 11 feet by 1 foot thick have been quarried, and blocks of as large size as could be conveniently handled may be quarried. Around the joints there is a recent penetration of iron and carbonaceous stain, sometimes 6 or 8 inches in ue joints, having a wavy outline, according to the rate and ease of penetration by infiltrating water. This is usually cut away as waste in dressing blocks of the stone. Much of the stone at Kasota and some of the equivalent beds at Mankato have a color (designated by Featherstonhaugh as “‘fawn-color”) not common to building stone. It is an accidental quality due to the more free penetration or chemical retention of the iron of atmospheric ferrated waters. Wherever the stone of the Shakopee formation is found so situated as to have been covered by the Minnesota river in its flood stages, or in the floods of the glacial epoch, it is uniformly so colored. In none of its layers, when found in higher land in the interior of the state, is this color found, but it has usually the buff color of the weathered siliceous limestones (non-argillaceous). The highest-priced stone of the Kasota quarries is that which is most colored by the presence of iron, being faintly reddish or pink. Near Mankato, Blue Earth county, the Shakopee limestone is quarried for railroad-bridge construction and for general building purposes, and extensively used along the line of the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha railroad, the Winona and Saint Peter railroad, and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and Saint Pan railroad ; in western and Ri ate Minnesota; Eau Claire, Wisconsin ; Sioux Falls, Dakota; Le Mars and Sioux City, Tow a; and the following are some of ie buildings in the Pps Me tien of pinch it fae been used: The trimmings of the publie- school buildings at Sioux Falls and Albert Lea, Minnesota; the jail at Blue Earth; the state normal school and other schools at Mankato. The stone is here also a dolomite, containing some siliceous matter, usually ferruginous; buff in color, suberystalline, sometimes fine, close-grained, and sometimes open and vesicular, with cavities of half 202 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. an inch or less in diameter; signs of irregular stratification, evenly and horizontally peated in layers often 6 feet in thickness; it is irregularly jointed, and blocks 8 by 4 feet by 18 inches have been quarried, and blocks 20 by 10 by 6 feet might be quarried. All the quarries in the vicinity of Mankato are in the same beds, and very nearly the same details of stratification are present. There is a bed of shale connected with the rock. at Mankato which in some particular localities becomes more calcareous, and is possibly suitable for a cement. The light blue color which appears in the deep portions of some of the quarries indicates the original color of all the rock; on further quarrying this blue color will probably increase in amount. The Galena limestone (at first a light buff stone) at Mantorville, in Dodge county, shows the same change in the deeper layers. In the quarry of the Winona and Saint Peter railroad, near Mankato, for quarrying convenience the layers are designated as follows, from the top downward : 1st. White ledge, very fine-grained stone. 2d. Red ledge, harder and pinkish. 3d. Gray ledge, coarse-looking stone. 4th. Soft ledge, will not stand frost. 5th. Bridge stone, coarse in texture. The Trenton limestone, which is largely used at Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Northfield, Faribault, and Chatfield, and was formerly quarried at Fountain for shipment to points farther west on the Southern Minnesota railroad, is a bluish, rather dark colored stone, that varies in value very much at different places between Minneapolis and the southern part of the state. At points toward the north, nearer the old shore-line of the Paleozoic ocean, much aluminous shale was deposited, even in those comparatively quiet times when marine animals flourished and on their death supplied a considerable calcareous sediment. Farther south the quiet, lime-producing epochs were less mixed with aluminous sediment, and were separated more distinctly by periods of agitation when large amounts of shale were deposited. Hence in this formation at Minneapolis and Saint Paul the aluminous shaly ingrédient is distributed through the calcareous, and also constitutes heavy beds of itself, while at Northfield the calcareous layers are pure; at Fountain they are almost free from alumina and sand, and at the same time in passing toward the south the purely aluminous beds become less frequent as the caleareous become more numerous. The cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul have to depend very largely on the Trenton limestone for building material or to import from other places. The stone itself has an attractive and substantial aspect when dressed under the hammer, the variegations due to the alternating shaly and limy parts giving the face a clouded appearance as of gray marble, without being susceptible of a uniform polish. Where protected from the weather the shale will endure and act as a strong filling for the frame-work of calcareous matter for a long time; but under the vicissitudes of moisture and dryness, and of freezing and thawing, it begins to crumble out in a few years. This result is visible in some of the older buildings, in both Saint Paul and Minneapolis, and has provoked a very general inquiry for some suitable substitute in those cities. The natural color of the stone on deep quarrying is blue, but it is often faded to an ashen drab to the depth of several feet, depending on the ease with which water and air find access within. The porous layers are apt to be most faded. The long-weathered surface is of a light buff color, or if iron be present in dripping water or contained in the stone as pyrites, so situated as to be oxidized, the color is sensibly deepened to a rusty yellow, and at the same time the stone is rendered more enduring on account of the irony cement. This is noticeable at Minneapolis and at Saint Paul, where the old river bluffs, formed before the last glacial epoch, have endured the exposure of a much longer period than the river bluffs between Fort Snelling and Minneapolis that have been formed by the recession of the falls since the last glaciation. The skaly portions in particular, where closely mingled with the calcareous, are so stained and hardened that the rock seems almost another formation. It becomes separated into layers 2 or 3 inches thick. Some of the first large buildings erected in Saint Paul were made largely or wholly from such iron-stained and weathered parts of this formation, and, although they do not present that uniformity of color and appearance of solidity and strength that the dark blue stone lately quarried gives to a building, the stone itself has withstood the climate and storms of this latitude more successfully than later buildings constructed wholly of the blue-stone. Toward the southern portion of the state this changed condition is not so noticeable, indeed it is not so possible. The beds are more compact and calcareous, and the effect of the elements is more superficial. In the vicinity of Saint Paul the rock is a slightly-magnesian limestone, containing protoxide of iron. The texture is fine and semi-crystalline, usually showing signs of regular stratification, evenly and horizontally bedded in’ courses from 3 to 24 inches in thickness, joints 10 to 30 feet apart; blocks 6 by 2 feet by 1 foot have been quarried, and blocks 10 by 5 by 2 feet may be quarried. Saint Paul and vicinity is the only market, and the following are some of the principal buildings in the construction of which the stone has been used: The Fire and Marine Insurance building, the cathedral, the McQuillan block, the German Catholic church, the custom-house, and most of the stone buildings in Saint Paul. In the immediate vicinity of Minneapolis the stoue contains varying amounts of magnesia, ordinarily hardly sufficient. to be called a magnesian limestone. The upper layers in nearly all of the quarries are made up of a siliceous dolomite. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 253 The blue, slightly-magnesian limestone, however, preponderates at all the quarries, and silica and protoxide of iron are nearly always present in greater or less quantity. The following is a full section of the Tr sa a as exposed at the Minneapolis quarries, given in descending order : 1. Dolomite, somewhat argillaceous, making a durable building stone, but generally not regarded as highly as the rock of No. 5; it contains numerous casts Of fossils; thickness, 8 feet. 2. Similar to No. ft, or gradually becoming more impure with shale; thickness, 2 feet. 3. Calcareous green shale, mainly in one bed or layer; thickness, 4 feet 8 inchés. 4, The last passing gradually into a calcareous shale resembling the well-known building rock of this vicinity, sometimes used for rough walls, distinctly set off from the next below; thickness, 2 feet 4 inches. 5. The regular building stone of Minneapolis. The shale which impairs this stone is intimately disseminated through the calcareous layers without showing regular lamination, yet causing a mottled or blotched exterior on being dressed; the fossil remains are usually comminuted; thickness, from 10 to 14 feet. 6. A vesicular, less argillaceous, but magnesian and rather softer rock lying near the bottom of the blue limestone and generally not distinguished from it; thickness, 18 to 24 inches. 7. Blue shale, worthless for building; thickness, 2 feet. As to the texture of the Minneapolis stone it is generally fine and compact, seldom vesicular, and often interlaminated with shaly belts. At some places it separates into laminz of from 1 inch to 2 inches on weathering; some of it is mottled with argillaceous spots, but is otherwise compact, though showing fragmentary fossils. The color of the stone most used at Minneapolis for construction is a light blue, and until recently it was used exclusively, but at present building stones from Ohio, Iowa, and Illinois are being introduced. Some of the building stones from other parts of the state are also being used in the city, particularly that from Frontenac and from Kasota. The Trenton at Minneapolis and Saint Paul splits under the weather along the dark argillaceous belts that pervade it, and for that reason is not now regarded as a first-class building stone. The better rubble from the upper layers of the Minneapolis quarries really embraces the best rock for dimension work, and as to quality it is as durable a rock as the highest priced; it is sold cheaper because of irregular shape in fracture, rendering it unfit for range work. However, the quarries in the central and northern part of the city do not have this rubble, nor the “soap rock”, which is sold for poor rubble, that layer having been denuded by the glacial and drainage forces so as to leave only the regular ‘‘ quarry rock”, which is No. 5 of the section before given of the Trenton at Minneapolis. The lowest layers in all the Minneapolis quarries show some variation in the composition and texture. The following is an analysis of the dolomitic white limestone at the Baxter quarry: Per cent. CAL DOANE On MLIn Ores eeepc =e el tam o> aos Renee sec cialaie i seh nee eeieiateks Sica a ebig emia bse ee Mee corm eedcloensk 5, 1DOD3d rabies 200 | Devonian ........-... Hamilton esse. 2 eeene Mamilton ?:*s2s2- ase. 250 | Upper Silurian ...... NIBP ATS oe cielatcjee bats NGA Pare cea ek ian i-s © 50 to 350 Paleozoic... 220... ¢ [= ; | { Maquoketa .......-.. 20 to 125 (i Trenton sensonss= Galenas:2sa0e. tos sac 20 to 250 | | | Trenton’ es sasie sc seas oc 75 to 200 Lower Silurian ....¢ | = | | Saint Peter .....--... 80 (| Canadian ......... Lower Magnesian. -.. 350 Potadamiesccesscaciss 300 l | Cambrian2cs 2255-233 Primordial tw.) Pigak sree esac otek 100 QUATERNARY PERIOD. DRiFT.—Under this general term are included the several beds of aqueo-chemical, vegetal, glacial, lacustral, and alluvial origin, which represent no fewer than eight distinct deposits, and which cover the sedimentary strata over more than 99 per cent. of the state. While the thickness of the drift is variable, it is generally sufficient to preclude the economical extraction of the underlying rock for industrial purposes, and at the same time to embarrass geological investigation, except in the deeper valleys of erosion; and over fully one-third of the state its depth and continuity are such as entirely to conceal the older strata. Over much of the northern half of the state erratic bowlders of granite, syenite, and other crystalline rocks abound in the drift, and are more or less extensively employed for building and ornamental purposes. They are found in greatest abundance and perfection and of largest size in Butler, Bremer, Black Hawk, and Buchanan counties, where, as in all the northern third of the state, they either lie upon the surface or are but partially buried. Farthersouthward they diminish in size, become wholly buried, and finally diminish in number. The large bowlders have been most largely worked in Buchanan county, chiefly at and near Independence; but they are pretty largely employed for heavy foundations, bases, monuments, ete., at Osage, Mason City, Charles City, Waverly, Marshall, Eldora, and elsewhere. Smaller bowlders are also used for foundations, ete., either in their natural form or simply broken into irregular fragments (by blasting or by plugs and feathers), or, more rarely, dressed, in nearly every county in the northern part of the state, where they serve as a substitute for the inaccessible bedded rocks ; but the demand is so variable and the supply so limited that the industry is neither important nor permanent. CRETACEOUS PERIOD. INOCERAMUS.—This newest stage of the sedimentary strata of Iowa consists of three conformable chalky beds, of which only the uppermost is sufficiently indurated to form a weak and friable limestone. It isnot known except in the bluffs of the Sioux river in Plymouth and Woodbury counties, and it is practically worthless for purposes of construction, though the upper division is sometimes employed for cheap foundations, ete., in the vicinity of Sioux City. WoopspurRy.—The materials forming this stage are either sandstones, generally shaly and impure, or argillaceous, arenaceous, calcareous, or (rarely) bituminous shales. It is exposed along the Missouri and Sioux rivers in Woodbury county. At and in the vicinity of Sioux City the purer sandstone layers are quarried to the value of perhaps $1,000 or $2,000 per year, the product being used for common rubble, riprap, macadam, paving and curb stones, ete. The material is tolerably suitable for such purposes if care is exercised to exclude the obscurely, shaly, or otherwise defective portions. There is so much waste as to enhance its cost, but it can nevertheless be furnished at a less price than stone transported thither from better quarries. VOL. Ix——17 B S 258 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. NISHNABOTNA STAGE.—The Nishnabotna stage is mainly a coarse-grained, friable sandstone, generally quite ferruginous, sometimes gravelly and passing into pudding-stone, and rarely clayey. When cemented it is usually by iron, and it hence assumes the reddish-brown color of the hydrated sesquioxide. It is frequently obliquely stratified, and is generally massive or with very irregular and obscure bedding and jointage planes. It is exposed along the Nishnabotna river in Cass county, in Guthrie county, and in a few other localities ; the only important quarry being at Lewis. A few smaller quarries are operated near Lewis, and others are said to be worked in southeastern Guthrie county. Fort DopGE.—The stage to which it seems appropriate that this name should be applied is a deposit of nearly pure light gray, regularly-bedded gypsum, resting unconformably upon Saint Louis and Lower Coal strata, and unconformably overlain by drift, supposed to extend over an area of about 25 square miles in the vicinity of Fort. Dodge. The bedding is horizontal, and it is generally distantly and vertically jointed. It is also finely laminated horizontally in alternate white and gray lines, the latter containing all the slight impurity with which it is charged. It is quite soft when first quarried, but hardens considerably on exposure. Some years ago it was quite extensively used as a building material, but it has now fallen into disrepute. Among the structures built from it are an arched culvert over Two-Mile creek, on the Illinois Central railway, and the depot building on the same railway at Fort Dodge, both of which were erected from 15 to 20 years ago. Four years ago the culvert was seen to be in good condition, and during the past season but little sign of dissolution could. be detected in the depot building. Foundations built at about the same time are, however, reported to have given way. It is now almost exclusively employed in the manufacture of plaster of paris. I have made but few and casual observations in connection with the Cretaceous rocks of the state, and hence their description is mainly taken directly from White’s report. Itis probable that much of the northwestern third of the state is underlain by Cretaceous strata; but the depth of the drift is so great as to prevent the actual determination of the geographical extent of the system. The classification adopted is that of White, except as regards the gypsum deposit, which is provisionally given a specific stratigraphical designation and included within the Cretaceous system. As shown by White, the deposit is apparently a precipitate of sedimentary character (Geology of Iowa, 1870, II, p. 300), and it hence must have been laid down in a basin isolated from the sea and subjected to gradual evaporation; and since the Cretaceous seas extended farther northeast than those of any other age between sub-Carboniferous and Quaternary times, it is regarded as most probable that this little inland basin was filled by sea-water during that period, and desiccated during the elevation that closed that period in Lowa. The limited information as to the employment of the Woodbury sandstone for building purposes was mainly derived from incidental observations made some years ago; but from reports of a resident during the past season it appears that the material is used to about the same extent as at that time. CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. UprEerR CoAu.—The materials forming this stage of the general Iowa section are, as far as known, pure, magnesian, argillaceous, arenaceous, and earthy limestones, generally intercalated with shaly bands and partings, together with shales, clays, sandstones, and a thin coal seam. The pure and magnesian limestones are regularly, smoothly, and approximately horizontally bedded, and generally distantly jointed by the ‘‘clay seams” of the quarrymen; though the ledges, especially in the pure limestones, are independently cut up into angular blocks of various sizes by irregularly-ramifying vertical ‘dry seams”, which often simulate fresh fractures. The area occupied by this stage is very considerable, though most of it is so deeply covered with drift that the rocks are accessible only along waterways. In addition to the quarries specifically reported on there are small quarries supplying local demands for common rubble (used chiefly for cheap foundations, etc.) at Glenwood, Malvern, Red Oak, Macedonia, Corning, Bedford, Clarinda, Numa, and Winterset, in southeastern Cass county, in southern Decatur county, and elsewhere, which collectively produce building material to the amount of many thousands of dollars annually ; indeed the demand for building stone for all except the more costly structures in the southwestern part of the state is chiefly met by the product of such local quarries. They are, however, so irregularly worked as to render it quite impossible to collect reliable statistics of their operation and product. All of these quarries are in limestone, the sandstones being worthless for building purposes so far as known. The dolomite, which occurs only at Winterset, and in a few ledges at Earlham, is light buff or grayish-buff, finely saccharoidal, homogeneous, tough, quite free from grit, and seldom penetrated by dry seams. It well resists exposure and the action of frost, and is in all respects an excellent stone. ‘The pure limestone is whitish or light gray, sometimes with a bluish tinge, finely suberystalline, the fracture being generally conchoidal. It usually occurs in only a few ledges at any point, intercalated with impure limestone, but is not confined to any part of the area of the Upper Coal rocks. It is somewhat injured: by dry seams, and does not perfectly resist the action of frost. The impure or argillaceous portions are light buff, yellowish, bluish, and sometimes blue-black, especially when freshly quarried ; is approximately homogeneous, fine, compact, and brittle, and much cut up by dry seams. This stone is soon destroyed by frost, especially when kept moist, as at the ground level in foundations. Both the pure and argillaceous phases are remarkably uniform in lithological character over the whole area of the stage. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 259 MIDDLE CoAL.—This division of the Coal Measure series consists of shales, clays, sandstones, and limestones, with half a dozen thin coal seams, the limestones and sandstones occurring in thin, discontinuous beds. Its strata occupy a variable, tortuous belt, bounding the area of the newer stage, but not yet satisfactorily separable, geographically, from the Lower Coal stage. St. John mentions (Geology of Iowa, 1870, I, p. 284) that the limestones of this stage are quarried in the western part of Dallas county, and that the sandy ledges afford a fair freestone near Adel and south of Indianola; but it appears, from inquiries made, without visiting these localities, that neither here nor elsewhere are these rocks systematically quarried to any considerable extent. LOWER Coau.—The lowest member of the coal-bearing rocks in Iowa is mainly composed of shales, clays, and friable sandstones, with occasional thin layers of impure limestone and a number of valuable beds of coal, the whole occupying a very considerable but extremely irregular area. Over this area (which was largely determined by Hall and White) the strata are tolerably uniform in character and approximately horizontal, though sandstones predominate toward its eastern and northern margin, and in the isolated outliers, and the beds are apparently disturbed by a number of gentle parallel undulations which coincide in direction with the principal waterways. In some eases certainly, and apparently in nearly all, the lines of erosion follow the anticlinals. Moreover, its ‘~ attenuated margin is deeply lobed by the erosion of the tributaries of these streams and by all minor waterways which originate withinits area. Accordingly itis quite possible that the terminal portions of many of the eastwardly- extending lobes are nearly insulated; while conversely, the Story county, Pella, and other sub-Carboniferous exposures may be completely surrounded by coal-bearing strata. The rock oceurs in the southeastern part of Jones county, near Oxford, but its extent is not known. A brown sandstone also occurs in the eastern part of Delaware county, 5 miles south of Dyersville, and a ferruginous conglomerate is found in small quantities in the northeastern part of Howard county; but these exposures equally resemble the Nishnabotna sandstone, and may possibly not belong to cither the Cretaceous or the Carboniferous systems. The limestones of the stage are, so far as known, worthless for building purposes; but the sandstones, which are usually coarse, more or less ferruginous, heavily bedded or massive, rather distantly jointed, and often obliquely laminated, are quarried in many localities, chiefly near the margin of the area occupied by the stage, or in its isolated outliers. At Red Rock (9 miles north of Knoxville) it yields an excellent freestone of brick-red color, which attracted much attention a few years ago, but which is now mostly abandoned in consequence of the opening of quarries in superior limestone and sandstone strata of the Saint Louis stage in the vicinity. A less valuable freestone is reported to be quarried in a small way near Ripley, and in Boone county, 10 miles west of Sheldahl. At Steamboat Rock (4 miles north of Eldora), Eldora, near Marshall, at Kellogg, and south of Sigourney, a coarse, brown, friable, ferruginous sandstone, sometimes conglomeratic, which supplies local demands for common masonry, is quarried in a primitive manner whenever the material is called for; the aggregate annual product (excluding Eldora) is, on an average, about 80,000 cubic feet, worth about $2,500, but the output appears to have been less than usual for the past year or two. The sandstones of the outliers are, as a rule, superior to those of the Lower Coal area proper. At the Dutch colonies, in Iowa county (Hast Amana, Amana, Middle Amana, Hohe Amana, West Amana, and Homestead), lying from 5 to 10 miles east of Marengo, it is finer and firmer than in the localities previously mentioned, and generally obliquely laminated. It is employed in the construction of the principal buildings, including mills and factories, in the several towns. The laborers of the colonies work the quarries whenever building’ material is required, or they are not otherwise engaged, moving about 75,000 to 125,000 cubic feet of rubble per year; but since this labor has no financial equivalent, and the product is common property, the value of the material is indeterminate. In the outliers of Muscatine and Scott counties the rock is still more extensively utilized as a building material. In the western part of this area it is lithologically similar to thatfound at Amana, or somewhat coarser and more friable, as in the Hare and Starke quarries; but eastward it is finer and less ferruginous, as in\a quarry near Buffalo and the Goetsch quarry, in Davenport, where it is fine, uniform, clean, imperfectly cemented, and light buff or white in color. In the last-named quarry it reposes unconformably upon Devonian limestone, both being quarried, but neither extensively. Sarnt Lovurs.—This stage is made up of three distinct divisions. The uppermost of these consists mainly of pure limestone, sometimes ‘brecciated or concretionary, sometimes regularly bedded, compact, finely suberystalline, homogeneous and brittle, with a conchoidal fracture, and is overlain by a bed of clay, the whole being some 40 feet in thickness. The middle member is a sandstone or freestone, usually regularly bedded, distantly jointed, firm, homogenous, and hard; its thickness never exceeding 20 feet, so far as known. The lowest bed is an equally homogeneous, compact, regularly-bedded, distantly-jointed dolomite of unusual strength, fineness, and toughness. The area over which the strata of this age form the floor of the drift is not known with sufficient accuracy to permit of separating this from the older stages of the sub-Carboniferous series ; butits outcrops are known in Lee, Des Moines, Henry, Washington, Van Buren, Jefferson, Keokuk, Wapello, Mahaska, Marion, Story, Hamilton, and Webster counties; its identity in the second as well as in the last three of these counties being stated on W hite’s authority. The uppermost division is the least valuable as a building material, though it is largely quarried for phocit purpose at Franklin, Mount Pleasant, Ottumwa, Chillicothe, Givin, Sigourney, Ames, Fort Dodge, Webster City, 260 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. and elsewhere. In all of these localities it forms a fair, sometimes excellent, building stone. It has also been quarried for use in lithography, chiefly near Farmington, where the rock is similar, lithologically, to that found at Franklin. It is no longer used for this purpose, since it has been found to contain too many dry seams, often cemented by crystalline carbonate of lime. Its ordinary color is light buff, light gray, or nearly white, sometimes with a bluish tinge; and its normal texture, where of value as a building material, is fine, homogeneous, brittle, and sometimes very hard, as at Ottumwa. This phase resembles the pure limestone of the Upper Coal stage. Itis, however, impure in its northwesterly extension. At Ames and at Webster City it is generally buff or yellowish in color, somewhat earthy or argillaceous, and quite similar to the impure portions of the Upper Coal limestone; while at Fort Dodge it is almost silty in part, dark blue or black when freshly quarried, though weathering to gray, and” very erratic and refractory under the hammer when first extracted. It need hardly be said that the stone from these quarries does not well resist the action of frost. Little is known of the Webster City quarry further than that it supplies local demands for cheaper masonry, and that it is not largely operated. The city is in part supplied with better stone from the Farley quarries. The middle division is largely quarried at Keokuk, Fairfield, Mount Pleasant, and Dudley. At Fairfield it is composed of siliceous sand in a calcareous matrix, and is irregularly bedded and closely jointed, rendering it difficult to find blocks of large dimensions ; but it is so hard, and resists disintegration so perfectly, that a door-sill in constant use for twenty years exhibits scarcely perceptible wear. ‘Ten miles northeast of Fairfield a small quarry, used locally, is said to yield much larger blocks of similar quality. Near Oskaloosa the rock is reported to be much the same as at Fairfield. It is here used for millstones with partial success. At Keokuk and at Mount Pleasant, but especially at Dudley, the ledges are smooth, uniform, distantly jointed, and free from dry seams, permitting the extraction of blocks 10 by 20 feet, or larger, though it is here less hard and indestructible than at Fairfield. The rock is generally gray or bluish-gray in color. | The lowest and magnesian member is extracted at Keokuk, Mount Pleasant, Chequest creek (5 miles southwest of Kilbourne), Brighton, Washington, Givin, Ottumwa, Dudley, Tracy, Pella, Durham, and Knoxville. At Washington, Brighton, and Knoxville it sometimes exhibits a styolitic structure, and is in addition rather irregularly stratified and closely jointed. At Durham, Pella, Tracy, Dudley, Givin, Chequest, and Mount Pleasant, however, it is regularly and rather heavily bedded, quite homogeneous, and distantly jointed. Its color varies from bluish- gray at Washington and Knoxville to bluish-buff at Chequest, yellowish-buff at Pella and Tracy, light buff at Givin and Durham, and whitish at Mount Pleasant; and in texture it is finely saccharoidal or compact, homogeneous, and tough, resembling in some cases the Upper Coal dolomite. At Chequest it is susceptible of a fair polish, and is widely known as “‘Chequest marble”, and at Tracy, Pella, and elsewhere it may be carved with great facility. The bluish tinge is remarkably permanent, as at Washington, where fractures exposed for a number of years exhibited no perceptible alteration in color, and appeared almost as fresh as if just taken from the quarry. KErokvuk.—This stage comprises two members, the upper being an irregular mass of shaly or calcareo-siliceous strata, abounding in geodes, while the lower consists of compact grayish or biuish limestone, generally regularly bedded, with shaly partings. The area covered by the rocks of this age is known to be limited, though it cannot yet be delineated cartographically. The only localities where these rocks are known to occur are portions of Lee and Des Moines counties, and a narrow belt along the Des Moines river, in Van Buren county, where they have been brought to the surface by one of the gentle anticlinals already referred to, coupled with the erosion of the valley. The stage appears, from White’s observations, to attenuate and perhaps disappear toward the interior of the state. The pure limestones of Keokuk age, like those of the Saint Louis and Upper Coal stages, are finely sub- crystalline, compact, brittle, homogeneous, and hard; light gray, whitish, and slightly bluish in color; but the larger portion is earthy or argillaceous, as is much of that of the Upper Coal. These impure limestones are buff, yellowish, or bluish, uniformly bedded, separated by shaly partings, which sometimes graduate into the ledges and again develop into considerable layers of clay; they are distantly jointed, but much cut up by independent systems of dry seams ramifying through each ledge, and liable to suffer disruption and disintegration when exposed to the atmosphere and frost. The Keokuk strata are not extensively quarried, the important quarries being confined to Keokuk and Bentonsport. The smaller quarries in the vicinity of Keokuk and near Bonaparte, 5 miles southeast of Bentonsport, are also in this stage. The material is employed to some extent for dressed caps, sills, etc., as well as for rubble, macadam, and other common grades of building stone. BURLINGTON.—This stage, like the Saint Louis, is made up of three well-marked beds. The uppermost division consists mainly of light gray, whitish, or buff, regularly-bedded, compact, suberystalline limestone of approximate purity, with occasional clayey or shaly partings, becoming siliceous, cherty, and irregular toward the top. The middle member is predominately siliceous, but it is generally shaly, seldom sandy, and without compact and regular strata. The lowest division is a yellowish or grayish, compact, pure limestone, regularly and rather heavily bedded centrally, but cherty both above and below. The highest member constitutes about one-half and each of the two lower divisions about one-fourth of the total thickness of the stage. Its geographical extent is probably still less than that of the Keokuk division of the sub-Carboniferous rocks, since it is known only at its typical locality, Burlington, along lines of erosion in Des Moines and Louisa counties, and in the northern part of Washington county. , ; DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 261 The Burlington rocks are practically identical with those of Keokuk, and are similarly used for common masonry and occasionally for dressed work. They are, however, extensively quarried only at Burlington. Portions of the uppermost division are nearly white in color, fine, compact, homogeneous, and hard, with a conchoidal or splintery fracture, like the so-called lithographic limestone of the Saint Louis stage. This phase has been used to some extent for ornamental purposes, but it contains too many incipient fractures and is too liable to unexpected disruption to be of special value. KINDERHOOK.—The rocks of this age, which occupy a singularly long and narrow belt, are of rather variable character. At Burlington nearly the whole thickness of the stage is made up of shales and clays, with a few unimportant beds of limestone at the top, which include oolitic and magnesian layers. This phase is tolerably constant throughout Des Moines county, the dolomite forming the upper, the oolite the middle, and the shale the basal and principal portion. Along English river in Washington county the dolomite is considerably thicker (the oolite remaining inconspicuous), and, though rather earthy and irregularly bedded, is quarried in a small way near Riverside and Kalona, yielding common and heavy rubble, locally used for foundations, well-rock, bridge-piers, ete.; the average annual product of the several quarries probably falling below $1,500 in the aggregate. The stage is next known in Tama and Marshall counties, on both sides of the Iowa river. Here the basal shaly division is mainly absent or concealed beneath the river level, not to appear again in Iowa, and the two calcareous divisions are of predominant importance. At Montour the oolite is heavily bedded or massive, regularly and tolerably distantly jointed, and gray or bluish-gray, weathering to buff or yellowish. On the opposite side of the river the same oolite is less heavily and more regularly bedded, and is quarried by a number of individuals for lime and common rubble, the rubble supplying the vicinity and the towns of Toledo and Tama. These quarries are generally operated by farmers during leisure time, and yield collectively perhaps 75,000 cubic feet per year, worth about $750 at the quarries, or $3,000 delivered. A similar phase is presented at Conrad, Grundy county, where the material is more extensively utilized. Near Le Grand the uppermost or magnesian bed shows a thickness of over 40 feet, while the oolite is mainly beneath the river. Here the dolomite is regularly and rather heavily bedded, distantly jointed, compact, fine, and homogeneous, and generally buff, whitish, or yellowish in color. The coarser ledges are here so extensively used for rubble, bridge work, dimension stone, and other purposes as to require a railway station for the sole use of the quarry; while the finer ledges, which are often beautifully veined by iron peroxide, are sawed into slabs and shipped to distant markets for ornamental purposes, under the name of “Iowa marble”. Near Dillon the same dolomite is unusually hard and firm, and is the sole member exposed. At and near Iowa Falls the two uppermost divisions of the same stage (as identified by White) again appear; but here the limestone is pure, finely subcrystalline, compact, hard, and without a trace of oolitic structure, and the dolomite is remarkably magnesian, generally heavily but regularly bedded, though in part massive and tolerably distantly jointed. Both members are quarried quite largely. The purely calcareous bed here resembles lithographically the brittle white limestone of the Burlington, Keokuk, Saint Louis, and Upper Coal stages. Several small quarries have been opened in the Kinderhook strata toward and above Alden, along the Iowa river; but their product is insignificant. At Humboldt and Dakota both the oolitic and subcrystalline phases of the middle bed, as well as the magnesian division, are exposed and largely quarried. Near the headwaters of Lizard creek the purely calcareous division again approaches the surface over a considerable area, and is exposed in a number of localities in both the oolitic and suberystalline aspects. It is here quarried in a small way by half a dozen individuals in both Humboldt and Pocahontas counties, the total value of the annual product falling short of $1,000. The material here appears to be of unusual strength, hardness, and homogeneity, is regularly bedded and not very closely jointed, and promises to be of great value when the quarries are properly opened and adequate means of transportation provided. In addition to the foregoing there are small quarries near Ackley and Hampton which yield thinly-bedded, “shelly”, (a) irregular limestones representing this stage, and another of like character is said to exist near Eldora, where a ravine cuts through the Lower Coal sandstone. The product of these quarries is trifling, and the real value of the material is very small since the use of it is almost an injury to the consumer. DEVONIAN PERIOD. HAMILTON.—The Devonian rocks of Iowa are extremely variable, both lithographically and paleontologically, but our knowledge concerning them is meager. The predominant lithological phases may be enumerated and described in the order of their excellence: 1. The “Old State House” dolomite. . The Mason City dolomite. . The Mason City limestone. The La Porte limestone. . The Osage dolomite. . The Buffalo limestone. bo > oP ow a The convenient term “shelly” (prebably a corruption of shaly) is frequently applied by quarrymen in this state to rock which separates into irregular plates, generally an inch or less in thickness, and a foot or more in diameter. Such rock may not be shaly, as shown by the comparative purity of the Kinderhook limestone where it exhibits this phase. The phrase “excessively thin-bedded” might be equivalent, if the limited lateral extent of the plates were also borne in mind. 262 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. 7. The Iowa City limestone. ; 8. The Waverly limestone. 9. The Independence limestone. 10. The Cedar Rapids limestone. 11. The Fayette breccia. 12. The Rockford shale. 13. The Independence shale. 1. The first of these is a peculiar, heavily-bedded or massive, slightly-magnesian gray limestove of remarkable homogeneity, toughness, and durability, largely made up of comminuted fragments of fossils, chiefly Atrypa reticularis. It is found at the North Bend or Old State House quarry, 9 miles northwest of Iowa City, not visibly associated with other strata; and only since the collection of statistics for the Census Office was completed has it been found to pass beneath apparently conformable strata of limestone of the Iowa City phase at Roberts’ ferry. It is not known except in the immediate vicinity of the great bend in the Iowa river. 2. The Mason City dolomite is a rather heavily and regularly bedded brown and brownish-buff, distantly jointed, saccharoidal, homogeneous, tough, and compact magnesian limestone, lying conformably beneath pure limestone strata, and only known in the deeply-eroded valleys of Lime and Willow creeks at Mason City. 3. The third phase is a light gray or white, compact, homogeneous and brittle, finely subcrystalline, pure limestone, usually rather heavily bedded and distantly jointed, though considerably cut up by independent systems of fractures in each ledge. It closely resembles the pure limestone of the Upper Coal at Earlham, Stennett, Corning, and other localities; of the upper division of the Saint Louis at Franklin, Farmington, Mount Pleasant, Ottumwa, and elsewhere; of the Keokuk and Burlington at their typical localities; and of the middle division of the Kinderhook at Iowa Falls. Similar rock occurs elsewhere in occasional ledges, as at Garrison, Waterloo, Orchard, Floyd, Marble Rock (where the name of the town was derived from it), Osage, and Mitchell. The phase indeed appears to graduate into that of Iowa City on the one hand and into that of Waverly on the other, though it is approximately uniform throughout at Mason City. 4. The La Porte limestone is rather heavily and regularly bedded, compact, homogeneous, rather finely subcrystalline, but at thesame time slightly tough. Itis not quite pure, is somewhat unctuous to the touch, resists the action of frost fairly, and resembles the Mason City limestone as regards jointing. It appears to be normally bluish-gray, changing to gray or whitish on oxidation; but, asin the Saint Louis dolomite of Washington and Knoxville, the alteration is accomplished so slowly that partially-oxidized blocks remain distinctly mottled for years. A precisely similar phase has not been detected elsewhere, though certain ledges of the La Porte quarry are essentially identical with certain ledges occurring at both Iowa City and Waverly. 5. The Osage dolomite is a somewhat earthy and slightly ma gnesian limestone of light buff or yellowish color,. and of tolerably fine, homogeneous, and compact texture. It is regularly bedded, sometimes with earthy, shaly, or cherty partings, rather distantly jointed, but sometimes independently seamed. It exhibits in a slight degree the tendency to become separated into angular fragments on exposure to the atmosphere, and especially to frost, ‘ which characterizes all of the inferior rocks of this stage. It is of rather variable character, and can only be arbitrarily separated from portions of the Waverly limestone. It occurs associated with limestones of the Mason City and Iowa City phases at Osage, Mitchell, Saint Ansgar, and Orchard; with the Waverly limestone at Waverly and Waterloo; with the Mason City limestone at Marble Rock (where it exhibits but very slight tendency to fracture on exposure), and with the Iowa City, Buffalo, Independence, and Iowa City phases at Davenport. 6. The Buffalo limestone is irregularly bedded, obliquely and rather closely jointed, blue, but weathering to. gray within a year or two after quarrying, generally abundantly fossiliferous, and extremely hard, brittle, and refractory. Itis quarried at and near Buffalo, where the fossiliferous portions are slightly used for ornamental purposes, chiefly for paper-weights, table-ornaments, and the like, large pieces of uniform character being difficult to procure. It is liable to become fragmentary on exposure. A somewhat similar but less hard and pure fossiliferous limestone is found at Charles City and Nashua, and unfossiliferous rock, resembling. that of certain ledges of the Buffalo quarry, occur at Davenport, West Union, and in a few other localities. 7. The phase assumed at Iowa City is that of a non-magnesian but sometimes argillaceous, fine-grained, subcrystalline limestone, blue or even black on fresh exposure, but rapidly weathering to gray, buff, or whitish. It is tolerably regularly bedded, with occasional shaly or clayey partings, generally distantly jointed, but much cut up by independent systems of dry seams and fractures of fresh aspect, and it is quite disposed to become fragmentary onexposure. It oceurs at lowa City, Roberts’ ferry, Muscatine, Atalissa, Garrison, La Porte (in the: five last-named localities associated with other phases), Solon, Fairfax, Marion, and elsewhere. At Bristow the rock is quite similar, and at Rock Falls and West Union (in part) it partakes somewhat of the character of the Buffalo limestone. At Iowa City and Roberts’ ferry it abounds in crystalline masses of the Hamilton corals, A. cervularia davidsoni and Farvosites (of two or three species), forming respectively the Bird’s-eye and the Fish-egg varieties of the so-called Iowa City marble. 8. The Waverly limestone differs from the last in being more earthy, slightly magnesian, more yellowish in color, and still more disposed to become fragmentary on exposure. It occurs at Waverly, Shell Rock, Waterloo, Independence, Raymond, Vinton, Davenport, and Chatham, generally associated with other phases. Some blocks. obtained a number of years ago from the latter locality, however, resemble the La Porte stone. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 263 9. The Independence limestone is hard and brittle, blue, but weathering to gray, irregularly stratified or shelly, and regularly and closely, though often obliquely, jointed. It prevails near the eastern margin of the stage, as near Cresco and Lime Springs, north of Waucoma, at Payette, Quasqueton, Independence, and in several smaller quarries. It is usually fossiliferous, fragmentary, and somewhat similar to the Buffalo limestone. 10. The Cedar Rapids limestone somewhat resembles that of Iowa City, save that it is without regular jointing or bedding, and is so extremely fragmentary as to be worthless, except for macadam, railway ballasting, ete. It occurs at Cedar Rapids, west of Mount Vernon, at Atalissa, and in part of the Davenport quarries, where it is associated with other phases. | 11. At Fayette, Quasqueton, and elsewhere, a bed consisting of an gular fragments of compact, brittle limestone, embedded in a matrix of similar material, occurs. It is of no value for purposes of construction. 12 and 13. Neither the Rockford nor the Independence shales yield materials that can be used for building purpeses in their natural condition. Both are made up of shales and clays. It will be observed that a number of the quarries mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs are not represented in the tables. All of these are small, except a few which have been practically abandoned within a few years. More than thirty different openings have been visited during previous years. In the aggregate the average annual product of these small Devonian quarries is about 1,000,000 cubic feet, and the value of this at the quarries is about $22,000; though the value of the stone used for building purposes is considerably less than this. The material has been used mostly for foundations and underpinnings; some for bridge work, flagging, sills, etc., and some for railway ballast and for macadam. Most of it has been used in the vicinities of the quarries ; a little has been shipped from Rock Falls and from Nashua. The Devonian rocks of the state have been casually examined by a number of geologists in different localities, and have been referred to several stages, including the Chemung, Hamilton, Marcellus, Corniferous, and Upper Helderberg; but in view of the meager knowledge of the several beds yet acquired, it has been deemed the least objectionable course to provisionally group all together under the name of the single stage to which they were assigned by White. UPPER SILURIAN PERIOD. NIAGARA.—This sole stage of the Upper Siiurian, as found in Iowa, is nearly everywhere a buff, brownish, yellowish, or whitish dolomite; though hard, brittle, and vesicular, non-magnesian masses of gray color, burning into excellent lime, occasionally appear. Considerable portions abound in chert, which usually exists in the form of nodules; but it permeates the material sometimes to such an extent as to form continuous but generally vesicular and irregular ledges, the cavities being filled with dolomite. Other portions are friable, cavernous, vesicular, destitute of homogeneity, shelly, or cut up by dry seams. All such portions, which collectively constitute by far the greater part of the stage visible from the surface, are of course quite worthless for other constructive purposes than road-making. The portions extensively utilized for building material are either regularly and rather heavily bedded and distantly jointed, finely saccharoidal, homogeneous, and tough, and of buff, light buff, or whitish color, as at Farley, Le Claire, Littleport, Volga, Cascade, Clay Mills, Maquoketa (in part), Buena Vista (in part), Princeton, and in most of the smaller quarries of Clayton, Dubuque, Jackson, and Scott counties; finely laminated horizontally, distantly jointed, and without dry seams, finely saccharoidal and tough, and of buff, yellowish, or whitish color, as at Anamosa, Stone City, Mount Vernon, Olin, Hale, Fairview, and Buena Vista (in part) ; heavily bedded or massive, distantly jointed, saccharoidal, moderately tough and firm, and brown, brownish- buff, or brownish-yellow in color, as at the Williams quarry (between Postville and Clermont), Waucoma, Cresco, Brainard, and Foreston; irregularly bedded and jointed, somewhat friable, finely vesicular, imperfectly homogeneous, and varying from brown to white in color, as at Clinton, Lyons, Comanche, and Sabula (in part); tolerably regularly but variably bedded and distantly jointed, though with occasional dry seams, firm, hard, and somewhat brittle, buff or light buff, with veinings of oxide of manganese, as at Delhi, Monticello, Central City, Maquokets (in part), Sabula (in part), De Witt, and Tipton ; or, finally, tolerably regularly bedded and not distantly jointed, fine, compact, homogeneous, brittle, and blue or light blue in color, as at Manchester, where alone this aspect has been seen. In nearly all of these phases the rock discloses occasional dry seams, which are generally straight, diagonal to the jointing, vertical, and discontinuous, often terminating in both directions in a single block ; which seams may be partially or wholly cemented by crystalline calcite or dolomite, generally stained with iron oxide, and never simulate fresh fractures. They are seldom abundant in the larger quarries, but are nearly everywhere a source of some annoyance to the quarrymen, since they are most likely to occur in the larger blocks. The great importance of this stage as a source of building material has already been pointed out. The number of small quarries not represented in the tables is about 40, the average annual product of which is about 800,000 cubic feet of stone, valued at the quarries at about $18,000, The stone is used almost exclusively for foundations, principally in the vicinity of the quarries. LOWER SILURIAN PERIOD. MAQUOKETA.—The materials forming this stage are mainly shales and clays, with occasional irregular and discontinuous beds of impure limestone; none being pf value for building purposes. Its strata only appear in a 264 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. narrow belt along the eastern margin of the Niagara stage. The stage becomes so attenuated in thickness in its northwesterly extension as to be quite unimportant both stratigraphically and geographically, though it can he traced to the north line of the state. GALENA.—The greater part of the Galena stage consists of heavily bedded or massive and rather distantly jointed buff dolomite, of firm and tolerably compact texture, though sometimes vesicular or cavernous; but its upper portion is more argillaceous, regularly bedded, with shaly partings, and with its ledges independently but distantly fissured. The area occupied by the stage is inconsiderable, though, like the Maquoketa, its attenuated northwesterly extension can be traced quite to the state line. The rocks of the Galena stage are extensively quarried only at Dubuque, but they are extracted for local consumption near Elgin, at Elkader, near Massillon (4 miles west of West Union), and in a few other localities; the total product of these small quarries reaching about 50,000 cubic feet, worth not over $1,000. Twice this amount should also be added for the small quarries at Dubuque not specifically reported. é TRENTON.—In its more southerly exposures this stage is mainly composed of compact, hard, and brittle, blue or bluish-gray limestone, frequently rich in fossils, irregularly bedded, often shelly, rather closely jointed, and disposed to disintegrate rapidly. Northwardly it increases greatly in thickness, mainly by the addition of beds of clay and shale. It is occasionally buff or grayish in color in shallow quarries (i. e., those of less depth than that to which oxidation has extended), destitute of fossils, and slightly argillaceous, when it considerably resembles the Iowa City phase of the Hamilton. The hard, brittle, fossiliferous portions, which are not greatly different from the Hamilton limestone as found at Buffalo and Charles City, are also generally slightly argillaceous, the clay appearing in irregular dirty lines or blotches after exposure. The rocks of the stage are largely quarried at Decorah and Waukon. At Florenceville they are extracted for rubble and dimension stone to the extent of some 30,000 cubic feet, worth about $750 annually, the material supplying local demands, and being moved occasionally to Cresco and neighboring towns. The rock is here fine, compact, and brittle, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, and ringing under the hammer. It is normally blue, but is bluish-gray near the surface. Ata depth it is massive, but near the surface it is divided into somewhat irregular ledges by smooth, clean, horizontal fissures. At Bluffton (between Florenceville and Decorah) it is quarried for local use to about as great an extent, though the value of the product is probably below $500. At Elgin, Frankville (6 miles northwest of Postville), Postville, and Clayton there are local quarries whose average product will equal that of Bluffton. At Bluffton, Frankville, and Clayton the dark blue, fossiliferous phase is represented; but at Elgin and at Postville the rock more resembles that of Florenceville, though containing occasional, and sometimes abundant, trilobites. At Guttenberg both phases are tolerably largely quarried, perhaps half of the buildings in the town being constucted from Trenton limestone extracted in the immediate vicinity. The annual product of the two or three quarries here has been less than usual for a few years, but probably reaches 100,000 cubic feet, worth about $2,000. The stone is used for rubble, dimension work, and road material. A small quarry at Buena Vista (5 miles below the mouth of Turkey river) has yielded material employed in the construction of a large warehouse, and a large amount of railroad ballasting, but the average product is below $500 per year. In addition to these there are many small and unimportant quarries, some of which supply but one or two consumers, scattered over the whole area occupied by the Trenton stage. SAINT PETER.—This stage is literally a bed of siliceous sand of remarkable purity and uniformity. It is nowhere sufficiently indurated to form a valuable building material in its natural condition. LOWER MAGNESIAN.—Rocks of this age only appear in and along the valleys of erosion in the northeastern part of the state, where they form the summits of the picturesque bluffs of the Mississippi and the Oneota rivers and their tributaries. The material is essentially a coarse, saccharoidal, vesicular, cavernous, and non- homogeneous light buff dolomite, usually heavily but rather irregularly bedded, and without weli-defined jointage planes. It is only rarely that the material is at the same time so firmly indurated, so free from irregular cavities and crystalline nodules, so homogeneous in texture, and so uniformly bedded as to be available as a building stone, and even where these several conditions are as favorable as they are ever found to be, the rock is rather coarse, irregular, and otherwise inferior. Its resistance to atmospheric action is, however, eloquently attested by the mural precipices, castellated battlements, slender pinnacles, and rugged declivities which combine to form the magnificent scenery for which its area is justly famed. It is extensively quarried only at McGregor and Lansing, though, like the Trenton, it abounds in unimportant quarries which sometimes supply but a single consumer. In Minnesota this stage has been separated into three members (Shakopee, Jordan, and Saint Lawrence) by N. H. Winchell, while in Wisconsin a like number of probably not equivalent divisions (‘Main Body”, Madison, and Mendota) have been recognized by Irving; but none of these divisions can be either stratigraphically or geographically traced, nor have they indeed been clearly identified in Iowa. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 265 PotspAM.—This stage is predominantly sandy, and consists mainly of imperfectly-cemented sandstones, with occasionally shaly intercalations which sometimes develop into considerable beds of fossiliferous shale. It is exposed only in the walls of the deep valleys occupied by the Mississippi and Oneota rivers and their principal tributaries. It is not known to be quarried except at Lansing, where it forms an inferior material for common masonry. (The Potsdam of Hull and White is the equivalent of the Saint Croix of N. H. Winchell.) Stoux.—As developed in Iowa, the Potsdam sandstone is made up of hard, brittle, homogeneous, and rather fine pink or reddish quartzite, irregularly bedded or massive, and closely jointed, the jointage planes being frequently oblique to the vertical and not rectangular in the horizontal plane. It is found only in the extreme northwest corner of the state, and extends thence into Minnesota, where it is denominated Potsdam by N. H. Winchell. There is a possibility that quarries of some importance have not been reported from some of the counties in this state. There are 19 counties known to be so deeply drift-covered as to be destitute of exposures of bedded rocks. These are Audubon, Carroll, Clay, Crawford, Decatur, Dickinson, Emmet, Fremont, Greene, Harrison, Lyon, Osceola, Monona, O’Brien, Palo Alto, Sioux, Wayne, Winnebago, and Wright. There are 32 counties in which there may be some small quarries which have not been indicated, though all possible inquiries as to their existence were made in passing through. These are Adair, Appanoose, Boone, Clarke, Dallas, Davis, Des Moines, Guthrie, Hamilton, Henry, Humboldt, Jasper, Jefferson, Keokuk, Lee, Louisa, Lucas, Madison, Mahaska, Marion, Mills, Page, Plymouth, Polk, Ringgold, Shelby, Union, Van Buren, Warren, Washington, Woodbury, and Worth. The remaining 48 counties were so thoroughly examined that it is quite certain that no important omisssions thave been made. MISSOURI. a By G. C. BROADHEAD. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL SECTION. Alluvium. 1 | Quaternary ......... Loess. Drift. 2 | Tertiary ? 3 Cretaceous. [ Upper Coal Measures. Coal Measures...-. Middle Coal Measures. | Lower Coal Measures. | | | Chester group Saint Louis group. Keokuk group. Burlington group. ( Sub-Carboniferous. | | Vermicular sandstune and shales. Lithographic limestone. Choutean PLOuUpsacseccinp aise ee | 4 Carboniferous......- ! | Chouteau limestone. 5 Devonian. 6 | Upper Silurian. | Feet. Hudsonstivieree. seas tke te aces to cect hae hake eee sae iemintinn's ahaha we jcehiahioaishaalanm ness 60 Receptachlitelor Galen aero w yy ces eetes aca soe ete a oe ai ctite ateteintets Sy ats iele hol= ere ae ole ---.| 40 to 180 | iyenptcm, stead a Stee See at Vana ae ET to Se Ae a eee Deak ay '100 to 200 Lit Black Riveriand Bird's-eye: se quas sees aoe se ee Aho ote Nu tel ons ee vt slain a ae atiseaperm | 50 : Ca ; pie 7 | Lower Silurian... .. oe (| Virst Magnesian limestone. .....-- | 150 | , | First or saccharoidal sandstone. .- - 130 Calciferous. .-.----. [| | Second Magnesian limestone...... 200 | | 4 | Magnesian limestone series..... 1! Second sandstone......-....--.-- 150 POtad ais. eres en a | Third Magnesian limestone. ....-- 300 | | | Third sandstone: + tae sdeceeaws = 80 | [ Fourth Magnesian limestone...-.. | 300 t ‘ : f | E | ; Potsdam santistonee. ces dcem ats deme creer eee ve anbilt cere aso emule oe 5 to 90 EMEP OGY seca cie.= =: 2e alate | Huronian. | Soy ATG HES ATI oe nate etal 2 J eee Nr ea ; 4 | | Granite. ' 266 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. ARCHZAN. This includes the granites and porphyries and their associated and intrusive beds in southeast Missouri. The granites are generally coarse in texture, feldspathic and quartzose, deficient in mica, red in color, or else of various shades of gray, sometimes blending into a reddish-gray. They crop out in massive beds in the northern portions. of Iron and Madison counties and in the southern part of Saint Francois county, with isolated exposures in Sainte Genevieve and Crawford counties. They afford our best quality of building stones. In some localities there is evidence of disintegration and decomposition on a grand scale; as, for example, 8 miles west of Fredericktown. At this place a well sunk 75 feet in depth passed entirely through granitic sand. In the western part of Madison county, at Lloyd’s, south of Blue mountain, we also find evidence of considerable disintegration. These are probably due to chemical causes. The phenomenon of rocking-stones is exhibited near the Ozark quarries, 4 miles southwest from lron Mountain. In the northern part of Madison county, east of the Saint Francois river, gray porphyritic granite appears over an undulating district near the Iron Mountain railroad. West of the Saint Francois river, the red granite rises into: mountain peaks. A syenitic granite forms a “shut-in” (a) on Saint Frangois river near the Einstein mine, forming the ‘‘ rapids” in Saint Frangois river. It is traversed at this place by a dike of black dolerite 44 inches wide bearing S. 60° W. A few miles north of this, also on the river bank, we find it containing numerous specks and scales of micaceous. iron and also much pyrites. Half a mile west the granite is traversed by a narrow dike of black dolerite 11 inches wide at the north end and 4 inches at the south end. From the north end it bears S. 32° W. for 30 feet, thence it gradually curves to 8. 82° W. a distance of 5 feet. The adjacent granite wall has been slightly darkened and indurated by contact. At the “Lloyd” place, in Sec. 15, T. 33, R. 5 E., a shaft in decomposed syenite has revealed a vertical dike 18. inches wide bearing northeast and southwest. Two hundred feet northwest another shaft reveals a north and south dike of similar rock 2 feet wide. The dike is of a gray dioritic character. A quarter of a mile east there is a ereenstone dike 8 feet wide bearing a little west of rorth. Washings of sandy débris thrown out show a good deal of deep black magnetic-iron sand. Washings in the roads at several places within a few miles also reveal a good deal of this sand. In the southern part of Saint Francois county, west of Saint Frangois river, a pit has been sunk on a rich deposit of micaceous iron which, being very soft, was at first supposed to be graphite. The granite is also sometimes traversed by quartz veins, as in Sec. 2, T. 33, R. 5 E., and See. 6, T. 33, R. 6 E.;. also on Cedar creek, where very large quartz crystals have been obtained. At the Einstein “silver” mines, in Madison county, the rocks indicate an association of diorite and serpentine. The exact position and relation of the beds could not be ascertained, as all work had been suspended, but the specimens left include serpentine, green. and violet-colored fluor, clear and white quartz, argentiferous galena, wolfram, iron pyrites, and zine-blende. Th« massive rocks near the river are red and gray granite, with red porphyry just west of them. Only recently has much attention been directed to the quarrying of granite. There are but two quarries worke¢ to any extent, the stone from which is used for paving streets and for general building purposes, principally in the city of Saint Louis. The stone from a quarry 4 miles west of Iron Mountain, Iron county, has been used in a pavement on Washington avenue, Saint Louis, for about 6 years, and the pavement is still in good order. The flagging around the Southern hotel, at Saint Louis, is also of this granite; also the front of the resideace of Mr. Charles G. Stiefel. The amount of granite which may be obtained in this locality is practically inexhaustible. The eastern portion is a stratum of gray granite probably a mile in width. It has not been found farther north, but extends southwardly into Madison county for a distance of about 5 miles. ‘The red or reddish-gray granite lies west of this, and is probably several miles in width, extending southwardly into Madison county, where it is wider in its east and west extension and more red is color. It extends south more than 10 miles, nearly to the mouth of the Little Saint Francis river. The granite from the quarry at Knob Lick, Saint Frangois county, is a coarse, feldspathic rock, made up’ of red feldspar and limpid quartz, with rarely a dark-colored bronze or black mica. It occasionally contains lenticula or ellipsoidal pockets of fine-grained, micaceous, gray granite, and these spots are often pyritiferous. Otherwise the quality of the rock on the whole seems good. On the surface there are in several places large, rounded bowlders, some 20 feet high, resting on a small foundation, and some rocking-stones also occur. ‘These large masses are roughly outlined and sent to market for building purposes. The smaller blocks are rough-dressed into 6-inch paving blocks and shipped to Saint Louis. Vertical joints sometimes occur, and a discoloration of 3 inches sometimes appears. One inch of the weathered crust occasionally crumbles off. Feldspar has for several years been taken from the Sainte Genevieve quarries and used in glazing certain ironware. Porphyries are often exposed in Madison, Iron, Wayne, Saint Francois, and Reynolds counties, and form the highest peaks in this region, being elevated from 200 to 660 feet above the valley. The foot of these mountains is. a A local term signifying that steep, rocky cliffs approach close to each bank of the stream. - DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 267 generally flanked by porphyritic conglomerate, or limestone and sandstone of Potsdam age. The testimony of the rocks goes to show that previous to the formation of sandstone and limestone the country presented the appearance of rough porphyry knobs rising from 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the sea. In these depressions was the Potsdam sea, in its early ages quite tempestuous, as is evidenced by the conglomerates and coarse sandstone, chiefly formed of eroded fragments from the Archean rocks. These sandstones occupied the shore-line of the Potsdam sea. In the course of time these waters became more quiet, and calcareous sediments with occasional sandy matter were formed; but observation shows that this deposit in no place extends along the Archean slopes over 350 feet above the present valleys. The porphyries, in their typical and most common form, seem to be a fine-grained, impalpable mixture of orthoclase and quartz, generally of a red, brownish, or purple color, sometimes dark gray or black, and porphyritic chiefly from the presence of feldspar crystals and often grains of crystallized quartz. Most of the porphyries on their edges show a shade of red; many of them are banded and show cleavage planes; in some we find well- marked lines of stratification, and some even show ripple marks, indicating a sedimentary origin. At Pilot Knob the porphyry incloses rounded pebbles, and epidote, hornblende, and serpentine occur; also beds and veins of specular’ iron represented on a large scale at Pilot Knob, Iron Mountain, and Sheppard mountain, some of the ore at the latter place being magnetic. Slate, resembling roofing slate in character, occurs on Buck mountain, in Iron: county, and dikes of diorite and dolerite are sometimes seen. At the so-called Tin mountain, in Madison county, the porphyry is traversed by coarse dioritic dikes and black. dolerite, and on the waters of Captain’s creek a dike of coarse syenitic greenstone; 75 feet in width, cuts the porphyry.. In Sec. 16, T. 32, R. 6 E., there is an interesting exhibit of a series of dikes traversing dark porphyry (see Tig. 8: in Missouri Geological Report, 1874). Against the porphyry wall on the east are 104 feet of greenstone, next west a few inches of dolerite, then 4 feet of porphyry, then 2 feet of greenstone, then porphyry. The course of the dike is. S. 45° W. In Iron county, in Sec. 9, T. 32, R. 4 E., a dike of hornblende rock, standing several feet above the general surface like a wall, can be traced north and south for one-eighth of a mile. On Gray’s mountain, in Wayne county, and in the southeast part of Iron county we find exposed beds of steatite. In the northeast part of Reynolds county and the northern part of Madison county eruptive porphyry has been found of a gray color, and containing large crystals of white feldspar. In Iron county are found amygdaloidal rocks flanked with porphyry. The amygdules are of a white mineral. A few miles southward the porphyry contains blue crystals. A good exhibition of a dolerite dike in porphyry is on Mine La Motte property, at Jack diggings, and there is another dike at a cave on Rock creek. The porphyry is generally very hard and difficult to quarry. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. A section of the unaltered Sedimentary in connection with the Archean of southeast Missouri is about as follows : 1. Twenty feet of coarse, sometimes vitreous, sandstone, the second sandstone of Missouri geologists. 2. One hundred and twenty-five feet chert beds, with some clay and quartzite; contains Murchisonia straparollus,. orthoceras, and a few species of trilobites, typical of the calciferous sand-rock. 3. One hundred to 300 feet of magnesian limestone, chert, and quartz, crystalized in drusy cavities; corresponds to the Third Magnesian limestone. . Magnesian limestone, 100 to 150 feet. . Fifty feet gritstone and lingula beds, to be referred to the Potsdam age. . Ozark marble, 5 to 50 feet. . Five to 90 feet sandstone and conglomerate. Ane a Be Archean. The Lower Magnesian limestone, with the lingula beds just below, incloses the lead mines at Saint Joseph, in Saint Francois county, and also the mines at Mine La Motte. The galena is found with these rocks in horizontal beds between the layers of limestone, or occurs as a replacement of limestone beds, or is disseminated in the limestone; and these I regard as by far the richest lead deposits of the west. The Third Magnesian limestone may be found over the greater part of 20 counties of Missouri, often forming mural escarpments along the streams, and sometimes extending to the highest hills. It is generally lead-bearing. It is both coarse and finely crystalline, and is often a pure dolomite of a bluish-gray or flesh color. It very rarely contains shale beds; but, especially in the upper part, there are some thick chert beds. At the lead mines of Washington county it is often cavernous, and includes numerous drusy cavities lined with minutely-cerystallized quartz. At some of the mines, especially those of central Missouri, it has undergone a decomposition, and quantities of dolomitic sand are thrown out. It is well exposed along the Osage river from 10 miles above its mouth to the oan SD Oe 268 | BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. line of Benton county; on the Gasconade from 20 miles above its mouth to its head, and on.the two Pineys. It is seen on Osage river, first near Castle rock; passing up stream it gradually rises, and at the south line of Osage. county it attains a thickness of 180 feet. It is often cavernous in the middle and lower beds, and sometimes forms natural bridges across streams. Many of the caves occur in this limestone, and saltpeter has been made from the clay deposits on the floor of the caves. Of note we might name Friede’s cave, 10 miles northwest of Rolla. Other caves are found in Maries, Pulaski, Miller, Ozark, and in other counties of south Missouri. This formation also seems to be the source of many large springs in south Missouri, from which flow those bold, swift, clear streams, affording unsurpassed water-power. On the Osage, in Miller, Morgan, and Camden counties, the Third Magnesian limestone forms steep, mural escarpments and wild, picturesque scenery. The second sandstone lies next above; it is generally coarse, whitish, or slightly brown, tinged by iron, occurring more often in thick beds, and affords a good building stone. It is often the top rock on the cherty hills of south Missouri; and the pineries, when found, generally grow here. It is also the formation containing most of the iron deposits of central Missouri. The Second Magnesian limestone chiefly forms the Missouri bluffs from Saint Charles county to the west line of Cole county, often extending from the foot of the bluffs to their top. It contains very few beds suitable for building purposes, but the lower 25 feet are thickly bedded, some dolomitic, and with some intercalated beds of sandstone, affording a very good coarse building stone; for example, near Rolla, at Hermann, the Osage and Moreau, near Pacific railroad, at Jefferson City, and near Stoutland, in Camden county. But above these beds there is scarcely 1 foot in 50 feet of this formation suitable for building purposes. This is also occasionally lead-bearing. Most of the limestones in the upper half are readily acted on by frost. The middle and upper portions contain numerous ereen and drab shale beds, with many intercalations of concretionary chert, sometimes assuming curious grotesque forms. The saccharoidal or first sandstone is found along the Mississippi hills from near Sainte Genevieve via Plattin creek, through Jefferson county, the western part of Saint Louis county, thence up the Missouri river, chiefly capping bluffs nearly as far west as Jefferson City. It is also pushed up to view on Sandy creek, in Lincoln county, near Auburn, and on the north line of Lincoln, west of Prairieville, and on Spencer creek, Ralls county, near the Saint Louis, Hannibal, and Keokuk railroad. It is generally a pure white sandstone, containing 99 per cent. of silica. It is well exposed at Crystal City glass-works, where it is used in the manufacture of fine plate-glass. At this place it is pure white and soft, and about 40 feet are exposed. At Pacific, Franklin county, it is well exposed for 100 feet, the upper 70 feet being a pure white soft sand; the lower part is tinged with oxide of iron. Due north of this, on the Missouri bluffs, Saint Charles county, it is 133 feet thick. Thirty miles east of this, or a few miles west of Saint Louis, borings reached it at 1,300 feet below the surface. This sandstone is regarded as superior for glass-making, but it is often not sufficiently coherent for building purposes, though there are a few exceptions, namely, the stone used on the Missouri Pacific railway at Berger and between Hermann and Gasconade. Some quarries on the hills near by afford a beautiful pink-banded sandstone. Obscure fragments of a large species of orthoceras have been met with in Gasconade county, some of which measure 8 inches in diameter, others nearly 2 feet. The First Magnesian limestone is found in Pike, Ralls, Lincoln, Saint Charles, Warren, Callaway, Boone, Franklin, Saint Louis, Pettis, Jefferson, Sainte Genevieve, and probably in a few otber counties. Its greatest thickness is about 150 feet. It is generally easy to work, and forms a durable building stone of some beauty. Its prevailing colors are drab and buff. It caps the hills at Pacific, Franklin county. Missouri college, Warren county, is built of it, and very good quarries can be opened near by. The Black River and Bird’s-eye formation is probably found in Lincoln, Pike, Ralls, Saint Charles, Saint Louis, Warren, Franklin, Jefferson, Perry, Sainte Genevieve, and Cape Girardeau counties, but is wanting in central and southwestern Missouri, The upper beds are often full of winding vermiform cavities. The lower often have minute specks of calcite, and are likewise varied in color and would sometimes polish into a handsome marble. Such are found in Warren county on the hills near affluents to the Missouri, and are well exposed near heads of Tuque creek and Charette. The colors are drab, pink, purple, flesh-color, and buff. Another handsome variety found in Warren county has a brown appearance, with dark, almost black, winding lines, as of fucoids. Some of these would undoubtedly look handsome if polished, and are also durable. Ormoceras tenuifolium and other characteristic fossils have been found. The Trenton beds, lying above the Black River beds, occur generally in thin layers of a bluish-drab color and may generally be found resting upon the Black River beds. At Danville, Missouri, and on Loutre river, near west line of Montgomery county, also at some places in the northern part of Lincoln county, it occurs whitish or else variegated, with many specks of cale spar disseminated, and appears very well when polished. The upper beds are almost entirely, made up of numerous fossils, including Orthis, Pleurotomaria Murchisonia, with occasionally Ceraurus pleurex anthemus. The Upper Trenton or Receptaculite limestone is found from Cape Girardeau, along the river counties, to -Jefferson county, thence northwest to the town of Pacific and along the Missouri bluffs from Saint Charles county DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 269: to the eastern part of Warren county, thinning out westwardly. ‘It is also found in Lincoln, Pike, and Ralls. counties, resting on Trenton. It is quite cavernous in these counties, but in the counties on the Missouri and lower Mississippi it is a good building stone, and it also burns into an excellent quality of lime. The upper beds are brownish-gray, the lower a white, crystalline limestone. In Warren county the upper 20 feet is a light gray, the lower 8 feet a dark brown limestone. Receptaculites Oweni is everywhere found. We also find Chetetes lycoperdon and sometimes a trilobite. It corresponds in age with the Galena group of northern Illinois, but is not galeniferous in Missouri. The Hudson River formation is found only in some of the counties on the Mississippi river. The beds are chiefly shaly, and are sometimes very pyritiferous. I regard this group as the source of most of the mineral springs of northeast Missouri. It affords some good flag-stone beds in Lincoln and Pike counties. The Upper Silurian is best developed in Perry and Sainte Genevieve counties, where occur several hundred feet of drab and variegated limestone, which looks handsome when polished. In Pike county we find a drab and brownish limestone, sometimes in very thick beds, closely resembling the Grafton beds, and as useful for building purposes. We find this at Bowling Green, Paynesville, and between Frankfort and Louisiana. In Warren and Montgomery counties and the eastern part of Callaway county there are about 20 feet of a coarse, gray, crinoidal limestone, which is said to be a good “ fire rock”. The Devonian is not of sufficient importance to take rank among building stones. It is best developed in Callaway county, where it affords many fine organic remains. | SuB-CARBONIFEROUS.—In the lowest, the Chouteau or Kinderhook group, we find at its base, at Louisiana, 55 feet of dove-colored, compact limestone, having a conchoidal fracture. This rock has every appearance of a lithographic limestone, and was so named by Professor Swallow. In other portions of the state the same limestone is represented by a thickly-bedded dolomite, and as such it is found on Sac river, in Cedar county, and at Taborville, in Saint Clair county. Above this limestone are the vermicular sandstone and shales, characterized by winding, vermiform cavities from northeast to southwest Missouri. It is a friable, easily-worked sandstone, sometimes affording good beds for building purposes. The thickness, including the shale beds, is about 75 feet. Above this is the true Chouteau limestone, the upper beds of a coarse, gray,and sometimes ferruginous, crinoidal limestone, containing Leptena depressa and Spirifer marionensis ; below this is a thickly-bedded magnesian and sometimes argillaceous limestone, containing geodes of quartz and calcite and occasional chert beds. Where not too subject to frost action it affords a useful building material; as such it is found in Pike, Lincoln, Ralls, Boone, Callaway, Pettis, Cooper, and Greene counties. The lower part is formed chiefly of thin layers of dove colored limestone, which was seen 100 feet thick a few miles west of Sedalia. The next above is the Burlington group, called by Professor Swallow the Encrinital. In Saint Charles county we find at the top about 17 feet of chert, with alternations of red clay. The middle beds are gray and coarse; the lower gray and brown, generally coarse and encrinital. Crinoid stems are commonly diffused throughout, the lower strata sometimes abounding in well-preserved Crinoidee. This group is found at Burlington, Lowa, Quincy, Illinois, Louisiana, Missouri, and is well exposed on the Mississippi bluffs in counties north of Saint Louis, and from the western part of Saint Charles county, in remote hills, as far as Howard. It is eccasionally met with in southwest Missouri, in Cedar, Dade, Greene, and Christian counties, where it is often cavernous, containing large and beautiful caves. The streams in Greene and Christian counties owe their origin chiefly to springs in this formation. The upper beds of the Keokuk group are sometimes shaly, with geodes of quartz, and some of them are quite beautiful. The lower beds are gray and bluish-gray, with lenticular and concretionary chert beds. Archimedes, Hemipronites crenistria, and crinoid stems are numerous, and some fish teeth are found. This is the limestone of Keokuk, Iowa. It is found in the central part of Saint Charles county, in Saint Louis, Boone, Howard, Monroe, and Cooper counties, and is especially well developed in southwest Missouri, from Henry county southwest. It is the lead-bearing rock of Dade, Jasper, Cedar, Newton, and Lawrence, and is also found in McDonald and Barry counties. It is, in part, equivalent to the siliceous group of Tennessee, and is well developed in Benton county, Arkansas. It is probably 300 feet thick in its greatest thickness, and affords good quarries for building purposes. The Saint Louis group is best developed in Saint Louis and Saint Charles, and is also found in Lincoln, Lewis, Clark, and Knox counties. It is generally a compact, dove-colored, or finely-crystalline ash-gray limestone, with generally a splintery fracture. It is much finer grained than any other group of the sub-Carboniferous. It is also cavernous in Saint Louis, Saint Charles, and Lincoln counties, as shown by occasional funnel-shaped sink-holes which communicate with subterranean passages. The outlets of these sink-holes about Saint Louis have generally become filled, and ponds are the result. The characteristic fossils are Melonites, Lithostrotion, Productus, and Hemipronites crenistria, with numerous Bryozoa, with sometimes beautiful Crinoidew. The lower or Warsaw division abounds in Archimedes and Pentremites. The Chester group of 200 to 300 feet of limestone, with a sandstone, is found in Perry and Sainte Genevieve. The sandstone, often ferruginous, is found in northeast and southwest Missouri. Good quarries of this sandstone may be opened near Newtonia, Newton county; near Lamonte, Pettis county; in eastern and northern portions of Cedar and near Lamine, in Cooper county, and a very good quarry is worked near Sainte Genevieve. 210 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The Coal Measures include the Upper Coal Measures (barren), 1,300 feet; Middle Coal Measures (productive), 320 feet; Lower Coal Measures (productive), 300 feet. In Atchison there are exposed 180 feet of rock, including, at top, 40 feet of sandstone and red shale beds, with limestone and beds of calcareous shales below, containing well-preserved remains of mollusca, some of them presenting a strong Permian type. Below these are chiefly shale beds, with some limestone and occasionally sandstone, but with very little coal or even bituminous shale. There are thicker limestone beds in the Upper Measures than below, and they are aiso better for building purposes than those of the Middle and Lower Measures. Nevertheless some (especially the blue limestones) contain a good deal of pyrites, and are necessarily inferior. Those most suitable may be quarried at Kansas City, Jackson county, and in Cass, Clay, Platte, Andrew, Holt, Nodaway, Atchison, Daviess, Livingston, Mercer, and Harrison counties. The middle series are chiefly sandstone, with some limestone beds and some coal heds of workable thickness, but rarely contain good beds ‘of building stone. The Lower Coal Measures are the productive measures; they also contain beds of valuable sandstone for building, with numerous outcrops in southwest Missouri. Much of it is also suitable for making grindstones. The quarries near Miami station, in Carroll county, and near Meadville, Linn county, are the best in north Missouri, the others being inferior. In southwest Missouri most of the sandstones are bituminous. Recapitulating, we would briefly say that the granite of southeast Missouri is the best material for building purposes. The pure limestones are generally of good quality. But few of those of the Upper Carboniferous are durable, nor are many of the beds of the Second Magnesian limestone. The sandstones are most eagerly sought after, chiefly because they are easy to quarry and to work into shape. They also answer better for city work. The best include the Potsdam of southeast Missouri, found in Madison, Saint Frangois, and Iron counties. Others may include the sub-Carboniferous of Sainte Genevieve, Newton, Cedar, Pettis, Howard, and Cooper counties; also, the sandstones of the Carboniferous, found among the Lower Coal Measures of southwest Missouri, chiefly in Barton, Vernon, Cedar, Saint Clair, Henry, Johnson, and Carroll counties. The second sandstone along the Osage and on hills of southwest Missouri is also a good building stone. SAINT LOUIS QUARRIES.—The most extensive limestone quarries in this state are located in and near the city of Saint Louis. The formation is the Saint Louis division of the sub-Carboniferous period. The extent of the quarry industry in this locality is not so much due to the superiority of the stone as to its aecessibility to the Saint Louis market. A representative section of the quarries is shown at Mr. Moran’s quarry, which shows 20 feet of loose material; 20 feet of thin, shelly limestone, in layers from 3 to 8 inches in thickness ; 3 feet of brownish- colored limestone, containing some chert. From this quarry a specimen of Productus marginicinctus, a very rare fossil peculiar to this group, has been obtained. The stone from this quarry is used for the construction of foundations and other ordinary building purposes, and for street pavements, especially for macadam. The stone from the best Saint Louis quarries is strong and durable, and is also well adapted to the manufacture of lime. Its principal use has been in the construction of foundations. The excavation has been carried at one quarry to a depth of 60 feet, but at present the quarry is not worked to a greater depth than 40 feet, 20 feet of the lower portion of the excavation being filled with water. A section at this quarry shows 8 feet of cap-rock; 8 feet of limestone in thin layers; 9 feet of limestone in layers 12, 4, and 2 inches thick, and below this a massive, heavy bed of limestone; still lower the beds are from 1 foot to 2 feet thick, this being the most applicable for building purposes. The quarry of Mr. Philip Steifel has become somewhat noted for its fine mineral specimens, including calcite, pearl-spar, dog-tooth spar, millerite, and fluor-spar. The fluor-spar is of a yellow color; the calcite is white, or colored on the outside with millerite. In some places the limestone has a greenish tint from the presence of nickel-sulphide. The millerite has bunches of stray hair-like crystals of a bronze color, and each crystal is a delicate hair-like mineral. Jt has been found penetrating the calcite and extending from side to side in the limestone. It is also frequently found associated with the pearl-spar. Among the most valuable of these quarries as regards the quality of the material are three at Cote Brilliant, about 24 miles from the city of Saint Louis. Its development is only retarded by its being at a greater distance from the market than many of the other quarries. A section at one of these quarries shows 25 feet of loose material; 15 feet of gray limestone, in layers about 3 inches in thickness; 4 feet of limestone, in layers of variable thickness; 2 feet of close-grained gray limestone; five 35-inch layers of gray limestone; one 22-inch layer of gray limestone; and 15 feet of limestone below the water level. The best layers are pure limestone, susceptible of being quite highly polished, very strong and durable, and quite well adapted for architectural purposes. 3 The formation in the quarry of Mr. Gottlieb Eyerman probably belongs to the upper portion of the Saint Louis group, though it may belong to the next higher, the Chester group. JEFFERSON CITY QUARRY.—The greater part of the quarry product is used at present by the Missouri Pacific Railroad Company for the construction of bridges; the small fragments are used for ballast, and small slabs are sold to citizens of Jefferson City for ordinary building purposes. DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 271 The following is a section at this quarry: . L SOLN ARGO AN 2 a) dt due 5 ac carne oe elas Mabinnale See stacy eo hed as odin Aa pA ae eons Slee boa tes 6 feet. 2. Unevenly-bedded limestone and chert, in thin beds, suitable for ballast only .............-...------.---- 12 feet. 3. Fine-grained homogeneous rock, in even thin layers, locally called ‘‘cotton rock”................--.---. 4 feet. 4. Gray limestone with numerous small cells filled with white powder -.................2..-...-----+---0-- 2 feet. OAc NeReRDOUR UM tae | en ee sles de CUES eae aol Se sei Mec tie Mune MN akt ae tect debe Shek Av apes 2 feet 6 inches. 6. Drab, evenly-bedded limestone, also called cotton rock... 0.2.0.2 2. eee eee ewe ee ce cece cece cece scceee 9 feet. 7. Gray, hard, cellular limestone, generally preferred for bridge construction. ....................-.-.------ 10 feet. No. 6 is similar to the rock which was used in the construction of the state-house, which was erected about forty years ago. It is occasionally slightly discolored with stains of iron, of which minute globules and specks are Seen, apparently changed from pyrites. The layers from this rock are of quite uniform thickness, many of the 4- and 6-inch layers making a very handsome paving stone. It has been quite extensively used in Jefferson City, where it has been termed cotton rock, by which name it is also known in other localities in this state. Tlre prevailing color of this rock is drab, but in some localities it has a bluish tint, and is liable to disintegrate rapidly on exposure to the action of frost. Some of the drab layers also readily disintegrate on exposure to the weather. The best of the material needs to be quarried early enough in the season to allow the quarry water to become dried out before the stone is exposed to the action of frost. No. 7 is a harder rock, and is not well adapted for cut work, though a very desirable material for heavy bridge construction, for which little dressing is necessary, and for which the qualities most desirable are those of strength and durability. The. rocks at Jefferson City may all be referred to the Calciferous sand-rock group, known in Missouri as the Second Magnesian limestone series. Fossils are very rarely found. A section of 200 feet may be ~ seen at Jefferson, and only a lingula is found in the upper beds; the other beds abound in fucoids. Lime manufactured from some of the layers possesses hydraulic properties. BOONVILLE QUARRY is located on the bluff side of the Missouri river, just above the railroad bridge, and about 12 feet above the ordinary water-level in the river. When the river rises to the level of the quarry operations are necessarily suspended. The bluff rises steeply above the quarry for over 100 feet, so that the quarry cannot advance far inward on account of the rapidly-increasing amount of cap-rock. The layers of stone are generally tolerably . even, and from 10 to 16 inchesin thickness, with occasional partings of caleareous shale. A vertical section of quarry ‘rock 16 feet in thickness is exposed. The strata dip slightly to the west. A little to the east, at the bridge, about 30 feet of gray, cherty limestone are exposed, containing, as far as could be seen, only specimens of an Archinedipora and a turbinated coral. The quarry rock lying above this also contains specimens of Archimedes. SEDALIA QUARRY.—The product of this quarry is used locally for foundations. The strata quarried lie at the junction of the Chouteau or Kinderhook group with the Burlington beds. The following is a section of the quarry : MOOseTMSterials.. 2. s- sme sees = oe nk SSE Ra Sa at ak iar ON yea | RE RES 2 naa See eae aR eee RR 5 feet. Gray ferruginous limestone, in two layers......-....---...----..---- PN ers a ee > se ee te ae te on 5 feet. Ein MINGStODe waa Or Ges DUNC! CLOW seem astanvics of sumer Wee > mele siesiee is eetsue sd ahcces ws iseus saciece aan cats cor oat 3 feet. Shales se usek ese PR RS ware c Leta sant ate Stn ee slai seta tai sisiadiapne assis cigs esse means as eels len wee ata 5,2 1 to 3 feet. Blue limestone, with chert concretions and some masses Of calcite 22... -.2. 22-220 o.. sees wee ene e ens wees 5 feet. . The floor of the quarry rests on a rock similar to the lowest which has been quarried. The lowest beds are the least durable, the upper 5 feet of limestone being quite durable. These two layers belong to the Burlington group, and the beds below them to the Chouteau. A number of small quarries have been worked in this vicinity. From some of these blocks 4 feet thick may be obtained, all, however, containing: more or less chert concretions and masses of calcite. One of the older quarries shows much of the rock shattered by frost. CLINTON QUARRY is located about 4 miles south of Clinton, Henry county. It furnishes material to the town of Clinton, principally for sidewalk pavements. The stone is an argillaceous limestone, and occurs in a stratum about 15 feet in thickness, and in layers from 2 to 10 inches in thickness. The thinner layers are drab-colored throughout; the heavier layers have a lead-biue color in the interior, and those layers which have not been exposed to atmospheric action also have the lead-blue color. Below this quarry rock occurs a seam of bituminous coal 4 feet in thickness, which is one of the best coals of southwest Missouri. Below this again there are 9 feet of blue shales, with ironstone concretions to the level of the water in Grand river. Similar beds occur near Brownsville, Sabine county, and may be referred to the same geological age. KANSAS CITY QUARRIES.—The stratum of limestone designated in the Missouri Geological Reports as “ No. 87, general section, Upper Coal Measures”, has been quarried extensively at quarries in bluffs of Kansas City and for 2 miles further east; also in a quarry opposite the Union depot, Kansas City, now abandoned on account of expense of stripping. The rock is also occasionally quarried in bluffs at and above Rosedale. Its color is generally a light gray, becoming locally a bluish-gray, and, when exposed, a lighter and often ferruginous gray. The middle portion of about 9 feet is beautifully oolitic, and is most valuable for building; it works freely and is easily dressed. Below Kansas City the stripping at first is only a few feet, but of course increases as the operations extend into the bluffs. 272 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Limestone No. 90, Upper Coal Measures, lying a little above, is often quarried and used for ordinary foundation work, while the iimestone under consideration is used for general building purposes. It may be seen in the basement walls of the Merchants’ exchange, the Journal office, and the building at Twelfth and Washington streets, Kansas City. It contains the characteristic coral Campophyllum torquium (O. and §.). It is generally evenly bedded in layers from 6 to 16 inches in thickness, and is much used in foundations. It is apparently durable and of more than usual strength. Its texture is homogeneous, and often has numerously-disseminated bright cale-spar specks. The color in the quarry is a grayish-drab, weathering to a brownish-drab, and shows a brownish discoloration along the joints. , Limestone No. 96, of Upper Coal Measures, also found here, is a bright gray rock with numerous specks and short lines of calcite. It contains also many fossils whose shells are of pure calcite, or else the interior is nicely crystallized. The strata are generally from 6 to 9 inches thick and of very irregular bedding. The entire stratum is 30 feet thick. An examination of the various quarries in Kansas City indicates that about 50,000 cubic yards of rock have been removed and used in the city during the past twelve or fourteen years. This includes from 9,000 to 10,000 cubic yards from the bluff opposite the Union depot, 30,000 cubic yards from southwes Kansas, and the remainder from south Kansas. The various railroads have probably taken out and used 10,000 cubic yards not included in the above. There is quite a number of localities in Missouri where limestone has been quarried or may be quarried, beside those in which there are actually working quarries as represented in the tables. Three miles north of Canton, Saint Louis county, the Central Marble and Stone Company has recently opened a quarry in the sub-Carboniferous formation. The beds vary in thickness from a few inches to 8 feet. Considerable quantities of this stone have been quarried for bridge abutments, foundations, and for flagging. The stone has a uniform texture and gray color, but becomes darker on exposure to the atmosphere; and this may prove a defect if the discoloration does not go on uniformly. The quarries are located less than half a mile from the Saint Louis and Keokuk railroad and one mile from the Mississippi river. Near Bowling Green, Pike county, the Niagara limestone has been quarried in a small way for the past forty years, and has been quite largely used for bridge abutments on the Chicago and Alton railroad, and occasionally for the construction of buildings. A dwelling in Bowling Green, built about forty years ago, is of this material, and the stone still looks well and shows no signs of disintegration. There are two quarries. A section at one quarry shows 4 feet of soil and gravel, 4 feet of shelly limestone, and 12 feet of building stone in three layers, the upper of which is 2 feet in thickness, and the two lower each 5 feet thick. This stratum of building stone is separated from a stratum of equal thickness below by 1 foot of shales. This last stratum of building stone consists also of three layers, 4, 6, and 2 feet in thickness. At the other quarry about 40 feet of rock are exposed in layers from 1 foot to to 2 feet in thickness. The stone when first quarried has a bluish-gray color and weathers to a brownish-buff color. Near Glencoe, Saint Louis county, the Trenton limestone has in former years been quarried for building purposes. There are at present quite extensive quarries still in operation, but their product is all manufactured into lime. At Cape Girardeau, Cape Girardeau county, is quarried the Lower Silurian limestone, most of the material being burned, and that which is most suitable being reserved for purposes of construction. At present some of this stone is being shipped for repairing the state capitol of Louisiana, which was built of this stone, and was partly destroyed during the late war. The quarry is situated about three-quarters of a mile from the wharf, on the Mississippi river, and the stone was at one time quite largely shipped to the south. An analysis of this rock by Dr. A. Litton, for the Missouri Geological Report, gave carbonate of lime, 99.57; silica, x trace; alumina, a trace. The total thickness of rock exposed at the quarry is about 30 feet, the upper portion being in thinner layers and a little darker in color than the lower. The lower portion is a beautiful white limestone, and blocks 6 feet in thickness could be obtained. Near Rolla, Phelps county, quarrying has been done in a small way in the lower portion of the Second Magnesian limestone. This stone has been used for the construction of culverts and bridge abutments, and near the same place a thinly-bedded, hard, and durable limestone occurs which has been used for sidewalks. Some of the limestones in southeast Missouri have been called marbles. The Cape Girardeau limestone has been termed a marble by some. In the Kansas City Review of Science and Industry the marbles of southeast Missouri are described; and it is given as the reason why these marbles have not been extensively developed, that they usually occur in beds not of sufficient thickness to furnish blocks of adequate size for the purposes for which marbles are usually employed. It states that near the head of Cedar creek there are several outcrops of variegated red and drab marbles. A section of rocks on a southeastern branch of Cedar creek shows 10 feet of coarse magnesian limestone resting on 10 feet of light drab marble of fine grain traversed with brown veins. Near the mouth of Cedar creek, Madison county, some of the finest exposures of the most handsome varieties of marble occur. It is handsome when polished, and the outcrops show that it is very durable. At the head of Tom Suck creek, in Reynolds county, are thick beds of tlesh-colored marble. Two miles north of Cape Girardeau, on the land of Dr. Thomas Holcombe, are outcrops of variegated purplish-red limestones, with occasional calcite specks in heavy layers. Marbles of fine texture passing through various shades of flesh-color, yellow and green, pink, purple, and chocolate, all handsomely blended, are said to occur in Sainte Genevieve county. These marbles occur DESCRIPTIONS OF QUARRIES AND QUARRY REGIONS. 273 in the Potsdam and Niagara formations. The Potsdam marbles are found on Stout’s creek and Marble creek, in Tron county; Cedar creek, Marble creek, and Leatherwood creek, in Madison county; and Tom Suck creek in Reynolds county. The Niagara marbles are found in Cape Girardeau and Saint Genevieve counties. Near Mooresville, Livingston county, limestone in the lower portion of the Upper Coal Measures has been quarried since 1866, but the quarries have not been regularly worked. A section there shows 1 foot of soil, 4 feet of shelly limetone, 2 feet of clay shale, 1 foot of bituminous shales, 6 inches of clay shales, from 2 to 3 feet of blue fire-clay, and 9 feet of oolitic limestone valuable for building purposes. The rock is rather hard, quite strong and durable, and is especially applicable for heavy masonry. This same formation has also been quarried in hills 5 miles south of Princeton, Mercer county, near the line of the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific railway ; also on the Wabash, Saint Louis, and Pacific railway, Clay county, about 8 miles from Kansas City. It may also be found near the base of the bluffs at Kansas City, and at several places near Pleasant Hill, Cass county, where it is locally termed cotton rock, and is said to withstand a higher degree of heat than many other limestones. At Forest City, Holt county, there are several limestone beds exposed, and also a soft sandstone, but the Stripping is generally so heavy that the best layers of the rock cannot be extracted with profit. Limestone also crops out 2 miles above Forest City, and beyond this for 20 miles no building stone occurs. Near Amazonia, Andrew county, 144 feet of evenly-bedded, ferruginous gray, and somewhat oolitic limestone occurs. A quarry of this rock was formerly worked 24 miles northeast of Savannah, and the stone was transported by wagons to Saint Joseph and used in the construction of buildings. Similar quarries might be opened near the line between Andrew and Buchanan counties, and the same formation also crops out near Atchison, Kansas. Near Greenwood, Jackson county, the Missouri Pacific Railroad Company has opened a quarry, but the material is used principally for ballast, and only a small amount has been used for the construction of culverts. Oolitic limestone of the Upper Coal Measures has also been found near Greenwood, and is used for purposes of construction on the Missouri Pacific railroad. The stone is well adapted for rough masonry. Near Pleasant Hill, Cass county, there are several quarries situated in different localities which have occasionally been worked. The stone has been used principally for the construction of railroad bridges and culverts, and for local purposes. The formation belongs to the Upper Coal Measures, and consists of a number of limestone beds, some of which are oolitic and some shelly. Blocks 2 feet in thickness and of any length and breadth desired may be obtained. At Neosho, Newton county, a whitish-gray oolitic limestone is quarried for lime. This stone works freely, and would be well adapted for purposes of construction. A coarse, dark gray limestone is also quarried near N eosho, some of which contains many chert concretions. The sub-Carboniferous limestone has been quarried for local use at Springfield, Greene county. The quarry rock shows a face of 10 feet in depth of coarse, gray limestone. The upper beds resemble the Keokuk limestone, and the lower beds are more of the Burlington type. The geological divisions recognized in Iowa, Illinois, and eastern Missouri cannot strictly be sustained in southwest Missouri. The Second Magnesian limestone has been quarried near Marshfield, Webster county. The exposure shows one bed 33 inches in thickness of buff limestone. This appears to be a durable stone, easy to quarry and,to dress. It is covered with but little cap-rock, but the stripping would be slightly increased as the excavations would be extended into the hill. There are two good exposures a few hundred feet apart. QUARBIES OF SANDSTONE.—At a quarry located 14 miles west of Miami station, Carroll county, there are two grades of material produced. The poorest quality contains many plant remains, and shows dark lines of fragments of plants, along which it is often fractured by frost. ‘The best quality is free from these defects, and is a rather beautiful gray sandstone. There is a vertical face of about 70 feet exposed, the lower 45 feet being without any seam of bedding, but containing occasional concretionary masses of harder sandstone. At the top there is a depth of about 6 feet of soil and clay, and below this are 20 feet of rough and sometimes shelly sandstone layers. The quarry rock is a rather coarse, gritty, sandstone, making an excellent building stone, and being also valuable for the manufacture of grindstones. The concretionary masses are of no value whatever. They have some argillaceous layers interstratified, and also contain many nice fragments of plant remains. Although there seem to be no bedding planes in the lower 45 feet, still there are a few faint, banded, dark carbonaceous streaks occurring from 6 to 12 feet apart. The absolute percentage of waste material embraced in the concretionary masses amounts to about one-fiftieth of the entire mass. The concretionary portions disintegrate quite rapidly on exposure to the weather, but the other material is very durable. This quarry has been actively worked for about fifteen years, and the rock has been shipped to various markets in Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, and Nebraska. Hastwardly along the bluffs the rock has a more brown color, and is not so highly esteemed. The Warrensburg quarries are of the same geological age as the above. At the quarry of Messrs. Bruce & Veitch the rock when quarried often shows planes of cross lamination, and this, although otherwise of good quality, is not of sutticient value for shipping purposes, but is used locally for ordinary purposes of construction. Considerable loss results from this defect. The planes of these lamine are separated by carbonaceous matter. The stone in this quarry is quite soft when first taken out, and hardens on exposure. Various openings liave been made in this vicinity which are not now worked. From one of these 6,000 cubic yards were excavated, and VOL. IX——-18 B § 274 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. from another 500 cubic yards. Three-quarters of a mile northwest, on the land of Mr. Bunn, a coarser sandstone of the same geological age appears, about 20 feet in thickness, forming a solid bluff on the Blackwater for several hundred yards, and seems to underlie an area of about 10 acres. Quarries 2 miles north of Warrensburg occupy a tract of probably over 200 acres in sandstone of the Tovar Coal Measures. The total thickness of this sandstone is over 100 feet. The quarries have not developed the entire thickness suitable for building purposes, only 45 feet in depth having been quarried. The sandstone hills are bounded on the north by Blackwater river, on the west by Post Oak creek, and on the east by Potts branch. Approaching Warrensburg from the north we still find sandstone, but of an inferior quality. In the railroad cuts and southward, and throughout the town, and for a short distance north, the rock is generally brown and soft, and crumbles to powder on exposure. It also sometimes alternates with shaly beds, and sometimes incloses beds of ferruginous conglomerate, and but rarely is it suitable for building purposes. Northwardly, as we approach the quarries, the rock is more homogeneous, the color becomes a light gray, and bluish-gray in deeper quarries. Concretionary masses of a harder sandstone not easy to work, in fact worthless for shipping, sometimes occur. These contain many carbonaceous stains and fragments of calamites and other plants. A trunk measuring over 1 foot in diameter, with its bark half an inch in thickness changed to bituminous coal, was taken out. It is supposed to belong to a coniferous tree, probably Dadoxylon acadicum of Dawson. North of the Blackwater good quarries have also been opened, and over thirty years ago columns for the court-house at Lexington, Missouri, were cut out. Those columns are still entire, and are discolored only by time. The Normal School building at Warrensburg was the first structure of note in which this stone was used, but since then it has been largely shipped to many places, including Saint Joseph, Kansas City, and Saint Louis, Missouri; also Chicago, Lllinois, and Lincoln, Nebraska. In 1871 the quarries were opened, and in 1874 one firm shipped 900 car-loads over the Missouri Pacific railway. A block 20 by 6 by 24 feet was taken out and used in the Chamber of Commerce building at Saint Leuis. The rock weighs 140 pounds to a cubic foot when dry, but only from 145 to 150 pounds when first quarried. It forms a large proportion of the face-stone of some Saint Louis dwellings, and it was also used in the Union Depot building at Chicago. It stands the test of time very well. It is not known to have scaled off, but after long exposure it becomes darker on the surface and somewhat stained. The Miami and Warrensburg quarries are systematically worked by means of channeling and wedging. No powder is used except for removing the cap-rock. A quarry in Clinton, Henry county, furnishes stone for ordinary construction for local use. A section of the quarry shows 3 feet of loose material, 4 feet of sandstone in layers from 1 nee to 4 inches in thickness, and below this 7 to 8 feet of sandstone in teers from 2 to 3 feet in thickness. The Sainte Genevieve quarry is located about 14 miles from the Mississippi river, which furnishes the means of transportation. Blocks of the largest size desired can be obtained at this quarry. Pieces 150 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 10 feet thick are often channeled off and loosened with the wedges. The Insurance building at Sixth and Locust streets, Saint Louis, was chiefly built of this stone, including the figures on the top. The stone has been much tarnished by the smoke of the city. Among the other structures of this material are the Singer Sewing Machine building in Saint Louis, the approaches to the Saint Louis bridge, the arsenal at Rock Island, Illinois, and the state capitol of Iowa. Everywhere the stone has proven very durable. The quarry shows 25 feet in thickness of good uniform rock ; the layers, 14 to 5 feet thick, can be split readily into thin slabs if required. It is occasionally false-bedded, and then contains fragments of plant remains, chiefly carbonized. The thin layers are very much ripple-marked and the texture of the rock is generally homogeneous. It is soft when first quarried and hardens on exposure. It is a good fine grit, and a number of grindstones have been made of it. The geological age of the formation is the Chester group of the sub-Carboniferous. The bluffs near by show about 25 feet of gray limestone of the Saint Louis group lying below it. KANSAS. GEOLOGICAL SECTION. ‘ | Feet. 1 Tertiary DAVENPORT, IOWA. Lumber is cheap, and excellent brick may be manufactured in unlimited quantities from the loess which caps the river bluffs. The stone found in the vicinity is either of a very uniform quality or of the fine, compact, non- magnesian character of the purer strata of the Hamilton formation in Iowa; which stone is hard, closely-jointed, and refractory under the hammer, and in part liable to suffer disintegration under atmospheric agencies, chiefly from the action of frost. Stone brought from other localities is a relatively costly material. There are no local circumstances unfavorable to the use of any good building stones, and the rock substratum beneath much of the city is peculiarly suitable for the foundations of heavy structures. There are no docks, wharves, fortifications, or breakwaters, and no stone sewers. There is an iron bridge across the Mississippi at this point, the piers at the Davenport end being of stone. Trinity church is built partly of limestone from the city quarries. The streets are largely macadamized with the local limestone, and a few of the sidewalks are paved with Anamosa and Joliet dimestones. DAYTON, OHIO. There are small isolated areas of what is called the Dayton limestone, which is of Niagara age, exposed in the vicinity, and it is on this formation that the celebrated Dayton quarries are located. The court-house and bridges over the canal and the Miami river are built of stone from the Dayton quarries. Sandstone from Portsmouth and Berea is used to a considerable extent, chiefly for trimmings. The streets are largely macadamized with limestone from the Dayton quarries, and a few streets are paved with cobble-stones. Many of the sidewalks are paved with local stone. 300 | BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. DENVER, COLORADO. The Windsor hotel and the Union depot are of rhyolite, the latter trimmed with Morrison sandstone. The Union Pacifie freight depot and the Denver and Rio Grande depot are of rhyolite. The only other stone used for building purposes in Denver is sandstone from Cation City, Manitou, Fort Collins, and Trinidad. The quarries near this place lie at the foot of the mountains to both the north and the south of the city. The stones are white and red sandstone obtained from the lower horizons of the Cretaceous; some of the white sandstones are possibly from the Jura. A light pinkish-gray rhyolite which has broken through the Tertiary strata half-way between Denver and Colorado Springs is a favorite building stone in Denver; it seems to wear well, is easily worked, but will not stand fire. The streets are not paved; a few sidewalks are paved with sandstone flags from Fort Collins; curbs are of the Morrison sandstone. Bridge piers on Cherry creek and Platte are of rhyolite from Castle Rock. | ~ DERBY, CONNECTICUT. The material chiefly used in Derby for stone construction is the gneiss from Ansonia. Of the twelve stone buildings in the city eleven are of the Ansonia gneiss and one of rubble-stone from Birmingham. There is no other stone used here except a very small amount of North River blue-stone for sidewalk pavements and for curbstones, while the gniess before mentioned is used to a limited extent for the same purposes. The bridge abutments across the canal and the Naugatuck river are built of the Ansonia gneiss. There are no paved streets. The Ansonia gneiss is a good material for all ordinary purposes of construction, and is the only building stone to be found in the vicinity. DES MOINES, IOWA. Most of the building stone heretofore employed is from Earlham, all of which, except a single ledge in the Bear Creek quarry, is regarded as inferior. It is reported by the city engineer that certain stones from the Earlham quarries are durable and strong, while others undistinguishable in appearance disintegrate rapidly. It is probable: that the rock is not sufficiently seasoned before using. The quarrymen think that little if any seasoning is required. Wood is a cheaper building material than stone, as the nearest quarries are so far from Des Moines that freights add very materially to the cost. Rubble, which costs one cent per cubic foot in the Earlham quarries, costs 5 cents per cubic foot delivered in Des Moines. Excellent building stones exist in unlimited quantities in Winterset, in Madison county, near Tracy and, Pella, in Marion, and at Givin and elsewhere in Mahaska county, at little greater distance from Des Moines than is Harlham. The new state capitol now in process of construction, with the superstructure nearly completed, is the only important public building in the city. The following is a statement of the building stones used in the state capitol, and the number of cubic feet of each kind: f Cubic feet. Granite from Grundy; ands Mari Om (CbOwlders)) fem ae. ae ie = te asa tre ela re te ao ett ee 6,659 Granite,’ Minnesota . 2.5 Yacaie aioe aoe oie Serene beac oe eae a aiaia ine oie ain alates mea ielm.atel efeieiniaht pense one eee oe sees 3,034 Granite from Iron Monntain, /Missourisses oice~ sc duaints Mab cee benien=b keasshinah ahs bomen Pow ecjee so citae aoe 1,607 Total ... .2 dei, aeuies peanepne vee menle eon Cb orks newh sa ica anaes cee Gee Meese herent vee kee ewe en er 11,300 Sandstone from Carroll and Sainte Genevieve counties, Missouri ...-.-- 22 2-10 ccc- sens ee cces cence cc ccce ces 284,259 Limestone ‘(dimension 2 faece oe elon cate wee See we ele ee oe eee ee ieee me caeiateh ahs on me a eg eee eae eeeeeee 172,924 Rubble and coneretiess a5 2F. Soe ates ores een ete a atte erate a ee ate BUae relic eis wats eo Slalte eho tat Jie ene aie 70,136 4 Xe) ee AE PRS ry Pre ae en ae ook ge Je Seg NCS CASS ETS rota 5 DOE. Geren Sins 527,319 The rubble comes from Bear Creek quarries, 24 miles north of Earlham; the dimension stone to the ground-line comes from Winterset, Madison county; the limestone dimension, constituting the basement story, comes from Northbend, Johnson county; some limestone used in the interior piers of the basement comes from Anamosa, Jones county, and some used in the interior columns and pillars comes from Lemont, Jllinois, the quantity being small. A considerable quantity of limestone from Rock Creek, Van Buren county, was used in building the foundation; but it was found to disintegrate so rapidly under the action of frost that it was afterward removed. It appears from reports of various quarrymen that small quantities of stone from localities not above mentioned have also been used in the construction of the state-house. There are no sewers except temporary drains. A system of sewerage is now in contemplation, and the paving of the streets is deferred until such sewers are completed. There are no wharves; but there are two iron bridges across the Des Moines river, the piers and abutments of which are of limestone, mainly from Earlham. Of the three railway bridges across the Des Moines. river, that of the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific railroad has piers and abutments constructed mainly from Earlham limestone. The streets are not paved with stone; there is a little sidewalk pavement, of Joliet limestone, with curbs of Joliet, Pella, and Earlham stone. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 301 DUBUQUE, IOWA. The city is located upon an alluvial terrace and bottom, the materials of which are sufficiently firm to support buildings of any weight, provided care is used in the preparation of the foundations. Lumber is cheap and. abundant; bricks are cheap and are the principal material for buildings; but limestone from the local quarries is used exclusively in the construction of sewers. There is a cross-street (Seventeenth street) located in the course of a ravine heading in the high bluffs to the westward, and in order to prevent destructive overflows it has been graded below the ordinary level, paved, and flanked with walls of masonry, so that during freshets the street itself serves as a drainage channel. The Galena limestone from the local quarries was employed exclusively in this work. An extensive artificial embankment for a levee, used for a wharf and utilized as a site for many important buildings, is protected by riprapping, in which’the same material is used. The Episcopal church is built partly of limestone quarried near Farley station. The material for the abutments of the railroad bridge across the river was largely obtained from a tunnel in Galena limestone at the Illinois end of the bridge. The building used as a custom-house and post-office is constructed of limestone of the age of the Saint Louis formation quarried at Nauvoo, Illinois. Five per cent. of the street area is paved with the limestone from local quarries, and other streets are macadamized with the same material ; except on the main street there is but little sidewalk pavement, and the material used is limestone from Anamosa and Farley, in Iowa, and Joliet, Illinois, and to a very limited extent the blue limestone of Trenton age from quarries 15 miles north of the city, on the Wisconsin side of the river. EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA. Easton is situated on moderately uneven ground, portions of the town being located on low ground on the banks of the Lehigh and the Delaware rivers, the junction of which is here, but the greater part is built on ground considerably elevated above the rivers. The surface everywhere offers firm and secure foundations. The limestone quarried in the vicinity is the material used for all ordinary purposes of construction. It is about the lowest limestone in the geological scale within the limits of Pennsylvania, being probably the bottom of the Siluro- Cambrian formation. The brownstone quarries of Triassic age located in New Jersey are readily accessible from here, and are considerably drawn on for building material by Easton. The principal stone buildings are Pardee hall, of Trenton sandstone, with Ohio sandstone trimmings; several churches are also of Trenton sandstone, and the front of the jail is of the same material. The Wyoming blue-stone from near Meshoppen is now being introduced for trimmings. The stone sidewalk pavement is not extensive, and the materials used for this purpose are Wyoming blue-stone, and North River and Lehigh slate. Curbstones are of native limestone. - ELIZABETH, NEW JERSEY. In the business parts of the city, in the large buildings, brick is mostly used, although there are many of wood; but private residences are almost exclusively frame buildings. Brownstone is used in trimmings and in cellar walls and foundations, but not to so great an extent as brick. Saint John’s Protestant Episcopal church is a fine example of brick trimmed with stone. Dark red sandstone was formerly used for grave-stones in the cemetery of this church, and these old stones are beginning to scale off. Several bridges over the river are built of sandstone, but these are small. Of streets opened and graded the total length is 79 miles; of paved streets, 26 miles ; rectangular-block pavements, part granite and part trap-rock, 13 miles; the greater part of the trap-rock is from the Hudson County quarries. Of the three stone structures the most prominent is the Westminster Presbyterian church. ELMIRA, NEW YORK. The materials used for stone construction in Elmira are, for foundations and underpinnings, sandstone from the local quarries; for the better class of work, sandstone from the local quarries and limestones from Syracuse. The quarries of sandstone in the vicinity supply all the railroad work, except that in which heavy stone is needed, in which case the material comes from Unionville and Waterloo. The streets are not paved with stone, with the exception of two blocks, which are paved with Medina sandstone. But few of the sidewalks are paved with stone; the material used is blue-stone from Trumansburgh. ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA. Three stone structures in Erie are constructed of Medina and Amherst sandstone and Sandusky limestone, with one building of marblefrom Dorset, Vermont. The material for foundations and other rough purposes is a sandstone of the Upper Devonian age quarried in the immediate vicinity, and a sandstone of sub-Carboniferous age quarried at Corry, in Erie county. Sandstone quarried at Lebceuf, in the same county, is used to some extent for foundations and bridge abutments, flagging, caps, and sills. The streets are largely paved with stone, the 302 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. ‘ material most used for this purpose being the Medina sandstone; rubble is also used to a considerable extent. Sidewalks are but little paved with stone, and the material used is chiefly blue-stone from Euclid, Ohio; the Berea, Ohio, sandstone being also employed to some extent. The material commonly used for curbstones is the Medina sandstone. The stone from the quarries along the lake shore east of Erie, used for foundations, is a rather inferior material, but as it can be obtained at small expense, it is employed quite extensively for the underground portions: of foundations; but some of it is not capable of withstanding the action of frost. EVANSVILLE, INDIANA. In the western part of the city the ground is unfavorable to building, as quicksand underlies the surface; but in the eastern and central parts this unfavorable condition does not exist. There is but one building entirely of stone, but ninety-nine buildings have stone fronts. The materials used in these buildings are the Bedford and Eulettsville limestones. Limestone of the sub-Carboniferous age, from the vicinity of Spencer, Owen county, was employed in the construction of the custom-house. The foundations and underpinnings are of limestone quarried in the vicinity of Evansville. The streets are but little paved with stone, and the material is the limestone from the various points in Vanderburgh county, in which the city is situated. The sidewalks of the business streets are usually paved with the Bedford limestone, with crossings of limestone from North Vernon, Indiana. Curbs are of Portsmouth, Ohio, sandstone, as in the case of most of the other important towns on the Ohio river; the wharves here are constructed of cobble-stones on the banks of the river. FALL RIVER, MASSACHUSETTS. About 40 structures in Fall River, mostly mills, are of stone, the material used being granite from local quarries. Among the buildings of Fall River granite is the city hall. The new post-office and custom-house building is of granite in part from Westerly, Rhode Island. The mills before spoken of are, comparatively speaking, handsome structures, and the material of which they are built was quarried by the builder as it was needed in their construction. Some of the material in these structures is surface rock taken from the fields in the vicinity and from the outcrops of granite ledges. A portion of one of the streets is paved with granite blocks from the Fall River Granite Company’s quarries in Freetown, and some streets are paved with cobble-stone from the drift in the vicinity. A few of the sidewalks in the older portions of@the city are paved with the North River flags, and the curbstones. are granite from Fall River quarries. FITCHBURG, MASSACHUSETTS. There are only two buildings in Fitchburg eutirely of stone; the court-house and the Episcopal church are both built of granite from Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire. There are two stone fronts built of granite from the local quarries. The Fitchburg granite comes from Rollistone hill, about half a mile distant from the railroad station. Foundations and underpinnings are of Fitchburg and Fitzwilliam granite. There is but little stone street pavement, and the material used is the Fitchburg granite; sidewalks are not paved with stone, and curbs are of granite from local quarries. FORT WAYNE, INDIANA. There are but five stone buildings reported in the city. Limestone from White House, Ohio, is perhaps next in importance for foundations to that of the Wabash, Indiana. Limestone from the state is used to some extent for foundations of smali structures. Stone is used to a considerable extent for paving sidewalks, though brick is used to a much greater extent. The Amherst, Ohio, sandstone was formerly used almost exclusively for the different purposes for which sandstone is commonly employed in this city—monument bases, caps, sills, and trimmings in general—but the Buena Vista sandstone is used almost exclusively now, because it is obtained here at a little lower price. The sandstone from Stony Point, Michigan, is considered by some builders to be equal in quality to the Amherst stone, but its brown color is objectionable to some. Foundations and underpinnings are of the Wabash limestone, and to a limited extent, some stone from Stony Point. The streets are macadamized with Wabash limestone, and a few of the sidewalks are paved with sandstone from Berea, Ohio, and limestone from Joliet, Ilinois; the curbs are of the Joliet limestone; bridge abutments are built principally of sandstone from Stony Point, Michigan. GALVESTON,. TEXAS. A few foundations in this city are built of stone brought in ships as ballast from various parts of the world, and all that has thus far been employed proves substantial and durable. The city is built on a sand-bank, and the usual manner of preparing the foundations of the largest buildings is simply to remove the top soil, which is ouly a few inches thick, and, provided there is no danger of the sand wasting from under, every inch deeper is STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 303 considered money thrown away. In sinking an artesian well recently silt was struck at 720 feet; all above this was sand, shell, and clay, or beds of silt in varying thicknesses. The United States government is using for the jetties the calcareous sandstone from a quarry 9 miles from Brenham, on the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fé railroad ; also limestone from points on the East Texas railway. Both of the above stones make reliable masonry, and they are used on the railroad for bridge abutments and piers; they are rather porous. The ship ballast used so much for foundations and underpinnings comes chiefly from the northern United States, from Canada, and from Europe. There are but 20 square yards of stone street pavement in the city, and this is of cobble-stone brought as ship ballast. A few sidewalks are paved with sandstone, blue limestone, and granite from Connecticut, and from Germany and England. GLOUCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS. The six structures entirely of stone and the four stone fronts in this city are built of Gloucester granite. The only stone used for any purpose, with the exception of a few perches of lintel stone from New Brunswick, is. granite from the quarries within the city limits. The streets are but little paved with stone, the material being the Gloucester granite; the sidewalks are not paved with stone, and there are some curbs of the granite from the local quarries. HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANTA. Brown sandstone of the Triassic age is largely used in Harrisburg. Some of it comes from the Connecticut valley and some from Goldsboro’, York county, but at present it is nearly all obtained from Hummelstown, Dauphin county, which is but a short distance east of Harrisburg. The climate here is rather severe on the brownstone, from whatever locality it comes. In buildings of this material it was noticed that blocks at the base, where more subject to sudden alternations of dampness and frost, are scaling off in thin flakes, while the stone higher in the wall remains unaffected. The stone-work about the base of the Pennsylvania State Capitol building is of brownstone from Goldsboro’, York county, the superstructure being of brick; the brownstone is scaling oft rapidly, due probably in a great measure to unskillful handling, as well as to the effects of damp and frosty atmosphere. Many of the stones are set up edgewise, instead of being laid as in the quarry. The Hummelstown brownstone is steadilv increasing in use here. [front street, facing the Susquehanna river, seems to be the locality in this city most severe on building stones; the street is more exposed to rapid alternations of damp and cold weather than the other parts of the city. The material mostly used for the rougher building purposes, such as. cellar walls and foundations, is the blue magnesian limestone quarried in the immediate vicinity, and most of the stone buildings are of this material. . It is quite durable, the weather having apparently no effect on it, except to fade it to a light color; it is hard and brittle, and not readily susceptible of a fine dressing. Several private residences are built of blocks of this limestone of irregular shape firmly cemented together, and the effect is very pleasing. One of these, the house of Hon. Simon Cameron, was built by the founder of Harrisburg acentury ago. In trimmings, curbing and steps, the Amherst, Ohio, sandstone is used in a few instances, but its use here is of recent date; the material as yet shows no sign of being ‘affected by the elements. One building, the Dauphin County prison, is. built principally of a gray, conglomeratic sandstone quarried several miles south of Harrisburg, near the Susquehanna river. The building was constructed in 1840, and the stone in the walls has been redressed several times since its construction; this is made necessary by the constant scaling off of the dressed surface in thin flakes. It was thought to be a most substantial material at first, but its vulnerable character is now so generally recognized that it is no longer quarried for building purposes. For underpinnings, steps, base courses, caps, and sills, Conewago. granite, a dolerite quarried from the trap dikes which cut the Triassic formation at various places, is used to a considerable extent. The quarries which supply Harrisburg with this stone are principally those at Collins station, Lancaster county, and York Haven, York county. The material is practically indestructible, but its somber, dead color restricts it to uses in which fine effect is not desired. The abutments of bridges crossing the Susquehanna river here are constructed of the magnesian limestone quarried at Bridgeport, opposite Harrisburg; the abutments are repaired in places with patches of Hummelstown brownstone. The Dauphin County soldiers’ monument is built of the trap-rock called Conewago granite; the superstructure is of Maryland marble, and the figure surmounting the column is of Carrara (Italian) marble. For curbs, base courses, caps, sills, etc., Conewago granite and Montgomery county and Maryland marbles are all used to a considerable extent. One new house is being trimmed with the Wyoming blue-stone, a handsome, fine-grained and uniform, rather light blue sandstone from Meshoppen, Wyoming county. The new post-office building, in course of construction, has a foundation of Conewago granite from ~ Collins station, Lancaster county; the exposed part of the foundation is of Old Dominion granite, a biotite granite quarried near Richmond, Virginia, and a superstructure of granite from Bluehill, Maine; the latter two materials resemble each other very much. The streets are but little paved with stone, and that most used for this purpose is cobble-stone from the Susquehanna river. There is but little sidewalk paving; the material used is the North River blue-stone, well known through the eastern states as a paving material. For roofing, Peach Bottom slate from the slate district in York county and the adjoining district of Maryland, is most extensively used, and slate from Lehigh and Northampton counties is also used for the same purpose. 304 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT. As the celebrated quarries of brownstone in the Connecticut valley are of easy access to Hartford, this is the source from which the city draws most of its material for stone construction. A few buildings are constructed of marble from East Canaan, and granite from Westerly, Rhode Island, is employed to a considerable extent; and in ‘one building granite from Glastonbury is used. There are three or four stone bridges across Park river, anda retaining-wall about 500 feet in length and 20 feet high along the same river, all of Portland brown sandstone. The state capitol is by far the most important of the marble structures, the others being simply the fronts of . three blocks of buildings. Many blocks in the walls of the state-house are of crumbly material; flakes can be taken from them and rubbed to powder between the fingers. Limestone from Glens Falls, New York, is used in some of the inside stone-work of the state-house. In the United States custom-house and post-office granite from Saint George, Maine, was used. Light gray granite from Hallowell, Maine, was used in the construction of the monument to General Stedman. The streets are nearly all telfordized or macadamized with trap from quarries immediately southwest of Hartford. Sidewalks are largely paved with the North River blue-stone, and Bolton flagging-stone is used to some extent. The curbstones are of gneiss from quarries in Glastonbury, and of North River blue-stone. HAVERHILL, MASSACHUSETTS. The 15 buildings enumerated in Haverhill as having stone fronts are merely faced with Maine or New Hampshire granite for the first one or two lower stories. The one building constructed entirely of stone is a fine, large summer residence of an inferior quality of granite taken from the hill upon which the house stands. Foundations and underpinnings are of Cape Ann and Maine granite. There is a little stone street pavement of Cape Ann granite; the sidewalks are not paved with stone; curbs are of Cape Ann granite. The piers of the bridge across the Merrimack river are of Maine granite. INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA. The stone most used in Indianapolis for the ordinary purposes of construction is the limestone from Indiana quarries. The sub-Carboniferons sandstone from near Portsmouth, Ohio, has been employed to a considerable extent. The Niagara limestones from Decatur and the neighboring counties may be used as ashlar in the construction of the walls without much dressing, causing a very considerable saving in mason work. . The Putnamville siliceous limestone lies in even courses from 4 inches to 2 feet in thickness. It is a silicate of lime, and resists the action of the elements admirably. Specimens exposed to extreme variations of temperature for forty-six years still retain the chisel marks as fresh as when first dressed; and a door-step of a college resisted the daily foot-wear for fifty years, with wear of less than one-sixteenth of an inch. The oolitic limestone when soiled is quickly made bright and clean by the inexpensive process of brushing with steel or wire brushes. True, smooth, highly-colored stone tiles of the best quality are made here of this material. The piers and abutments of bridges and cell walls of jails are largely constructed of Niagara limestone from Decatur county, and Indiana oolitic limestone is used for the same purpose. The approaches tothe tunnel under the railroads on Illinois street are built of Niagara limestone from Decatur county. Siliceous limestone of the sub-Carboniferous period, quarried at Putnamville, was used for foundations, curbs, and paving flags some years ago, and has shown valuable qualities for resisting the action of weather, time, and fire. Its use was discontinued by reason of a more easy access to other quarries. The new state-house, when completed, will contain 410,000 cubic feet of Niagara limestone and 520,000 cubic feet of oolitic limestone. The foundations and underpinnings are of the Niagara and Devonian limestones quarried in Decatur and Jennings counties, and the sub-Carboniferous from Owen county is used to a limited extent. Granite from Hurricane island, Maine, was employed to some extent in the stone-work of the capitol, and limestone from North Vernon, Jennings county, was used in the construction of the Indianapolis arsenal. In such streets as are paved the cobble-stones are used exclusively. Sidewalks are largely paved on the business streets with Niagara limestone from Decatur county, and artificial cement is used to a limited extent. Curbstones are of Decatur County limestone. ITHACA, NEW YORK. About the only material used for stone construction in Ithaca is thesandstone quarried in the immediate vicinity. Cornell University buildings are of stone from quarries near them; some in fact are within the grounds of the university. The trimmings are of Berea, Ohio, sandstone, Lockport limestone, and Medina sandstone, from Albion. The streets are not paved with stone; the sidewalks are largely paved with blue-stone from quarries near the city, with curbstones of the same material. The total amount of stone construction in Ithaca is small, only 15 buildings being reported as constructed of this material. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 30D KEOKUK, IOWA. The stone buildings thus far erected are among the largest of the city. The sandstone of Sonora, Illinois appears to be an excellent and durable building stone. Quarries of similar material are found on the Iowa side of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Des Moines river, and also 5 or 6 miles above Keokuk, which have been operated only a short time. The abutments and piers of the railway bridge across the Mississippi are of arenaceous limestone from Sonora, Illinois. The stone used in the construction of the Des Moines Rapids canal is mainly from the same locality, though in part: from temporary quarries of similar stone near Nashville, Iowa. . The stones for foundations and underpinnings and the ruder purposes generally is limestone of sub-Carboniferous age quarried within the city limits; this material was used in the construction of the opera house (foundations) and the Keokuk Hlevator Company’s elevator. The streets are not paved, but some of them are macadamized with the local stone. A few of the sidewalks are paved with limestone from within the city limits. KINGSTON, NEW YORK. Of the stone buildings 34 are old dwelling-houses. These are generally 14 stories high, and are built of surface rock, mostly limestone and graywacke; some few are stuccoed. As good examples of durability we may mention the old Senate house, built by Wessells & Tenbrook in 1676. The Hasbrouck and Bruyn houses are also very old. Hard surface stone used in these buildings have suffered scarcely any change such as weathering might induce. Of the more prominent buildings the Ulster County court-house was erected in 1818, and still looks bright and clean; the First Reformed church is the largest and most costly stone building in the city; it is built of a dark slate- meee grit or graywacke found in the neighborhood. The stone is thinly-bedded, but looks well. The Second Reformed Church building is of limestone; the material is much disfigured by the Groen and dirt-colored stains due to the weathering of the clay seams of the mass. These stains reach in all directions through the stone. The superiority of the surface stones which appear in the old houses is evident at a glance. This limestone came from quarries near the town. Ohio sandstone has been employed in the trimmings of the new city hall; otherwise it has been scarcely used. The lower portions of the city are of brick. The aggregate length of paved streets, according to ex-Mayor James T.. Lindsley, is less than one mile, and is confined to three streets. In front of two blocks the street is paved with granite blocks. For the most part foundations and underpinnings are from the blue-stone flag quarries at Kingston and Hurley, Ulster county. Some of this work, however, is of limestone, blue rock, and slate quarried within the city limits. The sidewalks are largely paved with stone, there being about 60 miles of flagging of blue-stone from quarries at Kingston and Hurley. Curbstones are of the same material. The large amount of stone sidewalk paving is due to the close proximity of the city to the most celebrated flag-quarry region in the country. LA FAYETTE, INDIANA. Stone used for building purposes in this city is almost exclusively limestone from the quarries of Decatur, Lawrence, and Monroe counties. It isused quite extensively for trimmings ; its light color gives a fine architectural effect when used in connection with brick. ‘The streets are not paved with stone, but the gutters are laid with bowlders gathered in the vicinity. A few of the sidewalks are paved with limestone from Greensburg, with curbs of the same material. LANCASTER, PENNSYLVANIA. A large percentage of the buildings in Lancaster have considerable stone in their composition, in the way of base courses, caps, sills, etc. Stone is used to bring the base of the houses to a level on the uneven ground, and brownstope from Hummelstown, from Ephrata, in Lancaster county, and from other points is used for the purposes mentioned. Connecticut brownstone is employed ina few instances. The Conewago granite, from the Kellar quarry near Collins station, is frequently used for base courses. It is apparently invulnerable to the attacks of the elements Amherst, Ohio, stone is used to some extent for base courses and trimmings. Blue-stone from Meshoppen and other points in Wyoming county is being introduced for trimmings and is very highly esteemed. Montgomery County marble is well adapted to the construction of fronts, base courses, caps, and sills, for which purposes it is much employed in Lancaster. In the cemeteries the New England marble is employed to a considerable extent, also Montgomery County marble; granite from the New England states and from Maryland, and some Scotch Deaniiay Hummelstown and Connecticut brownstone to a small extent; and for lot inclosures, Conewago granite. Some houses in the city are trimmed with white marble from Sutherland Falls, Vermont. For foundations and underpinnings the material ordinarily employed is magnesian limestone, which is quarried in the vicinity, and the old houses in the city are built of the same material. The streets are largely paved with stone, the greater part, however, being simply macadamized with the limestone quarried in the eas The public square and portions of ethos streets are VOL. Ix-—-20 B § 306 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. paved with granite blocks from cape Ann, Massachusetts. The sidewalks are largely paved with stone, the material chiefly used being Wyoming blue-stone from near Meshoppen, Pennsylvania. The North River blue-stone is also used to some extent for sidewalk paving. Lehigh County slate is used for sidewalk paving. Bridge abutments, culverts, and embankment walls are constructed of Siluro-Cambrian limestone quarried in the vicinity, The soldiers’ monument is built of white marble, the base being of New England granite. The Peach Bottom slate is highly esteemed for roofing, and the Lehigh County slate is also extensively used for the same purpose. LAWRENCE, MASSACHUSETTS. The only important stone buildings in Lawrence are two large Catholic churches, one Congregational church, and a large prison. Stone has thus far been used to a very limited extent as material for construction in Lawrence, except as underpinning. The factories and tenement houses are almost all of brick, while the suburban residences are of wood. The same may be said of Lowell and Haverhill. The material for foundations and underpinnings is granite from New Hampshire and from cape Ann and Westford, Massachusetts. The streets are largely paved with Cape Ann and Westford granite. A few of the sidewalks are paved with Cape Ann granite, and curbs are of the same material. LEAVENWORTH, KANSAS. The limestone chiefly used in this city is from a 14-foot bed occurring about 20 feet above the ordinary water-mark in the river; it is of Upper Carboniferous age, and corresponds to No. 112 of section U. C. M. (See p. 94 of Part II, Missouri Geological Report of 1872.) our feet above is another limestone (No. 115, Missouri section) which has been extensively used at Leavenworth city for sidewalks and foundations, but it often shows many sand tracts. Other rocks used largely at this city are from Junction City and Cottonwood Falls, Kansas. Cottonwood limestone was used in the construction of the court-house and the Missouri Valley Life Insurance building. The columns of the custom-house are of red granite from Red Beach, Maine. The riverside quarries at Leavenworth have been abandoned on account of the cost of stripping; at the present quarries there are from 4 to 8 feet stripping of earth and shales. Foundations are all rubble-stone from local quarries and from Fort Scott. The streets are largely macadamized with the limestone from local quarries; the sidewalks, however, are chiefly paved with brick,. and to a limited extent with limestone from near Fort Scott. The only building constructed entirely of stone in the city is built of the local limestones. LOCKPORT, NEW YORK. Within the limits of this city there are extensive quarries of both sandstone and limestone, and they furnish all the material used for stone construction. The sandstone quarries are located on a ledge of Medina sandstone age, and by far the larger number of stone buildings are constructed of this material. It is used to some extent also for sidewalk paving and street-paving blocks. ‘The greater part of the material for stone construction in Buffalo is also brought from these quarries. The limestone quarries are located on a ledge of Niagara age and on the same- horizon as that over which the cataract of Niagara flows. The foundations and underpinnings are usually constructed of limestone from the local quarries, but the Medina sandstone is also used for these purposes to a limited extent. The streets are but little paved with stone, there- being only a quarter of a mile of the Medina block pavement. There is but little stone sidewalk pavement, the material used for sidewalks being planks; in such sidewalks as are paved with stone the Medina sandstone is the material used. Five double locks on the Erie canal are of limestone from local quarries and from the canal excavation. LOGANSPORT, INDIANA. ® The limestone that has been used so extensively in this city for entire buildings 1s taken from the quarries 3: miles below the city, on the Wabash river. The color of the stone is gray and quite uniform, and some of the finest structures in the city have been built of it. Oolitic limestone from southern Indiana is used extensively for trimmings; that from Stinesville is perhaps used most extensively at present for this purpose. The Amherst and. Berea sandstones of northern Ohio were used to a limited extent for the same purposes. The Buena Vista stone of sub-Carboniferous age, quarried in southern Ohio, has been used for ashlar. The limestone quarried in the vicinity of the city furnishes material for foundations and underpinnings. The sidewalks are largely paved with limestone from southern Indiana and sandstone from Berea, Ohio; the curbs are of native limestone.. The material used for bridge abutments and piers is sandstone from Williamsport and Attica, and limestone from Logansport, and the oolitic limestone from the southern part of the state. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. O07 LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY. The rock exposed in the immediate vicinity of Louisville is the sub-Carboniferous limestone, which is of the same age as the Indiana oolitic limestones; hence the city has a good local supply of building stone which answers well for all ordinary purposes of construction, and extensive use is made of this supply. For the finer purposes of construction the Indiana oolitic limestones are extensively used, and as the city is situated on the Ohio river it has ready access to the Buena Vista and other sandstone quarries near Portsmouth, Ohio, and much of this stone is used. The Bowling Green, Kentucky, limestone has also been very extensively employed. This limestone, like that of the local quarries, is of sub-Carboniferous age. The Louisville limestone, however, although taking good rank as far as durability is concerned, is hard and sometimes flinty, and is much more expensive to dress than the sub-Carboniferous limestones usually are where exposed in other places, and this fact confines its use to the ruder purposes. The streets of Louisville are largely paved with limestone from the local quarries, and a few of the sidewalks are paved with Bowling Green limestone, with curbs of the same material. The abutments of the railroad bridge over the Ohio were built of Utica, Indiana, stone. The wharf is constructed of cobble-stones; the locks and walls of the Louisville canal are built of the local limestone; it was also used in the construction of the custom- house and the city work-house. Limestone of sub-Carboniferous age, quarried near West Salem, Washington county, Indiana, was used in the construction of the Galt house and the city hall. Sandstone from the vicinity of Cannelton, Perry county, Indiana, was used in the construction of the water-works and locks. LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS. There is quite a number of small factories, barns, and dwelling-houses in Lowell constructed of the blue mortar-stone taken from quarries in the immediate vicinity of the city. This material is considered more durable than the very micaceous granite; the disadvantage in using it for building purposes lies in the great difficulty of quarrying blocks of given dimensions. The Concord granite is preferred, owing to the small amount of iron in its composition. There is a very micaceous gneiss quarried in the immediate vicinity somewhat used for building purposes, but it is liable to rust on account of the quantity of iron in its composition, and it also has a tendency to crumble when subjected to the action of intense heat. The following are the different building stones most used in the better class of stone construction in this city: Granite from Concord, New Hampshire; mortar-stone, quarried in the immediate vicinity; marble from Rutland, Vermont; granite from Westford, Massachusetts; granite quarried in the vicinity of the city; foundations and underpinnings are of granite from Concord, New Hampshire, Westford granite, and the various stones quarried in the vicinity of Lowell. A very large bridge is being constructed across the Lowell railroad of stone quarried in Westford, Massachusetts; the Episcopal church and Saint Patrick’s church in Lowell are built of stone taken from Livingston quarry, within the city limits. The streets are largely paved with Westford and Concord granites. There is some stone sidewalk paving of Westford granite, with curbstones of the same material. MANCHESTER, NEW HAMPSHIRE. A very few stone buildings in Manchester are constructed of granite quarried in the immediate vicinity. The materials usually employed in construction here are brick and wood. In the construction of the Amoskeag dam 50,000 cubic yards of granite were used. The walls of a canal a mile in length and the piers of six bridges across the Merrimack river are built of granitefrom Bedford. These quarries are not now operated. The soldiers’ monument was built of Concord granite. Foundations and underpinnings are of granite and gneiss quarried in the vicinity, from the lake gneiss formation, and the granite occurring in masses in the gneiss. There is a mile of street pavement of Hookset granite in blocks afoot square. There is very little stone sidewalk pavement of gneiss from the immediate vicinity. The sidewalk in front of the Merchants’ exchange is paved with Potsdam sandstone. The curbs are of native granite and gneiss. MIDDLETOWN, CONNECTICUT. On account of the close proximity of the Portland quarries, which are on the opposite side of the river from Middletown, almost all the stone used in this city is obtained from them. There are very few stone buildings, however, by far the largest-use of the stone being for foundations and underpinnings. The sidewalks for the most part are from 3 to 4 feet apart, and they as well as the curbstones are of a kind of gneiss from the Haddam and Maromas quarries; this material splits with rather a rough surface. In the principal business streets large flags of North River blue-stone are considerably used, and in many spots slabs of sandstone occur, which, however, do not stand well under foot-wear. In buildings the dressed sandstone scales off badly when set on edge; when laid as in the natural bed this defect is not apparent. A large railroad bridge across the Connecticut river, at Middletown, has its piers and abutments built of a granitic rock. taken from the quarry, worked only for this purpose, a short distance up the river on the east side. The streets are not paved. 308 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE. There are but two buildings in Memphis constructed entirely of stone, the custom-house and the post-office. The first is built of marble from Knoxville, Tennessee; the second, of granite from near Iron Mountain, Iron county, Missouri. Eight buildings are enumerated as having stone fronts, one of which is built of sandstone from Alabama, six of limestone from Alabama and Kentucky, and one of freestone from near Portsmouth, Ohio. Foundations and underpinnings are chiefly of brick, but there are some of limestone from Alabama and Kentucky. Limestone is used in wharf paving and breakwater of riprap walls, of which there is now paved an area of 2,700 by 250 feet— equal to about 75,000 square yards. The arched culvert bridges and abutments are constructed chiefly of brick, and one arch culvert is built of limestone from Alabama. The sewer system, built in 1880-81, is constructed for the most part of vitrified clay pipe from 6 to 15 inches in diameter, the main outlet being of cast-iron and brick 20 inches in diameter. Granite and sandstone quarried in the vicinity of Little Rock, Arkansas, are used for building purposes. Sandstone and limestone from Arkansas and Missouri, and limestone from Hlinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama are all employed in construction here. Most of the quarries are accessible by water and by railroad, and their distance from Memphis ranges from 200 to 250 miles. The buildings within the fire limits are chiefly of brick, with some iron. ‘The site of this city furnishes good foundations for buildings of every description. About 15 miles of streets and alleys are paved with stone; the material chiefly used for this purpose is limestone from Illinois, Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee, and granite and sandstone from the vicinity of Little Rock, Arkansas. Sidewalks are but little paved with stone, and the material chiefly used is limestone and sandstone from Alabama, with curbs of the same material. MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA. The following list includes the Minneapolis buildings in which stone enters as an important constituent: Brick buildings with limestone trimmings from the Trenton formation ........--....----.-----.--2e0 -s--e- eee 179 With Berea,.Ohio, sandstone trimmings i225.) ose on eee ee oe oe bs oss ense= nose ces a= ae ae see tee ee a eee eee 60 With Frontenac dolomite trimmimge 32 te oe ae ela ele fenin seme la sta ain le clin el = win cies 6c '= om © clare ie eit ts ate te 13 With Joliet or Lemont, Hlinois, limestone trimmings. i sess occ oe anceuniecaeevs =seice-enses le delnip te) i oe 3 With Fond du Lac limestone trimmings oe ca tee weenie sine wx wise ao om = alesis ole mele) alere ole ale aveiay el aye ote 48 With Kasota Stone trimmings ic se ie came cin wtone tales sila Stee seiels ac sie rice ss So sietela dam shine eissiele fe Roe ele ee 11 With Minnesota granites.2- 2.5255 coos cess Selo cee eave cievewmea case nn tebisree ca selane ses st soca aaa Sete eee 6 Buildings of stone or brick partly trimmed with pranite...-----4- 52 eee acca es flea caries eerie eae 21 Buildings,of brick with Vermont marble trimmings 52. = Jos sscess tcem Coches asic sce eve ee aes sae eee 1 There are perhaps 20 other brick buildings which have artificial-stone trimmings and 20 which are trimmed with brick of another color, or are painted so as to simulate trimmings of stone, of which no account has been made. This enumeration includes all stone structures; many of them are very large, such as the Washburn A, B, and C flouring-mills, the Pillsbury A flouring-mill, the university of Minnesota, and McAllister college. The list also embraces the Universalist church, the Irish and French Catholic churches, and the Plymouth Congregational church. The Trenton limestone supplied by the quarries of Minneapolis, formerly much used, is being abandoned as material for first-class structures, and in its place are put stones from towns in Minnesota, as well as stone from other states. The argillaceous character of the Trenton strata, and the thin but often lenticular banding of the sedimentary structure, cause the slabs and blocks of this limestone to disintegrate in sheets parallel with the bedding, and finally to wholly decay ; when it can be kept from exposure to the weather it answers for walls better; hence it is still employed in foundations and in basements that rise a few feet above the ground. Itis necessary even in such cases that it be well bedded in mortar and protected by a good water-table. The use of stone as a material of construction at Minneapolis has been greatly influenced by an abundant supply of two other articles, as follows, viz: Cream-colored brick and pine lumber. It is becoming very fashionable to use red pressed brick from Saint Louis or Philadelphia or Baltimore for the fronts of first-class structures, trimming them with sandstone from Ohio, or limestone from Stone City, Iowa, or Joliet, Illinois. The piers of the suspension bridge over the Mississippi river and its anchorages are of the Trenton limestone, from Minneapolis, trimmed with Minnesota granite. The piers of the two other highway bridges and of the railroad bridge across the Mississippi are of the same material. The arched bridge across the east channel of the Mississippi is of the same, but has Red Wing rock in the angles. In several residences and business blocks artificial stone is used for window- caps or other trimmings, but with Trenton limestone sills, basements, and water-tables. Lemont, Illinois, limestone is seen in a few buildings which have other stones for trimmings. Steps and water-tables of Kasota stone are frequently put in buildings that have other stones for trimmings. In the Westminster Presbyterian church brown — sandstone from Fond du Lac, Saint Louis county, Minnesota, is used. The streets are but little paved, and the material used is a water-worn cobble-stone from the drift. Sidewalks are but very little paved with stone, owing to the abundance of pine lumber and its cheapness. In such sidewalks as are paved with stone, Niagara limestone, from Joliet, Illinois, Trenton limestone, from Minneapolis, and calciferous sand-rock, from Kasota, Minnesota, are used. The curbstones are of Minneapolis Trenton limestone. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 209 MOBILE, ALABAMA. The only stone building in Mobile—the custom-house—is built of Quincy, Massachusetts, granite. The streets in the business portion of the city are partially paved and macadamized with stone ballast from vessels and the Alabama sandstone. The sidewalks are paved with Alabama sandstone and brick; sandstone from Colbert county, Alabama, is used to a limited extent for this purpose; also the North River blue-stone and stone brought from Yorkshire, England. NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE. The stone chiefly used for fronts in the city of Nashville is oolitic limestone from Bowling Green, Kentucky. It is a good material, but contains petroleum which is drawn to the surface by the heat of the sun, and dust settling on it turns it a dark color. It is not uniform in color, but has yellow streaks. The United States custom-house is built of this material. The limestones of the Nashville formation are found in three principal layers; the quality and appearance vary in the same layer. The quarry from which the stone for the capitol is built was abandoned for the reason that the material is very fossiliferous and the fossils (orthoceras) weather out. Some of the courses are liable to decomposition when exposed to the weather. The stone is very distinctly laminated; it is not a pure limestone, but has considerable silica in its composition. It is most durable when laid in walls, as in the natural bed. The use of stone for construction is very general in Nashville, nearly every building of any prominence having considerable stone in its composition, and all new stores have fronts either entirely or partially of stone. Stone basement stories, with the upper portions of brick with stone trimmings, is a very common form of construction. The usual custom is to use the Nashville limestone below ground, and above ground a Nashville limestone, carefully selected, with Bowling Green superstructure and trimmings. There is a desire at present to substitute some other stone for the Bowling Green for the purposes of construction in which that material is now used. The capitol building is constructed entirely of stone; the pillars of the halls of the legislature and ornamental work, railings, etc., are of Hawkins and Knox County marbles. The stone used in the walls of the building is from the next to the lowest course of the Nashville formation. The Normal College buildings are of local stone. The basements of the Vanderbilt and the Fisk universities are of Nashville stone; the copings and trimmings are of Bowling Green limestone, and their foundations are of selected Nashville limestone. The new United States custom-house is constructed entirely of Bowling Green limestone. The ruling taste here at present seems to favor white building stone; two churches built many years ago are of Nashville limestone, and stuccoed to represent brownstone; another church is built of rough Nashville limestone of a bluish color. No granite is used in this city for building purposes. The stone used in cemeteries is chiefly Italian marble; however, the Knoxville marble is rapidly coming into use as a material for cemetery work, as it seems but little affected by exposure. There are some monuments of Quincy granite. There is a growing sentiment in favor of paving streets with stone, as the limestone now used in macadamizing powders rapidly, making an offensive dust in summer and mud in winter. Limestone of the Nashville, Cincinnati, or Hudson River formation is used for every character of work except fronts; it is frequently quarried in getting out foundations in such large quantities that it is given away. The walls of yards around the city are constructed of it; some with rough and some with dressed surfaces. Walls of buildings on the river and piers of the bridges are built of it; occasionally in handsome fences around large inclosures of fine residences, the corner and gate posts are constructed of Bowling Green limestone, and the wall around the capitol grounds is constructed of this material, NEW ALBANY, INDIANA. The percentage of stone construction in New Albany is small, the material chiefly used being brick and wood, with brick foundations under the frame buildings; but so far as stone has been used here it has shown itself to be substantial and durable, the materials being of superior quality.. There are no local circumstances unfavorable to stone construction, and the stones used are limestone from Salem, Indiana, and, to a limited extent, sandstone from the vicinity. The West Salem limestone was employed in the construction of the court-house. For foundations and underpinnings and for other ordinary purposes limestone from the vicinity is employed. The streets are largely paved with cobble-stone and limestone found in the neighborhood. But few of the sidewalks are paved; the stone used is limestone from New Albany and Vernon; curbs are of the same material. NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. Nearly all of the prominent stone structures in Newark are built of the Newark sandstone, but the elegant United States custom-house and post-office building and the large and massive county court-house are of Little Falls, New Jersey, sandstone. Nearly all of these buildings are large and costly structures, and the beauty and durability of the stone used are exhibited to good advantage in many of them. Some of the larger edifices are especially deserving of 310 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. notice. The extensive use of stone in Newark is to be explained from the fact that there are five quarries of sandstone within the city limits; three of them are now worked, employing from 100 to 200 men, and their product is valued at $150,000 to $200, 000 SALA There are many large and expensive private dwellings entirely of stone, and many with only stone fronts. Three bridges over Second river and 24 over the Morris canal are of Newark sandstone, and 24 miles of the Morris canal is walled with the same material. Six railroad bridges beside wagon bridges over the Passaic river have piers and abutments of Newark sandstone. One large trunk sewer is built of the same material, as are also many walls about lawns and cemeteries. The total length of improved and graded streets is 176.8 miles; of streets paved with cobble-stones, 28.76 miles; paved with granite and trap blocks, 4.89 miles; Telford or macadamized streets, 12.21 miles; total of stone pavement, 45.86 miles. The total length of streets graded and improved but not paved is 130.94 miles. The narrow streets have sidewalks 4 feet in width ; other streets or sidewalks 5 and 6 feet in width. The material used in paving these sidewalks is the North River blue-stone. No brick is allowed to be used for this purpose. NEW BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS. Of the 22 buildings in New Bedford constructed entirely of stone, 19 are of granite quarried in the vicinity, 2 of Rockport granite, and 1 of Quincy granite. At the entrance to New Bedford harbor is a large fort, while a smaller one guards the Fairhaven side opposite. They are both constructed of Cape Ann granite. Foundaliaie and underpinnings are of granite from the vicinity of the city and from Rockport. The streets are largely paved with cobble-stone from the vicinity; North River flagging stone is exclusively used in the sidewalks; curbs are of granite from Rockport, in the vicinity. NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY. The comparative cheapness of brick has interfered with the use of stone both for building purposes and for sidewalks. The red sandstone quarried in the city was formerly used to a limited extent in cellar walls and foundations, but the quarries are now discontinued. This stone has not proved to be durable, crumbling slowly when exposed to severe frost. It is adapted to use in inside filling of walls only, and the greater durability and . cheapness of brick have enabled the builders to dispense with it entirely. North River blue-stone has a large use in building for steps, sills, caps, and other trimmings, especiallyin factoriesand storehouses. The college buildings afford examplesof good and poor stones and of materials improperly laid; the old college building rear wail contains some soft argillaceous sandstone, which tends to split, aithough laid as in its bed inthe quarry. In the west wall there are many stones which show clay-holes. The Geological Hall building has a few examples of stone from Connecticut quarries, which are laid with the lines of bedding in a vertical position, and they are beginning to chip or scale off, although the building has been constructed only ten years. The superiority of the Newark stone is apparent in comparing the general effect, and in the closer examination of the single blocks as they occur in these two structures—the Geological hall and the Kirkpatrick chapel. The Newark stone does not show the lines of bedding so plainly; it is more homogeneous in its composition, and its materials are not so much arranged on lines or in parallel planes as they are in the Connecticut stone which is ordinarily put on the market here. The durability of the Newark stone is displayed in the old college building, erected in 1809; the corners and edges are still sharp and well defined. The following are some of the principal structures of stone, with the materials from which they are constructed: Rutgers college (main building): Newark sandstone; Geological hall: Connecticut sandstone; Kirkpatrick chapel: New Jersey sandstone; First Reformed (Dutch) church: gneiss from New York; the Protestant Episcopal church and Saint Peter’s Roman Catholic church: New Jersey sandstone; residence of John Carpenter, residence of Sisters of Charity, and Bartel’s private residence: Connecticut sandstone; piers of the wagon bridge over the Raritan river at Albany street: Connecticut brownstone; Pennsylvania Railroad company’s bridge (8 piers and abutments): from Stanton, Hunterdon county, New Jersey, and gneiss from Conshohocken, Pennsylvania; the locks of the Delaware and Raritan canal: Trenton freestone, Greensburg quarries. These locks are 200 feet long, or 250 feet including the wing walls; one is a double lock. The following is a statement of the amount and kind of stone street pavement in New Brunswick: Miles Granite block, Westerly, Rhode Islands granitic: «vc0. <0 or conn wanna acne voce eee eee eee ae esas ee to Cobble-stone. . 20.2) noi Ve se sister ale ies Dae eter as we oo wb Saad ciclo a Sie athe ie ae eee ese QS Telford macadamized road of trap-rock fas treses woee woecican = scccwa ches cutee GEE megaeeeetas dew a> out. aeaeeee 15 Total stone: street pavemonticn =< se cbae sea cece se a2 = oe. cma celeron Ree ee een eae sacl od s. eine aera mea Nicholson wood pavement......---..-- bowcccee occces shee tee! Hee ROE Ten eccceccce se bensseacert ewe The sidewalk of North Rives ‘pias stone laid by eB atreet commission: 5. ce veues cee tees ine chcetmienecsdbenn odeeeue 8 Curbstones, mainly of North River blue-stone. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 311 NEWBURGH, NEW YORK. The nearest available source of building stone for Newburgh is the limestone quarries within 2 miles of the city. The material obtained there is used for foundations, underpinnings, and other work of that class; Connecticut brownstone and Haverstraw stone are also used for foundations. Of the stone buildings in the city the oldest is a story-and-a-half dwelling-house constructed of surface stones from the vicinity, and occupied by Washington as headquarters during the encampment at Newburgh. Saint George’s Protestant Episcopal church is an old building of blue limestone obtained west of the city. Saint Patrick’s Roman Catholic church is a new and large structure of blue limestone, a stone which is much disfigured by what seem to be argillaceous seams traversing irregularly the calcareous matrix. The darker shades of color in these clay seams give the whole a rather dingy appearance. The stone was obtained in part from the quarries west of the city and in part from Kingston, Ulster county; the latter stone has suffered more by exposure. It resembles in this respect the stone in the Second Reformed church in Kingston, and both show how much care is needed in the selection of limestone for fine work in prominent buildings. The First Presbyterian church, a very large, costly, and ornate edifice, constructed of graywacke and flagging stone quarried near Kingston, is trimmed with Ohio sandstone; the stone has retained its dark color, and does not show any signs of disintegration by weathering. The other buildings are small and private excepting the stuccoed Reformed Church edifice. Formerly brownstone from Haverstraw and Nyack was much used for door-steps and window-sills, but of late Connecticut brownstone and Ohio sandstone have been used almost exclusively, excepting the blue limestone from the neighboring quarries, which is used for rough work and cellar. walls. Brick here takes the place of stone to a very great extent in both foundations and superstructures. The sidewalks are all laid with blue flagging stone; in the older streets they are from 10 to 12 feet wide, and the stones are of irregular size and generally small. The more recently laid walks are 6 feet wide and are a single line of stone, The cost of paving some of the fine foot-sidewalks has been $1 per linear foot. The length of sidewalks is unknown, but amounts to many miles. The cobble-stone pavements measure 10,000 feet; the average width may be 40 feet. In the front of a single block in Water street the pavement is Belgian block. The sidewalks are all paved with blue- stone from Ulster county, with curbstones of the same. NEWBURYPORT, MASSACHUSETTS. There are but two buildings in Newburyport constructed entirely of stone, and the material used is Cape Ann granite. Foundations and underpinnings are usually of the same material, but Maine granite is used for the same purpose to a limited extent. With the exception of a very few public buildings, stone is used only in the underpinnings and foundations. It is observed that the Cape Ann granite, the stone chiefly used here, is of a light color when quarried and grows dark with exposure, but does not decay. The Peabody granite becomes of a yellowish-brown color after long exposure to the weather. A ledge has been recently opened about 2 miles above Newburyport, on the Merrimack, for the purpose of extracting stone for the construction of a jetty across the sand-bar at the mouth of the river. The material quarried is called by the workmen common stone or trap, Sandstone from Springfield has been used to a very limited extent for trimmings. The little stone street pavement in this city is of Maine granite; the sidewalks are not paved at all, and the curbs are of Maine and Cape Ann granites. NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. In New Haven, as in most of the other cities of Connecticut, the brown sandstone from the Connecticut valley furnishes the chief part of the material for stone construction. The other materials used are granite from Long Island shore, gneiss from Ansonia, trap from the East and West rocks, and sandstone from East Haven and Ohio. The breakwater in New Haven harbor has been built partly of coarse granite from the Branford quarries; considerable of East Haven sandstone has been used in bridge approaches, abutments, and piers; some 2 or 24 miles in length of the side walls of the old canal, in which the railroads cross the city, are built entirely of Hast Haven sandstone and trap, about equal quantities of each being used, and requiring between 8,000 and 10,000 cubic yards of stone. Some of the Ohio sandstone used in New Haven, notably in one building, contains iron pyrites, which oxidizes on exposure te the weather, giving the stone a soiled appearance. The only defect noticeable in the Portland sandstone is that it scales off if laid otherwise than as in the quarry bed. The basement story of the old state-house is of limestone, which has crumbled very badly, and the material has not been used in any other structures. Brown sandstone from Newark, Essex county, New Jersey, was employed to some extent in some of the Yale College buildings. For foundations and underpinnings trap and Kast Haven sandstone are the materials used. Most of the streets are telfordized with trap from the Kast and West rocks. The sidewalks are but little paved with stone; the material used is North River blue-stone, with, in a few instances, mica-schist from Bolton, Connecticut. The curbstones are chiefly North River blue-stone, but granite has been used to a limited extent for the same purpose. 312 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. NEW LONDON, CONNECTICUT. New London is built on granite rocks. Stone for cellars, foundations, and underpinnings is quarried almost anywhere within the city limits. The whole of the walls of the large Catholic church, and of another large granite church building, are built of stone quarried on the sites of buildings, the stone for trimmings coming from one of the quarries at Groton. The surface stone in New London, and also in neighboring quarries, is striped in appearance, not uniform, some pieces being more variegated than others. The color varies also considerably, but is always the same shade of gray. Only 1 per cent. of the buildings is of stone, which is due simply to the question of first cost. Forts Trumbull and Griswold are built of granite from Groton or Millstone point. The streets are but little paved with stone, and the material used for this purpose is the rectangular blocks of Groton granite. The sidewalks of the principal streets are paved with North River blue-stone and some Groton granite. The curbstones are Groton granite. NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA. The percentage of stone construction in New Orleans is very small. A large proportion of the houses are built of wood. The streets were all paved before the late war. There is one building, situated in the southern part of the city, entirely of rough-hewn stone from Sainte Genevieve. The custom-house is nearly all built of Quincy granite. Another building, on the corner of Royal and Canal streets, is built mostly of granite. A monument to General Robert E. Lee is now in course of construction ; the base is of Georgia granite; the foundation on piles, and transverse timbers in concrete; the shaft is of Knoxville, Tennessee, gray marble; and this latter material is very highly esteemed here. The few stone fronts are of Westchester, New York, snowflake marble and Sainte Genevieve limestone; a good deal of the latter material was formerly used. The chief material now used for fronts is iron; the amount of stone used for purposes of construction in New Orleans since the war is very inconsiderable. The Westchester limestone was considerably employed before the war, and also the Sainte Genevieve limestone, for tombs and fronts; at present a great deal of brick is used and stuccoed. The use of artificial stone in buildings and pavements is increasing. The stone used for ornamental purposes is usually Italian marble, with some Vermont marble. Some Quincy granite was formerly brought to the city and used for curbstones, flagging, and purposes of that nature; as it was usually brought as ballast in ships, the expense attending its use was inconsiderable. The water is so near the surface in New Orleans that it is impossible to have stone foundations; the customary way is to lay thick planks transversely and to place the brick immediately on them; they are sometimes creosoted, but usually last well below water. This system of foundations is considered better and less expensive than driving piles. The sewers consist of stone-faced gutters, through which the water passes every night from the river to the lake; 221,760 feet, or 42 miles, of blue-flint banquettes; 42,240 feet, or 8 miles, slate-stone banquettes; 15,840 feet, or 3 miles, Schillinger artificial stone; in all, 279,840 feet, or 53 miles, of stone banquettes. The following is a statement of the number of miles of stone street pavement: 113,520 feet, or 214 miles, of Quincy granite square-block pavement; 15,840 feet, or 3 miles, of other square-block pavement; in all, 129,360 feet, or 244 miles. The greater part of the street pavement is of cobble-stone, brought as ballast; 42 miles of sidewalk pavement are of North River blue-stone; 7 miles of slate. NEWPORT, RHODE ISLAND. The materials most used in the better class of stone construction in Newport are Connecticut brownstone and Newport granite. Fort Adams is built of Westerly and Fall River granite, together with some of the local slate. The macadamized Telford road is much used in Newport and the stone employed is the local granite. The foundations and underpinnings are built of Newport granite; the streets are but little paved with stone, and the material used is cobble-stones from Block island and from Nova Scotia. Asphalt manufactured at Providence is much used for street paving. The sidewalks in the business portions of the city are paved with Hudson River flags and asphalt. The curbstones are Hudson River blue-stone and Fall River granite. NEWTON, MASSACHUSETTS. The city of Newton includes Newton, Newton Center, Newton Upper Falls, Newton Lower Falls, Newton Valley, West Newton, and Auburndale. Of the stone buildings enumerated three are churches, three private residences, and one mill; one church built of Ohio sandstone was rebuilt from the old Chauncey Street church, Boston. The material for foundations and underpinnings is granite obtained from the bowlders found in the vicinity, with some Westford granite. The streets are not paved with stone; avery few of the sidewalks are paved with Westford granite, with curbs of the same material. = STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. | 313 NEW YORK CITY AND ENVIRONS. By Dr. ALEXIS A. JULIEN. City. : County. State. Population. GWE Y OK CUbV ccna eran am «cea den Sele eneci sepia r= ame ee sie ams de -ainie ws acide sensm rons asinine Nowe York site. «costseusnach New Yorks: 23-2 ssseweasece 1, 206, 590 Brooklyn, including Williamsburg and Long Island City ...........-.-...-..-.--.---+----- Kanga ssaote Sete cecesn tease baeeree Cee rere, ae ep mer 583, 806 ReaRIOLOU TOP Om (SLAUOMUIS LAIN) caer mates aiee mie ae sles he ea aiden Ae Ceainale ae mata) ca sins 3 a abs RAChMONC sence. seule. omen hiee ek C0sac eee aceceaneees 40, 000 Jersey City, including Hudson City, Bergen City, Bayonne, and Greenville -.-...-..... feel) FRUMBOIER: coe ee eee cee New Jersey.2=-222--5-6-.-22- 120, 728 Hoboken, including West Hoboken, town of Union, and Weehawken..-...--..-- peteieeteus Hrudsonise! see 5a. bre) ees Sel ee GO eee Ee 30, 999 This district embraces the principal suburbs of the great metropolis, although the crowded trains and boats which constantly leave all the railroad stations and docks, especially in the morning and evening, point to the outer ring of suburban cities and villages, in the Hudson River counties, on Long island and in New Jersey, whose construction and enlargement chiefly depend for supply of material upon the stone- and brick-yards of New York island. The statistics embodied have been obtained from many sources, partly by direct counting of houses from street to street, etc., partly by the issue of circulars, and partly by personal application to stone dealers, stone-yards, ete. The courteous consideration with which,in general, my inquiries have been received calls for my special acknowledgment and thanks to a large number of persons, of whom I ought perhaps specially to name the following: James Wells, insurance agent, 167 Broadway; William E. Midgley, assistant secretary New York and Boston Insurance Company, Howard building, 176 Broadway; J. H. Langford & Co., insurance agents, 10 Pine street; the New York Board of Fire Underwriters; F. Collingwood, engineer in charge of New York approach, New York and Brooklyn bridge; David Acker, deputy commissioner of department of buildings, Brooklyn; James A. Baker, clerk of village of Edgewater, Staten island; J. Rk. Wardlaw, clerk, etc., Edgewater, Staten island; Miller & Simonson, West New Brighton, Staten island; John H. Cordes, real estate agent, 163 Harrison avenue, Brooklyn; Gill & Baird, John Vesey, Andrew Mills, New England Granite Works, Gillie & Walker, the Bay of Fundy Quarry Company, D. Hotaling, Brander, Boyd & Hutcheon, and Browne, McAllister & Co. In compliance with my request for specimens of stone, trimmed in accordance with the directions of the building-stone department of the census, many such specimens have been sent to the National Museum at Washington, sometimes with a duplicate intended for the American Museum of Natural History in this city. For these we are specially indebted to the following firms, so far as I have been notified: New England Granite Works, James Morgan & Co., the Bay of Fundy Quarrying Company, and Browne, McAllister & Co. My report is naturally divided into three parts: I. The buildings of New York and adjacent cities, etc., their numbers, and common materials. II. The building stones of these cities, described in some detail, their localities, and examples of edifices constructed of each variety. Public buildings and improvements, with description of materials employed ; materials of pavements and roofs; market prices of building stones. III. Durability of building stones in this district; agents of destruction; elements of strength and durability ; methods of trial; means of protection and preservation. (This will form the subject of another chapter, and will be found on pages 364 to 395. With a field so broad, and with imperfect sources of information, my report can hardly be free from errors and deficiencies; but every effort has been made to avoid them so far as time and opportunity have permitted. I.—_THE BUILDINGS OF NEW YORK AND ADJACENT CITIES; THEIR NUMBERS AND COMMON MATERIALS. It may be as well to state here that the published maps used by the insurance companies, in which the position and approximately the material of each building are supposed to be laid down, are far from accurate. Not only have thé additions and removals of buildings been in some cases imperfectly represented, but on many maps little attempt seems to have beer made to exhibit the nature of the material (¢. ¢., of the faces) of the buildings, whether brick or stone. It has been necessary to correct these points, for the purpose of the census, by personal examination of many districts. - The building statistics have been arranged (Table I) to indicate the exact materials of construction in each city, and in an approximate way, the number of buildings erected for special purposes and the selection of materials employed for them. These figures are almost entirely derived from personal inspection and actual counting of the buildings in the several districts. The city of New York comprises an area of 24,893 acres, which may be divided into three great districts, viz: 1. District of wholesale business houses, comprising the entire area of the island south of the line of Canal and Rutgers streets, from the North (Hudson) river to the East river; also the buildings along the line of Broadway up to Fourteenth street. 314 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. 2. District of small stores and tenements, comprising the area north of the line of Canal and Rutgers streets, and east of the Bowery and Third avenue, up to the Harlem river; also, the entire Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth wards, up to the northern boundary of the city at the Yonkers line. 3. District of large stores and residences, comprising the area north of the line of Canal street, and west of the Bowery and Third avenue, up to the Harlem river at Spuyten Duyvil. In the city of Brooklyn the lines are much less sharply and easily drawn; however, three districts may be distinguished : | 1. District of warehouses, tenements, etc., comprising wards Nos. 2, 4, 5, and 12, and portions of Nos. 1 and 6; i. e., the area bounded by the following line: East river, Hudson avenue to Willoughby avenue; Willoughby avenue to Fulton street; Fulton street to Furman street; Furman street to Atlantic avenue; Atlantic avenue to Hicks street; Hicks street to Cole street; Cole street to Clinton street; Clinton street to Rush street; Rush street to Gowanus bay; along shore of Gowanus bay; Buttermilk channel to Fulton street, East river. 2. District of residences and small stores, comprising the rest of the city, including Williamsburg. 3. District of small residences, comprising the suburb called Long Island City (population 17,117). The statistics of Jersey City, Hudson county, New Jersey, were gathered in two divisions : 1. Jersey City, including Hudson City and Bergen City, La Fayette, and Communipaw. 2. Bayonne and Greenville. The statistics of Hoboken, Hudson county, New Jersey, have been gathered under three heads: 1. Hoboken proper. 2. West Hoboken and town of Union. 3. Weehawken. It has been thought desirable to make this subdivision of the statistics, in reference to these small and, in many cases, at present unimportant places, in view of the enormous growth by which they are liable to be affected in the vicinity of the great metropolis. Finally, as a matter of general interest, and for the purpose of proper comparison with the other great cities of the world, all the statistics above mentioned have been summed up under the head of New York city and its suburbs. It may be here noted that a general improvement in the character of the building materials employed is constantly in progress in all these cities, so that the number and proportion of stone buildings have in many cities been sensibly increased since the year 1880; to which date all the statistics in this report, so far as possible, have been made to conform. A consideration of this table presents the following chief points of interest: NEW YORK. Stone enters into the construction, chiefly as fronts, of 11.6 per cent. of all the buildings of the city. Of the entire number of stone buildings, 89.4 per cent. consist of sandstone, and the several varieties of stone occur in the following proportion: Per cent. Brown sandstone 225.502. 5 se comics be Sere ee ee ee eT ee ret ae ae eT a Te ea ee 78.6 Nova Scotia and Ohio sandstones se ccecne concen ee Be cee ee ae ee ee ae ene ne eee 10.6 Marble... 2 wo cn ceiwcvis wale eee tec ces ee Ee te cc en ee eee rs ees Cnt eee 7.9 Gramitie oo. 5 2ek sdk ssc Sein pctowd See ee ee ee ot Re NL oes 1.8 Gineiss .. 2 os conc cnccd es setae ees eee cere reese Oe er ae a kek. eae ee 0.9 Foreign sandstone... .... sevececscne sncnus bers aceneecuenbeme emuibectlicesis feces acs coke at ee ee Out Blue-stone and limestone. 225 to ore ae ce ee ee eee Jone noes wee oeecrte ates 0.1 The materials of general construction in the city occur in the following proportion to the total ‘number of buildings: Per cent. Brick, terra-cotta, stu6éc0, O66. aca soos sade cade eens Heguaneweeegpeceens Dod ces cee aie eee ated 63. 2 Frame, ¢. ¢., wooden in part, filled in with brick. /.<-< ssJcsg ede cae cece mesic cestc cece cee ee neeene re ereee bce 24.3 BtONG 22. . soe epee ewes n cceuce meses bucme cee a naemee cas cei i aie tei he ete oe ae aaa Ee 11.6 TrOW ones os bow cloe who fa loosie wade Fee ee SRE a Ae eee ee 0.9 In the business district brick predominates (77 per cent.), and most of the marble, and somewhat less than half of the iron buildings occur. The remaining iron buildings are mostly found on the large business streets in the other districts. . The tenement district still consists of frame buildings to the extent of 31.7 per cent., nearly half of the entire number in the city. Stone constitutes only 5.5 per cent. of the fronts, though largely employed in the trimmings ; and iron and marble are rare. Brick somewhat predominates (62.6 per cent.). In the residence district brick also predominates (60.9 per cent.), but stone is largely used (14.6 per cent.), teluding 70 per cent. of all the stone buildings of the city. However, the district comprises, in its unsettled and STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 315 partially-built areas, the greater part (55 per cent.) of the wooden buildings of the city. Here most of the stucco buildings occur, but their number (166) is very small, particularly in comparison with their abundance in the metropolis of England. BROOKLYN. Stone is here employed in a proportion (9 per cent.) a little less than that of New York (11.6 per cent.), and in much less variety, the Connecticut brownstone predominating (95.7 per cent.) in the entire number of stone buildings. This stone is employed altogether for the residences throughout the city. Very few iron buildings occur, but there are over three times as many stucco fronts as there are in New York. The frame buildings constitute half of the entire number (50.9 per cent.), especially predominating in the outskirts, as in Long Island City (80.5 per cent). STATEN ISLAND. Stone enters in a very small proportion into the construction of fronts of buildings on this island (5 per cent.), though it is commonly employed for trimmings, walls of inclosures, and other masonry. Brick is largely employed, especially in the towns and villages (9.5 per cent.), but the common material is wood (90 per cent). JERSEY CITY. In the suburbs of this city the proportions of stone and brick employed are very similar to those on Staten island. But in Jersey City proper the predominance of frame houses is much less, the buildings amounting to 1.9 per cent., and the brick to 25.9 per cent. The selection of the dark trap-stone from the heights behind the main city for the construction of many fronts or of entire buildings is a peculiar local feature. HOBOKEN. The materials of construction in the suburbs of this city, upon the top of the trap ridge, etc., are similar in proportion to those on Staten island and in the suburbs of Jersey City. In Hoboken proper the proportion of stone buildings is large (3.9 per cent.), and the brick buildings constitute over half (52.7 per cent.) of the entire number. THE METROPOLIS. Finally, in regard to the whole district, it will be seen from the table that stone enters into the construction of the fronts of 9.1 per cent. of all the buildings of this city, though it is employed otherwise to an enormous extent for foundations, trimmings, walls, copings, stoops, etc. I have not been able to obtain sufficient data for the estimation of the entire import of stone into the city; but some idea of the vast expenditure involved in the construction of our buildings may be derived from the reports of the superintendents of the building departments of New York and Brooklyn, and have suggested the following by a writer in the Am. Arch. and Building News, 1878, Vol. ILI, page 71: It would seem from it that the average cost of a new building in New York city has been $13,741, and that with some additions of work, not formerly reported to the superintendent, the aggregate sum spent in adding to the plant and material on Manhattan island has reached the enormous sum of about $350,000,000. From the annual reports of the committee on the fire patrol to the New York board of fire underwriters, of 1881 and 1882, the statistics given below have been extracted : Number of buildings in New York city south of Fifty-ninth street: : Soutiots Canglestreouswesn Ole DlOAd Wa Varna seem serena stele leans ae nel wcle se sleet ecciess cas ina cece. 3, 555 South of Canal and Rutgers streets, east of Broad way.....-.. 2-20 eee cee ce ceccceecnccee ce cncces 6, 998 10, 553 Lower district, south of Canal street: Between Canal and Fourteenth streets, west of Broad way..--.. ...22- seecee coc cee ne ee nee nee nee 10, 219 Between Canal and Fourteenth streets, east of Broadway ....-.-- sscces cecece woes cecees cece ne nee 16, 481 -——. 26,700 Lower central district, between Canal and Fourteenth streets: Between Fourteenth and Fifty-ninth streets, west of Fifth avenue..............-. 2200-2 222-5 20, 559 Between Fourteenth and Fifty-ninth streets, east of Fifth avenue ...... 2.20. .2e eee eee ee ene nee 13, 256 33, 815 Upper central district, between Fourteenth and Fifty-ninth streets: North of Fitty-ninth street, weet of Fifth;avenue. 1... - 22. = cee cnne cece ccc ccc cen sacs cues enes 6, 372 NoreH. of Bitcy-ninth street, east of Fifth avenue, ies os. 5 ook wc ccc tcrees ceceneonsascaenes sce esn 12, 374 Upper district, between Fifty-ninth street and Harlem river............---- naacnd anda anoeetaenesece ign 18, 746 New York city, Battery to Harlem river............. RRMe ss sien tnanensaas wees udeocunadapqudes uusnshasvces 89, 814 316 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The area comprised by the enumeration does not include that of the Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth wards: north of the Harlem river, and the total, therefore, falls below that of the last column of the table given on page 329. The materials of construction are reported as follows: . Brick, with stone trimmings and in part with stone facings jl as cave tacee cry ise em kee enn fo Aen eee = Gee 64, 783 Brick and frame. .--..-------- 2-22 ee een eee eee tee ce ene eee enn ee cent tenn reer n cee e ne cece n een eeee 3, 616 Frame... .----- 22 ene nnn ee nnn een eee ce nnn cece tenn ween meee cen eee cence emcee en www won pee nne cone 21, 415 Total 22 vews woc.n cbc bb nn Sea ce dae ydiec dis oes anise clen(sleeie sic mines) mie Vials = = Oleigia dian la pela eat abe seine wa S ela ain a'aioi~ 89, 814 Of this number the stores amount to over 5,300, whose value, at an average of but $100,000 each, might be estimated at $53,000,000. Another enumeration of the number of buildings in New York city is now being carried on by committees of the fire department, but will not probably be completed for many months. IL—THE BUILDING STONES. A. VARIETIES, LOCALITIES, AND EDIFICES. The series of buildings employed in New York and adjacent cities is rich and varied, comprising materials derived by water carriage from most of the sea-ports of New Brunswick and New England, and from many points along the Hudson river, and by railway from the interior of all the New England and middle states, even as far west as Indiana. The only careful description of our American building stones yet made is found in the report of Dr. J. 8. Newberry on the building stones displayed at the exposition at Philadelphia in 1876, and it will suffice for the object of this report to quote freely from the descriptions of varieties there given. It may be also remarked that from time to time various building stones have been brought to this market from numerous quarries of limited extent which have soon become exhausted; e. g., the granite from Dix island. So large is the number of building stones, and so scattered are the sources of information concerning them, that some of subordinate importance may very likely not be included in the following list. In most cases prominent examples are given of the use of stone in the larger or public buildings of the city, both as ashlar for fronts and as the trimmings of buildings mainly constructed of brick. The materials most commonly in favor for facings of the fronts of our buildings consist of red pressed brick, which is glaring and offensive to the eye; white marbles, which are at first too bright, but soon assume a dirty cream-colored tinge of discoloration; drab or olive-gray freestones, which rapidly become discolored by blackish- gray stains on fronts exposed to the north and east, and brown freestones or brownstones, very generally used for the ashlared fronts of residences. This latter stone presents rather a somber and cheerless aspect under a cloudy sky on a winter day, and imparts a great monotony to the appearance of our cross-streets ; nevertheless, under the bright sky and brilliant atmosphere of many days of spring and winter, and above all of the summer in New York, it is not trying to the eye nor glaring like brick or marble or the light-colored granites and freestones. The following details have been gathered partly from my own observation and that of my assistants, but for many particulars, especially in regard to examples of construction, I have been indebted to various persons, and I have not been able to verify them all: FREESTONE (sandstone).—Shepody mountain, Hopewell, Albert, New Brunswick. Pale olive-green, and of medium fineness; uniform texture and tint, and of good strength; is a durable and serviceable stone, generally admired for its color (J. S. Newberry). Derived from the Millstone Grit formation. Examples of construction. (See Freestone of Dorchester, New Brunswick.) FREESTONE (sandstone).—Mary’s Point, Albert, New Brunswick. Colors, salmon, olive, and dark brown. Derived from the Lower Carboniferous formation. Examples of construction: The Reformed church, corner of Vifty-seventh street and Madison avenue; the fence surrounding Central park, the bridges, fountain, basin, and most of the freestone masonry in the park; also the similar masonry in Prospect park, in Brooklyn. I*REESTONE (sandstone).— Wood Point, Westmoreland county, New Brunswick. Color, dark brown. Examples - of construction. (See below.) FREESTONE (sandstone).—Sackville, New Brunswick. Derived from the Lower Carboniferous formation. Examples of construction. (See below.) ‘ FREESTONE (sandstone)—Harvey, New Brunswick. Derived from the Lower Carboniferous formation. Examples of construction. (See below.) FREESTONE (sandstone).—Dorchester, New Brunswick. Derived from the Lower Carboniferous formation. Examples of construction: Stoops and part of trimmings of Normal college, Sixty-eighth street and Lexington avenue; building of New York Historical Society, corner of Second avenue and Eleventh street; part of the wall and bridges in Central park. Trimmings of the Academy of Music, Montague street, Brooklyn. FREESTONE (sandstone)—Weston, New Brunswick., Derived from the Lower Carboniferous formation. Examples of construction: Part of the wall and bridges in Central park. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. O17 FREESTONE (sandstone).—Kennetcook, Hants county, Nova Scotia. Colors, olive and blue. Derived from the Lower Carboniferous formation. It is also used for grindstones. Examples of construction. (See below.) General examples of the construction in the “ Nova Scotia” stone: Church in Twenty-fifth street, east of Fifth avenue; hotel Bristol, Forty-second street, near Fifth avenue; churches: Madison avenue, near Fifty-seventh street ; Yourteenth street, west of First avenue; Fourteenth street, west of Sixth avenue; Fifteenth street, east of Third avenue; Sixth avenue, near Fifteenth street ; Twenty-first street, east of Second avenue; Thirty-fourth street, east of Seventh avenue; Forty-second street, west of Seventh avenue; Lexington avenue, near Forty-sixth street ; Lexington avenue, near Sixty-third street; Seventy-sixth street, east of Third avenue; Highty-ninth street, east of Madison avenue; bank, Broadway, Brooklyn. FREESTONE (sandstone).—East Longmeadow and Springfield, Massachusetts. Derived from the Triassic formation. FREESTONE (brown sandstone or brownstone).—Portland, Connecticut. ‘Some varieties are laminated in structure and liable to exfoliate when used as ashlars and set on edge.” This stone imparts a somber monotony of tone to the architecture of our cities. Color light to dark reddish-brown, inclining to chocolate ; texture varying widely in fineness, but usually coarser than the similar freestone from Belleville, New Jersey. Examples of construction are abundant in the residences throughout our cities, e. g., on the northwest corner of Fifty-seventh street and Fifth avenue: Academy of Design, in Brooklyn, Montague street, west of Fulton. FREESTONE (sandstone).—Middletown, Connecticut. Derived from the Triassic formation. Examples of construction: Trinity church, corner of Clinton and Montague streets, and the Methodist Episcopal church, on northwest corner of Clinton and Pacific streets, in Brooklyn. RED SANDSTONE.—Potsdam, New York. The oldest of all the sandstones, belonging to the Potsdam period of the Lower Silurian formation. Color, a warm reddish brown, slightly mottled and striped with white; structure, decidedly laminated, in thin parallel sheets, often crossed obliquely by obscure fissure lines of lighter color. It is quite refractory, and has been used for lining of iron furnaces. Examples of construction: Quoins, trimmings, and basement of residence in Fifth avenue, near Thirty-fifth street; dressings, string-courses, ete., of building of Columbia college, Forty-ninth street and Madison avenue. BROWN SANDSTONE.—Oswego, New York. Example of construction: Part of first story of Masonic temple, Twenty-third street and Sixth avenue. FREESTONE (brownstone).—Newark, New Jersey. Examples of construction: Churches on corner of Forty- eighth and Fifty-fifth streets and Fifth avenue; the synagogue, on Fifth avenue; church on corner of Madison avenue and Fifty-fifth street; Trinity Church school, on Church street; Trinity chapel, on Houston street; trimmings of buildings at Thirty-second street and Broadway, ete. FREESTONE (sandstone or ‘“‘ brownstone”).—Belleville, New Jersey. Derived from the Triassic formation. Colors, brownish-gray, light brown, light reddish-brown, and light orange- brown. Generally finer grained and more compact than the stone from Connecticut. Examples of construction: House on northeast corner of Fiftieth street and Madison avenue; Church of the Messiah, northwest corner of Thirty-fourth street and Park avenue; trimmings of many residences in Madison avenue, ¢é. g.,on northwest corners of Sixty-seventh, Sixty-eighth, and Sixty-ninth streets, etc.; Baptist Church of the Epiphany, southeast corner Madison avenue and Sixty-fourth street; two shades of this stone presented in the church and chapel, Madison Avenue Methodist Episcopal church, northeast corner Madison avenue and Sixtieth street; Presbyterian church, corner Fifty-fifth street and Fifth avenue; Jewish temple, corner of Fifty-fifth street and Lexington avenue, with trimmings of Ohio stone; trimmings of Harney building, 16 Wall street; Seventh Ward bank; Mills building, corner Broad street and Exchange place, and many bridges in Central park; Fort La Fayette; houses on corner of Fifty-seventh and Ninety-third streets and Fifth avenue, and corner of Twenty-eighth street and Madison avenue. FREESTONE (brown sandstone).—Little Falls, New Jersey. Derived from the Triassic formation. Example of construction: Trinity church, Broadway and Wall street. FREESTONE (brownstone).—Base of Palisades, New Jersey. Derived from the Triassic formation. Example of construction: Part of the wall in Central park. FREESTONE (brownstone).—Hummelstown, Pennsylvania. This has been largely used in Philadelphia, and is said to be an excellent variety. Example of construction: Building on Fifth avenue, above lorty-first street. FREESTONE (sandstone).—Ambherst, northern Ohio. Belonging to the Lower Carboniferous or Waverly series. Fine-grained, homogeneous sandstone, light drab in color, made up chiefly of grains of quartz; color, permanent. An excellent building stone. Example of construction: Building corner of Barclay street and Broadway, erected twenty years ago. FREESTONE (sandstone).—East Cleveland, Ohio. Color, drab and dove-colored. Derived from the Waverly and Coal Measures. FREESTONE (sandstone).—Independence, Ohio. Color, light drab, and coarser than the stone of Amherst. Derived from the Waverly and Coal Measures. FREESTONE (sandstone).—Berea, Ohio. Derived from the Waverly and Coal Measures. Not quite so fine grained as the Amherst; alight bluish-gray, generally a strong and durable stone, sometimes liable to discoloration O15 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. by decomposition of pyrites. Examples of construction : New York Clipper building; block on corner of Cliff and Fulton streets; Church of Transfiguration; west side of Sixth avenue, above Twenty-seventh street; Decker’s: building, in Union square; churches: One hundred and ninth street, near Madison avenue; One hundred and sixteenth street, near Third avenue; South Fifth street, near Canal; Bond building, on Broadway, next Trinity building; front of Rossmore hotel, Forty-first street and Broadway; trimmings of house, northwest corner of Forty- third street and Madison avenue; Williamsburg Savings bank, corner Broadway and Fifth street, Brooklyn, eastern district (with basement and pilasters of Quincy granite); Berea hall, Brooklyn, ete. BuENA VISTA FREESTONE (sandstone).—Portsmouth, Scioto county, Ohio. This belongs to the lower part of the Waverly series. Itis finer grained and less siliceous than that from northern Ohio, “and has generally a more decided bluish tint when freshly quarried, but becomes lighter and more yellowish on exposure.” It varies in. color from brown, dove-colored, banded and mottled red and yellow to black. Though some varieties of this stone are liable to stain and exfoliate, from the oxidation of the contained iron, as a general rule it is- an excellent and very handsome stone, taking rank with the best and handsomest of the freestones of the country.—J. 8. N. FREESTONE (sandstone).—Waverly, southern Ohio. Derived from the lower part of the Waverly series. Within a few years a considerable quantity of stone, which is known in New York by the name of “Carlisle” or “Scotch” stone, has been brought into New York as ballast. It is not the English stone known by the former name in England, but comprises three varieties of Scotch sandstone, here called merely by the name of the English port at which the stone is shipped, Carlisle. Each stone will be separately considered : 1. CORSEHILI. FREESTONE (sandstone).—Corsehbill, near Annan, in Dumfries county, about 60 miles west of Glasgow, Scotland. Derived from the new red sandstone. Color, dark red to bright pink; close grained; weathers. well, works easily, fit for ashlar, and well adapted for carving and for columns. Examples of construction: Trimmings of Murray Hill hotel, Park avenue and Forty-first street; stables on south side of Sixty-second street,. between Park and Madison avenues; house corner of Fifty-seventh street and Fourth avenue ; mantels in residence corner of Fifty-second street and Fifth avenue; trimmings of the Berkshire building, northwest corner of Madison: avenue and Fifty-second street. 2, BALLOCHMILE FREESTONE (sandstone).—Ballochmile, Forfarshire, Scotland. A little darker in color tham the Corsehill stone. Derived from the Carboniferous formation. Examples of construction: Two houses in west Seventy-eighth street; house in Fifty-seventh street and Seventh avenue. 3. RED FREESTONE (sandstone).—Gatelaw bridge, 30 miles from Ballochmile, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. About equal in quality and perhaps superior in beauty to the Corsehill stone, but much superior to the Ballochmile stone. Example of construction: The only building constructed of this stone is the house on southeast corner of Forty-second street and Fifth avenue. RED SANDSTONE.—Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. Example of construction: Building in Sixty-eighth street, east of Third avenue. BLUE-STONE (graywacke).—Albany, Delaware, and Greene counties, New York. The Greene County stone is- obtained from some heavier beds in the Portage group, along the base of the Catskill mountains, and is shipped at. Malden, on the Hudson river. It is one of the very best flagging stones in the world. It may be quarried in slabs of almost any desired thickness or dimensions, . the different layers varying much in this respect. The natural surfaces of these strata are comparatively smooth, and form a good walk without dressing. The stone comes from the Hamilton group of the Devonian system, and forms a belt of outcrop extending from Kingston on the Hudson to Port Jervis on the Erie railroad, and thence southward. It is a fine-grained sandstone, generally dark blue in color—whence its name—and is very strong and durable. When ground or sawed it forms a very smooth surface, and yet one that always has a tooth or grain which holds the foot well, whether wet or dry. In this respect sandstones are much superior to granites and. limestones, which become slippery and dangerous when wet.—J. 8. N. Examples of construction: Part of the bridges and wall in Central park. MONTROSE STONE (blue-stone).—Kingston, Ulster county, New York. comescioncsseese==s= emi] duce ccausis/=esner 1 50 Mount Waldo, Maing)... 52. c.cte asics scvctenwadecacevicnocnpscoppeinses hcl sninn sain ea ann coum ee hehe ci Lesa a een eens 60 Glark's island, Miaine 22% Sok ae cc's acct sm ea nla em me le ee me pe | 75 Spruce Mead, Manes Js.0.cauisem ecient a aieien gies xh cae atin p's ol \siabe a wey bile metal eet ol ee tae a a tran Cate ae 60 Round Pond, Maine -.....ccc. cc sdescsiscccostiowcccwscescceees see cents ces ep swcws sae apenas adnate eal aaah eee meee 1 50 | For stones 20 feet and under. Granite. (hammered) senate -|ecucescecene Q. A. Gillmore. HV DSOn Mosseeteee ence sea ce Burst withont cracking; whiter and better variety....|............ Do. Se eae ale ale alata tS ni slnlaleg mim sIeieisia/=|| ..-....---- No. DSO erences eee per cent. Je Se be Se a pad te lle Bs Ds ea Oe ee ee ee es er 336 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. NORTH ADAMS, MASSACHUSETTS. The materials used in the principal stone structures of this city are limestone from North Adams and quartzite from Clarksburg, Massachusetts. The foundations and underpinnings are of local limestone and Clarksburg quartzite, with some blue-stone. The Catholic church and two factories are built of limestone from the local quarries. Dr. Babbits’ residence and Mr. Pendeman’s’office are two small edifices built of quartzite; as this contains a little pyrites some of the blocks are stained. The new Episcopal church in course of construction will be of blue-stone and pressed brick, with Longmeadow and Ohio sandstone trimmings over the windows and doors. The steps to the chancel will be of marble and the interior trimmings over the windows of terra-cotta. The railroad depot buildings and most of the churches are bnilt of brick. The Hoosac tunnel is at this place, but the material used for archways is brick. The streets are paved with stone, the chief part of such pavement being on Eagle street, where cobble-stones are used for the purpose. The sidewalk on one block in front of the Wilson house is paved with North River blue-stone. Many of the sidewalks are paved with concrete; the curbs are of blue-stone, limestone, and quartzite. NORTHAMPTON, MASSACHUSETTS. There are but two buildings in Northampton entirely constructed of stone, and there are two others with stone fronts. The material used for the better class of stone construction is sandstone from Longmeadow, Massachusetts, and brownstone from Portland, Connecticut. One of the Congregational churches is built of the former material and the Smith Charities building of the latter. The materials used for foundations and underpinnings are sandstone and granite from quarries within the limits of the town, as both these formations are here exposed. One or two hundred feet of the pavement in front of the court-house is of thinly bedded sandstone from Smith’s ferry ; these blocks frequently exhibit rows of “bird tracks” upon them. They are now very much worn and the tracks are becoming obliterated. There is a quarry of coarse sandstone very near the Mount Tom station, 3 miles south of the main village, which furnishes stone for ordinary puposes of construction in the neighborhood. The streets are not paved with stone, with the exception of the space fronting the court-house already mentioned, and the sidewalk pavement is mostly of asphalt and brick; curbstones are of granite. The piers of the bridge across the Connecticut river are of sandstone from neighboring quarries. OGDENSBURG, NEW YORK. Limestone from the quarries near this city is of good quality, blue-black in color; and there are some examples of excellent stone work built of it, including range work and ashlar. Some of the structures of this limestone have Potsdam sandstone trimmings. ‘These two materials when used together make a good harmony of colors, and the effect is pleasing. In some portions of these quarries it is necessary to use care in selecting the material, as parts of it contain iron. Some of the Ohio sandstones in the structures here have discolored, while others have retained their original appearance. There are several stone grist-mills in the city, two of the number being trimmed with sandstone from Potsdam and Hammond, Saint Lawrence county; the others are trimmed with native limestone. There are some heavy bridge abutments all constructed of limestone from the quarries within the city limits, and the breakwater is constructed of the same material. The streets and roadways are macadamized with limestone from the local quarries, and a few are paved with Potsdam sandstone; but few of the sidewalks are paved with stone, and the material used is the Potsdam sandstone. The curbstones are of Potsdam stone and limestone from Chaumont. ORANGE, NEW JERSEY. The cities of South and East Orange may be said to be noted for the size and elegance of their church edifices. They are all substantial buildings; several of them are brick with sandstone trimmings. Sandstone is largely. used in cemetery walls, in walls surrounding lawns and other inclosures, in steps, house-trimmings, and in cellars and foundations. Nearly all of it has been obtained from the quarries in the faces of First mountain, 2 miles west of the town of Orange. The durability of the stone has been tested in the First Presbyterian church, erected in 1513, and also in some of the old walls in farm-houses of the surrounding country. The town is also noted for its Telford or macadamized roadways, in common with all of Essex county. Many miles of the best roads found in. the United States are in this county; they are made of trap-rock from the large quarries in the eastern face of Orange or First mountain, a few miles west of Orange, which are all under the management of the Essex Road board. (a) The following is a list of prominent stone structures in Orange, with materials from which they were constructed : Saint Mark’s P. E. church, Grace P. BE. church, First Presbyterian church, Central Presbyterian church, Minn Avenue church, South Orange Presbyterian church, all of Orange sandstone; Seuth Orange P. EH. church, trap- al Se Se ee ee a See Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, 1871. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 337 rock with sandstone trimmings, both from local quarries; Orange Valley Congregational church, trap-rock with sandstone trimmings; South Orange Baptist church, Ohio sandstone; Saint Mark’s P. BE. aiuneh and school, Mr. J. G. Barker’s Peeidenite. Mr. Davis Collamore’s house! and Mr. Tome’s private residence, all of trap- rock and sandstone, from local quarries. There is no stone street pavement, excepting the road-bed of ‘the First Street horse-car road, a road which is paved partly with rectangular blocks of trap-rock and partly with cobble-stones. The streets wid roadways are pretty generally macadamized with trap-rock. The sidewalks are largely paved with stone, and the material used for this purpose is the North River blue-stone, from Ulster county, New York. Curbs are of the same material. OSWEGO, NEW YORK. The Oswego gray sandstone quarried in the vicinity is a good building material, except when set on edge in the exterior walls of buildings, in which case it flakes off by the action of dampness and frost. It is not suitable for sidewalk paving because its laminated structure causes it to separate into thin layers, when it easily breaks up under the action of foot-wear. Limestone from Chaumont, Jefferson county, New York, was used in the piers and abutments of the highway and railway bridges crossing fe Oswego river in this city; it was also the principal stone used in the two dams across this river. oa> eae imam ce - a see jeanne es bose wot 1850--’60 eland'’s balding, Thin streeb. 0) ona: = <6s eines ose siaccansee doe saepee 1850-60 Cope'& Co.'s building; Market street <<... 5. 2. cscccciccaeeceecances 1850-’60 Thurlow Hughes. @:Co,,, Hitch streeta-- asd escesses cece ae sass ses === 1850-’60 Commercial Danks ie esd a a eeccciolscaddysercsas > ceee os clccscb' 1850-60 Philadelphia: National banks 22 Jacicc.cccawecvoe csc cbec-cac ences 1850-’60 American’ Sunday-School Umiones so. 2s. see aciseeieeosoed- anaes suns sa12 1850-’60 Hirsh National Hane wows seccaciseecisness anceacwee Laccmssta occas cicas 1865 Cape Ann, Massachusetts........-.-------- Provident Late Andy Lrnst PULLIN. 2-956 seen sane a etaw case See alee 1865 Quincy, Massachusetts...... ae At eae als Mean nfacturens! DAM joes ses corte ses Ua ae lcteraecwae oe cmblemamed. 1868 Eronch;shichards siCo 7s buildingicc- ice sacsccname ccceecletecncmc 1869 Pennsylvania Life and Trust Company building ..-...........-..-. 1870 Pennsylvania: Railroad Ofices. 225 sun csece. gs sce ees see eases aes 1870 Cape Ann and Fox island, Maine........... New Masonic temple (the porch is of Quincy granite) .............. 1872 Concord, New Hampshire........----.-.-.-- Presbyterian Board of Publication ....-. 2.2220... sccces seicaeccccee 1873 Westerly, Rhode Island...............-...- New York Mutual Life Insurance building.-..................---- 1875 Concord and: Richmond pe.cse..5ee ee Memorial Dalle se sarees same Saco oa sianeie cone alte soteten ete ne 1876 Cape Ann and Qnincys -cccsscasesecsees a4: hid p owayrlbraryiee tenes wes eee ccm ace enon caceceics eee ackinaca es 1876 Dix island and Richmond Preesscce aces ces -| i NOWEPOSt-OLCO 2. ose nse ¥e cacao toacn op cosebateaeicwansceeieedenceses Unfinished. Connecticut brownstone. ..-.. a aete aa aeee e aaa Moyamensing prison (east front).........---.-..0---5s-0-e2 dees ee e- 1835 SS. Peter and Paul’s Catholic cathedral (front)..........-...------- 1846 Saint: Markis: byes Church) 22, cameser ea. ot a. iesedeawassneasesem cmcctes 1849 Bank of Commerce)-....5..----- “SS CES EOS Eros ce aaacenace ee 1850 Bankon NorthvAmoerioa tees ees sseoas ac sacat ceesticc dense. deme tese se 1850 Girard Otel sacs aecue stnee sie eae se savior cas ck mangos ates se aaletaa 1850 OCS eochveben metres WEI 8 0s so ae el SSS ee EASE AA Seiad soca re 1853 A CAMEMY Ot MEURLON (ELIMITE S) Scas ohis elo sek «face need ras < c's 1855 Holy Urinity episcopal GHUTCN =. ...rsacesceaeceec dessa cusenaeescoe 1857 Mirsh BaptshehuLreno. sated .dscicscee ese cas ctcse se wunisdescedes ceases 1857 Paint Clement ppm t OnUrO Meas =6< cyan; onk's ses ects ones eds e2ececes 1859 HULEh, Dapuse CUOLO Maes o os ads ce ciae saisaenanieirem es cise aan ine nae 1863 Union: Leacue house (trimmings) .. 22 st. cccceeccetecnccncaeneseecncs 1864 Pictou sandstone from Nova Scotia and New | Harrison private residence.......-----.2---+ +++ 2-2 +e eee e eee ee 1851 Brunswick. SHArMlesHpsrobnars | DIOCK= sees ones dudecas tbs antisctatwsce ten ene cea 1858 Saraw Dime roes ClOcniCnN DlOCK i. o.. son co3sateds Ueiccka es secwan capes 1860 Continentalsnouel co opcis>-daloonnae'eccehenace esedsncas e see ve season 1860 1 342 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Material. Name of building. Datn OF Cit Marble from— Lee, Massachusetts. -2.250 52. cose anew Farmers’ and Mechanics’ bank ....-...22s20--------20-- connec enn ee 1854 Vermont.........--- seb ane cera aa scams | Harrah private residence...-.-------------------+--22222 ene e ee neene 1855 Third National bank... -.. 226-250-200 cccecs s censswwecnncsancesscnes= 1863 Homer & Collady block..-...-.--------0--- concen cennne coneeeenee-s 1866 Lee, Massachusetts....... 2-5-0 cen0.-- cee Dr. Jayne's private residence .. .-.-..---.-.s200 ceeeceeene- oe - neon 1867 Vermont =-saerecne = pMe a nok First division..........------ 16Y. 5 pounds. 5, 884, 973 4.41 5. 23 6. 04 1. 676 11. 529 150 63, 957 | 10, 840, 728 5. 85 7. 24 8. 64 2. 087 9, 758 171. 66 79, 239 13, 481, 081 6. 44 8. 08 9, 72 2. 224 9. 360 200 101, 674 | 17, 195, 713 7.14 9.12 11. 09 2. 383 8. 983 250 148, 298 Secon a divisiqieeee eee 167.8 pounds. 25, 019, 140 8. 35 10. 90 , 18.44 2. 607 8. 610 300 204, 273 ; 34, 411, 997 9. 54 12. 63 15. 73 2. 779 8. 452 343. 66 261, 191 | 43, 963, 655 10. 56 14.11 17. 66 2. 899 8. 417 350 272, 369 ( 45, 816, 912 8. 28 11.51 14, 73 2. 892 8. 481 400 366, 268 Boia atic ch. he Se 165. 8 pounds. 1 61, 385, 397 10. 09 13. 84 17. 60 2. 869 8. 902 450 470, 495 | 78, 666, 278 11. 76 16. 03 20. 30 2. 889 9. 190 500 _ 585, 476 l 97, 264, 244 18. 38 18. 02 22. 658 2. 928 9. 413 The mean pressure per square foot upon the lower joint is 18.02 tons, and the maximum pressure brought upon any square foot of the lowest joint under the action of the wind is 22.658 tons. The crushing weight of the marble, as determined by the board above mentioned, is 517 tons per square foot. Nearly 200 memorial blocks were sent by the different states of the Union, by corporations, lodges, societies, individuals, and foreign countries, to decorate the interior walls of the monument. Blocks of granite came from the various regions of New England, Virginia, Maryland, California, Minnesota; marble and limestone from Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Ohio, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Mississippi, and Canada: and sandstone from the Triassic brownstone quarries of Connecticut and New Jersey. The following are some of the stones received from foreign countries: A block from the tomb of Napoleon, island of St. Helena; block of Grecian marble from the temple of Esculapius, presented by the officers of the United States steam frigate Saranac; block from Foo-chow, China; lava from Mount Vesuvius; sandstone said to be from the original chapel built to William Tell in 1358, on lake Luzerne, Switzerland; red syenite (granite) from the Alexandrian library in Egypt; porphyritic biotite granite from the Swiss Confederation; gray biotite gneiss from the empire of Brazii; Grecian marble from the governor and commune of the islands of Paros and Naxos, Grecian archipelago; marble from the Ottoman empire; a block of peculiar and characteristic greenish stone from China: a highly-polished block of red granite from Bremen; Grecian marble from the kingdom of Greece; a head carved between two and three thousand years ago by ancient Egyptians for a temple erected in honor of Augustus, on the banks of the Nile, and set in a block of Italian marble. Some of the contributions from corporations, societies, and individuals in this country are of Italian marble. 360 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. In the following list will be found some of the principal stone structures in Washington and vicinity, with kinds of stone used in their construction : 1. ACQUIA CREEK SANDSTONE. Executive Mansion. Capitol building (old portion). Van Ness residence. City Hall foundation. Treasury building (old portion). Patent Office building (old portion). Van Ness mausoleum. 2. POTOMAC MICA-SCHIST. Foundation of Executive Mansion. Foundation of Treasury building. Foundation of Washington Monument. Chapel in Oak Hill cemetery. Georgetown College (new building). 3, SENECA SANDSTONE. Smithsonian Institution. Chapel at Soldiers’ Home. Chapel in Oak Hill cemetery (trimmings, front). ~ Department of Justice, formerly Freedman’s Bank. District jail. National Republican office, now Pension Office. School-house, Second and Potomac streets. Lincoln Hall. Cabin John’s bridge, parapets and coping. Memorial Lutheran church. Sub-basement south wing State, War, and Navy Department building. Center Market (foundations). 4. WESTCHESTER COUNTY, NEW YORK, MARBLE. E-street portion of the General Post: Office building. 5, COCKEYSVILLE, MARYLAND, MARBLE. Exterior walls of Washington Monument. Columns of the Capitol extension. Extension of Patent Office building. General Post-Office building (extension). Ascension church. Dormitory at Soldiers’ Home. 6. LEE, MASSACHUSETTS, MARBLE. Portion of the exterior walls of the Washington Monument. Capitol extension. 7. MAINE GRANITE. Interior of Washington Monument. Extension of Treasury building. Basement of new State Department building. Quadrangle of Patent Office building. 8. QUINCY, MASSACHUSETTS, GRANITE. Patent Office interior walls, foundations, and basement (partly). 9. WOODSTOCK GRANITE. Foundation of the Patent Office building (partly). National Museum (foundation). Masonic Temple (foundation). « 10. PoRT DEPOSIT GNEIss. Foundation of Treasury building (extension). Saint Dominick’s church. 11, BELLEVILLE, NEW JERSEY, BROWNSTONE. Corcoran Art Gallery. 12. MANASssAS, VIRGINIA, BROWNSTONE. District jail (trimmings). 13. MONTGOMERY COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA, MARBLE. Stone-work at Botanical Garden. Sarcophagi containing bodies of George and Martha Washington, at Mount Vernon. & 14. CAPE ANN GRANITE. Residence of Benjamin F. Butler. 15. CONNECTICUT BROWNSTONE. Foundation and trimmings of E-street Baptist church. Saint Marc hotel. Arlington hotel (front). Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (trimmings). Masonic Temple (partly). Residence of Senator William Windom. Residence of Lieutenant Broadhead (trimmings). Metropolitan church. Agricultural building (trimmings). First Presbyterian church. 16. Nova SCOTIA SANDSTONE. Masonic Temple (trimmings). Colonization building (front). Riggs house, 17. RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, GRANITE. State, War, and Navy building (superstructure). Bureau of Engraving and Printing (foundation). 18. OHIO SANDSTONE. National Republican building, now Pension Office (trimmings). Baltimore and Ohio depot (trimmings). Lewis Johnson & Co.’s bank. British Legation building. National Museum building. Ex-Governor A. R. Shepherd's block, opposite Farragut statue (Buena V sta stone). Portland flats. Capitol grounds, inclosure-walls (partly). Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (trimmings, partly). 19. HUMMELSTOWN BROWNSTONE. Residence of Hon. James G, Blaine (trimmings). Residence of Senator John Sherman (trimmings). Residence of Senator J. D. Cameron (trimmings). Residence of Jerome Bonaparte (trimmings). Bureau of Engraving and Printing (trimmings). 20. CHESTER COUNTY SERPENTINE. Residence on Fourteenth street. Residence on Iowa circle. 21. VERMONT MARBLE,’ Floors of National Museum building (Swanton Lyonnaise marble). Walls of library of Navy Department (partly). Walls of cash-room in Treasury Department (partly). Corcoran mausoleum, Oak Hill cemetery. 22. CHEAT RIVER, WEST VIRGINIA, SANDSTONE. Catholic institution between Twelfth and Thirteenth streets. STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. 361 STONE PAVEMENTS.—In the report for the year ending June 30, 1880, Lieutenant F. V. Green, United States engineer corps, assistant to the engineer commissioner of the District of Columbia, gives the following interesting facts concerning the condition of the streets of Washington on the Ist of July, 1880: Square yards. Miles. pars HAL Di AacGONCTeLG!( COMIUAL) eon cat ss «me eava sacl ccinee deca aetae canivuscislsinentecesmbnnssinss tdancasac (dens onaeblasscediean'senmwees-as cess as 981, 348 40. 66 SSUISO TEN OG Kotte aie Meena e sca ce ie carer he em suon ae ceac eee ec esto certs Gesoctnareu sus ac sch tance tae don saceweacn tee eta seeeeusetcanes 411, 774 14. 87 MILs OBE, S22 b te. caiea- de cvs sve deka ak sntaceaee ap ay BU AAS fre, in Gop oe esi ab Se AR as nt ie a a RO 559, 051 18. 04 THERES SS Shige goe San CEPA AOr (Sect BOC SHEED HOS oor Ge aE a aHS Abb SS SUNCOM RCT Sane, SMa Re ae eens ee oe por eee me 215, 330 7.45 lta leeer het sein. oat ee marr ue ahi eae ede boos sci esos eo sa aischmaslcnaa en aate ssie cuacds sede akpesiecten acme sacwaceces cca toadeede nee 644, 993 31. 31 WVOOU PEAR asictnids vedas cecss re ae cacewreecnetiand cxananssacmslec ease -sscscjsoumesweouisic Jo in ci'cea Gece ustiene dua etiatscnecterss acca rence cene tea’ 509, 481 22.10 MURMAEN TSUN OC. cen eee cle e nice aera ee ont wan ae hens sald eee capt aio nna odes swig cae coisa cscs cis nataeieep ead/se ses eeeucce BE Se ree es 1, 799, 541 95. 62 TR oop Re ie SH nese ce Shebass jodece SuCcd= AbP ae Or apap aescs Aer DAD Jee BE SDC eae ober Oetemsits mate ne laciaalanie see a ae adeiee aes aeemiaen eee 5, 121, 518 230. 05 It is stated that there were in all 1,188,597.47 square yards of wooden pavements, aggregating a length of nearly 50 miles, and costing $4,003,744; that in 1878 there were, exclusive of paving between railway tracks, 790,000 square yards, or 34 miles, of wooden pavements; and that on June 30, 1882, these pavements had been partially replaced to the following extent: | ! WITH ASPHALT. WITH GRANITE, | WITH ASPHALT BLOCK. | TOTAL. Years. aa Square yards. Cost. Square yards. | Cost. Square yards. | Cost. | Square yards. Cost. ere eee es | ase | BALOa N10 scan scenocmeae asi enaiclas aa 104, 022. 52 $200, 900 18 56, 993, 24 | $129, 657 32 1, 093. 35 | $2, 661 61 || 162, 109. 11 $333, 219 11 BBL 1OG0 rata h enicek selde cosas sainieaite 67, 962. 91 104, 143 17 45, 084. 28 | 87, 390 42 3, 214. 08 | 6, 349 51 116, 261. 27 197, 883 10 ’ | — Total Wes a. bcatsee ga eaoae= seme 171, 985. 43 305, 043 35 102, 077. 52 217,047 74 : 4, 307. 43 | 9, 011 12 278, 370. 38 631, 102 21 The proportion of stone to asphalt laid in two years, from July, 1878, to July, 1880, is as 10 to 17. The granite-block pavement here is laid on a foundation of gravel and sand, and the joints are filled with cement of coal tar and gravel, as before stated. Of the 18 miles of stone-block pavements 7 miles are composed of North River blue-stone and the balance of granite. The granite comes from various quarries in Maine and cape Ann, Massachusetts, from Westerly, Rhode Island, and from Richmond, Virginia. The texture of the different varieties is quite dissimilar; the finer-grained stones make a smoother surface for a pavement and the coarser ones a more durable surface. Of the 17.50 miles of rough stone pavements 8 miles are composed of cobble (quartz or sandstone drift) and the remainder of rubble, mostly the so-called blue-rock or mica-schist, of Rock creek. A small amount of rubble is of the Seneca stone, which, owing to its more ready attrition, does not prove to be well adapted to paving purposes, excepting for sidewalks, The macadam pavement is mainly of the mica-schist from Rock creek, but part of it is broken cobble-stone and a part of it flint-stone—that is, quartz found in seamy ledges in the mica-schist formation. WHEELING, WEST VIRGINIA. The site of Wheeling is very narrow, on account of the abrupt hills, situated a short distance back from the river, which oblige the city to extend itself to a great length along the stream, as the hills are too abrupt to furnish sites for buildings. The material used in stone construction is the Coal-Measure sandstone quarried in the immediate vicinity, and on the opposite side of the river, in Belmont county, Ohio. This is of sufficiently good quality to answer for all ordinary purposes of construction. For the soldiers’ monument in course of construction the material used is granite obtained from the New England Granite Works at Hartford, Connecticut. Strictly speaking, there are no stone fronts in the city, but there is considerable stone in basement stories, corners, and other trimmings. The abutments of the suspension bridge across the Ohio river at Wheeling are constructed of sandstone from the local quarries. The wharves are constructed of cobble-stones gathered from the river at low water, and the streets are nearly all paved with this material. There is a small amount of stone sidewalk paving, and the material used is sandstone from the local quarries and from Buena Vista, Ohig; the Buena Vista stone comes already sawed to the proper dimensions for paving purposes; it stands foot-wear well. The local stone, from its coarser and more granular and friable structure, wears away more rapidly under foot-wear. WILKESBARRE, PENNSYLVANIA. Wilkesbarre is located in the celebrated Wyoming valley, which lies between two ranges of the Allegheny mountains, the sandstone of Catskill age being abundantly exposed on their sides and much used in Wilkesbarre for purposes of construction. This material is very durable, but hard and expensive to dress for fine work. One 362 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. of the principal quarries of this stone is situated in the mountains 7 or 8 miles east of Wilkesbarre; for the better class of trimmings Wyoming blue-stone from Meshoppen is now used almost exclusively, though considerable. Catskill red sandstone is also employed for caps, sills, and trimmings generally. The Luzerne prison in Wilkesbarre is the most important stone structure of the place. It is built of Campbell’s ledge stone, a siliceous conglomerate of a rich buff color, very substantial and durable. Several fine private residences in Wilkesbarre are constructed of it. There are some buildings trimmed with limestone from near Syracuse, New York. The material chiefly used for foundations and underpinnings is the Catskill red sandstone from the mountains in the vicinity. The Seral- Conglomerate, also quarried near, is used to a less extent for the same purpose. Only two or three streets are paved with stone, and the material used is cobble-stone from the Susquehanna river. The sidewalks are largely paved with stone, the material being the Catskill red sandstone before mentioned, and considerable Wyoming blue-stone: from Meshoppen. Lehigh slate is also used to a limited extent for the same purpose. The curbstones are of Catskill red sandstone and Wyoming blue-stone. The bridge abutments in the bridges crossing the Susquehanna river are of Catskill red sandstone. WILLIAMSPORT, PENNSYLVANIA. There is no good stone for the better class of construction quarried near Williamsport. and where stone Caps,. sills, ete., are wanted they are brought from Hummelstown, Pennsylvania, almost exclusively, although some Berea and Amherst stone have been used for trimmings in one building. The Lycoming County court-house is trimmed with Nova Scotia sandstone, which nearly resembles the Ohio sandstone in color and texture. A few buildings have steps of the Montgomery County marble; the steps of the court-house are of New England granite, and are becoming slippery from foot-wear. In the cases of the North River blue-stone, Wyoming blue-stone, Ohio stone, and others. having a sandy grit, there is no tendency to become slippery. The siliceous conglomerate, probably of Seral or Pottsville Conglomerate age, quarried at Ralston, Lycoming county, is the stone most used for steps and base courses ; it is quite durable, does not become slippery, and seems to give entire satisfaction. It resembles the conglomerate at Pottsville quite closely. The stone most used for curbing is an even-bedded, slaty stone, easily quarried in suitable shapes for curbing; one piece being observed which was 30 feet long and one foot square at the end,. resembling a hewn log. For bridge abutments rough stone from the mountains in the vicinity is used. Stone has heretofore been comparatively little employed at this place. Only one street is paved with stone and the material is rubble from the vicinity. There is but a limited amount of stone sidewalk pavement; the material most used is. Wyoming blue-stone from near Meshoppen. Red and light-colored flags quarried in the vicinity are also used for this purpose, and there are a few flags of Ohio sandstone. WILMINGTON, DELAWARE. The building stones used in Wilmington are the Connecticut, Ohio, and New Jersey sandstones; marble fron: Cockeysville and Texas, Maryland; serpentine from Chester county, Pennsylvania; and granites from Brandywine creek, near the city. This last is the most convenient source of supply for the city for ordinary purposes, such as. foundations and underpinnings, and for stone street pavements. The sidewalks are not paved with stone; the curbs are granite from Brandywine creek. The Cockeysville marble and the serpentine from Chester county are, however, in easy distance from the city, and have been used extensively. The court-house and a large church are: constructed of the serpentine before mentioned, and also a building of Connecticut sandstone. The material in the walls of this building was set on edge, and it exfoliated badly. The following buildings are constructed of the Brandywine stone: Saint John’s Protestant Episcopal church, Market street, and the houses of William Brinckly,. Kennet street; Edward McIngalls, Eleventh and Jefferson streets; Joab Jackson, Eleventh and Washington: streets ; William Bush, Browne street; and Edward Tatnall, Market street. WINONA, MINNESOTA. Taking into consideration the location and readiness of access to the quarries and the quality of the material, there is no possibility of obtaining a better supply of building stone for use here than material found at Winona, Red Wing, and Stillwater. The stone when freshly quarried is easily wrought, but becomes hard by weathering. The railroad bridge, the jail, the sheriff’s residence, and the piers and abutments of Winona bridge across the Mississippi river, are built of Winona limestone. Most of the business blocks are of red brick made near Winona. Some Ohio sandstone has been lately imported for trimmings. Among the other stones used for trimmings are the sandstone from Fond du Lav, Wisconsin, and the lime-rock from Frontenac and Kasota. The streets are not. paved with stone, and there is but very little stone sidewalk pavement; the material used for this purpose is lime- rock from Winona. WOONSOCKET, RHODE ISLAND. In this place stone is very little employed as a material of construction. The quartzite and mica-schist, especially from the local quarries, have been largely used in building the mills, many of which are stuccoed. Northbridge, Massachusetts, granite and Diamond Hill granite are considerably used for underpinnings in the STONE CONSTRUCTION IN CITIES. ) 363 better houses. Curbs and crossings are usually of the Northbridge granite; walls are built largely of the local quartzite, which forms the poor man’s stone of Woonsocket. The cobble-stones used in some of the buildings are found in the vicinity ; in one or two structures Connecticut brown sandstone is employed. WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS. The houses here are mostly brick and frame structures. The main street contains most of the stone buildings. The local quarry known as Millstone ledge was some time ago given by its owner to the citizens for their free use; it is, however, mostly quarried by one man. The stone is good for common uses, but is not quite uniform in _texture, and is too much stained for finer buildings or trimmings. The Arnold row of stores, built of this stone, exhibits its durability, and at the same time its rather unattractive appearance. The firm, sandy clay which forms the site of the city furnishes good foundations. The proportion of houses to inhabitants is large on account of the many small frame structures designed for the accommodation of factory employés. The foundations and underpinnings are of local gneissoid granites from the Millstone ledge. The principal business streets are paved with: granite from Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire, and Westford, and the streets and sidewalks are usually paved with local and Fitzwilliam granites. The curbs are of the gneiss from the Millstone ledge. There are nearly 2 miles of stone arch sewers and bridge abutments built of the material from the local quarry. The Fitzwilliam granite is largely brought here by the proprietor of a local quarry, The Messrs. Norcross have constructed fine residences of the Longmeadow sandstone. YONKERS, NEW YORK. The stones in the vicinity of Yonkers available for building purposes are the trap bowlders and a very rough gneiss-rock, good only for foundations. For the better class of stone construction brownstone from Portland, Connecticut, and Ohio sandstone are used. There is an aqueduct some 300 feet long and 40 feet high faced with partly rough and partly dressed stone, the rough material of which is broken bowlders of trap, and the cut stone is gneiss from a local quarry. There is also about the town a great deal of retaining-wall made almost entirely of broken bowlders of trap. All these bowlders, of which there seems to be an unlimited supply, are found on or near the surface of the ground, enough being usually found in digging the cellar to build the foundation walls, and often underpinning also. The streets are to some extent macadamized with limestone from Tomkins Cove and with trap-rock and crushed bowlders. This style of paving is known as the Telford paving; in some localities the sidewalks are largely paved with North River blue-stone, as are all the cities which are within easy reach of the blue-stone region. Ourbstones are also of this material. YORK, PENNSYLVANIA. ’ The Siluro-Cambrian limestone,-quarried in the vicinity of York, furnishes all the material that is used for the construction of cellars, foundations, street paving, and road macadamizing. The Goldsboro’ brownstone from the Triassic formation in York county is used to a considerable extent. Of the marbles used for caps, sills, curbing, ete., considerable comes from Cockeysville and the town of Texas, near Baltimore, Maryland, some from Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, and some from Vermont and Massachusetts. The Gettysburg granite, a trap-rock precisely similar to the Conewago granite, is much used in York for steps, bases, caps, and sills. It is quarried on the battle- field at Gettysburg. The limestone quarried in the vicinity is the only stone used near York in the construction of. bridges. There is a canal wall constructed of it. For steps and curbing, beside the Goldsboro’ brownstone, which is principally used, considerable Gettysburg granite is used; also some Richmond, Virginia, granite; marble from Cockeysville, near Baltimore; some Montgomery County marble, and, occasionally, Connecticut brownstone. For base courses Gettysburg granite is used to some extent; for caps, sills, etc., Cockeysville marble, Montgomery County marble, New England marble, and some Gettysburg granite. For hall-ways and office floors, black and , white marble tiling prepared in Philadelphia is used. One building is trimmed with the Amherst, Ohio, stone. The streets are nearly all macadamized with the native limestone. Sidewalks are but little paved with stone, and the material chiefly used is the native limestone. Peach Bottom slate, however, is used for this purpose in a few instances. The curbstones are of Goldsboro’ brownstone. ZANESVILLE, OHIO. The sources for building stone are a ledge of Coal-Measures sandstone, quarried in the immediate vicinity. This ledge is a solid mass, about 40 feet in thickness, so that the supply is abundant; by far the larger part of the stone in and about Zanesville is of this material. It is used exclusively in the construction of canal locks, house foundations, excepting occasionally the top courses, and it furnishes a considerable part of sidewalk pavement. Two or three of the oldest buildings in Zanesville are constructed entirely of this stone. It proves to be durable in the walls of buildings, but does not resist foot-wear so well. The stone work of the Clarendon hotel is of the local sandstone. An abundance of this material, the ease with which it may be worked, and its fair quality for all ordinary building purposes, give it the. first place in importance among the building stones found in the neighborhood. Another source of supply is the ferriferous limestone near the same horizon. 364 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. Carter VIIL—THE DURABILITY OF BUILDING STONES IN NEW YORK | CITY AND VICINITY. (a) | By ALEXIS A. JULIEN, PH. D. The ravages upon our building stones, by that complex association of forces which we call “the weather”, are dangerous and rapid. The indications of interest in regard to the serious results, which are sure to come within a short period, are feeble and evanescent. A brief discussion of the main facts and of the principles involved may aid in forming a basis upon which future investigations mayrest. The commissioners, appointed by the Department of the Interior “‘to test the several specimens of marble offered for the extension of the United States Capitol”, said in their report of December 21, 1851: Though the art of building has been practiced from the earliest times, and constant demands have been made in every age for the means of determining the best materials, yet the process of ascertaining the strength and durability of stone appears to have received but little definite scientific attention, and the commission, who have never before made this subject a special object of study, have been surprised with unforeseen difficulties at every step of their progress, and have come to the conclusion that the processes usually employed for solving these questions are still in a very unsatisfactory state. Over thirty years have passed since these words were written, and the same methods are still largely in use, although new instruments and processes and rich discoveries concerning the structure of stone have been made available within a quarter of a century. The facts presented have been gathered from many sources published and unpublished, and from long personal observation. It is but a question of time when careful and thorough investigation for the purpose of determining the best means to avert the coming destruction will be called for. It is necessary first to understand the number and the character of the natural foes which are making this deadly attack. All varieties of soft, porous, and untested stones are being hurried into the masonry of the buildings of New York city and its vicinity. On many of them the ravages of the weather and the need of the repairer are apparent within five years after their erection, and a resistance to much decay for twenty or thirty years is usually considered wonderful and perfectly satisfactory. Notwithstanding the general injury to the appearance of the rotten stone, and the enormous losses annually involved in the extensive repairs, painting, or demolition, little concern is yet manifested by either architects, builders, or house-owners. Hardly any department of technical science is so much neglected as that which embraces the study of the nature of stone, and all the varied resources of lithology in chemical, microscopical, and physical methods of investigation, wonderfully developed within the last quarter-century, have never yet been properly applied to the selection and protection of stone as used for building purposes. The various suburbs and vacant districts have been gradually approaching a character sufficiently settled to justify the erection of entire and numerous blocks of private residences, huge buildings for business offices in the lower part of the city and for family flats in the central and upper wards, besides large numbers of public edifices, storage houses, manufactories, etc. The failure of stone to resist fire in the business district, and the offensive results of discoloration or serious exfoliation, which the poor durability of many varieties of stone has rendered manifest in all parts of the city, have already largely diminished its proportionate use, in reference to brick. Nevertheless great quantities of stone of many kinds are yet introduced, as ashlar or the trimmings of apertures, into the buildings now in progress, and will soon be further employed, if the present activity in building be continued, not only in the private enterprises already mentioned, but in others of more lasting and public importance; e. g., the projected improvements and additions in connection with our water supply, as aqueducts and reservoirs; the new bridges proposed over our rivers; the replacement of our rotting wooden docks by more permanent structures; and perhaps, we may hope, the huge pedestal to support the statue of Liberty on an island in our harbor. As the kinds of building stone brought to this market for these purposes are increasing in number and variety, and their selection and mode of use, as it seems to me, are irregular and indiscriminate, whether from the ignorance or the carelessness likely to prevail in a busy, money-getting community, it would appear proper that a voice of warning should now be heard, calling attention to the dangers involved in the use of bad stone or the bad use of good stone; in the enormous waste and expense soon required for repairs in our severe climate, or in the consequent disuse of stone in favor of brick, by a natural reaction, to the injury of the beauty and comfort of our city. a From the commercial relations of New York to the quarries of this country and of foreign countries, and from the enormous scale on which the practical value of building materials is tested in that city, this chapter, though local in title, forms the best available summary upon the durability of building stone for the United States, and is therefore placed in the present order. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 365: There are three classes in the community to which such a warning is addressed: 1. A considerable number of house-owners, to whom it seems to come too late, since they have already expended tens of thousands of dollars in temporary repairs, patching and painting decayed stone, and many of whom have doubtless made rash vows to use hereafter, in construction, brick, iron, terra-cotta, wood—anything but stone. 2. House-owners, not yet aware of the coming dilapidation, and who can yet take precautions to delay or prevent its arrival—or others about to build, and who have implicit faith in the eternity of building-stone, since it comes from the “everlasting rock”, or at least in a duration which will last their lifetimes—and also a certain proportion of builders and architects willing to learn, and who have much to learn, since the practical scientific study of building stones is yet to be made. 3. And lastly, the architects, builders, and contractors, who know all about the subject, or who do not care what happens to the houses they build, and that large part of our population who never expect to own any houses. To all these the decay of the stone in this city is a matter of indifference, and the quotation presented below— . “scarcely a public building of recent date will be in existence a thousand years hence”—few of them, indeed, over a century or two, in fair condition—is only a matter of jest. 1.—EFFECTS OF WEATHERING UPON THE BUILDING STONE OF NEW YORK, ETC. In foreign countries the subject of the attack of atmospheric agencies on building stones has received much attention, particularly within the last half century, and much earnest effort, though as yet ill-systematized and ill-regulated, has been exerted for their protection by means of the new light and facilities of modern sciences. The contrast between the durability of the stone buildings erected in modern and in the most ancient times is strongly marked : In modern Europe, and particularly in Great Britain, there is scarcely a public building, of recent date, which will be in existence a thousand years hence. Many of the most splendid works of modern architecture are hastening to decay in what may be justly called the infancy of their existence, if compared with the dates of public buildings that remain in Italy, in Greece, in Egypt, and the East.— Gwili’s Encyclopedia of Architecture. In England this is largely due to the general use of soft freestones, both sandstones and, especially in London, earthy, loosely compacted limestones. Before the erection of the houses of parliament a royal board of commissioners. was appointed for the selection of the proper building stones, and a large amount of information was collected on the subject of the modes and rapidity of weathering of the various building stones throughout the United Kingdom. So difficult and novel, however, was the investigation that the results obtained have been only partially successful, both in the selection of the stone, and, on its incipient attack by the atmosphere of London, in the artificial means. suggested for its preservation. Only last year the statement was made, in reference to the building of the royal courts. of justice, just erected and inaugurated in London : What will be the fate of its exterior carvings and frettings after another fifty years of London smoke, all of us can tell. The same may be said of a thousand other buildings, great and small, that the past generation of Londoners has raised as monuments of its own ignorance of the simplest conditions of good building. They carve their fronts with carvings of flowers and fruit, which in a year the: soot will blacken past recovery, and in five years corrode beyond recall. We see important and costly edifices restored in the lifetime of the architects who designed them, and palaces patched with cement and painted over every three or four years, before their builders have passed away. * * * No remedy has been found for the decay of soit calcareous stone in our smoky cities; and yet, in our childish helplessness, we continue to use it daily and year after year, as if we had no warnings of the folly of doing so. (a) In a recent investigation of the subject, founded largely on a study of the stone monuments in the grave-yards. of Edinburgh, Dr. A. Geikie, of the geological survey of Great Britain, has pointed out that in a town the weathering action differs from that which is normal in nature; on the one hand in the formation of sulphuric acid from smoke, causing more rapid decay of stone-work ; on the other in the inferior range of temperature in towns and less severe action of frost. Dr. Geikie also found that sandstones, if siliceous, were sometimes only roughened in two hundred years. When colored the destruction goes on by solution of cement, or of the matrix in which the particles of silica are enbedded, €. g., clay, carbonate of lime, and iron and hydrous and anhydrous ferric oxide. In this material he estimated the rate of lowering to amount to three-quarters of an inch in a century. In the stone of the buildings of New York and adjacent cities the process of disintegration and destruction is widespread, and yearly becoming more prominent and offensive. GNEISs.—The commissioners of the Croton Aqueduct department, in their annual report for 1862, page 67, make the following statement: The retaining-walls of the embankments in many cases require extensive rebuilding. Most of these walls have been constructed of the stone found in their immediate neighborhood—often of a-very inferior and perishable character. Thus far we have been able to keep these walls in comparatively good order by removing every year portions of disintegrated stone and replacing them with durable material ; but during the past year snch large portions, and at so many points, are giving way in mass, that an increased amount must necessarily be expended on them during the coming season. —_— * a The Builder, 1881, p. 708. 366 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. MARBLE.—lItalian marble has been found incompetent to withstand the severity of our climate, when used for outdoor work ; and of this good illustrations are shown in the pillars, once elegantly polished, in the portico of the church on the southeast corner of Fourth avenue and Twentieth street, ete. The same objection has been urged to the outdoor use of American marbles in our cities, supported at least by their rapid discoloration, but the question is yet unsettled. Professor Hull observes : From the manner in which the buildings and monuments of Italy, formed of calcareous materials, have retained to a wonderful degree the sharpness of their original sculpturing, unless disfigured by the hand of man, it is clear that a dry and smokeless atmosphere is the essential element of durability. In this respect, therefore, the humid sky and gaseous air of British towns must always place the buildings of this country at a comparative disadvantage as regards durability. And again: Under a smokeless atmosphere it is capable of resisting decay for lengthened periods, though it becomes discolored. * * * The perishable nature of the marble when exposed to the smoky atmosphere of a British city, is evinced by the decayed state of the tomb of Chantrey, erected in 1820, in the “‘ God’s acre” belonging to St. John’s Wood chapel. Another example of this decay is shown in the group of Queen Anne, ete., erected from Carrara marble, about’ the beginning of the eighteenth century, before the west front of St. Paul’s, in London, England, and which has been covered throughout with a coat of paint in the hope of slightly retarding its inevitable decay. The dolomitic marble of Westchester county has been largely employed in our buildings, and some idea of its character for durability may now be gained. A fine-grained variety was used in the building of the United States assay-office, in Wall street; its surface is now much discolored, and the edges of many of the blocks show cracks. A variety of medium texture was employed in the hotel at the corner of Fulton and Pearl streets, erected in 1823; the surface is decomposed, after the exposure of exactly sixty years, with a gray exterior, in a crust from one-eighth to one- fourth inch in thickness, soft and orange-colored in section. Many crystals have fallen out of the surface on the weathered eastern face, producing a pitted appearance. A very coarse variety has been used in the bank building at Thirty-second street and Broadway, in large part being set on edge; very many of the blocks are more or less cracked, even in the highest story. In the United States Treasury building, in Wall street, a rather coarse dolomite-marble, rich in tremolite and phlogopite, was used, the blocks being laid on bed in the plinth and most of the ashlar, but largely on edge in the pillars, pilasters, etc.; in the latter case vertical fissures commonly mark the decay, but even elsewhere a deep pitting has been produced by the weathering out of the tremolite. The marble used in many other prominent buildings has been improperly laid, e. g., in both of the buildings of the city hall, the Drexel building, at the corner of Broad and Wall streets, the Academy of Design, at Twenty-third street and Fourth avenue, etc. The same process of ultimate ruin in its incipient stages is abundantly shown, even in the marble slabs in Saint Paul’s church-yard and monuments of Greenwood cemetery, by discoloration and disintegration of surface. In the United States hotel, on Fulton street, constructed of Westchester marble in 1823, we have the opportunity to study the effect of weathering for over a half century. Though presenting a good appearance at a distance, the stone has become pitted by the falling out of grains, especially on the east side, and is tinged a dirty orange by a crust of decomposition from one-sixteenth to a quarter of an inch in depth. The horizontal tablets, supported on masonry which has partially settled (e. g., J. G., 1821), generally show a slight curvature in center, only in part, possibly, produced through solution by standing rain-water. Dolomieu first made the observation on an Italian marble, called betullio, that it possessed a degree of flexibility allied to that of the itacolumite of Brazil. Gwilt states (Hncyclopedia of Architecture, p. 1274) : Some extremely fine specimens of white marble are to be seen in the Borghese palace at Rome, which, on being suspended by the center on a hard body, bend very considerably. It is found that statuary marble exposed to the sun aequires, in time, this property, thus indicating a less degree of adhesion of its parts than it naturally possessed. In the white-marble veneering of the facade of St. Mark’s, Venice, the same effect has been observed by Mr. C. M. Burns, jr., in the lower half of a slab of veined marble, 2 inches thick, on the south side of the northernmost of the five portals, just behind the columns and about 5 feet from the pavement. ‘The slab is 11 feet 2 inches long, and 1 foot 6 inches wide; it is hung to the backing by copper hooks driven into the brick-work, but the lower part, for a distance of 5 feet 7 inches, bulges out 23 inches from the backing. The exposure is directly westward, and I found that it became decidedly warm in the afternoon sun, while the backing would be likely to keep its temperature lower. Though the outer surface is somewhat weatherworn, I could not find the slightest tendency to fracture in any part.—The American Architect and Building News, 1882, p. 118. Also at the palace of the Alhambra, in Grenada, Spain, one of the two doors that have been christened “La Mezquita” exhibits an ancient facing of three slabs of marble, the upper resting as a lintel upon the two others, which form uprights, 11 feet in height, 9 inches in width, and only 24 inches in thickness. At 18} inches from the top of the door the slab on the right begins to curve ond to detach itself from the wall, attaining the distance of 3 inches at about 3 feet from the bottom. From a subsidence of the material of the wall an enormous thrust has been exerted upon the right, and the marble, instead of breaking or of rupturing its casings, has simply bent and curved as if it were wood.—La Nature, 1882. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 367 I nave also been informed at Sutherland Falls and other quarries near Rutland, Vermont, that the bending of thin slabs of marble exposed to the sunshine in the open air, and accidentally supported only at the ends, has been there repeatedly observed. Fleurian de Bellevue discovered a dolomite possessed of the same property in the Val-Levantine, of Mount Saint Gothard. Dolomieu attributed the property to ‘“‘a state of desiccation which has lessened the adherence of the molecules of the stone”, and this was supposed to be confirmed by experiments of De Bellevue, who, on heating inflexible varieties of marble, found that they became flexible. This change, however, cannot be connected with the remarkably small content of water existing in marbles, but with a peculiarity of their texture, which has been briefly discussed by Archibald Geikie (Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1880), in an interesting investigation on the decay of the stones used in Scotch cemeteries. He has pointed out that the irregular and closely-contiguous grains of calcite which make up a white marble are united by no cement, and have apparently a very feeble coherence. It appears to me probable also that their contiguous crystallization has left them in a state of tetision, on account of which the least force applied, through pressure from without, or of the unsupported weight of the stone, or from internal expansion by heat or frost, produces a separation of the interstitial planes in minute rifts. Such a condition permits a play of the grains upon each other and considerable motion, as illustrated in the commonly- observed sharp foldings of strata of granular limestones, without fractures or faults. In such cases, also, I have observed that the mutual attrition of the grains has been sometimes sufficient to convert their angular, often rhomboidal, original contours into circular outlines, the interstices between the rounded grains being evidently filled up he much smaller fragments and rubbed-off particles; e. g., in the white marble of the anticlinal axis at Sutherland Falls, Vermont. These results are confirmed by the appearances, familiar to all lithologists, in the study of thin sections of marble, the latent interstices between the grains of calcite having been often developed by the insinuation of films and veinlets of iron-oxide, manganese-oxide, etc. While a polished slab of marble fresh from the stone-yard may not be particularly sensitive to stains, after it has been erected and used as a mantel-piece over a fire-place, its increased absorption of ink, fruit-juices, etc., becomes strongly marked. On this property are founded the processes, always preceded by heat, for the artificial coloring of marbles. In the decay of the marble, largely Italian, in the atmosphere of Edinburgh, Geikie has recognized three phases: 1. Loss of polish, superficial solution, and production of a rough, loosely-granular surface. This is effected, Geikie states, by ‘‘exposure for not more than a year or two to our prevalent westerly rains”. The solution of the surface may sometimes reach the depth of about a quarter of an inch, and the inscriptions may become almost illegible in sixteen years. In our own dry climate, however, these results do not appear. The polish often survives ten years in our city cemeteries, and even for over half a century, near the ground, in the suburban cemeteries; in one instance, at Flatbush, it has remained intact for over 150 years, on the tombstone of F. and P. Stryker, dated 1730. Inscriptions are decipherable in Saint Paul’s church-yard back to the date of 1798, but about one-tenth are illegible or obliterated ; the latter effect was never seen in a single instance on the suburban stones, and is evidently due to the acid ae in the rain-waters of the city. 2. Incrustation of the marble with a begrimed, blackish film, sometimes a millimeter in thickness, consisting of town-dust, cemented by calcium sulphate, and thorough internal disintegration of the stone, sufficient, after a century, to cause it to crumble into powder by very slight pressure. Neither the crust nor any deep disintegration has been observed in the oldest marble tombstones in the cemeteries of New York; their absence is plainly attributable to the inferior humidity of our atmosphere and the absence of smoke from soft coals. 3. Curvature and fracture, observed in slabs of marble, firmly inserted into a solid frame-work of sandstone. This process consists in the bulging out of the marble, accompanied with a series of fractures, and has been accomplished by expansion due to frost. Tombstones are never constructed in this way in our cemeteries; but the curvature of horizontal slabs, observed in Saint Paul’s church-yard, produced by the sagging of the supporting masonry beneath the center of the slab, is simply indicative of the flexibility of the material. Geikie states: The results of my observations among our burial-grounds show that, save in exceptionally sheltered situations, slabs of marble exposed to the weather in such a climate and atmosphere as that of Edinburgh are entirely destroyed in less than a century. Where this destruction takes place by simple comparatively rapid superficial solution and removal of the stone, the rate of lowering of the surface amounts sometimes to about a third of an inch (or, roughly, 9 millimeters) in a century. Where it is effected by internal displacement, a curvature of 24 inches, with abundant rents, a partial effacement of the inscription, and a reduction of the marble to a pulverulent condition, may be produced in about forty years, and a total disruption and effacement of the stone within one hundred. It is evident that white marble is here utterly unsuited for out-of-door use. My own conclusion, from observations in New York, is that, in the cemeteries within the city, the polish on vertical slabs is usually destroyed in about ten years; that the inscriptions are only in small part effaced within from thirty to fifty years, and are for the most part perfectly legible on the oldest tombstones, dating 1 798; and that, 368 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. although the reduction of the surface to a loose granular condition may reach the depth of ten millimeters, the actual lowering of the surface seldom exceeds 5 or 6 millimeters, the internal disintegration is never sufficient to affect sensibly the strength of the stone during the periods of exposure which have been noted, and a slight flexure, perhaps to the amount of 12 or 15 millimeters, sometimes affects the center of horizontal slabs, 2 meters in length. In the cemeteries without the city the polish may often survive near the ground, on the faces of vertical slabs, for over one hundred and fifty years, as the granulation of the surface rarely exceeds a depth of 3 or 4 millimeters; and all the inscriptions remain perfect on the oldest vertical tombstones, suffering partial effacement only on horizontal slabs. Although these facts show the far greater durability of marble in our dry and pure atmosphere, the frequent obliteration of inscriptions, the general, and often rapid, granulation of the surface, and the occasional fissuring of slabs, show that the decay of marble—in the varieties hitherto long used in New York city—is steady, inevitable, and but a question of time; and with Geikie, I, too, am convinced that, if unprotected, such materials are utterly unsuited for out-of-door use, at least for decorative purposes or cemetery records, within the atmosphere of a city. SANDSTONE.—In regard to brownstone there seems to be a common if not universal opinion—but, in my own view, too hasty, and by no means established—which is presented in the following quotation: The days of brownstone fronts for the better class of houses are probably numbered. A thin veneering of soft stone, hooped on to a brick wall, adds almost nothing to the strength of a building. On the exposure of the brownstone fronts for sixty or eighty years to the severity of our climate, in the opinion of intelligent stone-cutters, the majority of them will be in ruins, and the remainder much dilapidated. ; e In the widely-quoted opinion of one architect, this stone is of no more use for architectural work in this region than so much gingerbread. . Even the brown sandstone of the city hall, originally of a very superior quality, and the crumbling cornices, lintels, etc., of numberless houses which line some of the other streets of the city, evince the progress of the decay. It makes no very great difference whether the stone is laid parallel or perpendicular to its grain. In the former case its destruction is more rapid; in the latter, rottenness soon appears in the lintels, columns, cornices, and other projecting portions of the edifice. Several of the fronts along Fifth avenue, some of them less than ten years old, already look frightful to the experienced eye of an honest stone-cutter. In regard to the name “ Nova Scotia stone”, it may be well to explain that it originated many years ago, when grindstone dealers obtained their supplies from some small surface quarries located in and near Nova Scotia. As that stone was of a yellow color, the stone trade has persisted ever since in calling every light-colored stone coming from anywhere in that section ‘‘Nova Scotia stone”. However, 95 per cent. of the imported stone is derived from New Brunswick (probably 85 per cent. from Dorchester), and the remainder from Nova Scotia and other points. The popular name has been applied to light-colored stones of every quality, quarried at various points of eastern Canada, over a wide section of country, hundreds of square miles in extent, and variously worked out at tide-level, under tide-water, from exposed reefs running out into the sea, or, as at Dorchester, New Brunswick, from a hillside 900 feet high and a quarter of a mile from tide-water. The small quarries usually work out only such stones as they can obtain from outcropping ledges and bowlders, and these are apt to be of bad and varying color, more or less full of iron and other defects; for example, the surface quarries of Hillsboro’, New Brunswick, long since abandoned, used in the houses in Forty-second street near Madison avenue, in Second avenue near Fifty- fifth street, some of the bridges in Central park, etc. At the quarries of Dorchester, New Brunswick, it is stated that from 35 to 50 feet of inferior rock and débris are first stripped off to reach the sound rock which is sent to this market. The introduction of this stone into the city as a building material has been too recent to allow any measure of its durability. A little exfoliation may be, however, distinguished near the ground line, and on the sides and posts of stoops, in many cases. Also, in panels, under heavy projecting moldings, cornices, etc., where the sun has no chance to reach and dry up the dampness, the stone molders away slightly over the surface. In the cemeteries it is rarely or never used; in one example, possibly of this material, in Saint Paul’s church-yard, (W. J. M., 1841), the decay is plainly beginning around the carvings. The discoloration of good varieties of the stone would be very slow to affect vertical surfaces, properly protected by drips; but on sloping, horizontal, or shaded surfaces, especially near the street-level, street-dust is sure to lodge and cling, all the more after the surface becomes roughened by a slight disintegration ; while the rough usage to which the stone of balustrades and stoops is always subjected in a busy street, renders this, as well as all other soft varieties of freestone, liable to chipping as well as offensive discoloration (e. g., in the courses, trimmings, and posts of the church on the corner of Forty- second street and Madison avenue, ete.), and unsuitable for use near the ground line. These freestones from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, largely employed in our cities, rarely exhibit a laminated structure, and, though a softer stone than the Triassic sandstone just referred to, is rarely affected by exfoliation to any extent, partly perhaps because its introduction into this district has been much later than that of the brownstone. Many instances occur, huwever, where already an exfoliation has taken place, especially near NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 369 the ground line and on peculiarly exposed surfaces, sufficient to mar offensively the appearance of the masonry. This is exceptional it is true, but only a proper investigation or a far longer trial—as yet little exceeding twenty- five years—will establish the fitness of this stone for this climate. So also the freestone from Amherst, Berea, etc., Ohio, has been used to considerable extent, and in one building (on the corner of Broadway and Barclay streets) has stood well for twenty years. Its rich content of quartz, said to reach 97 per cent. in the buff stone from Amherst, renders this one of the most promising, in regard to durability, of all the freestones of the sandstone class yet introduced here. Buildings constructed of this material in this city since 1857 (e. g., on the corner of Barclay street and Broadway, on the corner of Howard and Crosby streets, etc.), show no decay, but only discoloration. In other instances (e. g., rows of houses on Fiftieth street, west of Fifth avenue, on Madison avenue between Thirty-fourth and Forty-third. streets, etc.) the blackened discoloration and frequent chipping of edges of the soft stone are quite offensive. On the other hand, it must be admitted that a stone which cleans itself by the disintegration of its surface, the grains dropping out and so carrying away the dirt, as in the poorer and softer varieties of brownstone or of Nova Scotia stone, is by that very action still more objectionable from its want of durability; and the discoloration of the Ohio stone is offset, at least in part, in the best varieties, by their hardness and promise of durability. Nevertheless, all these light-colored freestones from New Brunswick or Ohio, as well as the light-colored limestones from Indiana, etc., and the light-colored granites from New England, are all open to the special objection of most offensive discoloration (described beyond) shown here in abundant instances as in the cities of the west. This is more likely to affect inclined than vertical surfaces, and those near the level of the street, 7. e., within the reach of deposit of street dust; and the objection might be largely obviated by our builders by discarding the light-colored stones of all kinds from projections (cornices, dressings of doors and windows, etc.), and from our stoops, where the additional softness of some varieties renders them liable to disfigurement from wear and blows (e. g., the blocks of Nova Scotia stone fronts in Madisop avenue, above Thirty-fourth street). MEDINA SANDSTONE.—This material is of recent introduction (e. g., Baptist church on Fifty-seventh street, west of Sixth avenue), and its true durability cannot yet be estimated. BLUE-STONE (graywacke).—This stone is yearly coming into more general use, and, though somewhat somber in tone and difficult to dress, seems likely to prove a material of remarkable durability. In one building in Twenty-fourth street, between Madison and Fourth avenues, its condition appears to be excellent, after fifteen years’ exposure perfectly retaining the tool marks. The variety reported to come from the Wyoming valley (e. g., in the building on the north side of Union square) is really derived, as I am informed by Professor H. L. Fairchild, from Meshoppen, Pennsylvania. The blue-stone or graywacke of central New York and of Pennsylvania has not only been of general use as a flag-stone, but, in compact varieties, has been yearly coming into greater use in our cities for the purpose of water- tables, ornamental bands, window-sills, etc., and, although not a freestone, has recently been introduced even for the fronts of residences (e. g., on northwest corner of Madison avenue and Seventy-second street). It is likely to be one of the strongest and most durable stones, in my opinion, and, to judge by its weathering in outcrops, will be liable, only after a long exposure, to a reddish-brown discoloration. LiIMEsTONE.—The Lockport limestone has been used to a small extent in this city, unfortunately for buildings of importance, since it is a loosely compacted mass made up of fragments of shells, corals, etc., extremely liable to disintegration, apparently more from the action of frost than any other cause. To this stone may be applied the observations of Professor F. A. Abel on the fossiliferous bands in the stone of the island of Portland. (a) Though petrifactions were shown by the results of experiments to impart, in many instances, great additional strength to the stone they frequently give rise by their existence to cavities, sometimes of considerable size, which not only serve to weaken those particular portions of the stone, but may also, if they exist in proximity to exposed surfaces of a block of stone, promote its partial disintegration by the action of frost. The Lockport stone has evidently owed its rapid disintegration within ten years, wherever used in this city, in part to its careless mode of introduction into masonry. Thus, in the building of the Lenox library, at Seventieth street and Fifth avenue, about 40 per cent. of the material is set on edge, ¢. g., the alternate receding courses of the ashlar, trimmings of apertures, gate-posts, etc. Consequently it betrayed decay long before the completion, fragments falling out of the face of the stone from the arris of cornices and bands, ete. In the abundant trimmings of the same stone in the building of the Presbyterian hospital in the vicinity the same disintegration is displayed, the surfaces peeling off and filled with fine and deep crevices, and the upright posts, é. g., near the entrance archway or porte-cochére on the south side, in which the bedding-lamine stand on edge, are already seamed throughout with long cracks, which betoken their steady destruction. The oolitic stone from Ellettsville and Bedford, Indiana, shows an almost immediate and irregular discoloration, said to be produced by the exudation of oil. The oolite from Caen, France, has also been used in many buildings, and, unless protected by a coating of paint, has shown decay in several instances. Mr. G. Godwin, of London, has stated (Soc. of Arts, 1881), that ‘‘the Caen stone which was sent to this country (England) could not now be a The Builder, London, 1863, Vol. XXI, p. 859. VOL. 1x——-24 B § - 370 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. depended on, and ought not to be used for external work”. The extensive decay of this, with other oolitic and magnesian limestones, in the walls of Westminster abbey, has recently caused great alarm, and will necessitate the renewal of its outer masonry at enormous expense. One of the most thorough investigations, in regard to the porosity of a series of American building stones, was made by Dr. T. S. Hunt in 1864, and with the following conclusion (Chemical and Geological Essays, p. 164): Other things being equal, it may probably be said that the value of a stone for building purposes is inversely as its porosity or absorbing power. From the results given on 39 specimens, the following may be here quoted as pertinent to stones used in New York city: No. of specimens. Absorption. Percentage. 1;: Potsdam sandstone; hard and Avhitetese wer Ges ee tel aka as erelra ale oft ieee = Cee ee . 0.50 to 3.964 9 MMedina, Sandstonesssisee sie toes ete Silt wre wae he Sera aye mere ate a ape tte ea le eet ee 3.31 to 4.04 3. Ohio sandstone. id. 2sos ak woe we ee erence eels a ec ea en tea re 9.59 to 10.22 3% Caen limestone iu ae ccce/aic cre ape ate ete ee em ee ace 8 ea i et at a ate 14.48 to 16.05 Of course the proviso, ‘other things being equal,” covers a great deal of important ground, including the solvency of the material of a stone in the acidified rain-waters of a city. Some of the most impervious and non- absorbent readily decompose; while others, which are porous or even cellular, may afford an excellent resistance to decay. But judged in regard to both points, porosity and solvency, the Caen stone may be safely rejected hereafter as unfit for our climate. Other limestones, oolitic or fine granular, have been brought into use in small quantity, but remain as yet untested by the conditions of our climate. GRANITE.—As to granite, its tendency to decomposition, termed the “ maladie du granit” by Dolomieu, depends chiefly upon climatic conditions. These differ vastly, it is well known, in this region and in that of the great granite-builders, the Egyptians. The obelisk of Heliopolis has stood for three thousand years, and is still in good condition. So, too, the obelisk of Luxor had stood for forty centuries in Egypt without being perceptibly affected by that climate, but since its transport to Paris, in the reign of Louis Philippe, it is reported as the result of but forty years’ exposure— It is now full of small cracks, and blanched, and evidently will crumble into fragments before four centuries have passed. We have transported another obelisk, ‘“‘Cleopatra’s Needle”, from Egypt, and, in defiance of the still greater dangers incident to our severe climate, have erected it, covered with delicate carvings, upon a hillock in Central park, exposed to our blazing sun, pelting rain, and biting frost, often successively within twenty-four hours—a monument to the public ignorance in regard to the protection of even our prized possessions—that indifference of our community to the practical value of science which was exemplified through its officials by wantonly paving the walks of the same park with the fragments of the restoration casts of Saurians, after their construction for three years by Waterhouse Hawkins. Granite is also found in many other of our larger buildings, both public and private, but as few of these exceed forty or fifty years in age, and all contain the most durable varieties of that stone, the effects of weathering are only beginning to appear. The bluish variety from Quincy, Massachusetts, has been used in many buildings and rarely shows as yet many signs of decay. In the United States custom-house, on Wall street, most of the huge blocks appear laid ‘“‘on bed”, but, nevertheless, show some pitting in places, by the attack and partial removal of the larger grains of hornblende. In the church at Fourth street and Lafayette place, erected in 1830, a little exfoliation has been produced by street-dust on the faces of some steps. In the Astor house, at Barclay street and Broadway, no decay was observed. In the fine-grained granite from Concord, New Hampshire, employed in the building on the southeast corner of Twenty-third street and Sixth avenue, many of the blocks are set on edge, but the only change yet seen is that of discoloration by street-dust and iron oxide from the elevated railway. The light-colored and fine-grained granite of Hallowell, Maine, has been used for the construction of the city prison, the “Halls of Justice” or “Tombs”, in Center street. This stone consists of a white feldspar, which predominates, a grayish-white quartz, which is abundant, and a considerable quantity of a silvery white mica, thoroughly intermixed. The rock possesses several properties—fineness of grain, homogeneity of structure, and freedom from iron, as shown by the color of the feldspar—likely to render it durable; the only unfavorable conditions are the predominance of feldspar and the laminated structure. The rock is a granitoid gneiss, with lamination often clearly marked; these markings at once show to the eye that most of the blocks are set, not on bed, but irregularly on edge. The building is square and occupies an entire block. On a study of the weathering the south face was found to present an exfoliation to the depth of from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch at many points, up to the very summit of the building, particularly on the sides of the pillars at the southeast entrance, on the ashlar near the southwest gate, under and over the cornice and string-pieces. In some places the stone was loosened or peeled off in sheets of the area of a square foot. The west front presents much exfoliation all over the surface, though always thin; it seems to begin chiefly along and near the joints. In places fragments have separated from the corners of the blocks. The north front exhibits very little exfoliation; so also the east front, in a few small scattered spots. @ Usually about 1. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. | 37] The exfoliation appears to be the result directly of the sun’s heat, exerted most intensely on the southern and westeru sides of the building. An examination of the disintegrated material shows but little decomposition; a little kaolin may be distinguished in films, but the bulk of the feldspar, the weakest constituent, remains with bright facets, without change in color or luster. It is by no.means characteristic of the “maladie du granit”, first described by Dolomieu and later studied by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt; but here the action seems to be mainly and simply a disintegration of the grains, initiated by expansion under the sun’s heat, during the summer, and developed by the expansion caused by frost during the winter. An architect of the city recently stated that he had built several large granite offices, and considered Quincy granite the most durable of all building material. He thought the weathering of granite would hardly amount to one thirty-second of an inch ina hundred years. According to that calculation many buildings might hope for a longer span than the thousand years spoken of by the professor. However, it is a well-known fact that the weathering of granite does not proceed by a merely superficial wear, which can be measured or limited by fractions of an inch, but by a deep insinuation along the lines of weakness, between grains, through cleavage-planes, and into latent fissures. Thus, long before the surface has become much corroded or removed, a deep disintegration has taken place, by which large fragments are ready for separation by frost from the edges and angles of a block. When directly exposed to the heat of the sun an additional agency of destruction is involved, and the stone is suddenly found ready to exfoliate, layer after layer, concentrically. As yet we have little to guide us in the estimation of durability in years, since the best known granite monuments are those which have been exposed to the exceptionally mild climate of Egypt; but even there some exfoliation has been noticed, e. g., on the inner walls of the so-called Temple of the Sphynx. In the cemeteries within the city and on Long island much granite is now used in slabs and monuments, but its introduction has been everywhere of too recent a date to afford any measure of its durability. Geikie remarks: Traces of decay in some of its feldspar crystals may be detected, yet in no case that I have seen is the decay of a polished granite surface sensibly apparent after exposure for fifteen or twenty years. Even the most durable granite will probably be far surpassed in permanence by the best of our siliceous sandstones. But as yet the data do not exist for making any satisfactory comparison between them. GNEISS.—The oldest building in this city in which this material has been used appears to be that of Saint Matthew’s Lutheran church, on the northeast corner of Broome and Elizabeth streets, erected in 1841. The stone is the micaceous gneiss, in part hornblendic, from excavations on the island, with trimmings, string-pieces, etc., of brownstone, the latter, as usual, being in a state of decay. On the west front the gneiss is in excellent condition, occurring in small blocks, mostly laid on the bedding plane. In the south front many of the quoins are set on edge and are much decayed along the joints, sometimes with splitting or exfoliation, fracture of corners, and irregular chipping out of the surface to the depth of one-half to one inch below the level of the projecting cement joints. SERPENTINE.—This rock has been of limited application as a building material, but the evidence thus far is not in favor of its durability ina city. For example, the serpentine of West Galway, Ireland, called ‘* Connemara marble”, has been used both externally and internally in the new museum of Trinity college, Dublin, but ‘‘does not withstand the influence of asmoky or gaseous atmosphere”. ‘Small tablets let into the outside wall of the museum have become tarnished within the space of ten years”. In Hoboken this stone has been used to some extent for unimportant masonry, and shows in places discoloration and disintegration. Other stones which may prove to be more durable, and as yet rarely exfoliate, have already, however, become more or less disfigured by discoloration. In the Nova Scotia and Ohio sandstones this is universally seen in black films, streaks, and blotches, of which both the cause and the means of removal are but little understood. The marbles used for house fronts also soon assume a dirty yellow hue. This is sometimes produced by the exudation of salts of iron, as in the walls of the new court-house ; sometimes by the adherence of smoke and street-dust. It has been removed by occasional scraping of the whole surface of the building, as has already been done on the old court-house, the new cathedral at Fiftieth street, ete. 2.—EXTERNAL AGENCIES OF DESTRUCTION. The external agencies which slowly but insidiously and steadily accomplish the disintegration.and destruction of our building stones are of three classes, chemical, mechanical, and organic. A. CHEMICAL AGENCIES. These chiefly consist of acids which attack and dissolve every constituent of stone except quartz, but, with particular rapidity, any stone into which carbonates enter as chief constituents or as cementing materials. Thus the abundant solution of lime from the stone as well as the mortar of one of our marble buildings may be shown by catching some of the rain-water which trickles down its sides, and adding a few drops of ammonium oxalate, the solution becoming clouded by a milky-white precipitate of calcium oxalate. The following may be enumerated : SULPHUR ACIDS, 4. ¢., SULPHUROUS AND SULPHURIC AcIDS.—Of these Dr. Angus Smith found in the rain of Manchester from 1.4 to 5.6 grains per gallon. The gases are daily absorbed into the atmosphere of a large ity 372 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. oF from the consumption of illuminating gas, coal, and all kinds of fuel, the decomposition and oxidation of refuse organic matter and sewer-gas, the residuary gases belched forth from the chimneys of dye works, chemical works, and numerous other manufactories, ete. As coal seldom contains less than one-half per cent. of sulphur, and frequently one per cent. or more, every ton of coal when burned produces from 30 to 60 pounds of oil of vitriol. When one considers the enormous quantities of coal that are consumed in cities, and the correspondingly great quantities of this corrosive agent that are thus disseminated in the atmosphere, we would naturally expect to find appreciable evidence of its effects on building stones. (a) These effects are likely to be most marked in a large eity like London or New York, and on certain stones, e. g., the earthy or oolitic limestones and marbles. In London they are revealed in the magnesian sulphate, which imparts a bitter taste, and even forms an efflorescent crust of white crystals upon the disintegrated portions of the Portland stone, and in the calcium sulphate, amounting to 3.4 to 4.6 per cent. in the decayed crust of the Caen stone. (b). Little limestone has yet been introduced into New York, and the durability of a variety in a village or small town elsewhere gives no measure of its fitness to resist the corrosive agencies in the atmosphere of our cities. CARBONIC ACID.—This is a universal product of combustion, but is indeed derived from all the sources above mentioned, as well as from the respiration of millions of men and animals. Dr. Smith found the air of Manchester to contain 0.04 to 0.08 per cent. of carbonic acid, while that of the highlands of Scotland contained but 0.03 per cent. The researches of Daubrée, T. S. Hunt, and others, have shown the active action which this gas exerts in the corrosion of the feldspar of granites. NITRIC ACID.—Traces of this acid have been commonly found in the atmosphere and falling rain, but most perceptibly during and after thunder storms. It has been suggested that “every flash of lightning not only generates nitric acid—which, in solution in the rain, acts on the marble—but also, by its inductive effects at a distance, produces chemical changes along the moist wall, which are at the present time beyond our means of estimating. (¢) So far as its formation is due to electrical agency, it probably increases during the summer; but it is also one of the products of oxidation of the gases arising from the decomposition of organic matter, ammonia, and nitrates, and from our numerous gas works. HYDROCHLORIC ACID.—This corrosive agent Dr. Angus Smith found in the rain of Manchester, to the amount of 1.25 grains per gallon. It is derived from the fumes of bleaching works, chemical works, potteries, and many factories, and from vicinity to the sea. CARBOLIC, HIPPURIC, AND MANY OTHER ORGANIC ACIDS derived from smoke, street-dust, sewer-vapors, etc., have not been hitherto recognized, but, in my opinion, are among the most constant and efficient agencies in the corrosion of the building stones of a city. Whether they are present in the atmosphere and falling rain is still a matter of conjecture, though I think it probable; but no series of analyses has yet been made to determine the exact constitution of the air and rain-water in our cities. However, there can be no doubt of their presence, possibly in the smoke and unconsumed carbon which attach themselves to our rougher stones (freestones, marbles, ete.), certainly in the street-dust, chiefly ground-up horse manure, which is blown against our buildings and remains attached to their surfaces, often to a considerable height above the street level. That the corrosion thus resulting is due not merely to mechanical friction, but mainly to chemical action, is shown by the fact that it is sometimes most active on a surface which is sheltered from the rain, and to which the crust of dust can adhere more persistently. For example, I have noticed that the vertical faces of the steps of Quincy granite beneath the portico of the church on the northwest corner of Fourth street and Lafayette place, perfectly sheltered from the rain, and but little exposed to the wind, have been sometimes covered with a film of street-dust beneath which the smooth-dressed surface of the granite is deeply corroded, peeling off to the touch of one’s fingers in flakes from 2 to 5 millimeters in thickness. As to the foundations of buildings, these are exposed to the quiet action of the vegetable acids derived from the decomposition of plants and of the humus of the soil. OxyGEN.—This constituent of the atmosphere, especially in its more active form, ozone, attacks the sulphides (e. g., the pyrite in the Vermont roofing slates and in the marble of Lee, Massachusetts, ete.), and, more slowly, the ferrous silicates in certain minerals (e. g., the chlorite, biotite, hornblende, augite, etc.,in our granites, gneisses, traps, etc.). The resulting oxygenation and hydration may be expected to produce expansion and a tendency to loosening of the constituents of a stone. AMMONIA is another product of animal life and decomposition, the fumes of factories, and atmospheric reactions, whose existence in the air and rain-water has been proved, and which must do its part in the disintegration of stone. COMMON SALT (sodium chloride) is constantly present in the atmosphere along the Sea-board, and must affect the solubility of the cement of porous sandstones, etc. An English observer, however, considers that sea air is not injurious to stone, instancing Sandysfoot castle, near Weymouth, of which the stone is in perfect condition, although erected on the sea-shore and constantly washed by the spray since the time of Henry VIII. A comparison of the forms of decay of stone observed in the cemeteries within this city and in those nearer the ocean, e. g., at New Utrecht, yielded no evidence of any results, attributable to this agency, in greater action at the latter locality. a C. H. Porter; Paper on Building Stones, p. 24. Albany, 1868. e U. 8. Commission,1851. b J. Spiller, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1867. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 373 B. MECHANICAL AGENCIES. Some of these are probably, in our climate and conditions, the most efficient of all in the wear and disintegration of our building stones. Frost.—The action of severe frost on stone must be usually one of the main causes of its rapid decay. Two elements are involved—the friability of the material and its power of absorption of moisture. The action may be expected to be most active where a material is repeatedly saturated with moisture, rain-water, or water derived from the thawing of snow and ice, and alternately frozen and thawed. The violence of the force resulting from the congelation of water within the pores of a stone may be understood from a recent estimate, that the effect produced by the freezing in a closed vessel, as it takes place very suddenly, resembles the blow of a hammer of 12 tons weight upon every square inch. However, the disintegration of our brownstones cannot be attributed entirely or mainly to this powerful agency, since the same decay is in progress in southern sea-ports where this brownstone has been used as a building stone; and I have been consulted by a correspondent at New Orleans in regard to the best means to arrest this decay in brownstone fronts there. On other stones, e. g., marble, this force may exert a very slow action; the experiments of Professor Joseph Henry and the calculations of Captain (now General) M. C. Meigs have shown the depth of exfoliation, after fifty alternations of freezing and thawing by artificial means, to amount to very nearly the ten-thousandth part of an inch. (a) VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE.—The constant variations of temperature from day to day, and even from hour to hour, give rise to molecular motions which must affect the durability of the material of a building. Recent observations on the pendulum have shown that the Bunker Hill monument at Boston is scarcely for a moment in a state of rest, but is constantly warping and bending under the influence of the varying temperature of its different sides. (b) The climate of New York must be far more trying than that of England, as the temperature may vary 120° or more in a single year, and even 70° in a single day, with many repetitions of similar extremes during the spring and fall, and sometimes during the winter months. The intensity of the direct rays of the sun, particularly in summer, and the frequent passing showers of cool rain-water falling upon the heated surfaces, are important elements in the attack upon the building stones. The experiments of Colonel Totten, reported by Lieutenant William H.C. Bartlett in 1832, on the expansion and contraction of building stones by variations of temperature, yielded the following results, for the linear expansion, in fractions of an inch, of one inch of stone for 1° of Fahr.: , PPeHUAro DO WACCIMIREUZEAC © DB fie = cis o cca nee nian Semen ewes pepe ene sin wes cgi sane ene Sie ean 's tit emnk,« 0. 000004825 Marble, Sing Sing, New York ..-- 2-2. --- 22-22 2 see ne se ew ee ose oa wegen een eee ee we oe 0. 000005668 Sandstone, Chatham, Connecticut......---..--. .--------- ---+s--e tare Senatarercete up ter iane a avcetle. a wie e saan 0. 000009532 To apply these results to the case in question, let us suppose two coping stones, of 5 running feet each, to be laid in midsummer, when they have a temperature of 96° Fahr.; in winter their temperature may safely be assumed at zero, so that the total variation of temperature will be 96°. The distance by which the ends of the stones would be separated would amount, for granite, to 0.027792 inch, giving a crack a little wider than the thickness of common pasteboard. For marble, this crack would have a width of 0.03264, nearly twice the thickness of common pasteboard; and for sandstone 0.054914, nearly three times the thickness of pasteboard. These cracks are not only distinctly visible, but they allow water to pass freely into the heart of the wall. The mischief does not stop here: by this constant motion, back and forth, in the coping, the cement, of whatever kind the joints might be made, would be crushed to powder, and in a short time be totally washed by the rains from its place, leaving the whole joint open. Winn.—A gentle breeze dries out the moisture of a building stone and tends to preserve it, but a violent wind wears it away by dashing sand-grains, street-dust, ice particles, etc., against the face. The extreme of such action is illustrated by the vast erosion of the sandstones in the plateaus of Colorado, Arizona, etc., into tabular mesas, isolated pillars, and grotesquely-shaped hills, by the erosive force of sand-grains borne by the winds; in the window-panes of houses on Nantucket island, converted into ground-glass by flying sand; and in the artificial process of manufacture by the “‘sand-blast”, carried on in our cities. A violent wind also forces the rain-water, with all the erosive acids it conveys, into the pores of stones, carries off the loosened grains from the surface, and so keeps fresh surfaces of stone exposed. In this climate, buildings are most attacked by weathering agents on their north, northeast, and east fronts (the very reverse of the conditions prevailing in Great Britain), and, in this view, it is of course important to select stone of the greatest durability for the fronts into which the prevailing wind thus drives the rain, i. ¢., those on the west sides of the avenues and the south sides of the cross-streets in New York city. Again, the swaying of tall edifices by the wind, whose amount can only be appreciated by ascent of our church spires during a gale, must cause a continual motion, not only in the joints between the blocks, but among the grains of the stones themselves. Many of these have a certain degree of flexibility, it is true, and yet the play of the grains must gradually increase and a tendency to disintegration result. Rarn.—The attack of rain on building stones depends upon its solvent action, partly due to the solvent agencies before mentioned, which it conveys, and upon its mechanical effect in the wear of pattering drops and streams a Joseph Henry, On the Mode of Testing Building Material. b United States Commission, 1851. > ol4 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. trickling down the face of a building. In’dry weather a stone is therefore less attacked, chiefly because the destructive acids cannot penetrate so deeply. The proportion of rainy days, and above all of frequent alternations of dry and rainy days, in any climate must exert a great influence on the durability of stone. Professor Hull states : In India, ancient temples formed of laterite—a modern deposit of gravel cemented by lime—are still in perfect preservation. Such examples, and many more which might be produced, all go to prove that even in regions subjected to very heavy periodical rains, provided the air be pure and free from acids, buildings of even friable and calcareous materials are capable of withstanding atmospheric disintegration for a lengthened period. Rains which fall at long intervals, though with tropical violence, do not act so injuriously on stone structures as those lessv iolent but more frequent. (a) ORYSTALLIZATION BY EFFLORESCENCE.—This effect, too, must largely depend upon the climatic conditions— alternations of dryness and moisture—to which reference has just been made. Examples of efflorescence of various salts, sulphates of magnesium, sodium, etc., are by no means uncommon in New York city and vicinity, though more frequently on brick than stone, walls covered with snow-white powdery coatings having been observed in basements of stores in South street, in cellars of residences in West Fifty-second street, etc. The expansion produced by such an exuding crust is likely, slowly but surely, to disintegrate and loosen scales and flakes from the surface of stone. In an important investigation of this subject by Mr. Wenworth L, Scott, of London, the following results were obtained : (dD) Thirty-seven specimens of salt, collected from the surface of various building materials, were determined as follows: Thirty-one, sulphate of sodium (and traces of other salts). Three, mainly sulphate of sodium, and of magnesium and aluminium. Two, mainly sulphate of sodium, with various phosphates and nitrates of sodium and calcium (never over 18 per cent. of the whole). One, sulphates of sodium and potassium, with small amount of nitrates, and much sodium chloride. With regard to the preventive means, * * * I cannot help denouncing the-too free use of resinous, ofeaginous, or tarry matters, as my own experiments have shown me that, in the event of fire, the walls of a building treated with such substances would inflame the moment their temperature was raised to about 200°. He suggests the prevention of upward percolation of moisture by a seam of asphalt, laid on every wall when 2 to 4 feet from ground, as used in St. James’ hall, etc., London. He has cured the efflorescence of sulphate of sodium or magnesium by application of a weak solution of barium chloride. Sulphate of ammonium has not an injurious effect until it meets with substances capable of converting it into the sodium salt. Sulphurous acid or sulphite of ammonium exerts no harmful effect, but rather a preservative influence, occurring in too small quantity to produce efflorescence. The process of osmosis in building materials has been greatly exaggerated, and is probably very slow. It is important that mortars should be: carefully chosen, that they may not contain efflorescent salts. PRESSURE.—A large number of experiments have been carried on to determine the crushing weight of building stones, and the strength thereby indicated. However, It is generally laid down that the compression to which a stone should be subjected in a structure should not exceed one-tenth of the crushing weight as found by experiment. Practically, however, the compression that comes upon a stone in any ordinary building is never sufficient to cause any danger of crushing. * * * The working stress allowed in practice upon ashlar blocks should not exceed one-twentieth of the crushing weight. (c) Nevertheless it may be expected that when an ashlar block has become weakened by weathering, the rapidity . of its disintegration and decay may be hastened by the superincumbent pressure, especially if unequally applied by the settling of the foundations. FRICTION.—This agency of wear most commonly affects pavements, sidewalks, stoops, the facing of piers, ete. It may be derived from the impact of human feet, of wheels, or of the hoofs of animals; the handling of freight; the removal of dirt, snow, and ice; the flow of tidal currents; the blows of the waves of the bay and river, ete. FirE.—The fierce trials to which building materials of all kinds have been subjected, in the great fires in Chicago and in Boston, during the last decade, have shown that there are none, not even brick, which can withstand, - inthe form of thin walls, without warping or utter destruction, the tempest of flame evolved from the great magazines of combustibles gathered on every side in an American city. It is a remarkable instance of the prevailing ignorance on this subject that there exist many varieties of sandstone (e. g., the buff freestone from Amherst, Ohio, ete.), graywacke, and perhaps other rocks, which possess a fire-proof character that enables them to resist a white heat, as the linings and hearths of iron-furnaces, and which would seem to specially fit them for the ashlar of buildings desired to be fire-proof, or at least the window-sills, ete., of business buildings, storage houses, etc. It must be considered, however, that experiments are highly desirable to a Building and Ornamental Stones, p. 312. b On Salification, etc., Jour. Soc. Arts, 1860, Vol. IX, p. 274. ¢ Notes on Building Construction, p. 6. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 375 determine the character of resistance of these and other stones, not only to the lateral application of flames or radiation of intense heat, when exposed in a building with a backing of brick, but also to the alternations, rapid and violent, of sudden expansion and contraction, produced by the sudden application of cold water from the streams of fire-engines upon the heated masonry. So far as present observations have gone, however, in regard to such sandstones, I see no necessity to reject the abundant materials supplied by nature, and will present additional reasons on a later page. C. ORGANIC AGENCIES. These are of a vegetable nature, in their attack upon the materials of building construction on land, and of animal nature in regard to the erosion of submarine walls. VEGETABLE GROWTHS.—In regard to the influence of lichens on the durability of stone, very opposite views are held. On the one hand, it is acknowledged that, in the case of marbles and limestones, some lichens exercise a decidedly corrosive action, and Professor J. C. Draper, in a paper on the decay of stone and brick in New York city, maintains that the same “ minute lichen, Lepra antiquitatis, grows with remarkable freedom on such hygroscopic rocks as the sandstones, as any one may satisfy himself on examining the houses on the cross, or east and west, streets of our city”. (a) So far as my observation has gone, lichens are markedly absent from the decayed stone-work of this city, and it is probable that the reference applies to some other form of vegetation. Thus they never occur in the church- yards of Trinity church and Saint Paul’s chapel, though found abundantly in those of New Utrecht and Flatbush ; e. g., three species were distinguished upon a single tombstone (Rutgert Denyse, 1795) at New Utrecht. On their removal, the surface of the stone beneath is not found corroded, but only retains a fresh color. In a report on the selection of the oolitic limestone used in the houses of parliament in London, the subject has been thus discussed by one of the commissioners: A question has frequently been raised with reference to the effect of vegetation un the surface of stone-work. By attentively examining the magnesian limestone buildings of this part of the country, it would appear that lichens exercise a sort of pernicious influence. At Bolsover castle, the keep of which seems to be constructed with magnesian limestone, similar to that of Steetley, wherever lichens have vegetated on the exterior of that edifice, decomposition has certainly taken place; and where they were then growing, upon removing them, we found that the surface of the stone, for about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, was reduced to a state of white powder. In such instances the lichen seems to possess some inherent power of chemically acting upon the stone; but whether the plant appropriates only the carbon to its own use and leaves the lime and magnesia, or whether it takes up the carbonate of lime and rejects the carbonate of magnesia, is a question of great interest, although it has not yet been investigated by a scientific observer. (b) The opposite view, advocating their beneficial influence, is represented in the following quotations: Lichens are in many cases a protection from the weather, and tend to increase the durability of the stone. (c) In the report on the selection of stone for the houses of parliament it is stated: Buildings situated in the country appear to possess a great advantage over those in populous and smoky towns, owing to lichens, with which they almost invariably become covered in such situations, and which, when firmly established over their entire surface, seem to exercise a protective influence against the ordinary causes of decomposition of the stone upon which they grow. Many blocks of stone quarried at the time of the erection of St. Paul’s, in London, but left in the quarries, and now covered by lichens, still retain their sharp edges and tool eee beneath fie lichens, while those on the exposed fronts of the cathedral are now moldering away. The sandstone of Tintern abbey (thirteenth century), in part laminated, is covered with gray and green lichens, and is, for the most part, in perfect condition. In Tisbury church (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) the ashlar, constructed of calciferous limestone, is, where undecomposed, covered with lichens. -The exact action of the lichens needs investigation, and will doubtless be found to differ widely according to the species and the material on which they grow. Few of our buildings in this district are sufficiently old to present much growth of this kind. There is another vegetable growth, however, that of the conferva, of which no notice seems to have been taken, but which flourish in damp weather all the year round, in New York and vicinity, upon shaded surfaces of our freestones, often coloring the vertical faces of the steps and the sides of stoops, and the lower portion of the ashlar, near the ground-line, and under the shadow of heavy copings and cornices, especially on the north shaded fronts of the houses on the south sides of the streets. Upon brownstone their eroding influence is shown in the common roughening of the dressed surfaces. Upon the Nova Scotia or Dorchester stone their action is apparently still more active, as shown in abundant instances on the walls and carved work throughout Central park, e. g., the pillars of Albert quarry stone at the head of the steps at the end of the mall, where shaded surfaces are alternately seen colored green with confervw, and again bare and crumbling, at different seasons of the year, and have needed frequent redressing. It may also be remarked that the heavy growth of vines trained up over the fronts of houses, sometimes seen in this city, would be apt to favor such growths and the decay of soft freestones. The well-known destructive agency of the roots of grasses and higher plants on the durability of masonry is fortunately not a danger to be considered in our American cities. a The Manufacturer and Builder, 1872, IV, 170. b C. H. Smith: Lithology, or Observations on Stone used for Building, p. 20. 1840. ce Notes on Build. Const., Part III, 10. 376 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. BORING MOLLUSKS, SPONGES, ETC.—The serious danger of the attack of these forms of animal life may be illustrated by the following example: A limestone from Creston, near Plymouth, England, was originally employed in the construction of the Plymouth breakwater, but the boring mollusks (Pholas dactylus) so perforated the stone, between high and low water, that it was thought necessary to replace the blocks by granite. (a) Little masonry is yet exposed in our bay and along our river fronts to the attack of these enemies; but the cargoes of Italian marble sunk off the harbor, which have been found thoroughly perforated and honey-combed by such agency, ¢. g., that of a steamer sunk in 1871, and the similar erosion of the gneiss of Westchester county, along the sound, by marine sponges, as pointed out by Mr. J. D. Hyatt, of the New York Microscopical Society, indicate the dangers which may be in store for the bases of the piers of the New York and Brooklyn bridge, and for the masonry which will be hereafter introduced into our piers and docks. Birds also serve as destructive agencies; the sparrows and other small birds by their droppings deposited in abundance on cornices and projecting moldings, and the pigeons, as in the London Exchange building, by pecking away the cement between the blocks of masonry. 3.—INTERNAL ELEMENTS OF DURABILITY. The durability of a building stone depends upon three conditions, the chemical and mineralogical nature of its constituents, its physical structure, and the character and position of its exposed surfaces. A. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. In this view the following conditions need consideration : SoLUBILITY.—The presence of calcium carbonate, as in the more calcareous forms of our Westchester dolomitic marbles, and in the earthy limestones (e. g., that from Indiana recently introduced), is likely to render such materials liable to rapid attack by acid vapors. On the other hand, in England pure dolomite is considered extremely durable as a building stone, as is shown, for example, in the Norman part of the Southwell church, in Yorkshire. The hydrated form of ferric oxide which acts as the cement in all the Triassic sandstones (e. g., the brownstone of New Jersey and Connecticut) is far more soluble, and so may be more easily removed, to the injury of the stone, than the anhydrous or less hydrated ferric oxide predominating in the cement of our Potsdam sandstone and many foreign sandstones, which seem likely on that account to be better resistants to disintegration. The sandstones whose cement is siliceous (e¢. g., the Craigleith stone of Great Britain, and some varieties, almost quartzitic, of our own Potsdam sandstone in this state) are likely to be the most durable, and hereafter the most sought for, where durability is appreciated, in spite of their difficulty in working and dressing. TENDENCY TO OXIDATION, HYDRATION, AND DECOMPOSITION.—In the case of a roofing slate, the presence of a sulphide (e. g., marcasite, more Abatapaby than pyrite) is likely to be very injurious; in a granite or marble (e. g., the marble of Lee, Massachusetts, in the new court-house, New York city) the results may be confined to the discoloration and less objectionable. Nevertheless there are abundant instances, which yet need investigation, in which the pyrite occurs in a highly-crystalline condition, even in roofing slates, by which it has been enabled to resist decomposition during centuries. If the pyrite is uniformly and minutely distributed in small quantity, its. presence may be evep advantageous; thus, the marbles of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, when first cut, are cold gray, but by long weathering acquire a tint of exquisite warmth and transparency. (a) The biotite in many of our granites seems peculiarly liable to decomposition, and apparently to the weakening of the surrounding stone. The brown freestones of New Jersey and Connecticut contain everywhere minute scales of biotite, though in much less proportion than that of muscovite, and the freestones of New Brunswick contain similar scales of a chlorite; both minerals in a state of decomposition more or less advanced. The orthoclase, which largely enters into the composition of the Triassic and the Carboniferous sandstones, and of all the granites in this market, is the feldspar of most ready decomposition. Itis found, on microscopic examination of a brownstone or granite, in various stages of alteration, from a mere dimming of its cleavage planes to a cloudy or opaque mass of the usual structure, and finally to a siliceous shelly network, with its interstices filled with iron oxide. In this condition the mineral has lost all its strength and ability to resist either pressure or atmospheric attack, and a stone in which it prevails must have reached the last degree of disintegration and decay. The albite, oligoclase, and other feldspars are much better resistants to decomposition, and their abundance in granite or sandstone may be an important element in their durability. INCLOSURE OF FLUIDS AND MOISTURE.—The thorough drying of a stone before, and the preservation of this dryness after, its insertion into masonry are commonly recognized as important adjuncts to its durability. But the exact nature of the process of seasoning, and of the composition of the “ quarry-sap” thus removed by thorough drying, have never been investigated. The “quarry-water” may contain little else than ordinary well-water, or may be a solution more or less nearly saturated, at the ordinary temperature, with carbonate of calcium, silica, double salts of calciur: and magnesium, ete.; in the latter case, hardening results by the drying and an exact knowledge of its nature might throw important light on the best means for the artificial preservation of stone. a Gwilt’s Encyc. Arch., p. 492. a Am. Arch. and Building News, 1#81, X, 13, 17. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 377 Again, water may exist in large quantity in chemical combination in the silicates (e. g., chlorite, kaolin, ete.), or in the hydrated iron oxides which constitute the cement of a building stone. Many hydrates of ferric oxide are: known to exist, and of these a considerable number occur in nature, in concentrated form, as ores. We do not yet know how these or other hydrates of ferric oxide are isolated or mixed in their distribution through the brown sandstones. I have elsewhere (a) pointed out the probability that, to a large extent, the red cement of the sandstones of most recent or Tertiary age may be probably referred to limonite or limnite, e. g., those found in eastern New Jersey and to the southward along the Atlantic and Gulf sandy plateau; that of the sandstones of the Mesozoic period to turgite and limonite (possibly in part géthite?), e. g., the brownstones of New Jersey and Connecticut; and that of the bright red sandstones of the Carboniferous and older rocks to anhydrous ferric oxide, e. g., the red freestones of New Brunswick and of Scotland, the red sandstones of Potsdam, New York, etc. However, these distinctions cannot be drawn sharply, and the subject awaits investigation. Changes in the degree of hydration are constantly going on in stones of this character, and the absorption of water may exert a force for expansion and disruption. In regard to the vast amount of water feebly locked up in combinations such as these, the query has been recently offered : We venture to suggest, as a subject for careful chemical analysis how far the existence of water or the elements of water, not as moisture, but as chemically combined with lime, magnesia, or other elements in a stone, may render it susceptible to the attacks of frost. (b) The more recent results of microscopic lithology have also established the fact that certain minerals, especially the quartz, in very many of our most common building stones abound in small cavities partly or wholly filled with fluids, viz, water, brine, and liquid carbon dioxide. These cavities vary in size from microscopic minuteness up to a diameter of several millimeters, and are often very abundant, so that a fragment of quartz clouded by them may explode on the application of heat. The varieties of our building stones in which they are known to particularly abound are the following: Brownstone—New Jersey and Connecticut; freestone—Dorchester, New Brunswick ; biotitic gneiss and fibrolitic gneiss—New York island and Westchester county; granite—Quincy, Massachusetts, Clark’s island, Maine, Mount Beatty, Connecticut, Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire, Saint Lawrence county, New York, ete. The question of the influence of these cavities on the durability of the rock, when exposed to frost or to the intense heat of the summer sun or to fire, is one that yet awaits investigation. The violent explosions which attend the exposure of granites to fire, as illustrated in the great fires of Chicago and Boston, may imply some connection, in part, with the sudden expansion and rupture of such inclosed fluid cavities; while the similar action of frost seems to be suggested by the interesting paper of Mr. W. E. Hidden on the fracture of quartz with liquid cavities. in North Carolina. (c) B. PHYSICAL STRUCTURE. This varies widely in the crystalline and sedimentary rocks; but three conditions, common to both, will be first. discussed, then two confined to the former class, and finally two confined to the latter. SIZE, FORM, AND POSITION OF THE CONSTITUENT MINERALS.—It has been established that the resistance to compression—and it may be supposed in some degree the durability—of a finely-granular rock exceeds that of a coarsely-crystallized variety of the same. Dr. J. S. Newberry has also pointed out that “ mica is soft and fissile, and hence is an element of weaknesss. Where it exists in any considerable quantity the stone is easily crushed and unfit for use”. The scales of mica in a laminated sandstone, e. g., the common micaceous variety of brownstone, lie largely in’ the plane of lamination, and diminish the strength of the rock when pressure is applied in the direction of the latter plane, e.g., on edge, on account of the feeble adherence between their surfaces and the rock in contact. So also- when used as ashlar, the expansion caused by frost tends to produce the first separation along those planes. However, both in a granite and in a freestone, it is probable that a moderate amount of mica—much more an abundance of a tough and fibrous mineral, like hornblende, augite, fibrolite, ete.—may serve as an excellent binding: material, like hair in mortar, and add to the strength of the rock, if uniformly mixed, with little or no parallelism of planes. Peculiarities of crystallization in crystalline rocks or of arrangement of tabular flakes of minerals in sedimentary rocks may also produce a coincidence in the position of planes of stronger cleavage, e. g., of feldspar in granites or in feldspathic sandstones, which will diminish both the strength and durability of a rock. The disintegration of the freestones of the Triassic age is favored by both these conditions—abundance of mica and paraliel position of feldspar plates. Porosity.—Bischoff has thrown much light on the percolation of water through the interstices and fissures of rocks. Even in the densest crystalline rocks, as trap and basalt, spots of moisture can be discovered on freshly fractured surfaces, generally connected with minute fissures. In the loosely-cemented material of the freestones the percolation must be far more free. a On the Geological Action of the Humus Acids, Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1878. b The Builder, 1882. e Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., I, 1882. 378 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. The excessive porosity of a building stone thickens the layer of decomposition which can be reached by the acids of the atmosphere and of the rain, and also deepens the entrance of the frost and its work of disintegration. This is illustrated, in the case of brownstone, in numberless instances throughout New York city, in the sills and lintels of windows, the projecting string-courses of stone in brick buildings, the steps of stoops and sills of doors, etc., with their edges rounded, their material pitted, honey-combed, fretted, and furrowed by the ridges of projecting or eroded lamin, or the whole mass of the stone worn away funk with the front of the house, é. g., in the older brownstone houses of the district styled ‘‘Greenwich village”, in the Eighth ward, and in the old streets on the east side of the city. Even, too, in houses less than ten years old, the flat seainies of the porticos, surfaces which appear to be perfectly sheltered from the weather, are peeling away into successively-loosened layers, é. g., in the houses on the west side of Fifth avenue, between Forty-sixth and Fiftieth streets. In all these cases we plainly see the effect both of rain, and, above all, of water, derived from the thawing of the snow which is caught and rests upon the projecting ledge of stone, soaking down into the spongy mass below during the day, and again partially thrust out by the expansion of freezing during the night. With a light-colored stone an unusual and undesirable power of absorption is often indicated by its discoloration in streaks and circular patches. Several kinds of discoloration may be distinguished, all more or less dependent on the absorptive character of the stone. The one consists of a white calcareous efflorescence, very common in new masonry, in blotches spreading around the joints, and doubtless derived by permeation of the stone with solutions of calcium carbonate from the fresh mortar or cement. It appears to be usually of a temporary character, disappearing after a few years. This is sometimes seen in brownstone, but more frequently in the Ohio and the New Brunswick freestones; e¢. g., in the fronts and stoops of most of the houses first built of that stone in Madison avenue above Fifty-fourth street, etc. Another form of discoloration is due merely to the street-dust and soot which are deposited upon the projections of a stone front. It results in long gray or blackish streaks, running down the front at either end of the window-sills and from below the line of projecting bands and cornices, and as a general blackish-gray discoloration of the surfaces of sheltered moldings of apertures, the pediments of porticos, ete. The earlier stages of this discoloration may be easily studied in numerous instances among the older buildings constructed of light-colored freestone, e. g.,in the houses on the northwest corner of Sixth avenue and Twenty-ninth street, and between Thirty-seventh and Thirty-eighth streets, and in the building on southeast corner of Christopher street and Greenwich avenue, etc.; the sloping window-sills of the orphan asylum at Fifth avenue and Fifty-first street are thus blackened, while the vertical faces of the same stone in the facade are washed clean and uncolored. A similar discoloration affects most of the varieties of white marble used in our city, e. g., in several buildings on the north side of Murray street, between Church street and West Broadway; in the new court-house on Chambers street; the cornices, sills, and seams of the rusticated stone-work of the Union Dime Savings bank, at Sixth avenue and Thirty-second street. Another form of discoloration, commonly associated with the preceding in the same light-colored freestones, presents black stains and streaks, whose material has not yet been identified, but apparently consists of manganese- oxide, probably derived from the decomposition of the feldspar and chlorite in the rock. This is of a more permanent and objectionable character, increasing both in extent and depth of color with the age of the masonry. IJts progress is most rapid on stone surfaces exposed to the prevailing winds and rains, i. e., the northeast. An illustration of this appears in the church on the corner of Fifty-seventh street and Madison avenue, whose faces fronting the south and west are entirely free from discoloration, while the spire, freely exposed above, is beginning to be tinted all around and from top to bottom. Other forms of discoloration are shown in yellowish stains on the light freestones, certainly due to iron, and in films of confervous growth, which are green during rainy and damp weather, and become blackish-gray when dry. HARDNESS AND TOUGHNESS.—Resistance to weathering does not necessarily depend upon hardness, since some soft rocks of peculiar composition (e. g., some steatites, chlorite schists, ete.) are known to withstand atmospheric attack very well. However, a hard material of close and firm texture is, in those qualities, specially fitted at least to resist friction and artificial wear, as in stoops, pavements, sidewalks, and road metal, and the natural friction of rain-drops, dripping rain-water, the blows of the surf, etc. The graywacke and blue-stone of New York and Pennsylvania, is, in the form of flagging, unexcelled for paving, etc.; and no reason is apparent why its thicker beds should not be further applied as a material for ordinary construction. So far as yet introduced for this purpose, within a few years past, it preserves perfectly the arris in dressings, quoins, etc., without either chipping or discoloration. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE.—Experience has shown that the crystalline structure in a stone is a better resistant to atmospheric attack than the amorphous. The following statement is made concerning this characteristic in an oolitic limestone of England: The Steetley stone is remarkable for its light specific gravity, great power of absorption, and yet extremely durable ; its resistance ‘to atmospheric influences may be attributed to its beautifully sparkling crystalline structure, without having any dusty incoherent matter in its formation, the crystals being all well cemented together. (a) ETE ee C7 el a C. H. Smith, op. cit., 32. ————$—— NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. a9 i. It is also well illustrated in New York city in the better class of crystalline building stones, e. g., the granite buildings in Murray, Warren, and other of the older streets, the Astor house, etc., which are not yet perceptibly affected by the tooth of time. The same fact is generally true with the sedimentary rocks also, a erystalline limestone or good marble resisting erosion better than an earthy limestone. Only the oolitic varieties of the latter seem to possess, in that structure, an advantage over those that are entirely earthy or amorphous. The durability of a limestone like that of Indiana, recently introduced into this city, must depend upon these conditions. So, too, the highly-crystalline varieties of the Potsdam sandstone, in New York, Wisconsin, etc., abounding in glittering facets which the microscope reveals to bein part quartz crystals of exceeding minuteness, may be expected to have in that respect a greater likelihood of durability, if well cemented, than the ordinary variety made up of rounded grains. TENSION OF THE GRAINS.—A crystalline building stone (e. g., granite, gneiss, marble, ete.) is made up almost entirely of imperfect crystals of.its constituent minerals (of calcite, in a marble—of quartz, feldspar, ete., in a granite) closely compacted together, originally with intense mutual pressure. Sometimes no cement intervenes, but any two grains remain in close contact at an impalpable invisible line. Such a condition must be sensitive to very’ slight influences, the surfaces of the grains in a building stone being alternately pressed still more tightly together or separated to disruption, e. g., by variations of temperature, above all at the extremes of severe cold and frost, of burning sunshine, and of fire. A good illustration is found in those marbles which seem to contain no cement in their interstices, e. g., the coarse Tuckahoe marble, which soon becomes seamed with cracks, as in the building on the corner of Thirty-second street and Broadway. In England it has been found that— All varieties of Carrara marble have perishable qualities which ought to preclude them from being ever applied to external purposes in this country. After exposure to the weather for thirty or forty years, disintegration through its entire mass, but mostly on or near the surface, evidently takes place; after the lapse of about a century, more or less, according to the quality of the marble, the entire substance falls into a kind of sparkling sand. (a) Frequent changes of temperature also tend to destroy Carrara marble more rapidly than atmospheric influences; thus the mantel of a chimney-piece is invariably disintegrated long before any other part. CONTIGUITY OF THE GRAINS.—The principle which obtains in the application of an artificial cement, such as glue, in the thinnest film, in order to gain the increased binding force, by the closest approach of the cemented surfaces, finds its analogy in the building stones. The thinner the films of the natural cement, and the closer the grains of the predominant minerals, the stronger and more durable the stone. One source of weakness in our brownstones lies in the separation of the rounded grains of quartz and feldspar by a superabundance of ocherous cement. Of course, the further separation produced by fissures, looseness of lamination, empty cavities and geodes, and excess of mica, all tend to deteriorate still further a weak building stone. HoMOGENEITY.—A great difference of the hardness, texture, solubility, etc., in the material of the grains of arock and of their cement, or of the successive laminew, renders the weathering unequal, roughens the surface, and increases the sensibility of the stone to the action of frost. So also softer patches, of more easily decomposed veins and layers in the stone, produce unequal weathering, hollows, furrows, and projecting ridges. Even a hard crystalline and otherwise durable stone may be materially weakened by these defects. Illustrations of this are found in the same varieties of the dolomitic marbles, with irregularly mixed constituents, from the old quarries at Kingsbridge, on New York island, and in Westchester county. C. CHARACTER AND POSITION OF SURFACE. The rough or polished condition of the surface of the stone, its inclination from a vertical plane, and the position in which it stands with reference to the sun and to the prevailing direction of the wind, all constitute important elements of its durability. SMOOTH DRESSING OR POLISH.—It is generally assumed, and rightly, in the climate of New York, that a smooth or polished surface tends to protect a stone by facilitating the rapid discharge of rain-water from its surface. The present condition of most of our smoothly-dressed granite fronts seems to confirm the general accuracy of thisopinion. Nevertheless some anomalies occur. It has been observed in London that, in the modern buildings, decay progresses far more rapidly than in the ancient, and it has been queried whether this may not in some way be due to the application of machinery. A series of observations by Professor Pfaff, of Erlingen, Germany, in reference to granite, syenite, etc., have shown, among other results, that the superficial loss in a century, by exposure to the weather, may amount, on unpolished granite, to 0.0076™™, on polished granite to 0.0085™™. ‘These conclusions in regard to the more rapid weathering of polished granite yet need confirmation by more extended observations in other localities. But an investigation is yet needed to determine whether the vibration of the surface of a stone, produced by the jar of the machinery employed in sawing or polishing, as well as the bruising produced by the friction of the sand, diamond-saws, etc., and still more, the strain and pressure produced by the impact of the blows of chisel and hammer, in smooth and rough dressing, do not produce superficial changes of tension, minute fissures produced by the separation of surfaces of feeble adherence (e. g., on smooth planes of pl et RI aS a a Re a a Gwilt’s Encyc. of Areh., p. 491. 380 _ BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. tabular flakes of feldspar, scales of mica, ete.), cracks in brittle minerals (e. g., quartz), microscopic clefts along cleavage planes (e. g., of the feldspars), slight disruption of grains from the adhering cement, etc. If these actions do occur in stone-working, and especially if they reach a sensible depth, as I believe, they may partly account for the anomalous loss of polish and rapid peeling away of successive layers from the surfaces of dressed granites and freestones. The very dressing, so agreeable to the eye, may actually present the surface of the weaker stones in the worst possible condition to resist atmospheric attack. On the other hand, a roughness of the surface favors the deposition of street-dust, smoke, etc. In France— The beautiful marble sculptures of the park of Versailles will, within the next fifty years, become, through its means, unsightly and ugly masses of dirt, and eventually be irretrievably lost. Dr. Robert recently called attention to the fronts of the Bourbon and Mazarin palaces, that of the legislators, the mint, and others, which by this influence are hastening to decay, and even more rapidly in proportion. as the ornamental carvings promote the deposition of dirt and dust. (a) Tt has been shown that in New York these substances have been observed to exert a deleterious influence by chemical corrosion of the stone on which they rest. Being chiefly organic in material and absorbent of moisture they also furnish a suitable nidus for the growth of minute plants, e. g., lichens, conferve, mosses, etc., whose erosive action has been already mentioned. However, there is no doubt that under certain circumstances, not yet understood, a crust of dirt, smoke, and soot may act as a preservative to the stone, as observed by E. C. Robins and A. Billing, on St. Paul’s and on Hanover chapel, London, on the church of St. John’s, in Southwark, etc.; the same is true: also of at least some of the vegetable growths—certain lichens which flourish in the dusty deposits. INCLINATION AND POSITION.—Sufficient reference has already been made to the influence of these conditions. in many ways on the durability of stone. The illustrations are without number throughout the older streets of our city, in the decayed state of those surfaces of stone which are horizontal, and on which rain-water, slush, snow, and ice may rest; of those on the south side of cross-streets, and the west side of the avenues running north and. south, which are exposed to the driving rain of northeast gales, etc. Thus, in the towers of the church on the: northwest corner of Clinton and Pacific streets, Brooklyn, the brownstone on its front, which faces the east, is. peeling off in patches in many places, while the south face of the towers remains apparently unattacked. Again, on surfaces which are liable to be water-soaked, but which may be sheltered from the sun and wind, the moisture does not quickly dry out, and here especially the decay may be very rapid. The soffits of arches and lintels, the shady sides of window-jambs, and the shady parts of carvings, etc., are among the first portions of a building to decay. From this cause, or from the leaking of a rain-water leader, the surface of a whole pilaster may” peel off, as in the building on the southeast corner of Eighteenth street and Fourth avenue, New York. METHOD OF POINTING OF MASONRY.—The admitted energetic agencies of decay—frost, solution, hydration,. etc.—have been largely favored by the imperfect and hasty construction of the masonry throughout the city, its joints when new often admitting a trowel. A cement-mortar of poor quality is largely employed, and, soon dropping out, the joints are often allowed to remain open for years. The atmospheric attack is thus made, as it were in flank, directly through the exposed edges of the outer laminz of the stone, aud the decay rapidly affects the stone to a considerable depth, several inches in many cases, and even throughout the entire block, although the exfoliation. may appear superficial. ExECTION ON EDGE OF LAMINATION.—Instances are very rare in this city where the stone has been laid ‘on: its bed”, with a deliberate regard to its durability: e. g., a few houses on Fifth avenue above Fifty-first street, the new wings of the Astor library, etc. On the other hand, from mere convenience in construction, many buildings, especially of our older churches, are fortunately so constructed, the blocks having been small and square and conveniently so laid. In some instances (e. g., the church on the southeast corner of Thirty-tifth street and Fifth avenue) blocks occur in both positions and in both are affected by incipient decay; in others (e. g., the church on. southwest corner of Twenty-first street and Fifth avenue) the blocks, although all on bed, are often deeply decayed.. In the old city hall, erected in 1812, the north face, although on the side usually least affected by decay, presents the brownstone of its ashlar set on edge and exfoliating in entire sheets, often traversed by fissures across the lamination, parallel to the joints. Notwithstanding these warnings, most of our newest edifices exhibit the same faulty construction: e. g., the sandstone (from Massachusetts) in the trimmings and even partly in the pillars of the: Union League Club building, on Fifth avenue, the fine new residences in the upper part of Madison avenue, the: trimmings ete., in the huge new buildings for “ flats ” and business offices throughout the city, often nine to eleven or: more stories in height, in whose walls the crushing force exerted upon this soft stone must be excessive. EXPOSURE TO THE SUN.—Again, subjection to wide differences of temperature on different faces, e. g., those produced by the burning heat of our summer sun on the western faces of buildings, renders the stone liable to crack from unequal contraction and expansion, and produces, ona laminated rock, separation along the planes of lamination, and, on a compact rock, an exfoliation in concentric crusts allied to that of common occurrence in nature on outcrops or bowlders of granite and trap. The former is abundantly illustrated in the marked devay and splitting observed on the western faces of the tombstones in Trinity church-yard, the cemetery at New Utrecht, ete., described beyond. The ashlar at the base of the steeple of the church at Thirty-seventh street and Fifth avenue is beginning to decay on the south side, but not on the north or east sides (the west side not being visible). Other examples are a Manufacturer and Builder, 1871, III, p. 150. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. o81 ‘seen on the brownstone stoops of our cross (east and west) streets, where the western face of the dark stone is rapidly disintegrated and exfoliated, while the eastern face remains much longer iu perfect condition. The stone balusters of the balustrades of balconies and the sides of high stoops are, from their slender form, peculiarly Sensitive; they disintegrate and exfoliate rapidly on their sun-exposed sides, and become split, ragged, and reduced within five years to a wretched condition, especially when the bedding plane is exposed to the sun. Little rule is observed by stone-cutter or builder in regard to the position of planes of bedding in work of such delicate character as the stone rails, balusters, and posts of stoops and balconies, the planes lying and facing in every direction, sometimes uniform in a particular stoop, sometimes differing—vertical, horizontal, or even sometimes oblique, and directed to all points of the compass—though in general the planes are vertical in the balusters of a stoop and stand either parallel or perpendicular toward the front of the building. The decay is much more rapid in the coarse brownstone, though apparent on the light-colored freestones, and affects the western side of balusters on the cross- streets and the southern side on the avenues. It seems to be somewhat delayed wherever the edges of the layers happen to face toward the sun, i. ¢., to the west on cross-streets and to the south on avenues, in New York city. In general it may be stated that all the influences of driving winds, acid vapors, pelting rains, burning sun, ete., are less destructive by far than the quiet action of rain-water or thawing snow dripping and soaking down continuously from any projection or hollow in which water or snow may lodge. A good illustration is found in the Synagogue on the southeast corner of Sixty-third street and Lexington avenue, in the fresh, unaltered condition of all its vertical faces of light freestone, and the extensive discoloration which has attacked the face of the pediment of its front portico from water soaking through its roof, and the discolored streaks which run down the inner corners of its towers. 4.—-METHODS OF TRIAL. The methods now in vogue are to a large extent so superficial and empirical, so unsatisfactorily confirmed by the practical results attained, as to have elicited from many an opinion akin to that expressed by a member of the London Society of Arts. His impression was, and it was borne out by the opinions of many practical men, “ that when a stone was once out of the quarry it was almost impossible to say whether it was a good stone or a bad one”. It has long been recognized that there are two ways in which we can form a judgment of the durability of a building stone, which may be distinguished as the natural and the artificial. A. NATURAL METHODS. These must always take the precedence wherever they can be used in any locality, because they refer, first, to the exact agencies concerned in the atmospheric attack upon a stone, and secondly, to long periods of time far beyond the reach of artificial experiment. A memorable investigation, in which the main dependence was rested apparently upon this class of methods, was that instituted by the British parliament in the royal commission appointed in 1837 for the selection of the stone ‘to be used in the houses of parliament. This commission consisted of four persons: the architect, Sir Charles Barry; two geologists, Sir Henry De La Beche and Dr. William Smith; and Mr. C. H. Smith, a practical man, well acquainted with the working of stone, occasionally assisted by Dr. Buckland and Professor Phillips, and, in the chemical department, by Professors Daniell and Wheatstone. From the study of the outcrops in neighboring quarries and the weathering in several old buildings in Yorkshire, the commission recommended the use of the stone from the Norfal quarries, North Anston, ten miles east of Sheffield, and were discharged. The execution of this recommendation was put in incompetent and irresponsible hands, without government superintendence. ‘Consequently the stone of the Norfal quarries having been adjudged too small for the purpose, and also those of a neighboring quarry, resort was finally had to a stone not covered by the report of the commission, and of this the houses of parliament were mainly erected in 1840. It proved of such inferior character that the decay, immediately setting in, attracted attention even in 1845, and has since led to extensive and costly efforts for the purpose of repair and preservation. EXAMINATION OF QUARRY-OUTCROPS.—Much information of the highest value may be obtained, especially in ‘the northern United States, where the results of ancient decomposition have been planed off by glacial action, from a study of the old natural exposures of a stone to the atmosphere at or near the quarry from which it was taken, with allowance for the conditions which may there prevail at present, or which probably existed in pre- glacial time. However, it has been pointed out that “the length of time they have been exposed, and the changes of actions to which they may have been subjected, during, perhaps, long geological periods, are unknown; and since different quarries may not have been exposed to the same action, they do not always afford definite data for reliable comparative estimates of durability, except where different specimens occur in the same quarry ”.(a) Within the district allotted to this report only three building stones are found in place: The trap of the Palisades and of Staten island, whose exposed surfaces are almost always smooth, and whose crust of disintegration, rarely reaching a half inch in thickness, implies a power of excellent resistance to atmospheric attack; the gneiss of New York and Long islands, which often becomes deeply discolored along some planes, but even then, in its common siliceous variety, retains most of its toughness and strength; and the dolomitic marbles of the old quarries of Kingsbridge a Report of Commission to Test Marbles for the Extension of the United States Capitol, p. 589, 1851. 382 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. and Morrissania, no longer worked, and of Westchester county, in which a wide variation is shown on the exposures,. some surfaces being disintegrated to a pulverulent mass or loose sand, while others remain firm and hard. EXAMINATION OF OLD MASONRY.—A study of the surfaces of old buildings, which have been exposed to. atmospheric influences for years or centuries, is one of the best sources of reliable information concerning the durability of stone, and frequent references to such observations have already been made in this report; unfortunately no buildings of great antiquity have resisted the iconoclasm of our period and remain for study. Following, however, the example of Professor Geikie, of Great Britain, in his study of a grave-yard of Edinburgh, I have made some studies in thoseof New York and vicinity. It may be remarked that the varieties of stone used in cemeteries for the dead are usually for the most part identical w'th the building material employed in the houses of the living at the same period. Nor could any method be devised for testing so thoroughly, by natural means, the elements of durability in any stone as that by which, in the form of a tombstone, it is inserted partly in the moist earth, entirely exposed above to the winds, rain, and sun on every side, with its bedding lamination standing on edge, and its surface smoothed and polished and sharply incised with inscriptions, carvings, and dates,. by which to detect and measure the character and extent of its decay. The present edifice of Trinity church was constructed during the years 1841-46 (the first building having been erected on that site in 1696). Saint Paul’s chapel was erected in 1766, and, although this structure is older than that of Trinity, its cemetery is much more recent in its origin. Trinity church-yard, New York city—A variety of materials is found in the tombstones of this cemetery, one of the oldest inclosed in the city. The observations made on the present condition of the stones have been grouped together according to the material, disregarding as carefully as possible all stones which showed evidences. of repair and recutting. Most of the stones are erect, and stand with their planes in the meridian, 7. ¢., their inscribed. faces fronting the east. ted sandstone, compact, hard, and fine-grained, apparently identical with that of the church building, and forming the largely predominating material for the stones: Tomb of Matthew Daniel (1820), west side split off, but general condition otherwise good, and inscriptions sharp; also, several tombstones in vicinity in same condition,, with more or less splitting along lamination on their western faces, e.g., those of John Child (1808), John Wilson. (1805), Peter B. Ustick (1791), Jane Slidell (1770), John Waddell (1762), Joseph Penn (1763), Charles Burleigh (1757), and many others; tombstone of children of John and Mary Bard (1796), much eroded, and splitting on both sides. Two of the oldest stones, those of Jeremiah Reding (1722) and Richard Churcher (1681), are in very fair coudition, the inscriptions being sharp, and only a slight tendency to splitting beginning to show on the west side of the top of the stone. | Graywacke or blue-stone, probably from the Catskills or central “New York: Tombstone of Remington: Stephenson (1730), in excellent condition, but west side beginning to decay; that of Mary Corrin (1739), perfect on both sides; inscriptions sharp on both stones. Black slate, probably imported: Tombstone of John Daley (1774), in very good condition, only a slight decay roughening the west side; that of Anne Churcher (1691), both faces and edges perfect and the inscriptions sharp.. Gray slate, perhaps from the Catskills: Tombstone of George Carpender (1730), inscription sharp, slight erosion: on west face. Green hydromicaceous schist, probably from western part of Connecticut or Massachusetts: Tombstone of Joshua Amy (1742), in excellent condition, only the west face being slightly worn. White oolitic limestone, fossiliferous, probably imported from England: Tombstone of John and James Searle: (1736), in excellent condition. Fine white marble, apparently from Carrara, italy: Inscription and date obliterated, full of minute cracks on both faces. White marble, probably from western Massachusetts: Tombstone of Lars Nannestad (1807), and that of Alexander Hamilton (1804), both in fair condition, but worn on the north face. ‘ Saint Paul's church-yard.—One variety of fine-grained sandstone predominates, dating from 1813 back to 1768. The finest-grained and most compact are often in perfect condition (J. J., 1768), but many coarser or more laminated stones, and sometimes fine and compact stones, are very badly split, and show exfoliation near the ground (A. Van B., 1813), sometimes with fissures across the stone (J. A., 1813). The splitting begins, as usual, near the west face and near the edges. As to marble, the stones here date from 1851 back to 1798, and consist of a coarse white marble. It weathers grayish-white, and becomes roughened. Only a small proportion of the stones are split. About one-tenth have their inscriptions entirely obliterated, and this fact, due doubtless to the acid rain-waters of the city, was not observed in the suburban cemeteries; in one case (A. W., 1851) it has been largely affected in a little over thirty years. The old Dutch cemetery at New Utrecht, Long island.—At this little village, which lies on the southern outskirts of Brooklyn, most of the tombstones are erect, in good condition, and face the east. The materials used are the following : Fine-grained sandstone, of a warm red to reddish-brown color, resembling the stone of Little Falls, New Jersey. As a rule the stones of this kind are in excellent condition, especially in proportion to their fineness of grain, and NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 383 universally preserve the sharpness of their inscriptions. Their dates observed range from 1812 back to 1743, and out of twenty-five noted the following may be referred to: Jacques Denyse (1811), very fine-grained, inscriptions and tool marks perfect; John Van Duyne (1801), in perfect condition; Rutgert Denyse (1795), very fine-grained stone, inscription remarkably perfect, even to the finest flourishes; Jacques Denyse (1791), in good condition, a small fragment lost from top edge; Jacobus L. Lefferts (1785), very fine-grained, and in perfect condition; Abraham Duryee (1743), stone perfectly preserved. : Graywacke, light gray, and thinly laminated: S. Barre (1852), stone split throughout, especially on the west face. Blue marble: Catharine Groenendyke (1797), stone in excellent condition, hard and smooth on the west face, but slightly roughened and pulverulent on the east face, Mottled black and white marble: Mercy Grenendyck (1794) and Nicholas Grenendyck (1795), in perfect condition in both form and sharpness of inscription, the west undressed face being hard, but the surface of the east face, top, and sides being somewhat roughened and pulverulent. Red laminated sandstone, probably from New Jersey: W. W. Barre (1854), the east face in perfect condition, but the top and west face beginning to split; Cornelius Van Brunt (1850), the faces in good condition, but a fissure in the lamination behind the east face; Ann Schenck (1824), stone split along the lamination next the west face, and also with a vertical fissure across the lamination of the stone near and parallel to the north edge; William Barre (1826), and Rebecca Johnson (1821), a stone with alternating red and gray lamine (like that used in the Flatbush cemetery), thoroughly split up throughout, along the lamination, and with fragments lost from the top. White marble, rather fine grained, and for the most part from Vermont, stones dated from 1847 back to 1828, with usually their inscriptions perfect (for example, the stone of Thomas Clark, 1831), their west faces in good condition, but their tops, sides, and east faces more or less roughened and pulverulent; the stone of J. Lefferts (1828), is in good condition except on the west face, which is much split, apparently by the sun. Granite from Quincy, Massachusetts, and Aberdeen, Scotland, in a few stones dating only from 1876 back to 1856, and of course in perfect condition. The varieties of stone have been arranged above in about the order in which they seem to have come into general use. In regard to their durability it may be stated in general : 1. The fine-grained red sandstone, probably from Little Falls, New Jersey, has presented a remarkable resistance to weathering, always proportioned to its fineness of texture; generally in excellent condition after a period of more than a century. 2. The laminated sandstone, brought later into use, has been a poor material, yielding miserably, apparently to the heat of the sun, in less than a half century. 3. All the marbles used have resisted the sun in almost every case, but show by the roughened, pulverulent condition of their sides and eastern faces that their decomposition is slow but gradual, and only a question of sufficient though perhaps long time. A point of difference between the stones of this cemetery, in an open country village on the outskirts of Brooklyn, and those of Trinity church-yard, in New York city, is shown in the abundance of lichens which are found in the former. Three varieties seem to occur: one, a bright green, confined in its growth to the top of the stones; another, of orange color, scattered over the upper part of the west face, exposed to the afternoon sunshine, and rarely seen on the east face; and another of light green color, abounding as a crust over the east face. No particular effect of corrosion by these growths was noticed, either upon sandstone or marble; on their removal the surface beneath was found to be fresh, and had apparently been only protected from weathering. Flatbush cemetery.—In the old cemetery of the village of Flatbush, Long Island, on the northeastern outskirts of Brooklyn, the tombstones are nearly all vertical, and face the east. White marble predominates largely, but the oldest stones consist of sandstone. Red sandstone, usually very fine grained and compact, and na parently the variety from Little Falls, New Jersey. The stones vary in date from 1804 back to 1754: Rebecca Suydam (1797), and Marrytie Ditmarse (1797), both faces of these stones in excellent condition; Hylletie Martens (1779), a light reddish-gray stone, in good condition, only the top being a little roughened ; ’Ahratienn Lott (1754), the inscription perfect, and only a few fragments chipped from the top. Red laminated sandstone, often very fine grained, largely made up of two materials, reddish-brown and light reddish-gray, in thin alternations from one-half to 1linchthick. The stones varyin date from 1822 back to 1754: Maria Allen (1820), with sharp inscription, but many fissures in the lamination ; Peter Neefus (1820), the stone in excellent condition, covered with sections of long cylindrical markings, perhaps fucoidal; Leffert Lefferts (1800), the stone traversed by fissures along the lamination, and also vertically across it in lines parallel to the edges and about an inch from the edge; Adriantie Lefferts (1761), like the preceding; Gelijam Cornel (1754), decidedly laminated in structure, but in excellent condition. Tremolitic white dolomite marble, perhaps from the old quarries of New York and Westchester counties, fine- grained to quite coarse in texture, and often sprinkled with grains and flakes of tremolite, sometimes several inches in length. The stones vary in date as follows: E, Aldworth (1851), the stone facing westward, and with minute fissures abounding over the top and the southern edge; A. Lloyd (1847), the stone in good condition, still retaining 384 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. most of its polished surface, even on the tremolite; J. F. Neefus (1847), surface of stone rough and pulverulent, so that the rough, gray appearance usually distinguishes stones of this material from some distance; Mary Van Siclen (1832), the top and west face roughened one-third of the way down, the remainder being much less roughened ; W. Riley (1811), smooth for a height of about a foot from the ground, and roughened above. Fine white marble, probably of Carrara, the stones varying in date from 1859 to 1801; E. Duclois (1836), somewhat rough and pulverulent all over the surface; N. Rk. Cowenhoven (1809) and J. Vanderbilt (1801), both horizontal tablets, more or less blackened in spots by a minute lichen (probably the Lepra antiquitatis), etc. Fine white marble, sometimes with gray streaks, probably from Vermont; the stones are of recent date, from 1855 to 1730: Charity Van der Veer (1836), the entire surface of the stone pulverulent, rubbing easily off into fine sand; Femetie and Peter Stryker (1730), roughened down to a foot from the ground, where the polish remains. The lichens abound here also on the tops of the stones, but have been mostly cleaned off their faces. The same general conclusions may be here deduced, in regard to their durability, as in the similar varieties observed at New Utrecht. It is a curious circumstance, in all these cemeteries, that the stones display no exfoliation or decay near the ground, the polished surface often remaining perfect; above, the action of the sun on the western faces, and of northeast storms on the eastern faces, are apparent as usual. B. ARTIFICIAL METHODS. The various text-books on building-construction describe in detail many methods of trial of building stone ; €. g., of solubility in acids; of absorptive power, by soaking in water and determination of increase of weight; of power to resist the expansion due to frost, by actual freezing, or by saturation in saturated solution of sodium- sulphate (Brard’s method); of strength to resist crushing, bending, or tension, by the application of pressure or force in various ways, etc. It is unnecessary to make any reference here to these descriptions, except in regard to their antique and unsatisfactory character, and to the apparent ignorance of the appliances now within the reach of students of the modern science of lithology, which can readily be used to reveal the true nature of a building stone and the elements of its durability, e. g., the study of its surface under the microscope, or of slices ground so thin as to be transparent, or of its individual mineralogical constituents separated by means of their difference in specific gravity, or by means of the almost endless resources of micro-chemistry. The careful and well-digested circular of the department of building stones, issued by the late curator of the National Museum, Mr. George W. Hawes, whose recent decease has been universally deplored as a great loss to science and to the work now in progress in this field, has given a suggestion of the wide departure from the old and incomplete methods which is at last called for, in order to advance our knowledge of the proper application and practical use of building stones, under the light of modern discovery. One important method, long in use, is the determination of the absorptive powers of a stone. A granite which absorbs water to over half of 1 per cent. of its weight is open to the suspicion of doubtful durability. Similar caution needs to be observed in the choice of freestones in our own climate. Any sandstone weighing less than 130 pounds per cubic foot, absorbing more than 5 per cent. of its weight of water in twenty-four hours, and effervescing anything but feebly with acid, is likely to be a second-class stone, as regards durability, where there is frost or much acid in the air. It is here pertinent to refer briefly to some significant results obtained by Professor John ©. Draper, of this city, in experiments on two of our most common building stones, in comparison with brick. Fragments of each of the materials were soaked in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate for four hours, then allowed to dry and crystallize for twenty hours, then freed from loosened material by washing off by means of a fine jet of water from a wash-bottle. This operation was repeated eight times, 7. ¢., eight days, with the following results, the first column of figures representing the loss of substance, by weight, in 10,000 parts: Loss. Ratio. Nova Scotia stone\.o. see s.ckse voccetdu ds cee ceaheee bee ree OTE ie eee ee ee re ee 441 18 BrownstONne sco ojasick cece desc Sem tahe Eten cam abe sche eee eee See ee ee 191 8 Red. brick... 2.65. scccnee one vweecd de eee cm eee sae ae eee ae eee ee ne ee ee 74 3 White brick ... 22205 60s 2 cco cc coe sale cine ole ee cule cere mee tee ee ers cs 24 1 As Professor Draper has pointed out, these results only tend to show that frost is not the main agent of the initial disintegration in the climate of New York, since it is not the Nova Scotia stone, but the brownstone, which suffers the most severely and rapidly from decay. A quicker method employed was to heat the specimens to a temperature of about 600° Fahr., and quench them, while hot, in cold water. This method of trial yielded the following comparative results: Loss. Ratio. Nova Scotia stone 2.352 2.5225. ot Jos hee eee as Seen oe oe nn acne oo ee Pet ne nT see: 597 14 Brownstone 522. s.j ssie'e oe oe Sold Oe Pees ob ooo woe onl de oes ee ene oe ese 202 5 Red brick . gsiceed be ede cc ook Ee ee oS. eee ee 82 2 White, brick i..2250 scot 's Soe ade Fae he ae ee eo oe eo ne en >) 43 1 These results appear very significant, especially in relation to the power of brick and stone to resist the destroying action of great conflagrations. NEW YORK CITY AND VICINITY. 385 Again, to determine the extent of the action of.acid vapors in the air upon the building stone, fragments of the same materials were digested in dilute acids, and the following results were obtained: Loss. Ratio. BrowNStOnGesees tracers fe So eter sec caancces san ehe ae tote Ne wanieia es sitiaas Mel staiaetaecate teicicaten dea e ek 216 30 Nova:Scotia stone. -<52-)22 coos ue bala whan icals tain ahs aie aia sie = cotta Sais ealatestre ank seed 6 cee sos tee 66 9 Red brick sete ates ase orice Seen atte see RISTO RIE CIC AAG Beer OD ACEC CRAPO IE Ae SE a ee eee 33 5 AVA nit ites ape Rel ce deta AS A Seip eee sR ee, ee a 5 a oy eee a a, he A eee ae 7 1 On this subject Professor Draper remarks : From this it would appear that the reason the brownstone disintegrates so rapidly in our city is its greater susceptibility to the action of the acid products of organic decomposition and combustion ; where the cementing material is dissolved or weakened, and pores and fissures in the rock being opened, it is less liable to resist the attack of frost. The Nova Scotia stone, on the contrary, is a more friable material than the brownstone ; yet, being less acted upon by the acid waters, it resists the process of decay better. On the other hand, Dr. Page has obtained the following results, by Brard’s process, on 1-inch cubes of several building stones used in this city, which do not confirm Professor Draper’s results: Variety. : Locality. | specific ravitgsl Loss in grains. Coarse dolomitic marble. .........2-: .---.-«- Pleasantville, New York...........-..-. 2. 860 0. 91 ; Close-grained sandstone....-...-.-.--.------ Little Falls, New Jersey............... 2. 482 0. 62 Coarse-grained sandstone........-.-.--.----- Connection by sence womaac sete none ee ajar eae ee sce 14. 36 Fine-grained sandstone...:..,-.-.----------- Connegtioubisc.u-s seeds ce tes fos atoeee 2. 583 24, 93 Coarse-grained sandstone.........-.-.-...--- Nova SCotlac sa. ass sccsnsccee sdesne nee 2.518 2.16 Light dove-colored sandstone.......--.-.-.-- Seneca, Ohios292- 5.225222 s2sce sec oe ee 2. 456 1.78 ULB COL G ice ee ee a ae ate eielatnietn o's sient alae mere inte disiaiain'a isin) a cies 2.ccials ge vie mislx caret ciata a\a'are 2. 294 1.07 Sol Dro kasama eee sweet een ssiiec wna vote sia | sare SOs Ant OS ASE SSE CAEE CEE Decors: PIR 2. 211 16. 46 Many experiments have been made to determine the crushing strength of building stones, an element which probably bears some relationship, at least in a general way—exactly what, it has never been determined—to their durability. The results in regard to the building stones used in New York, according to various authorities, are given in table on pages 330-335. They have been collected from various publications, mainly the reports of 1874 and 1875, by General Q. A. Gillmore, on the compressive strength, specific gravity, and ratio of absorption of the building stones of the United States, and a report of the results (communicated to me by Mr. F. R. Collingwood, an engineer of the New York and Brooklyn bridge) of the trials by Mr. Probasco, of the dock department of this city, on the stones employed in the bridge. A point yet needing investigation, but apparently as yet disregarded, is whether the crushing strength of a stone, as determined on the bed, may be affected, possibly diminished, by the reversal of its original position; a fact probably of common occurrence, since the original top of a block is rarely marked. Other experiments have been made, too limited and imperfect for quotation here, such as those by Professor Joseph Henry and the United States commission in 1851, and by Professor Walter R. Johnson in 1852, to determine the amount of material thrown off from American marbles, etc., by repeated freezing and thawing, etc. In this connection we may refer to the experiments made by Dr. Hiram A. Cutting, of Vermont, on a series of American sandstones, in regard to specific gravity, weight, absorptive power, and resistance to fire. The results on varieties like those used in New York city are quoted in the following table (The Weekly Underwriter, 1880, Vol. XXII, p. 288): ioe, 2 Bs ! 4E: O43 i) | & | se 2 Heated at | Heated at | Heated at Heated at Heated at f om * a] eated a eated a eated ai eated a ; Local name. Locality. Bates 22 | 32 600° F. | 800° F. 900° F, 1,000 F. EEE SOmND EE c=! pa) atures. i 3 | 321 2 a th 3 n E ia c i i) Pounds. PEOCHIONO. oop esas acema ase = Portland, Connecticut .-----..--. 2. 380 148.7 | 1+ 27 | Not injured.| Not injured.| Friable ....... Tenderiseeen: Ruined. Breeston@s 2.2. -saese<--=- North of England .....------.-- 2.168 | 135.5 | 1+ 27 |...-do -.-...- boc dQreceawsse | Cracks badly -| Spoiled --..... Montrose stone ......------ Ulster county, New York...-.--- 2. 661 166.3 \ell=-3145) 2-200! 4-.-\- ROE: Not injured...} Slightinjury..| Stands well. Pracstonesk. j.dcbss asaast Belleville, New Jersey..--.----- 9.350 | 146. 8.1 4597 to do\sl..-.- a dade | Cracks .....-. Friable ....-.. Hreestone..-5<00=2)s eee ENV HI COULS ot iaxccom aackios aban 2. 424 151.5 | 14-240 |....do ....... BHAA (re ese icy BAG rete aN ips eeeper as Carboniferous sandstone. ..! Br. Philips, Nova Scotia .--.---. 2. 353 aK Treaty) lp Wet do 1 tS CY ee dota Crumbles ..... (isla and crumbles. Freestone -.c..06ss-n4e 0 seen Dorchester, New Brunswick....| 2. 363 | BEY Au) on ea 7.57 aa Cs a eae Cracks.....-: Cracks)? andi: =2-d0,~oesus.5 | | crumbles. Borlin' stone): --54-2222-52-5 Cleveland, Obio!..-..-......---« 2. 210 WIGEr Wear ee ts. -- AO 520: \n'0 Not injured-.| Slight cracks .|........-----.-. Stands well. Berea stone... 2-2-2505" reared) PIG eens <5 << o> ye |. a td a f , : y' x ! af ap ' 5 . " ae é - i] ; ¥ Ps “a? ba o ' wh PEN walt : ae me } « . I . 1 ‘ : 4 Pg ; | “ | | 4 a . #4. fee Than ; i i ™ y ‘ ee an extel SY uf hy al 1 v y te JNA Ee 1 Ee edd Dl ee JSS APY SN IDM EDC EXPORTATION OF STONE. Slate is now being quite largely exported to Australia and New Zealand; some to England and Germany, and some to South America and the West Indies. The most extensive exportations are perhaps to Australia. School slates are quite largely sent toGermany. Marble is exported to the British North American provinces, to the West Indies, and to Cuba; and the reports of the Philadelphia custom-house show that in 1878 marble was exported to England; in 1879 to Belgium, England, and Ireland; in 1880 to Belgium, England, and Japan. Soap-stone has been exported to England. Quite a large amount of Carrara marble is brought to the port of Boston and from there distributed to the British North American provinces. The reason why this is done under the double duty instead of being shipped direct to the market where it is consumed, is because large amounts of marble are shipped constantly to this country while these other markets receive but a small amount at a time; also because ships will bring cargoes for less money to Boston than to Halifax on account of being more certain of procuring a return cargo. These conditions account, in part at least, for the stone of foreign production that is shipped from the different ports of the United States. IMPORTATION OF STONE INTO THE UNITED STATES. The custom-house reports show the importation.of stone into the United States from nearly every country in the world. Itis well known, of course, what stone comes from Scotland, England, Ireland, France, Germany, Belgium, the British North American provinces, and from Italy, and it is also known that onyx has been imported from Mexico, marble from Spain and Portugal, etc., and that marble has been imported from Sicily, granite from Norway and Sweden and Russia, and marble from Africa, but itis not so easy to account for the stone that is imported from British West Indies, Honduras, Oentral America, Ouba, Hayti, South America, Holland, and Turkey. The only countries from which stone is constantly in the market in this country are Italy and Nova Scotia. The granite and sandstones from Scotland are imported for special orders. The same may be said of the granite imported from England and Ireland and the colored marbles from France and Germany—the brown sandstone of Germany, and the Caen stone of France. The statistics of the Philadelphia custom-house show a large amount of dressed marble imported from England. Some stone is brought as ballast from Brazil, and marble and manufactures of marble from the Danish West Indies and the Netherlands, Brazil, Belgium, Cuba, British West Indies, Sweden and Norway, and some manufactures of slate from Germany. It is also stated that marble has been imported from Nova Scotia and from Canada. Some stone is entered on the custom-house books as “ imported manufactured product”, which consists of various carved figures picked up by tourists in different parts of the world. This fact may account for stone imported from any country ; for instance, if a figure is carved in China and finds its way to Turkey, and is shipped from there to the United States, it will appear as the manufactured product of stone from Turkey. What the manufactures of stone are that have been shipped from South America and the West Indies could not be determined. Marble comes mostly in the ° unmanufactured state. The cost of labor is so much less in Italy than in this country that the Italian marble, after paying the cost of transportation and a duty of 50 cents per foot and 20 per cent. ad valorem, can be sold in New York about as cheap as the Rutland marble. The cost of transportation from Carrara, however, does not differ much trom the cost of transportation of a like amount from Rutland, Vermont. i é Ld 398 BUILDING STONES AND THE QUARRY INDUSTRY. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF MARBLE AND STONE, BY COUNTRIES, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1881. IMPORTS. ‘Marble and Marble and stone, and man- stone, and man- Countries from which imported. ufactures of, Countries from which imported. ufactures of, not elsewhere not elsewhere specified. specified. Total aoe sew te ee eee oe eh ean oe we tee tee ease amma $927,752 || Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and the Northwest territory ..-..---. $17, 420 British: W est Indies, ....3. sscasesnscstsresesjaereuseceu shee maee 89 Bel gim seco i= saccie viva n's “ins pann mamma noose so actrees ae 11,809 1) rong ones: dss sieeve ete wie ash seaeheden eae eee 857 Chin ona sen cack es ccmnunas ecgeseen so ee enorme cyanea =asesaeebimns eal So 0S ern RT ome yf MAE ARE el aC 554, 210 FLance --- 2222-22 == -eecee cone eee ennee oece ee wenn ee worn esennene enn 26, 842 Ih: Vanatin a) -coicae.tecewkvsine ecaasenbeonaunhtet bere tir a Tene 84 French West Indies\.£-.. 5 2e -jeccov,tscsines «ececemesecescennss- 88 Nraxico Mt etek ees i Fhe eee Oe ee en 1, 603 French possessions in Africa and adjacent islands. ...-...-...--. 28 | nratherlandicctee of co eel eo ee ee 4,487 Germany ..---- 2222+ - 222 ee cane ne cece cee e ee cone ee nee ce ne ncneee 4 BOG Sada tet Oe uh coun ontn enc Seen eee eee 55 England ..-.--.----------- 2220) ene e ee eee ee cee e eee teen eee 70, 802 | Oubar dc aes aso scces td ausdt eee see eee sa oe eee 5 Scotland ve-ess sss ec sek ches oe eke seein e eee el ae ee 1h, 119 |) eC odentand NOCWAY «inne leseccnyeleed eee 74 Treland, --<--++--/saneacerneasesessantape oteedes o-e5Sh = s4eaerases 98 {yell Gye ASE ee jecate ee nm os wie ems) ee eae ree 2 Gibraltar .------------20-02 scenes secnee scenes scenes sanenrnesecnee £0 th Tinited States of Colombia .i.<..cca++tecescosuccece cleans aaron 25 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward island .-....-- 119, 558 | > EXPORTS. MARBLE AND STONE. } MARBLE AND STONE. Countries to which exported. Countries to which exported. Rough or un- Manufact- || Rough or un- Mannufact- manufactured. ures of. manufactured. ures of. Total's. 2cecac chad aes sosee ses senate aces $220, 362 9409, 483'||| HON Kom i acecc a sn on Getlen ein tess cine St oy sae ant ate eee $150 —— || British possessions in Africa and adjacentislands.|.............-.. 12, 003 Argentine Republid <2 owe con cepencesecee eee reen| Meee see anaes 4,131 || British possessions in Australia...........-..---- $9, 100 77, 530 Belgium - 0. cncas ssc. 20 cwanee eesens= sea seep me 176 2,407 || Hawaiian islands ..<...-...-.--2-.----5-0---020e-| ceness an sesenem 4, 363 Brazil -)..lcg-ot covet oe enna eee ee 2, 500 1 OBB MRE ee aie oe eet se tead face eee eee cee 331 3, 846 Central American states 2. .-se sence esses sesees| chasse eeeamamee 1, 800 i) balipr. pases cmctet emciencke sasinwa sie is oud ceaan:a seed ie = ete ene 350 Chilis. 9-3-8554. 2528 iiisels seamen pe oeealesbea sek] saemieeaeete sent 2, 688} Sapam yo coke. Socccwlas asst eacseic elects cians <2 0\eaal ames cnlsresle tame 338 Chin Gs. ong cde sid oo bie cidiaten MEER eee nine sels = sie ecient 45 || Liberia ...-.. 2... 22222222 eee e ee erence eee eee e|e eee e ee eee en ee 679 Denmark. ..cs 2c deda saeco ance ee tee eowrsbanbaaeuslenen eee ecommerce 7,049 tl -MieSiGo! 25 ave ances. ate caeeenerecen eaters on cncwee 25 10, 948 Danish: West Indies =e.---sq~sees=ecsesser <= === 42 126) |) Netherlands. its. .canesncssaebics hensccomaks dann a[ seca cae~aee eee 8, 225 FLAN. 5:22 {+= 2000s salivoas teeemne seine cess ae 85 6, 145 | Dutch: Wiest Indies 2 2dcneso~ eeu - Sac ct naan sacane | ees ctmoenceomee 439 French West Indies... -..-s-ce ee cee aeemes oe =e = 84 3. |) Datch Guiana . o5- cccc item ee phe weeks oe kneel een nae sewaceees 715 Miquelon, Langley, and St. Pierre islands........|..........-..... 129) Dotol Kast Indies ses cette onan e eee eee eee tone 130 French ‘possessions; ‘all other ceeesca-nsoess= 2-55 502s s ens = sees 136 || Portugal viss-c-secdacscdscalessca rn sce ssccecasacoslyauews seaneeeee 234 Germany (0256-52 225 fe ta eee eres ares 3, 220 28, 207 || Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde islands --.-.-..|...-.-.-----.--- 198 England) .c20.< 25 52-5 -a0= a-bepereees sees o- enee 4, 581 113; B20q): Russia, -A siatie ses. cee setts Sesce'saecns ~cacsece sc leneasaceseen ieee 148 Scotland 2-5.) 23. i22c2c— eee eee eee aioe 280 BOGS.) San DOMINGO saci deg veo cleserohe gaaiec ve oe a este! da ee ale ene 359 Treland 22 202. s25< ccrancince seem eeemetteeteanesawec| scene cniace slams 7,840) Spalnces ase cman ce wmsaaaiiccises's gece ssises evs ass.gces brennee omeeonremne 38 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward DS tee Gaetan mam ate meena wn enlaces ae ees 15 14, 339 StI ee

) a ee ee fe Oe se REN 118, 938 1 ee uo oie lela eee Sree eee ee ln ae a 'w0,5 wia'a.a ccielalvlic'elewia fe visio ginielv,wiaisie \o~ ace u ielersj= 105, 019 LS ee cco k oa eee ste ak re ; ; a ; Fie fy i. \ , *) Ale.» ‘ Le s. 1, oe 3 ; {ieee . Ue ‘ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR: ; PL. LI TENTH CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES . ‘ , i F i i J ; a ' . a), , } ‘ SANDSTONE AMHERST, LORAIN CO. OHIO. eh a? . “Yan S on ae, ene wy “ ¢ Ny! Sollee y A a 7% . dates Ble bh Geach 24 ryt . A é zi ' . x ) ® f 4 '~ | aes | Shi We i's Oh r r Y ie A a re! i 4 MT, | ‘Ah i , . i a DEPARTMENT OF -THE INTERIOR Pr. LA TENTH CENSUS OF 7 UNITE] STATE ll By 1 LINOU : 1 PELE SY a A 8 Ps bs a ; : eats, 7 ie & WAVERLY SANDSTONE SUNBURY, DELAWARE CO, OHIO Netra Bown a Oo Lash Chk 1 iiSARY OF THE PMIYERSIEY Ue HLINGIS DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR LIME STONE DAYTON, MONTGOMERY CO. OHIO. fe Pea pat, es “a .o i "Sa eee reg ee Se ae Rabin ane wee 4 y « - s Sat 4. ; ; # Ma Poh \ : + se i : . es i 7 r A ' b : . . , , - £ ‘ x i ben 14 THE «Gant , OF Wwe as cee ia URIVERSITY BF LINGIS ; 1 ‘ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERTOR Ps. ELV TENTH CENSU LIME S'TONE BEDFORD, LAWRENCE CO, IND peas Bie & DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PL. LV TENTH CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES BIOTITE GRANITE IRON TOWNSHIP IRON CO..MD Jultwa Biem & CoLah ot - ‘4 “- ar a i. eee reer eer Pe we ; a, St toy ~ . a ' . ’ \ i 5 ’ Gh) Sean TRE ((RARY = * 7 oO 2S Oe Sees © vena mat T ar, ie ” < DEPARTMENT OF THE INTE 7 Rl OR MARBLE PAYS ON, UTAH , rit ( “gRARY- . war OBES is Pe MRA gery SF DNL: , . 4 ‘ lj 4 ~ a I ia a DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PI. LVfl PENT CENSGS-OF THE UNITED STATES » TALAGMITE MARBLE SOLAN© CO. CAI — Tit LiSRARY > OF VRE , yalveasiiy oF (LLINGIS ‘ F ¥ \ » - ' 4 . P * ” : ‘ 3 ; A DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR I \ a MARBLE INDIAN DIGGINGS, ELDORADO CO,CAL ee lin ae nl hte : a Ss me 4 al . ; Tk: (iQBARY. OF THE DHIEAST WE BAINOIS ~ 1‘ ‘ a nt | ka we ah ae ae AG Abe 7 i a i. psn e Pee We CR Tes etn eS ae | a te INDEX TO REPORT ON BUILDING STONHS. A. _ Page. Agencies of destruction of building stones, chemical, external, mechani- CRM AMCIOECAUIG Hea boo 2-2 scene wen cece sce dscncescesn ss ccemsegessecnis 371, 376 TM MONTOMEBG GE StONG 11)... . < 96, 97 PRIOR tee ee = wield nine au wica digi autet's «siecle sae Beco ais 98, 99 MOIRCIIOMD caiien = sibs siacesid wcccss)snem Schr SACRE Re NA ate sia tae 60-63 eae eee ah otc iesiawiaizls alias els ain aw lceaninelsia aalsniw os 98, 99 I eee aa alas etn atn noses s aca< esis a Sieinaeetwcenneseses 74, 75 tale eae wisi cain cees sca cvidcapisae aesasSaeee c's ats 76, 77 Tilinois 86, 87 Indiana 84-87 OW Wonciniviaja a DAS CCR Sieh O06 GBBAA BRR Se pC COB SRE OSS ee ese Sn SCI 90-95 Kansas 96, 97 Kentucky 76, 77 GEREN NCEE dai \< isfaiu/S =e njalcie nie sled oasis on cow a sia las else nie'ee's 52-55 iil rete OE eos ee net oc bavi pia acs see dea aw ome ocmcen nsipelcs = 74,75 INE eee oe 2 ayia 23 < ane Nets ania|s sa aaeided/seanis ocneirele acl oute 54-57 ORD ond ea Gene p See E Bese ACESS on Ee ee Eee ete 86, £9 eRe AE REE wate Dats tric Ste's.n ae lmicls cisateia.s wiba's au .0,cm's anes Sjontsia.e's 90, 91 pels ee aE eee oe Tika aida mwcinie's oe bis sncle aisha « vaiapis'as eth ajon.cte ¢ 94-97 Nebraska......-.--- te 96, 97 New Hampshire 58, 59 1G UE ce ee Men see raced nace dnote saat dele apis ate 68, 69 RnR CER el fee \scecns Gninceeckeecwecccnseromecscnscsioas 62-69 See ee aE anion acces Gam sina oslaains once ss Jeanne aiacaasl 76-85 EMMI MN RS ee en oslo «cia cm pec mat oes senler Smeciwnasndotces hesdeesg- 68-73 eRe MEME EE ayers Saints 32s gdeiiaitin oats cvsin oft ubreig's Sic lna ateicinie k=, Sisciele's 56, 57 MEME ean cc once racers awaduewscu cae. ce ccvlnce Sm cece 76, 77 STENT G Ritee Goleta e ola o8'4 5.2 0)2ig aisiav\clenisic disc bioecme's sicwinloisis wise minecien 58-61 AIMS. 5 oo ee 74, 75 MASEL 2 22 ee Ce AS ee a ee 96, 97 Sar URI a ee te hive psc cose din cihele cceeniclnewcinwlnsiacit's ence caae 74, 7 EI ok) PH re, ee Sona loece Mbcs 88, 89 Analysis of dark-blue slate from Llangynog, North Wales .......--..-.. 174 Analysis of ordinary Welsh roofing-slate (blue). ...-.-......------.----- 174 Analysis of the material of the green bands in the bluish-purple slates MIAO PIE EV EINOE eta ia ccna < ize eran ede 'lse won cle es so ctlese tase coeen 174 Analysis of the purple slates of Ni antile WV CLOSES AS AOpen hese eee 174 COPED? Sa oes oe rl a 395-399 Archean outcrops within the Silurian area.......-.--.--------ee.seeeee- 239 Archwan rocks of Missouri.......-.-- Le See ee nS 266, 267 ParoumunrooksoteNorth Carolina. ..-...:----c.s2<2-s--bs-.-+-ceeaeccce: 181-185 SeEMcoat MOCK OLE ONNS VIV ADM :-.<. 5.202 s sebaitnaiharcccaeesececdaneccs 147, 148 eEeMO CHSTOR MW AECOUSIN =o... 252. - - ceseeueter tice soc--sseosdeeee's 234-239 Arizona, description of quarries of ....-------..----------- 2000-2 eenneeee 279 Artificial means of preservation of building stone..........2....----.--- 389-393 MMEDETADL OOS OF CAL EERO. oc toads on we's ss alpwacteee cdecs sic concen es 384, 385 Mien eorpia, Use Of StONGAN..2...-2-..-.-----conecenecr escces seacan 281 BR. Babimoree Maryland, use of 666ne in...<...-..--..---2sesssn yeeros erodes 281, 282 Pears eso Of SLONE IN). -ssss ese sees. cn 20 <0ac sec ebae + weoss 282 Pn) Nic. ne eee os ee 239, 240 BS CN Rr eRe 209? SOLS See oc eee 24, 25 Batchen, J. S. F., report of, on building stones used in Chicago, Ilinois. - 294 BEPCOeNAL Ol UEP REG os oa. so0's.p sive ase ceccceveueees sedutecas coiokaees 188-195 VOL, IX——26 B § | Brooklyn, New York, materials for buiben 2s in | Brown sandstone of New Jersey | Building stones of Maine Black River valley, Wisconsin, Cry stulline mocks OL-sc.-., secs s Osea ee aoe Bluestone quannies OLeNGWeMOTl en soeteisctee o-oo becet«csdaccccceteeceeen Bluestone, weathering, effects of Bluffs, Baraboo Bluish-purple slates of Llanberris, Wales, analysis of the material of the SREOTS PANGS ITT DAG ae. 1. ae eee oa were learn ce OA ey ache monies «nse wee be cea ced 3reccia, Egyptian Bridge, New York and Brooklyn Bridgeport, Connecticut, use of stone in BroadheadyGs C.-report ofps: 2. keene esse se ona tuk eel Geeta Brownstone, Connecticut, use of, in Philadelphia Building material, influence of climate on Building materials, methods of study of-.......--..-......22.22c0teeeee-- Building stone, artificial means of preservation of.........-....-.....--- Building stone of New York city, etc., Building-stone resources of Pennsylvania........-. ua siats s Rene oitee es effects of weathering upon the .- Building stones and slates, extent of, quarried for purposes of construc- tion in the United States, and the capital, labor, and appliances de- Building stones, capacity of, to resist fire Building stones, collection of specimens of ........--........-20-0---.00-- Biildine stones; decomposivion Of s. ..e sci spon cjns se ceak cece cece seen =o Building stones, effects of frost upon the durability of Building stones, effects of rain upon the durability of Building stones, effects of sulphuric acid in the atmosphere upon the dur- LOUGY Olt neem s wees aaa OMe eee enw ere ee nan cee he ote & Building stones, effects of sulphurous acid in the atmosphere upon the Capp Ib Obes sete tae we chat Soe CIC = cr nate Sore he ote ee Ue hes, (Oe Building stones, effects of variations of temperature upon the durability of. Building stones, effects of vegetable growth upon the durability of ...... Building stones, effects of wind upon the durability of.....- Bea acne rie Building stones, general relations of New England to the markets of the MANGO SuLUOS. shige sa Societies ae cise Reaw ese tacee ae ns ct Daas atiee aa Building stones in New York city and vicinity, durability of ......-..... PEIN ge SwOMES MMINELALS IN eisiee leecise cece = cee «cee sca stem acee mnie coe Building stones of Indiana and Ohio, notes of Professor Orton on the.-.. Building stones of Maryland, notes of Huntington, Munroe, and Single- ton on the Building stones of New England, general conditions of the.............-- Building stones of North Carolina, description of the, by Professor W. Corr and swe Hr isOrk = 52 sa.0% oo ca ceeee teens a2 om 3 Ps A ag RS See Building stones of Ohio and Indiana, notes of Professor Orton on the.... Building stones of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Maine, general re- DOT OW bE GO vmerew ease ok aamcy es seems aucie= obs. sceeee ewes aedlewoe enamels oc Building stones of the United States and statistics of the quarry industry, AN OTOUTICIAOT POSLeD OF GOD thOce aia sa) = sim aetia scale ease oensae nesses aie seams Building stones of Virginia, notes of Hintingion and Munroe on the.... 401 Page. 241 282 19, 20 238, 239 130-135 318 239, 240 174 282-292 398, 399 320 292 265 315 389-393 365-371 146, 147 316-356 371, 372 371, 372 373 115 364-393 4 188-219 116-123 175 107-109 181-186 188-219 107-115 179 402 INDEX Page. Building stones, position of surface of, as affecting their durability -.-.-. 379, 380 Building stones, statistics of ..-...-.----.----------------2:- 5 eet 5 ee 45-105 Building stones used in New York city, statistics concerning the physical properties of the 2... e220. oes Wie wl come loeee nectar neeses=aaecrice== 330-335 Buildings and improvements; public. <2 so. .< s.c7emione emu neon s en ess n= 825-335 ° Buildings in Philadel phial lish of feo. reomeweeee semi meaehe petee eens 341, 342 Buildings (numbers and materials) in the suburbs and in the entire me- tropolis; statistiosio£ J. 2-2.ync 5 oe eeu eamevidoeces via senate cine se aoe Seer 329 Buildings of New York and adjacent cities: their numbers and common MALELIOIS) a. Fs hes at Bip ote A He ee eae mie eee ote eae es a iy aie eee 213-316 Burlington; Lowa, use Ol stone iGe, oss. + onain es eee ee oo eee ewe eee eae 292 Burlington limestone ini TWinois. Steer cae cae Maape'e enidmcte ss Sele cieieiny aicienes 223 Burlington stage/of Lowa, 2... eweca sen peeeee sacs eese sat anedpa ne seeeee ae 260, 261 c. Californin crystalline siliceous POCKS\Of Jace. scccrt ce ccbare coer. ceeaceees 96, 97 California, description of quarries of ....-......-.--- icp eussdica set oememee ws 277-279 Cambridge, Massachusetts use of stone am 2.2. <<. c nse heise sane re ee 292 Canden, New Jersey, use, of stone im: s.5c0— fesse ec cease ans oe pee aee 292, 293 Campbell, Professor J. L., description of roofing slutes by..--...-.--.---- 180 Canton; Olitd, use of stonein os. sense ere a aoe ce eee eee eee 293 Carbonic acid in the atmosphere, effect of, upon the durability of building BLONDES 428528 Saree sheer ee cette Bee | Pelae-eys Ua sie es wins Sete mele ae cine Tee 372 Carboniferousiageiin ilincis: 2. neues see neate tear cs oO ejeinn se eae 223-229 Carboniferous conglomerate of Pennsylvania ...--.....-..------2-.---++- 1€2-168 Carboniferous formation of Kansas eects necemeeh seen= ome eeleeen see ee 275 Carboniferous limestone of Pennsylvania .......-.-........---------..--- 156 Carboniferous period of Iowa......--..------ Sageig ee ore eee ietcted & Be cea 258-261 Carboniferous sandston@iof. Oh10ss..g2co ame eee ates clei e eater cee ats 198-200 Carboniferous sandstone of Pennsylvania -...----.-----.------- ris: oe 162-168 Cassels, J..Lang, analysis of, limestone by= ces ..o5--- + «teens nasa eee 213 Cedar Rapids, lows, use of stone an! <2 oe wee ev iewlsciccisaes se vineiaeateries 293 Cemeteries in Philadelphia, use of stone in .........:......----..----.--- 344, 345 Central Park, New York city..2-2 26-5 cee eens caeece saan seaee eee cena ae 320 Chamberlain, Professor T. C., report of, on eastern Wisconsin .......... 242-244 Channeling and wedging, quarrying of stone by-.....-.--....----.--...- 35-38 Character and position of surface of stone as affecting their durability.. 279-381 Chattanooga, Tennessee, use of stone in....---. EE ye, Ae ae te. oe Bee 293 Chelsea, Massachusetts, use of stone in.............- Sate aan ae sees woaele 294 Chemical agencies of destruction of huilding stenes ..............--..--- 371, 872 Chemical composition of building stones, as affecting their durability... 376, 377 (Chemical examination 01 POCKS ..2220 eco ne toes lee ee eee tae 30-82 Chester'proup imdllinois.. 5-225): .2des~ ss cweseseaes a cmtinace serene em ree, CoG Chester; Pennsylvania, use of ‘stone in! :. 2.2.5.2 <2. sen fe oe cies oe =n 294 Chicago; Dlinots,7use0f WONG Ne. << cael acens = penny oe sees seep «tease 294-297 Chiloriteimock wesere tte Fares eee tas moe a waenee’ onetime ee ene 399 Cincinnati eroup of Ohiodimestone ae es ene vaecalet cen as eniveeepe as .. 201, 202 Cincinnatt, ‘Ohic Tuse wr AvONe Ills e se cee oe as nae e acted On oe eee ues 298 Classification of materials of construction ..............-------2+-------- 12 C@lay-stones OF ING web g ame ae areata ol elie eiats ies ele le ale es menleislet ie eae 108 Cleveland! Obit; use OfstonG iia ae.et see eaten ceo teeta asaterseeese es 298 Coal stagewmiddlevonelo wags. serene a clesinie eet iteiwsetche steele = Wee's ein ee 259 Cockeysville marble quarries of Maryland ...........--....---.------.-+ 177 Collection of specimens of building stones .....--......---.-.--- Dee ee 1 Colorado, description of quarmes ole sees arenes are] a, so eet eces ese 277-279 Colorado, sandstone’ ofeee eek en nereiee eine eee ia cack aiarinic ocsaiswes eels 98, 99 Colorado, voleanic rocks of ..-..-- Po eb asapteoMicedasdotes sees csceciss secant 98, 99 Columbus; Ohio; userot Stone an seston oes ee cee eee ees see teri o ee ene 298 Common salt in the atmosphere, effect of, upon the durability of building StOMCB xia srs = 5 ose tet Asie = lo tlw eral oe lea ince lalate eee tate esate = pe le inn ole 372 Components of granite 5.2.05. scnden cece eae eeabre nee acne Reena sie sors o~n 22 Components of syenite .......--- Pero see so, pa ocso4 5: o ConeREeeeEe 22 Composition, chemical, of building stones, as affecting their durability.. 370, 377 Concord, New Hampshire, use of stone in.....-..-.--------------- sees 299 Conglomerate, Carboniferous, of Pennsylvania.........----------------- 162-168 Conglomerate of New Jersey .-------- 2.52 .20an-a00csisencesis@ eripeneceass= 140 Conglomerates of New England ....-. 2-2... .0--.0..cscme snccne-cecererces 108 Connecticut brownstone, use of, in Philadelphia .....-..-.--.----------- 343 Connecticut, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the ..-..--- 50, 51, 60, 61 Connecticut, granite quarries of 5. [225.22 one =n es emcee ome enemies eames 127-129 Connecticut; quarries of’. = 6525: donee we a osc es scenes waaenalt eee =e 126-129 Connecticut, sandstone of, description of the............---.--------- 50, 51, 62, 63 Connecticut, serpentine quarries of . i200 -- = sae cea t-te weenie nines cae 129 Connecticut, verd-antique quarries Of 7227.26 i ccc cee eee oe ce pngeceoune 129 Conover, Professor Allen D., reports of.-...- a, scat singe aie SE ee eee 249, 226, 229 / TO REPORT ON BUILDING STONES. Page. Construction, hatural principles’ of-. 72... .c-usa--neseceer eee eemaine 386-389 Construction, seléction of materials for............----.- ce -s--+s0-2-- 986, O8T Cook and Smock, Professors, notes of, on building stones of New York anid: NeW JiOTB6Y <<<: 2d cnca tical demas eds since eee oe acai oon see 129-146 » Corniferous limestone of New Jersey..-..---.---.ceccscecececsenssceeees 140, 141 Corniferous limestone-of Ohio = <5. .5 0c ssns sees sete eoeeeel eee 210-213 Cotton and Gattinger:. .-..20. cesses tsesetscsoes seceneosescece see 187 Cretaceous formation of Kansas...-... Seige Uncis'd siseislon ews cee hele Een _ 275. Cretaceous périod: of Towa... <2. o-22 see ene soee + esse ee cee oes aan 257, 258 Crystalline and sedimentary rocks, physical structure of the .........-- 377-379 Crystalline rocks of Black River valley, Wisconsin. -..............------- 238, 239. Crystalline siliceous rocks, description of the, in— California: -2 25.2022 scaS-ace ble cose vise acowstes once ee eee amen 96, 97 Connecticut! 2. skagen: loceke Leck oboe cence see aden cee 50, 51, 60, 61 Delaware’... iS ibsn ee beck abc stideseane ses tate ose eet eee 50, 51, 74, 75. Georgia. 222.05. bse een ee Beebe ekas ee Goes en 50, 51, 76, 77 MAING 22 scones wien a Ses obeelg co's sn niaeis sin oc 2s bere acnt Soy gee ese ghee atls 398, 399 Elements of durability of building stones, internal ............------..- 376-381 ilizabeth, New Jersey, nseof stone in. ...... [02-22-2028 225-2--0te ee. 301 Elmira, New York, use of stone in teen e cece ee eee eee cnet scene ee ce ee ees 301 SPIRE ASLO ee aa he Mens Wee Gains win ofa Sen —ele oe oto So. tne Soma wawisie wielet 22 Pe veennstevania. Use Of STONE IN 46: .5. 04.55 se. one gee d as seep acess 301, 302 Venera eaNOIgnNa. Use OL BtONG UM haces eadccteen- 22 Uda eens cine cinae sees 302 iwanMNahONrOr KOCKS) Chemical (cs. ducce. co-lbns wan ne, heed ae p otecenclb.. 80-32 Examinations of thin sections of stone, optical .....-.......-----..--- “ee 6 DOME SS MSCIOL sched a's Shea wdae conan? «ote os.7 Hse cece ssist sec leet 33, 34 Exportation of all kinds of marble fem 1872 to 1879, inclusive (Carrara), PPCORUGINGIO IEDR: cee = tae Jaen fa Roe a ee dtc Sp oats ce ediniecis Siqeseg 399 an UOMNOLCALONG.:: 249.25. skeen a te be Bea ee we cin lag «wile tplo.e sss tie 397 Exports and imports of marble and stone, by counties, fur the year ending PRTG S beri 85 a- oe tek au tk dae ese ese ise SWRA oe bin cin aeeccns Joke 388 Extent of building stones and slates quarried for purposes of construc- tion in the United States, and the capital, labor, and appliances de- PUPMCMEEEEDY OUI RS cs core tales Satis ssid Sasde cas ape ant annisice uocettanapesce- 50, 51 Extent of stone construction in some of the principal cities of the United CUTRIOS oc a0dty ee GMURE Go ie CoE EE eae irae ae tices tk aeiee a ee Be 101-105 Harermaleagencies of destruction ..2... -<. <5: 2-5 -- 5-2 -s-sse seen see a4 371-376 F. Fall River, Massachusetts, use of stone in.-.-.-.....-- poowane ae oat nee ona 302 Fire, capacity of building stones to resist ...........-.-.--.---.--------- 364 Fitchburg, Massachusetts, use of stone in..............--.-2----+-2.---- 302 ee Bee HLONGLOLa NOW ed OLSCY . 1. - =. 522+ 2 ererine «eae eeans- esses 144 aE aT -SLOHEIOL MINNECSOLA.. 2 3... - 6 = cee vc ae tote ae eae ak ea netiee ee see~ 256 Mingnasn cemetery on Long Island .:.5...0..2. ciscwoesc-etecesnssacwense 375 idea OesCription.Of QUAFTIOS Of.....<... .---j-:acbecse rote ve oseas cen enacts 186, 187 Foreign building stone, use of, in Philadelphia. .-.......-.-...-...---.--- 343 ’ Fort Dodge stage of Iowa...... Be ain Sine = soe sale awa ee eee er ema eat 258 erPaC ONS C1 NOW. WOTK CMY... --\-. . 20-10 cntisdinens es aava a anes sides 320 REE MAU IAI ON OLUOL Eee ois nin. = < winiass oo nian big o =/s eba wipisieeineetel eal 277-279 Frost, effects of, 1:pon durability of building stones ........--..-........ 373 Friction, effects of, upon durability of building stones.........--...----- 374 &. AGH AIS USE. Ol Mua Naeem meee S25... 62-2 a2 = ooh aener es ee ee re sae 264 fea VOStON GAL OSS UNE OMA LODMRAM Q oii co uice <0/2.<- -2~ - «nec enseteenicmees = beets 302, 303 AaLian ger and Coton eee es nae ae aise ..'... ...2 see mees Cerne 187. Gencral account of the development of the quarry industries of the dis- trict of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Maine.-...-.......--.---..--- 109-115 General conditions of the building stones of New England ......-.-..--. 107-109 General considerations regarding the slate of Pennsylvania...-.......-- 178, 174 General methods of dressing the various classes of rocks ....-.--------- 41-48 General relations of New England building stones to the markets of the ACR OOSbATCS teem tee needa wos Mees anne sy neem: sees set ces amecee 115 403 ; Page. General report on the building stones of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, ; REL MAING «SO RON ER ees eee. ose: wis hea 107-115 | General statistics of the quarrying industries of the United States...... 46, 47 | Genth, Professor F. A., description of serpentine of Maryland i ee 176 | izeolopical section Of Lowans... vee eeeeee ween 369, 370 Limestone group of New Jersey, Lower Helderberg ...-.......--.....-- 140 Limestone, Lower Silurian, of Pennsylvania ....... RE Pee enc 149 Limestone Magnesian, of New Jersey <-..---- .0c0--s- =) essere eaeneene 149 Limestoné of Illinois, description of the ..-. .- --2-2..=.--ses sess meaeee 86, 87 Limestoneof Indiana 22. .f..Ja.~ epee s=seeeaelseee ae eee Ja op nin Sew es Omen Limestone of Michigan, description of the...............2-..-2see0e-ee-- 86, 87 Limestone of, Minnesota «2... <5 2.22 bce .0ntnice ce semenicnee scale eee 249-255 Limestone-of New England ......- «0.5 sc2cess0c-eceses ae us eee 107 Limestone of North Carolina ... 2.2.2 22.2 -swe cece seeee oc eaece ae eee 185, 186 Limestone of Ohio, description of the 2.0.2 )5s0.sdescewis= ni cee eee 80-85 | Limestone of Wisconsin, Lower Magnesian .....-....-------+--=<-«-==5- 230, 231 Limestone of Wisconsin, description of the .-........-.-..<2-0-<-ess==s 88, 89 Eimestone, Ohio, Niagara group of ..... 2... .ses seuss ecseee see eeeee 202-206 Limestone, sub-Carboniferons, of Ohio --+_2---.55.--. 25 42sen eee 214 Limestone, sub-Carboniferous, of Pennsylvania ...............--.------- 155 Limestone, Triassic, of Pennsylvania. .-.- <<<... 24-4. -o6 = eae ae 156 - Limestone used in New York city, statistics of physical properties of... 334, 335 Limestone, effects of weathering upon sien siea,0)s Siaicielihe enizale epee ene weg SOD OLE Lindsley, Harrison W., notes of....-....-... Roce Yeo wies a ne ee 126-129 List of buildings'in Philadelphia .-.-2.- 22 626 foe suis ac eae 341, 342 List of stone structures in Washington and vicinity...........-.-.--.--- 360 Llangynog, North Wales, analysis of dark-blue slate from.............-- 174 Lécalities, varieties, and edifices. 2.22.42 9. .6. see pes ee a ee 316-324 Leekport, New York, use of stone ini... 5c socsec eee aen- eee eee 306 Logansport, Indiana, use of stone inc. - 2... 5 <.- 2. sce anew ent a tonne eee 306 Long Island, Flatbush cemetery on.........---- Ae Aa hclajn x1 AS UE eS 375° Louisville, Kentucky,.ase6 of stone In... <2... 2 Si. acce do n2vanenice eee 307 Lowell, Massachusetts, use of stone in 2... sce sjsu son. = eae eee ee 807 Lower Coal stage of Towa 2.25. a5 - sco 2i oe emia semine anit ounis cle Serene 259 Lower Helderberg limestone group of New Jersey .....-...---.---.----- 140 Lower Magnesian group’of Tilinois..... <0... 202 secncas= sn 219 * Lower Magnesian limestone of Wisconsin, ......-..---+aces-ecccacceucne 230, 231 Lower Silurian limestone of Pennsylvania .....-:.....-...-..----------- 149: Lower Silurian period of Towa... 2.5 -s.0 es<2t0~s-5 sees a s(n 263, 264 Lower Silurian sandstone of Pennsylvania \....-.-.----...-.+-----.ces-- 158. Mi. ies Magnesian limestone of New Jersey -----.-<--<0ecr-cceces oceans seeeeeee 140 Maguire, Captain Edward, U.S. A., report of. .-../..---..--22-sceeseeee 245. Maine, building stones) of 3.22.2 26252 22: Sse oes leses sae caus yeae eee 116-123 Maine, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the..............--.-- 52,53 Maine, development of the quarry industries of ...----......---.-------- 113-115 Maine, quarries Of 1. sop. 05. = cece rn neee se erie ees ea nie oe 116-123 Maine, report on the building stones of.......- 0.2 cnc. s cco cec cncecaeees 107 Maine, slate of, description of the -... ssc ain ewes ecuad seem hrameens 96, 97 Kentucky: 2/2222. 62.0 = :« cer -2/ =a seen ae mellem satiate ae 266, 267 Missouri, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the-.....--....... 94, 95 MRRALI COLO CR) BGDMOW Ol J - -seee tease ese earn eae 130, 135. New York, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the ........-- 50, 51, 62, 63 INE woviorinoraniber quarries Of so. o2 ey oe cte em a= ae aoe eae eee sa ae 129, 130 New York, marble and limestone of, description of the.--......--.---- 50, 51, 62, 63 New York, notes of Professors Smock and Cook on the building stones ments See ae al tas ast Saisie’ ota Siw sw oye ale wee e ne teste ee gee eee eee eee eres 129-1539 New York, sandstone of, description of the ...-....--..--.------------50, 51, 64-69 | New Work, slate of, description of the... --. -----. ences ence trene--> 50, 51, 68, 69 New work, Tuckahoe marble of. 22.22 22s. ers neers whan dee enna mce sa aai= 135-139 New York city and Brooklyn, statistics of buildings (numbers and mate- MIDVS ud Tee s cece fe me es ass a ees oa a Sica pS Ewe on Sam alee ee Te 329 New York city and environs, use of stone in .-.-...-----.---------------- 313-316 New York city and vicinity, durability of building stones in...--.-.----- 864-393 News Vork city, Central park): .-2.cc = scene o> cee ec ee © aacn em mine is 320 New York city, etc., effects of weather upon the building stone of-....-- 365-371 New Yerk city, examples of old masonry in .-...------------+------------ 382 New York city, fortifications of..-......--. ------------------4--22+-22+-- 820 | New York city, physical properties of granite used in-.-.-..---..--------- 330, 331 New York city, public buildings of -.......---------+-------+--+----+++- 320 New York city, physical properties of gneiss used in.-....--...---------- 332 New York city, physical properties of limestone used in..-.--.-..------- 334, 335 New York city, physical properties of trap used in....-..--------------- 832, 333 Niagara group in Illinois -- EMD Lie Wome it Shh, We abi 8 iy RIES 221 Niagara group in Wisconsin.........-.----------+--+-+-+-+ 2222s eee eee 233 Niagara group of Ohio limestone ....-..-..-- 0-2 - cence renee een enn ene 202-206 Niagara stage of Towa: ...--- 2.8 22 scene seas cane niedww ese cancensnacse= 263 Nishnabotna stage of Towa... . 2... 0.22. - nen ence nce n nc ce snes cones cenece 258 406 Page. Nitric acid in the atmosphere, etfect of, upon the dnrability of building a BONES 2. - nnn c scene asec seca cae ae paceme scons siowsnes sass stiencesibam= ss 872 North Adams, Massachusetts, use of stone in........--..---------.----- 336 Northampton, Massachusetts, use of stone in ...-....-...--..------+---- 336 North Carolina, "Archean rocks Of 20. coe a crs cnswwiamieet sabe element een 181-185 North Carolina, description of the building stones of, by Professor W. C. Kern and Wi. Eerie Secdetoen sins. neitaocn eit cieae sate Piao ae one 181-186 North Caroling, limestone:Of = a-sialon eel ere 185, 186 North Carolina, soapstone Ofs.. oa. see eels a ae nie eae eiael eon 186 North Carolina, Triassic rocks of .... ......-..-----.-- uduzmeeemeetesice 181, 182 o. Ogdensburg, New York, use of stone in..........-..---..----+--+------- 336 Ohio and Indiana, notes of Professor Orton on the building stones of .... 188-219 Ohio, Berea gvitiof seco c. tear. cte alee e wisi tciw'a wimjailaca/ain/ Gian sie ei peta aire 188-195 Ohio, Carboniferous sandstone Ot. =... 2 cecc cn ccs nwalga ae Seles e aces sealeese 198-200 Ohio, Corniferous limestone 0f.-5- a. sson ase scnconaccmeaneccsmertetcestains 210-213 Ohio limestone; (Cincinnati group Ot o-scsceeay eee ss pea seins ashe eee 201, 202 Ohio limestone, Niagara group Ob. ois octon ce Oca ce eyes ate anionee senses ant 202-206 Ohio, limestone of, description of the ...........-. 2... 22.0 ecee noes eee cees 80-85 Ohio, marble and limestone of...-.- BL cis alta $e oe bh acca teierate cote Demis ret eee BOUT Ohio, ‘sandstone of, description of the... 2... 2. <=. sisi ace sucivnen ccm nme 50, 51, 76-81 Ohbio:sandstone,-use of, in Philadelphin 22 0.----( -~--s oes eee eee eee 342 Ohio, sub-Carboniferous limestone of ...... ....-..-..------------------- 214 Ohio, sub-Carboniferous, sandstone Of 2. 2... -- sence cccwesnsscnseccasnn 188-198 Old masonry'in New York city, examples of............-.2......-...-- 382 Oneida conglomerate of New Jersey...-.-..---.------.---- eee mek aspen 140 Onondaga limestone of New d ersey - 62-05 er ne oo meas aeAeee eee kee 140, 141 Optical examinations of thin sections of stone.......-.-.-.---.--..------ 6 Orange, New'd ersey, nse Of Stone in. 25.6. 22 onic no nsew wee sosasiiannesel 336, 337 Ordinary Welsh roofing slate (blue), analysis of........-.....-.-.------- 174 Organic acids in the atmosphere, effect of, upon the durability of build- ing istones sts o226 See cisele 5 we melee’ s ninewia's spemiatine an seen ane e ati esas 372 Organic agencies of destruction. <-<<- 25. -nccemenisce~ sess oceans oh Be. gam 375, 376 Orton, Professor, notes of, on the building stones of Ohio and Indiana... 188-219 Oswero, New; ork, 086 Of, stone 10 ce nen tess aborees ae ae ates 337 Owen, Hall, and White, reports of, on the geology of Iowa.-.-........-.-- 256 Oxygen in the atmosphere, effect of, upon the durability of building GPLONCS: 2.2. ca se hee heen eben sa ees setae adentcs Jue nn Spe ae hee teet 372 P. Patent Office building, Washington, District of Columbia, stone used in.. 360 Paterson, New Jersey, Use Of stone i josh oo. dacc a= eniasie some selene a 337 Pavements of Washington, District of Columbia, stone nsed in........-. 361 Paving, sidewalk, in Philadelphia) sees. yap sac caw ees sees ovale eee eee 346 Pavyinp stone.of Minnesota ioc ccd .c2 ce. sees >see cigs emcee ene cece ee eee 308 Pawtucket, Rhode Island, use of stone in..+......... 202-2002 endows sees 337, 338 Peach Bottom slate quarries of Pennsylvania..............--..:. ....--- 170, 171 Pennsylvania, Archeean rocks of.....2..2-c0ccenes ¢ene-sued Pronk eee eas 147, 148 Pennsylvania, building-stone resources of ..........---------.---+--se--- 146, 147 Pennsylvania, Carboniferous conglomerate of ............-...--.-------- 162-168 Pennsylvania, Carboniferous limestone of ............. 2.222. secnceceeee 156 Pennsylvania, Carboniferous sandstone of....... .--.-------eee---- eee ee 162-168 Pennsylvania, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the-.-..---. 50, 51, 68-71 Pennsylvania, Devonian sandstone of...........-. 2002. -----0--------- 158-161 Pennsylvania, Lower Silurian limestone of ......------...--....-.---..-- 149 Pennsylvania, Lower Silurian sandstone of.......--..-----.-----.--2.--- 158 Pennsylvania, marble and limestone of, description of the.........-.- 50, 51, 70, 71 Pennsylvania marble, use of, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania...........-- 340, 341 Pennsylvania, Peach Bottom slate quarries of ........--+-------.c0---.- 170, 171 Pennsylvania, sandstone of, description of the .....-........---.----- 50, 51, 70-73 Pennsylvania, serpentine of ..........-- doiaisioit Bie were aisralaha ainben Kine Pale esate 148, 149 Pennsylvania, slate of oredr An omens aden Bees bos oe Eee? 168-174 Pennsylvania, slate of, general considerations regarding the.......-...-. 173, 174 Pennsylvania, slate of, description of the -....../.......---s--+er-s~----2- <2. 0-2 eee 127-129 | Quarries; graniteof New Jd ersey.csermeesiee-i-mc-ec cs sena-'asncue cee 1389 | Quarries, granite, of New York .......--.--..----- Josie ede eee 129, 130 Quarries, granite; of Vermont 27 oeseeensee esp eo 5 ~~ eae sole eee 126 Quarries, serpentine, of Connecticut. ..........-------- 2.2 e eee cee weneee 129 Quarries, slate, of. Vermont, 2\ieeeee at sseciace con scs eee tae. ce ene eeee 353 Schenectady, New York, use of stone in:.2.--- 2.5. <2. . ccc nce ce scancess- 353 DCHISU MING Arte Me ERT SER ti oe t eli estes e mses ea Satie les ees eons 28, 24 Scranton, ,Eennsyivania, use Of, St0NG I). soc vate c.cescsc senacneacdaacace ce 353, 354 - NeasOnIn POL AlON Gastar ence lee ten sects tis scare ca siserlcies coes se poeaee 387 HOciMentanyeuy ks Ob MISHOULL ae atic «cl ace cers es wcae cess 5 vc ccueenece 267-274 Selection of materials for construction .-...-....--.-...-..-...-----0--- 386, 387 Seneca, Wisconsin, quartz-porphyry Of .--. ==... -.2--0ssccdccdscevece--. 241 Del DO Ut Ome temet at see tea eee e a mehceee se aa Stee eter = eietermlare shai s erase oiarete 29 Serpentine of Maryland, description of, by Professor F. A. Genth ..._-. 176 HerpenunoOwmLanns viVAM A cece oacse ceases a eeltosesionie ras ehiss woaes aces a9 148, 149 Serpentine quarries of Connecticut ..........2-..-..c-.ceeeee-es- > ete Zaiee 129 Serpontime,;use.0f, 1 niladel hia sccc.n2 cee dimicsele mieien tee = 174 SAG nyOl aN (Olea mee aceist eaas sciacle clam sosise ain'e vier ont ainanielaies Gh come ie 38-41 Smith, A. E., remarks of, on the geology of Florida .......-...--.-.------ 186 mip hsOuianelns titelOn anes asa'a2 since oo dele ois Sawa sem osege ss acme etasae 225 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia, stone of... 358, 359 Smock and Cook, Professors, notes of, on the building stones of New MOL camels os oe spins tae ees ale cihieen a cowasme Sins =o a0 obs Manas nb o eam s,e ane 129-139 Soapstone of North Carolina ........---- 202. ------2-- 2-2 eee nee e eee 186 Soapstone of Pennsylvania ....... --- 222.222 e cee ee een e ene eens eee cence 148, 149 Soapstone of Virginia~........--.- sncccccncnne eco cen ence erences scnccecene 181 408 Page. Speer, F. W., report of, on quarry methods. ......-....--+-------+--+++-- 33-43 Springfield, Massachusetts, use of stone in.-.../..----.--+..------2-- 26. 354 Springfield, Ohio, use of stone in...-.--.--+..--. +2. 22-22-2222 eee eee eee 354 Statement of the exportation of all kinds of marble from 1872 to 1879 inelusive (Carrara) Caeeee ns. tose ot ogee oo tests de eet eee heeeh ne tenets wee 399 Statement of the exportation of marble from the consular district of Carrara in the year TOTO a ied es nae 2 or ae aE tate ee 399 Staten Island, New York, materials of buildings of.-....-.....-..--.---- 315 Staten Island, New York, statistics of stone buildings of ........--....-- 329 State, War, and Navy Departments building, Washington, District of Golumbia, stone Of S.o.c58 Ses seen heen ecatae tees eee eae aoe 358 Statistics concerning the physical properties of the building stones used in. New Work’ cityes ves saccsshie~ co weises as Selec alten met Win ele ene ore 330-335 Statistics of buildings (numbers and materials) in New York city and Broo kL ym sreiganl stsinn . <5... 564s ena2 cen alee me remaster 341, 342 Stone buildings of Staten Island, New York, statistics of .....-..-.-..-. 329 Stone construction in— SANE OT RO TEO ie a pete oii etm wl ele let teal fateie ieee eta %5cc8 BARE CES e,. 280 AN VIB Sarasa INGG Ws OT ae ren cen falc te ate ae Allegheny, Pennsylvania Allentown, Pennsylvania FATtOONa MP CHBS YI VANIA M505 ct wea cesee es sense cine Sante nemesis = PATI ANtR, (COP EIG a4 awe abt ae te Se ema eee seem ae eee alee ne ate aie ee Baltimore, Maryland escncanaseits=tanannee Stee nee = aes en ann eee USD Ol ae NEGA Ciera eee arte cere teehee ores ae mies Binfhamton New Work cee comeceas wachsensewaeecteraeee BOstons Masset hUNGOs has ceae ace om ee eae oasimsicaeesiamsvee oe commerce 282-292 Bridgeport, ComMerwicuuece ss eamace sant com enemy er eee neve Some niennee 292 Buriine ton Powaees eco. ss cosets asin a teas eo cae anna wip ecemeces 292 Canibridge, Massachusepis) en. << <-a2 cae ema c-S ewe shee pes ee ecnane 292 Camden Ne wid Orsoy ar aceumeeiectsemcsains a scseose eels oa oeien eee 292, 293 Canton; Ohio sain ieee acess wxiscceenesccat ence can nach amecw scene seme 293 Cedar Rapids LO wa soasats terre dasmee tn se was nes. sone onsen er on ee 293 Chavbanooza, Tennessee tec e-gemt -oe tec einen d veie's w'sie'nue sila en ania = 293 Chelsea; Msesnchusette tsa. nee oon ccesc consent cue ob eamene sana sacs 294 Chester, Pennsylvania eae cee se sees ceaiocan s a= niclean sme == ae lae mate 294 Ohicaeo; Wings: semen esecamnes en aes ae Pepe ealne dsc tm ce mawe ae om 294-297 OCincinnatisObioweeseseeeeee eee eae e semarmioser site nein steele 298 Cleveland) Ohig ssh Ciee ee sanwaaae cpawnwe ne cecseecces Saket cerewes 298 Colambus; Ohidi ise pesca eta be ee cane nwen aa es Wave aes caeetan ete 298 Concord, New Hampshiterce. see ctacteaee web aaene oto needaeelatsin a 2 299 Cumberland, Margland een, seesn sees ee eres ene cscasmseinenees ae 299 Davenpork, lows aateH ae an ee eese neater ews gabebesisesccoes 299 Dayton; Ohio. 25288 a hecch eas eee Oe ase eticas thls cre Latee esate 299 Denver, Coloradostisennco~ Gecmee eneeiee teas a= cans cae des see as ene 800 | Derby, Connectiguicssece.seepodeneras secesm sare saicseeeiccietscrec se 300 Dés Moines, lowai os. 32.2 Je wamee want aee nee ces Seubisien se sats seine a ees 300 Dubuque, Lowa peereeececine ee en ene nie emcee ars 301 Easton, Pennsylvania........-... 301 Elizabeth, New Jersey 301 Elmira: New -¥ Ove coe aces ones eee ee aunead heawee danat aide seals ic 301 Brie, Pennsylvania Oe. = sa sieacnseatioesteceneeresece. 303 Haran bUMeROnnavIVaANiaacses. .2cc.s~s-.--+-adedees soraseeeeee nen 303 PLOLHLOLO COM NOCHOMUN ents occ os. .c ss on eenisaneaaanaeennaeonees Haverhill, Massachusetts Indianapolis, Indiana....... Ithaea, New York............ GOKU LO Wai tee ees eee oe oe bes ccesaws é Man gaton WNW (Ol kisser tee ene sso nvndaoSicccenenctdemesmececous ia Mavevpe ys [nd tan hier eee | baa ccm mecca css on ottedeemenccaon Tanoaster; PONNSYIVANiesmemedes ca ao 05 sewiscce cee coniccades demenies Lawrence, Massachusetts MSGR VEN W OPEN, TK ANSSS eee eee S x oa5 sue eo ecw. «asec oda eee acs BSCR DOT TaN OWE, OL aisle cee mE cso » o cceauie an las'ee cebateuvacds ne OPADAPOLL, eINATAND on. /2h CSeeetes ao. sceccteiatensc ccceacietab seed OMA Vie, Kh CNLUCK Y).1-om a eee ac w:s.c ocicieeeeae cc sesewedesece«s 307 (UOWOlL MABARCDUSOUES: so =, eRe MEEE 5 co caceeie cewslncecccmlecces 307 Manchester, New Hampshireraceen:...s.seneunecesescescaeaeceece 307 MOI awe ONNOSSOOL eT... = = cceeeentes << loacl oatoce «cc cesmeueeeecca. 308 Page Use of stone in— Middletown, Connecticut................ waaane oesaaesssccastinieme ac 307 Minneapolis; Minnésota Susu. cess sete cence eee 308 PMLODU SPA IADAMA screens. ceceans tas uence deme Saati dues sates s weuso 309 Neahville WPennesseess sacs cao ceern oncde nce ce seee aa ReneS 369 New Albany): Indiiuiahucesion 2 Seco ask oe sce ee, es 309 NOWwark ON ow J Grae west c+ aoa oeace duce abasetecacn seaeel sees 309, 310 New Bedford, Massachusetts ............-. ce 3 810 were w ecm es sec c es ewes es cee ens cesesseseess RU GAN Oe VOL INONL reer caer ese ae cide eat cce cuast ss teen cncstees Saintibarly Minnesotan ce secsase meses cece ee cneccatecesccccccense Salem-eMassachusettscuncse: comecure en alc cae ace seis aaleceetedoee palo Lake Oity., Utaliccrscecscssmceectcesccc consascdeasesceccecses Sandusky,Ohiower sacs seas cece at neta esse: eo ecscseceUnacs San Hrancisco California cesessosesseeceuteneseccescscccsessa paratoga, New Yorkie. ce ..c.sesesacecas + Savannah, Georgia....... Schenectady, New York : Scranton ve cuusylvanigcsecese 2 ossesesatoce nee ele cle wes omesacacasks Springfield, Massachusetts Sprinstield Ohio meeseweostee. sacs sense ccscdcetans Podematcinewaee cus 354 Hlenben Ville, Ohio meen soe cecceae soe cetacean cocnioeoaccs ce eans 354 PLAT ON MASSACHUSEULA bos acetate cota cetic vec teceeccenaneccsccccs 354 Lerrey ante: INGinnsd pescsccceses cose sc cecee akc conc cecewee cate sce 355 EE OLEGO RONG ees descr cect ie cate nc seeders we eee a sc etdbeclaces 855 Popekiy MAnsagisan cae emcans cee teat ce cacinee kee coucsect be des cele cs 355 PLVORtONGN OW CLSOV ea ces eao tens sue ceercs cbecel ie knes ssl ces coetien 355, 356 WOVEN WE OLK ear emote smecntoe cdstoct een ckce cmlcdiesnucccmue 856 Utica te way OL i crenotemenerer aden ces. Uaicosian rocco cedlcesencddive 356 Washington, District of Columbia.................- Roeceteee staee 357-361 Waterbury, Connectiontie:--ceccsasssoncvccceseccdolaccaacccesscss IWiaLOLbO WN NG Way OF Kise te meeereete as Conilaenccatacesd ce scedeeee Wheeling, West Virginia.................. Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania............... Williamsport, Pennsylvania : ‘Wilmington mbelawarommeeememeescmetce teen eae ce co ccrssceleceeube Wiintonan Minnesotan ces cree ce omes chee ncine cmc os ee cews «nccacace soue iWOonsOCKOt a RhOGe ISMNG haces e cass aceon cet cenmeceecctecaceccse iW. OVCESteLy MassAChusetisccesse sac cc ccm ocececaeea os cclbsebee cgaesls LY ONKOrs ENG weUOrkieemee st neers nee ued aeeiece vasicsecdccceucce! wucics PVOUGREOnnsvivaAniseesessieermeteatecsce cecctacrs ss aanescceskesces Lanes valle, Ohioireaac.ctacacotes coke aecce ewe cececsanmecced, scoawoscee Utah; deseription.o£ quarries Of. 4. ..2s)-.cceccc ces ceuececcetecacvs aS ieaeaws 278 Witica,wNe ws VOrK sUSGOL SUONGIN ic eavce se elccne cc ccs ceescassaceaccscens 356 ; Vv. Variations of temperature, effects of, upon the durability of building SLON GS we ee mn miaee te tetinacm comes cleics cae acne gales ee tek e aelieipainm dale wu/slemnscleic 373 Wane nes mooshities, and OdiNCOSen nc soceeciseecmea cite sesso s srs eeisacaccce 316-324 Vegetable growth, effects of, upon the durability of building stones .... 375 Verd-antique quarries of Connecticut .......---..-------2-e---ee = eeeeee 129 Vermont, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the....-..-. -- 50, 51, 58, 59 Wermont,) granite quarries Of 225555526. ccecnqemenventcewsecn== eee 126 Vermont, marble and limestone of, description of the .........---.- .50, 51, 58-61 Vermont, slate of, description of the --.............-...-..0--eeeceees 50, 51, 60, 61 Wiermont.slate QUAITICN Of qcesce.= ss sega saree nonehidesuse es asivceicat ous <= 126 Virginia, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the .........-.. 50, 51, 74, 75 Waroinia desoriptlomor QUATTIOS OL c---srne> en csser eee aces cise es ames ssi 179-181 Virginia, marble and limestone of, description of the..-....-..--..--. 50, 51, 74, 75 Virginia, notes of Huntington and Munroe upon the building stones of. - 179 Win DI NIA NALRLOUOL sa emmesie a atne einaisloein ates ae asic omtiat esicistsacisis caine aaa wares 180, 181 Virginia, slate of, description of the ...... 2.2.22. seene- ne nncoeceneess 50, 51, 74, 75 Virginia, soapstone of .............. Weaaie he ciaheniecabmatta dace siaecee aseete 181 Volcanic rocks of Colorado, description of the.........-.------+--+--++--- 98, 99 w. Washington and vicinity, list of stone structures in.........-.--.------- 360 Washington, District of Columbia, use of stone in...........--.----+---- 357-361 Washington Monument, Washington, District of Columbia, stone in.... 359, 360 Washington territory, crystalline siliceous rocks of, description of the.. 96, 97 41() Page. Washington territory, sandstone of, description of the ......-..-..----++ 96, 97 Waterbury, Connecticut, use of stone in ...........-.-20.- eee nee en ne eens 356 Watertown, New York, use of stone in..-..-........2...-2 2-22 e eee eee 356 Weathering, effects of, upon limestone.............--..--.-2-0--2-2- eee 369, 370 Weathering, effects of, upon the durability of gneiss ---.....-..---.----- 365 Weathering, effects of, upon the durability of granite. --..- eo actaraserae 370, 371 Weathering, sandstone, effects of.......--------.------+++++-eeee2-e0- .-. 368, 369 Weathering, serpentine, effects of ..................-2002002--20.- ondeeee 371 Welsh roofing slate; analyses Of 5.2. sein acto awinicm asa niaisic cis clave eiklelsiere a ic/aiate 174 West Virginia, sandstone of, description of the .......-.--.---.------ 50, 51, 74, 75 Wheeling, West Virginia, use of stone in .......... .----.2-- eee eee e eee 361 White, Owen, and Hall, reports of, on the geology of Iowa ............-. 256 Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania, use of stone in.........-....2....--5.--ee0ne 361, 362 Williamsport, Pennsylvania, use of stone in.............-..--------.---- 362 Wilmington, Delaware; usei0f (store im 2 ce cnc nqceee oe wccess ec esh cnet 362 Wanchell }Proressor Nj Purses ceurectccsue nce oes aaee aatwents: eet e aaa a ci 244, 265 Wind, effect of, upon the durability of building stones...........-....... 373 Winona, Minnesota, ase Of StO06 dns... ca. vec ncactechonnennnenececatmmasts 362 Wisconsin, Archean Pocks Of.) c....sme se cnen cactewc ssecueterest amend eset 234-239 Wisconsin, description of quarries of ...--..--.-- ..2.0.ceno00 oncenecannen 229-244 Wisconsin, eastern, report of T. C. Chamberlain on ..................-.- 242-244 Wisconsin, limestone of, description of the ..........-...-.-.--.. aceuae 88, 89 INDEX TO REPORT ON BUILDING STONES. ) Page. Wisconsin, Lower Magnesian limestone of.........-.-.------seeee- ences 230, 231 Wisconsin, marble and limestone of...... 22.2.2 --- 2-0 eeeneenecedecenccces 50, 51 Wisconsin, Niagara group in 2. scscae a ‘is ‘‘ —_ | a= a ahewee ws rh ee hi Pee te 252 ! = al sy aye >» af a AS > r a / « 6 : @ 4 en ae) vs dt eae ey Sea i" - 1 = Sey De hy 04.1 PVA wh RS be ACh ARES IY b3 * ETE AATANANE A BA GUERE UA SSTARIRLE Roan 3 Thy : ‘ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA UT 3 0112 0592571 93 : i a i a AG? ‘Se wee aoa SENS