Sasa ce IES Sarat ee SSN SHS Ses SSS ees oa = Sma aee Same eae Steatene SSS tet 4 3 SALT = = a3 Re ne on a . ns fe a 7 ) > FD 5229 EE. ae: Ce) 9 Pe 4 “ The Bae, PLE Bag bs ) se ) > ‘doe Ve ) > ) ) ) > >> ) > ap) M5 tS ? van" ae) DE ©) a 17 ) 95> 4 rites ak Tae » a aS yy D i | s 4 Piet D +5 ? Ay ie 3 ) > DP > ) sites Se RS 8s05 Pacey Si. ) 2 4 ? ihe > Bs fee bk, 5 ) nn FY 2 ) ‘ AWARD MADE AT THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE American Public Health Association WASHINGTON, D. C., DEC. Io, 1885 WITH AN APPENDIX Concord, NH. H. REPUBLICAN PREssS ASSOCIATION, 22 NORTH MAIN STREET 1886 pa Pans ¥ i) 2B 4 f INTRODUCTION. The four valuable papers which constitute this volume are the result of prizes offered by Mr. Henry Lomb, of Rochester, N. Y., through the American Public Health Association, for the best essays on the four sub- jects presented. This volume has been prepared for the express purpose of placing the essays in a form suitable for public and private libraries, with a comprehensive index. The essays have also been printed in pamphlet form, as will be seen by reference to the advertisement on the last pages of this work. That these essays may be placed in the hands of every family in the country is the earnest desire of the Association, as well as the heartfelt wish of the public-spirited and philanthropic citizen whose unpretentious generosity and unselfish devotion to the interests of humanity have given us these essays; but the financial inability of the Association renders it impossible to distribute them gratuitously ; therefore, a price covering the cost has been placed upon these publications. It is to be hoped, however, that government departments, state and local boards of health, sanitary and benevolent associations, etc., will either publish these essays, or purchase editions at cost of the Association, for distribution among the people. Although a copyright has been placed upon these essays for legitimate protection, permission to publish under certain conditions can be obtained by addressing the Secretary. TABLE OF CONTENTS. i. Heattuy Homes AND FooD FOR THE WORKING CLASSES. By Vicror C. VaucuHan, M.D., Pu. D., Professor in University of Michigan = eats i Il. Tue SANITARY CONDITIONS AND NECESSITIES OF SCHOOL-HOUSES AND ScHoot-LirE. By D. F. Lincon, M. D., Boston, Mass. . , 5 | hat a ia IIL DIsInFECTION AND INDIVIDUAL PROPHYLAXIS AGAINST INFECTIOUS DIs- EASES. By GEORGE M. STERNBERG, M. D., Major and Surgeon U.S. Army. 10% TV. PREVENTABLE CAUSES OF DISEASE, INJURY, AND DEATH IN AMERICAN MANUFACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS, AND THE BEST MEANS AND APPLIANCES FOR PREVENTING AND AVOIDING THEM. By GEORGE H. IRELAND, Spring- field, Mass. . ; : : ; . : : ° A . : Sis Urars V. APPENDIX. lke aye : . . . . rare ry = ee . - 155 HEALTHY HOMES AND FOODS FOR THE WORKING | CLASSES. By VICTOR C. VAUGHAN, M.D., Pu. D., Professor in University of Michigan. HE WHO SECURES A HEALTHY HOME AND HEALTHY FOOD FOR HIMSELF AND FAMILY DOES NOT LIVE IN VAIN. ; Copyright, 1886, Br Davin A, Wars, Sic, Aamncae Pose Haan J Fr I, BUILDING A HOME. LOCATION. ‘The location of the home of the working-man is often determined by considerations over which he has no control. Cost of land and distance from place of labor must influence the selection. If possible, however, the house should not be located in a low, damp place, nor on made earth. In cities, many low tracts, and even the beds of small streams, marshes, and lakes, are filled in with general refuse, such as street sweepings, back-yard rubbish, ashes, and garbage. Such soil, unless thoroughly under-drained, must be unfit for the location of habitations. It is damp, and will for years be filled with the products of decomposi- tion arising from the putrefaction of the garbage deposited there. Houses built in such locations must be damp, musty, and unhealthful. The inmates of a house built in such a place are likely to suffer from malaria, bilious fever, and rheumatism, even if they do not fall victims to the more dreaded diseases, typhoid fever and consumption. The house should also be far from marshes and other low lands, whose surface is covered with water in the spring and early summer, and then exposed later. Such situations are likely to be malarious. Neither should the home be located near manufacturing establishments which usually have much garbage about them, such as breweries, tanneries, glucose facto- ries, rendering houses, and oil refineries. The site should be one which is naturally well drained ; and whether this be the case or not often cannot be decided in cities without consult- ing maps which show the original lay of the land before any grading had been resorted to, though the position and course of neighboring streams and the location of springs may suggest valuable information. The slope of the land should be from the house. Extra precaution must be taken when it becomes necessary to build at the foot of a hill which is covered with houses from which the surface water and under-ground drainage flows toward the home. The location of neighbors’ out-houses, with reference to the proposed home, should also be taken into consid- eration. While an intelligent man will not neglect the sanitary condition of his own premises, his neighbor’s cesspool or privy vault may drain into his well and poison his drinking-water. Have the house upon a place high enough, and as dry as possible. Avoid, whenever practica- ble, narrow streets, which are devoid of sufficient sunlight and pure air. The width of the street should be twice the height of the houses along 4 BUILDING A HOME. it, and no street, even in the business centres of cities, should be narrower than the height of the houses. In many of the older cities, however, the streets are narrower than this. The best soils upon which to build are gravel, marl, and limestone ; for in these the drainage is likely to be better than in others. A due amount of shade around the home renders it more healthy, but the shade should not be dense enough or close enough to the house to obstruct the air and light. THE CELLAR. Every dwelling-house, even that which has but one room in it, should either have a cellar, or should be raised sufficiently high from the ground to allow a free supply of air under it. The walls of the cellar should be perfectly water and air tight. It is better, in making the excavation, to remove the earth a foot, on all sides, further than the line on which the outside of the wall will stand; then, after the walls have been built, pack the space with clay or gravel. In this way the walls of the cellar are more likely to be kept dry. If built of brick the walls should be hollow, consisting of a thin outer wall two or three inches from the main wall. The two are firmly held together by occasionally placing a brick across from one to the other as the walls are being built. Unless this is done, moisture will pass through a brick wall, it matters not how thick it may be. The cellar floor should be of concrete, about six inches thick, and govered with Portland cement or asphalt. If the soil be very damp, tiling should be placed under the cellar floor, and carried out beneath the wall to a larger tile which passes around the house and leads off into some suitable receptacle. It is absolutely essential to a healthy house, that its cellar should be free from dampness and ground air. In order to secure these requisites, the walls and floor of the cellar must be well built, even if it becomes necessary, on account of increased cost, to deprive the superstructure of some of its ornamentation. The cellar should be well supplied with light by having windows above ground, or by sunken areas in front of the windows. The win- dow-sashes should be hung on hinges, so that ee may be easily opened when the cellar needs an airing. If the cellar is to be used for several purposes, as the location of the heating apparatus and the storage of fuel and vegetables, it should be divided into compartments, the temperature of which may be kept at different degrees. Basement bed-rooms are almost universally unhealthy, and should be used only in cases of absolute necessity. It is also best not to have the kitchen in the basement, especially if the room directly above be occu- pied. If stationary wash-tubs be placed in the basement, they should have a metallic or porcelain lining, and the pipes which conduct the refuse water from them should be thoroughly trapped. BUILDING A HOME. 5 THE WALLS. If built of brick the walls of the house should be hollow, as described in referring to the walls of the cellar. Furthermore, the plastering should never be placed directly on the brick. The inside of the wall should be *‘furred,” scantling nailed to the furring, and the lathing done as in a frame house. It has been found that a single brick will absorb as much as one pound of water; and if a brick wall be built solid and the plaster- ing placed directly on the brick, the house will be constantly damp. Many of the older brick houses are constructed in this manner, and consequently their interiors always have a damp, musty odor, it matters not how untiring the housekeeper may be in her efforts to have every- thing sweet and clean. Even in case of a stone wall, the plastering should not be placed directly on the wall; though stone does not absorb water to any such extent as brick does. New brick and stone walls are necessarily damp, and for this reason houses built of either should not be occupied until some weeks after the building of the walls. In order for them to dry thoroughly they must be pervious to air; and walls built as recommended above will allow the air to pass through them freely. Plastering does not prevent the air from passing through the walls, but papering does. However, as papering is the most economical way in which walls can be decorated, it will long continue in use. Wal: papers containing arsenical colors have been, and are still to some extent, used. Rooms decorated with such papers are not suitable for living apartments. Itis generally supposed that only the green colors contain arsenic, but, in truth, it may be present in paper of any color. The only way, then, by which they may be avoided is by having the selected samples tested. Any intelligent druggist or chemist will make the analysis for a small fee, which should be at the expense of the paper-dealer. | _ A nice way of finishing inside walls is to paint and then varnish them. The varnish prevents the rubbing off of the paint, and places the walls in in such a condition that they may be washed whenever desirable. THE FLOORS. Floors should be made tight, so that they may be thoroughly scrubbed with soap and water occasionally. The best floor, from a sanitary view, is one of hard wood, planed smooth, and oiled. It is far better to have a clean, bare floor, than one covered with a filthy carpet. However, where carpets are kept clean,*and are occasionally taken up and the floor scrubbed, there is no objection to their use; and it must be admitted that a clean carpet adds much to the comfort of a room. A cheap straw matting is now made, which can be washed when necessary, and it will not retain dust and filth to the extent that woollen carpets do. Such a covering is especially suitable for dining-rooms. 6 BUILDING A HOME. ARRANGEMENT OF ROOMS. The living-rooms should be on the sunny, airy side of the house. Human beings as well as plants demand sunlight. ‘Too frequently the good housewife shuts out the sunlight for fear that it will fade the carpet. As some one has said, ‘‘It is far better to have faded carpets than to have faded cheeks.” A little saving in the color of the carpet is poor econ- omy when it is secured at the cost of health. Especially should the room occupied by the women and children, who are indoors much of the time, be well supplied with light. If there is to be a long, dark hall or pas- sage-way in the house, let it be on the side upon which the least sunlight falls; and place the living-rooms on the other side. It is, unfortunately, the fashion to make bed-rooms small in order to have a large sitting-room. Too often the bed-room is a mere recess scantily supplied with fresh air. It is better to have a smaller sitting- room and a larger bed-room. Even farmers often suffer from diseases which are due to an insufficient supply of pure air. This arises from the fact that for six or seven hours out of every twenty-four they are shut up in small, tight, musty bed-rooms, and are compelled to rebreathe the air which they have already once breathed. As has been said in discussing the cellar, basement bed-rooms are always poorly supplied with fresh air, and are generally damp and musty. They should be used only in cases of absolute necessity. Attic bed-rooms are cold in winter and hot in summer, and their use also can be excused only on the question of dire necessity. If the owner of the house can afford it, at least one bed-room should contain a grate or fire-place,—for, with every attention to the laws of health, there will come times when some member of the family will be sick; and the sick-room should be full of cheer. The open fire is cheer- ‘ful, and serves as an excellent ventilator. Pleasant surroundings often aid the doctor’s pills and potions in restoring the patient to health. Of course the number and exact arrangement of the rooms will depend upon the purse of the owner; but a cottage may be built so as to be as healthy as a palace,—and indeed the advantage is often in favor of the former, as the more complicated finishings and elaborate furnishings of the latter may serve as harbors for dust and filth. Space may often be saved by doing away with the conventional long, dark hall, and by having the stairs go up from a sitting-room or from a smaller vestibule. The long halls are often cold, dark, and dreary. In winter they are filled with cold draughts, and in summer they are recep- tacles of refuse of various kinds, and at all times they are cheerless. They may be necessary in certain houses, but in small homes they are neither ornamental nor pleasant. It is the ambition of most American housewives to have a parlor, in which the most valuable household ornaments are placed, and which opens only when some honored guest comes. The small boys of the family look upon it as forbidden territory, and too frequently both fresh BUILDING A HOME. 7 air and sunlight are regarded as intruders, and are shut out. The exclu- sion of the small boy may be all right, but the air and sunlight should not be treated with so much discourtesy. Indeed, they should be considered the most honored guests, and should be welcomed even to a place in the parlor. © Probably the most important room in the house isthe kitchen. Before you praise the housekeeping of any woman, visit her kitchen. The par- lor may be a beauty, the bed linen may be spotless, the table may be covered with decorated china, but if the kitchen be filthy, all is in vain. But in order that the kitchen may be kept in good condition, its construc- tion must be proper. The floor is best of hard wood or yellow pine; or, if these are too expensive, of selected white pine. They should be kept bare. : At least two windows, one on each side, are desirable. A pantry or shelves for setting aside clean cooking utensils and dishes should be at hand. If the cellar be used for the storage of vegetables, an inside stair- way from the kitchen or pantry should lead down into it. The flour-box in the pantry should be so hung that it will close itself. It adds much to the comfort of the cook, and to the cleanliness of the walls and ceiling of the room, if the stove or range be covered by a hood which conducts the vapors arising from the cooking food into a flue in the chimney. If the owner can possibly afford it, the house should contain a bath- room. In the absence of public water-supply, a force-pump below, a cold-water tank in the attic, and a hot-water tank attached to the kitchen range will furnish the bath-tub. The-room should be heated either di- rectly or from another room, otherwise it would not be used much in cold weather. The cost of the bath-room and its supply need not be great, while the pleasure and benefit derived from its use will be appre- ciated. THE WINDOWS. The importance of an abundant supply of sunlight has already been insisted upon. If possible, every room should have direct light, and not be dependent upon that which is diffused through an adjoining room. The location of the windows should be such as to give the greatest amount of direct sunlight. The windows should extend well towards the ceiling, and should be hung so as to lower from the top as well as raise from the bottom. The window shutters or blinds must be hung in such a manner that they are easily opened. In no part of the house should they be kept closed during the day. HEATING AND VENTILATION. It would be wholly out of place to attempt here any elaborate discus- sion of the many methods of heating and ventilating buildings now in use. Only a few practical statements will be made with reference to securing adequate warmth and sufficient fresh air in dwellings. 8 BUILDING. A HOME. The most common methods of heating small residences are by the stove, open fire, and hot-air furnaces. The stove is the most econom- ical. The open fire is the most enjoyable, and where it is sufficient, the most healthy ; but in the Northern states the open fire alone seldom fur- nishes enough heat during the coldest months. The hot-air furnace may be so constructed as to bea good method, but care must be used in select- ing the furnace and arranging for ventilation. In small houses the heat is generally supplied by stoves. In rooms which are occupied only during a few hours of the day the wood stove is sufficient, and, indeed, has certain advantages. The room can be quickly heated, and when left, the fire soon dies out, thus saving fuel. But where the room is constantly occupied, coal is a more suitable fuel than wood. The temperature is more even, and the fire burns more slowly. The relative cost of these fuels var ies in different sections. The coal stove should have no loose joints through which gases can escape. The mica doors should be kept in repair, and the flue must not be allowed to clog. The principal gases given off from burning coal are carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide, and sulphurous oxides. ‘The carbonic oxide is poisonous when inhaled in any quantity. It produces a sensa- tion in the head similar to that which would be caused by a tight band ; and in larger amounts it renders persons insensible, and may produce death. Itshould be remembered that the carbonic oxide is without odor. Whole families have been fatally poisoned with it. Especial care must be taken with coal stoves which are used in bed-rooms or in rooms which communicate with bed-rooms, as the carbonic oxide may prove fatal to persons while sleeping, without waking them. But there is no danger if the stove and flue be in proper condition. Makers of wrought iron stoves and furnaces will insist that these gases pass readily through cast iron, and for this reason their stoves are superior, and free from danger ; but a properly constructed and properly managed cast iron stove or fur- nace is free from danger, and in many respects is superior to those made of wrought iron. Especial attention should be paid to the position of dampers in coal stoves at night. } One of the greatest objections to the use of stoves is, that in houses in which they are used there is generally no attempt at ventilation. How- ever, a house heated with stoves may be as well ventilated as any other. In houses as ordinarily built, much fresh air will come in through the crevices around the doors, windows, and baseboards. But if many oc- cupy the room, the amount of fresh air which finds admittance through these channels may be insufficient: especially is this likely to be the case if the room is partly surrounded by other parts of the building, and con- sequently has but a small surface directly exposed to the out-door air. Besides, the direct draughts from doors and windows may be so great as seriously to affect the health of the inmates, giving them. colds. When any of these troubles exist, one of several simple devices may be resorted to in order to secure the admission of plenty of fresh air without danger- ous draughts. The most common of these devices consists in fitting a BUILDING A HOME. 9 piece of board from four to eight inches wide in the window frame under the lower sash. By this means a space is left between the bottom of the upper and the top of the lower sash, through which the air enters, and the current is thrown upward, striking the ceiling, from which it is dif- fused all over the room. Dr. Keen recommends tacking a piece of cloth across the lower eight or ten inches of the window frame, then raising the lower sash to a greater or less extent, according to the weather. In this way two air vents in the window are established, one under the lower sash, the current of which is turned upward by the cloth, and the other between the upper and lower sash, as when the board is used. Through the upper vent it is supposed that some of the foul air will es- cape, though the current through this opening is not invariably outward. What is known as Maine’s elbow-tube ventilator consists of a board placed under a raised sash, as already described. This board carries two tubes, about six inches in diameter, which turn upward, and the ends of which are supplied with valves by which the amount of in-flowing air can be regulated. Another method provides for smaller tubes brought through the wall and turned upwards into the room. Some favor still another plan, which consists in bringing a tube about six inches in diameter through the wall, and, possibly, under the floor to the stove, where the tube terminates in a sheet-iron jacket placed around the stove, leaving a space of one or two inches, and having escapes only at the top of the jacket. The heat of the stove will produce a strong current through the pipe, and the incom- ing air will be warmed in passing through the jacket. By any of the above mentioned devices, abundant facility may be fur- nished for the admission of fresh air; but as two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time, there must be provided some escape for the foul air. This should always be attended to in the constru¢tion of the house. For every room which is to be heated by a stove, there should be two flues, one for the smoke and other gaseous productions of combustion, the other for the removal of foul air from the room. ‘The ventilating flue must come to the floor, just above which should be a register. When there is a fire in the stove, the upper part of the ventilating flue will be warmed by the smoke flue, and consequently there will be an upward current init. In this way the withdrawal of the foul air is rendered cer- tain. It should also be seen, in the construction of the chimney, that the inside of this ventilating flue is not left so rough as to impede the flow of air through it, and that it is not clogged with mortar or pieces of brick. A good draught through the ventilating flue is almost of as much impor- tance as the draught of the smoke flue. The partition between the smoke and ventilating flues should be of brick placed on edge, thus making it as thin as possible, so that the upper part of the ventilating flue will be thoroughly heated from the smoke flue. By another method the smoke flue may be made of iron pipe placed in a large flue, and the space all around the pipe will serve as the ventilating flue. IJ have stated that the register in the ventilating IO BUILDING A HOME. flue should be near the floor. If near the ceiling, as some would have it, there would be too great a loss of heat, as the fresh air as soon as heated would find its exit. For summer ventilation, the foul air outlet may be at or near the ceiling; but such ventilation in winter costs too much, and, besides, when it is used, great difficulty will often be experienced in heating the room. With the plan recommended above, there is no reason why any room heated with a stove may not be so well ventilated that no disagree- able odor will be perceptible to the most sen- sitive person upon coming in from the outdoor air; provided, always, that the room is clean. Fig. 1.—F.., floor; §., stove; §. P,, Unfortunately, however, the great majority of stove pipe; V. F., ventilating © houses which are heated by stoves are built NI a without the slightest provision for ventilation. In such houses, fresh air may be introduced according to the methods al- ready given; but the escape of the foul air is more difficult to be provided for. It may be done, however, as follows: Place a tin or sheet iron pipe, of from six to ten inches in diameter, according to the size of the room, along the wall behind the stove. The lower end of this pipe ex- tends to within a few inches of the floor, and remains open, while the upper end passes, by means of an elbow, into the smoke flue below the point at which the stove pipe enters, as shown in the accompanying Fig 1. The upper end of the ventilating flue may, when the chimney begins near the ceiling, terminate in a jacket around the stove pipe, the jacket passing into the chimney as here shown in Fig. 2. In all cases the ventilating flue is to have air-tight joints. With the open fire or grate, the withdrawal of the foul air is all pro- vided for, as it will escape up the chimney. The open fire is not so economical as the stove; but, when sufficient to warm the room, the former is, at least as both are ordinarily ar- ranged, more healthful. With the open fire or grate, much of the heat escapes up the chimney; however, with the grate this loss of heat can be, to a considerable extent, lessened by setting the fire-basket well forward. When the hot-air furnace is used, certain precautions are desirable, both for economy and health. In the first place, the furnace selected is nearly always too small for the extent of heat- : ing required of it. When this is the case, the fire must be pushed as much as possible in order to keep the rooms warm in winter; consequently the air entering the room is oyver- Fig. 2. BUILDING A HOME. II heated, anda produces headache and dulness.. At the same time the fur- nace is soon burnt out, and any money saved in the first place by pur- chasing the smaller size will have to be expended with an additional amount in securing a new furnace. The furnace should be thoroughly encased with thick brick walls, to prevent great loss of heat by direct radiation in the cellar. The owner of the house will be rewarded for his time and trouble if he sees to it that this work is well done. | The furnace must receive the air which is to be heated directly from the out-door air, and not from the cellar. The cold-air duct should be perfectly air-tight, so as wholly to prevent the cellar air from entering the heating chamber. Wooden air-boxes are not to be recommended unless they be carefully lined with some metal. The external opening of the cold air box should not be near any cesspool, drain, or other pos- sible source of deleterious gases. It should also be protected by a piece of wire net. In the cold-air duct, preferably near its external opening, should be a sliding valve, by which the amount of air passing to the fur- nace can be regulated; but care must be taken that this valve is never entirely closed. Probably it would be better to have it made so that when pushed in as far as possible it will obstruct only half the area of the duct. The air chamber in the furnace should be kept supplied with water. The hot-air flue should be so arranged that the horizontal ones are not more than fourteen or sixteen feet in length, for if the horizontal flues be much longer than this, the draught through them will be so slight that the rooms will not be warmed, while the rooms supplied with vertical pipes will be over-heated. The warm-air register in the room should not be placed directly in the floor, but in the base-board. If placed in the floor, it soon receives a large amount of dust and other refuse. With a hot-air furnace properly selected and arranged, the amount of warm, fresh air entering the room is sufficient. But before the fresh, warm air can enter, the air already present must find an exit. The fol- lowing principles may guide us in economically ventilating a room heated with a hot-air furnace: (1) Bring the fresh air in near the floor. (2) Take the foul air out near the floor. (3) Create a draught in the foul-air shaft by means of heat. Unless the air already in the room has some means of exit, it will be found utterly impossible to heat the room with the warm-air furnace. Then it will be seen that both the heating and ventilation depend largely upon the withdrawal of the foul air. If the foul air register be near the ceiling, much of the warm air from the furnace will escape: directly into the foul-air shaft. If there be an open fire in the room, the foul air will find a ready exit through the chimney. If there be only a ventilating flue, it should be in the same chimney with some other flue which is heated, at least in its upper half. Thus a number of ventilating flues 12 BUILDING A HOME. from as many rooms may be placed in the same chimney with, and arranged about, the smoke flue of the furnace. Often we find that one ventilating flue is expected to do service for a room on the first floor, and also for another directly over it on the second. The result frequently is, that the foul air of the lower room passes into the room above. ‘There should be a separate ventilating flue for each room. WATER-SUPPLY. It is of the greatest importance to the family that its supply of drinking- water be of unquestionable purity. That such dreaded diseases as cholera, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and dysentery may be spread by impure drinking-water, there can now be no question. The sources of drinking-water may be divided into the following classes : (1) Cistern water. (2) Surface water. (3) Subterranean water. Cistern water is that which is collected upon the roof of a house, and stored in a reservoir known as a cistern, or in a tank, which is usually placed in the attic of the house. Cisterns, or underground reservoirs, . are more generally used than tanks. The condition of this kind of water will be influenced by the air through which it falls, by the nature of the roof, and by the kind of cistern, and the care exercised in keeping the roof and cistern clean. In large cities, especially where there is much manufacturing done, there is always a considerable amount of dust and other impurities in the air, much of which is brought down with the rains. ‘The conductors leading from the roof to the cistern should be supplied with means for turning off the first part of the rain-fall. In this way the impurities taken from the air and those collected on the roof are disposed of. Especially is this desirable if the roof be of wood and old, if there be a collection of leaves and other dédrzs from projecting branches of trees, and if there be any chance of birds depositing their excrement upon the roof. Probably the cleanest roofing material is slate; but its cost has prevented its gen- eral use in the construction of residences. The cistern should be built of brick, and plastered water-tight upon the outstde as well as upon the inside. Strict attention should be paid to this, and the walls should be so built as to prevent the possibility of water from the adjacent soil passing into the cistern. The top of the cistern should be well covered, so as to prevent small animals as well as vegetable refuse from falling in. The best covering would be a box built up several feet above the ground, and covered with fine wire netting. In this way the fresh air will pass down, and the space above the surface of the water will be ventilated. When this can- not be used, a tight covering of stone, or of wood, if all boards are re- moved and replaced by new ones at the first sign of decay, may be used. BUILDING A HOME. 13 A wooden pump should not be placed in the cistern, as it soon decays, becomes covered with moss, and collects upon it much filth. An iron pipe with the pump in the kitchen is probably the best arrangement. However, the cistern should never be built under the house. When so built the air above the water is invariably bad, and the periodical clean- ing out of the cistern, which should be done once a year at least, is not so likely to be attended to. It is customary in some places to place near the top of the cistern an over-flow pipe which leads into a cesspool or privy-vault. This prac- tice has, without doubt, cost many lives. There should not under any circumstances be any connection between the cistern and any receptacle of filth. ‘This over-flow pipe is often untrapped, or the trap becomes defective, and the gases arising from the decomposing matter of the cess- pool and privy-vault pass into the cistern. Indeed, cases are known where not only the gas, but fluid refuse, has thus been poured into the cistern. However much care may be taken with the cistern,—and the above sug- gestions should be deemed of imperative importance,—the cistern water should be filtered before used. Many cheap and effective household filters are made, and it is not necessary to go into detail concerning their construction ; but a few practical hints may be given as to their care. A filter which is kept constantly under water soon becomes utterly worth- less. The charcoal box should be frequently exposed to air, and, if pos- sible, to direct sunlight. A filter removes suspended matter, and, on account of the air condensed in the pores of the charcoal, destroys to a certain extent the organic matter held in solution in the water. If any epidemic disease prevail at the time, it is always safest to boil any and all water used for drinking purposes. Cistern water may be boiled and then filtered. If one has no regular filter, it will be better at all times to boil the water, after which it may be allowed to run through a piece of filter paper, which can be obtained for a trifle at any drug store, placed in a tin or glass funnel. When filter paper is used, a new piece should be placed in the funnel each day. The purity of surface water will depend on the condition of the soil upon which it falls and over which it flows, as well as upon the air through which it falls. Water which falls upon and flows over a filthy soil should not be used for drinking. Since the amount of refuse on the surface of the earth is usually greater in thickly settled countries, the water collected on such sheds is unfit for use. That there is a certain degree of purification in running streams there can be no doubt; but not- withstanding this, specific poisons have been carried long distances in rivers, and have still manifested their poisonous effects. When any serious epidemic prevails, and surface water constitutes the drinking supply, it should always be boiled. In India, the spread of cholera is often along the water-courses into which excrement from the sick and the bodies of the dead are often cast. ‘Typhoid fever and dys- entery are also often spread by the use of surface water. 14 BUILDING A HOME. The water collected in shallow wells is really surface water, and that often of the worst kind. ‘The use of drinking-water from shallow wells is, as a rule, to be condemned. Many people think if water percolates through a few feet of soil, every harmful substance is removed. No greater mistake could possibly be made. Indeed, by percolation through the soil, the impurity of the water is often increased. Various kinds of filth which have accumulated upon and within the soil are dissolved in the water and carried into the well. Often we find in a small back yard a cesspool, privy-vault, and well, all in close proximity. If the well be a shallow one, such an arrangement is probably the worst, in a sanitary sense, that could possibly be devised. Subterranean waters used for drinking purposes are those obtained from springs and deep wells. Whether such waters are pure or not de- pends largely upon the genealogical formations in which they exist. The source of the water must be below rock or thick clay beds in order for the water to escape surface contaminations. Springs from gravel hills may be as impure as shallow wells. A very small amount of iron in water does not render it unfit for drinking; but water which contains more than one tenth of one per cent. of iron is unfit for constant use. Deep wells should have their walls so protected as not to permit of sur- face water finding its way through them. If this is not the case, their waters may become quite as foul as those of shallow wells. Subterranean waters are often hard. By this is meant that they fail to make a lather with soap, or a large amount of soap must be used with them in order to produce a lather. The hardness of water is due to the presence of certain inorganic salts, as those of lime and magnesia, which form insoluble compounds with soap. Hard waters are divided into two classes : (1) Those whose hardness is removed by boiling. This is known as temporary hardness. (2) Those whose hardness is not removed by boiling. This is known as permanent hardness. Many waters possess both a temporary and permanent hardness. Such waters are improved by boiling, but are not rendered wholly soft. Hard waters are not suitable for laundry purposes, especially when the hardness is largely permanent. ‘They also often form incrustations in boilers. But unless the hardness be very great, it does not unfit the water for drinking purposes. There has been much discussion as to the possibility of hard waters producing goitre. It is well known that this disease is very prevalent in certain limestone districts ; but that the use of hard water for drinking is the cause of the disease has not been positively demonstrated. It would be best, however, for families in which a ten- dency to goitre prevails to use soft water. Hard water has also been supposed to favor the formation of gravel. The writer has met with a few persons who are troubled with gravel only when using hard water. BUILDING A HOME. I5 Some hard waters have an irritating effect upon the bowels of those not accustomed to their use, producing in such persons diarrheeas. In case of the use of a public water-supply, it is the duty of the health authorities of the city to see that the water is wholesome, and it is the duty of the consumer to see that the water is not contaminated on his premises. Lead pipes and lead lined storage tanks should not be used for conveying or storing cistern water. The pipes should be of iron, or better still, of block tin, or should be lined with tin. THE DISPOSAL OF WASTE. One of the most important questions connected with modern sanitation is as to the best methods of disposing of waste matter. When allowed to accumulate in the vicinity of homes, it may poison both the water and the air. Many of the older cities of southern Europe have become thor- oughly saturated with filth, and for this reason cholera has found a fertile field for its growth in Spain, Italy, and southern France. Filth and dis- ease always go hand in hand, the former leading the latter. Cleanliness invariably lessens the death-rate. Typhoid fever, cholera, and other dis- eases, whose growth and spread are plainly due to the accumulation and putrefaction of waste matter, should be stamped out of existence. With perfect cleanliness they would not be known. It is the writer’s object to give here some practical suggestions for the disposal of waste matter. Probably the disposal of human excrement deserves more care than any other waste. In cities where there is an abundant public supply of water, and where sewers are in use, the water- closet is the most convenient method, and it may be made perfectly safe. Where water-closets are used, the so-called ‘‘ separate system” of sewer- age is desirable. ‘This system provides two sets of sewer conductors. One of these is the ordinary brick sewer, and this system is used only for carrying off the storm-water. The other is made of small sewer pipes which convey the sewage proper, and which are connected with flushing tanks, by means of which they are periodically flooded with water and washed clean. The advantage of this method is easily under- stood. When the single system is used, the sewers are necessarily large, in order to carry off the great amount of rain-water. The bottom and sides of these sewers must be more or less rough, and they are flushed only at the time of heavy rain-falls ; consequently much of the time the flow of sewage through them is slow, and the solid matter is deposited on the rough surfaces, where it decomposes with the formation of nox- ious gases, which escape through ventilators into the street, or pass through defective traps into the houses. With the separate system the small sewer pipes with smooth inner sur- faces are flushed three or four times a day, and their contents are swept out. It requires twenty-four hours at least for human excreta to decom- pose to such an extent as to evolve poisonous gases; therefore, if the pipes be flushed clean one or more times during the day, there can be but little danger from ‘‘sewer gas.” 16 BUILDING A HOME. However, whichever system of sewerage is in use, the individual should take certain precautions in arranging his water-closets. In the first place, water-closets should not be placed in living-rooms or in bed- rooms. ‘They should be located if possible in some detached part of the house. The kind of closet selected should be determined upon by some competent person. Changes and improvements in the patterns are being constantly made, so that should any preference be given at this time it might not hold good three months hence. The flushing tank for the water-closet should not in any way be connected with the drinking water- supply. ‘The closet should be well trapped, and the trap should be so placed that it can be examined at any time without tearing up the floor or breaking into the wall. - The habit which plumbers have of hiding all their work should be condemned. The soil pipe should not be connected at any point inside of the house, at least with the other waste pipes, such as those from the bath-tub and stationary wash-bowls. ‘The soil pipe should be ventilated by a pipe which should be as nearly perpendicular as possible, and which should extend above the roof of the house, and should not be placed neara window. This ventilation of the soil pipe is of the utmost importance, and should never be neglected. When there is no system of sewerage, the dry-earth closet is the best method of disposing of human excrement. Indeed, upon sanitary grounds the dry-earth system is in many respects more desirable than the use of water-closets ; but the former requires possibly more care than the latter. Economically, also, the dry-earth system will prove the better when it comes into more general use, and the excrement is used as a fertilizer. A dry-earth closet properly kept is free from all noxious gases, and there is no possibility of the drinking water-supply becoming contaminated from it. There are many patterns of dry-earth closets in use, but the simplest may be made as efficient as the most complicated and costly. A cheap form is made by placing under the seat boxes or drawers lined with gal- vanized iron. There is placed conveniently a quantity of dry earth, and for each evacuation a small shovel of the earth, from one to two pounds, is thrown in. When the drawers are full they are removed, emptied, and replaced. ‘The best earth to use is pulverized clay mixed with about one third its weight of loam. Ordinary garden soil may be used, if dried perfectly. Sifted coal ashes are almost or quite as good as any earth. Moreover, they are generally on hand, and to be disposed of in some way. The writer has used for his family a dry-earth closet for three years, and prefers the sifted coal ashes to any kind of earth. Gravel is not at all suitable. With an ordinary family with not more than half a dozen members it is not necessary to empty the boxes more than once in three or four weeks. Their contents, which if enough soil or ashes has been added, is wholly inodorous, and may be emptied upon the garden. Here it is spaded in during the spring, and as a fertilizer amply repays for the time and trouble that has been taken with it. Several large cities in Europe BUILDING A HOME. EF have adopted the dry-earth system, and the waste is removed by those who desire to use it as a fertilizer. The patent earth-closets are so arranged that the requisite amount of earth falls into the box in a manner similar to that by which the water- closet is flushed with water. In case epidemics of any kind are prevailing in the neighborhood, it would be well to throw a handful of chloride of lime into the closet each day. And even when no epidemic prevails, but the weather is very hot, the same quantity of sulphate of iron (copperas) may be used daily. The cost of this substance is so small that it may be used freely when needed. Where many are using the closet, a vault may be dug beneath the seat, and made water-tight with brick and cement. Into this should be thrown each day a sufficient quantity of this dry earth, and the vault should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a month. The ordinary privy-vault with porous walls is an abomination. It has caused more deaths in this country than war and famine have produced. The liquid poisons from it filter into wells, while its gaseous exhalations float through the air. People breathe and drink their own excretions, and typhoid fever and kindred diseases slay tens of thousands annually. It is safe to say that the privy-vault is the origin of the majority of the cases of typhoid fever. As the country becomes more thickly settled, the dangers from the privy-vault increase, and they should be wholly abandoned. In many places it is the custom to move the privy, and cover the contents of the vault with a few shovels of dirt as soon as the vault is filled. In this way from one to half a dozen repositories of filth are formed in the average village back yard in a few years. Such a condi- tion is certainly a highly unsanitary one. The waste-pipes from the bath-tub and stationary wash-bowls should be well trapped, with the traps where they can be readily examined ; and, as has been stated, these waste-pipes should have no connection, inside of the house at least, with the pipe from the water-closet. In the absence of sewage, the waste-pipes from the bath and bowls may be conducted into a cesspool. Ifthe soil be gravelly, this cesspool should be lower than the bottom of the cistern, if the cistern be near. Its walls may be of stone or brick loosely laid, and a ventilating pipe should pass from the top of the cesspool, and extend at least ten feet above the sur- face. No kitchen or laundry waste should be allowed to pass into this cesspool. Since the water passing into this cesspool comes only from the bath and wash-bowls, it does not contain a great deal of organic mat- ter, and will pass into the soil. The cesspool for the kitchen slops should be walled up and made water-tight. This cesspool should also be ven- tilated by means of a large vertical pipe. The top of this cesspool should have a man-hole in its centre, covered with a stone or iron slab, which can be removed in order to clean out the cesspool. It is better for all pipes leading to sewers or cesspools to be discon- nected, or furnished with gulley traps or with an air pipe just outside of 18 BUILDING A HOME. the house, in order to prevent the possibility of gas passing from the sewer or cesspool into the house. All cesspools should be as far from the house as possible, and they should be cleaned at regular intervals. The contents of the kitchen cesspool may be used for fertilizing. All solid kitchen waste should be removed daily by a scavenger, who does this without expense to the householder, or it may be dried under the kitchen stove in shallow pans and then burned in the kitchen fire, or, if in the country, it may be fed to hogs or other animals. The dust swept from the floor should be burned, not thrown out into the yard. Ashes should be kept in a dry place, and if so kept they may often be disposed of without cost. The soap-maker will pay for dry wood ashes, and coal ashes are often sought for and used for filling in - low places. Each fire-place and grate should be furnished with an ash- pit in which the winter’s product may fall, and by which accident from fire is greatly lessened. When a house is built, a plan of all its drainage pipes should be made and preserved, as with it a faulty pipe or joint may often be found with ease, when without it much work may be necessary in order to find where the trouble is. THE SURROUNDINGS. It would be better if residences were not built up in solid blocks. Even narrow passage-ways between the houses, through which the air can move freely, are to be preferred to unbroken blocks. However, the price of land and of building material may compel some in the larger cities to deny themselves any further separation from their neighbor than that afforded by a single brick wall. But under no censideration should residences be built back to back, without any open space between the kitchens of the two houses. Even a few feet of open yard are of great benefit in affording ventilation, and in preventing excessive dampness. The yard should be kept scrupulously clean, and it should be rendered as beautiful as circumstances will permit. In summer there is no place for children in their play preferable to a nice spot out of doors. The arrangement of cesspools, wells, cisterns, and out-houses has already been discussed. None of these should be allowed to contam- inate the soil or air of the yard. ‘Trees not too dense or too near the house are beneficial in shutting off dust, and tempering the heat of the summer’s sun. Besides, no other ornament about the premises can be more attractive than beautiful trees. The location of all the out-houses of the immediate neighbors, as well as those directly on the premises, should be taken into consideration. The yard should be so graded that the surface water will not collect about the foundations of the house. A little care and a trifling expense in the surroundings will amply repay any family, and will increase one’s love for what should be the dearest spot on earth—home. BUILDING A HOME. I9 THE CARE OF THE HOME. Suppose that a location has been selected, a house built, and the sur- roundings prepared according to the foregoing directions, the next thing is to see that all is kept in a sanitary condition. Some families would convert the most scientifically constructed house into a den of filth. Cleanliness should be the watchword of every family. So far as san- itary needs are concerned, all the directions under this head might be condensed into the few words, ‘‘ Keep everything clean.” Decaying vegetables must not be leftin the cellar. Fresh air is to be admitted daily into every part of the house, from cellar to garret. Bed- rooms especially are to be thoroughly aired. Refuse bits of food are not to be left to mold on the pantry shelf, nor should they be thrown out into the back yard. Better burn them. Offal from the preparation of food is not to be allowed to remain in the house, nor is it to be thrown out. It must be placed in the swill barrel, or burned. Dirty dishes are not to go unwashed, nor filthy floors unscrubbed, nor soiled linen unlaundered. Fresh meat, milk, and other foods are not to be allowed to remain uncovered in living-rooms or bed-rooms. The flour-box is to be kept free, not only from the ravages of rats and mice, but from the dust of the room. The drain from the ice-box should not be allowed to pass into a cess- pool, sewer, or soil-pipe. Indeed, there should be no kind of connection between the ice-box, or other place in which food is kept, and any recep- tacle of waste matter. The floors and seats of water-closets and earth-closets are to be kept clean. Drains and cesspools must be attended to. The supply of drink- ing-water must be kept free from every contamination. Continued health is the reward for the care bestowed upon these details. The labor brings a rich return. BUYING OR RENTING A HOUSE. Great care should be exercised in renting or buying a house for family occupation. Many houses are now built purposely to rent or sell, and too many of these are constructed in a very flimsy manner. The object of the builder is to attract attention to his house, and money is spent in ornamentation, which should have been used in the more important parts of the structure. No one should place his family in a house until he has made a thorough investigation of its sanitary condition. ‘The mere adver- tisement that ‘‘the house is furnished with the most approved sanitary appliances” should not be considered as a sufficient guaranty. Indeed, the statement of the owner or agent, that ‘‘ everything is all right,” is usually not to be relied on. The time will come when no one will be permitted to rent a death-trap in the shape of a house; but, unfortunately at present, the duty of seeing that everything is really all right devolves 20 BUILDING A HCME. upon the person seeking a house. For this reason a few practical direc- tions for house inspection may not be out of place here. ‘The writer has known a man, even after having been warned by a former tenant, who placed his family ina house whose sole recommendation was its attrac- tive appearance, and to regret his rashness a few weeks later when typhoid fever had stricken his family. The dangers to health and life are too great to allow any one to be careless or indifferent in this matter. The house offered for rent or sale should be visited by the one seeking a home, and thoroughly inspected in regard to its sanitary condition, as well as to its general appearance. The surroundings should be studied. The condition of the back yard,—especially the location of out-houses on the premises and those of the neighbors,—the location and condition of cesspools, privy-vaults, cisterns, or wells, if such be present, should undergo careful inspection. What the sanitary arrangements should be has been already sufficiently indicated. The cellar should be visited, and if its walls be cracked, damp, and covered with mold, if water stands upon its floor, and if light and ven- tilation are not provided for, seek some other habitation. It is better far to sleep in the open air, with no roof but the sky and no bed but a few blankets placed on the dry earth, than to live in a house built over a reeking cesspool; and such a cellar is nothing more nor less than a cesspool. The general construction of the house should be closely scrutinized. Observe the height of the first floor above the level of the street, the pro- portion of the lot covered by the house, the arrangement and size of the rooms, and the condition of the floors, ceilings, and walls. Of course newly constructed walls are always damp. Vz) Wala enh aaa te Sat I at 60 cts. per bushel. EATER Sie ites tein ethene whee Anne 0.28 0.38 14 at 6 cts. per qt. THOZa SUP AL it, Tate Ne|s 0 Oe ake 0.94 4 at 8 cts. per Ib. Si0-02.CUDS CONES |g tan lntiis 2 at 27 cts. per lb. oes ee 4.15 2.78 18.98 134 Ciass Il].—Moderately cheap daily rations. No. I. Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. Cost. Oz. Oz. Oz Cts. TOOZ Tea aint a eee 0.08 8.83 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. SZ. Deel (Very fat) i. re elie gO 2:12 8 at 16 cts. per lb. B2OZ i DOLALOES waver bayoee. Y tath ie (HOO ng 6.62 2 at 6o cts. per bushel. Oe MARIE fy lle. iin iets tae Wee tO eC) eh 1.01 4 at 4 cts. per lb. ok SOP) an a et Co eagle lwp 0.85 1.14 44 at 6 cts. per qt. POs OUR AT eee ee (syne Nyce tatie 0.94 4 at 8 cts. per lb. ce ee 4.22 ee he AV ah ee Be 184 No. 2 26:02; Dread vu. oi% Be etsy OTs Aca 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 8 oz. beef Paoiectely fat). Pees 0.45 9 at 18 cts. per Ib. 160z. potatoes . . Bin acy 3.31 I at 60 cts. per bushel. Goay ny Sy) cahe An) RR PD Cn RIA PIAL #1 6 0.85 1.14 44 at 6 cts. per qt. TUOZSOUULES Pe tie Gla a hate | Awe 0.83 14 at 24 cts. per lb. 4.63 2.20 716160 21 No. 3 BOMOZ TEAC yt hris eh tek ealue nal Oe 0,13 14.35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 4 oz, mutton (very fat)». }).0..) 10.60 1.44 4 at 16 cts. per lb. AIOZMDEADS | h wiukinine sia aae vie Ate NO Oe 0.08 2.14 I at4 cts. per Ib. DPIC p eee Meet ie che nee LO 1.14 Lek? 6 at 6 cts. per qt. 4.42 2499 t T801 16 No. 4 BOOZ. Dread Nie ie sine tal Saal athe D138 21035 5 at 5 cts. per lb. 8 oz. mutton (moderately Aye 1.36 0.48 9 at 18 cts. per lb. 29 OZ. DOLALOES Viel et is Tile ie |) sO 6.62 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. APs TUS a gate ean eal ge ithe Ope 0.28 0.38 14 at 6 cts. per qt. T\OZH SURAT ia aie Ne ee ahiie ew hate 0.94 $ at 8 cts. per lb. HEALTHY FOODS. Proteids. Oz. Oz BEURUMEE ows se 1.66 masoz. cups coflee . . .- . 4.09 2-55 No. 5 20.0z. bread. . 1.82 0.13 4 oz. pork (lean) . 0.80 0.28 2 oz. fat cheese 0.50 0.58 32 oz. potatoes 0.64 4 pt. milk 0.27 0.28 I oz. butter . 0.83 3 8-oz. cups coffee 4.03 2.10 No. 6 MIRC ink ays 6 1282 0.13 2 Oz. sausage (best quality) 0.57 0.80 2 oz. oatmeal 0.29 0.12 40z. beans . 0.92 0.08 I oz. bacon. 0.14 0.37 I pt. milk 0.54 0.57 I oz. butter . 0.83 I oz. sugar . 3 5-0z. Cups tea 4-28 2.90 Fats. Carboehydrates. Oz. 19.49 31 Cost. Cts. 3 at 24 cts. per Ib. 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 23 5 at § cts. per loaf. 3 at 12 cts. per Ib. td at 12 Cts. per lb. 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. 14 at 6 cts. per qt. 14 at 24 cts. per lb. 2 at 27 cts. per Ib. 164 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 14 at 12 cts. per Ib. 4 at 4 cts. per Jb. I at 4 cts. per Ib. # at 12 cts. per Ib. 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 14 at 24 cts. per lb. 4 at 8 cts. per Ib. 1 at 75 cts. per lb. —y 142 Cuiass 1V.—More expensive daily rations. No. I. Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates. Cost. Oz. Oz. Oz. Cts. PEeaCa ss... «21.12 0.08.) 8.83 3 at § cts. per loaf. 2 eggs 0.24 0.24 4 at 24 cts. per doz. 2 0z. butter. 1.66 4 ac 32 Cts. per Jb. I qt. milk 1.08 1.14 52 8 at 8 cts. per qt. I oz. bacon 0.14 0.37 # at 12 cts. per lb. I oz. string beans . 0.03 0.06 2 at 32 cts. per Ib. 8 oz. mutton 1.36 0.48 9 at 18 cts. per Ib. 32 0z. potatoes 0.64 6.62 2 at 60 cts. per bushel 1 0z. sugar . 0.94 4 at 8 cts. per lb. 1 oz. dried fruit 0.02 0.55 14 at 20 cts. per Ib. 4.63 3.97 18.52 348 NO}; 2: 160z. bread. 1.12 0.08 8.83 3 at 5 cts. per loaf. Eee Oatmeal! .) . ‘.i 0.29 0.12 1.30 % at 4 cts. per lb. woz, sugar... . 1.88 I at § cts. per lb. ne 1 pt, milk I Oz. macaroni. 8 oz. beef 32 oz. potatoes 2 oz. salmon 2 oz. butter . 3 8-0z. cups coffee 20 OZaDIEAG. ).s!\.-ss1 ve 40z. beef . 2 oz. butter. 2 oz. fat pork 2 oz. beans 2 oz. starch . 20z. sugar . 2 oz. dried fruit 8 oz. potatoes . 8 oz. lean mutton . 3 8-oz. cups coffee 4 pt. milk 20 oz. bread 2 oz. oatmeal I qt. milk 20z. sugar . 2 oz. butter. 2 oz. mackerel . 8 oz. chicken 16 oz. potatoes. ....). 8 oz. fruit (as apple sauce) . 26 oz. bread 2 oz. sausage 2 oz. butter . 8 oz. lean beef 16 oz. potatoes 2 oz. macaroni I qt. milk 2 0z. sugar . 3 8-oz. cups coffee HEALTHY FOODS. Fats, Carbo-hydrates. Proteids. Oz Oz. 0.54 0.57 0.09 1.68 0.44 0.64 0.32 O.II 1.66 4.68 298 No. 3 1.40 0.10 0.84 0.22 1.66 0.29 0.75 0.46 0.04 0.05 0.16 1.36 0.48 0.27 0.28 4.83 3.53 No. 4. 1.40 0.10 0.29 0.12 1.08 I.14 1.66 0.46 0.13 1.86 0.19 0.32 5-41 3-34 No. 5 1.82 0.13 0.57 0.80 1.66 1.68 0.08 0.32 0.18 1.08 1.14 5-65 3.81 Oz. 0.76 0.76 6.62 20.15 11.04 1.07 1.67 1.88 Tit Cost. Cis; 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 14 at 20 cts. per Ib. g at 18 cts. per Ib. 2 at 60 cts. per bushel. 14 at 20 cts. per Ib. 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 2 at 27 cts. per Ib. —— 274 4 at 5 cts. per loaf. 44 at 18 cts. per Ib. 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 14 at 12 cts. per lb. 4 at 4 cts. per lb. 2 at 16 cts. per Ib. I at 8 cts. per Ib. 24 at 20 cts. per lb. 4 at 60 cts. per bushel. 8 at 16 cts. per lb. 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 14 at 6 cts. per qt. 32 4 at 5 cts. per loaf. 4 at 4 cts. per Ib. 6 at 6 cts. per qt. 1 at 8 cts. per lb. 4 at 32 cts. per lb. 14 at 12 cts. per Ib. 124 at 25 cts. per lb. 1 at 60 cts. per bushel. 1 at $1 per bushel. 313 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. 2 at 16 cts. per lb. 4 at 32 cts. per lb. g at 18 cts. per lb. I at 60 cts. per bushel. 24 at 20 cts. per Ib. 6 at 6 cts. per qt. I at 8 cts. per Ib. 2 at 27 cts. per lb. 328 ee HEALTHY FOODS. 33 No. 6. Proteids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates, Cost. Oz. Oz. Oz. Cts. or OO ET a rene ey 273 OTS tA. 35 5 at 5 cts. per loaf. Se eee ae eR Le 0.24 4 at 24 cts. per doz. 0 SS 1.66 4 at 32 cts. per lb. Sepammicampeei, .. . - . 1.68 0.08 9 at 18 cts. per lb. 2 oz. beans Daa 6 wa, O4O 0.04 1.07 4 at 4 cts. per lb. NG i a os 9 | 0.37 $ at 12 cts. per lb. eommnarmioes | . «wwe 0032 3.30 I at 60 cts. per bushel. MONA SG ee ww 0.94 4 at 8 cts. per lb. OM kw 0054 0.57 0.76 3 at 6 cts. per qt. 3 8-oz. cups coffee Ziat\27 cts. per ID. 5.20 3-091 20.42 294 To tne cost of the raw food, as given in the preceding tables, is to be added the cost of cooking, fuel, keeping the table, and of furnishing sea- soning, such as salt, pepper, and mustard. Where six or more persons eat together, the cost of the above items, including enough to pay the wages of the cook and waiters, is from 35 to 50 cents per week for each boarder. ‘This increases the daily cost of board by from 5 to 7 cents above the figures given in the tables. ANIMAL FOODS. MEATS—GENERAL PROPERTIES. A large proportion of our daily food consists of material derived from the animal world. Other animals take vegetable food and build it up, so that it approximates in physical and chemical properties the flesh of man. Of the foods thus derived from the animal kingdom, meat is one of the most important. Meat consists of different food-stuffs, as water, mineral salts, albumen, and fat. On an average, 100 parts of beef consist of 72 parts of muscle, 8 parts of fat, and 20 parts of bone (including car- tilage and tendon). ‘The age of the animal, and the manner in which it has been fitted for market, have a marked effect upon the composition of the flesh. Veal contains 3 per cent. more of water, and a corresponding amount of solid substance, than lean beef. Fat beef may contain as much as 10 per cent. less of water than lean beef. The same is true of the dif- ference between mutton and lamb. Of all the kinds of flesh eaten, fat bacon contains the least amount of water. The average per cent. of water in bacon is 60, while that in lean beef is 75. The flesh of wild fowl, chickens, and pigeons furnishes on an average 77 per cent. of water. Fish is especially rich in water, the carp yielding 80 per cent. The fat in lean beef, veal, and mutton may be as low as from 1 to 14 per cent., while that of fat beef is 14, of fat mutton g, veal 6, and bacon 24. Along with these variations in the amounts of water and fat there are corre- sponding changes in the quantity of nitrogenous material. As a rule, 34 HEALTHY FOODS. fish is poorest in nitrogenous substance, the per cent. in carp and salmon being 13, in pickerel 15; fat veal, mutton, and bacon, 15; fat beef, 16; lean beef, 22. } The following rules may govern us in the selection of meats: Good beef has a reddish-brown color, and contains no clots of blood. Well nourished beeves furnish a flesh which while raw is marbled with spots of white fat; it is firm and compact. Old, lean animals furnish a flesh which is tough, dry, and dark; the fat is yellow. Veal is slightly reddish, and has tender, white fibres. The fat is not distributed through the lean, as in beef. The same is true of mutton. In well nourished animals, white fat accumulates along the borders of the muscles. Pork is rose-red, and has fat distributed through the muscle. The lard is white, and lies in heavy deposit under the skin. The flesh of an old boar is dark, and often has an unpleasant odor and taste. Good beef is not of a pale pink color, and such a color indicates that the animal was diseased. Good beef does not have a dark purple hue, for this color is evidence that the animal has not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood in its body, or has suffered from some acute feb- rile affection. Good beef has no, or but little, odor; or if any odor is perceptible it is not disagreeable. In judging as to the odor of meat, pass a clean knife, which has been dipped in hot water, through it, and examine sub- sequently as to the odor of the knife. Tainted meat often gives off a plainly perceptible and disagreeable odor while being cooked. Good meat is elastic to the touch. Meat that is wet and flabby should be discarded. It should not become gelatinous after being keptan a cool place for two days, but should remain dry on the surface and firm to the touch. The flesh of young animals is more tender than that of the adult, put experiment, as well as experience, has shown that the former is less easily digested. For instance, veal and lamb are less easily digested, and tax the stomach of the dyspeptic more than beef and mutton. Dr. Smith has shown that this is largely due to the fact that the flesh of young ani- mals cannot be perfectly masticated. The tissues of the young animal are less stimulating, less nutritious, and more gelatinous than the tissues of the adult animal. On the other hand, it is well known that an animal may be so old and poorly nourished that its flesh well-nigh defies both mastication and digestion. ‘The common breeds of cattle are best fitted for the market at the age of 7 years; the better breeds earlier. It makes a difference whether the special meat be served in or out of season. Beef is in highest season in the early months of winter, after the animal has been furnished abundant pasturage, though not absolutely out of season at any time of the year. Fresh pork is wholly out of sea- son during the hot months of summer. Christison found in salmon, be- fore the spawning season, 18.5 per cent. of fat and 39 per cent. of solids ; after the spawning season, I per cent. of fat and 20 per cent. of solids. In most cases, animals are fattened for the table. Some fat is desira- HEALTHY FOODS. 35 ble, as it renders the meat more juicy, and develops an agreeable flavor. But the process of fattening is often carried too far. Fat should be taken in a finely divided state, for when swallowed in lumps it is well-nigh indigestible. Many a child, which has been reproved for refusing to eat fat meat, will readily take the same amount of fat, as butter, spread upon bread. The manner in which the animal has been killed affects the meat. Slaughtering is usually so conducted as to remove as much as possible of the blood. Either death is produced by the withdrawal of blood, or the blood is withdrawn as soon as possible after death. The removal of the blood enables the meat to be kept with more ease; it also improves the flavor. In warm countries meat is often cut from the animal and cooked as soon as death is produced, and before rzgor mortzs (the stiffness of death) setsin. While the rigor is on, the meat is more difficult of mastication and digestion. In temperate latitudes the flesh is usually kept until this rigidity naturally passes off. This may be aided by pounding the meat after it has been cut into thin pieces. With us, the only animals which are cooked before rigor sets in are fish, frogs, some mollusks, frequently domestic fowls, and sometimes wild game. The flesh of wild animals is richer in nitrogen and flavor, and contains less fat, than that of the same species kept in domestication. Meat which has been frozen decofhposes easily after being thawed out, and when cooked it is dry and insipid. The ancient Egyptians and Chaldeans were acquainted with the fact that the flesh of diseased animals might harmfully affect those eating of it, and among them the use of such flesh as food was prohibited. The strictest measures were taken to see that the meat furnished their kings and priests was obtained from healthy animals. Even during the dark ages this prohibition of the use of flesh from diseased animals continued. During the eighteenth century, however, it was found that the inhab- itants of besieged towns ate of such food when starvation threatened them, and without any marked detriment to health. The flesh of a dis- eased animal does not necessarily convey the malady to the consumer ; but in order to prevent such transmission the cooking must be thorough. That phthisis (consumption) may be imparted to dogs by feeding them upon tubercular flesh has been proven experimentally. Dr. Livingston states that the use of the flesh of animals afflicted with pleuro-pneumonia ° produces carbuncle. In Germany and France many cases of anthrax or malignant pustule in man have arisen from partaking of the flesh of ani- mals with this disease. The flesh of sheep with the small-pox, and of oxen with the cattle plague, has affected those partaking of it. Then there are the parasites, trichinz, cysticerci (in ‘‘ measly” meat), and echino-cocci (flukes), which may be transmitted to man. If every part of the meat be raised to a temperature of 160° Fahr. during cooking, these parasites are destroyed; but if the blood-red juices exude from the interior of the piece of meat on being cut, the parasites, if present, may still retain their vitality. 36 HEALTHY FOODS. The eating of the flesh of diseased animals is admissible only when no better food can be secured, and when starvation threatens. ‘The sale of such meat is prohibited by law, and any one guilty of such an outrage should be punished to the fullest extent. ‘The flesh of a healthy animal may become poisonous from partial decomposition. By the putrefaction of albuminous substances, certain organic poisons are generated. The symptoms produced resemble those of severe cholera morbus, and a fatal termination is not infrequent. These cases most frequently arise from eating sausage and canned meats, though they may be due to any meat which is partly putrid. Gerlach, director of the Royal Veterinary School at Berlin, gives the following list of meats which should not be eaten: (1) The flesh of all animals which have died of internal diseases, or which have been killed while suffering from such diseases, and of healthy animals which have been killed by over-driving ; | (2) The flesh of animals with contagious diseases which may be trans- mitted to man; (3) The flesh of animals which have been poisoned ; (4) The flesh of animals with severe infectious diseases, such as blood poisoning ; (5) Flesh which contains parasites that may be transmitted to man ; * (6) All putrid flesh. j METHODS OF COOKING MEAT. In boiling meat, if it is desired to retain the juices, the piece should be large, and should be placed at once in boiling water, and the boiling continued for five minutes. Then the temperature of the water should — be allowed to fall to 160° Fahr., at which point it should be maintained until the meat is done. The boiling water coagulates the outside of the meat, and thus prevents the escape of the juices. If the temperature be kept at or near the boiling point throughout the process, the flesh shrinks, becomes tough, loses in flavor, and is finally digested with much diffi- culty. On the other hand, if the object of the boiling is to make a good soup, the meat should be cut into small pieces, placed in cold water, and the temperature gradually raised to from 150° to 160° Fahr. Chicken broth is the most nutritious ; mutton next ; while beef makes a very weak broth. By boiling, meat loses, as a rule, from 25 to 30 per cent. of its weight. In roasting, the oven should at first be very hot; then it should be cooled down, and the process continued at a low temperature. Since the heat applied to every portion of the outside of the meat cannot be so uniform in roasting as in boiling, the loss is usually greater in the former than in the latter. Stewed meat is that roasted in its own juices. The meat is cut into small pieces, and the cooking should be carried on at as low a tempera- ture as possible. ‘The extracted matter should be served with the meat. HEALTHY FOODS. 37 Often vegetables are stewed with the meat, thus improving the flavor of the former. Proper cooking renders the meat more agreeable to the senses of sight, smell, and taste, and thus through the nervous system it stimulates the flow of the digestive fluids. One of the most fruitful sources of error in the cooking lies in using too high a temperature. BRIEF CONSIDERATION OF THE MEATS IN COMMON USE. Beef. Among all civilized people beef is regarded as the principal animal food. By common consent we admit that. beef is more nutritious than any other kind of flesh. This universal opinion is supported by the investigations of science. There is a larger proportion of nutritious material in beef than in the flesh of the sheep or hog. Beef is of closer texture, and is fuller of red-blood juices. It is richer in flavor than the flesh of any other domestic animal, and a smaller amount of it will sat- isfy hunger. Siegert gives the following figures, showing the average per cent. composition of the flesh taken from different parts of a lean and a fat ox: Lean Ox. Fat Ox. Neck. Sirloin. Shoulder. Neck. Sirloin. Shoulder. Water, 77-5 77-4 76.5 735 63.4 50.5 Fat, 0.9 I.1 $3 5.8 16.7 34.0 Muscle, 20.4 20.3 Zia 19.5 18.8 14.5 On an average, 65 per cent. of the live weight of an ox may be con- verted into salable meat, the exact proportion varying with the degree to which the animal has been fattened. The greater the amount of fat, the less the proportion of bone and other waste. Not only does beef from different animals differ in composition, flavor, and digestibility, but that from various parts of the same animal varies. The flesh from the different parts of the carcass is divided into the fol- lowing four classes, according to quality: Class I. Porterhouse, sirloin, and best cuts from the rump: Price per pound, 15 cents. Class II. Round, shoulder, ribs, top ribs, flank steak, plate, and skirt, 12% cents. Class III. Best parts of neck, brisket, and flank, 8 cents. Class IV. Poorer parts of neck, flank, and brisket, 7 cents. Pieces of shank and bone are usually sold by the piece, and not by the pound. The prices vary in different sections of the country and at differ- ent times, but the writer gives the above figures for the purpose of show- ing the difference in value of different parts from the same animal. Veal. In many sections of the country calves of all ages are slaugh- tered. In some cities, as in Boston, the killing of a calf under one month of age for food is prohibited. It would be well if this law, or a more extensive one, should be enforced all over the country. Veal is too often used simply as a dish to please the taste. As has been remarked, 38 HEALTHY FOODS. it is not nearly so nutritious as beef, and is much more difficult of diges- tion. Some persons are wholly unable to digest veal, and when they eat of it, it acts as a foreign body in the intestines, and causes griping and diarrhea. Dr. Smith states that it is more easy of digestion when well roasted or broiled than when boiled. The time required for the digestion of veal is five hours or more, while beef is digested in from two and a half to three hours. The mode of killing often practised in this case has a special influence on the nutritive value of the food. Veal is bleached by repeatedly bleed- ing the animal for some days, and at last allowing it to bleed to death. The bones of calves contain much animal matter, and for this reason they are used for the production of gelatine ; and calves’ feet are selected for the preparation of jellies, which are often very acceptable to the sick. Mutton. This is more easily digested than beef, though in a healthy man no marked difference would be observed, since in the stomach of such a man there arises no inconvenience from the digestion of beef. However, mutton will be found to tax the stomach of the dyspeptic less than beef does, and mutton broth is both acceptable and valuable to a person suffering from dysentery or kindred affections of the bowels. But mutton is not so nutritious as beef. In dressing a mutton, the woolly coat should not be allowed to touch the flesh. There is quite a perceptible difference in the flavor of mutton taken from a fattened wether, which has been for some time deprived of all excess in his woolly coat, and of that taken from a sheep which has a heavy fleece. The smallest proportion of both fat and bone to muscle is found in the leg; consequently this is the most valuable part of the ani- mal. Lamb. This is not nearly so nutritious as mutton. The tissue is soft, gelatinous, and rich in water. It is used principally on account of its delicacy of flavor, which, however, is very variable, depending upon the breed and nourishment. Lamb should not be selected for those whose digestive organs are weak. Pork, Bacon, and Ham. Asa rule, dried meats are more difficult of digestion than the same meats in the fresh state. Bacon and ham are, however, exceptions to this rule, for when well cured they are digested with more ease than fresh pork. In cold weather, nice bacon is espe- cially suited for furnishing a large amount of heat by its oxidation in the body. The inhabitants of cold countries find fatty food necessary to their existence. For several reasons, the flesh of the hog must continue to form one of the most important sources of our food. This animal can be fattened more readily and at less cost than either the ox or sheep. The best breeds of pigs store up in their bodies three times as much of the food which they eat as the ox does. Then the flesh can be cured easily and preserved indefinitely. Again, the animal multiplies rapidly and reaches maturity speedily. On the other hand, of all the meats ordinarily eaten, this is most likely HEALTHY FOODS. 39 to be diseased. ‘‘Measly” pork can, as a rule, be recognized by the unaided eye on close inspection. The meat is dotted with grayish-white specks, about the size of a pea; but ‘‘ measly” pork is often cut up into sausage, in which the diseased condition escapes recognition. The *‘measles” (cysticerci), taken into the stomach of man, develop into tape worms. Then there are the trichine, which can be recognized only by the aid of the microscope. These little parasites penetrate the mus- cles of man, causing great suffering, which often terminates in death. These parasites occur so frequently in pork and its cured products, that every one should always remember that the flesh of the hog should not be eaten unless it has been thoroughly cooked. As we have stated, these parasites are destroyed if the temperature of every part of the meat be raised to 160° Fahr. during cooking. Fowl. ‘There is no bird that may not be eaten in case of necessity. In other words, the flesh of no bird is in itself poisonous. The same is true of the eggs of all birds. It is true that cases of poisoning from eat- ing quails, during spring, have occurred; but the poisoning was due to the buds of the mountain laurel, upon which the birds fed. The flesh of carnivorous birds is strong in odor and in taste, and would not form a tempting dish, save to one threatened with starvation. The light meats of birds are more easily digested, less rich in nitrogen and in flavor, than the dark meats. Chicken broth is more nutritious than that made from either mutton or beef, and is often of great value to the sick. Fish. Undoubtedly the flesh of some fish is poisonous. A fish is said to justify suspicion when it has attained a size unusual for one of its spe- cies. ‘This popular idea may have a grain of truth in it. Fish should be discarded if the water in which it is being boiled blackens silver. The coloration is due to hydrogen sulphide (the gas of bad eggs), and indi- cates putrefactive changes. Decomposing fish has a pale look, and its belly is bluish. It is withered, sticky to the touch, and foul in odor. The seller sometimes tries to hide the evidence of decomposition by taking the eyeballs out and coloring the gills with blood. Fish caught from putrid water should not be eaten. Sometimes, near large manu- facturing establishments where a great deal of refuse is thrown into the water, the fish are killed, and may be brought to market. The flesh of such fish is yellowish, soft, spongy, and of foul odor. Fish may be divided into those furnishing white and those furnishing red meats. Those of the former class, as the whitefish, are delicate and easy of diges- tion, while those of the second class are richer in nitrogen, and more stimulating. Fish should not be left in the water after they are dead, but should be packed in ice. Fish should not be the chief flesh diet of a people, because it is not sufficiently stimulating. Indeed, it is doubtful if any class of people would voluntarily confine themselves to such food. But the occasional use of fish forms a change which is both agreeable and beneficial. There is no truth in the popular idea that a fish diet is especially suited to the development of the brain and nervous system. 40 HEALTHY FOODS. Along with fish are often classed certain crustaceans, as the crab and lobster, and certain mollusks, as the oyster and mussel. The oyster and mussel are gelatinous, but are easily masticated and digested. ‘The lob- ster, crayfish, and crab are more muscular, and are somewhat more dif- ficult of mastication and digestion. The nutritive value of the oyster is not very great, but its delicacy of flavor and ease of digestion make it of great value to all, and especially to the sick. The raw oyster is probably more easily digested than se cooked. The crab and lobster are of considerable nutritive value, though, on account of price, they are used principally as delicacies. Sausage. The food value of sausage depends upon the substances out of which it is prepared. If made from good meat it forms a very valu- able preparation, as by this means all the small bits are collected and saved. But its method of preparation allows of the introduction of poor grades of flesh, and of several adulterations. The adulterations which have been found in sausage are meal, to in- crease the bulk and the profit; salicylic acid and borax, to prevent decomposition ; and a red coloring matter (fuchsin), to give the poorer quality of meat a better color. The liver sausage (leberwiirste of the Germans) is made by grinding up liver, lungs, kidney, tendon, soft car- tilage, and fat; sometimes meal is added. ‘The so-called white sausage, which is used to some extent in this country, is made by mixing the crumbs of white bread with the meat. Blood or red sausage consists of a mixture of blood, fat, and flesh, with or without meal. Pea sausage is a well known preparation in France, where it is patented and warranted not to become rancid. It is of variable composition, but consists prin- cipally of ground pease with meat, and some preservative, as salicylic acid. ‘The writer does not know of its introduction into this country. Sausage poisoning, which is common and so often fatal in parts of Germany, is fortunately very rare in this country, though a similar affec- tion from canned and dried meats is becoming too frequent. The poison is generated by partial decomposition. Sausage which has a putrid odor, or rancid taste, or has greenish or yellow spots in its interior, should not be eaten. Bad sausage, and other similar meat preparations, are usually, in the interior at least, soft and sticky, and when broken show small cavities. This is true even when the outside appears to be all right. Meat Extracts. Liebig’s meat extract, which is now so well known, is made by boiling lean meat with from eight to ten times its volume of water, removing the insoluble parts, fat and albumen, and evaporating to the consistency of a syrup. About thirty pounds of meat yield one pound of extract. Meat extracts are made on the largest scale in South America, from cattle which are wholly worthless for beef. it will be seen that this extract consists only of those constituents of the meat which are soluble in water, and they are certain crystallizable organic bodies and the inorganic salts. All the really nutritive parts of the meat are insoluble in water, and are not, therefore, present in the extract. Liebig’s extract and similar preparations are agreeable in HEALTHY FOODS. 4! taste and odor, and are valuble stimulants, often improving the appetite, so that more valuable foods are demanded and digested. As stimulants, they are of great value to the sick; but some other food should also be supplied. A German deprived two dogs of all solid food, giving one only water, and the other meat extract. The one furnished with the extract lost flesh more rapidly than the other, and died first. Beef-Tea. This should be prepared as follows: Cut the beef-steak into fine pieces. Put the chopped meat, without any water, into a small vessel, which is set into a kettle of warm water. Heat gradually, keeping the water in the kettle above blood-heat, but do not allow it to boil. Remove the small vessel containing the meat and the juice which has exuded from it, strain its contents, season, and serve. As thus prepared, beef-tea is somewhat more nutritious than Liebig’s extract; still, its chief value is to those who need a stimulant, and to those for whom a very small amount of food is sufficient. Fluid Meats and Peptones. ‘These are supposed to be formed by artificial digestion, whereby the same products are produced as in the stomach. ‘The best of them are of value; others are worthless. They are to be regarded as medicines, and are to be used according to the directions of the physician. Bone and Cartilage. Bone consists of a gelatine forming organic sub- stance, and of mineral salts. Besides, the marrow contains considerable fat and a little albumen. About one third of bone is organic matter, a large part of which is soluble in boiling water. For this reason, bone is of value in making soups. The long bones are not acted upon by water readily, unless they first be cut or ground into small pieces. The bones of the spine and the ribs make a very nutritious soup, which yields as much as twenty-four per cent. of the weight of the bone in solid matter. Bones should be boiled for several hours, in order to get all the food- stuffs out of them. When we remember that these soups are also used for the purpose of serving vegetables, we may appreciate the real value of bone as a source of food. MILK.! Milk is a white, yellowish white, or bluish white fluid. It consists of a colorless fluid holding milk globules in suspension. ‘These globules render the fluid opaque. The reaction of fresh milk (cows’) is sometimes alkaline, sometimes acid; but, as a rule, it gives both reactions, turning blue litmus paper red; and red litmus, blue. Composition. Milk contains representatives of all the classes of food. The albuminous constituents are casein and albumen. ‘The former is coagulated when the milk becomes sour, or on the addition of an acid, or by the action of rennet. The albumen is precipitated by heat. The tAs cow’s milk is the only kind that is used as a commercial food in this country, all the state- ments made will refer to this kind unless some other kind be specified. 42 HEALTHY FOODS. amount of casein is much larger than that of albumen. There is also a nitrogenous constituent which is not coagulated by either heat or acids. The fat of milk forms butter, and the importance of this constituent is so great that we often decide as to the value of a given sample of milk from the amount of butter which it yields. Milk sugar has the same chemical composition as cane sugar; but they differ somewhat in their physical properties. If some milk be evaporated to dryness and the residue be burned, there remains a flaky, white ash, which contains all the inorganic salts which are absolutely necessary to the body. The following table gives the average per cent. composition of milk: Water, Casein and Albumen. Fat. Milk Sugar. Ash. 87-5 3-5 3-5 4.8 0.7 Colostrum. The fluid which the cow yields directly after calving is known as colostrum, which differs essentially in composition from milk, and is unfit for human food. It gradually, however, approximates milk, and the change may be regarded as complete by the eighth or tenth day. The fat of colostrum is in large lumps, and it contains much more albumen than milk does. Its average composition is shown by the follow- ing figures: Water. Albumen and Casein, Fat. Milk Sugar. Ash, 73.07 19.21 RELY 3.00 1.18 The Care of Milk. Milk should not be ai:towed to stand in copper, brass, or zinc vessels, nor in earthen vessels which are lined with lead glazing; for if the milk should become at all sour, traces of the metal may be dissolved in it. There is no objection to wooden vessels if they are kept scrupulously clean. But when emptied they should be scalded with boiling water, and then dried before they are refilled. There are also no objections to the best glazed earthen or to well tinned vessels. Milk should not be allowed to stand uncovered in an occupied room, nae in a sitting- or a bed-room. The fluid rapidly absorbs gases which may set up putrefactive changes in it. Besides, the dust which falls into it may contain disease germs, and these, finding a suitable place for their development, may multiply rapidly. There can be no question that milk has often served as the vehicle for distributing the germs of scar- let fever and diphtheria, which have fallen into it, or have been introduced with the water which has been used in diluting the milk, or for washing the vessels in which it is carried. Souring of Milk. This fluid, on standing, sooner or later becomes distinctly sour, and its casein is coagulated. This is due to the action of a ferment, which is always present in the milk, on the milk-sugar, which is converted into lactic acid. The coagulated casein is known as ‘¢clabber,” and the fluid portion forms whey. ‘The best method of re- tarding the souring process in milk consists in keeping it in a cool place. tan < HEALTHY FOODS. 43 Boiling has a similar effect, but it alters the nature of the fluid more or less. Milkmen sometimes add bicarbonate of soda to milk to prevent its souring. The alkali simply neutralizes the acid as fast as it is formed. Adulterations. While a great deal that is sensational has been said about the adulterations of milk, these frauds are perpetrated too fre- quently. A food which forms the principal, and in many instances the sole, sustenance of children, should be kept free from any adulteration which in any way lessens its nutritive value. To furnish a child with watered milk is often to slowly starve it to death, and the person guilty of such an act should be treated as a criminal. The adulterations practised in the sale of milk are as follows: (1) The addition of water, (2) the removal of more or less of the cream, (3) the addition of some foreign solid substance to increase the opacity or density of the fluid. The addition of water is the fraud most commonly practised. The amount added varies from ten to fifty per cent. of the milk; though the former figure is probably the one most frequently approximated. Several states have laws defining the amount of milk solids, which must be pres- ent. Wherever these laws are enforced they form a valuable protection to the consumer, and to honest dairymen as well. Unfortunately, there is no ready test capable of being used by any one, by which the exact amount of water can be determined. The amount of cream which forms on a given volume of milk standing in a tall glass tube or other vessel is a rough but valuable method which every housewife may em- ploy. From this she cannot say with certainty to her milkman that he has watered his milk, but she can tell him that the milk is not as rich as it should be. However, it must be remembered that the cream rises on milk much quicker under some conditions than under others. Watery milk may be produced by feeding cows upon sloppy food, such as the refuse from breweries, as well.as by the direct addition of water. Besides, watery milk often has a bluish color, and is not as opaque as healthy milk ; though this appearance is sometimes hidden by the addition of a yellow coloring substance, annatto. Skimmed milk is frequently sold for whole milk. In certain states there are very excellent laws against such a practice. The same rough test may be made as given above for watered milk. Sometimes skimmed milk is added to an unskimmed portion, and then sold as whole milk. The addition of foreign solids is not frequently resorted to. The most common substance used is bicarbonate of soda for the purpose of prevent- ing the souring of the milk, as has already been stated. In the amount used, it does not affect the food value of the milk. It is frequently said that chalk, gypsum, and gum arabic are added to milk. They may be used occasionally ; but stupid indeed must be the consumer who would not detect these substances, which, on account of their insolubility, would be deposited in the vessel. It has also been stated that the brains of calves and other animals are pulverized or ground fine, and placed in 44 HEALTHY FOODS. milk. This is an adulteration found in sensational books, but not in milk. Diseased Milk. There can be no question about the possibility of the transmission of certain diseases from the lower animal to man through the use of milk as afood. In inflammation of the udder, the secretion of — the gland is diminished, and the act of milking causes the animal much pain. The milk is of unpleasant odor, and contains lumps of coagulated casein and albumen, and sometimes blood and pus. Such milk may cause irritation and even inflammation of the stomach in children. In all acute febrile diseases of cows the amount of the secretion is dimin- ished, and in severe fevers the flow of milk ceases altogether. In chronic diseases, as those of the digestive organs, the milk becomes thin and watery. The cause of the disease known as milk-sickness, which has prevailed in certain parts of Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and some other states, has never been ascertained. Some ascribe it to plants which the cows eat; others are equally certain that the drinking water is the source. As the country becomes more improved, the disease appears less frequently. This would lead us to suppose that the poison is obtained from some native plant which is destroyed by cultivation of the soil. } Unfortunately, in many diseases of cows, during the first stages at least, the changes in the character of the milk are not sufficiently marked to be observed ;—however, the following kinds of milk should be avoided : (1) Milk which becomes sour and curdles within a few hours after it has been drawn, and before any cream forms on its surface. This is known in some. sections as ‘* curdly”’ milk, and it comes from cows with certain inflammatory affections of the udder, or with digestive diseases, or from those which have been over-driven or worried. (2) ‘* Bitter-sweet milk” is that whose cream has a bitter taste, is cov- ered with ‘‘ blisters,” and frequently witha fine mold. Butter and cheese made from such milk cannot be eaten on account of the disagreeable taste. (3) ‘*Slimy milk” can be drawn out into fine ropy fibres. It has an unpleasant taste, which is most marked in the cream. The causes which lead to the secretion of this milk are not known. (4) ** Blue milk” is characterized by the appearance on its surface, eighteen or twenty hours after it is drawn, of small indigo-blue spots, which rapidly enlarge until the whole surface is covered witha blue film. If the milk be allowed to stand for a few days, the blue is converted into a greenish or reddish color. This coloration of the milk is due to the growth of a microscopic organism. ‘The butter made from ‘‘ blue milk” is dirty-white in color, gelatinous in consistency, and bitter in taste. (5) ‘* Barn-yard milk” is a term used to designate milk taken from unclean animals, or those which have been kept in filthy, unventilated stables. ‘The milk absorbs and carries the odors, which are often plainly perceptible. Such milk may not be poisonous, but it is repulsive. HEALTHY FOODS. 45 The Value of Milk as a Food. The importance of this article of diet can hardly be be over-estimated. For children, it is the mainstay. For adults, it is a substance palatable and easily digested. About two quarts of good rich milk per day will support life, even if no other food be taken. One sick with a wasting disease, such as typhoid fever, has his chances of recovery greatly increased if he takes milk with comfort and digests it with ease. For the infant, there is no other food which can fully sup- plant the milk of the mother. Physicians of large experience say that the chances of rearing a babe are 50 per cent. better when it is well sup- plied with healthy milk by its mother than when nourished by artificial preparations. Woman’s milk contains less fat and casein, and more sugar, than the cow’s milk. When it becomes absolutely necessary to substitute the latter for the former, the cow’s milk should be diluted with one third its volume of warm water, and one half ounce of milk-sugar should be added to each pint. As the child grows older, the amount of water added should be diminished, until, at the age of six months, undi- luted cows’ milk may be used. Condensed Milk. ‘This is prepared by evaporating milk in a vacuum to one fifth its volume, or to the consistency of honey, placing it in cans, which are set in water, the temperature of which is raised to the boiling point, when the cans are sealed. Sometimes cane sugar is added after evaporation. When used, condensed milk is diluted with five times its volume of warm water. It forms a valuable substitute for fresh milk when the latter cannot be obtained. Its exact value will depend upon the quality of the milk used in its preparation. The three most prom- inent brands of this preparation used in this country are the Anchor, the Swiss, and the Anglo-Swiss. The writer has examined these, and found them all of good quality. BUTTER. Of all the fats, butter is the most palatable and most easily digested. Only when it is rancid does it lead to dyspepsia. It, like all other fats, should be taken in a finely divided state. Its food value is great, and the amount consumed per head daily is about one ounce. Physical Properties. Good butter is of a pale yellow color, which is uniformly diffused through it. The exact color of butter varies with the food of the cow; but as a yellow butter is universally demanded in mar- ket, makers almost invariably use a preparation of annatto. This arti- ficial coloration has been so long practised, and as the use of the coloring material is not detrimental to health, it may be regarded as a legitimate use. Good butter is free from rancid taste and odor. White lumps in butter are due to the coagulation of casein, from the milk becoming too acid, and its incorporation with the cream. When a watery fluid exudes from the freshly cut surface of butter, it is evidence that the buttermilk was not expressed as thoroughly as it should have been, or that water has been added for the purpose of increasing the weight. Composition. ‘The amount of water in butter will depend upon the 46 HEALTHY FOODS. manner of preparation and the quantity of salt added. In some families an unsalted butter is used. This does not contain more than from 3 to 6 per cent. of water. But as a rule more or less salt is added in making the butter. This is done to insure the preservation of the fat, and most people consider such an addition an improvement to the taste. Good salted butter will not contain more than from 10 to 15 per cent. of water, while the poorer grades may contain as much as 28 per cent. This large amount is taken up only when boiling water is mixed with the fat, and then the whole allowed to cool. The salt used in butter should be finely pulverized and thoroughly mixed with the fat. From 3 to5 per cent. of salt is all that is needed for preservation, but in order to increase the weight, from 10 to 15 per cent. is sometimes added. Good butter contains from 85 to 90 per cent. of fat, and any which contains less than $2 per cent. may be considered as adulterated. The most common fraud in regard to the fat consists in the use of tallow and lard, which will be discussed under the heads of oleo- margarine and butterine. The greatest amount of casein permissible in butter is 2 per cent. If there be much more present, the butter is lumpy. There is now being sold to dairymen a recipe by which it is guaranteed that a given volume of milk will be made to yield 25 per cent. more of butter. The process consists in the coagulation of all the casein in the milk, and its incorpora- tion with the fat. The product is really not butter at all, but an inferior soft cheese. An excess of casein in butter increases its liability to become rancid. Flow to Take Care of Butter. Butter, like milk, takes up unpleas- ant odors: for this reason it should not be allowed to stand exposed to the air of occupied rooms, nor in other places that may become foul. When freely exposed to air butter becomes rancid: it should be tightly packed and covered. Warmth hastens rancidity: it should be kept in a cool place. OLEOMARGARINE AND BUTTERINE. Oleomargarine. ‘This substance is now largely manufactured and sold in this country, generally under the name of butter, but sometimes under its proper name. It is made as follows: The best beef fat is cut from the carcass while it is still warm. All bloody portions, and those tainted in any other way, are rejected. The selected fat is placed in fresh cold water, in which it is both cooled and washed. It is then ground like sausage. Then it is heated from 160° to 180° Fahr., by which the oil is separated from the membranes. The oil, after being salted, 1s cooled, and then pressed. ‘Then it is placed in milk, a prepa- ration of annatto added, and the whole churned, when it is worked as butter. The temperature at which the oil is separated from the mem- brane should be as low as possible ; but in practice it varies within large limits. Some manufacturers use a heat of only 120°, while others allow the temperature to run up to 200° F. The oilthus prepared is known to the trade as ‘‘ butter oil.” HEALTHY FOODS. 47 Butterine. This is prepared by the mixture of ‘‘ butter oil” obtained from beef fat, as in making oleomargarine, and a similar oil obtained from hog fat, and churning with milk. The oil from the lard is sepa- rated at a temperature not exceeding 120° F. A great deal has been said against the use of these preparations as foods. Several states have laws which require that when such articles are sold, the buyer shall receive them from a vessel which is labelled with the word Oleomargarine, or Butterine, as the case may be, in letters one inch high, and the portion taken by the buyer shall be coy- ered with a paper which also bears the true name of the fat. This law is certainly a just one, as every article of food should be sold under its proper name; and the price of good butter should not be demanded for these imitations. At least two states,—New York and Michigan,—have enactments which wholly forbid the manufacture and sale of these prep- arations. ‘These laws are both unwise and unjust. Oleomargarine and butterine are valuable food-stuffs. They are not equal to the best grades of butter, but are far superior to the poor, partly rancid butter which is so generally sold in the large cities. As has been seen from the methods of preparation given above, only the very best pieces of fat can be used. Any fat which has an unpleasant odor, or is im the least degree foul, must be rejected, for there is no method known for remov- ing the odor. One of the greatest dietary needs of the working-man is a sufficient supply of an inexpensive, wholesome fat. This will be largely met by these artificial butters. CHEESE. Cheese is of considerable nutritive value, one pound containing as much nitrogen as two pounds of meat, and as much fat as three pounds of meat; but, as a rule, cheese is difficult of digestion, and can be taken only in small amount at a time. Moreover, the exact composition of cheese is quite variable. It is made both from whole and skimmed milk, and at present some is made from skimmed milk to which oleo- margarine or butterine has been added. The dairyman skims his milk, making butter from the cream; then to the skimmed milk he adds the fatty preparation, and makes cheese. In this way the same milk is made to produce both butter and cheese. It is a popular idea, that while cheese itself is digested with difficulty, a small amount of it in the stomach aids the digestion of other substances. The experiments of Dr. Edward Smith have confirmed this belief. As digestion is partly due to fermen- tation, and since cheese contains certain ferments, the belief is not irra- tional; but when taken as an aid to digestion, the amount should be very small, not more than from one half to one ounce. True cream cheese is made from whole milk, to which cream has been added ; but what is ordinarily known as ‘‘cream cheese” is that made from unskimmed milk. In such a cheese, the proportional amounts of casein and fat are substantially the same as in good milk. Skimmed 48 HEALTHY FOODS. milk cheese is not so nutritious and not so easy of digestion as that made from whole milk. Cheese is almost universally colored with annatto, which, as it has been so long used and is not detrimental to health, may be regarded as a justifiable adulteration. Without it, cheese would be of a dingy-white color. EGGS. There is no bird whose eggs may not be eaten in case of necessity. However, the eggs of flesh-eating birds are of strong, unpleasant odor. Practically, our use of eggs as food is confined to those of the chicken, duck, Guinea hen, and goose. The exact taste of eggs is influenced largely by the food of the bird. The nutritive value of eggs is great, both on account of their chemical composition and their flavor. The average weight of hens’ eggs is from 134 to 2 ounces, the parts existing in the following proportions: shell sian. : : : : : : 11.5 per cent. Albumen (white), : : : : : : 50-5 hehe YiOlics ns : ; : : ‘ 4 30-0 hee The white of the egg consists of water and albumen, with traces of inorganic salts and fat. The yolk contains from 30 to 32 per cent. of fat; so that, practically speaking, the fat is confined to the yolk. There is not much difference in the time required for the digestion of a raw egg and one which has its albumen coagulated by heat, but the latter is the more agreeable in flavor. A hard-boiled egg is digested with more difficulty than one rarely done. Since eggs are most abundant and consequently cheapest during spring and summer, their preservation is of considerable importance. When left exposed to the air, germs pass through the shell and cause decompo- sition. Consequently, the object to be held in’ view in endeavoring to ,preserve them is to exclude the air. This may be done by placing them in lime-water ; but in this way the shells are made very brittle, and many are broken in removing them. They may be dipped in mucilage, and then packed in salt. However, the most common method consists sim- ply in packing them in salt alone, or in salt and lime. Some dip the eggs for a moment in boiling water, whereby the part of the white immediately in contact with the shell is coagulated. Decomposed eggs will float in brine (made by dissolving one part salt in ten parts of water), while fresh eggs placed in the same solution will sink. VEGETABLE FOODS. CEREALS AND GRAINS. The cereals used as food in this country are wheat, rye, oats, corn, and rice. The most important food constituents of the grains are starch, 4s) HEALTHY FOODS. 49 proteids or nitrogenous substances, and the phosphates of the ash. They also contain small amounts of fat, sugar, gum, and mineral substances other than the phosphates. Of all the grains, wheat is considered the most nutritious. Its exact composition varies slightly, according to climate, nature of the soil, and the fertilization employed. Its average per cent. composition is given in the following figures : Water. Proteids. Fat. Sugar, Starch, Cellulose. Ash 13.56 12.42 1.70 1.44 64.07 2.66 1.79 The nitrogenous substances consist of vegetable albumen, casein, and gluten. The last mentioned forms by far the greater part of the nitrog- enous material. The ash may contain as much as 45 per cent. of phos- phoric acid, which is combined with lime, magnesia, and potash. Asa rule, the greater the amount of phosphoric acid in the ash of the wheat, the greater the amount of nitrogenous matter in the grain. Rye does not differ greatly in its composition from wheat, as is shown by the following figures, which give the average of forty-four analyses collected by Konig: Water. Proteids. Fat. Sugar. Gum, Starch. Cellulose. Ash. 15.26 11.43 Fe7h 0.05 4.88 61.99 2.01 1 However, the gluten of wheat is superior in quality to that of rye. In those countries whose inhabitants are compelled to depend largely upon rye bread, there is much suffering at times from poisoning with ergot. Fortunately, this poison is not found to any extent in wheat. Oat meal, which has been used as a food in Scotland for a long time, is now being largely consumed in the United States, and it is to be hoped that its use will become more universal. It isa highly nutritious, healthy, and cheap article of diet. The average composition of the grain is as fol- lows: Water. Proteids. Fat. Sugar. Gum, Starch. Cellulose. Ash. Pag TOT ha iat y OLE Te 7Oi 5 4.000 VE LCE (atm It will be noticed that the amount of fat is much larger than in wheat or rye. In the best specimens of the grain the fat may be as much as 8 per cent. Corn is largely used in some of the Southern states, and, in the various ways in which the people know so well how to prepare it, it forms a most valuable food. The exact composition varies considerably with the variety of the plant and the soil on which it grows; but the following are the average figures: Water. Proteids. Fat. Sugar. Gum. Starch. Cellulose. Ash, os 7 9.85 4.62 ZAG WE RZO i OZR 7) 240 T5% The greater part of the nitrogenous material consists of vegetable fibrine. Rice grains have the following average composition : 50 HEALTHY FOODS. Water. Proteids. Fat. Starch. Gum, Cellulose. Ash. 9-55 5-97 1.84 73.00 2.85 5-80 I.09 Since the per cents. of both proteids and fats are low, it:must be re- garded as the least nutritious of the grains here mentioned. However, its ease of digestion renders it valuable to the sick; and the fact that its heat-producing power is not so great as the other grains, adapts it to the inhabitants of warm countries. Barley, which is so largely used by the Scandinavians, and millet, which is a staple food in India and some other warm countries, are so seldom used in this country as foods that an extended notice of them is unnecessary. Buckwheat does not belong to the cereals, but to a wholly different class. However, as it is a food which is highly prized by many, it de- serves mention. ‘The plant soon reaches maturity, and may be grown — upon poor, sandy soil, as well as upon richer ground. The average composition is shown by the following figures: Water. Proteids. Fat. Gum. Starch. Cellulose. Ash. 12.63 10.19 1.28 2.85 69.30 Teo 2.24 The albuminous substances found in buckwheat differ materially from those present in the cereals. Its food value is not so great as that of wheat, rye, or oats. FLOUR AND MEAL. By grinding, the grains which have been described are converted into flour or meal. By this process the food material is better fitted for cook- — ing, and is to some extent separated from the indigestible portions. A few simple rules will be given by which good flour or meal may be dis- tinguished from the inferior grades: (1) Good wheat flour is white, with only a faint ellen tint. It does not contain any bluish, grayish, or dark specks. It feels soft and dry to the finger, and when some is pressed in the closed hand, it forms a dry lump, which breaks down readily with the gentlest pressure. If it ‘fails to form a lump when pressed in the hand, it contains too much bran, or some mineral adulteration has been added. When the finger is introduced vertically into good flour, the depression thus made remains ; otherwise, there is too much bran present. The odor is fresh and pleas- ant, not musty. Neither with the unaided eye nor with a magnifying glass will any living bodies be found in good flour. (2) Rye flour has a grayish tint, and a characteristic odor and taste. The other general properties are identical with those of wheat flour. (3) The color of corn meal varies with the variety of corn from which itis prepared. It should feel perfectly dry and powdery. It does not ‘¢lump” when pressed in the hand, and it has a characteristic, pleasant odor. Corn meal, when decomposition has begun, has a rancid odor, and if some of it be placed upon a piece of moistened blue litmus paper (which can be obtained atany drug store), the color of the paper will be HEALTHY FOODS. 51 changed to red. Good meal has no effect on the color of the litmus paper. (4) Oat meal should be dry, and free from any disagreeable odor. The Care of Meal and Flour. When exposed to the air, flour and meal absorb water, and this greatly increases their tendency to decom- pose. In moist flour the lower forms of life are likely to develop. For these reasons these preparations should be kept in well closed recep- tacles. Adulteration. Fortunately, these foods are very rarely adulterated in this country. Since wires have been used so extensively for binding in the great wheat fields of the North-west, a small amount of iron is found in flour, as an accidental adulteration. It is frequently stated that gyp- sum and other mineral substances are added to flour, but the writer has examined many hundred samples, and has never detected such an adul- teration. It hasalso been stated that the so-called ‘‘ patent flour” contains alum. This is certainly false. One of the writer’s students examined twenty-three samples of ‘‘ patent flour” obtained at different places, and failed to find any alum present. It may be possible that in some instances the cheaper flours or meals are added to wheat flour ; but even this fraud, if practised at all in this country, is carried on to a very limited extent. The great abundance and low price of wheat would tend to make any adulteration profitless. BREAD. The cooking of his food is one of the earliest evidences of man’s civil- ization, and with no other food has the process of cooking been so thor- oughly developed as with the products obtained from the edible grains. The essential constituents of bread are flour, water, and salt. To these have been added, for the purpose of varying and improving the taste, one or more of the following substances: Milk, sugar, eggs, fats, etherial oils, and fruits. Civilized man, in every part of the world, employs some means of raising or leavening his bread. By this the taste is im- proved, and the crumb, being divided by the evolved gas, is more readily acted upon by the digestive juices. The methods of raising bread are as follows : (1) By the Growth of Yeast. Yeast consists of microscopic vegeta- ble organisms, which, when placed in a suitable medium, grow rapidly, producing alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The evolved gas, in attempt- ing to rise, becomes entangled in the meshes of the dough, distending it and making it light. After the dough has risen sufficiently, it is placed in a hot oven to bake. The heat destroys the yeast plant, and thus pre- vents further fermentation. If the growth of the yeast be allowed to con- tinue for too long a time, acetic, lactic, and butyric acids are formed, and such dough makes ‘* sour bread.” (2) By Baking Powders. In the use of baking powders, the car- bonic acid gas, necessary to render the dough light, is generated by chemical means. Baking powders consist of some alkaline carbonate, 52 HEALTHY FOODS. as sodium bicarbonate, and some acid substance, such as the acid tar- trate of potash (cream of tartar), together with a small amount of starch to keep the mixture dry. As long as the powder is perfectly dry no reaction occurs, but when it is dissolved in water in the dough, the acid acts upon the carbonate, liberating carbonic acid, which has the same effect in raising the dough as when it is produced by the growth of the yeast plant. In baking powders, ammonium carbonate is sometimes used instead of sodium bicarbonate ; and the acid tartrate may be replaced by the acid phosphate of lime. But the use of alum in baking powders is an adul teration which is injurious to health. It unites with the phosphates in the bread, rendering them insoluble, and preventing their digestion and absorption. In this way alum, when present, diminishes the nutritive value of bread. A small amount of starch in baking powders is necessary to keep them dry, but too often the manufacturer adds as much starch as possible, and_this should be considered as an adulteration. (3) By Aeration. In some large bakeries carbonic acid gas, gener- ated by the action of some acid on carbonate of lime, is forced under pres- sure into the dough, thus distending the mass; or the dough is kneaded with water which has been saturated with carbonic acid under pressure. When the gas is washed before being forced into the dough or water, this method is a very desirable one. But the cost and care of the special apparatus necessary will prevent the adoption of this method of raising bread, except in large bakeries and hotels. General Properties of Good Bread. The general statements con- cerning bread refer to that made‘from wheat flour. Good bread hasa thick, fragile crust, which is not burnt, and which forms from 25 to 30 per cent. of the weight of the loaf. ‘The crumb is white, and filled with cavities, the partitions between which are easily broken down. ‘These cavities should be distributed through every part of the crumb; other- wise, the bread is sodden’ and heavy, and decomposes quickly. The bread should be of a pleasant odor and taste. If the bread is acid, it was probably made from inferior flour. Changes on Standing. On standing, bread gradually loses weight, by the evaporation of a part of its contained water, and becomes hard. The amount of water given off in a certain time will depend upon the size of the loaf and the nature and extent of the crust. Bread should not lose more than 3 per cent. of its original weight after four days. Stale bread when dipped in water and rebaked, or when steamed, becomes palatable, but never completely regains the properties of fresh bread. In stale bread, small living organisms are likely to develop. Some of them are poisonous. The white and orange-yellow moulds which form on stale bread are due to a poisonous growth. Sometimes blood-red spots appear in bread. ‘These also are due to a microscopic growth. Adulterations of Bread. Bread is not adulterated to any great extent in this country. The baker’s loaf is usually of light weight. An excess HEALTHY FOODS. 53 of water is often incorporated with the dough. This makes the bread sodden and heavy, and increases its liability to decompose. In some of the larger cities, mashed potato has been found worked into bread. This lowers the nutritive value of the article greatly. Alum is sometimes added directly to flour or dough, and is sometimes contained in the bak- ing powder, as has been stated. The Food Value of Bread. As has been remarked, the most impor- tant food constituents of the grains, and consequently of bread, are the proteids, starches, and ash. The amount of nitrogenous matter is too small for a perfect food, and for this reason bread is often taken with some other food richer in nitrogen, such as meat. Bread is also defi- cient in fat, and man instinctively takes some kind of fat, such as butter or bacon, along with his bread. Notwithstanding these imperfections, bread is a food of which we never tire, and the various ways in which it is prepared aid in sharpening the appetite. Besides, while some impor- tant food substances are not abundant in bread, all are present to a greater or less extent ; and with the addition of a little more nitrogen in the shape of meat and fat, as butter or bacon, a perfect diet is secured. PEASE AND BEANS. Pease and beans belong to the leguminous seeds. They contain more nitrogenous matter or proteids than any other vegetable food. Not only is the amount of proteid greater than in wheat and other grains, but it is different in its properties. That of the grains is principally gluten, while that of pease and beans belong to the casein group. The former is more easily digested than the latter, pease and beans often causing disturbances in the stomach and bowels. The average composition of these foods is shown by the following figures : PEASE. Water. Proteids. Fat. Starch. Cellulose. Ash. 14.99 24.04 1.61 49.01 7.09 3.26. BEANS. Water. Proteids. Fat. Starch, Cellulose. Ash. 14.76 24.27 1.61 49.01 7.09 3.26 There is great difference between the digestibility in these substances in the green and inthe dried state. Soft green pease tax the stomach but slightly. Dried pease and beans must be boiled slowly and for a long time; and if they are very old, they should be soaked for several hours, and then crushed before they are cooked. Hard water is to be avoided in cooking them, as the lime of the water forms an insoluble compound with the albuminous constituents of the seeds. Ground pease and beans are used to some extent in this country. They form a part of some food preparations, such as pea-sausage (erbswiirste of the Germans). 54 HEALTHY FOODS. Food Value of Pease and Beans. The nutritive value of the seeds is considerable, but on account of the tax which they impose upon the digestive organs, they cannot be taken in large quantities. The deficiency of fat is usually supplied by serving these foods with bacon or other fatty food. POTATOES. Potatoes contain only about 25 per cent. of solids, four and five-tenths of which is starch. The per cent. of nitrogenous matter and fat is small _ as shown by the following figures, which give the average per cent. com- position of potatoes: Water. Proceids. Fat. Starch. Cellulose. Ash, 75.97 1.79 0.16 20.56 0.75 0.97 Notwithstanding its comparatively small per cent. of solids, the potato will continue to be one of the most valuable foods. Its growth is not influenced by soil and climate to such an extent as that of the cereals. The yield of the potato per acre is greater than that of any other vegeta- ble. Itis preserved with ease for winter’s use, and the raw material is fitted for the table with but little trouble and expense. It can be served in a great variety of ways, and with other foods. Its deficiency in nitrog- enous matter and fat is made up by cooking it with meat. It is agreea- ble to the taste, and easy of digestion. New potatoes are said to be waxy, and not so easily digested as old, mealy ones. In order to retain the salts, potatoes should be cooked with their skins on. If boiled, they should at once be placed in hot water. If baked, the oven must be mod- erately hot. Potatoes should be of fair size, firm, and free from mould. The sweet potato is similar in composition to the ordinary potato, and furnishes an agreeable substitute: but it is more expensive, and cannot be preserved so easily OTHER VEGETABLES. The other succulent vegetables which are used as foods are principally useful on account of furnishing variety, and for the acid salts which they contain, and whose use renders other foods more digestible, and prevents scurvy and kindred affections. The beet root is not only a pleasant food, but furnishes as much as 10 per cent. of sugar, for which it is now largely grown; though the differ- ent varieties of the root vary considerably in the amount of sugar which they contain. . Turnips, carrots, and parsnips contain from 82 to 90 per cent. of water, from 5 to 10 per cent. of starch, from 2 to 6 per cent. of sugar, about 1 per cent. each of nitrogenous matter and salts, and } per cent. or less of fat. Cabbage, turnip tops, spinach, water-cresses, dandelion, and other greens” should always be thoroughly cooked. The amount of absorb- able food which they contain is generally less than 5 per cent. be HEALTHY FOODS. ) The tomato, either raw or cooked, furnishes an agreeable sauce. It is also used for making soup and for flavoring meat soups. It contains over 92 per cent. of water, less than 2 per cent. of starch, and about 24 per cent. of sugar. Rhubarb is a pleasant, acid vegetable, which is especially serviceable on account of its being one of the earliest of spring plants. Pumpkins and squash contain from 1 to 5 per cent. of starch, about 1 per cent. of sugar, and less than 1 per cent. each of nitrogenous matter, fat, and ash. Thoroughly ripe melons are beneficial in season on account of their action upon the kidneys. They should never be eaten, however, unless they are thoroughly ripe and of good quality. STARCHES. The food value of the starches is small, but they are easy of digestion, and are serviceable in preparing dishes for the sick. Besides, when mixed with nitrogenous and fatty substances, they are largely used in making puddings. In this way, stale bread and other remnants from the table may be converted into palatable dishes. Sago and arrow-root are obtained from various palms. The former appears in small granular masses, which, when dry, are so hard that they can scarcely be crushed by the teeth; but they readily absorb water, and soften. Arrow-root, when pure, is found in perfectly white lumps, which may readily be crushed between the fingers. When boiled with water and constantly stirred, no foam should form on the surface. The presence of a foam indicates that the arrow-root has been adulterated with flour. Tapioca, obtained from various tropical plants, and corn and potato starches, are also used in puddings. SUGARS. Sugar is a name now given to a class of substances which vary among themselves to some extent both in physical and chemical properties, though ordinarily the term ‘‘ sugar” is supposed to refer to that obtained from the sugar-cane and sugar beet. Practically there are now in the trade three kinds of sugar,—cane sugar (obtained from the cane and beet), glucose or grape sugar (obtained by the action of dilute acids on starch), and ‘‘ mixed sugars,” or ‘‘new-process sugars” (consisting of cane and grape sugar mixed in various proportions). Cane sugar is here referred to, unless some other is specifically mentioned. Sugar is used for modifying the taste of other foods, and for the manu- facture of confectionery and syrups. By improving the taste, sugar, when added in proper amounts, aids the digestion of other substances, and furnishes a certain amount of nutriment in itself. Good,, crystalline, white sugar contains less than one half of 1 per 56 HEALTHY FOODS. ‘ cent. or water, and not more than this amount of ash. Yellow sugar may contain as much as 2 per cent. of water. Grape sugar may contain from 10 to 25 per cent. of water, and from one half to 2 per cent. of ash. Much has been said about the adulteration of sugar with glucose. ‘That this has been practised to a considerable extent is shown by numerous analyses. Indeed, ‘‘ mixed sugars” are sold by wholesale dealers, and too frequently the retail grocery-man sells these to his customers as straight cane sugars. Experts can recognize these sugars by the way they ‘‘ handle.” ‘* They are apt to cake and harden, and stick to the scoop and sides of the barrel. In the white, granulated sugars, the mixture of the white lumps of glu- cose with the crystalline cane sugar can be readily seen; but in the brown sugars it is difficult to detect the fraud by the appearance of the sugar. When a mixed sugar is shaken with cold water, the white lumps of the glucose will remain undissolved for some time after all the cane-sugar has passed into solution.” Glucose, when made with care,—and it must be so made when it is used to adulterate sugar,—is not harmful to health. The fraud is a pecuniary one, as glucose costs usually less than two cents per pound; but when mixed with sugar, it is sold for six cents and more per pound. The sweetening properties of glucose are not so great as those of cane sugar, and consequently, in the preparation of foods, much more of the mixed sugar is required than would be necessary with cane sugar. Confectionery. ‘The various candies are made from sugar, or sugar and starch, with or without coloring matters. Twenty-seven samples were examined under the writer’s direction, in order to ascertain whether or not they contained any poisonous substance. One sample consisted wholly of starch, terra alba, and an analine color, without any sugar. The use of terra alba (white earth, or clay) in any considerable amount would be harmful on account of its indigestibility. Only two samples contained ultra marine as a coloring agent. This would also be harmful if used in large quantity. ‘The other samples were all free from any sus- picious ingredient. ‘The coloring agent most frequently used is analine. Grape sugar is extensively employed in the manufacture of confectionery. floney. This is frequently adulterated with glucose, which may be added directly to strained honey, or may be fed to the bees, and by them deposited in the comb. Unadulterated honey varies in flavor according to the plant from which it is gathered. White clover and buckwheat honeys are much prized in this couutry. The fact that honey sometimes produces unpleasant symptoms is probably due to bees feeding upon poisonous flowers, though the susceptibility of the individual partaking of it probably plays an important part. Pollen grains are often mixed with honey, and the unpleasant effects upon the system may be, in part at least, due to these. Molasses and Syrups. ‘These are solutions of sugar, and they are now frequently made by a mixture of cane syrup and glucose. Indeed, many 9 HEALTHY FOODS. : 57 prefer a syrup containing glucose: it is not so sweet as a pure cane-sugar molasses. However, the former should be much cheaper than the latter. As in the case of sugar, the fraud here practised is a pecuniary one rather than one detrimental to health. FRUITS. Fruits abound in tropical and temperate climates, and furnish a great variety of flavors, which are useful in themselves and for the purpose of rendering other foods more enjoyable. The real food value of fruits, judged by their chemical composition, is small, but when thoroughly ripe and well preserved, they act beneficially upon the system, improv- ing the appetite, and maintaining a healthy condition of the various vital organs. Probably no fruit is necessary to life, and fruits may be regarded as luxuries ; but man’s instinct and cravings prompt him to obtain them often, even when their cost is considerable. Undoubtedly they are most highly prized by the inhabitants of warm countries, where foods which produce but little heat are most desirable. The most enjoyable part of fruits is their juice, which consists principally of watery solutions of sugar and acids. The amount of sugar in fruits varies from 1 to 18 per cent. The cellular parts are not easily digested; and those fruits are prized most highly which have the greatest quantity of juice with the smallest proportion of cell structure. The majority of fruits may be eaten either raw or cooked, and those | which cannot be preserved in their natural condition may be dried. Therefore, in one or the other form, they may be enjoyed at any season of the year, and may be served with other foods. The volatile ethers, upon which the flavor of many fruits depends, have been made artificially by the chemist, and, under the name of essences, are largely used in cooking. It is wholly unnecessary even to mention the various fruits in®use, as all are sufficiently acquainted with their general properties and composi- tion. Suffice it to say, that thoroughly ripe fruit, taken in moderation, _ can have no deleterious effect upon the system. However, care should be exercised in using fruits imported from countries in which an infec- tious disease, such as cholera, prevails. Such fruit should at least be thoroughly washed, or stripped of its covering, and, if suitable for such purpose, should be cooked. Canned Fruits. In buying canned fruits, it should be observed that the ends of the cans are concave. If convex, there has probably been some decomposition of the contents with the evolution of gas. Cases of severe poisoning have followed the eating of partially decomposed canned fruits. Moreover, if the cans appear old and battered, thus giving evi- dence of having been used twice or oftener for the purpose of preserving fruit, they should be rejected, since the contents of such cans are liable to contain small amounts of tin or other metal, which may prove poisonous. Much having been said about the use of salicylic acid, in canned fruits, 58 HEALTHY FOODS. as a preservative agent, the writer requested one of his students to examine samples from all the more prominent firms engaged in the preparation of canned foods, for this adulteration. In no case was theacidfound. Fre- quently agents pass through the country, offering to sell preparations or recipes for the sure preservation of fruit. The active ingredient of all these formulas is salicylic acid or some form of sulphurous acid. The use of such preservatives is unnecessary. Moreover, they injure the taste of the fruit, and are liable to prove deleterious to the health of the con- sumer. Prof. Sharpless states that ‘‘ apple-sauce” is frequently pumpkin boiled with cider; that the raspberry-jam offered for sale is often sour; and that strawberry-jam is frequently made from the refuse strawberries of the market. NUTS. Judging solely by chemical composition, nuts should be classed among the most nutritious foods. The following figures give the percentage composition of sweet almonds, walnuts, and hazelnuts, from numerous analyses collected by Konig: Starch and Water. Proteids. Fat. Sugar. Cellulose. Ash. Amon s see cn oe 45880 24.18 53-68 Ve 6.56 2.96 MWVeinuts | ay) Gh.) eS 16.37 62.86 7.89 OE? 2.03 TIAZEINUES, his ye ea eT 15.62 66.47 9.03 3.28 1.83 But nuts are not easily digested, and, with the exception of cocoa-nuts, do not form an important part of the food of any people. They may be regarded simply as luxuries, so far as their use in this country is con- cerned. Crushed acorns are used to some extent in the adulteration of ground coffee. VEGETABLE OILS. On account of our abundant supply of animal fats, the vegetable oils are not extensively used as foods in this country. The one best known is olive oil, which is used as a dressing for other foods. Olive oil, how- ever, has been largely adulterated, or supplanted, by cotton-seed oil, large quantities of which are sold as olive oil. CONDIMENTS. Condiments are substances whose employment in cooking is for the sole purpose of seasoning foods. However, at least one member of this class,—common salt,—is essential to healthy existence. Condiments im- prove the taste of foods, sharpen the appetite, and improve digestion. While much benefit arises from this use in small amounts, when taken in excess they may prove highly detrimental to health. | It is stated that certain tribes in the interior of Africa exchange gold for salt, ounce for ounce. This illustrates the great need of this sub- stance felt by the animal system. We know that wild animals some- — -* HEALTHY FOODS. - 59 times travel hundreds of miles in search of salt-licks. Experiments have been made, in which two oxen were placed under exactly the same con- ditions, and furnished with the same food, save that salt was denied one, and given to the other. The one deprived of salt did not thrive-as did the other. The purity of salt is judged of by its whiteness, fineness, dryness, and perfect solubility in water. The coarser kinds of salt contain compounds of lime and magnesium, are often dark in color, and absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Vinegar is an acid fluid, which may be produced by the fermentation of any solution containing sugar. Cider and wine vinegars are most highly prized, though the following varieties are now sold in this country: (1) Cider vinegar, from apples and pears. (2) Wine vinegar, from grape juice and inferior wines. (3) Malt vinegar, from barley. (4) Beer vinegar, from sour ale or beer. (5) Glucose vinegar, from grape sugar. (6) Crab vinegar, from crab-apples. (7) Artificial vinegar, made with dilute solutions of the mineral acids, especially sulphuric acid. | The acidity of vinegar is nominally due to acetic acid. Sulphuric acid is sometimes added to increase the acidity. The British law allows this adulteration to the extent of one tenth of one per cent. ; but if the vinegar be properly prepared, such an addition is not necessary; and if any addition be allowed, the amount is likely to exceed that given above. Burnt sugar is sometimes added to vinegar to give it color. The per cent. of acetic acid should be at least 3. Of five samples recently examined, the smallest per cent. was 3.2, and the greatest, 6.7. Only minute traces of mineral acids were found in three of these sam- ples, while the other two were wholly free from such adulteration. _ Table mustards are frequently diluted with tumeric, flour, or yellow lakes. Pepper is sometimes mixed with flour, bread, or starch. Spices are frequently adulterated with flour, starch, bread, and ground pea-nut shells. Cloves may contain arrow-root. In order to obtain spices pure, they should be purchased unground. TEA. Tea is the most extensively used and the least harmful of all beverages. Upon most persons it produces agreeable sensations; ‘‘ it cheers, but does not inebriate.” It relieves, to a certain extent at least, the feeling of bodily weariness, quickens the pulse, and deepens the respiration. Upon the nervous system it acts as a stimulant, and the excitation is not, as in the case of alcoholic drinks, followed by depression. Considerable discussion has been carried on over the question whether or not its use increases waste of tissue. This may now be considered as settled in the affirmative. Dr. E. Smith and others have repeatedly shown that the 60 HEALTHY FOODS. amount of waste matter in the air exhaled from the lungs is markedly increased. ‘Tea, then, acts as a food principally by hastening the oxida- tion or burning of other substances in the body. It creates a blast which burns up the half charred dédrzs of the system, and from the burning or oxidation we receive increased energy. From what has been said, it will be evident that the only time when tea should be used is late in the day, after the heaviest meals have been taken. For the weak and debilitated it is not suitable, or should be used very spar- ingly. Its tendency to produce sleeplessness may also restrict its use. So far as its chemical composition is concerned, tea contains but little of nutritive value. The high place of tea among foods is solely due to its effect upon the nervous system. In the market there are two kinds of tea,—green and black. Until recently it was supposed that these were products of different species, or at least of varieties, of the tea plant; but it is now known that the two kinds arise from different methods of curing the leaves. In preparing green tea, the leaves are dried immediately ; while in the other, the leaves are thrown into heaps, and a certain degree of fermentation or decompo- sition is allowed to take place before the drying is perfected. The chief constituents of tea are its active principle called theine, which is identical with the active principle of coffee, a volatile oil, tannic acid, and a small amount of ordinary food substances. Theine forms from 2 to 3 percent. of tea. In making tea, as is ordina- rily done, the greater part of the theine is dissolved out of the leaves,— tea yielding its active principle to water more readily than coffee. From equal weights, three times as much theine is obtained from tea as from coffee. According to the investigations of Mr. Fellows, 224 five-ounce cups of tea beverage are made from one pound of tea, and 45 eight-ounce cups from a pound of coffee. This makes the cost of an ordinary cup of tea, when the leaf sells at 75 cents per pound, about one third of a cent; and of a cup of coffee, when the berry sells at 27 cents per pound, about three fifths of a cent. In this estimation the sugar and milk added to these beverages are not considered. The volatile oil of tea is the special stimulant, and the market value of a tea depends moré upon this than any other constituent. The amount and quality of this substance present are judged by the odor as well as by the taste of the hot beverage. Large tea houses have experts who are called ‘‘ tea-tasters,”’ and whose duties consist of deciding as to the value of different samples by the odor and taste. By virtue of the volatile oil, tea increases the flow of perspiration, and thus, although taken hot, may act as a cooling agent. ‘The volatile oil is more abundant in green than in black tea. Tannin is also more abundant in green than in black tea. The object in making tea should be to dissolve as little of the tannin as possible, and at the same time extract as much as possible of the theine and volatile oil. To accomplish this, tea should be steeped five or ten minutes, by no means longer than ten minutes ; but the water should be kept warm after HEALTHY FOODS. 61 that until the beverage is drawn for drinking. Mr. Fellows found the amount of tannin extracted from the best Japan tea, after steeping for five minutes, to be 0.10 per cent.; after ten minutes, 0.98 per cent. ; after thirty minutes, 3.09 per cent. It is to the tannin that the astringent properties of tea are due, and when tea has been boiled, it is so astrin- gent that it is well-nigh unfit for use, and indeed may cause derangements of the digestive organs. Tea contains small amounts of albuminous and starchy substances, but, as has been stated, these are present in such small amounts that they are not worthy of consideration. Tea is subject to the following adulterations, which, fortunately, are not largely used at present : (1) ‘* Spent” leaves, those which have been once used for making tea, are dried, and mixed with fresh leaves. This adulteration is not practised extensively in this country. (2) The poorer varieties are mixed with the better, and the whole sold as of first quality. (3) Green tea is sometime tinted with indigo and gypsum Prussian blue is said also to be used, but the writer has failed to detect it after ex- amining many samples. Black tea is also tinted with graphite. This is not used in large amounts, and, as used, is not detrimental to health, but is a pecuniary fraud. (4) Other leaves, notably those of the willow, elder, and beech, are added to the tea leaves. None of these are exactly like the tea leaf, and the adulteration may be detected by close inspection, even without a microscope. ‘The border of the tea leaf is serrated nearly, but not quite, to the stalk. The primary veins run from the midrib nearly to the bor- der, and turn in so that there is a distinct space left between their termi- nations and the border. Tea dust, which consists of broken leaves and sweepings of tea storage houses, is a legitimate article of commerce, yielding an average of 1.27 per cent. of theine. COFFEE. It is unnecessary to go into detail concerning coffee, since it resembles tea in so many of its properties. The active principle of coffee, called caffeine, is identical in chemical composition and physiological effects with theine of tea. The per cent. of this substance in the raw coffee berry is about one, and this is not given up so readily to water as that in tea. There is no volatile oil, corresponding to that of tea, in raw coffee ; but one or more such oils are generated by roasting. The physiological action is not the same, however, as that of tea. It is not so stimulating, nor does it increase the perspiration to so great an extent. Tannin is present ina much smaller amount than in tea, and for this reason the steeping of coffee may be carried on longer than ten minutes. The unground coffee cannot be adulterated to any extent; but the ground coffee put in packages and boxes is almost universally adulterated. 62 | HEALTHY FOODS. Often it contains no coffee at all. A student of the writer examined all the specimens that could be obtained in the market. The first, known as Java coffee, put up by the ‘‘ Centennial Coffee Company,” of New York, contained, besides some coffee, chickory, pease, wheat, acorns, and corn. The second, ‘‘ Gillies Gold Medal Java,” contained very little coffee, being composed principally of wheat, much of it unground chick- ory, corn, and pease. The remaining samples were ground coffee, sold in bulk, and in every case adulterated. CHOCOLATE. Chocolate is prepared from the ground seeds of the fruit of the cocoa palm. Cocoa nibs consist of these seeds, which are about the size of almonds, roughly broken, while chocolate contains a substance,—theo- bromine,—very similar, but not identical with theine or caffeine ; its other constituents give it a very different position in the class of foods. The cocoa seeds contain from 45 to 49 per cent. of fat, and from 14 to 18 per cent. of nitrogenous matter. It will be seen from this that these seeds may be classed among the most nutritious foods. Chocolate always con- tains sugar, which has been mixed with the ground seeds. Chocolate does not stimulate the nervous system to anything like the extent that tea and coffee do; but for travellers and others who cannot obtain milk, chocolate may be used instead of that, the most nutritious of liquid food. Chocolate is often adulterated by the addition of too much sugar, or with starch. Faigle es fl ae wad fel ; Sat aoa Ae , ‘ A yi * \ f s . By D. F. LINCOLN, M. D., Boston, Mass. DA VENIAM PUERIS. ; | ’ \ ; ’ ] ‘ A ‘ os aN De AG Re aaa f BN th, Ar NaS AD Aa ; A Ric i te. a tae 1 445s ie ie th i i By Irvina A. WATsoN, SEC. AMERICAN PuBLic Rie (: | All Rights Reserved. SCHOOL HYGIENE. INTRODUCTORY. Two men should be mentioned at the head of an essay of this sort, as deserving to represent the beginning of the ‘‘ movement” in school hygiene. They are Cohn of Breslau, whose examinations of the eyes of school-children made a very powerful impression on the public mind some sixteen years ago, and Virchow, whose official report to the Prus- sian minister of education (published in 1869), is the most prominent document that can be referred to as leading the way in reform. It is not intended in this essay to quote largely from German authori- ties. The mere statement of principles and facts must suffice in so wide _and manifold a subject as the present. It should be noted that Virchow makes use of the expression ‘ school- diseases.” He is probably entitled to the credit of inventing the word. In the list which he gives there is one affection which we need not dwell upon, namely, nose-bleed. In regard to another,—tubercular consump- tion,—there is perhaps a deficiency of evidence as to its causation in schools in America, though there can be no reasonable doubt that it is so caused, and the writer has the highest American authority for saying so. Deformity of the spine (lateral curvature) is probably not so common ‘by a good deal in America as Guillaume represents it in Switzerland. We lack decided evidence ; but it is spoken of under the proper heads in this essay. It remains to note the division of the subject which has been followed, vic. : I. Site of the School-House. 2. Plan and Arrangement of the Building. 3. Ventilation and Heating. 4. Sewerage. 5. Hygiene of the Eye. 6. School-Desks and Gymnastics. 7. Affections of the Nervous System. §. Contagious Disease. 9. Sanitary Supervision. I. SITE. In choosing the site for a school-building, we should take into account a number of things which might be overlooked in the case of an ordinary building. Dampness and malaria are of course fatal to a site for any purpose. For schools we must plan to have abundant light (much more than will suffice for dwellings and shops), and to have the sun’s direct 66 SCHOOL HYGIENE. rays enter each room at some time of the day. The business of the school requires the absence of noise,—a point which may be overlooked in business edifices; and the social character of the neighborhood, and its moral nuisances, are also to be considered. Dampness. Without going much into details, the use of some method of drainage and of some shield against incoming water is suggested, as likely to be needed in many places. The cellar, as hygienists know, ought to be carefully guarded f-om contamination of soil and air, and should at all times be dry. Grading will suffice to keep off most of the surface water. Underground water may be provided for by a ditch, dug outside of the foundation and reaching deeper than the cellar floor, and either laid with drain tile, or filled to the depth of a foot with loose stones, after which earth is thrown in. A similar trench may be cut in ‘the floor. All such drains are to be led to a proper place for discharge. The floor may be made damp-proof, according to Col. Waring’s sugges- tion, by six inches of well rammed clay, or by asphalt between two layers of cement; the foundation walls may be protected by a coating of asphalt outside. A damp-proof course of asphalt in the walls above the ground is useful in preventing moisture from rising. Small country schools, if without a cellar, should at least have an air- space underneath the floor, with a few openings in the underpinning, to give ventilation to the space. River bottoms, places where mist is often seen, and the neighborhood of ponds, are undesirable places for building. No business is more inter- fered with by noise than that of school. The neighborhood of large fac- tories, saw-mills, foundries, railway stations, engine-houses, or police stations, is therefore to be avoided. There need be no excuse for placing a school-house near any such of the latter as are under public coutrol, or for utilizing a town lot by putting engine-houses, school-houses, and a police station, in close neighborhood. Regard ought to be had for the probable growth of a city, and avenues likely to become main lines of travel should be avoided. These things are mentioned because they are sometimes strangely disregarded. In large cities it is next to impossible to procyire sites which fully satisfy the demand of hygiene in respect to the supply of light. Corner lots are enormously expensive, besides being noisy. The Sanztary Engineer prize designs for public schools, pub- lished in 1880, are instructive as showing that in the opinion of the prize committee,— ‘¢ The most essential thing in a public school is sufficient light. The conditions imposed in this competition make it impossible to secure this light without either overcrowding of .class-rooms, or an unsatisfactory arrangement of corridors, stairs, etc.” ‘¢Upon so restricted a site as that contemplated!, light can best be secured by making the building very high, higher than for other reasons is desirable. 1“A lot fronting north, of 100 feet front and 100 deep, and enclosed by buildings on adjoining lots at the sides and rear, of average city height, say four stories.” (Advertisement.) a SCHOOL HYGIENE. | 67 ‘* \} wit Ww Ales FE Aine bine be COLO Al BRLDGEPORT.«.CONN.,HIGH SCHOOL. . VERTICAL S#LEION. simultaneously after the apparatus had been in operation forty-five min- utes. Similar arrangements have been since made, to the knowledge of the writer, in schools in Auburn, New York, and Newton, Mass., with good success. The orifice for the exit of foul air ought to be a good deal larger than that for the inlet of fresh air. In examining Fig. 9, the reader is desired to make the correction mentally. SCHOOL HYGIENE. 77 The use of steam power as a ventilating agent is not a novelty in other public buildings, but in school-houses it has been tried, so far as known to the writer, only in Boston, and that within a few weeks past. The experiment is one which it is very desirable to make, by way of testing its economical value. The arrangement consists of a fan placed in the space below the ridge-pole, within a box, propelling the air upwards through the cupola, and exhausting by good-sized flues from below. The motor is a high-pressure engine in the cellar, which seems to require Fig. 10. BRIOGEPORT HIGH SCHOOL Verizeal Section of @ Room, Soninp Temperatopes at height of 1 inch SP feet G feet 12:feet_from fluar from twelve to fifteen tons of coal during the winter, and the constant presence of an engineer. A new form of engine (‘‘ vacuum engine’’) is proposed, requiring no separate fire, and run by jets of steam from the boiler which heats the school, at an extremely low pressure. No tests for carbonic acid have. been made, but the anemometer test, applied in two schools, gave a rate of discharge equivalent to twenty-four cubic feet per head and minute, which is about as much as we can ask for. The expense of introducing the appliances is stated as moderate ; flues, not to be considered, being required in any case; vacuum engine (no boiler required), about $500; and fan, something more, besides cost of gearing to transfer power from cellar to attic. In one school a certain amount of rumbling noise is heard (but not complained of), due to vibrating motion in the attic, the apparatus having been introduced not as part of the original plan, but after the school was built. In the other building scarcely any sound was heard. The arrangement of flues for such a plan has nothing peculiar. It requires chiefly the avoidance of angles, or rough and narrow flues, and is represented in figure 6, the fan being placed at ****, just below where the cupola is set upon the roof. No system for exhausting air by hot flues or by steam power should be introduced without providing for the introduction of a corresponding amount of fresh-warmed air. Hence it follows that ventilation and heat- 78 SCHOOL HYGIENE. ing constitute parts of one general problem, and that the same mind should plan both. “¢ Indirect” heating is the only kind worthy of our consideration. In cases where stoves are set in school-rooms, they should be made indirect heaters by the use of screens, as is hereafter described. For larger build- ings, steam heat, by means of coils arranged in boxes in the basement, is probably the best. Auxiliary coils may be placed in entries, but not, as a rule, in school-rooms. Ventilation cannot be had without some in- crease in the bills for fuel. There is reason, however, to think that the amount of increase is not so great as might appear. In our worst venti- lated schools there is a good deal of warmed air let out at windows, in an unsystematic way. Good ventilation implies that cold draughts from open windows are done away with: hence a lower degree of heat in the room is sufficient for comfort. It also implies a rapid change of air, with equalization of temperature, so that the feet are kept warm: this also enables us to be comfortable at a low temperature. A third point, bearing in the same direction, is the greater activity of the circulation and of the change of bodily tissue, and the consequent increase of bodily warmth in fresh air. The writer has at least twice found opinions strongly expressed in favor of the results of ventilation. Once inanew primary school at Springfield, Mass., where the teachers agreed that they could get along with the ther- mometer some degrees lower in their new, well ventilated quarters, than formerly was the case in close rooms. The other instance points indi- rectly in the same way. In the new building of the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology, with nearly perfect ventilation, the quality of the work performed is said to be decidedly superior to that which was done in the old building, which has no system worth naming. The ventilation in the new Institute building is very successful. It is effected by a fan in the basement, which forces air through openings in the inner walls of the rooms at a high point, the air escaping by flues in outer walls at low levels. The allowance per hour and head is 1,500 cubic feet in lecture- rooms, and from 2,000 to 4,500 in laboratories of various kinds. The analyses of air gave from 4.87 to 5.23 parts CO, in 10,000, in a room which was half full of students. The estimate for a full room would be from 7 to 8 parts per 1,000. Corresponding analyses in the old building gave from 9g to 12.34 in a room with doors and windows open, half full ; if filled it would probably stand at 21 or 22 in 10,000. Prof. Wood- bridge’s estimate of the fuel burned last winter is 307 tons for the old and 404. for the new building, and some allowance is to be made for the fact that all the boilers are situated in the cellar of the older building. Both are of nearly the same size, and are equally used, and for the same pur- poses. However encouraging these results, it is seen that perfection is not yet reached. By way of comparison, a few selected data are given, showing the number of parts in 10,000 of CO, in the air of various localities. (See table.) ; SCHOOL HYGIENE. 79 It is probable that the bad air of German schools is one cause of the prevalence of near sight and other defects of vision. The standard of 6 per 10,000 is not likely to be reached in schools at present. Perhaps we shall have to admit the practical justice of Prof. W. R. Nichols’s remark, that 10 in 10,000 is as low as we can expect to find in schools with fair ventilation. AMERICAN SCHOOLS. No. of Parts CO2 examined, | 17 1/000. eae 0 a 1875 9 12.2 E. Thompson. RT eae gsc rc sesccs 1870 40 14.5 A. H. Pearson. CO ES ee eee es 1875 III I1.9 Draper & Nichols. a 1880 39 15.6 W.R. Nichols. MeIGHIPAN......... ict FA ee 46 22.9 R. C. Kedzie. New York city........-.....+ 1873 17 20.8 H. Endemann. MUP MES fo ok ee eee 1883 8 17.5 Prof. Hills. GERMAN SCHOOLS. ET afc) 39.9 O. Krause. Wilhelm’s Gymnasium in March.............. 55.8 Oertel. ¥ m July. . 2): NGS, Ped 22.9 Celle, Gymnasium, various rooms.............. 20.50 Baring. Celle, Volks-schulen, most rooms.............- 90 ur es a MUMRIIVG TOOTH 6 5 5! o)<)0 vein cla o)s ys’ s 120 cE Much has been said regarding the proper position for outlets and inlets for air. One false view may be corrected at once,—the notion that carbonic acid gas is the agent that is chiefly noxious, and that this gas seeks the lower levels. It is not specially dangerous in quantities found in schools—the animal vapors from skin and lungs are more so—but it repre- sents the degree of organic pollution fairly well. It is not found chiefly at alow level. Ifthere is any difference, the upper levels are sometimes more impregnated, owing to the breath rising in a cool room; but the differ- ence is small, and, in a room with rapid ventilation, not distinctly trace- able. The air from the pupils’ lungs may be assumed to be distributed through the apartment rather quickly. The process of ventilation then becomes, not a removal of the exhaled air, but a dilution by the introduc- tion of large quantities of fresh air. 80 | SCHOOL HYGIENE. A test for carbonic acid is not easily made in a way to satisfy scientific demands, but an approximate test can be made in a minute by an un- skilled person. An ounce of fresh lime-water in a ten-ounce bottle of the air to be tested, shaken vigorously for half a minute, will indicate a fair degree of purity, if it is not distinctly made turbid.- One should have a little practice, even at this simple operation. The writer has endeavored to make a convenient and portable appara- tus which will give an indication of the number of parts in 10,000, within a range of error not exceeding one part. ‘To some extent the instrument is successful. It is based on Lange’s method. A series of bottles’ of known size was chosen, graded from large to small, and fitted in a wooden frame. The whole apparatus is carried to the room to be tested. The bottles have been previously filled with water, and when inverted the air fills them at once. They are stoppered, and carried to the laboratory, where a given amount (say one half ounce) of lime-water (chosen as being less liable to change than baryta-water) is introduced into each, and also a few drops of a solution of phenolphthalein, which gives a rose color to the lime-water. By shaking for a good many minutes the car- bonic acid is made to neutralize the lime; the approach of complete neu- tralization is marked by the fading of the rose color; and when satisfied that the process has gone on long enough, we select the largest bottle that shows the complete change, and say,— The air in this bottle measures (say) 10 ounces; it contains enough CO, to neutralize (say) 4 ounce of lime-water: how much COQ, is here? and how many parts in 10,000 parts of air does it stand for? The calculation is of course made previously for each bottle, so as to reduce the labor of a test to the mechanical operation. The act of shak- ing is fatiguing, and the charging of the bottles requires some practice, and a well graduated tube. No figures are here given, but by a com- parison with simultaneous analyses made by Pettenkofer’s method, an encouraging degree of accuracy has been observed. The point of diffi- culty in this and similar processes is to determine when the carbonic acid is to be considered as having been fully taken up by the lime. This fault seems to attach to Mr. Owen’s ingenious process, given in Billings’s ‘¢ Ventilation and Heating.” Source of Supply of Air. The purity of the source must be carefully guarded. A wooden duct is the usual means of conveying the air across the cellar to the furnace. Such ducts easily open at the joints, and let in cellar air: hence painting from time to time may be useful, unless tin be substituted, or galvanizediron. The interior should be accessible in some way for cleaning, as dust cannot but accumulate with time. The inlet, out of doors, is to be guarded with a wire screen, and is so situated as to be out of the way of mischievous persons. Bad smells are sometimes noticed in a school, which enter through this channel. It is hard to tell, — in certain neighborhoods, just where to place the opening. The ground is damp; the air at ten feet is odorous for various reasons; and at thirty feet the smoke of neighboring chimneys is blown into the inlet ;—it is SCHOOL HYGIENE. 81 usual, however, to make the cautionary remark that malaria and damp- ness linger near the ground, and, as a rule, ten feet from the ground is a good place. . Scrupulous cleanliness of the cellar is necessary. If there are water- closets there, they had better not be near the ducts, nor even in the same division of the cellar, since the ducts are provided with doors which are liable to be left open contrary to orders. The misuse of such valve-doors is one of the crying sins of janitors. Many amaster has a perpetual war- fare with this functionary on account of this. The janitor’s object, first and last, is the saving of coal in order that he may receive credit for economy, and his habit is to close the outer valve, opening the one that leads from the cellar, thus feeding his furnace or coils with cellar air at 60° instead of the cold air out of doors. In this way the writer has found a school-house filled with air which must have passed through the fur- nace two or three times, being drawn down through the entries to the cellar, and then sent back through the furnace. Excessive heating of the air is not so frequent a fault at present as formerly. A report made to the Boston school board in 1846 complains that the air sent to school- rooms is frequently heated to 500° or 600°. This may be simple exag- geration, but there is no doubt that a heat approaching 200° is not un- commonat present. Circumstances alter the requirements greatly, but for schools by day- { light, the range should not much exceed 120° F., nor fall much below 80°. In order to fulfil this demand furnaces and boilers should be made very large. Steam heating is one of the best methods. The pressure upon a boiler of proper capacity need never exceed ten—perhaps it should not exceed five— pounds to the square inch, and it should frequently run. down to one pound. The danger of explosion need hardly enter into the calculation if there is good management. ) Ventilating-Stoves. A useful apparatus ~ ‘ — for aiding ventilation is furnished by a class of stoves which are provided with an inlet for fresh air, and a chamber for warming it before it is introduced to the room. Figure 11 shows a stove having a jacket of sheet metal, a space be- tween the jacket and stove, and a fresh-air flue, with a valve operated from the room. The principle, as regards air-supply, is not essentially different from that of the ‘‘ Fire on the Hearth,” the ‘‘ Jackson Ventilating Grate,” and Galton’s ventilating fire-places. The method is practically valuable, though the stoves I have seen do not really supply Fig.i2. enough air; that is, a stove large enough Jacker Space Jacke? Space | —_—_—> ' A enteraky open Winco 82 SCHOOL HYGIENE. to heat a given room does not introduce nearly enough air to vextzlate it. The column of hot air is very short, and the velocity moderate. Yet, where stoves are to be used, there is an obvious gain in using this kind. It ought to be supplemented by a powerful chimney-draught, the chimney being made of liberal size, and heated by the passage of the stove-pipe: an opening for ventilation is to be made near the floor. In still other ways ventilation may be aided by the stove-pipe, as will be seen from Figs. 13 and 14. Figure 12 shows a screen (supposed to form a semicir- cle) placed by a stove near a window, which is opened. Figure 13 is like Fig. 11 in principle. Figure 14 shows how a low- er story may be ventilated. The last four illustrations are from Billings’s ‘‘ Ventilation and Heating.” The evaporation of water in connection with heaters is probably useful, but the writer is not inclined to consider the matter one of primary im- portance. It is successfully dispensed with in some of the best ventilated new wards in hospitals. Children often come in CRSA i i with cold and damp feet. : It is desirable to provide some kind of foot-warmer in the hall or basement. A good one is made of an iron plate, 24 or 3 inches thick, set on a flat steam-coil. Opening Windows. This may be regarded in two lights, according as the schol- ars are at work, or moving and exercising. ‘To keep windows partly open seems an absolute neces- sity in many school-rooms. In one-roomed country schools, one of the first steps in sanitation is to insist on the upper sashes being arranged so as to be lowered. An open window is an evil, nevertheless, in cold weather. ‘The palliative measure to be recommended is a strip of boara a few inches wide placed so as to deflect the current from under the | lower sash, and make it pass above the heads of pupils. ‘This isa decided Lower Story SCHOOL HYGIENE. 83 mitigation of the draught. It is very often liked in rooms where the ventilation is otherwise bad. A tilting sash at the top of a window can- not safely be used in winter. Such a sash, however, ought to be placed over every room door to enable the occupants to share to some extent in the purer air of the entries. There is no question of the good done by temporary opening of windows and doors for a minute or two while scholars are exercising. The effect may be supposed to disappear in two minutes or so; but when combined with a short physical exercise in the standing posture, its effect, both moral and physical, is undeniably good. In a very carefully conducted school known to the writer, this is done every hour, the period of five minutes being allotted for that purpose, unless there is a regular recess. At recess time, also, it is the rule that no child shall remain in the rooms, but that all shall go to the play-rooms under charge of their teachers, the windows in the mean time being opened by scholars deputed for the task. These measures, well carried out, greatly relieve the condition of a school which has no efficient Sys- tem of flue ventilation. The ‘* Eureka” ventilator is an opening in the wall to let in air directly. It has a valve, and the passage is bent so as to throw the air upwards. It is a useful accessory in some cases where a thorough ventilation is not planned for. Similar openings are often found behind steam-coils in school-rooms. Their utility is delusive ;—they deliver a very small quan- tity of air, and are liable to be stopped up by accident, or for the pur- pose of keeping out the cold. Much has been said of the supposed capacity of cast-iron stoves to let carbonic oxide gas pass out through their pores, thus contaminating the air with a peculiarly deadly poison. The present weight of evidence does not sustain this belief. IV. SEWERAGE. It is difficult to trace any large amount of disease in schools directly to offensive privies or sewers. ‘There can be, however, do doubt that some isso caused. The school is often supplied with water from a contam- inated well. Bad air and stenches are not always provocative of illness, but the common-sense of civilized races suspects them, and there is no doubt that they may promote debility, headache, loss of appetite and digestive tone, and general depression of vitality ; while in the minds of some physicians there is no doubt that dysentery may be caused, and per- haps typhoid fever, and that scarlatina and diphtheria may be aggravated by exposure to foul air. Pneumonia, tonsillitis, rheumatism, and neural- gia are probably to be included. Although drainage, as applied to school buildings, is governed by the general rules applicable elsewhere, it may yet be desirable to note, in passing, the chief of these rules. A certain number of points of more special application will be noticed afterwards. {n all houses, whether used for school purposes or not, the drain, soil, and waste pipes ought to be of iron, visible and accessible throughout 84 SCHOOL HYGIENE. their course, .. possible; without angles, as straight as possible, and never horizontal. Soil and waste pipes are to be carried up full size, two feet above the house roof, and there guarded against the weather. A trap is to be provided for each sink, basin, urinal, or closet, and a running trap for the outlet of the drain, with an opening from the drain for ventilation, just inside the trap. Safes are to be connected with the drain directly. Rain-water leaders are not to be used for any other pur- pose, and vice versa. The best trap for sinks is, perhaps, the ball trap. Ordinary S traps are often shallow, and are rather more easily siphoned than D traps. Traps are to be ventilated by 14-inch pipe leading to the general ventilator (z. e., the continuation of the soil or waste pipe) above all other inlets. If not ventilated, the omission must be made upon good authority. Bell traps are convenient for the floors of urinals, but they are rather inefficient unless the seal is made deeper than usual. In many towns there is a supply of aqueduct water, but no public sewer. In this case the drain usually discharges into a cesspool, loosely built, which permits the escape of fluids into the soil. This arrangement is satisfactory when there is a good deal of spare land, and when the soil is light and gravelly. Ina clayey soil it may be entirely inadmissible. If the population is even moderately compact, sewers should be provided at once, under peril of infecting the subsoil air to such an extent as to influence the air of cellars. City schools are usually provided with” water-closets proper, or with flush-tanks or iron latrines. In country schools the ordinary privy is almost universal. Good water-closets are doubtless the best arrangement, so long as they are kept in order. No kind yet invented is free from the danger of derangement. A hopper which gives a full and quick discharge of water is probably the best for schools. The discharge may be dependent on the movement of the door or seat, or may be arranged to occur at once in all the bowls at a given signal. The flush-tank is a long vault of masonry, over which the seats are built. It should have a round bottom and rounded corners. At one end is a tap of water; at the other, in the bottom, a plug to let out the con- tents. The janitor should remove the plug, and flush and swab the inte- rior at least once a day. With proper ventilation there need be no of- fensive odors. If placed ina well lighted cellar, it will give satisfaction as long as it is carefully attended to ; but such is human nature, that we may expect to find a certain proportion of cases in which due care is not given, and consequently dissatisfaction is felt. There is a great difference of opinion among intelligent heads of schools upon this point, some being unwilling to tolerate these arrangements under the house-roof, while others are strong in support of them. On the whole, it seems better, if we cannot be sure of the future character of the service rendered, to place all of them out of doors. A flush-tank will not freeze in the climate of New York city if emptied at night. In colder places it may be necessary to empty not only the tank (which in any case should be always done), but also the pipes leading to it, directly after school. SCHOOL HYGIENE. 85 An unobjectionable apparatus consists of an iron sink coated inside with a firm glaze, rising to contact with the seats, and only deep enough to hold a few inches of water, with a suitable space above. There should be no riser. The whole should be above ground, in a place moderately warmed; the water to be drawn off daily, and in cold weather not re- placed till the next day. Foran out-of-doors sink, if iron is used it must not be supplemented by a wall of masonry built above it, as the contrac- tion and expansion of the metal cause a breaking away from the masonry. As regards freezing, the writer is informed by the superintendent of schools at Springfield, Mass., that it does not occur when the water is shut off from the out-door sinks and drawn off. A school-house should have one water-closet in-doors, for the use of females. A building of two or more stories may properly have one on each story, in order to save girls the fatigue of climbing stairs in cases where the privilege is desired, and also for the teachers’ use. The urinal appears to present a difficult problem; but the whole mat- ter lies in two words—non-absorbent surfaces and frequent cleaning. One of the best forms is composed entirely of slabs of slate, forming a wall five feet high, with a gutter at its foot. The gutter is cut in the floor-pieces on which the pupils stand. Upright slabs divide the space, in the interest of decency. Slate is almost impervious to moisture, and is made quite so by oiling with linseed oil. The apparatus in question is usually furnished with a perforated water-pipe, to keep the front sur- face of the stone moistened with a sheet of water. The idea is a good one, but requires such exactness of mechanical work that the jets are rarely in perfect order. It has the further disadvantage of seeming to excuse a part of the duty of scrubbing. No portion—side, base, or back— should be neglected in this respect. All these surfaces are liable to grow foul. The amount of work needed to give thorough cleaning is consid- erable, but it is the only way to secure purity. The janitor’s task ought to be lightened by having the whole floor of the apartment slope towards the gutter, so that the hose can be used freely. Some urinals have a raised platform, in order to define the place to stand on. The better way ‘would be to have a depression, which would equally define the position. A monitor, in either case, should stand by to check irregular behavior. All complication of structure in these departments should be avoided. Concealment of the basin of a water-closet by wood-work is not desira- ble, and the wooden seat should be so fitted that it can easily be removed for cleaning or renewal. The urinal needs no trough. It should be made of materials which are not porous: no metal work is admissible, for rust is sure to come, and the animal matter of the urine so saturates the rust that it can hardly be soaked out. Paint soon scales off from metal. Wood can be protected by paint for a time, and then be- comes soaked with urine unless repainted. The writer has seen marble used—a material whose absorbent powers may be seen in the large slabs used in restaurants, depots, and such places. Little need be said about the common privy attached to most country 86 SCHOOL HYGIENE. schools. In many cases this is the last thing attended to. It is practi- cally outside of the teacher’s supervision, and one can hardly blame a young and modest woman for failing to see that her duty lies in this direc- tion. It is generally a first-class nuisance as regards odor, insupportable if placed within a convenient distance ; but if set off fifty feet or so, the exposure which the pupils undergo in cold or wet weather is a serious matter. In perhaps one half of the cases it is out of repair. ‘The accu- mulations go on for a year ata time. Finally the walls are covered with dirty scrawls; and very commonly the girls’ closet is contiguous to the boys’, so that every thing is heard through the partition. The remedy for a part of these troubles may be found in a more active interest on the part of the school trustee. He can have the place repaired, the scribbling effaced with a plane, and paint applied so as to give a thoroughly neat look. He should try to have both the teacher and the scholars codperate in maintaining a high standard of neatness, securing, if possible, an occasional visit from the teacher, and making such him- self, so as to insure that no breakage or injury goes unnoticed. Most privies are too dark. Two closets in immediate contact do not insure a proper and modest degree of separation between the sexes: in such a case, the boys and girls should have recess at different times. If there are really two separate out-houses, it is well to have them, and the approaches to them, separated by a sufficient fence. There ought to be plank walks, or raised ways (paved, asphalted, gravelled), to enable the scholars to go dry-shod. But the plan which commends itself to the writer as by all means the best for country schools is the use of dry earth in vaults, emptied weekly, in a shed close to the school-house, and access- ible by a short, covered way. It may be thought best to retain the old style of privy for the boys, keeping it at a distance from the house as before; but for girls and little children it is most certainly desirable to have a place which they can reach without danger to health. Not to mince matters, the direct exposure of a sensitive part of the body to the gusts of a north-east storm is not a thing to be regarded as a trifle; in certain states of the system it may be highly dangerous. And both girls and small children are sometimes led to slight the calls of | nature, to their bodily harm, by fear of exposure to bad weather. The plan here suggested is one which may be found illustrated in the report of the Connecticut State Board of Health for 1883.1 In that report there is given a plan for a country district school, which places both privies under the school roof, but at opposite ends of the structure. Difficulty in keeping the boys’ place in order (owing to the need of a urinal) is anticipated, and there is presented, as an alternative, a plan which con- tains only the girls’ closet, as is here recommended. The figure appended is taken from that report (numbered figure 1o— in the present essay, No. 15). It shows a single school-room with sep- arate entrances for the sexes. On the girls’ side at the rear is a small, square building, isolated from the main building by an 18-inch passage-— 1In a paper by the writer of this essay—SECRETARY. SCHOOL HYGIENE. 87 way around it, but intended to be sheltered by the same roof. The detail of the construction of such a closet is very simple. It requires a recep- tacle, consisting of a brick trough about two feet wide, rounded at bot- tom and corners, and coated internally with coal tar to prevent the ab- sorption of fluids or gases. The coating is continued over the top of the bricks and down the front as far as exposed. The bottom is an inverted arch of masonry, bedded in cement and coated with the same, and pro- jecting slightly at the outer end to facilitate removal to buckets. Four feet is a sufficient depth. The bottom ought not to be so low that water from the surrounding land can run into it; and it is better that it should be raised above the ground level for convenience in removing the con- tents. ‘There should be a bin for dry earth in a sheltered place handy for use. Two inches of this earth, finely powdered, are to be spread on the floor of the pit at first, and a little sprinkled on daily: a complete removal is made at the end of each week. The present writer would corroborate the plan here proposed by cases which he has recently seen, in which the earth removal system is carried out with entire success. An ordinary projection in the rear answers every purpose; the chamber ought, however, to be isolated by a narrow passage-way, furnished with screened windows, which should be kept open. The portable earth-closet may be found useful, but in reality it possesses no advantage over this arrangement. The only disinfectants required for well arranged water-closets are water, soap, and fresh air. For earth-closets, no more than these and earth are needed. Privies ought not to become offensive: treatment with earth should be resorted to, and if that is thought inapplicable to deep vaults, then let the vaults be shallow for the purpose of speedy removal. But in cases of existing nuisance, or in epidemics of fever, dysentery, or cholera, it is well to be provided with a temporary remedy ; and for this purpose, chloride of lime, or corrosive sublimate, as recommended by a committee of the American Public Health Association, may be used. Chloride of lime has the disadvantage of a strong smell. Whichever is used may be prepared by dissolving in soft water chloride of lime (of the best quality) in the proportion of a pound to four gallons, or cor- rosive sublimate, a pound to twelve gallons. The latter solution is to be colored with permanganate of potash (nine drachms) to prevent mis- 88 SCHOOL HYGIENE. takes. Of the former solution, use a quantity equal to the supposed solid contents of a vault; of the latter, one fourth as much. If used undissolved, one pound of chloride of lime corresponds to thirty pounds of the solids; one pound of corrosive sublimate to five hundred pounds. Subsequently, chloride of lime may be freely sprinkled over the contents daily. A corrosive sublimate solution may be used for the same purpose, four gallons a day, made by the following formula: Cor- rosive sublimate and permanganate of potash, of each 2 drachms (4 ounce), dissolved in a gallon of soft water. This may be kept ina tub or crock, not in a metal vessel. Asa precaution in case of an epi- demic, wash the interior of the vault daily with this. If green vitriol (sulphate of iron) is used, take a pound and a half to a gallon of water. V. HYGIENE OF THE EYE. During the period of school-life, as is now generally known, certain affections of sight increase. It would appear from the uniformity of the results of investigations that the increase is a general rule; and most of those who have treated of the subject have considered it due, in a great degree, to the effect of over-exertion of the eyes in school, more partic- ularly when the light is bad and the rooms unwholesome. It is generally accepted as proved that near-sight is very liable to be inherited. Far- sight (old-sight) is also found in children, and, like near-sight, it increases in frequency and degree as children grow older, until somewhere about the age of fifteen it begins to be less frequent, and at the age of twenty, among students, near-sight decidedly preponderates over far-sight. Dr. E. G. Loring has given diagrams illustrating this fact in the case of three nationalities,—the German, the Russian, and the American. The ob- servers, whose facts are taken for the diagrams, are Conrad, who exam- ined 3,036 eyes of school-children in Koénigsberg ; Erismann, who exam- ined 4,358 eyes of scholars in St. Petersburg; and Derby & Loring, who examined 2,265 eyes in New York schools. The ages in all cases run from the youngest to the oldest pupils, including members of superior schools, up to the age of twenty. In the German table the percentage of near-sighted eyes rises from 1175 in the young children to 627, in the oldest; in the Russian, from 13,8, to 43 33, per cent.; and in the Amer- ican, from 3} per cent. at six to seven years to 26748, per cent. in the twenty to twenty-first year. There are a good many other similar series of observations, all agree- ing substantially with these, but the German percentages are always very much higher than the American. This is not surprising if school work has anything to do with the result, for German children in all superior schools (real-schulen and gymnasia) are made to do an amount of work which is incredible to our school-boys, and with some results to show in the way of intelligence, too. German children in America also show a decidedly greater percentage of near-sight than American children, owing, no doubt, to hereditary influence. In a board-school in London, SCHOOL HYGIENE. 89 Brudenell Carter has lately found nearly ro per cent. ot near-sight among 267 children. ‘These are the facts, and to most minds they seem to point to a tendency in national life which is truly alarming. It is a distinct drawback to a person’s usefulness to have abnormal sight; to have to wear glasses is a serious drawback for many purposes; and yet Ger- many, which is leading the world in education, is far ahead in respect to near-sight, and we seem to be following her in both points. There are those, however (as Landolt), who lay the chief stres., as regards causation, upon general conditions of health, maintaining that hardship and poor fare constitute one of the chief causes of near-sight. It may be so, and this is not the place to enter into the argument satis- factorily ; but if so, how shall we apply the doctrine to the case of Am- herst college, where Derby’s strictly accurate statistics show an increase from 44%; to 5038; per cent. during the four years course? In Amherst the conditions of living are as favorable as can be found. Not only is there no ‘hardship and poor fare,” in Landolt’s sense, but the young men are under a régime of physical exercise which produces a distinct effect in lessening illness during their residence. A brief statement of the leading causes, not in any presumed order of frequency, is given here: 1. Inherited tendency. 2. Study while the system is in a weakened condition. 3. Study in a bad light. 4. Study in a bad posture. 5. Study while the eye or brain is fatigued or congested. 6. Study in excess at the formative period of life, when the bodily tis- sues easily assume a wrong bent. These will probably cover the ground, so far as relates to our present practical object, pretty nearly. The writer ventures also to offer a series of practical remarks in the form of rules at this point, leaving further discussion till later. RULES FOR USING THE EYES. In school work we should require,— 1. A comfortable temperature, and especially let the feet be kept warm and dry. . 2. Good ventilation. 3. Clothing at the neck loose. The same as regards the rest of the body. 4. Posture erect ;—never read lying down or stooping. 5. Little study before breakfast, or directly after a hearty meal; none at all at twilight or late at night. 6. Great caution about study after recovery from fevers. 7. Light abundant, but not dazzling. 8. Sun not shining on the desk, or on objects in front of the scholar. 9. Light coming from the left hand, or left and rear; under some cir- cumstances from in front. me gO SCHOOL HYGIENE. 10. The book held at right angles to the line-of sight, or nearly so. 11. Frequent rest by looking up. 12. Distance of book from the eye about fifteen inches. As regards the causes. No. 2 refers especially to the case of conva- © lescents after measles, scarlet fever, and other weakening fevers. No. 6 requires attention on account of some suggestive remarks made by Dr. Loring in the report referred to. He enlarges on the comparative neg- lect of out-door life, and the unwholesome habits of eating and living that are found among German children as contrasted with the free play and plenty of fresh air that boys have in our country. He also asserts a belief that since myopia is a disease of childhood, and rarely originates after the age of fifteen or sixteen, it is desirable to give children little © severe study until after they have passed that age. More concretely, he points to the life of an English school-boy, with his long hours of foot- ball and cricket, as a better ideal than the German plan. As regards the rules,— Nos. 3 and 4 are intended to prevent the occurrence of congestion of the head, which is very likely to injure the eye. A recumbent posture is bad for another reason, viz., because it places the eyeball in unaccus- tomed positions, disturbing the equilibrium, and deranging the habitual action of the eye muscles. No. 5. Study before breakfast is usually work done at a disadvantage, © since that period is one at which the strength of the system is at a low point in many people. If study is done by artificial light, the trouble is much worse. No. 7. Some persons are unduly sensitive to light, while others re- quire an amount which is excessive for the average person. Regard may be had to this fact in arranging the pupils. Windows of ground glass, if within the range of sight, are annoying on account of a kind of daz- — zling effect ; if the sun is upon them, they are intolerable. No. g. If light comes from the right hand, the pupil’s hand in writing shades his work annoyingly. If from the rear, he derives no direct ben- efit from it unless he turns himself so as to get rid of the shadow; this is the position required in writing by some teachers. ; a ” Fe a CONSTITUTION. 175 serve two years, and who shall be ineligible to reélection for a second successive term ; and (3) of the ex-Presidents of the Association. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to consider and recom- mend plans for promoting the objects of the Association; to authorize the disbursement and expenditure of unappropriated moneys in the treasury for the payment of current expenses ; to consider all applications for membership, and, at the regular meetings, report the names of such candidates as a majority shall approve; and, generally, to superintend the interests of the Association, and execute all such duties as may, from time to time, be committed to them by the Association. At least one month preceding the annual meeting of the Association, the Executive Committee shall cause to be issued to members a notice of such meeting, and they are authorized to publish the same in medical, scientific, and other periodicals, but without expense to the Association ; and such notice shall contain the order of business to be followed at said meeting, and, briefly, the subjects to be presented, and the special points of discussion. ADVISORY COUNCIL. X. The Advisory Council shall consist of one member from each State, Territory, and District, the Army, Navy, and Marine Hospital Service, the Dominion of Canada, and each of the Provinces, who shall be appointed by the President on the last day of each session, and who, besides acting as a nominating committee of officers for the ensuing year, to be an- nounced at such time as the Executive Committee may appoint, shall consider such questions and make such recommendations to the Associa- tion as shall best secure the objects of the Association. They shall at their first meeting elect from their own number a Secretary, whose rec- ord of their proceedings shall be made part of the records of the Associa- tion. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION. XI. The Committee on Publication shall consist of the Secretary and two active members, selected by the Executive Committee, who shall contract for, arrange, and publish, under authority of the Executive Committee, the proceedings of the Association, including such papers as have been examined and approved by the Executive Committee, or which have been submitted to them by the latter for their discretionary action. REPORTS AND PAPERS. XII. All committees, and all members preparing scientific reports or papers to be laid before the Association at its annual meetings, must give, in writing, the title of such reports or papers, the time to be occu- pied in reading them, and an abstract of their contents, to the Bxecutive Committee, at least one week preceding the date of such meeting, to se- cure their announcement in the order of business. 176 CONSTITUTION. MEETINGS. XIII. The time and place of each annual meeting shall be fixed at the preceding annual meeting, but may be changed by the Executive Com- mittee for reasons that shall be specified in the announcement of the meeting. Special meetings may be called, at any time or place, by con- currence of two thirds of the Executive Committee. There shall be no election of officers, or change of By-laws, or appropriation of money to exceed the amount at that time in the treasury, at such special meeting, © except by a vote of a majority of all the members of the Association. Whenever a special meeting is to be held, at least one month’s notice shall, if possible, be given by circular, to all the members, together with the order of business. QUORUM. XIV. At the annual meeting nine members shall constitute a quorum for the election of officers, a change of the Constitution, the election of members, and the appropriation of moneys. ORDER OF BUSINESS. XV. The order of business at all meetings of the Association shall be fixed by the Executive Committee, and such order must be completed before any other business is introduced, except such order of business is suspended by a vote of four fifths present. ALTERATION OF CONSTITUTION. XVI. No alteration in the Constitution of the Association shall be made except at an annual meeting, nor unless such alteration shall have been proposed at a previous meeting, and entered on the minutes with the name of the member proposing the same, and shall be adopted by a vote of two thirds of the members present. ia OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES — OF THE— AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION. ORGANIZATION, 1885-1886. President, . A : Dr Slenry: Po WALCOTT, / ¢. Cambridge, Mass. First Vice-President, . Dr. CHARLES W. COVERNTON, . Toronto, Ont. Second Vice-President, . Dr. G. B. THORNTON, , . Memphis, Tenn. Secretary, . : ; Dr. IRVING A. WATSON, . a, Contord, Natt. DOAOSUTET, 0 : : Dr. J. BERRIEN LINDSLEY, . . Nashville, Tenn. (Zx-officio Members Executive Committee.) STANDING COMMITTEES. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. (Elective.) Major CHARLES SMaRT, U.S. A. 5 : : : . Washington, D. C. Dr. HENRY B. BAKER : : , ‘ i . : . Lansing, Mich. Dr. PINCKNEY THOMPSON . : . i : : } fenderson, Ky. Prof. HOSMER A. JOHNSON - ; . 3 ; : ; Chicago, lll. Dr. JOSEPH HOLT : . ‘ ‘ . - : - MNvew Orleans, La. Prof. CHARLES N. HEWITT i : ° . Red Wing, Minn. (The ex-Presidents, ex-officio members Executive Committee.) Dr. STEPHEN SMITH . , . , . . k : . New York city. Dr. JOSEPH M. TONER : ; : . . : . Washington, D.C. Dr. EDwIn M. SNow ; : ; 3 i : : Providence, R. I. Dr. JOHN H. RAUCH . ° , : . : : Spring field, Il. Prof. JAMES L. CABELL : en er : : University of Virginia, Va. Dr. JOHN S. BILLINGS ; : , ‘ ; : U.S. Army. Prof. ROBERT C. KEDZIE . : ‘ ; : ; : . Lansing, Mich. Dr. Ezra M. HUNT . : : ; : d ‘ . . Trenton, NV. F. Dr. ALBERT L, GIHON : ; : : : ‘ : : U.S. Navy. Dr. JAMES E. REEVES ; : ‘ : . ‘ . Wheeling, W. Va. ADVISORY COUNCIL. THE PRESIDENT, ¢%-officto. Alabama, . : . Dr. JEROME CocuRAN, Modzle. Arkansas, . ‘ . Dr. H.C. DuNAVANT, Osceola. California, ‘ . Dr. G. G. TYRRELL, Sacramento. Colorado, . : . Dr. CHARLES AMBROOK, Boulder. Connecticut, . . Prof. C. A. LINDSLEY, Vew Haven. Delaware, . : . Dr. L. P. Busu, Wilmington. 178 Florida, . 3 Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, . Michigan, . Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, . New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, . South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, . Virginia, : West Virginia, . Wisconsin, Dist. of Columbia, U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U. S.M. H. Service, Domin. of Canada, Prov. of Ontario, Prov. of Quebec, LIST OF OFFICERS. Dr. ROBERT B, S. Harais, Pensacola. Dr. W. H. ELLiott, Savannah. Dr. JoHN H. Raucu, Springfield. Dr. C. N. METCALF, /udianapolis. Dr. J. F. KENNEDY, Des Moines. Dr. WILLIAM BAILEY, Louzsvzlle. Dr. GUSTAVUS DEvRON, Vew Orleans. Dr. FREDERIC H. GerRIsH, Portland. Prof. GEoRGE H. Rouk, Baltimore. Dr. S. H. DurGin, Boston. Dr. O. W. WIGHT, Detrott. Dr. D. W. Hann, S?t. Paul. Dr. WIRT JOHNSTON, Fackson. Dr. JOSEPH SPIEGELHALTER, S¢. Louts. Dr. GEORGE COOK, Concord. Dr.WILLIAM K. NEwrTon, faterson. Dr. A. NELSON BELL, ew York city. Dr. Tuos. F. Woop, Wzlmington. Dr. R. HARVEY REED, Mansfield. Dr. BENJAMIN LEE, Phzladelphia. Dr. CHAS. H. FISHER, Providence. Dr. Henry B. HORLBECK, Charleston. Dr. CHARLES MITCHELL, /Vashville. Dr. R. M. SWERINGEN, Austin. Hon. Henry D. Hotton, Brattleboro’ Dr. J. F. WINN, 2eichmond. Dr. C. T. RICHARDSON, Charlestown. Dr. J. T. REEVE, Appleton. Dr. SMITH TOWNSHEND, Washington. Surgeon JOHN S. BILLINGS, Washington, D. C. Medical Director ALBERT L. GrHon, Washington, D. C. Surgeon PRESTON H. BAILHACHE, Washington, D. C. Dr. W. H. HInGsTON, JZontreal, P. Q. Dr. PETER H. BRYCE, Zoronto. Dr. F. MONTIZAMBERT, Quebec. PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. THE SECRETARY, ¢%-0fficio. Dr. SAMUEL H. DURGIN Dr. GRANVILLE P. CONN Boston, Mass. Concord, V. H. SECTION OF STATE BOARDS OF HEALTH. (Created at last meeting; organization to be made at Toronto.) SPECIAL COMMITTEES. ON STATE BOARDS OF HEALTH. Dr. CHARLES N. Hewitt, Secretary State Board of Health of Minnesota. Dr. Ezra M. Hunt, Secretary State Board of Health of New Jersey. Dr. FREDERIC H. GERRISH, President State Board of Health of Maine. LIST OF OFFICERS. 179 Dr. J. T. REzvE, Secretary State Board of Health of Wisconsin. Dr. JOSEPH HOLT, President State Board of Health of Louisiana. Dr. THomAs F. Woop, Secretary State Board of Health of North Carolina. Dr. C. N. METCALF, Secretary State Board of Health of Indiana. Dr. G. G. TYRRELL, Secretary State Board of Health of California. Dr. PETER H. Bryce, Secretary Provincial Board of Health of Ontario. ON SCHOOL HYGIENE. Prof. EDWARD M. HARTWELL . Prof. D. A. SARGENT . Dr. SAMUEL W. ABBOTT Prof. J. MADISON WATSON . . Dr. FELIx FORMENTO Baltimore, Md. Cambridge, Mass. Wakefield, Mass. . Elizabeth, N. J. New Orleans, La. Nots. The chairman is authorized to appoint an additional member from each state, province, etc. ON ANIMAL DISEASES AND ANIMAL FOODS. Dr. D. E. SALMON, V. S. Dr. J. M. PARTRIDGE Dr. Ezra M. HUNT Prof. JAMES LAW : Dr. CHARLES W. Beane Ok Dr. JOHN H. RAUCH Soret WV. TLAND)... . Lt. Col. JosEPpH R. SMITH, fun S. A. Dr. W. B. CONERY vie ON DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. Dr. JOHN Morris . Rev. JOHN D. BEUGLEssS, U. S. Re Dr. FELIx FORMENTO Dr. JAMES F. HIBBERD . Dr. A. N. BELL Dr. WILLIAM BAILEY Prof. GEORGE H. Rou . ON DISINFECTANTS. Maj. GEORGE M. STERNBERG, U. S. A. Prof, GEORGE H. Rouk . Maj. CHARLES SmarT, U.S.A. . Bieuy ese AUGHAN 9.06 eae ees Dr. JOSEPH H. RAYMOND Dr. JOSEPH HOLT . Dr. SAMUEL H. DuRGIN .. ON DISINFECTION OF RAGS. Dr. J. HowARD TAYLOR Dr. A. N. BELL Dr. Henry B. BAKER Phe Dr. CHARLES W. CHANCELLOR .. «+ « -« Washington, D.C. South Bend, Ind. Trenton, N. J. lelthaca vive ye Baltimore, Md. Springfield, Ill. St. Paul, Minn. San Antonio, Tex. St. Louis, Mo. Baltimore, Md. . Brooklyn, N. Y. New Orleans, La. . Richmond, Ind. New York city. Louisville, Ky. Baltimore, Md. Ba.timore, Md. Baltimore, Md. . Washington, D. C. Ann Arbor, Mich. - Brooklyn, N.Y. New Orleans, La. Boston, Mass. . Priladelphia, Penn. New York city. Lansing, Mich. Baltimore, Md. 180 LIST OF OFFICERS. Sa. DrcHENRY ‘BOHORLBECE 5 Siler tele get re pe a ‘Chasietos 3) . Dr. JOSEPH H. RAYMOND «6s 6 5 6 +s + nw + s/s OOKIYR yam Dr. JOSEPH HOLT.) 20 6 6 4 fee a ee a, Na ON ANTISEPTICS IN VACCINATION. Dr..THomas F; Woob'.. 7.) (Se, A N. c y Dre SAMUEL’ W. ABBOTT ©0056). eo Oe ieee) a iy i een Mass. 1 Dr D EA SAEMON; Vie S27 O25 eee be ie ee ee) Cea ees Wang D. i ON INCORPORATION. DroHenry. Pe: WALCOTT, President 20 Ve ha ee Campridge, Mass. ? Dr. IRVING A. WATSON, Secretary . . . . . . « « « « Concord, N. H. Dr. J. BERRIEN LINDSLEY, 7veasurer . . . . . . . « «Nashville, Tenn. x Medical Director ALBERT L. GiHon, U.S.N. . . . . . Washington, D. Cia Major CHARLES SMarRT, U.S. AS 2. 2. 2 Wes e Hon. ‘JOHN EATON 6 005820 Pe Cn a CH Dr. SMITH TOWNSHEND 205. 3 ee ce ee fe we ee Ch SAMUEL A. ROBINSON, Esq... « 5-0. 4)» + ee) Wi Sage Gal | a ON NECROLOGY. ‘t The SECRETARY. Acid, carbolic (see carbolic) : - - ; A ° ia vacate Accidents in oiling machinery : PR Ds Py ey Sal Shee provisions against, in Wendiing eiodad . wah te heir provisions for, in factories ; . . . . . : Affections of the nervous system Air, amount of carbonic acid in . and cubic space required, amount of, in pachosk: -rooms . : : and sunlight should be admitted . cubic feet per minute for pupils . . : ducts for furnaces foul, escape of, how Daied for ; : , ‘ : : . how removed : : : fresh, and cubic space required, diferent Baurdes'o on . . . do children require a smaller amount than adults? . : . heating of : : : how introduced : Parkes and De Chaumont on in-coming, velocity of ; inoffensive to the sense of smell may ie eibealtitul ; : : . proper position for outlets and inlets for . . ; : : : supply, source of Albumens or proteids . Animal foods food necessary vapors from skin and lange more feaverchs than earner Hed gas Anthrax bacilli destroyed by sulphurous acidgas_ _. ‘ ° : destroyed by mercuric chloride . ° : : : : Davaine’s experiments with the blood of . ‘ ; . . Antiseptics . : : . i : P : : ° : all are not Bb atseos . ‘ ‘ : . . ; A not necessarily disinfectants. ; ‘ ‘ . : ° retard the development of bacteria . ° : ° ° ° useful, when ; ; “ : - - . : ° Arrow-root . : ? : . ° ° : ° : . . qualities of good ‘ ‘ : : ; ‘ ° ; , Arsenic frequently found in wall-papers . , . . ° : . Ashes, how to dispose of in factories . , : ; ° ° : . B Bacilli . : ; : : , : ° . . . : . Bacon, pork, and Pa ‘ : ° ; : : ° ‘ . . Bacteria - ‘ ‘ : ‘ : . . . : ; agents Bay ere multiplication and not destroy ‘ description of : : ; é : ‘ : ‘ ; multiplication of . . ‘ ; : : : ° ° : 182 INDEX. Baking-powders e ° ° ° ° ° e Barley . : ° : . Bath-room, cost Ae ; : : ° - : » > > : how heated : : ; . ° ‘ ° ‘ : . how supplied with water . : ‘ ; ° ‘ ; . Beans and pease . , : : ‘ ; ; ‘ . . composition of . : ; 5 ‘ ° : ° food value of Bedding, disinfection of Bed-rooms, attic, not recommended basement, always poorly eeawied ith real air unhealthy . : should not be small . : : : : i : . Beef, classification of according to cd ; : y ° ; ‘ : . composition of : ; ; : : . rules governing the selection be ; : : ‘ : ‘ : . : Beef-tea, how made “ Beets Belgium, amount Gt air ‘gtlowed narpile} in ; . : Benzine, dangers from : ; : : ; F ° Billings, Dr., “ Ventilation and Heaing” illustrations from. : . . on the amount of fresh air required for school children ; : . Blinds, how constructed for school-rooms . ; : : ‘ ; . Boiling as a disinfectant Bone and cartilage Books, effect of, upon byesight ‘ é ° : Boston, cubic space allowed pupils in ee. a . : ; : ‘ Bread . : ; : ° adulteration of amount of waterin . , ; . : ; , . , . changes on standing . ° . : : : : essential constituents of . : : ‘ ; é ° : good, general properties of i ; 3 ; : : ; s raising by aeration : : : , : ‘ ° by baking-powders . - 3 ‘ “ , . ° ° A by the eae of yeast . : : : . , . : ° stale : : the food value of Brick, absorption of water by houses damp unless properly taneenibeed) ; ! ‘ . . . Bridgeport, Conn., high school, temperature of rooms’, . . ventilation of rooms ‘ $ ; ‘ : . Brussels, medical supervision of schools in Buckwheat, composition of “ Bug-poison ” Butter : ; ; : ~ ; : amount of casein permissible in ‘ : ; , : ; ; ° composition of . f : ‘ : ; , ‘ . : ‘ . how to take care of 4 ; ; : . . : ‘ . ° . physical properties of ; : ° . ; : o Anis : me i: Butterine and oleomargarine A . ; : ° ; ° ° . . . CO Cabbage ° : : : . : : : Maen. : : . ° 54 Caffeine ‘ . ° : . ° . ° ° i : Rerey | Carbo-hydrates Sait starches Ng Ske TaN eeie eC tee 6 6 INDEX. Carbolic acid as a disinfectant in cholera not destructive to aoares special uses of Carbonic acid gas, amount exhaled at diferent eae : amount of, in the air e 6 183 113 II5 107 M5 116, 118, sae) not specially dangerous in auanvities take in schoo! -rooms tables showing amount observed in different American and foreign schools . test for Carpets objectionable . Carrots Cartilage and bone Caseine Cellar floor, how Eide one prot should be of concrete how constructed for tenement-houses - school-house, should be guarded against poneainnian should be free from dampness and ground-air well supplied with light : stairs should lead from the kitchen or pantry . wall, how made windows, how arranged Cereals and grains ‘ Cesspools, disinfection of . how constructed when admissible Chairs for school-rooms, how made in Cee Charbon, experiments regarding improperly constructed for school children Charms to prevent disease Cheese how aired in small amounts aids icection Chloride of lime (See Lime, chloride of). Chocolate nutritive value of avery mild stimulant . ‘ ; ‘ ‘ : how adulterated . : : ; ‘ ; . : Cholera advice to the public regarding and the intemperate . : : and unsanitary conditions : ; ‘ : . . at sea . best Brahfectant 3 Iii clothing in connection with disinfection in . of body Bhar death : drinks that may be used during its prevalence epidemics of, call for courageous assistants food in connection with from infected drinking-water . fruits to be avoided in germ does not form spores infectious material should be destroyed i in he ae room important to disinfect excreta in ' - personal habits in connection with : : ; : Gh BEAUTE, 184 INDEX. Cholera, risk to attendants over-estimated .. se) tw we sanitary precautions against . : eel) Nel ECR aetna should one flee from it . : : 4 ° ° e e e e e sick-room precautions . : ° : . ° ° . ° ° ° spread by impure drinking-water . , : . © | ot) hare aie water infected with, easily disinfected . . . POI sh oN Be Cistern, how constructed . , : 3 . : ° ° ° ° . material to be used in the ConetrncHen Ofoi : ° ° oot Se ae overflow trap should be trapped . : : : . . . ° . should not connect with any receptacle of filth . . . «© « should be cleansed at least once a year : . . ay Lis PIAA. should not be built under the house. a ° ° ° ° . ° ventilation of . ° . . ° e e e e e ° e e water (See Water). Classes, size of, in schools . ; : : . - * e ° ° ° 0 ie Cleanliness should be the watchword . A . . : ° Closets, dry-earth, how made 2). ee ce Clothing, disinfection of . é . ° ‘ ° . Cloths used in infectious diseases should be burned . : © el a Coal, gases given off in burning oe a eh a i NS ite ae Ol a ee tm MMP EMER AC Coffee . ; ‘ : . ‘ eaMiNe ‘ ‘ MEN WS) Colostrum . ; ¢ : - . ° ° ° ° ° 0 az Condiments . : f ; ; ; / 4 ° . ° ° ° oo ae Confectionery ov ileta Sei tes) he late 5 ie +) ar saulteration an PANT AD w eal ie NS ene Consumption (See Tuberculosis). from unhealthy house sites . : . . aeate’! am ° . g tubercular, in schools. mG se heey 60 CUS ve? + eae Contag.on, how spread by pupils oe ele Fe val Ye Oe Contagious diseases in schools . . : Copper, sulphate of . ; ‘ : : . : . . . . : - 113 special uses . : ‘ : ° . . ° . . . ° . I15 Corn, composition of . ; ; 7 4 , ‘ ‘ ° ° ° . - 49 meal, qualities of ; ; ° , . . ° . ° . n°) Corrosive sublimate (See Mercuric eMoHdel: as a disinfectant . B . . . . . ° ° ee © Cottages, advantages. of es 8. i ow kr Courage no protection against infection . : ; : ° . : . «=, cee Crab, value of : ( ; ; ; ; . : ° : - 40 Cubic space and fresh air pete ad different authorities on . ° : . a) Cultures, germ, how to start , : 4 5 : : re . - 106 pure, a test for chemical agents . : 0 i Curtains for school-rooms . ; ; : : , : < . ° eo, ue Cysticerci develop tape-worms . ; : ; - : ‘ A . . + hae D Dandelion . ‘ 4 . . ° ° . - 54 Davaine’s experiments with the biodd of anthrax 4 . . . . . Re Decomposition due to “ germs” . ‘ é f 3 : . . ° . - 102 Deformities from school-room life ; ‘ : : ° : . » 93 Deodorants . ; ‘ ; : : 3 ; ‘ ‘ ; . ° ‘ a | Jon and disinfectants not synonymous terms . : é : . : . BOR in the sick-room : ; 4 ; ; : ; : : : a when useful : ; ‘ < : d - ahd aor bai : . 108 Desks, school-room, how made . I ‘ H ; ‘ é « : 3 aie SIZES TEQUITE” ial vil ae y twits ey tel hol eh INDEX. Diarrhoea caused by drinking hard water . ’ 3 é ° ; : Digestive organs, comparative weightof . ; ‘ : : : ‘ Diphtheria ; : : : adults less susceptible to, than children . : : : and filth 2 “ : ‘ A ‘ F avoidance of A A ‘ : Rte ay ‘ : disinfection in germ of ‘ . : ° . . : how communicated . : : ; A - ¢ ; 3 infection from . 4 ! : predisposing causes of : : : : : : . : spread by impure drinking-water Diseases, contagious, rules to prevent spread of, in Aine" ashop danger . < ‘ how caused by insufficient pure air. at a8 : ‘ i infectious, how contracted . : ; from micro-organisms . : ° individual prophylaxis against . : in hospitals should be isolated special precautions in ‘ ; : 3 ‘ 4 power to resist, lowered by foul emanations ’ ‘ Disinfectants and deodorants not synonymous terms for privies. 7 ; : A : Labarraque’s . : : : - : : : : ; Littre’s definition of : : : : : : ; : some proprietary, untrustworthy tested by “ pure cultures” : which are effective in the absence ne eNotes ‘ which have the power to destroy spores Disinfecting solution Disinfection . and Reenfectints, Wallin « on and individual prophylaxis against ifectads ners, : cloths used in infectious diseases should be burned definition of . é : - ? : 3 evidence of no value pene eeeivead 3 4 x . . general directions for in cholera inoculation, experiments poorer dita : : ; : negative evidence received with caution ° . . ° object of . ‘ : ; : ; : of body after death Fon cholera : . . ° : : of clothing and bedding . : : : . : . , excreta, etc. 2 - merchandise person. : . : privy vaults, Resandols: ee : . : . rags : : : : ; , : ; ‘ ships , : : : : : ° ‘ ‘ sick-room : : : : ; , : : vacated . é é ; é water and articles of food , : : : popular understanding of something more than the destruction of ae ptomaines special means resorted to ; 4 : : , . ; tests of valueless attempts at - . : . . 3 : : 186 Disinfection, what it consists of with boiling water carbolic acid chloride of lime chloride of zinc dry heat . fire liquor sod@ Cite aay : mercuric chloride (bichloride of ae reuee corrosive =. subiaates steam under pressure sulphate of copper sulphur dioxide (sulphurous ue gas, sulphur) Doctors, erroneous notions regarding their immunity from disease Doors, glass sliding, for school-rooms INDEX. school-house, should swing outward Drains, brick, in cellar always bad earthen, broken by settling Drainage of house-site rules governing Dress, superfluities of, should be veld in Senor, Dry heat as a disinfectant Dust, classification of . mechanical, difficult to manage removal of, by air-blast e Dysentery spread by impure drinking-water Earth-closets for school-houses 2? Electric-light lines should not touch paces Elevators freight, cancers foe gong, signal for responsible person should run should have safety locking attachment well, how constructed . Engine, before starting, notice should be pen : Epilepsy from gymnastics precautions against Eggs : composition of how to preserve Erysipelas, disinfection in to be guarded against in bhenitats : Excreta, etc., disinfection of Exercise for ‘school children, object of Eyes, affections from school-room causes . : hygiene of the of school children blip in different teentaes rules for using the Factory, building ofa . buildings should be on well Beagle ane construction of a doors, construction of heating ofa . E e 112, Tia, INDEX. 187 Factory, employés should organize mutual relief associations . ae bie ina 3 fire-escapes for : ‘ ‘ : ‘ - I4I offices should be connected tie ppedaneita with the different de- partments . : . . . . . - 42 well and aed Pondaated! difference Berween é : : : , . 148 ate)”. : : , : : : : » . : ey amount prayed per ay : “ : : ; ‘ ; : , , Ides percent.ofwaterin . : ; ; F : ; ’ , ope bce’ Fear, from its depressing effect, cavities disease . “ : : : ° J Avs We Feet of pupils should be supported. ‘ A , ; : : ; : a hs Fever, bilious, from unhealthy house-sites . : : : 2 ‘ ; : ; 3 puerperal, disinfection in ‘ - a . 7 Shi Mgteniiabs obra A in pe to be puayded pantie : ; : ; ‘ aleitZo BCerieun... ; . ‘ ; ; : Pe ENR Pate We ky inant 2S disinfection in : F : : : : : ; iia 4 epidemics of, difficulty of Mea tea : ; : ; : : #0133 excreta, importance of disinfecting : : : : . : eeeh tie incubation, period of . . : : : . . . ‘ unas infection from milk : ; : SP iat Ata ee ahah epee ee infectious agent attaches to surfaces in room 3 ° : ; Raga Be: isolation of patients . - : : . . : : : TESS supposition regarding germ of . ; : : : : ° aa eOn spread by infected drinking-water : ‘ 3 : ‘ Eh e transmission of . : : ° ° ° : . HO SPARE ea iE he typhoid . : f AAS OHA SOAIE Cine (eS Diy alae Heel EBS disinfection in. ; : . ° : : rer ile eum Tenn i 1 epidemics from milk . . : . ° . ° : ° i hs5 excreta, disinfection of . : ; . : : : : é ee 6 o| ROG cI eee ay on sine OMGU ERY, ances Way Mei halt iily oh SAG unhealthy house-sites . . . . : 3 infectious material should be ketrered 3 in he ae room . : - 108 mental depression the predisposing cause . ‘ , : : a 130 water infected with, easily disinfected , ‘ : ’ : veESD spread through . : : . . : emit 2,:095 ye ow 5 : ‘ : , ; , . ’ : ea ant 20 " Peltnation” ; ° ° . : : : ° ° : SAREE advice regarding . ; : : . ; F ; AY OG) assistants, courageous, called for ° : . : shay ME RAN GS #> at sea : . . . . ° . . . . : . aA! disinfectants in : d , : : ‘ ‘ . ° + RIO ESE disinfection in : : : ° . : d : . 2h G to of infected shies ; : ° . : ; ; : 2 0423 epidemics of, usually deliberate . : ; . , : ei Last LOO excreta should be disinfected . : ; ; ° . “ ' Ay i i how contracted . / : ° : . . ° ° : A ty By how to avoid . - : : : ; : : “ : : “30 intemperance in connection with . : Sr Cor aye yea war htt oN Deeg precautions relating to food and personal habits . : “ 4 PED eto) supposition regarding germ of ‘ : : ; ° : ° AGA Coss: unsanitary conditions in connection with : ° : ; ° 1 EZO Filth the pabulum upon which disease-germs thrive . : A A ‘ \ - 102 Fire, apparatus for factories ; : ; : , : : , 4 : - 146 as a disinfectant . : ° ‘ : : ede hos vHiLOD open, advantages and iaadvantages a ‘ : : ‘ . . F Bnew plan to carry off smoke incase of .. ‘ eigriie thar at TUE en yee DZD precautions against, in school-houses . Raha s chon 8 i ees ON deity 19, “ Fire-drill ” for school children PUGS CNet WORD ART UR TS COR SOLAN Ec | bebe Lok RNY A) 188 INDEX. ey Fire-escapes for factories . the best e e e e e e e e e Fish, per cent. of water in . : ‘ ; > , : : remarks on . ; . AN) er ‘ . ° ° . value of, as a food : ; F : : : : : Floor area toeach pupil . . A : : : fire-proofing beneath, recommended in school- ae kitchen : ° . ° . ; : . . 3 Flour, adulteration of . , : : : : . ‘ ‘ and meal, care of 3 " : . ; : . ; patent cine . - : ; : ‘ ; ° . qualities Por good wir 0 jh. heey ute eae ne yeti rye, qualities of : : : ° : ° ° ° Flush-tanks, how constructed : . : : PSOOTRILES. (cy . x ‘ : ; : ‘ , . : Foods and food-stuffs . 3 : : , ° . . : amount required daily by the average workingman ‘ animal : ‘ , ; : ; ° : . : classes of . ; : : ; 3 , ; oa definition of , ; : . ‘ ‘ ‘ : : economic value of . , ; . : ° , . must not be left in living or sleeping rooms . . . nutritive value of ‘ : : ; ‘ A ; ° rations, daily, cheap, without meat; analysis and cost . with meat; analysis and cost . : moderately cheap; analysis and cost more expensive; analysis and cost vegetable . ; : ; ° ° ° ° ° ° volume of essential . : ° ° . ° . ° Food-stuffs, character of . ; : ¢ : s ; Fowl, remarks on 4 5 4 ° ‘ ° ° A ° Fruits . . ° : ° ‘ 5 Sig ° me . canned : : : : . . . : . . poisoning bydecomposed . .« «2. « -« value of ° : ° . : . : : . $ water in, amount of . ; : * 4 4 - Fumigation (see sulphur dioxide and sulphurous acid gas) . by sulphur pat ee ck S10 te EM BAS ae ‘ precautions in . : : : : ‘ ; ‘ Furnaces, hot-air, air-chambers should be kept supplied with water ductsfor . : ° . . . . ‘ - flues, arrangement of . : : : . . . how constructed . ° . ° , ° . ° registers, position of . . . . . . e size of . : ; ‘ . . . : . ° ventilation in connection with . ; 5 ; . Furniture, disinfection of . - : : ° . e ° Gangrene, hospital, to be guarded against ° . ° ° Gases from decomposing matters injurious : Stes . Gelatine culture medium . ; ° > 3 ° : German states, amount of fresh air auled pupils in the . . Germicide, a, may act as an antiseptic é ; : : Germs, decomposition due to . ; d : Peres Gl disease, in the sick-room ; 4 : 4 ‘ -| en oe oo 3S ¢ ge > 39 a ee . is «ee 50, 51 ee Saad «ge aa Pe ste s 26 » 3g » ee ee. <) eee a ee oem aan - hae .: 120 - og 3.) foe ae - 108 : ee ~ Hee iS INDEX. Germs, disease, many now known to us ; ; may be produced in culture fads : ' : . . not charmed away filth the pabulum upon which they atts the infectious agent of many diseases Girls, sickly, in school-room : : - Glucose ; ‘ Goitre possibly Byitaced by pene hard abe Grains and cereals Grate, at least one bed-room Mahould contrat Acre ; F ‘ 3 ‘ Gravel caused by drinking hard water ; é ; . . ’ . Grindstones in factories should be covered “ ; ‘ 4 . ‘ Gymnastics and school-desks ’ , : t - ‘ how exereised in school-room . : ue 43 : ; ° obstacles that prevent, in schools . : ? : : : Fi Halls for tenement-houses . ; ; should be placed on the side of the Henge arias rhe ist hantiaht space saved by doing away with ; ; ; : . . Ham, pork, and bacon : ; 3 ° é Hand-grenades not to be Beoenticd Gaon : : . Handkerchiefs, how to disinfect . : : ‘ . : Fi : Health, sunlight essential to ; , ; : , : ; : : _ Healthy foods - ; : : . ‘ Pe nha ° . : : Heating and ventilation. ; HOT SORE Stet) is eae Hut Ce BWEMELIYeCE : : : : ‘ e : . ‘ . methods of . : - : ; ; : : : ° ‘ of factories . - : ; : ; : : ‘ : ° Height of school-buildings . ESN ARAN Sei pT Re toe eT Hog, value of, as an article of food . ; eee: artis ‘ ‘ Home, building a : , : : ; : ; ‘ ° ° : care of)... : F : : : : : : ; ‘ . location of : : : , d ; ; : ‘ DAug 8 surroundings of . : : ; ° ; ; ; : : Honey . : : . ° Hospitals, disinfection, end bine precautions sob bse Riveiee . : House, buying or renting a . : ° ‘ ‘ , ‘ directions for inspection of a . ; ‘ : x : . . floors of, how made . : : : : : . ° new brick should not be occupied eoraedetels . . . should always have acellar . . ° , : ° . . site, best soilfor . A : ; " 2 : 5 : : should be drained . ‘ mean ues Bo dicen ts SUA ine tenement . : : . . : ° : . . ° Hygiene of the eye : ‘ . ° : ° : . . ; school . ; j ° : : ° : : ° it Ice, dangers from ° : : . : . Individual prophylaxis against pictus diseaces . . ° ° ° Infants, preparation of cows’ milk for ‘ : : : : ° : Injuries in workshops . : : . . . : S08 be ° Instruments, surgical, diniatetHign of . : - PAL ae tes A keke Intemperance and the workingman . ; : : ‘ . : . in pestilential diseases . : ° ‘ ; ° . ‘ 190 INDEX. Iron, drinking-water should not contain more than one tenth of one per cent.of . sulphate of, an antiseptic . . . : : . : ‘ . : . special uses . : : ; : . ; : . . . . K Kedzie, Prof., on amount of air required for pupils . : : . 4 EH Gily Kitchen in basement undesirable , : : ; 5 ° ° : . >. Cae the most important room in the house . , ° . . . 7 to be kept in good order, must be properly conetracted : F . . 7 windows, there should be at least two on each side . . . . : 7 Kohn on the eyes of school-children . . . . oes CaS L Labarraque’s solution asa disinfectant . . . .« . | - 0 Ve ie special uses of ad Wy BN : , , ; . . ° . LES Lamb, easy of digestion ; oe ee is Lange’s method of testing for etivosts acd, oa ee | ice Nan Latrines, how constructed . t ; y : : . . : 4 ° te Lemonade, sulphuric acid, incholera. . . . eo et jo Ve Lenses may produce fire. . : ; : . . . . . » 'I4s Light, bad, cause of near- Teal A btpa le ‘ ; . . . . : ern how it should be admitted to the school-room . : : . ° . >» ae in factories : ° : ° ‘ ; . . . « 143 not sufficient on a ectricted ea : ; 4 ; Mk the best for school-rooms . ; : ; : : ° : « 2G the most essential thing in a public school 0 0 fa.” 3 Lights in factories i ; 4 : ‘ A . ‘. “| 3 ; o / TAm Lightning-rods_ . . : 3 : . ° . ° ° ° ot 143 Lime, chloride of, as a digtatertant ‘ 4 ; : ; : ° . : «Ee for the sick-room ; ; - ‘ ° ° - eo’ 184 how prepared for the isiMer Hon of vaults . ° . ° 3 . ute special uses of . : ‘ F , : . . PPS ac 116, 118, 119, 120 Littré’s definition of disinfection . 2 : f “ 4 4 ‘ s a .', 103 Lobster, value of . : : ; ; ‘ 5 A j : . : 4 . “ow Machinery tends to dwarf the intellect 4 ‘ PM Me he ny 153 Mails, disinfection of . ‘ ; : A 4 . ° ° ° ° ° « 123 Malaria from unhealthy house sites. q . . . title » ape 3 Martin, A. C., on amount of air required for paptis ° . ° ° . °.\) ree Meal, adulteration Oliva . ‘ : : 5 ° . ° : . . o } VRE and flour, care of ‘ : : ; : . ° 0) | ey eae a 50, 51 Measles : Ayia , ; we he ee ee Meat, constituents ie : 3 : : : ; . . . ° . ° | ae degree of digestibility : ; 4 : > a wy ne a! Nea differs at different seasons . ; ‘ ; . ° ° ° ° o 38 diseased, produces disease ‘ ° a ° . ° : ° ° (ae effect of rigor mortis . ° ; : . : : Rtn tA a . » 35 extracts . . ; ° . . : . e ° e e e 40 fluid and pentores e ss : - ; . ; ° ° : ° oy ee general properties of . : - ‘ : . . . . ° : o. Lee heat necessary to destroy parasites . ‘ . hada : : ° var how effected by slaughtering . ; ° 0 IT es how to boil aA aw carat ee) aah hie ate Abu as a hepldnl lx clan INDEX. Meat, howtoroast . Mer ea ie in common use . : knowledge possessed by re aaclents list of, which should not be eaten methods of cooking parasites of, conveyed to man : i partially decomposed, may be poisonous . rules to govern the selection of some fat desirable in . stewed : water, amount of, in . Mechanics, exposed to lung disease the lives of, not what they eeouia be Medical attendance, the best, difficult for mechanics oe Siete : officer and school officer combined Melons . Merchandise, Geehfection Of : Mercuric chloride, amount required to Bieitect pene as a disinfectant as an antiseptic destructive to spores special uses of : ; ° ; Mercury, bi-chloride of, as a disinfectant . Micrococci i : . ‘ : ‘ : pathogenic, destroyed by carbolicacid . : Milk . : ; : ; : ; e e ° e _ absorbs gases : : : ; : : : adulteration of . : ° : ; amount required to support life ; ‘ ‘ : average amount of water in : : ‘ “barnyard” . : : ; : ° : : “bitter-sweet” . ; : ; P , : “blue ” - ; : , : : care of the. . : ‘ : ; composition of . ; : : : : : . condensed, how prepared . : ; F : cows’, preparation of, for infants : P : diseased ‘ : é ; “ : ; : : germs of disease distributedin . a ack nae kinds that should beavoided . } . ; : methods of adulteration ‘ : ° : precautions regarding use during fepilewnes d : scarlet fever conveyedin . , E : : A sickness, cause not recognized . ; : é ; ‘slimy ” ' : ; : ; f ° ° : souring of : oh ads : sugar’... , 3 ; ; : : : 2 value of, as a food : ; : , ; . ‘ watering, may be a criminal act . : p : : Mineral matter contained in bones. 2 ‘ a - in muscles, blood, etc. ; 5 ; : salts ; : : ; : , : . . Molasses and syrups . - ‘ : : : ‘ . Moulding-machines, dangerous . : ‘ : : . Mustards, how adulterated . F : : : ; : Mutton, general remarks on . . : : . . Myopia. ‘ . : ; : ‘ ° . : . 115, 116, 118, 119, 120 ° 192 INDEX. N Napkins, how to disinfect . : ; : ; Wy hake : . - ‘ Naphtha, dangers from , : : ‘ : ° . : . ° . Near-sightedness, chief causes of . 4 : : ; ‘ : ‘ . disadvantages of . ; ° : percentage of, in different Hationultiee : ; : : : sometimes inherited Nervous system, affections of the ; Nichols, Prof. W. R., on carbonic gas in schools Nuts, composition of O Oatmeal, composition of qualities of Odors, bad, should arouse suspicion Oils, etc., should be kept in a fire- Pee building vegetable : Oleomargarine and batrenne : Organisms, micro, difference in reset Api of Overwork in the school-room Oysters, nutritive value of a Pantry or shelves should be provide . Parkes and DeChaumont, on amount of tresh air sveantreHt in Geboel rooms Parlor, how regarded Parsnips : : ; ‘ : : ; ; : : : : ; Pea sausage . Pease and beans composition of . food value of soft, green, easily Hivestedt Pepper, how adulterated Peptones and fluid meats Personal cleanliness among mechanics Person, disinfection of the : Persons, susceptible, do not always hae aneue , Pipes and tanks, lead-lined, should not be used for conveying or ore cca water Pipes, water, should be ei iron, ploeicun, or Winer with tia waste, how arranged . Plastering, how put on stone or brick . : Poisons, persons working over, should talk but little . should be carefully labelled . Police, sanitary, general object of ‘ : : A : Pork, bacon, and ham . ‘ : ‘ : : ‘ : ; “% “ measly,” description of rules governing the selection of Potatoes, composition of . s : ‘ : . D . : . Privies, disinfectants for school-house 5 AS ‘ cause of disease among Salis faults of . : ; ; : . should be separate for: the sexes ‘ ; : ‘ special dangers from . INDEX. Privy vaults, amount of mercuric chloride required to disinfect . dangerous to health disinfection of . : ; how disinfected with chloride of ae Prophylaxis, general rule of Proteids, conversion of or albumens . Phthisis (see Tuberculosis and Conemmsnant: Ptomaines a product of putrefaction Pulleys, loose, dangers from Pumpkins Quarantine establishments, disinfection at . Race susceptibility to disease Rags, disinfection of : ; F oiled, liable to spontaneous eeciination transmission of disease by Railroading, accidents in Registers, hot-air . in ventilating Auen icra niaeed. size of . Residences, how built . Rhubarb Rice, composition of “Roofs should be provided with fenders to ly snow ida LOR. Rooms, arrangement of : living should be sunny and ee . ‘ recitation, deficiency in size. 4 : ° . Rules for factories : 7 ; ; ° Rye, compositionof . . A ek: Walt. S Sago . : : ; . ‘ ; . . . . Salt, value of ° ° . NE oe ial Aske Seis Sanitary supervision of schools s . Shiba o hes! ate Semeeeermamiteration Of i ee poisoning . ‘ . : . . remarks on . : : ° ° . Saws, danger from different kinds of ° Scarlet fever (see Fever, scarlet). Scholars, grievances of ‘ - z School architecture, greatly improved igen a a years ‘ boards, responsibility of . - : ; ‘ . buildings, height of . : : ‘ i ; in New York . : : : : ° plan and arrangement of ; . : children, German, work harder than American. harm from social dissipation . : class-room, height of ‘ ; ‘ , : : desks and gymnastics . ; : : ° : fatigue, results of : 2 : School-house, city, desirable eet af ne é 193 120 17 17, 119 120 124 25 24 102 150 55 122 194 INDEX. School-house, four-square plan of aes : ; ° . . precautions against firein . . . without cellar, should have air space pene float School hygiene, division of subjects officer and medical officer combined prizes bad room, excessive height a erat lack of space a fault large, with insufficient light . the separate entrances (illustration) temperature of : ; ; ; 5 : . large, twofold advantage of . ventilation of sessions, time of Schools, contagious diseases in medical supervision of : regulations to prevent the spread of contapeas liscagee sanitary supervision of . should be removed from noise Seats for school-children for factories Septiczemia to be guarded against in ne pitts Sewerage * separate er A i of Xe) called Sewers, cause disease among school-children grade and position of Ships, disinfection of by steam : should be performed by a ane eee how to disinfect the bilge . how to treat an infected one in port . Sick-room, daily care of disinfection of should be full of dee Sink-traps Site of school-house : dampness of underground water provided for in ; Skin, contagious affections of, excluded from schonts! diseases . : : : ; Small-pox . : 4 : i ; : J ; : is avoidance of disinfection in how contracted infectious agent attaches to were Be room principle of . isolation of patients the result of personal habits ‘respirator ” in, the statistics of, among the Givemcnared ss supposition regarding germ of vaccination the prophylactic Soil-pipe, construction of Soil, ventilation of Soup, how to make Spinach Spine, deformity a INDEX. Spittoons with sawdust, the cause of fire Sponges, disinfection of ; Spores, certain species withstand a Doan temperature description of . ‘ destruction of, a test of anicceny AaWer not destroyed by sulphur dioxide power to resist heat and disinfectants Sprinklers, automatic, in factories, a protection against fre Sputum, how disinfected . Squash . Stairs, bad. effects Of : . spiral, objectionable . Stairways should be fire-proof Starches . : : amount required per day and carbo-hydrates Steam, disinfection of clothing with heating, one of the best methods pipes, care of under pressure as a Hiunféctant Stoves, advantages of coal of wood . and furnaces, care should be used in ithe A aHeeoRetOn Ag cast-iron, emitting carbonic acid gas, belief not sustained . how arranged in factories . should be covered with.a hood . ventilating Study, under certain Sere OR ee cause bf near- cerdlteaneasy Sugars . : Waditeration of. quality of . Sulphur, amount necessary in Peacaeon dioxide, disinfection with . precautions in fumigation with Sulphurous acid gas (sulphur dioxide), disinfection with in the disinfection of ships not destructive. to spores Sunlight as a contributor to health should. not be excluded . Syrups and molasses. . : ‘ : : : T Tannin in tea ; ‘ : : d : : A Tapioca , Teaastimulant . - 5 ; : . s 7 , t how adulterated how prepared for Hanning increases waste of tissue kinds of . when to be used Teachers, grievances of lack of exercise among Theine . I12, 116, The preventable causes the cliseseet ier and AV Aah in merean enero ane work-shops, and the best means and appliances for avoiding them Tomatoes . : 123 ok Fd 55 196 INDEX. Tools, howto leave . ; : ; : . ° . ° ° oe Uhke - 50 Towels, how to disinfect . ° . . . : . ° . ° . e II5 Traps for sinks . : : ‘ ; . ° ‘ MU Hh: 8 <: o., Aca eow how placed BL ne SNe Te allo gla ann ventilation of . ; : ; ; "| é A ° A ° ° o. Oe Frees frequently beneficial. (0. 0 he a Sy Trichinz ; ° . ‘ . - . . . Panes: | destroved. at ee feees Fane, : : ° : : ; . : $0) 5a Trucks for handling goods, how constructed ,. . . |. « | =s0)\i stun nnnnnC Tuberculosis . ‘ ° . Pt of ae advice to these faviag a eecitary prediepouren tO Rees . a= 136 an infectious disease 4 . : . . . °