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FOR ACADEMIES, GRAMMAR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. BY CALVIN CUTTER, A.M., M.D.,, AutTHoR or “New ANALYTIC ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE,” AND “ OUTLINE ANATOMICAL OHARTS, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE.” WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. PHILADELPHIA da3, LIPPINCOTT & Co. 1871. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by CALVIN CUTTER, A.M., M.D., In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Copyright also secured in Great Britain and entered at Stationers’ Hall, London, and right of Translation reserved. LIPPINCOTT’S PREBS, PHILADELPHIA. TO THE MEMORY OF do CARRIE ELIZA CUTTER, WHO ACCOMPANIED THE TWENTY-FIRST REGIMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS VOLUNTEER INFANTRY IN THE ‘BURNSIDE EXPEDITION” TO NORTH CAROLINA, AND DIED THERE OF CAMP FEVER, CONTRACTED WHILE DISCHARGING THE SELF- SACRIFICING DUTY OF A NURSE, THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED BY HER FATHER AND THE AUTHOR. Sees © TO TEACHERS. In schools that have the term limited to eight or ten weeks, the Histology, the Chemistry or the Comparative Anatomy may be severally omitted (though with detri- ment to the pupil), and the remaining sections will be adapted to each other. The different sections, as far as possible, should be made object lessons, either by the use of the correspond- ing parts of animals or outline charts, as objects or things make deeper impressions than mere words. Technical words have not been avoided, for in the in- vestigation of any science the learner will necessarily meet with new terms, and it is best to use those which express the ideas that are peculiar to the study with terseness and the least circumlocution. PREFACE.| A » ™., fi f/ Tuts work is intended for classes in academies and grammar-schools. The leading aim has been to so limit its size as to finish it in a term of from ten to fourteen weeks. To accomplish this end, the “New Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Human and Com- parative, by Calvin Cutter, A. M., M. D.,” has been fol- lowed in arrangement, in illustration and in general scope. Primarily, the work is designed for the class-room, but the brief suggestions relative to Minor Surgery and the Care of the Sick adapt it for general use in families. The questions given at the close of each chapter may be used at the pleasure of the instructor. The first form educes a thorough analysis of each paragraph. The second is wnific, so that a blended investigation of such paragraphs as agree in structure, function or hygiene may form analytic lessons. or reviews. The third form is topical, with diagrams and illustrations, to secure a synthetic review of each chapter and a summary of the work. Care has been taken to adapt the work to Outline Anatomical Charts, Human and Comparative, which are as necessary an accompaniment as outline maps in modern Geography. & 8 PREFACE. IT am under special obligations to IsAAc WALKER, A.M., Principal of the High School, Ware, Mass., not only for the Analytic, the Unific and the Synthetic questions of the work, but for the critical examination of each Paragraph, Section, Chapter and Division of the “New Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Human and Comparative,” in his class-room. CALVIN CUTTER. Warren, Mass., July, 1871. ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. DIVISION I. SECT. CHAPTER I.—GENERAL REMARKS. PAGES 1. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared.......ccesssssecsseccsesesssceusssseeeeseseons 11-13 CHAPTER II.—GENERAL HISTOLOGY. Beem Gc lteeres concesccanesdseesesmetcdss sso svescsonecencnacerstabeocccBevstwave oneeacie carcdsrnces escte dee - 14-16 De ann sa ta cpasedind A cused crerdcreh Metw ait. wnodieramies Brock Sesiransvtasonseduaenga . 17-22 MPO TE DT NIOS 7s esc clse4exkseoey sesseacsasarecesecsehsoantaas aecvetonceseecnsieus casiseeind ccnsiessnseiusore » 22-25 CHAPTER III—GENERAL CHEMISTRY. Bl BOMAS ALi, WIVIGG.........0.0-ceccecceecncvasubvecdecesssesdvesenavsesceatoonesnsissoeeseaveses ceceeee =: 26-30 DIVISION II. MOTORY APPARATUS. CHAPTER IV.—THE BONES. 6. Anatomy of the Bones............cccccscsseerecescosrevevesrscascccescssccsaceossesoonconcenssscs 35-44 7. Histology “ Dae saseest cinaromens tment eg cri ct ste Secssssesscascdseces sttincacssssedess - 4449 8. Chemistry “ Ge gecSusdnsocsersarensaycaceseceonsssctaxenstesesen sscossscosscnscsnsosteonees 49 9. Physiology “ SSM coeect dieceucrtaps sense cnet es sue ssseere save scenester es sersvsssceanceatotess 49-53 10. Hygiene “ fr A” vameseene egvatenwusssaseyndiapeaasieveaestdesecieseer pabpodtesnssettacemeasee 53-56 11. Comparative Osteology........sccecesersssccoessererenessnssenssceenseeeenssseseeecsseeeensacsens - 57-66 CHAPTER V.—THE MUSCLES. 12. Anatomy Of the Muscles.......-.ccccsccssssesssscssessrsscserersessccerssesseovcver esse sessenees 71-75 13. Histology “ Ces cease Peter cehae ten ctu nase (wenn twosae sesnd hice tyerstoeslessceaca 75-78 14, Chemistry “ HUD Nene ts ssvoctucsectecivanccvistesadsetescotesvusadouqeovesshasasees accuses 78, 79 15. Physiology “ SST eR nt esscadastrotcbtbsasserstuacs sated Raeat te WA n acca danss te Weereonssaas - 79-83 16. Hygiene “ Coy jadtvantasseradponss osaanvaSebahosuadeacattodsceactessccwaesseut ces esuengee 84-89 17. Comparative Myology.........scesccrsseessscneresesercesseceressssessesocscessssseeseens qe it 89-93 DIVISION III. NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. CHAPTER VI.—THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 18. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs........-.ssscesssseesesseeee eoeersa cesses sspanpaneh eats - 97-103 19. Histology “ e PCUMED sou cesiek slowed o> seuledoes det eedeinnes scien inneneehadenMcesn seus 104-108 20. Chemistry “ bee SOUR oUacanasnaccscstens (vsee Gtieress cabnee teks ixamepmentercssins 108-110 21. Physiology “ as SME e re cysicstes eet ote ser siearndidrravisisvchacsevordsenseteeens(es 110-112 22. Hygiene ‘“ ss SOOM per ap actoedscees.ceeete ceesucenacecdeaias sogos cuaesestere 112-120 23, Comparative Splanchnology.......ccssssseessecsseeesssseeessescsonessrennescsessepeesveseeees . 120-126 10 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. SECT. CHAPTER VII.—ABSORPTION. PAGES 24. Anatomy of the. A bsorbetits...<:.esscuverssescossrssouasdencacvancenatees earteces:nepeeaaaaaas 131-133 25. Histology ‘“ Sh | © deeascdess dee scsbansontaeacnisavenneconen sew pastes tient ianamnm 133, 134 26. Chemistry “ Sf, gatosicgsssosevacesrawede codleoderssantbedsa oOvnes ae tamemaam a mmm 134, 135 27. Physiology “ MT, W five saweonston asinine coscee'a oatpudueneeee ree eer cn “irre +. 135-1387 28. Hygiene Ks s< Wa stavebvecens Sodus veessesduuuleeadeuoe tier iOiedataah ses aiNar ese “s 137_ CHAPTER VIII.—THE CIRCULATION. BE HOTEL OOU cr (pbcticeaaed seseesaabe tee o sconsan ousonden cab esenaey a Oban hes APPENDIX. CHAPTER XIII. CARE OF THE SICK... fesee ies oeskkeaecvosianapaisbenaaitneso enna « uot seeeeet aaama na mnnEaEnat TREATMENT OF Ween OF cau OF ampere vaepence er scesisenaeeae sudebhasneceuaeect seve 284-288 POISONS “AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.......0.c0scct sveconen-dbsscesehcoasvaus Bee Sadhu da upasenne seeeee 288-291 MSTOBEA BY, seayserccchsescscsivooasaedousese sce opens sveseunabionasa sole neeceureducae aves haunt aan seeeee 295-305 ONDE esteeaseeas xiccesensrcsestesatcsene .ccondecneaare eeubonaescneledactdpawal santana kere eee cosuadnpacente 307-310 For Treatment of Wounds, page 284. For Recovery of Drowned Persons, page 287. For Treatment of Burns, page 286. For Treatment of Frost-Bite, page 287, _ ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. DIVISION I. OUTLINE PRINCIPLES. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. @ 1. Tue Taree Kinapoms or Nature CoMpAReD.— Essential Distinctions between the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms. Nature of the Life-force. Vitalized and Non-Vitalized Bodies com- pared. Plants and Animals compared. Definition of Organs—Of Apparatus—Of Anatomy—Of Physiology—Of Hygiene—Of Histol- ogy— Of Chemistry. 1. “Srones grow; Plants grow and live; Animals grow, live and feel,” was the Linnzan distinction between the three great kingdoms of Nature. Though imperfect, it is still sug- gestive of the boundaries of each division. The Mineral kingdom includes all things naturally destitute of life; the Vegetable kingdom, all organizations having a certain type of life, but no power to feel or to will; the Animal kingdom, those possessing a higher type of life and the powers of sensa- tion and voluntary motion. 2. InoRGANIC or MINERAL bodies are made up of atoms combined and arranged according to certain mechanical and chemical laws. ORGANIC or VEGETABLE and ANIMAL bodies are combinations of like atoms, according to the same laws, controlled by Vitality or the Life-force. Plants have a vege- table vitality—animals an animal vitality. Of the real charac- 11 12 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. ter of this life-foree we know nothing. We are at liberty to examine her products, but the mighty principle upon which they are wrought she holds fast as a secret unrevealable to us with our present limitations. 3. Among the Distinctions between ORGANIZED or VITAL- IZED, and UNORGANIZED or Non-VITALIZED bodies, are the following: 1st, An Organized body consists of an assemblage of parts called organs, having a mutual relation to, and de- pendence upon, each other; these taken together constitute an individual, a being; therefore the parts when separated are incomplete, as in a divided plant. Not so with the Un- organized body : each fragment ofa rock possesses all the essen- tial characteristics of the original mass. 2d, Organized bodies, being subject to constant waste from vitalized activities, de- mand nourishment; Unorganized bodies, being permanent in their nature, require no food. 3d, Organized bodies grow by means of particles of matter conveyed to their interior and there assimilated; Unorganized bodies increase in size by simple layers upon the exterior: the former have a limit in size; the latter have no natural Jimit. 4th, Organized bodies have their period of duration: decay and death await every living animal and vegetable; but, from the nature of the Inorganic world, we speak of the mountains as everlasting. 5th, Organized bodies have their particles arranged in lines generally more or less curved, with varying angles, as in ani- mals and plants; Unorganized bodies have their lines straight, with angles mathematically exact, as in the crystal of com- mon salt. 6th, Organized bodies reproduce themselves, each species after its own kind; Unorganized bodies have no such power of reproduction. 4, The Distinctions between ANIMALS and PLANTS are im- portant. Animals take in oxygen and give out carbonic acid gas; Plants take in carbonic acid gas and give out oxygen. Animals subsist upon the products of the animal and vege- table kingdoms; Plants, upon those of the mineral kingdom. | Animals possess the power of sensation and voluntary motion ; Plants, neither. These distinctions are obvious and definite GENERAL REMARKS. 13 in the higher grades, but in the descending scale we recog- nize a gradual approach of plants and animals to each other, and likewise to the mineral kingdom; so that in the lower forms of life all perceptible traces of organization disappear, and, like converging radii, the three kingdoms of Nature blend in one common centre. 5. An organized body consists of parts called Or’gans. A collection of organs so arranged that their combined actions shall produce a given result is called an Appara'tus. The definite, peculiar use of an organ or apparatus is called ‘its Function: Example—The digestive apparatus consists of the organs—teeth, stomach, liver, etc.—whose combined func- tions result in the digestion of food. The description of the form and position of these organs is called Anat’omy;* the description of their functions, Puysiot/ocy;}+ the examination of the conditions most favorable to their health, Hy’erene. f 6. The organs are composed of a variety of structures, called Tissues, which are themselves composed of Cells. The description of the form, color, constituents and origin of these tissues and cells, or their minute anatomy, is called Histou’oey ;§ the science which treats of their ultimate ele- ments is called CHEM’ISTRY. || * Gr., ana, through, and tomé, a cutting. + Gr., phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse. t Gr., hugieinon, health. 2 Gr., histos, a web, and logos, a discourse. || Ar., kimia, hidden art. CHAPTER II. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 2 2. Cetis.— Unity of Plan exhibited in Plants and Animals. Simple Cells. Adaptation to Different Ofices. Modes of Multiplication. 7. WHEREVER we find the work of the INFINITE, there we find Unity of Plan. Whatever the extent of the applica- tions of this plan, whatever its modifications, there is still more or less apparent the distinct central idea. Amid the seemingly great diversity of substances in plants and ani- mals, there appears a beautiful and remarkable exhibit of this Unity. | s 8. Proropiasm* is the formal basis of all living bodies. Animal Pro'to-plasm, or Blas-te'ma,+ as it is often called, is an albuminous fluid, generally regarded as identical with the liquor sanguinis, or fluid portion of the blood, in which the red corpuscles are suspended. Floating in this protoplasm are numerous minute spheroidal cells, and an infinitude of | smaller bodies having the appearance of dots, called granules. From this organizable fluid every part of living beings is formed; here is Unity of Substance. | 9. The simple Nucleated cell is the earliest organic form of every living thing, and increase of size is but an increase of the number of cells. There are sundry very low animals, each of which is structurally a nucleated cell, a colorless blood-corpuscle, leading an independent life; a step higher come those which are little more than aggregations of similar cells; and at length, as the vital functions become more and more differentiated, appear those with cells variously modi- fied, forming increasingly well-defined and complicated organs, till they seem to reach perfection in man. * Gr, protos, first, and plasma, formed. t Gr., blastos, a germ. 14 GENERAL HISTOLOGY. . 15 10. In the plant-world we find the same plan pursued ; under the microscope, the vegetable and the animal cell appear essentially the same, but they are by no means iden- tical. In examining the nuele'oli of animal cells, little cir- cular bodies dart across the field of view. These seem to possess the power of voluntary movement; and, had we the requisite refinement of sight, we should doubtless be able to classify even these minute bodies as accurately as we now do the fully-developed animal. In the vegetable cell these are never seen. It appears, then, that the lowest and the highest organism—the fungus and man—have, in their earliest de- velopment, a unity of form of which the type is the simple cell. Fig. 1. 4 Fie. 1, AN ons CreLt.—1, cat, with its wall, protoplasm, nucleus and its nucleolus. 2, The same divided into two. 3, The same divided into four cells. 4, The same divided into many cells. The dark portion, the protoplasm; the white spot, the nucleus; the inner small circle, the nucleolus. Magnified. 11. A SmmpLe CELL consists of a delicate sac containing protoplasm, in which is another very minute sac, called the nucleus, which contains yet another sac—the nucleolus or little nucleus. Very minute particles or granules are also— seen. A good example of a simple animal cell on a large scale is an egg: the lining of the shell is the cell-wall or sac; the white is the contained protoplasm; the yolk is the nu- cleus; and its germ-spot is the nucleolus. (Figs. 1, 2.) 12. Cells in the course of their development are subject to numberless modifications—the animal cell, to subserve various purposes in the animal economy; the vegetable cell, in the vegetable economy. As if under the immediate control of intelligence, they select each its own appropriate substance, rejecting all else. One set of cells has for its office the pro- duction of motion; another set is for the purpose of secre- 16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. tion; another, for assimilation; another, for absorption; still another, for reproduction; and so on, through all the dis- similar offices of the animal economy. . 13. Cells multiply in three ways: Ist, A cell may elongate, contracting in the middle like an hour-glass or dumb-bell, by the infolding of the cell-wall, till a complete division is made and two cells are formed, each with its own share of the original nucleus; the new cells divide in a similar manner, and like divisions are repeated indefinitely ; 2d, Another form of multiplication is by the division of the nucleus within the cell; each part appropriates a portion of the fluid, and at length vesicles are formed, the old cell-wall breaks, and the vesicles develop into perfect cells; and 3d, Cells are sometimes developed de novo from the protoplasm, which contains nuclei and granules. (Figs. 1, 2, 3.) Fig. 3. Fie. 2. Process oF MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS.—1, Simple cartilage cell from the em- bryo. 2, Increase of cartilage cells by division of the primary cell. 3, 4, Groups of car- tilage cells, from an adult articular cartilage. Magnified. Fig. 3 EXHIBITS GROUPS OF CARTILAGE CELLS imbedded in a homogeneous matrice. 1, Toward the exterior. 2, Toward the interior surface. Highly magnified. 14. Cells have their period of growth, of perfection and of decay. While the vital force directs and controls the chemical and mechanical agencies, they tend to preserve and build up the system; but when the vital powers yield, they tend to its decay, and, ‘‘as if they were the grave-diggers of Nature, fulfill the old motto—‘ Earth to earth and dust to dust.’ ” GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 17 3%. Primary Tissurs.— Fibrous Tissue— Areolar — Cartilaginous — Adipose—Muscular—Sclerous— Tubular—Nervous. 15. By the various aggregations and transformations of cells the different tissues of the body are formed, and their individual characters depend upon the peculiar selecting power of these cells. 16. The Primary Tissues are reducible to the following: the Fibrous, the Aréolar and the Cartilag'inous, which, col- lectively, form the Connect'ive tissues; and the Ad’ipose, the Musc'ular, the Scle'rous, the Fu'bular and the Ner’vous tissues. Fig. 4. Fi¢. 5. Fra. 4. Frerovus Tissuz.—1, Portion of tendon, exhibiting its composition of prismatic bundles of ‘fibrous tissue, the filaments all parallel to one another. 2, A few bundles drawn from the others, exhibiting their union by delicate crossing filaments of con- nective tissue. 3, One of the varieties of fibrous tissue. 4, A single bundle, more highly magnified, with a portion (5) of the filaments fretted out. Fic. 5. Portion or Connective Tissvz, from the axilla, exhibiting its composition of bundles and filaments of fibrous tissue crossing in every direction. The rounded bodies represent a single row and a portion of small groups of fat cells. Magnified. 17. The Frsrovus form of connective tissue is composed of minute filaments arranged in parallel and somewhat wavy bundles, marked with faint cross-waves. It is strong, un- yielding and glistening. The fibrous tissue has two distinct forms—the White Fibrous and the Yellow Fibrous. 18. The Wurre Frsrovs tissue is formed of white, glisten- ing, inelastic bands, having longitudinal creasings, but not admitting of separation into filaments of determinate size. This tissue, by long boiling, is entirely resolved into Gel'atine. 2% B 18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The white fibrous tissue is found under three forms: Mem’'- brane,* Lig'amentt and Ten'don.t 19. The YeLLow Frsrovs tissue is composed of yellow elastic bands separable into their component filaments. It is called the Elastic tissue, elasticity being its chief charac- teristic. It does not gelatinize by boiling. It is found in the middle coat of the arteries, in the vocal cords, between the vertebre, and in many other places where elasticity is needed. (Figs. 4, 5.) Observation.—In rheumatism the connective white fibrous tissue is the part chiefly affected; hence, the large joints and the loins, where this tissue is most abundant, suffer most. Where there is predisposition to rheumatism, the tendency to it may be lessened and attacks relieved by increasing the amount of clothing over the part affected. 20. The AREOLAR form of connective tissue consists of bands of the fibrous, both of the white and yellow, which interweave in every direction, leaving open spaces between, called cells; hence this tissue is sometimes called Cel'lular. These spaces communicate through the body, and contain a fluid resembling the serum of the blood. Although the con- nective areolar tissue enters into the composition of all organs, it never loses its individuality. In the nerves and muscles it shares neither the sensibility of the one nor the contractility of the other. (Figs. 5, 6.) Observation —The swelling of the feet so often seen in feeble persons shows the peculiarity of this tissue, which allows the fluid to pass from part to part and accumulate in the lowest portion of the body, while a recumbent position restores the original shape. Great excess of the fluid produces general dropsy. The free communication between all parts of this tissue is still more remarkable in regard to air. Sometimes, when an accidental opening has been made from the air-cells of the lungs into the adjacent tissue, the air in respiration penetrates every part of the surrounding tissue, and even of the entire body, till inflation endangers life from suffocation. Butchers often avail themselves of this fact, inflating their meat to give it a fat appearance. 21. CARTILAGINOUs tissue consists of a solid mat'rice, ap-. ~* * Lat., membrana, a web. + Lat., ligo, to tie or bind. { Gr., teind, to stretch. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 19 parently homogeneous in structure, resembling ground glass. In this are imbedded nucleated cells, sometimes arranged simply, but usually in groups. It has no perceptible nerves nor blood-vessels. Cartilage is elastic and flexible, but in- extensible—qualities admirably essential to its use in the formation of the joints and in giving to other organs form and strength without too much rigidity. This tissue consti- tutes the articular cartilages, the cartilage of the ribs, of the larynx (except the epiglottis), of the trachea and its divisions, and of the nose. The bones usually originate in. cartilage, which disappears as bony matter is deposited; such cartilage is called temporary, while that which continues till later years is called permanent. (Fig. 3.) Fie, 6. x af NT Fic. 6. Apipose Tissue, with groups of fat vescicles contained in the meshes of . on- nective tissue. Fic. 7. Muscunar Tissue.—1, Two portions of a muscular fasciculus. 2, Cut extremities of the fibres, showing their prismatic form. 3, Delicate sheath, composed of obliquely- crossing filaments of fibrous tissue. 4, The fibres of the commencing tendons. Partly a diagram. £ 22. ApIposE tissue has the peculiarity of not being essen- tial to the constitution of any organ. It is composed of deli- cate aggregated cells of nearly spheroidal form, containing a 20 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. substance called fat. It is found in the interspaces of areolar tissue beneath the skin, and also around the heart and kid- neys, while none is ever found within the skull, the lungs and the eyelids, where its presence would interfere with their several functions. Fat accumulates more readily than other matter, and is the earliest removed in disease. It is a store- house of nutriment always ready for use and a non-conductor of heat; it also gives roundness and beauty to the form. Fi@. 8. Fig. 9. SY \ we" . XY = = ae OSES | sy i Fig. 8 (Wagner). A Piece oF THE WEB oF A FrRoq’s Foor, showing the fine capillary network connecting the termination of the arteries with the commencement of the veins. Fie. 9 (Allen Thomson). MINUTE PIECE OF THE MARGIN OF THE FROG’S Wes, showing the ultimate capillaries, connecting the end of a small artery with the beginning of a minute vein. The oval blood-corpuscles, with nuclei, are seen in these vessels, and the arrows entering and passing out of the artery and vein indicate the course of the blood- current. Magnified about thirty diameters. 23. MuscuLaR tissue is composed of fibres, which are themselves composed of minute fibres, called f’brille or fila- ments. This tissue has for its peculiar characteristic con- tractility, and is the instrument upon which the sensible motions of the body depend. It is a good conductor of elec- tricity, and very sensitive to that agent. It has within itself constant electrical currents, called, collectively, the muscular current. (Fig. 7.) 24. ScLEROUS tissue is found in the bones and teeth. Its composition and arrangement vary at different periods of life. 25. TUBULAR tissue consists of a network of minute tubes, GENERAL HISTOLOGY. pat called cap'illary* vessels. These vessels connect the terminal extremities of the arteries with the commencement of the veins, but are otherwise closed, and never communicate ex- cept by imbibition with the structures through which they pass. Their walls are composed of exceedingly thin, trans- parent, structureless membrane containing scattered nuclei. They vary in size, being largest in the bones and smallest in the brain and in the lungs. This tissue is found in all parts of the body, excepting the substance of the teeth, the cartilage of the joints, the transparent part of the eye, the epithelial tissue, the hair and the nails. (Figs. 8, 9.) 26. The Nervous tissue is distinguish- ed from all other tissues by its sensi- bility. Like the mus- cular tissue, it has constant __ electrical currents. It forms the essential sub- stance of the brain, Fia. 10 (Kolliker and Hannover). 1, Nucleated cells spin al cord and _ from a sympathetic ganglion. 2, Branched or stellate: . ° cells from the gray substance of the spinal cord. 3, nerves. This tissue Branched cells from the medulla oblongata. 4, Simple contains three dis- and branched cells from the convolutions of the brain. ; : ° 5, A large cell from the gray substance of the brain. tinct microscopical meson one hundred diameters, elements — Nerve- Cells or Ganglionie Corpuscles; Gray or Gelatinous fibres; and White or Tubular fibres. 27. The GANGLIonic CorpuscuEs are cell-bodies contain- ing pulpy matter, with one or more nuclei surrounding colored granules. These cells vary in shape, being roundish, pear-shaped or branched in a caudate or stellate manner, these offsets being continuous with the cell-wall and its con- tents, and often entering another cell and connecting the two. ‘These nerve-cells are found in the brain, spinal cord ea ee ee * Lat., capillus, a hair. 22 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and ganglia, and at the extremities of the nerves of sight and hearing. (Fig. 10.) 98. The Gray or GELATINOUS fibres are soft and granular, with no distinct medullary sheath. They contain many dark nuclei, and are most abundant in the sympathetic ganglia and its branches. 99. The WuivE or TuBULAR fibres are microscopic tubes. The walls are structureless membrane enclosing a layer of medullated matter resembling fluid fat, which acts as a sheath ; within this is a firmer part or core, called the band-azis or axis cylinder: this is albuminous. The gray substance is most abundant in the outer part of the brain, and the white in the inner; but the two intermix more or less in every part of the nervous system. 4. MemBranes.— Basement Membrane. Epithelium. Serous Mem- ~ brane. Synovial Membrane. 30, BaseMENT MEMBRANE is an exceedingly thin, deli- cate, structureless layer of protoplasm or blastema, resem- bling, under the microscope, a film of transparent gelatine. Upon it, in various parts of the body, are imbedded minute epithelial cells. The membrane formed by these cells is called epithe'lium.* The relation of this structureless mem- brane to the epithelium gives it the name of Basement Membrane. Fie. 11. Fig. 11. DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE ComMON ANATOMICAL ELEMENTS OF SEROUS AND Mucous MEMBRANES, THE GLANDS, THE LUNGS AND THE SKIN, —1, Epithelium, secreting cells or epidermis, composed of nucleated cells. 2, Basement layer. 3, Fibrous layer, in which the arteries and veins (4) terminate in a capillary net- work. Magnified. 91. From difference in form and other peculiarities, the eer eee ee ee eee eee * Gr., epi, upon, and thélé, a nipple. GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 23 EprIrHeEivum is divided into several varieties—as the Squa- mous Epithelium, consisting of several layers of thin scales, which are flattened cells having a nucleus and a few scat- tered granules, as in the mucous membrane of the mouth } the Pavement Epithelium, consisting of from one to four layers of nucleated cells, six-sided and regularly arranged like the blocks of a. pavement (whence the name), as in the serous membranes; the Columnar Epithelium, consisting of a single layer of six-sided columnar cells, with a conical pro- Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fic. 12. Squamous EpirHetium, consisting of nucleated cells transformed into broad scales, from the mucous membrane of the mouth. Highly magnified. Fic. 13. PAVEMENT EPITHELIUM, from a serous membrane, highly magnified, and seen to consist of flat, six-sided nucleated cells. longation terminating in a progeny of developing cells, as in the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines; the Cihated Epithelium, haying cells possessing at their free ex- tremity fine filamentary processes of the cell-wall resembling the eye-lashes (whence the name). During life these cilia are endowed with a power of moving rapidly backward and ° forward in a waye-like manner, reminding one of the move- ment of a field of grain swept by a gentle breeze. Currents are thus produced in liquids, conveying them from one part to another. This kind of epithelium is found on the mucous membrane of the upper part of the nose and pharynx, the Eustachian tube-and all the respiratory organs. (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15.) : 32. Beneath the basement membrane and in contact with it is a very dense and vascular layer of areolar and elastic tissue. This triple arrangement of epithelium, basement membrane and fibro-areolar tissue constitutes the serous, the synovial and the mucous membranes, the skin, the ducts of 24 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. all glands, and the inner coat of the blood-vessels and the lymphatics. (Fig. 11.) 23 The Sprous MreMBRANE is that portion which lines the walls of certain closed cavities or sacs. It is smooth, shining and moistened by a fluid called se’rum, which the membrane secretes; as the pleu'ra, peritoneum, pericardium, arachnoid, ete. (Fig. 16.) Fic. 14. DraGRaAM oF A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE Mucous MreMBRANE OF THE SMALL Intestines. Highly magnified.—1, Fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels are distri- buted. 2, Basement membrane. 8, Young nucleated cells. 4, Layer of columnar cells. 5, 6, Cells in the act of being shed or thrown off. 7, Free ends of the columnar cells, exhibiting their six-sided form. 8, A single columnar cell, exhibiting its actual form at all parts. Fra. 15. DIAGRAM OF A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE BRoncHiaL Mucous MEMBRANE.— 1, Columnar ciliated epithelial cells. 2, Cilia. 8, Nuclei. 4, Young cells. 5, Basement membrane. 6, Fibrous layer. 294 The SynoviAL MEMBRANE resembles the serous very closely as regards structure and the closed sacs. It also secretes a fluid called syno’via, which is more viscid than that of the serous membrane. It has fringe-like processes hanging loosely in the joints having large epithelial cells, which prob- ably secrete the synovial fluid. This membrane covers the | cartilages, and lines the ligaments which enter into the com- position of the joints. Observation. —When the synovial membrane is ruptured, the synovia escapes into the surrounding areolar tissue, and what is popularly known as the “weeping sinew” is formed. Similar tumors in the joints of lower animals are called “ windgalls.” GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 25 30. There are two Mucous Mempranres—the Gastro-Pul- monary and the Urinary. These do not form closed sacs, like the serous and synovial membranes, but both open to the surface. The mucous membranes secrete a viscid fluid, called mu’cus, and in their glandular recesses are formed various secretions, as sali’va, bile, tears, ete. These mem- branes vary in different parts both in thickness and appear- ance. In the nasal and air passages the membrane is smooth, ridgy in the stomach, papillous in the tongue and villous in. the intestines. Fic. 16. Fic. 16. DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE RELATION oF A SEROUS MEMBRANE (the pleura) TO THE ORGAN IT INVESTS AND THE Cavity IT Linzs.—l, Lung. 2, Root of the lung, which is the only attached portion of the organ. 38, Side of the thorax. 4. Diaphragm. 5, Parietal pleura. 6, Pulmonary or reflected pleura. 7, Cavity of the pleura. Fic. 17. Mucous MrmMBrANE FROM THE JeJUNUM.—1, Villi resembling valvule con- niventes (folds of lining mucous membrane) in miniature. 2, Tubular glands: their orifices. 3, Opening on the free surface of the mucous membrane. 4, Fibrous tissue, Magnified. % 36. The Gasrro-PuLMonARY Mucous membrane com- mences at the mouth, enters the nostrils, passes between the eyelids, dips into the deep parts of the ear, lines the trachea and the air-tubes of the lungs, and the alimentary canal from one extremity to the other. 37. The Urntnary Mucous membrane lines the ducts con- necting the kidneys and the bladder, of which it forms the interior coat; also the passages to the skin, which integument is continuous with the mucous membranes. 9 vw CHAPTER III. GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 2%. Sonips AND Fiurms.—Proximate Constituents — Inorgante— Or- ganic—Nitrogenous—Non-Nitrogenous. Ultimate Chemical Elements. 38. THE human body is composed of solids and fluids, reducible, by chemical analysis,.to the same constituents and elements. In different periods of life the proportion of fluids and solids varies; the former being more abundant in youth than in old age. This is one reason why the limbs in childhood are soft and smooth, but in later years hard and wrinkled. 39. If the tissues of the body are subjected to chemical analysis, they yield about ninety substances, called Proximate Constituents, these being the first chemical compounds into which the tissues resolve themselves. In living beings vitality is, as it were, ‘the architect who plans the building and sees that the requisite materials are procured by the chemical processes and worked up according to his will.” Hereupon arises many new substances which cannot be arti- ficially imitated; these are called Organic proximate con- stituents. ‘Those substances found in the inorganic kingdom also, and capable of artificial imitation, are called Inorganic proximate constituents. 40. Of the Inorganic PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS, water is the most abundant: it exists in all the tissues; next to this, in relative quantities, are Phosphates of Lime, of Mag- ne'sia, of Soda and of Potas’sa; Carbonates of Lime, of Soda and of Potassa; Chloride of Sodium (common Salt) and of Potassium; and Fluoride of Cal’cium. Some compounds con- tain Iron, Silica, Manganese’, and perhaps some accidental substances, as Lead, Copper and Aluminum. Ammo’nia, in 26 GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 27 combination, is found in the urine. Ox'ygen, Ni'trogen and Carbonic Acid gas exist in a free state. 41. The OrGANIc PRoxIMATE ConstITuENts are of two classes. One class contains the chemical element Azote! * or nitrogen ; hence its compounds are called az'otized or nitrog'- enous; the other has no azote, and its compounds are named non-azotized or non-nitrogenous. 42. The Nrrrogenous class contains Albu'ment and its allied substances, called Albuminoids. Some of the most important are— Albw'minose, Fibrin, Mus'culin, Glob’ulin, Heem'atin, Ca'sein, Cartila' gin, Salivin, Pepsin, Pancrea'tin, Mu'cin, New'rin, Ker'atin, Elas'tin, Mela'nin and Biliverd'in : also some acids, as the Cer’ebric, Chol'ie and U'rie. 43. ALBUMEN and the albuminoids, together with fatty matter (non-nitrogenous), are the great nutritive substances of the animal economy. Albumen is well known in the white of an egg, whence its name. It is found in the substance of the brain and nerves; in the fluid part of the blood; in the moisture that pervades the muscles and other tissues; in the lymph and chyle; and in the mucous, serous and synovial secretions. It coagulates by the action of heat and alcohol, and is dissolved by weak acids and alkalies. 44. ALBUMINOSE is found in the chyle and blood in a liquid condition, and is the résult of the digestion of albu- minous, fibrinous, musculinous and caseous matter of food ; unlike albumen, it is not coagulated by heat. 45. Fiprin is a soft, white, stringy substance, obtained from freshly-drawn blood by whipping it with fine sticks or wires. It coagulates spontaneously, assuming the form of minute threads or fibrils, whence its name. Fibrin is also found in the chyle, lymph and serous secretions. It is precipi- tated and hardened by alcohol, and redissolved by weak acid. 46, Muscu.in isa peculiar form of fibrin that exists in the muscles or flesh. Its characteristic property is contractility. Boiling hardens it, while weak acids render it more soluble. * Gr., a, not, and zoe, life. + Lat., albus, white. 28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 47. GLOBULIN and Hematin form the contents of the red globules of the blood. Heematin contains about seven per cent. of iron; but the color of the blood is now supposed not to depend on the iron, but a peculiar substance named eru’orin. 48. CasEIN resembles albumen in its general properties, but, unlike albumen, when in solution it is not coagulated by heat, but by acids. It exists in solution in milk with lac'tin (milk sugar) and salts. It forms the curd in soured milk, the casein being coagulated by the lactic acid formed from decomposed lactin. 49. CARTILAGIN is the principal constituent of the con- nective tissues, as the so-called bone cartilage, true cartilage, ligaments, tendons, fibrous membranes, dermis and the areo- lar tissue. ‘The basis of bone cartilage is os'teine, with which are blended salts of lime. The basis of true cartilage is called chon'drigen. Unlike albumen, cartilagin is insoluble in water and does not coagulate by heat, but is liquified by boiling and changed into gel'atin or glue. 50. Saxrvin -is found in the saliva. It has the peculiar property of changing starch into a kind of gum called dea'- trine, the dextrine into glucose or grape sugar, and this into lactic acid. 51. Prepsrn is a remarkable and potent substance secreted by the glands of the mucous membrane of the stomach. This secretion is a peculiar principle of the gastric juice, and, when slightly acidulated, has the property of quickly dis- solving coagulated albumen, blood, meats, fish, cheese and many other substances. 52. PANCREATIN is the active principle of the secretion of the pancreas. It has three distinct actions—Ist, on starch ; 2d, on fat; and 3d, on albuminous matter. 53. Mucin is a substance found in the different varieties of mucus, imparting to them their viscid character. It is usually mixed with other fluids. 54, Neurin is also an albuminoid substance connected with the brain and nerves, upon which the peculiar charac- teristics of the nervous system are supposed to depend. - GENERAL CHEMISTRY. 29 55, KERATIN is the peculiar albuminoid principle giving the horn-like character to the hair, nails and cuticle. 56. ELAsrrn is the substance peculiar to the elastic tissue. It is insoluble in all common fluids. 67. MeLANtN is a blackish-brown coloring matter found in the choroid coat and the iris of the eye, in the hair and in the epidermis. It is most abundant in the black and brown races, but it also exists in the yellow and white races. 08. Biniverprn is the coloring matter of the bile. It is yellow in transmitted light and greenish in reflected light. On exposure to the air in its natural fluid condition, it ab- sorbs oxygen and assumes a bright grass-green color. 59. Besides the before-mentioned constituents, none of which are acid but mucin, there are several acids, among which may be named the Cerebric acid found in the gray substance of the brain; Cholic acid in the bile; and Urie acid in the urine. 60. The groups of NON-NITROGENIZED or non-azotized sub- stances are—the fats, sugars and starch. The fats are most abundant. These are insoluble in water, but are dissolved by heat, alcohol and ether. They are found in: the brain, muscles, blood and chyle. 61. The Fars of the human body are composed mostly of o'lein (liquid fat), and ste’arin and mar'garin (solid fats), mar- garin being most abundant, and stearin least. The fats are derived from the fatty components of food, and also from transformed saccharine compounds. When boiled with an alkali, as in the manufacture of soap, they decompose into fatty acids, margaric, stearic and oleic acids, and a sweet, viscid substance called glyc'erine. 62. Sucars are of different kinds, as Glu’cose (grape sugar), in the blood and chyle; Liver sugar, in the liver; Lactin (milk sugar), in milk; Jn’osit (muscle sugar), in muscles. Lacrin, in contact with azotized matter, or a jer- ment, easily decomposes, forming lactic acid. All these saccharine and acid substances are soluble in both water and alcohol. 3% 30 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 63. The Utrmatre CHemicAL ELEMENTS enter into the composition of the body in about the following percentage proportions : GASES. OXYZeON ...csseee o ceceeee conseceees senneee sescenaas senserecs 72. Hydrogen ....05 secees cessrenee seesecece seseseeer eeanen sunnes 9.1 Nitrogen......ssseecsccerses coceee coeceeees seveee cesses cecees 2.5 ChIOrine...ccecoccee cescssescovcsccces sonvee ncesencs sesecees: 085 FUOrine...... cecece cosecsess coccesseeceansssoeccs ceases scenes .08 QOLIDS. Carbon....ccece csceceseccee covcsscecescen soecee cvcees senensene 13.5 Phosphorus ......000 sssesseseeseeseceee seeeneees eeeane aenwes 1.15 Calcium .rccccece cecccssce scoccccce conesccce soovecece cavsosocs 1.8 Sulphur......s0. seeceeeee coeeees vo adonedectieaneas na eertenam 1476 Odili ....scces cocccccces concccces vescesees sonsecees sneseeses sh POtaASSiUM ..csce coececees coscee covers cesses cosnce ceenes cones .026 TOM socceqsce corccsser nocces svsusecoeese ssovecuse seusasemneuaas O1 Magnesium....cseseessesee cesses cesnae seneennes anaaee ensees .0012 Gi]iCON... secsscece veccee sosecseee coessesessccccesees souwesees .0002 100.0000 64, The greater part of the oxygen and hydrogen exists in a state of water, but the dried residue still contains some gaseous as well as solid elements. 65. CARBON is the most abundant element. In the in- evitable decomposition of the body, while its hydrogen and nitrogen, with part of its carbon and oxygen, are restored to the inorganic world in the shape of water, carbonic acid and ammonia, the rest of its carbon and oxygen, its chlorine and fluorine, its phosphorus and sulphur, and its metallic bases, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and iron, with a trace of silicon and manganese, revert to the condition of inorganic salts and earths—viz., carbonates, sulphates and phosphates, chlorides and fluorides of the above-named saline and earthy bases. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. ol ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. CHAPTER I.—GENERAL REMARKS. 21. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared.—1. State the Linnxan distinctions of the three kingdoms of Nature. Name the three kingdoms, and define each. 2. Of what are Organic and Inorganic bodies combinations? What is said respecting Life-force? 3. Give the distinguishing features of Organized and Unorganized matter. 4. State the distinctions between animals and plants. What is said of these distinctions in the lower forms of life? 5, Define Organ, Apparatus and Function, What is Anatomy? Physi- ology? Hygiene? 6. Of what are organs composed? Define Histology and Chemistry. CHAPTER IJ.—GENERAL HISTOLOGY. 32. Cells—7. Where do you find Unity of Plan? 8. Define Protoplasm. What is Animal Protoplasm? 9. What is said of nucleated cells? Of the modifications of these cells? 10, Distinguish between animal and vegetable cells. Of what is the simple cell the type? 11. Of what does a simple cell consist? Give an illustration. 12. To what modifications are cells subject? 13. In what ways do cells multiply? 14. What is said of the growth, perfection and decay of cells? 23. Primary Tissues—15. How are the different tissues of the body formed? Upon what do their characters depend? 16. To what are the Primary Tissues reducible? 17. ° Of what is the Fibrous form composed? State its nature and forms. 18. Give the com- position and forms of the White Fibrous tissue. What is Gelatin? 19. Describe the Yellow Fibrous tissue. Why called Elastic? Does it gelatinize by boiling? Where found? Observation. 20. Of what does the Areolar form consist? What is said of its cellular structure? What of its individuality? Observation. 21. Describe the Carti- laginous tissue. Mention the properties of Cartilage. Where is this tissue found? What is the relation of cartilage to bone? 22. What peculiarity has the Adipose tissue? Of what composed? Where found? Its use? 23. Give the composition of Muscular tissue. What is its characteristic? What of its electrical nature? 24. Describe the Sclerous tissue. 25. Describe the Tubular tissue. What is the office of the capillary vessels? Of what are their walls composed? Where is this tissue found? 26. How is the Nervous tissue distinguished? Where found? In what respect like the Muscular tissue ? Mention its elements. 27. Describe the Ganglionic Corpuscles. 28. What is said of the Gray fibres? Where found? 29. Speak of the White fibres. Where are the gray and white substances found? ; @ 4. Membranes—30. What is the Basement membrane? What is the Epithelium? Why these membranes so called? 31. Name and describe the varieties of the Epi- thelium. Of what power the Cilia? Where is the Ciliated Epithelium found? 32. What is beneath the basement membrane? What are constituted by the epithelium, basement membrane and fibro-areolar tissue? 83. Where is the Serous membrane found? Its qualities? 34. What is said of the Synovial membrane? Observation. 35. Describe the Mucous membranes. 36. Where is the Gastro-Pulmonary Mucous mem- brane found? 37. Where the Urinary? Observation. CHAPTER ITI.—GENERAL CHEMISTRY. @5- Solids and Fluids—38. Of what is the human body composed? What is said of the proportion of solids and fluids? 39. What are the Proximate Constituents? De- fine Organic and Inorganic Proximate Constituents. 40. Name the Inorganic Proximate Constituents. 41. Give the classes of Organic Proximate Constituents. 42. What are contained in the Nitrogenous class? Name the most important. 43. What is the offico of Albumen in the animal economy? Give the derivation of its name. Where found? What peculiarity has it? 44. Describe Albuminose. 45. What is Fibrin? Where found?, What is the influence of alcohol upon it? 46. Describe Musculin. How 32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. hardened? 47. Where are Globulin and Hematin found? 48. Give the properties of Casein. Where does it exist? 49. Define Cartilagin. What is Osteine? Chondrigen? 50. Define and give the property of Salivin. 51. Describe Pepsin, and state its property. 52. What is Pancreatin? State its actions. 53. Describe Mucin. 54. What is Neurin? 55. Define Keratin. 56. To what is Elastin peculiar? 57. Where is Melanin found? 58. Of what use Biliverdin? Color? 59. Name the acids of the nitrogenous class. 60. Mention the non-nitrogenous groups. 61. Of what are the fats composed? From what derived? What is Glycerine? 62. Mention the different kinds of sugars. 63. Name the ultimate chemical elements, with their percentage proportions. 64, In what con- dition are oxygen and hydrogen? What is said of carbon? 65. What becomes of the chemical elements in decomposition ? UNIFIC REVIEW. [Compare § with 102.] What is Protoplasm ? {Compare 10-14 with 102, 103, 220, 314, 317, 329, 347, 357, 410, 435, 417, 478 and 485-488.] Describe nucleated cells, and tell where found. In the lining membrane of what organs do you find the epithelium? Where do you find ciliated epithelium ? {Compare 17-21 with 105-108, 163, 289, 313-317, 219, 355, 356, 415 and 416.} Name the connective tissues. Mention some distinguishing features of each. Where do you find the white fibrous tissues? Where the yellow fibrous? > Where is cartilage found? [Compare 24 with 103 and 104.] What tissue is found in bone? Give the mode of bone-formation. [Compare 23 with 159-162, 223-226 and 326-319.] What is the structure of muscular tissue? Where found? What is its re- lation to the cellular ? . [Compare 25 with 318 and 411-414.] Where do you find the tubular tissue ? [Compare 26-29 with 409-414} Tell what you can about the nervous tissue. [Compare 30-32 with 220, 221, 223-226, 229, 314, 317, 319, 346, 356, 357, A415 and 416.] Where is the Basement membrane found ? [Compare 33 with 229, 313, 358 and 415.] Where do you find the Serous membrane? [Compare 34 with 107 and 163.] What is the office of the Synovial membrane? [Compare 35-37 with 220, 221, 223-226, 354-357 and 478-480.] Name the mucous membranes. The mucous membrane lines what organs ? Point out the difference between mucous and serous membranes. With what is the mucous membrane continuous ? [131.] What is said of the tissues, cells and chemical composition of all animals ? DIAGRAMS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. 33 for description of the diagrams, see corresponding figures in the text. Fig. 2. Process OF MULTIPLICATION OF CEILS. Fic. 10. Nucteatep CeLius FROM NERVOUS TISSUE. 7) ae — uae KI SS Se Fia. 4. Frerous 'TIssur. : Fie, 8. CAPILLARY NETWORK REPRESENTING TUBULAR TISSUE. Fig. 14. DIAGRAM OF A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE Mucous MEMBRANE. Fig. 17 REPRESENTS Mucous MEMBRANE FROM THE JEJUNUM. Be 34 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. Essential distinctions between min- eral, vegetable and animal king- | doms, Nature ‘of life-force, Vitalized and non-vitalized bodies Cuap. I. J } General Remarks. compared, @ 1. Animals and plants compared, | __ Three These distinctions in higher and lower forms, Organ, apparatus and functions, Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, | Structure of organs, Histology and Chemistry. Unity of plan in animals and a plants Protoplasm, Nucleated cell, Simple cell, ‘Adaptation to different offices, Modes of multiplication of cells, Growth, perfection and decay. | Division I. J Primary tissues, | Outline Fibrous tissue, Principles. Areolar, Cartilaginous, Adipose, Muscular, Sclerous, Tubular, ¥ Nervous. Basement membrane, Epithelium, Serous membrane, Synovial “ Mucous membranes. Solids and fluids, } Proximate constituents, Inorganic me Cuap. IIT Organic sy te ee General Ls Fluids. Chemistry Cap. II. y 3. r General Primary Histology. Ret WV Le Nitrogenous Non- -nitrogenous “ Ultimate chemical elements. State the General Remarks, the General Histology and the Co Chemistry of the human system. DIVISION BH. 2. MOTORY APPARATUS. | 66. In all the movements connected with the merriments of childhood, with the ceaseless industry of the toiling mil- lions, with the hymning of the praises of the great I Am— in a word, in every movement of the body-—certain organs are brought into action, which, taken collectively, constitute the Morory Apparatus. The organs of this apparatus are the Bones and Joints, the Muscles and Motor Nerves. CHAPTER IV. THE BONES. ¢ 6. Anatomy or THE Bones.—The Skeleton and its Uses. Number and Classification of the Bones. Bones of the Head—Of the Trunk— Of the Upper Extremities—Of the Lower Extremities. ‘The Joints— Definition and Classification. . Immovable J oints— Mixed— Movable. 67. THe InrERNAL Framework of the human body con- sists of Bones, which, united by strong ligaments, constitute the Skeleton. These bones number two hundred and eight, besides the teeth. For convenience they are classed as the bones of the Head, the Trunk and the Extremities. 68. The Bones or THe Heap are divided into those of the Skull, the Face and the Ear. 69. The SkuLL is composed of eight bones—the Frontal, occupying the portion called the forehead; the two Tem'porat, covering the part commonly known as the temples; the two Parietal, forming the essential part of the projection on the upper and lateral parts of the head and uniting in the median e” 35 o6 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, FRONTAL \ iC Abe Ret Fie. 18. Zz “EORAL S 7 oe THE BONES. oT » line upon the top of the skull; the Occip’ital, at the posterior part of the skull, resting upon the first vertebra and having a large orifice for the passage of the spinal cord; the Sphe- noid, situated across the base of the skull; and the Eth’noid bone, between the sockets of the eyes and behind the base of the nose. (Figs. 18, 19.) Fra. 19. Bones oF THE HEAp.—1, Frontal bone. 2, Parietal bone. 38, Temporal bone. 4, Occipital bone. 5, Nasal bone. 6, Malar bone. 7, Upper jaw. 8, Os unguis. 9, Lower jaw. ‘ 70. The skull-bones are formed of two plates united by porous bone-substance. “ The ezternal plate is fibrous and tough; the internal, dense and hard, hence called the vitreous or glassy plate. These bones are united by sut’wres; the ex- ternal plate having notched edges fitted together as in the dovetailing of carpentry; the internal, plane edges in simple apposition. From infancy to the twelfth year the sutures are _ imperfect; from that time to forty, distinctly marked; and ~ in old age, nearly obliterated. ei 71. The Face has fourteen bones—the two Na’sal, forming % oBe bridge or base of the nose; the two Ma’lar (cheek-bones) ; pare phe two Lach'rymal ; the two Superior Max'illary, articulating + one BS. 8 4 3 Ea *y < _ 335. Comparative AnaioLocy.—Circulation of the Blood of Reptiles, of Amphibians, of Mollusca, and of Insects. Other Mammals, of Birds, compared with the same in Man. The blood of Mammals is red, and the globules generally round. In some Mammals, as the Camel, they are elliptical. The hearts of Mammals have two auricles and two ventricles. Fre. 107. ee. 108. Fic. 106. DIAGRAM OF THE HEART OF THE MAMMAL.—7, Right auricle. 8, Right ven- tricle. 10, Pulmonic artery. 12, Pulmonic vein. 15, Left auricle. 16, Left ventricle. Fra. 107. DIAGRAM OF THE HEART OF THE ReEPTILE.—1, Pericardium. 2, Single ven- tricle. 3, Left auricle. 4, Right auricle. The arrows show the direction of the blood. Fig. 108. DraGRAM OF THE IlEART OF THE FisH.—1, Pericardium. 2, The ventricle that receives the blood from the budy. 38, The ventricle that sends blood to the gills. The heart in quadrupeds lies on the median line of the body, and not a little to the left of it,as in man. There is a marked peculiarity in the distribution of the arteries of quadrupeds. In the long necks of grazing animals there is found a large number of small arterial trunks, which are termed ‘‘ Wonder THE CIRCULATION. 157 Nets.”” Were these trunks few and large, as in man, the life of the animal would be endangered by the constant dependent position of the head. i 332. The blood of Birds has the highest temperature of the vertebrate ani- mals. It is richer in globules than in man, and these corpuscles are elliptical, The heart of birds is highly muscular, and of large size in proportion to the bulk of the body. The aorta, at its commence- ment, divides into three large branches, of which the first two con- vey the blood to the headand neck, wings, and mus- cles of the chest; while the third, curving down- ward around the right bronchus, becomes the de- scending aorta. Fig. 109. ee 7? yy} = ps oy Fig. 109. ARTERIES OF THE TRUNK OF A BirD (the Grebe). There are “ Won- —1, The aorta. 2, The vena cava. 3, A cerebral artery. der Nets” in va- ‘The small lines on each side represent the arteries and ° veins of the lungs. rious parts of the 5 body, especially in the arteries supplying the brain, eyes and legs. | 333. In Reptiles the blood is cold, that is, only slightly 14 158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. warmer than the temperature of the external medium in which they live, having fewer globules and lighter in color. Fig. 111. Sars ) SSE SSS SS Fra. 110, Crrcunarion oF A REPTILE (a Lizard).—1, Heart. 2, Left auricle. 8, Right aus ricle. 4, Arches of the aorta. 5, Descending vena cava. 6, 10, Abdominal aorta. 7, Ascending vena cava. 8, Pulmonary artery. 9, Portal veins. 12, Lungs. 13, Stomach. 14, Intestines, Fig. 111. BLoop-VrsseLts or A FisH.—1, Auricle. 2. Ventricle. 8, Arterial bulb. 4, Bronchial artery (gill). 5, Bronchial vessels. 6, 10, Dorsal artery. 7, Venous sinus. 8, Portal vein. 9, Vena cava. 11, Intestines. 12, Kidneys. THE CIRCULATION. 159 The heart consists of two auricles and one ventricle. The arterial blood coming from the lungs is received into the left auricle, and the venous blood from all parts of the body into the right auricle; both are poured into the single ventricle, thus mixing the pure and impure blood, which will account for the sluggishness of these animals. ° F= )ag-like, extend- oO , ° ° _€. ing into the ab- 222 dominal it =#%5 dominal cavity. oa & Upon the walls of sam thesesac-like lungs o - <=. the pulmonary ves- Eo : e232 sels ramify. Ow- Pie poe less |". Ing to a less ener- etree ; pains Zu8 getic respiration, = 23 the movements of 5 == Reptiles are not so I al ° a cu well sustained. i AE G¢ I GF | Xs OS? De 0 ao H ds BK a) G Se Sd Wit d . a 6 a | mt Ml i @ fi Hs Fig. 138. Toe Lunes.—3, 3, 3, The lobes of the right lung. 4, 4, The lobes of the left Jung. 5, 6,7, The heart. 9, 10,11, The large blood-vessels. 12, The trachea. 15, 15, 15, The diaphragm. Fra. 139. Tue Broncar#.—1, Outline of right lung. 2, Outline of left lung. 3, 4, Larynx and trachea. 5, 6, 7, 8, Bronchial tubes. 9, 9, Air-cells. Fig. 141. Fie. 140. u Wis: Paso 8 Lys a SV : . yy ea 7 Fic. 140. AN IpeaL View or THE PuLMonic CrrcuLaTion.—I, 1, The right lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The right bronchial tube. 5, The left bronchial tube. 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventricle. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonic artery. 11, The branch to the right lung. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonic vein. 14, The left pulmonic vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. Fig. 141. Tue Respiratory ORGANS oF THE NeEpA (Water Scorpion).—1, The head. 2, Base of the feet of the first pair. 3, First ring of the thorax, 4, Base of wings, 9, Base of the feet of the second pair, 6,Stigmata. 7, Trachex. 8, Aerial vesicles. THE RESPIRATORY AND VOCAL ORGANS. 195. SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. Larynx, ) “ its parts, Trachea, é 37. Bronchi, Lungs. Larynx, Vocal Cords, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs, Pleura. _ Respiration, Carbonic Acid, Exchange of Oxygen and Carbonic Acid, Expired and inspired air, Animal heat. Respiration, object of | J | modes of Renovation of air in air-cells, | Anatomy of. 2 38. Histology of. @ 39. Chemistry of. Amount of air in respiration, Number of respirations, Modifications of respiratory movements, @ 40. Physiology of. Larynx, double function of ea a Vibration of the Vocal Cords, Poe Conditions affecting tones, Organs. 43 & strength of voice. Circulatory System, care manifested in Pure blood, how obtained, Carbonic Acid, its influence, i: its sources, Dwelling-houses, location, impure air in Public Buildings, ventilation, @ 41. Sleeping-rooms, Hygiene of. Sick-rooms, Pure air and warmth, how obtained, Importance of moisture, Compression of respiratory organs, Enlargement of the chest, Influence of nervous system. Mammalia, Respiratory Or gans of Birds, Reptiles, ¢ “s Amphibians, “ «“ d Cae Fish es “ ““ omparatrvve Annulosa, te cc | Prewmonolan. Mollusca. - f J Give the Anatomy, the Histology, the Chemistry, the Physiology and the Hygiene, Human and Comparative, of the Organs of Respira- tion. © 196 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Fig. 142, N\\ NN Fig; 142. A REPRESENTATION OF THE BRAIN, SPINAL Cord AND SpinaAL NERVES.— 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 8,3, Spinal cord. 4, The sciatic nerve, A. DisrrisuTion or THE OLFAcToRY Nervs.—l, 2, Nerve of smell. B. Optic Nerve.—15, The nerve of vision. CO. Tue Gustarory Nerve.—t, 2, 3, 4, Branches of the nerve of taste. PD. AuprroRyY NeRvu.—13, Nerve of hearing. DIVISION IV. SENSORIAL APPARATUS. d91. In the two preceding Divisions, the tissues and organs directly involved in the movements of the body, and those most intimately connected with the preparation and assimila- tion of nutrient material, have been briefly described. In the present Division we consider the organs through which is manifested the subtle power that controls these motions and processes, establishes telegraphic communication between the several parts of the body and brings it into important relations with the external world. These, taken collectively, we name the Sensorial Apparatus. CHAPTER XI. NERVOUS SYSTEM. @ 43. Anatomy or THE Nervous System.— Two Forms of Nervous Tissue. Classification of the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures. Spinal Cord. Medulla Oblongata. Peduneles of the Cerebellum—Of the Cere- brum. Corpora Striata. Optics Thalami. Corpora Quadrigemina. Corpus Callosum. Ventricles. Hemispheres of the Cerebrum. Con volutions of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum. Classification of Cerebro- Spinal Nerves—Of Cranial Nerves—Spinal Nerves. Sympathetic Sys- tem. Distribution of Sympathetic Nerves. 392. Nervous Tissur presents two formal characters— one, cell-like and gray in color; the other, fibrous and white. The former is arranged in masses called Centres or Ganglia, being the originating, active centres of nerve-force; the latter, in threads, which are simple conductors of nerve-force, and 17 # 197 198 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. are named Nerves when they connect the ganglia with the various parts of the body, and Commissures when they con- nect the ganglia with each other. , 393. For convenience in study, the numerous Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures may be arranged in two great and closely-connected systems—the Cerebro-Spinal and the Sym- pathetic, the Cerebro-Spinal system including the series of ganglia within the skull and spinal column, their nerves, commissureg and the lesser ganglia in the nerve-tracts; the Sympathetic system including the long chain of ganglia lying in front of the spinal column, their nerves, commissures and additional ganglia found chiefly in the abdominal cavity. (Figs. 151, 152.) 394. The CeREBRO-SPINAL AXIS commences with that por- tion of nervous matter which lies within the spinal column, extending from the second lumbar vertebra to the base of the skull, and known as the Spinal Cord. It contains within itself the filaments of all the nerves of the external parts of the trunk and limbs. It is soft, and white externally, but erayish within, forming the longest ganglion in the system. The cord is nearly cylindrical and double, the two halves connected by a narrow commis- sure or bridge of the same substance as the cord, having within, through the entire length, a mi- nute central canal. Fig. 143. TRANSVERSE SEC:I0N OF SpinaL Corv.—l, 2, A Spinal nerves of right and left sides, showing their two (Fig. 143.) On each roots. 4, Origin of anterior root. 38, Origin of posterior half are two slight root. 5, Ganglion of posterior root. longitudinal lines, serving to distinguish it into Antertor, Lateral and Posterior columns. As it enters the cavity of the skull, the cord be- comes enlarged and receives the name of Medul'la Oblonga'ta. — Fre. 143. a - NERVOUS SYSTEM. 199 ‘ This enlargement is due to the presence of an important, ganglion imbedded within, named the Ganglion of the Medulla Oblongata, and also to the accession of the fibres of most of the cranial nerves. In each of the lateral halves of the medulla oblongata may be seen four principal bundles of nerve-fibres, ranging backward from the middle line in front as follows: Ist, Anterior Pyramids; 2d, the Olivary Bodies; 3d, the Restiform Bodies; and 4th, the Posterior Pyra- mids. These bodies are continuous with their corresponding portions of the columns of the spinal cord. Many of the fibres of the anterior pyramids cross each other, bringing each side of the column into communication with the opposite side of the brain; this crossing forms the Decussation of the Anterior Pyramids. (Fig. 144.) Some of the fibres of the posterior pyramids also cross a little above. By the di- vergence of the restiform and posterior pyramidal bodies, a somewhat broad cavity is left, which may be considered a Fig. 144. Fic. 144 (Dalton). MEDULLA OBLONGATA OF HUMAN BRAIN, anterior view. 1, 1, Anterior pyramids. 2,2, Olivary bodies. 3, 3, Restiform bodies. 4, De- cussation of the anterior col- umns. The meduila oblongata is seen terminated above by the transverse fibréy of the Pons Varolii. widening of the central canal, and which receives the name of the Fourth Ventricle. (Figs. 145, 146.) 395. Overshadowing this ventricle is a mass of nerve-_ substance, called the Cerebellum or little brain, which is also double, consisting of two hemispheres. Each hemisphere, from its inner surface, sends out a multitude of fibres, which pass downward and forward toward the centre, unite into flattened bundles, emerge from the hemisphere, sweep across the base of the brain, pass up to the other hemisphere and spread out over its internal surface, thus originating in one hemisphere and terminating in the other. The two sets of fibres cross in front of the Medulla Oblongata, in the middle line of the base of the cerebellum, forming the bridge of the Cerebellum, or the Pons Varo'lii. (Figs. 144, 146.) 200 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. At the pons, the medulla oblongata sends off from the restiform bodies bundles of fibres called the Inferior Peduneles of the Cerebellum. Passing under and among the fibres of the pons and imbedding the Ganglion of the Tuber Annula're are two bundles—one of fibres from the anterior pyramids and the front of the olivary bodies, the other from the posterior Fie. 145. i il) | a SSS=—=—== (ES * | _—— (== ff em ohn mK, | MPN Het i i a HN i A ii Hyg ih tl nit Fie. 145. Striated Bopres, THALAMI, QUADRIGEMINAL BoDY AND CEREBEELUM.—1, Quadrigeminal body. 38, Superior peduncle of the cerebellum. 4, Superior portion of the middle peduncle. 5, Superior portion of the crus or leg of the cerebrum. 6, Pos- terior tubercle of the thalamus. 7, Anterior tubercle. 8, Fundamental -portion of the cerebellum. 15, Thalamus. 16, Hemispheres of the cerebellum. 17, Dentated body. 18, Semicircular line. 19, Vein of the striated body. 20, Anterior erura of the fornix. 21, Striated body. pyramids.and the back of the olivary bodies ; as they appear in front they diverge, forming stalk-like bundles known as the Peduneles of the Cerebrum, as they seem to support the — NERVOUS ‘SYSTEM. 201 two hemispheres of the cerebrum or brain proper. The anterior bundles pass upward to the two large ganglia (one on each side of the median line), called the Corpora Stria'ta or Striated Bodies ; the posterior bundles also pass upward to two ganglia situated a little in front of the striated bodies, and named the Op'tict Thal’ami.. In these ganglia the fibres seem to terminate, while a new set connects the ganglia with the main surface of the cerebral hemispheres. (Fig. 145.) Fie. 146. i iy RO m gay : ih : ss M iat as (he ; iis i anna ee . ' A) oun ‘y \ by KS ) J ty nfs re pe i i i at Fig. 146. SecTion of THE BRAIN ALONG THE GREAT LONGITUDINAL FissurE.—1, Medulla oblongata. 2, Pons, 3,Crus of the cerebrum. 4, Arborescent appearance in the cere- bellum. 5, Left hemisphere of the cerebellum. 6, Inner surface of the left hemisphere of the cerebrum. 7, Corpus callosum. 8, Pellucid septum. 9, Fornix. 10, Anterior crus of the fornix, 19, Foramen of communication between the third and lateral ventricles. 20, Optic nerve. 24, Oculo-motor nerve. 26, Fourth ventricle. 28, Quadrigeminal body. 29, Entrance from the third to the fourth ventricle, 30,31, 32, Anterior, middle and pos- terior lobes of the cerebrum. It will be noticed that these ganglia have an unbroken connection with the spinal cord through the peduncles of the cerebrum and the fibres of the medulla oblongata. Extending backward from the optic thalamus is a body divided on its upper surface into four eminences, hence called the Corpora Quadrigemina or the Quadrigeminal body. It I * 202 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. consists of four small ganglions, sometimes named Optre Gang- lions (as they send nerves to the eye), which are attached to the peduncles of the optic thalamus, to the cerebellum and cerebrum, and to the medulla oblongata. (Fig. 145.) 396. All the above-mentioned ganglia are variously con- nected with each other, with the peduncles of the cerebrum and cerebellum, and, through the medulla oblongata, with the spinal cord. 397. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are closely united in their central part by a transverse commissure, called the Corpus Callosum. It forms the roof of a large central cavity between the two ganglia, corpora striata, the cavity being divided by a thin double membrane (the pellucid septum) into two communicating apartments called the Fie. 147. fe oS AOR Lateral Ventricles. iy yoga "Or arma The floor of the lateral Wu Wy: l s ‘ Wey aK iN : forms the uy Z psp iio | SN ventricles , Jee SD ©) roof of the Third Ventricle, which is a = narrow cavity between the optic thalami, communicating with the fourth ventricle, fo A lying below and back z \ ' of it, by a narrow Fie. 147 La A CONVOLUTED CEREBRAL HeEMI- ewan 8 Saas SPHERE.—a, a, The scalp turned down. 0,06, b, The cut it appears that the edge of the bones of the skull. c, The external mem- lateral ventricles, in brane of the brain (dura mater) suspended by a hook. d, The left hemisphere of the brain. the centre of the 5 Be brum, communicate with each other and with the third ventricle, the third with © the fourth, and the fourth with the central canal of the spinal cord, making one unbroken communication through the whole extent. (Fig. 146.) NERVOUS SYSTEM. 203 398. The hemispheres of the cerebrum enclose all the other parts, in front, above and behind, like a great overshadowing dome. ‘Their outer surface is of gray matter, hence they are essentially two connected ganglia, and the largest in the system. Each hemisphere is marked off by fissures into three Jobes—the frontal, middle and posterior lobe or ganglion, the frontal being the largest, and there is a little offshoot of the frontal lobe, called the Olfactory. Each of these lobes has its surface moulded into many tortuous and complicated elevations of the cerebral substance, termed Convolutions, which are marked off from each other by secondary winding fissures, named Sulei; thus there is formed ‘one unbroken but undulating sheet” over the whole surface of the brain. (Figs. 146, 147.) 399. The general plan of convolutions in the two hemi- spheres is the same, but in detail there is want of exact sym- metry. It isa remarkable fact that the higher the mental development, the more unsymmetrical and complicated are the convolutions, and the deeper the depressions or sulci. 400. The cerebellum, like the cerebrum, has its hemispheres marked off into lobes. The lobes are highly subdivided on their sides and surface into thin plates or laminz by cresentic furrows or sulci. The white fibres within the cerebellum are so arranged that when a vertical section is taken it presents the appearance of the trunk and branches of a tree, and hence it bears the name of Arbor Vite. (Fig. 146.) 401. The parts already described, viz., the brain and spinal cord, constitute the Cerebro-spinal Axis, from which proceed THE NERVES OF THE CEREBRO-SPINAL SYSTEM. 402. Certain of these nerves conduct nerve-force from the ganglia to their own distal ends in the tissues, chiefly mus- cular, where motion is produced. Other nerves carry im- pressions from their extremities to the centres; the first are termed Motory from their function, and Efferent from the direction of conduction; the second are termed Sensory and Afferent. The anterior fibrous bundles of the medulla ob- 204 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, Fic. 148. longata, passing upward to the corpora striata, form a Motor Tract, so distinguished by the endow- ments of the nerves that issue from it; the posterior bundles, pass- ing to the Thalami Optici, form a Sensory Tract. (Figs. 149, 150.) 403. The Cerebro-spinal nerves are also distinguished as Oranial nerves when they pass directly Fic. 148, Seament or THE SPINAL =fyom the brain through -openings Corp.—1, Anterior median fissure. . : ny ee 2, Posterior median fissure. 3, Pos- m the cranium, an as Sp una tero-lateral fissure. 4, Antero-late- when they issue from the vertebral ral fissure. 5, Anterior column. é f h inal ] 6, Lateral column. 7, Posterior col- openings 0 the spinal Co umn. umn. 8, Anterior commissure. 9, The CrantAL NERVES are ar- Anterior horns of the gray sub- . Aan 1 ° 4 stance. 10, Posterior horns. 11, ranged in welve pairs, named nu- Gray commissure. 12, Anterior root merically, counting from before of a spinal nerve springing by a - . ; number of filaments from the an- backward, of from their function, tero-lateral fissure. 13, Posterior destination or specific character. root from postero-lateral fissure. © i a m rranged in three 14, Ganglion on the posterior root. They af be * =) 15, Spinal nerve formed by the groups, according to their functions, union of the two roots. as Sensory, Motory and Mized. Observation.—A nerve is said to originate by a single root when its bundles of fibres emanate from one spot or along the same line of the © cerebro-spinal axis, and it is said to arise by two or more roots when its bundles of fibres form a corresponding number of series emanating from different points of the cerebro-spinal axis. The fibres composing the roots of the nerves are traceable into the substance of the brain and spinal cord, within which they are continu- ous with nerve-fibres of the white substance, or become connected with the neighboring gray substance. This interior connection of the nerves is called their deep origin, while their exterior connection with the cerebro-spinal axis is named their superficial origin. To ascertain the real origin of the nerves is among the most difficult subjects of anatomical investigation, and our knowledge in this respect is very imperfect. 18 NERVOUS SYSTEM. Fig. 149. SSS SSs SSS 2S8 oN i b, The lateral columns of the spinal cord. Fie. 149. DistriBuTIoN oF PNEUMOGASTRIC NERVES.—a, Section of the brain and medulla oblongata. c,c, The respiratory tract of the spinal cord. d, The tongne. diaphragm. 1, The pneumogastric nerve. tenth nerve. - i, The 4, The pulmonary plexus of the h, The stomach. 9, The glosso-pharyngeal nerve. g, The oesophagus. 3, The recurrent laryngeal nerve. 7, The fourth pair of nerves. é, The larynx. jf, The bronchia. 13, The external respiratory nerve. 2, The superior laryngeal nerve, 5, The cardiac plexus of the tenth nerve. 205 10, 8, The facial nerve. 12, The phrenic nerve. The spinal accessory nerve. 206 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. (‘EFI “814q) ‘ontp 01 L10suag "SoUISOJUI pue yormoys ‘snseqdosa javey ‘ssuny ‘vay pin Miseasey A » ‘mt woryseSouneug’ ,, WOT | -e1} ‘xudaey ‘xudreyd ay} 0} sayouriq 10,0, | cae "{VOLY PUB ONFUO} BY} JO sULIQqMIaMA SNOONY —***"******* BPVBuOTGo vi[npay{**[vesucavyd-ossopyH* ,, WE | ‘AMoUy pe (GQ, ‘Stq) ‘e0vz ay Jo syred yua -Iayip pue dUSUO0} *y}004 ayy = Arosueg coecccees sPennnens Serge Gara suo seers seoerereroeay aed yy? “UOIJVOTJSVUL UI PIS S9POSNUI 0} SayOUBAG IOJOPY *‘yoou JO soposnyy © yoou oy} Ur MOT “proo [euldg’***ArOssa00V euIdg’ ,, UIT] 7} ‘gnSu0} JO pa[Omm yy waters ss tence 4 :, rertece-s + pag] 3-00 AFT "** » WI ‘uorIssaidxe SUIATS “eos JO sapOSNU JuaTayIqT “ttt RZesUOTGO V[npayy' BING ONJOg’* ,, WIZ ane ‘prvadn af9 Suturny Snood [VUII}XW «= BJVSUOTGO v[[Npow puw suog™*****""** gusoNpqy'” ,, Ig RAGES iz ‘99 JO OfOSNG IBaTYOOKT, — sseeeeeeees ~ id gaeseyoo Ge etOreTIe TS, ey k “TBI YOO] pus snjoor [euse}xe Sutjdeoxe ‘ada Jo sajosnm ayy, j SMG ie ema ee oe "Ra [eusojUT aoecccecs "By BSUOTGO ‘e][Npopr ses Aloyipny *** = Wg ‘ofa joeunoyy octet ondgirntondgm . pg "hiosuagy ‘gosussed [eseu Jo ouviquiem snoonyy ott eTpsues AropUTO ts eet LOjoUTTO ated ysp J FAOND WT *NOILVNILSA *NIDIYO ‘aWVN ‘SHAMAN IVINVAD “FOP NERVOUS SYSTEM. 207 Fie. 150. Fig, 150. A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM AND MEDULLA OBLONGATA, showing the relation of the cranial nerves at their origin.—1, The cerebrum. 2, The cer- ebellum with its arbor vite represented. 8, The medulla oblongata. 4, The spinal cord. 5, The corpus callosum. 6, The first pair of nerves. 7, The second pair. 8, The eye. 9, The third pair of nerves. 10, The fourth pair. 11, The fifth pair. 12, The sixth pair. 13, The seventh pair, 14, The eighth pair. 15, The ninth pair. 16, The tenth pairs 19; The eleventh pair. 18, The twelfth pair. 20, Spinal nerves. 21, The tentorium. 405. The Sprnau NeERvEs are arranged in thirty-one pairs, and (unlike the cranial nerves, excepting the Trifacial) each arises by two roots—an anterior or Motor root, springing from the anterior columns of the spinal cord, which are continuous with the Motor tract before mentioned; and a posterior or Sensitive root, from the posterior columns of the spinal cord, and continuous with the Sensory tract. The Sensitive roots are larger than the Motor, and each has an imbedded gang- lion, after the formation of which the two roots unite into one trunk, forming the spinal nerve, which passes out of the spinal column through the invertebral openings. 406. The Spinal Nerves are divided into— Tig casccsxvedesansane sees satetaxedyissencs’, OS PRAT: RE is Oo eke pag, sadist vesihiaie “Le NE ce) col co vac-databecedacs ereatecex D MMMM ccc aii cacthicsecere dh icesiseteses OO. 208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, Fre. 151. Fie. 152. si H Fagg EA & af Fra. 151. A Back VIEW oF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CorD.—1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, The spinal cord. 4, Nerves of the face. 5, The brachial plexus of neryes. 6, 7, 8, 9, Nerves of the arm. 10, Nerves that pass under the ribs. 11, The lumbar plexug of nerves. 12, The sacral plexus of nerves. 18, 14, 15, 16, Nerves of the lower limbs, Fic. 152 REPRESENTS THE SYMPATHETIC GANGLIA AND THEIR CONNEOTION WITH OTHER Nerves.—A, A, A, The semilunar ganglion and solar plexus. D, D, D, The thoracic (chest) ganglions. E, H, The external and internal branches of the thoracic ganglions. G, H, The right and left coronary plexus. I, N, Q, The inferior, middle and superior cervical (neck) ganglions. 1, The renal plexus-of nerves. 2, The lumbar (loin) gang- lion. 8, Their internal branches. 4, Their’ external branches. 5, The aortic plexus of nerves. At some parts of their course certain branches of the nerves &. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 209 reunite, forming networks called plexuses. Thus the four upper cervical nerves anastomose, forming the cervical plexus, at the side of the neck; the four lower cervical and the upper dorsal form the brachial plexus, from which proceed six nerves which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the upper extremities; the last dorsal and four lumbar nerves form the lumbar plexus, which sends off six nerves to ramify upon the muscles and skin of the lower extremities; the last lumbar and four upper sacral form the sacral plexus, which distrib- utes nerves to the muscles and skin of the hip and lower extremities. (Fig. 151.) THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. 407. The Sympathetic system, like the Cerebro-Spinal, is double, consisting of two chains of ganglia, one on each side of the spinal column, running through the deep parts of the neck, into the chest and abdomen. These ganglions com- municate with each other, with the spinal cord and with the internal organs—as the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, pan- creas, intestines and kidneys. In the neck and chest the ganglia are arranged in pairs; those of the neck are three in number and the largest of the system; those of the chest, twelve in number, a ganglion resting upon the head of each rib; in the abdomen the arrangement is irregular. (Fig. 152.) 408. A peculiarity of the Sympathetic nerves is, that they follow the distribution of the blood-vessels. Starting from the heart, they envelop the large vessels with a close network, called the Arterial plewus; and in the abdomen, behind the stomach, the large blood-vessels are surrounded by many small ganglia, all united by networks of fibres called the solar plexus, because the other plexuses of the abdomen radiate from it, like the rays diverging from the sun. In all parts of the body these nerves accompany the arteries which supply the different organs, and form networks around them which take the names of the organs—as the hepatic plexus, splenic plexus, mesenteric plexus, etc. 18 #* 210 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. @ 44. Histotogy or THE Nervous System.—Three Microscope Elements of Nerve-Tissue. Nerve-Cells. Nerve-Fibres. Membranes of Cerebro-Spinal System. 409. Nervous TissuE is composed of three microscopic elements—Nerve- Cells or Ganglionic Corpuseles, White or Tubular Fibres and Gray or Gelatinous Fibres. 410. The Nerve-CELLs are nucleated cells; that is, vesic- ular matter containing, besides a pulpy substance, an eccen- tric, roundish body or nucleus, enclosing one or more nucleoli surrounded by colored granules (Fig. 153). These nerve-cells have various branches or offsets starting from any part of the cell-wall and completely continuous with it and with the con- tents of the cell itself. The branches connect the cells with each other, and also with the nerve- fibres. Their number varies from one to twenty, and the cells are accordingly distinguished as unipolar, bipolar and multipolar (Fig. 10). A collection of nerve-cells constitutes the essential part of a Ganglion. They are imbedded in a matrix of fine, soft, granular matter, and variously mingled and interwoven Fra. 158. Porvion or Gray “ith multitudes of fibres. Composed Sunstance, FROM tHe Exre- Of such masses do we find the whole RIOR OF THE CEREBELLUM.— convoluted surface of the brain, the 1, Two nerve-cells with bi- x ane . polar prolongationa. 2'Gran- thalami optici, the corpora striata, the ular matter. 3. Nuclear quadrigeminal body and some other feos Mi SS mre minute bodies; from these, one un- broken gray tract may be traced through the interior of the peduncles of the brain, the interior of the medulla oblongata and of the spinal cord. The various ganglia of the sympa- thetic system are also of the same substance. 411. The Wurrre or TuspuLar Freres, or the ultimate nerve-filaments, consist of an outer, structureless membrane enclosing a layer of transparent fluid fat, or medullary mat- ter, within which is a firmer part—a gray, ribbon-like thread, called the central band-awis, or the aais cylinder. This is Fic. 153. Dereeaemupuies NERVOUS SYSTEM. FT ‘identical in structure with the processes of the nerve-cells with which it is continuous, and is very important, as it is sometimes the only part of the nerve-fibre left within the structureless Ss sheath, thus constitut- —— SSS ing the so-called pale, E LA non-medullated nerve === fibre. As the medul- lary matter encloses the band-axis, it is often, though improperly, called the medullary sheath. 412. The nerve-filaments are distributed to the skin, muscles and glandular organs in all parts of the body. From these points they approach each other, uniting into little bun- dles or fibres, and then into larger bundles, till they are of sufficient size to be seen by the naked eye, when they constitute a nerve. The filaments do not blend with each other, but lie in simple juxtaposition, each retaining a com- plete individuality from Fic. 155. DrAGRAM OF HUMAN BRAIN, IN VERTICAL its origin to its termina- _ Secrion, showing the situation of the different gang- tion. Like th e fibres of e and the eoares of the fibres, Olfactory gang- lia. 2, Hemisphere. 38, Corpus striatum. 4, Optic amuscle, they are bound thalamus. 5, Tubercula quadrigemina, 6, Cere- together and protected bellum. 7, Ganglion of tuber annulare. 8, Ganglion of medulla oblongata. by a covering of areolar tissue, called its Neurilem’a or sheath, which also contains the blood-vessels for the nutrition of the nerve. The fila- ments become gradually finer toward their outer extremities, till at length the sheath, medullary portion and band-axis Fie. 154. Fia. 154. NERVe-FILAMENTS, decussing with their sheath, Fig. 155. 212 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. + become undistinguishable. Their mode of termination is uncertain, though the sensory nerves, at least, seem to have free extremities. 413. The tubular fibres compose the white parts of the brain and the spinal cord, the chief substance of the nerves, and also pass into and mix with the gray substance of the brain, cord and all the ganglia. They vary in size, being finest of all in the superficial layers of the brain, fine in the nerves of special sense and in the ganglia, larger in the fore part of the spinal cord, and largest in the motor nerves. 414. Besides the White tubular fibres, there are found, chiefly in the Sympathetic System, Gray or GELATINOUS Fisres, which are flattened, more minute than the white fibres, and greatly resembling their band-axis. Some have considered these but a form of connective tissue, but whether they be so considered, or as true nervous elements, they seem to be produced by the coalescence of elongated nucleated cells, the contents of which, as the cells enlarge, become soft and finely granular, while the nuclei appear wider and wider apart. 415. The Mempranes of the Cerebro-Spinal System are four in number—the Dura Mater, the Pia Mater, the Arach'- noid Membrane and the Epen'dyma. The Dura Mater is a tough, fibrous membrane lining the bony walls of the skull and spinal column, forming their periosteum. The Pia Mater is another fibrous and very vascular membrane which closely invests the brain and spinal cord and sends processes into all their fissures. The inner surface of the dura mater and the outer surface of the pia mater, each becomes very delicate in - structure, and are lined with an epithelium; this gossamer membrane is named the Arachnoid Membrane. Its two layers unite at many points, thus forming closed sacs, which, like other serous membranes, secrete a fluid called the arach- noid fluid. 416. The dura mater not only firmly invests the brain and spinal cord, but sends off supporting partitions, that which descends between’ the hemispheres of the cerebrum being NERVOUS SYSTEM. 213 . called the Cerebral Falz; that between the hemispheres of the cerebellum, the Cerebellar Falx ; and that between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, the Tentoriwn. Through sepa- rations in the layers of the dura mater channels are formed, performing the office of veins; they are named Sinuses of the Dura Mater, and are lined with a continuation of the ordinary epithelium of blood-vessels.) The dura mater also furnishes the areolar sheaths to the several cranial and spinal nerves; therefore it is continuous from the lining of the cranium to the extremity of the nerves in the different parts of the body. 417. The Ependyma is a delicate, transparent, serous mem- brane, lining the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. ¢ 45. Puystotoay or tHE Nervous SystremM.—Relation of the Ner- vous System to this Nature. Man’s Compound Nature. The Rank of the Nervous System. Relation of the Nervous Centres to the Sensitive and Motor Nerves. Classification of the Centres. System of Dependen- cies. General Function of the Organic Centres. Their Modes of Reflex Action. Peculiarity of Sympathetic Action. Functions of the Reflex or Spinal Centres. Their Acquired Action and the Theory explaining it. Practical Importance of the Automatic Tendency produced by Repeti- tion and Association. Character of the Sensational Centres and their Action. Internal Stimuli to the Activity of these Centres. Functions of the Ideational Centres. Ideas suggested by the same Object different in diferent Individuals. Various Manifestations of Reflex Action in the Ideational Centres. Emotional Character of these Centres. Voli- tional Character. Relation of the Emotions to the Will. Influence of the Physical Nature for Good or for Evil. The Language of the Muscles. 418. The Nervous Sysrem is the border-land where the material touches the immaterial. It possesses that highest refinement of physical organization through which the mind may manifest itself,and by means of which it may control and bring into service not only the various organs of the body, but other matter more external and remote. Observation.— At different periods of the world’s history many differ- ent opinions have prevailed concerning the respective existence of body and sowl and their relations to each other. The pagan Greek included all under the one word vy and the Roman under that of anima, which 214 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. was almost “equally applicable to the vegetable life of a cabbage, the animal life of a sheep and the spiritual life of an apostle.” During the fifth century before the Christian era, Anaxagoras advanced a shadowy idea of man’s compound nature, which at the day-dawn of Christianity assumed a clear and definite outline. At length, philosopher and Christian advocated the supremacy of the immaterial nature over the material, and eventually regarded their interests as antagonistic. The body was deemed the source of all evil, the work of the Prince of Dark- ness. At the present day more than at any former period efforts are being made to rightly balance the two natures, and yet many seem to regard the body as a gloomy prison-house in which God has shut us ‘up, rather than as a beautiful “temple” in which the mind and soul may dwell as priest and priestess, using all its appointments in rendering service to the Lord of the temple. 419. The organisms heretofore described have no inherent active power, but are entirely dependent upon the nervous system; thus, the bones are dependent for movement upon the contractility of the muscles, this contractility upon the stimulus of the nerves, this stimulus upon the energetic action of the nerve-centres, and these centres are graded in rank and measurably dependent, the lowest upon the next higher, and so on to the highest or convoluted centres of the hemi- spheres. ; 420. In their function the nervous centres are intermediate between the sensitive and motor fibres; as the sensitive fibres, being acted upon at their distal extremities, convey impres- sions inward to the centre, and the motor fibres, being acted upon at the centres, convey nerve-force outward and produce motion at their distal extremities. (Let any part of the surface of the body be touched by a hot iron, and muscular contrac- tion instantly follows, but there has been time enough for the sensation of pain to be conveyed to the nervous centre, and for an impulse to be sent from that centre to the muscles: such action is called the Reflea Action of the Nervous System. By this means a communication is established between the different organs. This communication is never direct, but from one organ inward to the nervous centre, then outward to another organ; so are the different functions associated and exercised for the common good of the whole. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 421. In dealing with the functions of the Nervous System we Se the following classification of the Nervous Centres, : Ist, The Primary or Ideational Centres, comprising the ahs matter of the convolutions of the hemispheres. 2d, The Secondary or Sensational Centres, comprising the gray matter between the floors of the lateral ventricles and the decussa- tion of the pyramids. - 8d, The Tertiary Centres, or Centres of Reflex Action, comprising the gray matter of the spinal cord. 4th, The Quarternary or Organic Centres, comprising the gray matter of the Sympathetic System. Observation.—The arrangement of this system of centres is like that of a well-ordered body politic. Each distinct department or nerve- centre acts independently within certain limits, but beyond these limits it is subordinate to the next higher; thus, the Organic Centres are sub- ordinate to the Reflex or Spinal Centres, the Reflex to the Sensorial, and all to the Ideational or Supreme Centres. In each centre the indi- vidual cells probably differ in rank, some having a higher dignity, some a lower, but each its special appointment, its assigned duty. 422. The OrGanic or SYMPATHETIC CENTRES are not well understood, but the distribution of their nerves would indicate that they exercise a controlling influence over the involuntary functions of digestion, absorption, circulation and assimilation. From the fact that these nerves reach their ultimate destination supported on the arterial vessels, it is probable that their influence is exerted through a certain control over the muscular coat of the heart and arteries, thus hastening or retarding the course of the blood, and increasing or diminishing its quantity in various organs. Thus the functions of nutrition, secretion, etc., depending so much upon the state of the circulation, are made to sympathize with each other very closely ; hence the name ‘‘Sympathetic” System. 423. The organic centres, being connected with the various organs by sensitive and motor nerves, are capable of an inde- pendent reflex action. They are also connected with the cerebro-spinal system, and are more or less assisted by and subordinate to it. In health the brain takes no cognizance of their action; when diseased, however, the centres report to 216 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the highest authority by means of cramps and other severely acute pains. In its normal action a centre seems to expend only so much force as is disposed of by the motor nerves; in diseased action there is a surplus, which is conveyed to the next highest centre, to be disposed of by its motor nerves; if there is still a surplus, it passes on as before. 424, Thereare three kinds of reflex action taking place either wholly or partially through the Sympathetic System, viz. : _ Ist, The reflex action from the internal organs to the volun- tary muscles and sensitive surfaces; examples are seen in the convulsions of children, caused by the irritation of undigested food in the intestines, and in adults in the attacks of tempo- rary blindness or confused vision so often accompanying in- digestion. 2d, The reflex action from the sensitive surfaces to the involuntary muscles and the internal organs; as mental and moral impressions received by the senses disturb the mo- tions of the heart and affect the circulation, digestion and secretion, disagreeable sights or odors produce nausea and other functional derangements. 3d, The reflex action be- tween the internal organs, as the associated action of the stomach, liver, ete. The variation in the capillary circula- tion of the abdominal viscera, according as they are active or inactive, is probably referable to a similar influence. Observation.—One marked peculiarity of the Sympathetic System is, that its nerves and ganglia act with much less rapidity than those of the Cerebro-spinal System ; hence, inflammation of the internal organs is not manifest for several hours after the application of the exciting cause, as the effects of a chill or cold do not usually follow immediately after the exposure. Because of this tardy action the effect remains long after the cause is removed. 425. The TERTIARY, RuFLEX or SPINAL CENTRES. The white, tubular substance of the spinal cord connects the mus- cles and integuments below with the brain above, and thus assists in the production of conscious sensation and voluntary motion. The gray matter forms nerve-centres, which exert a general protective influence over the whole body. They preside over the involuntary movements of the limbs and trunk; if a NERVOUS SYSTEM. vA WS finger touch a heated surface, it is suddenly withdrawn, and that without effort of the will, and often in opposition to it. They regulate the action of the sphincter muscles, as in the rec- tum and bladder. They exercise a certain control over the changes of secretion, nutrition, etc., aS is manifest in cases of disease. Thus we see that many human activities are per- formed by the reflex action of the spinal centres, inherent in their natural constitution. Observation 1—They are, however, capable of an acquired reflex ac- tion which is matured through experience. An act or an association of acts becomes easier to them by repetition. This acquired power of reflex action has been accounted for by a theory * which is at least beau- tifully wlustrative of the facts in the case. Every display of energy in the nerve-cells causes a change or waste of nervous element which is repaired by nutrition. This theory assumes that the character of the waste determines the character of the deposit ; that the particle deposited is necessarily endowed according to the particular kind of activity mani- fested, and that this endowment inclines the particle to the same kind of activity again. By each repetition the tendency becomes stronger and more definite, till, after a longer or shorter series of repetitions, the action becomes automatic. 2.—When a certain class of movements have, after many voluntary efforts, become associated, they become perceptibly more and more easy. Walking is at first a very conscious and voluntary act, but it may be- come so far reflex and automatic that one ina profound abstraction may continue to walk without being at all conscious where he is going, and when he wakes from his reverie may find himself in some other place than that which he intended to visit. Multitudes of our daily acts are the result of this acquired reflex action of the spinal centres. The wis- dom of such an arrangement is very evident, for but little could be ac- complished if acts became no easier by repetition and association. 3.—Conscious efforts of the will soon produce exhaustion, while the automatic acts of which we are speaking occasion comparatively little weariness. We often say of certain rounds of duties that they do not weary us, for we are accustomed to them. In speaking of this acquired power of which the spinal centres are capable, Dr. Maudsley says: “Like the brain, the spinal cord has its memory. A spinal cord without memory would be an ¢diotic spinal cord, incapable of culture—a degene- rate nervous centre in which the organization of special faculties could ae se ROLE Oe fC eS * Dr. Maudsley. . 19 K - 218 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, not take place. It is the lesson of a good education so consciously to exercise it in reference to its surroundings that it shall act automatically in accordance with the relations of the individual in his particular walk of life.” 426. The SENSATIONAL CENTRES, including the gray mat- ter of the medulla oblongata and of the base of the brain as far as the lateral ventricles, consist chiefly of the nervous centres of the higher or special senses, as sight, hearing, ete. Any one of these senses is quickly destroyed by destroying its ganglion; the loss of the quadrigeminal body destroys the sight as effectually as putting out the eyes. That these cen- tres have an independent reflex action may be seen by the involuntary closure of the eyelid when a strong light falls upon the eye, or by the involuntary contortions of the face when an article is sour or bitter to the taste. These are ex- amples of natural reflex action, but like the spinal cord, these centres are capable of an acquired reflex action, as in the articulation of words upon seeing their signs, adapting the movements of the body to the rhythm of music in dancing, marching, etc. Observation 1.—Most of the sensations of the special senses become clear and definite only after a long course of training; for instance, the visual sensation of the adult is a very different matter from that of the child whose eyes have recently opened upon the world. “The sensa-. tion of the cultivated sense thus sums up, as it were, a thousand expe- riences, as one word often contains the accumulated acquisitions of generations.” 2.—In speaking of the acquired reflex action of the spinal centres we referred to the theory that a relic or residuum of every activity remained in the nerve-cell as a special endowment; that perhaps the character of the activity determined the character of the nutritive deposit. This theory is equally applicable to the sensational centres, and equally ‘llustrative of the certain fact that acts of this class are rendered easier by repetition. 427. The sensational centres are excited to activity not only by impressions from the organs of the special senses, but by sensations from within the body, both from the organic and ideational centres. Of the former examples are afforded when the higher nervous centres are weakened by disease or when NERVOUS SYSTEM. 219 the organic stimuli have an unnatural activity, as is the case with the intemperate man. 428. The IbEATIONAL CENTRES seem to have the power of fashioning into ideas the impressions received by the sensa- tional centres. When the various properties of an object are presented by the different senses these centres reject the un- essential, and selecting the essential, mould them into an organic unity or idea. Observation 1.—By means of the sensorial centres and nerves we may gain perceptions or impressions of the qualities of a rose, but these would be isolated, and we should have no clear and definite idea of the rose without the moulding and vivifying influences of the ideational centres. 2.—Different persons obtain very different ideas of the same object; the character of the idea being dependent upon the character of the organization both of the sensational and ideational centres, and the cha- racter of the organization upon natural endowment or inherited organiza- tion, and also upon the education received. 429. The ideational centres, like those already described, are capable of an independent reflex action, which may be manifested in different ways: 1st, This may take place through the motor tract, thus giving rise to what have been named édeo- motor movements. This energy may be exerted either upon the voluntary or involuntary muscles, and in the former case either with or without consciousness. Examples of the reflex action of ideas upon our voluntary muscles are seen every hour _ of our waking life; these may be unconscious, as is seen in most persons who talk to themselves, or they may be conscious, and yet without the intervention of the will, as when a quick-tem- pered individual quickly resents an insult by a blow. 2d, The reflex action of an ideational nerve-cell may not only operate downward upon the muscular system, but downward upon the sensory centres; the idea of a nauseous taste may excite the sensation to such a degree as to produce vomiting. 3d, Another very important reflex action of these centres is that which modifies the secretions and nutrition; a flow of saliva may be produced by the thought of food, or a flow of tears by a sympathetic idea. 4th, There may be in these 220 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. centres a reflex action among the cells themselves. One cell reacts to a stimulus from a neighboring cell, then transfers or reflects this energy to another. This may be the condition of activity among these cells during that process of the mind which we call Reflection. 430. These ideational centres are also the seat of the Hmo- tions. When an idea is attended with some feeling, either pleasant or unpleasant, it is so far Emotional; and when the feeling preponderates, the idea is obscured, and the state of mind is then called an Emotion, or when rising above the ordinary degree and becoming impatient of restraint, a Passion. 431. Every centre of idea is also a centre of Volitionary re- action. When an idea acts directly downward, we call the effect ideomotor ; but when there is deliberation or reflection delaying the action, and it afterward takes place downward, we call the effect volitional. Volition is also exercised in pre- venting as well as in producing an action. 432. The exercise of the Will is the highest energy of which the supreme centres are capable. Within certain limits, the ideas and emotions are subject to its control. Suppose a being endowed with the intellectual and emotional natures, but not with the will; though possessing the intelli- gence of a man, his capacities for action would be inferior to those of the brutes, for, like them, his actions would be the result of mere sensational impulses, and yet he would be desti- tute of that natural guide of brutes which we call instinct. This represents the wretched condition of a man whose will is by any means so enfeebled that it fails to control the mental and physical powers. 433. The power of the will depends both upon the inherited organization and also upon the training it has received, for volitions, like sensations and ideas, become more easy and definite by repetition. A naturally weak will may be greatly strengthened by due care and training. According to the theory before mentioned, each volition leaves its relic, trace or residuum which inclines the portion of nerve-element NERVOUS SYSTEM. Zor exercised to a like activity again. If we accustom ourselves to decide promptly, to act energetically and to carry out our purposes in the many smaller and less important affairs of life, we gain a power of will which may be carried into higher departments of action and into circumstances of greater embarrassment and difficulty. _ 434, The Will bears very important relations to the Emo- tions. If they are allowed to react independently, as is their natural tendency, they weaken the will; if duly controlled and co-ordinated, they strengthen it. The passionate nature of the child may, by proper training, become a potent force for good in after years, ‘giving a white heat, as it were, to the expression of thought, an intensity to the will.” Un- trained, it will become a no less potent force for evil, and the individual under the mastery of his passions will be tossed about as helplessly as a boat in the rapids of N lagara. Observation 1—We have seen that the mind is closely united and yet distinct from the material organs through which it acts—dependent for its manifestations, but independent in essence. So intimate is the union that the body exercises a powerful influence in leading us upward into a true and higher life, or downward into a low and sensual existence. What this influence shall be depends somewhat upon inherited organiza- tion, but more upon education. Accepting the theory already advanced as at least illustrative, we see that if the thoughts, feelings and volitions are pure and true and good, their impressions or residua remaining in the nerve-cells are of the same character, and tend to give a right direc- tion to the future activities of these cells. If the thoughts, feelings and volitions are evil in nature, the impressions or residua will also be evil, inclining to evil activities in the future. When we resist a temptation to wrong action, then we not only avoid the particular evil, but lay up that which will render the next resistance easier and more natural. If we yield to the temptation, we are not only guilty of the particular wrong, but lay up that which will make resistance more difficult or yielding more easy and natural for the future. When aman sets his heart to do right, all his physical being struggles to give him aid; and when he sets his heart to do wrong, its energies are expended in drag- ging him downward, 2.—The visible impress which the workings of the mind leave upon the body is worthy our notice. The character of the man is declared by the lines of his muscles, which tell no lies, Especially is this true 19 # 222 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. of the muscles of his face. Let him narrow his soul by penuriousness, become the victim of rasping jealousy, wear the nettles of envy against his heart, or be the slave of defiling lust, and in spite of any natural comeliness or studied concealment, his true character will be proclaimed to all who have learned aught of the language of the muscles. “ Be sure your sin will find you out,” says He who has made the fleshly lineaments to reveal the most hidden vice. The more secret the viciousness, the deeper is the impress. But if the spirit of evil thus leaves the traces of its blackened pen upon the face, the spirit of good- ness writes thereon in no less legible characters of light. Purity of heart, nobleness of purpose, restfulness of soul, soften, irradiate, spwri- ualize the outer man, giving a higher beauty than that of form or com- plexion, even to him who is wrinkled by years, bowed by infirmity and scarred by the battles of life. 2 46. Hyarenr or THE Nervous System.—Two Classes of Agencies affecting the Health of the Nervous System. Natwral Heritage. Im- portance of the Physical Agency—Air—Diet—Exercise and Sleep. The Effect of Mental Impressions on the Body. Mental Exercise, Re- creation and Amusement. Harmonious Development of the Different Mental Powers. 435. We have seen that different organs of the body are entirely dependent for functional action upon the stimulus afforded by the nervous system; and since this is the mate- rial organization through which the mind acts, we are led to the inevitable conclusion that the physical condition of this system must affect, more or less, the mental manifestations. It becomes, then, a matter of primary importance that we understand the conditions essential to the health of this sys- tem, especially as suffering from nervous disease exceeds that of other diseases, as the delicacy of the organization exceeds that of other organizations of the body. 436. In considering the hygiene of the nervous system, it is necessary to have reference both to physical and mental agencies. The highest health and vigor of the nervous sys- tem doubtless require—Ist, A sound nervous organization by — inheritance; 2d, A nutrition equal to the demands of repair and growth; 8d, The harmonious action of the various mental powers. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 293 437. Ist, A Sounp ORGANIZATION BY INHERITANCE. “Each of us is only the footing-up of a double column of figures that goes back to the first pair,’’ is the striking ex- pression of a great truth. Every-day observation shows that children inherit not only the features, but the physical, mental and moral constitution of their parents. Even those utterly ignorant of the laws of transmission are wont to estimate the child according to its family; favorably, if of a ‘good family” or ‘‘ good blood ;” unfavorably, if of a “‘ bad family” or “‘ bad blood.” Every formation of body, internal and external, all intel- lectual endowments and aptitudes, and all moral qualities, are or may be transmissible from parent to child. If one generation is missed, the qualities may appear in the next generation. It is important to notice that not only the natural constitution of the parents may be inherited, but their acquired habits of life, whether virtuous or vicious, but espe- cially is this true of vice. Even when the identical vice does not appear, there is a morbid organization and a tendency to some vice akin to it. Not only is the evil tendency trans- mitted, but what was the simple practice, the voluntarily adopted and cherished vice of the parent, becomes the pas- sion, the overpowering impulse, of the child. Illustration 1.—M. Morel sketches the history of four generations as follows: “‘ First Generation.—The father was an habitual drunkard, and was killed in a public-house brawl. Second Generation.—The son in- herited his father’s habits, which gave rise to attacks of mania, termi- nating in paralysis and death. Third Generation.—The grandson was strictly sober, but full of hypochondriacal and imaginary fears of perse- cutions, ete., and had homicidal tendencies. Fourth Generation.—The fourth in descent had very limited intelligence, and had an attack of madness when sixteen years old, terminating in stupidity nearly amount- ing to idiocy; with him the race probably becomes extinct.” 2.—Says a learned physician, after long and close observation of the evil effects of tobacco: “If the evil ended with the individual who, by the indulgence of a pernicious custom, injures his own health and im- pairs his faculties of mind and body, he might be left to his enjoyment, his fool's paradise, unmolested. This, however, is not the case. In no ‘instance is the sin of the father more strikingly visited upon the chil- 224 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. dren than in the sin of tobacco-smoking. The enervation, the hysteria, the insanity, the dwarfish deformities, the consumption, the suffering lives and early deaths of the children of inveterate smokers bear ample testimony to the feebleness and unsoundness of the constitution trans- mitted by this pernicious habit.” 3.—Should we trace the effects of the whole list of vices, it would be with equally sad results; even of the great love of money-getting, the celebrated Dr. Maudsley says: “I cannot but think, after what I have seen, that the extreme passion for getting rich, absorbing the whole energies of a life, does predispose to mental degeneration in the off- spring, either to moral defect, or to moral and intellectual deficiency, or to outbreaks of insanity.” 4,—Any kind of nervous disease in the parents, whether natural or acquired, seems to predispose to innate feebleness in the child. From this instability of nervous element, the slightest irritation often pro- duces convulsions in the young child and loss of equilibrium in the adult. Such a natural constitution may be improved by a judicious education and strict obedience to physical and mental laws, but the original defect can never be entirely removed. _ 438. 2d, A NurriTioN EQUAL TO THE DEMANDS OF REPAIR AND GrowrH. The relation of the nervous centres to the blood is the same in kind as that between other parts of the body and their blood-supply. Great waste is produced by nervous action; hence, the centres are very largely sup- plied with blood-vessels, especially the Ideational centres. The activity of ideas is largely dependent upon the active flow of blood to the nerve-cells. Activity of thought invites the blood which, in turn, is so necessary to activity. The nerve-centres, then, must be supplied with the proper quality and quantity of blood; hence, whatever deteriorates the blood impairs the health of the nervous system. It is evi- dent, then, that— 439. The nervous system may be impaired by impure air. Everybody knows that bad air injures the lungs, but few realize that, on the whole, it injures the brain still more. As the nerve-tissue is the most delicate part of the body, it soonest feels the evil effects of imperfectly oxygenated blood. (§ 40.) ) 440. The nervous system may be impaired by improper diet, NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 We are wont to believe that improper diet may affect the digestive organs, but seldom consider the mental and moral effects of such diet. Improper food poisons the blood, and thus the nerve-centres are cheated of their nutriment, and also poisoned; hence, the ideas become confused, the emo- tions morbid and the will weakened. The whole man is crippled, physically, mentally and morally. It is an indis- putable fact that bad bread, for instance, may thus have a very immoral influence. Those much engaged in mental labor suffer most from bad diet. No teacher can teach well, no lawyer can plead well, no physician can practice well, no minister can think or preach well, who habitually takes im- proper food. (§ 21.) Observation 1.—If such be the effect of improper food, what shall we say of such poisons as alcohol, opium, haschish, tobacco, ete., which aet so directly and powerfully upon the nervous system? The same poison does not equally affect all the nerve-centres; thus, strychnine acts upon the spinal centres, but not the cerebral; haschish, upon the sensory centres, giving rise to hallucinations; alcohol, upon the cerebral centres particularly. The alcoholic poison first produces an increased activity of the muscles, then alternate exaltation and depression, both physical and mental; finally, stupor, relaxation of the muscles and deep sleep. These symptoms are transitory; but let the poisoning process be con- tinued, and true delirium, so well known as “delirium tremens,” fol- lows,.and at length what is known as “chronic alcoholism ;”’ and while intoxication lasts a few hours, and delirium tremens a few days or weeks, chronic alcoholism spreads its baneful influence over years, unless death prevents the full development of the tragedy. The victim of alcoholic poison is equally enfeebled in body and mind. The nervous system becomes exhausted, the moral sentiments perverted, the will- power broken, and he seems powerless to cease from the fatal habit which has produced the change. 2.—With the opium-eater the diseases of the nervous system declare themselves even more rapidly than with the drunkard. Says M. Morel: “Given the period at which a person begins to smoke opium, and it is easy to predicate the time of his death: his days are numbered.” 3.—Tobacco is one of the most virulent poisons. It soothes the nerves temporarily, only to leave them more enfeebled and irritable. 4,—Even excessive use of tea and coffee may prove disastrous to the health of the nervous system. 226 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 441. The nervous system may be impaired by want of physical exercise. Among other agencies that affect the nervous sys- tem, none exert a wider influence than bodily exercise. It seems to be required to complete the change which the blood undergoes while passing through the lungs and skin, without which the waste of nerve-element could not be repaired. In persons who are merely sedentary, having little occasion for active thought, this want of exercise is sufficiently mis- chievous; but when there is great mental activity, the mis- chief is vastly increased. Thousands of ministers, lawyers, those who sit in the bank and counting-room, shorten their days because of this neglect: especially is this the case in America. The English nobility, notwithstanding their many indulgences, are a long-lived race, and this is doubtless owing to their spending so much time in open-air exercise. (§ 41.) 442. The nervous system and mental activities may be enfee- bled by an unhealthy skin. If its normal state is impaired by want of -cleanliness, by deficient apparel or by a diseased ac- tion of the nucleated epithelium through an intimate sympa- thy in like tissues, the nucleated cells of the nerve-tissue may be seriously affected. (§ 49.) 443. The nervous system may become impaired by taking too little sleep. “Sleep knits up the raveled structure” of ner- vous element, for during sleep organic assimilation is restoring what has been expended in functional energy. A periodical renewal of nervous energy as often as once a day is an insti- tution of Nature. Among the wise arrangements of the Cre- ator, none harmonizes with the wants of the system more perfectly than the alternation of day and night. The amount of sleep necessary depends upon the age, health, natural temperament and occupation of the individual. The more rapid the exhaustion of nervous energy from any cause, the more sleep will be required. The young and the aged need more sleep than the person of middle life, the sick more than the well, those engaged in mental pursuits more than those wearied by manual labor, persons of great sensibility more than the sluggish natures whose normal condition is more NERVOUS SYSTEM. 221 nearly allied to sleep, woman more than man. We may say in general that the time should not be less than from six to eight hours, and most persons require a longer period. The time, however, must be proportioned to the need. Observation.—Among the more affluent classes the customs of the times are quite incompatible with those habits of sleep which are essen- tial to mental vigor. Where amusements are pursued till late hours night after night, the nervous system greatly suffers, and every depart- ment of the mind becomes unhealthy. The man who, eager to become rich, takes time from his sleep for business purposes, draws from. his brain capital. The mother— Alas! here we must stop. Mothers are the one class who hardly get any rest till the “blessed Father takes them in his arms and gives his beloved sleep.” 444, 3d, HARMontious ACTION OF THE VARIOUS MENTAL Powers. That the bodily organs may be directly affected by impressions purely mental does not admit of doubt. Of this fact the skillful physician never loses sight, for a hope- ful, healthful influence of the mind may be made a remedial agency quite as powerful as that of drugs and plasters. 445. Regular and systematic mental exercise is essential to the health of nerve-tissue. Exercise increases the flow of blood to the active part. We have seen this to be the case in the muscle, and that by use it is both enlarged and strengthened. In like manner the nerve-tissue needs exercise; and as the gymnast becomes expert, not by spasmodic muscular efforts, but by accurate, persistent drill, so must the mental athlete gain his power by the regular performance of such exercise as he is able to bear. The gymnast at first feels pain in his muscles, but he has only to persevere, with proper intervals of rest, and what was at first so difficult becomes easy, while power is gained for severer feats. So the person unaccus- tomed to mental gymnastics feels headache and confusion at first, but frequent repetition will make easy and natural the very thoughts which struggled so painfully into existence, and the nerve-tissue will gain the firmness which increases its capability of action. Under such a course of training the change in the brain-tissue is often so great as to modify per- ceptibly the form of ‘the head. 228 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Observation.—Says Dr. Ray: “I have no hesitation in saying that of all the means for preserving health there is nothing more sure or better suited to a greater variety of persons than habits of regular and sys- tematic mental occupation of some dignity and worth. In this prop- osition I would embrace all those kinds of employment which pass under the general name of business, and which, little as we are disposed to recognize the fact, bear the same relation to the health of the mind that food, exercise, ete., do to the health of the body. Work is the condition of our being as active and progressive creatures.” 446. The saddest effects of the absence of stated useful em- ployment are seen among women of easy circumstances. “Ttisa poor view of woman’s duties and capacities that confines her to a little busy idleness because the chances of fortune have placed her beyond the necessity of earning a living; and they must have but a narrow view of the exigencies of social life who believe that any woman of tolerable health and strength may not find abundant opportunities of that kind of work which affords no other recompense than the consciousness of doing good, and therefore to be done, if done at all, by those who can dispense with every other compensation.” Observation.—A life of idleness and luxurious ease can be no more honorable to one sex than to the other, and we know very well that in a man it creates no claims upon the respect and confidence of the com- munity. The little accomplishments of needlework, so generally dif- fused, cannot be dignified with the name of work. Many a mind, libe- rally endowed, from want of mental exertion becomes dwarfed or may end in mental depression, particularly if ill health or deep affliction ~ throws its. weight into the scale. 447. The amount of exercise should be adapted to the health and age of the individual. If from any cause the nervous system be weakened, an amount of exercise which would be quite harmless to one in health may prove disastrous. The nerve-tissue of children and youth needs the same care as has been shown requisite for other tissues, and overwork that in the adult is followed by fatigue, easily removed by rest, in the child may result in irreparable injury. At this period the tissue is soft and yielding, and when the blood-vessels become long distended by great activity, they may become permanently enlarged and permanent congestion produced. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 The present tendency is to treat the mind like a race-horse, goading it on to make a certain round in a given time, and that before the brain-tissue has gained the consolidation requisite for severe exertion. Mary Lyon, with her charac- teristic wisdom, refused to admit to the Mount Holyoke course of study girls under sixteen years of age, and from her long list of applicants usually selected those not less than eighteen. Let the material organ of the mind be subjected to a system- atic, thorough, gymnastic training, taking for it the necessary time, and the firm, educated tissue will be fitted for enduring labor in later years; but let it be weakened in youth, and it must ever work under a burden, if indeed it work at all. Moderation in mental exertion is also a necessity with the aged, as they have no vitality for recuperation after severe exhaustion. 448. Intense activity too long continued impairs the strongest brain. The nerve-cells in a state of rest are neutral in their chemical character, but after severe exercise they become acid. When in this condition it is hazardous to continue the exercise. Sufficient rest should be taken to restore them to their normal condition. Congestion, or an undue accumula- tion of blood, also attends excessive functional action. The effect of severe congestion in the spinal centres is to produce convulsions; in the sensory centres roaring in the ears, flashes of light before the eyes and various hallucinations; in the ideational centres stagnation of ideas, swimming in the head, and, if long continued, irregular and convulsive action of the cells, causing delirium. 449. The required rest is often afforded by recreation and amusement. Important as stated employment unquestionably is to the mental health, amusement or recreation is scarcely less so. Few persons, whatever their mental character or temperament, can safely dispense with these altogether. Even the most commanding intellects sometimes seek the recreation which their exhausting labors make necessary in forms of amusement which, to those who feel the necessity less, seem to be frivolous and puerile. 20 230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. Observation 1.—To those whose life is one of severe toil and harassing care, amusements constitute almost the only practicable means for re- pairing the constant waste of the nervous energy. Especially is this want felt by women in the humbler walks of life, whose daily round of care and toil not only draws more largely than that of the stronger sex on the physical and mental energies, but is lightened by none of that relief which is afforded by a greater variety of duties and more frequent periods of rest. 2.—The brain, when severely taxed, is often rested by some kind of mental exercise, which, without being fatiguing, requires just enough effort to impart interest. Hence, a change from mathematics to the languages, or from these to music, poetry or painting, will give the needed relaxation. 450. To maintain the highest mental vigor each faculty of the mind should receive its due share of cultivation. Our various faculties were not bestowed at random, to be used as inclina- tion may prompt, but each has its appointed place in the mental economy. Lach bears some relation to every other, making one harmonious whole. One must form habits of attention, accustom the mind to continuous thought, cultivate the reasoning powers and beget a taste for exact knowledge, if he would be in any measure equal to the intellectual effort essential to true success in every calling of life. He must, however, also call into action the creative power of the mind, the imagination, to give vividness to his conception, to add force to his reasoning, and to light up the whole horizon of his thought. Its exercise must not be indulged to an extent incompatible with the claims of the other faculties. It must not be allowed to fashion with unbridled power our principles and motives, our aims and ends. Give it, however, the purest material to work with, and, within proper bounds, no faculty is of more real service or more worthy of our regard. Espe- cially is it of value in presenting to the mind an ideal of ex- cellence, a standard of attainment, practicable and desirable, but loftier than anything we have yet reached. 451. The esthetic faculty, the love of the beautiful, should not be allowed to remain inactive. Its importance is recog- nized only as we understand its value. An object is beautiful to us just in proportion to our power to discover through the NERVOUS SYSTEM. , pia material form the thought of which this form is but the ex- pression, for beauty is but the spirit looking out through the visible, the material. 452. Man has also a moral faculty, the power of discrimi- nating between right and wrong, which is quickly followed by the feeling of obligation to do the right and avoid the wrong. Upon the right use of these faculties depend the happiness and the destiny of man. The power of an approv- ing conscience over the human mind, and consequently over the health of the Nervous System, cannot be /over-estimated, while on the other hand the torments of an accusing con- science not only “cut the sinews of the soul’s inherent strength,’ but snap one by one the gossamer filaments of the brittle thread of life. 453. Concerning the hygienic influence of a HARMONIOUS DEVELOPMENT OF THE Mentat Powers, Dr. Ray says: “A partial cultivation of the mental faculties is incompatible not only with the highest order of thought, but with the highest degree of health and efficiency. The result of professional experience fairly warrants the statement that in persons of a high grade of intellectual endowment and cultivation, other things being equal, the force of moral shocks is more easily broken, tedious and harassing exercise of particular powers more safely borne, than in those of an opposite direction, and disease, when it comes, is more readily controlled and cured. The kind of management which consists in awakening a new order of emotion, in exciting new trains of thought, in turn- ing attention to some new matter of study or speculation, must be far less efficacious, because less applicable, in one whose mind has always had a limited range, than in one of larger resources and capacities. In endeavoring to restore the disordered mind of the clodhopper who has scarcely an idea beyond that of his manual employment, the great diffi- culty is to find some available point from which conservative influences may be projected. He dislikes reading, he never learned amusements, he feels no interest in the affairs of the world, and, unless the circumstances allow of some kind of 232 . ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. bodily labor, his mind must remain in a state of solitary iso lation, brooding over its morbid fancies, and utterly incompe tent to initiate any recuperative movement.” @ 47. ComPARATIVE NevRoLogy.—The Comparison of the Nervous System of other Mammals with that of Man—Of Birds—Of Reptiles— Of Amphibians—Of Fishes. Peculiar Arrangement of some Fishes. The Arrangement of the Nervous System of Mollusca—Of Radiata. 454, Animals, whatever their structure may be, have cer- tain relations with the external world; all nourish them- selves; the lowest type, as the sponge, nourishes itself, as far as the result to itself is concerned, as does man. All Vertebrates do not possess a verte- bral column, but all do possess something analogous to the spinal cord—a “ noto- chord.” The nervous system of Vertebrates is highly developed, and is composed of nerves, ganglions and a cerebro-spinal axis, or brain and spinal cord. The latter are not represented in : Invertebrates. HA 455. In other Mam- | _ mals, the relative size Fig, 156 (Owen). Base or Brain or A Horse—1, Of the cerebrum and Cerebrum. 2, Optic senelien. 3, Cerebellum. 4, Me- cerebellum, except in dulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. the lowest order, as the Duck-mole, is about the same as in man; but the sulci of the brain of other mammals are less developed than in man, and certain ganglions are comparatively larger. The Fig. 156. SS = SS LS S= LEB EE” A NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 brain of all mammals is formed on the same plan; in man alone the posterior lobe of the cerebrum overlaps the cere- bellum. In the Horse, Ox, ete., the olfactory, optic and auditory ganglions are large, and the senses of smell, sight and hearing are acute. In some animals, as the Mole, where vision is feeble, and in others where smell or hearing is ob- tuse, the ganglionic bulbs are very small and the nerves very delicate. 456. In Birds the hemispheres are not united by a corpus callosum; the cerebellum is proportionately larger than the medulla oblongata, and the comparative weight of the brain Fie. 158. Fig. 157. BRAIN oF AN ALIIGATOR.—1, Olfactory ganglia. 2, Cerebrum. 3, Optic ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. Fig. 158. BRAIN oF A Brrp.—l, Cerebrum. 2, Optic ganglion. 38, Cerebellum. 4, Medulla Oblongata. Fic. 159. BRAIN or A Fisn.—1, Olfactory ganglia 2,Cerebrum, 3. Optic ganglia. 4, Cerebellum. 5, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord. to the body is less than in mammals. The optic ganglions in birds are large, which is particularly apparent in the Eagle, Vulture and Buzzard. In these, vision is not only far-reach- ing, but acute, and the same is true, to a certain extent, of smell and hearing. 457. The brain of Reptiles is smooth and without convolu- tions. The hemispheres dare hollow, and there is no striated body. The cerebellum sends no prolongations across the 20 * 234 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. medulla oblongata, as in mammals. The optic and olfactory ganglions are, in general, large. Hearing is less complete than in mammals. 458. In Amphibians the nervous system is but slightly de- veloped. The cerebrum is small; the cerebellum is scarcely visible. 459. The brain of the Fish is small; it does not fill the whole cranial cavity, there being found within it a spongy, fatty mass. The in- vestment and protec- tion of some of the organs of special sense are modified, as seen in the eye of the deep- sea shark, where the sclerotic tunic of the eye is bony, in order to protect this organ from the great press- ure of the water. Per- haps the most won- derful arrangement is found in the electric fishes, as the com- mon Torpedo, and the Electric Eel of South America. In the lat- ter, the electric organs are composed of mem- branous tubes closely packed like honey- Fig. 160. Exectric OrGANS oF TorPeDO.—1, Brain. comb and arranged 2 Spinal cord. 3, Eye and optic nerve. 4, Spinal along the back and nerve. 5, Branchiw. 6, Electrical organ, 7, Pneumo- tails The peculiar electric property de- pends on the posterior lobe of the brain. 460. In the Annulosa, in general, each segment or ring has Fie. 160. gastric nerve. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 235 a pair of nervous ganglions. The ganglions of the nerves of special sensation, as of sight and hearing, of motion, of respira- tion and nutrition, are larger than those of general sensation. 461. The nervous system of insects is composed principally of a double series of ganglions united by longi- tudinal cords. The brain ganglions are large, and give origin to the optic nerves and the antennee. In the nervous system of the cen- tipede, whose general structure is similar to that of other articulates, the ganglions are arranged in pairs of nearly equal size, except the ganglion that answers to the brain, p14 161. Nenvove ‘Syerem oF which is larger, along the ventral te Byerte—t,1, Central gang- . lia. 2, 2,2, Nerves that connect surface of the alimentary cans. 1h) sanetia. Each pair is connected with the pre- ceding, with the integument or skin, and with the muscles of its own segment, by sensitive and motor filaments of nerves. Fie. 161. Fie. 162. Fic. 162. DIAGram OF A CENTIPEDE. 462. In Mollusca are found the ganglia and commissure arrangement, with nerves sensitive and motor, afferent and efferent, and on a plan corresponding to the body. The structure of the organs of sense is less complete than in ver- tebrate animals. Some mollusca possess only the sense of touch and taste; a great number have eyes, whose structure varies; none have yet been found possessing a special organ for smell. (Fig. 163.) 236 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 463. In the Raprata the star-fish manifests one of the simplest forms of the nervous system. It consists of a central mass, with five arms radiating from it. In the centre is the mouth, and beneath it the stomach or gastric cavity, which sends prolongations to each limb. The nervous system con- sists of five similar ganglions situated in the central portion at the base of the arms. These ganglions are connected by commissures, and each sends off nerve-filaments to the cor- responding limbs. (Fig. 164.) Fie. 163. Fig. 163. D1AGRAM OF THE TYPE OF A MOLLUSCA.—1, Csophagal ganglia. 2, Cerebral ganglia. 3, Pedal of locomotive ganglia. 4, Respiratory ganglia. Fig. 164. DIAGRAM OF A RADIATA—THE STAR-FISH. Observation 1—We have seen that in all grades of the animal king- dom the cell-structure obtains, but in the lowest forms of animal life nerve does not exist. The stimulus which the little creature receives from without would seem to produce some change in the molecular relations of its almost homogeneous substance, and these insensible’ movements collectively to amount to the sensible movement which it makes. 2.—With the differentiation of tissue and increasing complexity of organization which are met with as we ascend in the animal kingdom the nervous tissue appears, but at first under a very simple form. Its simplest type may be represented as two fibres that are connected by a nerve-cell; the fibres are apparently simple conductors, and might be NERVOUS SYSTEM. 237 aptly compared to the conducting wires of a telegraph, while the cell, being the centre in which nerve-force is generated, may be compared to the telegraphic apparatus. In it the effect which the stimulus of the afferent nerve excites is transmitted along the efferent nerve, and there- in is displayed the simplest form of that reflex action which plays so large a part in animal life. 3.—The relations of the animal kingdom afford a striking evidence of divineunity, bound together in the closest harmony, and the work of Him who was the Beginning and will be the End. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION, CHAPTER XI.—NeERvovus System. 243. Anatomy of the Nervous System.—392. What two formal characters does Nervous Tissue present? Give the arrangement and names of each. 393. How are the Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures arranged? What is included in each system? 394. Describe the Spinal Cord. What is the Medulla Oblongata? To what is this enlargement due? What may be seen in each of the lateral halves of the Medulla ObJongata? What forms the Decussation of the Anterior Pyramid? How is the Fourth Ventricle formed? 395. Where is the Cerebellum? How is the Pons Varolii formed? Describe the Inferior Peduncles of the Cerebellum. What are the Peduncles of the Cerebrum? Give the course of these bundles. How are these ganglia connected with the Spinal Cord? Of what does the Quadrigeminal Body consist? 396. What is said of the connections of all the above-mentioned ganglia? 397. How are the hemispheres of the Cerebrum united ? How are the ventricles formed? > 398. What is the relation of the Cerebrum to the other parts? How many lobes has each hemisphere? How does the surface appear? 399, How do the convolutions in the two hemispheres compare? What is a remarkable fact respecting these convolutions? 400. What is said of the Cerebellum? 401. What do the brain and spinal cord constitute? 402. Into what classes are the cerebro-spinal nerves divided? How are the motor and sensory tracts formed? 403. Distinguish between cranial and spinal nerves. 404. How are the cranial nerves arranged? 405. How many pairs of spinal nerves? How do they differ from the cranial as to their origin? Com- pare the sensitive sort with the motor. 406. What are the divisions of the spinal nerves? What are plexuses? Name them and give their formation. 407. Describe the Sympa- thetic System. 408. What isa peculiarity of the sympathetic nerves? ¢ 44. Histology of the Nervous System:—409, Name the elements of nervous tissue. 410. Describe the nerve-cells. What is aGanglion? Where are the nerve-cells found? 411. Of what do the White Fibres consist? 412. Where are the nerve-filaments distrib- uted? What is said of their individuality? How are they arranged? What their mode of termination? 413. Where are the Tubular Fibres found? What of their size? 414, What are the Gray Fibres? 415. Name the membranes of the Cerebro-spinal System. Describe the Dura Mater, Pia Mater and Arachnoid Membrane. 416. Give a further de- scription of the Dura Mater. 417. What is the Ependyma? we. ¢@ 45. Physiology of the Nervous System.—418. How is the Nervous System related to the compound nature of man? Observation. 419. What influence has this system on the different organs? 420. Speak of the connection between the Nervous Centres and the motor and sensitive fibres. Illustrate Reflex action. 421. Classify the Nervous Cen- tres. Observation. 422. What is the function of the Sympathetic Centres? 423. What is said of their connections? 424, Name and illustrate the different kinds of reflex ac- tion. Observation. 425, What is the office of the white substance of the spinal cord? 237 238 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. What that of the gray? Observations. 426. Describe the Sensational Centres. Show that these centres have an independent reflex action. Can they acquire reflex action? Observations. 427. How are these centres excited to activity? 428. What power have the Ideational Centres? Observations. 429. What is the first way in which the independent reflex action in these centres is manifested? What the second? Third? Fourth? 430. Of what are these centres the seat? 431. What relation is there between the centre of idea and that of volition? 432. What is the highest energy of which these centres are capable? 433. Upon what does the power of the Will depend? 434. What relations to the Emotions does the Will sustain? Observations. 246. Hygiene of the Nervous System.—4235. Why is a knowledge of the laws of the hygiene of this system important? 436. What agencies affect the health of this system? Name the requirements of its health and vigor. 437. What in addition to the features of parents do children inherit? May acquired habits be transmitted? Illustrations. 438. State the second requirement of health and vigor. 489. Speak of the evil of breathing impure air. 440. What are the results of improper diet? Observations. 441. What will a want of physical exercise produce? 442. By what may the nervous sys- tem be enfeebled? 443. Speak of the benefits of sleep and the amount needed. . Ob- servation. 444. Name the third requirement “of health. 445. Why is mental exercise essential? Observation. 446. Where are seen the saddest effects of an absence of stated employment? Observation. 447. To what should the amount of exercise be adapted? What is the present tendency in education? What training is essential? 448. State the effect of too long continued activity. 449. Give the influence of recreation and amusement. Observations. 450. What is essential to the highest mental vigor? What is said of the use of the imagination? 451. What attention is it important to pay to the ssthetic faculty? 452. What is the moral faculty? Upon what depend the happiness and destiny of man? 453. Give Dr. Ray's remarks concerning the hygienic influence of a Harmonious Development of the Mental Powers. 247. Comparative Neurology.—454. What is said of the Nervous System in Vertebrates and Invertebrates? 455. Compare the Nervous System in other Mammals with that in man. 456. Describe that in Birds. 457. In Reptiles. 458. In Amphibians. 459. De- scribe the brain of the Fish. What is said of the Electric Eel? 460. Describe the Nervous System in Annulosa. 461. In Insects. In the Centipede. 462. Speak of the nervous system in Mollusca, 463. Describe the nervous system in Radiata, Observa- tions. UNIFIC REVIEW. [Compare 392-408 with 454-463. ] Compare the Nervous System in man with that in the lower orders of animals. [Compare 409 and 410 with 9, 26, 27 and 30-32. ] Give the composition of nervous tissue. Describe its first element. [Compare 411-414 with 28 and 29.] Describe the White and Gray Fibres. Where are they found? [Compare 415-417 with 17, 18, 30 and 31-33. ] What tissues and what membranes belong to the Cerebro-Spinal System? What names do they assume there? [Compare 420-426 and 428 with 394, 395, 398, 402, 407 and 408.] Name the Nervous Centres. Give their functions. Speak of the Sympathetic System. [Compare 438-440 with 247,°266 and 372-374. ] What is essential to the health of the Nervous System? What is said of food and air in this connection? [Compare 441 with 183-196.] What can you say of the influence of physical exercise on the health of the Nervous System? NERVOUS SYSTEM. 239 ASS Jr ‘ ‘ c~ A AONST eS Y DN Ay y x ge) Ms Y il) We LAA { , MON, W yj ea : ce a be fn ay Nie . ps i yl a f bal \4 Ks NX oS ) ra \, Gea ig. W Sey U| ai i (See Fig. 152.) (See Fig. 158.) (See Fig. 159.) (See Fig. 161.) 240 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. Nervous Tissue. Forms, as se Arrangement, Ganglia, Nerves and Commissures, Spinal Cord, Medulla Oblongata, Cerebellum, Peduncles, Cerebrum, Corpora Striata, Optici Thalami, Corpora Quadrigesima, Corpus Callosum, Ventricles, Cerebrum H emispheres, Convolutions, Cerebro-Spi nal Nerv es, Cranial and Spinal Nerves, Sympathetic System. Nervous Tissue, Composition, Nerve-Cells, Nerve-Fibres, Membranes. Nervous System. Its relation to this nature, ee Man’s compound nature, 6 “i ‘Its rank, Nervous Centres, Function, s MS Classes, ee i Arrangement, Organic Centres. Function, «e +s Connection, 6c 6c Modes of reflex action, “ “ce Marked peculiarity, Reflex Centres. Function, 3 is Acquired action, Importance of acquired action, Sensational Centres. Character and action, ee How excited to activity Taeeonel Centres. Function, Different persons have different ideas, Ideational Centres. Independent reflex action, ee ne Emotional character, Y He Volitional, Relation of the Emotions to the Will, Influence of the body for good or evil, Language of the muscles. ‘ Agencies affecting the health, Natural heritage, Impure Air, influence of Improper Diet, “ Poisons, 4 Physical Exercise, want of Sleep, Mental Exercise, Employment, Amount of exercise, Intense Activity, Recreation, Each faculty to be educated, The Msthetic faculty, The Moral Vertebrates and Invertebrates, Nervous System, Mammals, sk it) 66 Birds, os Reptiles, = Amphibians, os Fishes, fe Annulosa, Hi Insects, = Mollusea, st Radiata, eS Lower forms of Life, % — Physiology of. Cuap. XT. Nervous System. } 2 43. Anatomy of. @ 44. Histology of. ; 2 45, 247. Comparative Neurology. = wee tiie. xe THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. UNDER this head are classed the Tongue, the Nose, the Eye, the Ear and the Tactile portions of the Nervous System. ¢@ 48. Anatomy or THE OrGANS oF SPECIAL SENSE.— The Organ of Taste—Of Smell. The Coats of the Liye. The Humors of the Eye. Lhe Muscles of the Eye. The Protecting Organs. Classification of the Organs of Hearing. The External Ear. he Labyrinth, The In- ternal Kar, The Organs of. Touch. Two Layers of Skin. The Epi- dermis. The Dermis. The Hairs. The Sebaceous Glands. The Perspiratory Glands. The Nails. 464. The organ of the Sense or Taste is the mucous membrane which covers the Tongue, especially the back part Fie. 165. Fic. 165 (Dalton). D1acraM or THE TonGuE, with its sensitive nerves and papille. 1, Lingual branch of fifth pair. 2, Glosso-pharyngeal nerve, of this organ, and the palate. Upon the upper surface of the tongue the mucous membrane has various little eminences, called papille, resembling the villi of the intestines. The principal of these are of a composite character, and present three ‘varieties—the Cirewmvallate, the Fungiform and the 21 L 241 242 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, Conical. The CrrcuMVALLATE papille are shaped like the letter V with the point turned downward, and are surrounded by an annular wall-like elevation, whence their name. They are about a dozen in number, and are found upon the pos- terior part of the tongue. The Funerrorm papille are broad Fig. 166. Fia. 166. Tax DISTRIBUTION OF THE FIFTH PAIR or Nerves.—l, The orbit for the eye. 2, The upper jaw. 8, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth pair of nerves. 6, The first branch of this nerve that passes.to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Divisions of this branch. 7, The second branch of the fifth pair of nerves is distributed to the teeth of the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch of the fifth pair that passes to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 23, The division of this branch that passes to the tongue, called the gustatory. 24, The division that is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw. at the free extremity and narrow at the base, having something of the mush- room shape, whence their name. ‘They are more numerous than the cir- cumvallate, and are scat- tered over the surface of the tongue, but are espe- cially numerous at and near thetip. The ConicaL papille are smaller and more numerous than the others, and are found in the intervals between them, arranged in rows diverging from the median line of the tongue. All the above-described papillee and the spaces between are covered with simple papille, conical in form. From those surrounding the conical papille, the squamose epithelium rises in hair-like appendages, which give a brush-like arrangement, admirably adapted to the imbibition of liquids to be tasted. These hair- like appendages give the velvety character to the surface of the tongue, and upon them the furred condition of this organ depends. Minute blood-vessels and nerves pass up into these THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 243 papilla, thus giving a large extent of sensitive surface. (Fig. 166.) Nervous filaments are received from the fifth, ninth and twelfth pairs of nerves. The branch of the fifth, called the Gust'a-to-ry, is the nerve of taste and ordinary sensibility ; the twelfth, the Hypo-glossal, of voluntary motion. By means of the ninth, the Glosso-pharyngeal, the tongue is brought into association with the fauces, esophagus and larynx. It is of obvious importance that these parts should act in concert; and this is effected by the distribution of this nerve. (Fig. 166, §§ 49, 50.) 465. The organ of the SENSE oF SMELL is a part of the delicate mucous membrane lining the Nasal Passages. These passages extend from the opening of the nostrils in front to the pharynx behind; they are high, vaulted and narrow, and separated from each other by a partition partly bony and partly cartilaginous. This double cavity is separated from the mouth by a bony floor (the hard palate), which is continued back- ward to the root of the tongue by a fleshy curtain, called the soft palate. In ordinary positions of the mouth, this palate and the root of the tongue effect a closure between the mouth and the pharynx. Each of the outer walls of the nasal chamber has three Fic. 167. A Sipe View oF THE PASSAGE OF : the NOSTRILS, AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE thin, bony PEQCESECE called Ouractory Nervse.—4, The olfactory nerve. turbinated bones, arranged _ 54, The fine divisions of this nerve on the mem- one above another, like pase of the nose, 6, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves. shelves. One of these pro- cesses is called cribriform; upon it rest the olfactory lobes, which send numerous filaments through the perforations to the mucous membrane of the two upper turbinated bones, Fie. 167. 244 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. affording the special sense of smell; the membrane of the lower bone receives a branch from the fifth nerve, which is endowed with common sensibility only ; the odor of cologne, for example, is distinguished by the olfactory nerve, and the pungency by the branch of the fifth nerve. (§§ 49, 50, Fig. 167.) 466. The chief organ of the Sense or Sieur is the Eye. The globe of the eye, or eyeball, is composed of three concen- tric envelopes, viz., the Sclerot’ica with the Cornea in front, the Cho'roidea with the Jris in front, and the Retina, which is internal. These make up most of the solid part of the eye- ball, which is a hollow sphere filled with three fluid or semi- fluid substances—the Aqueous Humor, the Crystalline Lens and the Vitreous Humor. (Fig. 168.) Fig. 168. -Fiq. 168. A SECTION oF THE GLOBE oF THE Eye.—1, The sclerotic coat. 2, The cornea. (This connects with the sclerotic coat by a beveled edge.) 3, The choroid coat. €, 6, The iris. 7,The pupil. 8, The retina. 10, 11, 11, Chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous humor. 12, The crystalline lens. 13, The vitreous humor. 15, The optic nerve. 16, The central artery of the eye. The SciEROTICA or Sclerotic Coat invests the globe of the eye, excepting the part covered with the cornea in front. It is composed of white fibrous tissue arranged in many layers, which cross each other at right angles and form a tunic of great strength. It is white, glassy and opaque, and is com- monly called “the white of the eye.” It has few blood-ves- sels, and seems destitute of nerves. (Hig. 168.) THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 245 The CnororpEa or Second Coat of the eye has some fibrous tissue like the sclerotica, but is chiefly composed of blood- vessels and pigment-cells. These cells give the coat an in- tense black color on the inside, but externally it is brown. It lines the sclerotica, and is connected with it by a delicate areolar tissue. It is perforated behind for’the passage of the optic nerve, and terminates in front in the ciliary ligament, in the anterior part of which the iris is inserted. (Fig. 168.) The Iris occupies the opening of the choroidea in front, forms a partition between the anterior and the posterior cham- bers of the eye, aud is pierced by a circular opening which is called the Pupil. It is free except at its peripheal attachments, and floats free- ly in the aqueous humor. The posterior surface of the iris or uvea is thickly cov- ered with pigment, but the anterior surface gives the color of the eye, so remark- ably and beautifully varied in different individuals, and : Fia. 169. A View oF THE ANTERIOR SEGMENT presenting numerous blend- OF A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE GLOBE OF THE ed tints of black, brown, EYE, SEEN FROM WITHIN.—1, The divided edge hilge and gray. The cy ce of the three coats—sclerotica, choroidea and retina. 2,The pupil. 3, The iris, the surface generally regarded as a _ presented to view in this section being the modification of muscular "4 ely procaws, 6, he wa tissue. It has two layers of fibres—one layer of radiating fibres, converging from the cir- cumference to the centre, the other of circular fibres. (Fig. 169.) The Crn1Ary Processes consist of a number of minute triangular folds, formed apparently by the plaiting of the internal layer of the choroid coat toward its front part. Their bases are toward the pupil, and the free portion rests against the circumference of the crystalline lens. These pro- cesses are covered with pigment-cells. (Fig, 169.) 21 * Fie. 169. 246 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. The Retina is the inner coat of the eye formed by the expansion of the optic nerve upon the inner side of the cho- roid coat, but not extending so far forward. It ends at a short distance from the ciliary ligament, in a jagged edge, from which an exceedingly fine membrane extends to the ciliary processes. Its inner surface is bounded by an exceed- ingly delicate membrane which separates it from the vitreous humor. (Figs. 168, 169.) 467. Of the three Fpoeeban: humors or liquid N substances of the eye, the AQUEOUS or watery is situ- ated in the anteri- or portion of the organ, behind the cornea.. It is an albuminous fluid, with an alkaline reaction and liquid like water. The iris is placed verti- cally in the fluid, the space between Frc. 170. Muscuzs or THE Eye.—1, The palpebral ele- jf, and the cornea Sees being the anterior _ straight muscle. 5, Inferior straight muscle. 6, External ~ chamber of the eye,. and that between — vator muscle, 2, The superior oblique. 3, The pulley through which the tendon of insertion plays. 4, Superior straight muscle. 7, 8, Its two points of origin. 9, Inter- val through which pass the oculo-motor and abducent nerves. 10, Inferior oblique muscle. 11, Optic nerve, 12, the 1rl1s and crys- Cut surface of the malar bone. 13, The nasal orifice. A s a ° > talline lens behind, The eyeball. . the posterior cham- ber. The two chambers are lined by a membrane secreting the aqueous humor. (Fig. 168.) esi The CrysTaLLINE humor or lens. is situated immediately behind the pupil, and is surrounded by the ciliary processes. It is invested by a transparent elastic membrane called the capsule of the lens. The humor is more convex on the pos- THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 247 terior than on the anterior surface. It is imbedded in the anterior part of the vitreous humor, from which it is sepa- rated by a thin membrane. The lens consists of thin layers like the coats of an onion. The external layer is soft, but each successive one increases in firmness. Observation.—W hen the crystalline lens or its investing membrane is changed in structure, preventing the rays of light from passing to the retina, the affection is called a cataract. 468. The Virreous Humor forms the principal bulk of the globe of the eye. It is an albuminous fluid resembling the aqueous humor, but is more dense, and if once discharged by disease or accident, it is irrecoverably lost, while the aque- ous humor may be lost and afterward restored. This humor is enclosed in a delicate membrane called the hy aloid, which sends processes into the interior of the globe of the eye, form- ing the cells in which the humor is retained. 469. The Muscvss of the eye are six in number. They are attached at one extremity to the orbit behind the eye; at the other extremity they are inserted by broad, thin tendons to the sclerotic coat, near the junction of the cornea. The white, pearly appearance of the eye is caused by these ten- dons. (Fig. 170.) Observation.—If the external muscle is too short, the eye is turned out, producing the “ wall eye;” if the internal muscle is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the nose, and is called a “cross eye.” 470. The Prorectinc Oreans of the eye are the Orbits, zs _ Eyebrows, Eyelids and Lach'rymal Apparatus. The Orpits are deep, bony sockets in which the globes of ~~ the eye are placed. The bottom of each orbit has a large perforation, giving passage to the optic nerve. ~These cavities are lined with a thick cushion of fat. The Eyrprows, forming the upper. part of the boundary .of the orbits, are two legunpentary. prominences covered with coarse hair. ‘The EYE ips are two- ean curtains, having a delicate skin on the outside, muscular fibres beneath, and a narrow cartilage on their edges whigh eas to preserve the shape 948 © ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. of the lid. Internally, they are lined by a smooth mucous membrane, which is reflected on the front of the eye upon the sclerotica. This membrane is called the Conjuncti'va. On the internal surface of the cartilage there are found several small glands, which have the appearance of parallel strings of pearls. They open by minute apertures upon the edges of the lids. The edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple row of hairs, called eyelashes, which curve upward from the upper lid, and downward from the lower. (Fig. 171.) Observation—When the conjunctiva is inflamed, it sometimes de- posits a whitish material called lymph, which accounts for the films, opacities and white spots seen upon the eye after the inflammation has subsided. Not unfrequently granulations form on the inside of the lids, which should receive surgical treatment before the inflammation ex- tends over the eyeball. The LacuryMAL APPARATUS which secretes the tears consists of the Lachrymal ye 3 Gland with its ducts, Lach- symal Canals and the Nasal Duct. The LacHRYMAL GLAND is situated at the outer and upper angle of the orbit, occupying a a plate of the frontal bene. Ten or twelve small ducts pass from this gland and open upon the - upper eyelid, where they pour upon the conjunctiva the lach- o rymal fluid or tears. Fic. 171. View or LACHRYMAL GLAND The LacuryMaL CANALS sy Nise Dera, Te tehrimsl eommence at the free borders rymal gland to the upper eyelid. 3, 3, of each eyelid, near the in- ae raitcagaeaten temal angle of the eye, by two minute orifices, called “‘punc’ta lach’rymalia” (tear points). Each of these ducts 7 THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 249 communicates with the sac at the upper part of the nasal duct. (Fig. 171.) The Nasaut Duct is a short canal about three quarters of an inch in length, directed downward and backward to the nose, where it terminates by an expanded orifice. The tears secreted by the lachrymal gland are conveyed to the eye by the small ducts before described. They are then taken up by the puncta lachrymalia and carried by the lachrymal canals into the lachrymal sac, from which they are passed to the nasal cavities by the nasal duct. (Fig. 171, §§ 47, 48.) Fig. 172. Fig.172. A View or THE LasyrintH Laip OpEen.—1, 1, Cochlea. 2, 2.5 3, Two canals that wind two and a half turns around a hollow axis (5). 7, Centralportion of the labyrinth (vestibule). 8, Fenestra rotunda. 9, Fenestra ovalis. 11, 12, 13,14, 15, 16, 17, 18, I'he semicircular canals. Highly magnified. 471. The Sense or HEARING does strictly belong to one organ, but to several, which are grouped into three divi- sions-—the External Ear, the Tym'panum* and the Labyrinth or Internal Ear, 2 472. The Lanyrinru is so called from its remarkable Fa * Gr., timpanon, a drum. L* 250 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and varied configuration. It is divided into three portions— the Vestibule, the Semicircular Canals and the Coch'lea.* 473. The VESTIBULE is a small and somewhat triangular cavity about the size of a grain of wheat. It is placed almost vertically in the centre of the labyrinth, and is a kind of entrance-chamber or ante-room to the semicircular canals behind the cochlea in front. (Fig. 172.) 474, The SemicircuLAR CANALS are three curved pas- sages, describing more than half a circle, and are about the twentieth of an inch in diameter. Two of them open into the vestibule at both extremities, and the third at one ex- tremity. Both the vestibule and the canals contain a trans- parent fluid like lymph, and in this fluid, without touching the walls of the cavity, floats a membranous labyrinth cor- responding in form to the bony one, but considerably smaller. It is a sheath or bag enlarged at the vestibule, and sending out prolongations into the semicircular canals on the one side and the cochlea on the other, It is filled with a lymph-like fluid of greater consistency than that in which it floats. The auditory nerve is distributed in the walls of this membranous labyrinth, and nervous filaments connect it. with its bony counterpart. (Fig. 172.) 475. In front of the vestibule is the CocHLEA, so called from its resemblance to a snail-shell. It consists of a bony canal which winds around a hollow axis nearly three times, gradually decreasing in diameter, and thus forming. a spiral Gone. The interior of the canal is divided into two passages by /a membranous partition, upon which the re- maining parts of the auditory nerve ramify. The passages are filled with lymph, and communicate with each other at the apex of the cone and at the base; one opens into the vestibule, called the Fenes'tra Ovalis; this small oval- shaped perforation is closed by a thin fibrous membrane, which prevents the escape of the fluid from the vestibule, and through it the sonorous vibrations pass to the labyrinth ; * Gr., kochlos, to twist, /951) THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. i { the other, the Fenestra Rotunda, opens into the Tympanum. (Fig. 172.) 476. The Tympanvum or middle ear is an irregular bony cavity, larger than the vestibule and just outside of it. It is separated from the external ear by a thin, semi-transparent membrane of an oval shape. This is very closely fitted into a groove between the tympanum and’ the auditory canal. The tympanum is often called the Drum of the ear, and very Fie. 173. Fie. 173. A VIEW OF ALL THE PARTS OF THE Ear.—l1, The canal that leads to the inter- nal ear. 2, The membrana tympani, 3, 4,5, The bones of the ear. 7, The central part of the labyrinth (vestibule). 8, 9, 10, The semi-circular canals. 11, 11,11, 12,12, 12, The channels of the cochlea. 13, The auditory nerve. 14, The opening from the middle ear or tympanum to the throat (Eustachian tube). appropriately, for the membrane of the tympanum is in con- tact with the atmosphere, whose sonorous vibrations beat upon it much like drumsticks upon the head of a drum. There are several openings into the tympanum, of which the largest is called the Eustachian tube, from the name of the first anat- omist who described it. It is a trumpet-shaped canal, some- what over an inch and a half long, extending from the fore 252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. part of the tympanum obliquely inward, forward and down- ward to the pharynx. The tube is lined with a ciliated epithelium continuous with that of the pharynx and tympa- num. In the tympanic cavity are three bones or ossicles, the smallest in the body, weighing only a few grains. From their resemblance to the articles, they have been named the Mallet, Anvil (attached to this bone is a little tubercle or orbicular bone, which is sometimes regarded as a separate ossicle) and Stirrup. The Mallet and Anvil articulate by a hinge joint, the Anvil and Stirrup by a ball-and-socket joint. (Fig. 173.) | 477. The ExrERNAL Ear lies outside the membrane of the tympanum. It is composed of the auditory canal and the part which projects from the head. The canal or External Mea' tus Audito'rius is partly bony and partly cartilaginous, about one inch in length and narrower in the middle than at the extremities. Short, firm hairs are stretched across the tube, preventing the ingress of foreign bodies. Beneath the thin cuticle are small follicles which secrete the Ceru’men or wax. The part of the external ear outside the cavity has numerous prominences and ridges. 478. The Sense or Toucn has its seat in the Skin. This membrane covers the whole exterior of the body, and at the margins of the apertures is directly continuous with the mu- cous membrane, which last is an integument of greater deli- cacy, but has substantially the same composition, viz., a deep fibrous, sanguine, sensitive layer, a basement membrane and an epithelium, or superficial, insensible and bloodless layer. | Thus the whole body, externally and internally, has a com- plete epithelial investment. A479, The skin consists of two layers; a superficial one, des- titute of nerves and blood-vessels, is called the Epidermis,* and a deeper layer, abundantly supplied with nerves, and highly vascular, called the Derms or Cutis Vera (true skin). (Fig. 175.) * Gr., ept, upon, and derma, skin, . . THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 253 480. The EprpEermis consists of two layers, different in many respects, one called the Cutzcle, the other the Soft Epi- _ dermis (and named by some physiologists the Rete Mucosum). The epidermis holds the same relation to the dermis that the epithelium does to the deeper layer of the mucous membrane. It varies in thickness from the thin, delicate membrane upon the internal flexions of the joints to the thickened covering of the soles of the feet. This variation is perceptible in in- fants before exercise can have had any influence. (Fig. 175.) During life the Ept- DERMIS is constantly undergoing loss, throw- ing off the superficial epidermoid scales, which are constantly renewed by fresh cells originating on the sur- Fig. 174. face of the true skin. Fia. 174. FRAGMENT oF DANDRUFF, FROM THE These gradually under- Heav.—l, Portion of dandruff consisting of non- nucleated cells. 2, Several fragments, consisting go tr ansformation from of nucleated cells. 3, Isolated cells, some with and the spherical to the flat- ‘some without nuclei. 4, A cell more highly mag- ited shape os they ap- nified, exhibiting granular contents and a nuclei. proach the surface of the cuticle. (Fig. 175.) The sOFT EPIDERMIC layer is the seat of the color of the skin. The difference between the blonde and brunette, the European and the African, lies only in the deep, newly-formed layers of the epidermis. In the whitest skin the cells of the epidermis always contain a slight aniount of the pigmentary tint, which disappears from the cells as this soft layer is transformed into the cuticle. 481. The Curict® is a translucent, horn-like membrane. Its deeper surface is continuous with the soft epidermic layer, from which it is constantly renewed. Its free surface is in- cessantly wearing away or shed in small flakes, constituting seurf or dandruff. 482. The Drermis or True Skin presents two very ees surfaces, of which the external is called the Papillary layer, 22 254 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. the internal the Oorium.* The dermis is made up of inter- lacing bundles of white areolar tissue, mixed with yellow elastic fibres. Fig. 175. Fig. 175. VerticaAL SEcTION OF THE SKIN OF THE FOREFINGER ACROSS Two OF THE RIDGES OF THE SURFACE. Highly magnified. 1, Dermis, composed of an intertexture of bundles of fibrous tissue. 2, Epidermis. 3, Its cuticle. 4, Its soft layer. 5, Subcutaneous connective and adipose tissue. 6, Tactile papille. 7, Sweat glands. 8, Duct. 9, Spiral passage from the latter through the epidermis. 10, Termination of the passage on the summit of ridge. These are so interwoven as to constitute a firm, strong and flexible web. In the superficial part the web is so close as to resemble felt cloth. In the deepest layers the network is loose, and en- closes the hair-follicles with their sebaceous glands and small masses of fat. (Fig. 175.) 483. The PAPILLARY or outer layer of the dermis is provided with a multitude of little conical-shaped projec- tions. These are prolongations of the upper compact tissue of the corium into the newly- formed layer of the epidermis. They vary in number and de- gree of development in differ- ent parts of the body. The papille are very numerous on the palm of the hand and on the free border of the lips. _ 484. The Dermis is abun- dantly supplied with blood-ves- sels, lymphatics and | nerves. Its general surface is covered with a close capillary network, from which looped vessels pro- ject and enter the papille. The lymphatics also form a close network on the surface. The nerves pass upward from the subcutaneous areolar tissue, and form, as they approach the surface, minute plexuses, * Gr., chorion, skin. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 255 from which the nerve-fibres are given off. Some of these: fibres are lost in the compact tissue of the dermis; others end, perhaps, in loops; and many pass into certain of the papille (for it is said that some of these do not receive nerve- fibres). In the papillz these fibres end in loops, or, as in the fingers, the sole of the foot, and perhaps on the red margin of the lips and the point of the tongue, they appear to terminate in small oval, condensed bodies, called tactile corpuscles, situated in the centre of the papille. In any case, it is supposed that the nerve- fibre turns back to rejoin some nervye-cell in the nervous centres. The network of nerves imbedded in the upper porous layer of the true skin is derived from nerves which take their winding course through the fat, distended open- ings of the Cortum. (Fig. 175.) 485. The minute depressions from which the hairs of the skin emerge are called the Hazr-fol- licles or sacs. They are buried in the corium. At the bottom of the follicle is a more or less elevated portion of the dermis, often forming a distinct papilla, which is destitute of cuticle. The root of the hair is composed of soft, pale and somewhat com- pressed nucleated cells; it is S ive! Fig. 176. 10 9 NTE? NWSI) c ‘ON bo GY) 70 by A NOE IE \ a ey | Nena NBER IE tee INE eH TESHNLIMEE RN e3\), PEN. HB BEE OE TBE aN) \ SEH [gee Wi Fia. 176. DiAGRAM OF STRUCTURE OF THE Root or A Hair WITHIN ITs FOL- LICLE.—1, Hair papilla. 2, Capillary vessel. 3, Nerve-fibres. 4, Fibrous wall of the hair-follicle. 5, Basement membrane. 6, Soft epidermic lining of the follicle. 7, Its elastic cuticular layer. 8, Cuticle of the hair. 9, Cor- tical substance. 10, Medullary sub- stance. 11, Bulb of the hair, composed of soft polyhedral cells, 12, Transition of the latter into the cortical sub- stance, medullary substance and cuti- cle of the hair, adherent to the lining of the follicle or root-sheath. When a hair is plucked out, the sheath adheres to it, but the vascular papilla at the bottom of the follicle remains, and a new hair is generated upon it. If the papilla is destroyed, no new hair 256 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. can be formed. All these papille, except those of the finest hairs, probably receive nervous fibrils. The part of the hair projecting above the surface is called the shaft. The shaft is usually cylindrical, but sometimes flattened. It consists of an outer part, called the cortex, composed of a single layer of imbricated scales whose edges are directed toward the point Fig. 177. : sy Sy i = Bie ay = a EE ee a Boe oe, FE \- i is uD sce 1a ii ——-— Fie. 177. Portion or A Harr FROM THE OUTER PART OF THE THIGH. Magnified. 1, Shaft of the hair covered with transverse markings indicating the project- ing edges of the cuticular, imbri- cated scales. 2, Cortical substance at the end of the hair, broken up into coarse fibres, as the result of friction of the clothing. of the hair. Beneath the cortex is the so-called fibrous part of the hair, which constitutes its bulk, and con- sists of fusiform cells clustered into flattened fibres, running Jongitudi- nally and intermixed with pigment granules. Lastly, the very deepest cells, occupying the centre of the. shaft and constituting the pith, are not elongated, but polyhedral and loosely connected together, and containing chiefly pigment or fat granules. (Fig. 176.) 486. Each hair-follicle receives, in nearly all cases, the ducts of two Sebaceous or Oil-Glands, which are situated in the dermis. They are found only where hairs exist. Each gland is a flask-shaped body, com- posed of from five to twenty little sacs, clustered around and leading into a common duct. These glands are lined by a fine epithelium, and the unctuous secretion first anoints the hair-bulb, and then oozes out upon the neighboring surface of the cuticle. The sebaceous glands are of considerable size. (Figs. 176, 178.) 487. Immediately beneath the skin, over the whole surface of the body, there are a multitude of little glandular bodies, called Perspiratory or Sweat Glands. Each gland consists of THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 257 a minute, cylindrical, spiral duct, which passes inward through the epidermis, and terminates in a globular coil, in the deeper meshes of the true skin. The opening of the duct upon the cuticle is called the “pore.” This aperture is oblique in direction, and possesses all the advantages of a valvular open- ing, preventing the ingress of foreign injurious substances to the interior of the duct or gland. It is estimated that six thousand glands exist on every square inch of surface, and the combined length of the glandular tubing in the body is between two and three miles. These glands, coming in con- Fie. 178. Fic. 178. Or-Guanps AND Ducts, magnified thirty-eight diameters. 1, A, Oil-gland from the scalp; B, Its duct. 2, A, Two glands from the skin of the nose; B, Common duct. 3, A, Oil-gland from the nose; B, The duct filled with the peculiar animalcule of the oily substance; the heads are directed inward. 4, A, Cluster of oil-glands around the shaft of the hair (C); B, Ducts. tact with the capillary blood-vessels, receive a watery fluid (the perspiration) from the blood. The formation of per- spiration is constant, but usually evaporation takes place as fast as it reaches the surface. This is called the “ insensible transpiration” of the skin. (Figs. 178, 175.) 488. The Narzs are horny appendages of the skin, and correspond with the hoofs and claws of animals. They are flexible, translucent plates continuous with the epidermis, 22 * 4 ~ 258 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. and rest on the depressed surface of the dermis, called the matrix or bed. By maceration or severe scalding, even in life, the nail is detached with the epidermis. | The horny layer of the nail answers to the cuticle; it is com- Fig. 179. A SEcTION OF THE END OF posed of numerous layers of flat- THE FINGER AND NaiL.—4, Section of tened, nucleated cells or scales, the last bone of the finger. 5, Fat, hile th ft] A d forming the cushion at the end of the we ite ©1866 AYRE, COFTERPORGS finger. 2, The nail. 1,1, The cuticle with the deep parts of the epi- continued under and around the root dermis. and is made u of deli- of the nail at 3, 3, 3. ? Pp cate polyhedral, nucleated cells. The nails increase in length by the constant addition of cells at the root; they grow in thickness by the formation of cells on the under surface. This double development explains why nails are thickest at their most convex portion. (Fig. 179.) 2 49. Puystonocy or THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE.—Primary Use of the Sense of Taste—Of Smell. Some of the Laws of Light. The Adaptation of the Eye to the Laws of Light. Cause of Short-sighted- ness—Of Long-sightedness—Defect remedied. Functions of the different Coats of the Eye. The Accessory Parts of the Eye. Hearing. Fune- tions of the External Ear—Auditory Canal—Eustachian Tube—Cochlea and Semi-circular Canals. Sounds reach the Fluid of the Labyrinth by two Paths. Special Organ of the Sense of Touch. Functions of the © Skin. Use of the Epidermis—Of the Cuticle—Of Cutaneous Papille. Vessels of the Corium. Function of the Outl-glands. Uses of Per- spiration. 489. The primary use of the SENsE or TASTE is to guide animals in the selection of food, that noxious articles may not be introduced into the stomach. In man this sense has been so abused and perverted by the introduction of condiments and the endless admixture of different articles of food, that the natural action seems to have been almost entirely super- seded by acquired taste. This sense becomes very acute by cultivation, as may be seen in those persons whose business it THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 259 is to judge of the qualities of certain articles by the taste, as tasters of wine, tea, ete. The acuteness of taste, however, varies in different persons according to the sapid bodies them- selves. (§§ 48, 50.) Observation.—Hard, insoluble substances haye no taste; hence, what- ever is tasted must be in the fluid form or in solution in some other liquid. For this reason the various movements of the tongue, to facil- itate actual contact of substances to be tasted with the lining membrane of the mouth and fauces, show that we should eat slowly, dissolve the food and mingle it with the saliva, as not only a source of physical en- joyment but essential to health. 490. In man the SensE oF SMELL is one of inferior im- portance. It furnishes the mind with but few ideas, and these are mostly subservient to his physical well-being. This sense leads us to avoid disagreeable odors or putrescent food, and, when acute, to escape the injurious effects of many vapors which endanger health. (§§ 48, 49.) Observation.—The sense of smell is possessed in greater perfection by some of the lower animals than by man. Odors are perceived by them that are imperceptible to us. A dog will follow his master’s footsteps through crowded streets, distinguishing their odor from different trav- elers. Some animals when disturbed emit a disagreeable odor, which ‘serves as a means of defence. 491. The SrrucruRE OF THE EYE is beautifully adapted to the laws of light, a few of which it is necessary for us to notice. When light passes through a medium of unvarying density, the rays are in straight lines, but when it passes from a me- dium of one density into another of different density, they are refracted or bent from a straight course unless striking the medium perpendicularly, when they are unchanged. When light passes from one medium to another having a convex or concave surface instead of a flat surface, a great degree of refraction is produced, and the greater the curva- ture, the greater will be the amount of refraction. (§§ 48, 50.) Illustration 1.—Fit a convex lens in an opening of the shutter of a darkened room; the rays of light will cross each other in the lens, and an inverted image of any object outside, as a tree or house, will be 260 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. reflected upon a screen placed in the room at a certain distance in front of the lens. The exact point where the image is most distinct is called the focus of the lens, and the distance from the lens to the image the focal distance. Now, in the eye the pigment of the choroid coat gives the darkened room, the retina the screen, the pupil is the opening in the shutter, and the three humors are the curved lenses. The rays of light from any object cross each other, and an inverted image is formed on the retina. 492. The shape of the cornea and aqueous humors is con- vexo-concave, the vitreous humor is concavo-convex, while the crystalline humor or lens is convexo-convex. It may at first seem that only one lens is necessary, but light is com- posed of three primary colors which are not equally refracted by the same lens; hence, there would be upon the edges of any single lens prismatic colors, which would interfere with the distinctness of the image. This’is obviated by the adapta- tion of the curvatures of the lenses to the different colors. 2.—Suppose our object outside the darkened room to be at that distance from the lens which will give a distinct image upon the screen; now, if the object approach the lens, the image will be indis- tinct unless a more convex lens be substituted for the first, or the dis- tance between the lens and screen be increased. If the object recede, the image will be indistinct unless a less convex lens be substituted for the first, or the distance be lessened between the lens and screen. 493. By a very nice adjustment the eye is able to change the convexity of its lenses, and also to vary the focal distances, thereby adapting it to a wide range of vision. This is ac- complished by the ciliary ligament and the muscular fibres connected with the ciliary processes, which change the curv- ature of the crystalline lens and the cornea by compression at the circumference, and at the same time throw the lens forward, increasing the distance between it and the retina. The iris also aids in-adapting the eye to different distances. It contracts when viewing a near object and dilates when viewing one more remote. Observation. When the cornea or crystalline lens is too convex or the latter is too far from the retina, short-sightedness is produced, and the defect is measurably remedied by the use of concave glasses; when THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 261 there is too little convexity, long-sightedness is the result, and convex glasses should be used. In old age, the humors being deficient in quantity, cause the flattening of the convex parts, hence the need of convex glasses. In the selection of glasses the lens for each eye should be chosen separately, as the foci of the two eyes do not usually exactly correspond ; therefore a lens that will suit one eye may strain the other. 494. The Sclerotic Coat gives form to the eye, and serves for the attachment of the muscles which move the eye in various directions. The movements of the two eyeballs are always simultaneous and harmonious, but sometimes not symmetrical. The function of the pigment of the choroid coat is to absorb all the luminous rays not necessary for vision. Illustration —* If the sclerotic and choroid coats be carefully dissected off from the posterior part of the eye of an ox or any other large quad- ruped, leaving only the retina, and the eye so prepared be placed in a hole in a window-shutter, in a darkened room, with the cornea on the outside, all the illuminated objects of the external scene will be beauti- fully depicted, in an inverted position, on the retina. Few spectacles are more calculated to raise our admiration than this delicate picture which Nature has, with such exquisite art and with the finest touches of her pencil, spread over the smooth canvas of the expansion of the optic nerve—a picture which, though scarcely occupying a space of half an inch in diameter, contains the delineation of a boundless scene of earth and sky, full of all kinds of objects, some at rest and others in motion, yet all accurately represented as to their forms, colors and posi- tion, and followed in all their changes without the least interference, irregularity or confusion.” 499. The Accessory Parts of the Eye are of two kinds; the one designed to protect the eyeball, the other to move it and give the required direction to fulfill its office. To enable the eye to move in all directions without friction, it is placed on a cushion of fat which lines the bony orbit, thus protecting the globe on all sides except in front; here are the Eyelids, which by their alternate movement of depression and eleva- tion spread over the front of the eyeball a watery secretion, by which its surface is constantly bathed, and its brilliancy and transparency kept unimpaired. By the contraction of a small ring-like muscle (the Orbicu- laris) the eyelids quickly draw together, and as they instantly 262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. separate, the secretion from the lachrymal gland is diffused over the conjunctiva. During life this muscle is ever active and watchful for the safety of the eye. When cinders or dust get under the eyelids, it irritates the conjunctiva, and the movements of winking are very rapid. A viscid fluid is spread along the margin of the lid, which prevents the tears running over the eyelid. The Cilia or Eyelashes so interlace that protection is given the eye from light substances floating in the air. The Eye- brows assist in shading the eyes when exposed to strong light, and they lend expression to some emotions of the mind. 496. Hrarina is that function by which we obtain a knowledge of the vibratory motions of bodies, which consti- tute sounds. Independent of the sense of hearing, sound, as sound, has no existence in nature. | 497. The External Ear collects the waves of sound and re- flects them on the membrane of the tympanum; this mem- brane facilitates their transmission to the chain of bones in — the tympanum, to the walls of the cavity and to the air it contains; from the stirrup to the oval window; from this membrane the vibrations are communicated to the fluid of the labyrinth, until finally they are received by the expan- sion of the auditory nerve, by which the sensation is commu- nicated to the brain. 498. The function of the Auditory Canal is to receive and conduct sonorous vibrations to the membrane of the tympa- num, ‘This membrane is admirably adapted for the recep- tion of atmospheric sound-waves. In hearing, the air in the tympanic cavity plays an important part; the design of the Eustachian tube is evidently to allow of equal atmospheric pressure upon both sides of the membrana tympani. The complicated communications of the internal ear contain the highly important parts of the organ of hearing. The Vesti- bule is the part essential to the simplest exercise of this sense. The Cochlea and Semicircular canals, or rather their contained membranous canals, receive vibrations through the mixed membranous and bony tympanic apparatus. It is asserted by THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 263 some physiologists that sound is communicated through the cranial bones; the transmission, however, through the solid bones of the head, if it exists, is effected with difficulty. 499. By this sense, therefore, we distinguish the quality, intensity, pitch, duration and direction of sonorous impulses. - The delicacy with which these distinctions are appreciated varies in different individuals. The complication and finish of the auditory apparatus, and the perfection and delicacy of its action, are second only to those of vision. 500. The Sense or Toucs, though common to all parts of the Skin and adjoining mucous membranes, has for its special organ the hand. It is most admirably adapted to its office, by reason of the number, size, arrangement, structure and abundant nervous supply of its papillee. Observation.—In some animals, the tongue, in others, feelers, tenta- cula or a prolongation of the nose are the instruments of touch. 501. The functions of the Skin are threefold: 1st, As a Protecting membrane; 2d, As a Medium for the distribution of the tactile nerve-filaments; and 3d, As an Eliminating organ. Investing as it does the entire surface of the body, following all its curves and prominences, arranged in layers differing in function, structure and vitality, the skin becomes an envelope of harmonious unity in appointment and end. 502. The uses of the Epidermis are various. It serves to cover and protect the delicate sensitive parts beneath it; to prevent the too rapid escape of heat; and to restrain the evaporation of the fluids of the skin and its appendages, at the same time that it furnishes a medium through which these secretions can reach the surface of the body. Observation.—The cuticle is constantly destroyed and replaced, as is proved by the disappearance from the skin of such stains as those pro- duced by nitrate of silver, or the scales thrown off after.some acute dis- eases, as scarlatina. The restoration of the cuticle is observed after the process of vesication by blisters, and in consequence of burns and scalds. By these means large patches of cuticle are removed; but they are re- newed in short time, under favorable circumstances. The pigmentary substance is also capable of rapid reproduction. 264 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 503. In the Corium or internal layer of the skin resides vitality. Here the arteries of the skin penetrate from be- neath, and end in a capillary network; the veins emerging from the skin are more numerous and much larger than the arteries. The skin is abundantly supplied with nerves, but their mode of termination has not been accurately ascer- tained. 504. ‘Fhe surface of the skin possesses the power of absorb- ing both liquids and vapors. The principal, if not sole, agents of this function on the surface of the body are the cutaneous Lymphatic vessels, which are active in proportion to the tenuity or absence of the cuticle. To a slight extent the skin is a respiratory membrane in man, giving off car- bonic gas and actually absorbing oxygen. 505. The Sebaceous matter from the Oil-glands anoints the hairs with oil in their progress of growth from the skin, and also imbues the cuticle, by which it is rendered repellent of water. The oiliness of the surface of the skin, occasioned by this material, permits the ready adhesion of dust and dirt, and necessitates the use of soap for the easy removal of its excess. This oily product often becomes inspissated and dis- tends the glands, most frequently in the face, and especially on the nose, and at the mouths of the ducts it becomes mixed with dust. When pressed out it assumes the spiral form of the duct; hence it is commonly taken for a worm. In the healthiest individuals the sebaceous matter contains a curious parasite, called the “ pimple mite.” 506. The uses of the Perspiration or sweat are twofold: 1st, To free the system of a certain quantity of water; and 2d, To eliminate from the body certain special products of chemical changes. The quantity of perspiration exhaled by different parts of the body differs widely. Its general quantity is influenced both by intrinsic and extrinsic conditions; thus, it is aug- mented by increased vascularity of the skin, by a higher temperature of the body, by a quicker circulation, and there- fore by exercise and effort generally. Perspiration may also THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 265 be induced by additional covering of the body, and also by peculiar conditions of the nervous system. 507. Of the external conditions which modify the quantity of perspiration, the condition of the atmosphere is most im- portant. Thus, in warm air the activity of the cutaneous circulation is increased, which increases the perspiration, whilst cold air has the opposite effect; again, dry air in- creases the perspiration, whilst damp air diminishes it. Simple warmth acts by increasing the vascular action through the skin, whilst dryness operates by maintaining a constant evaporation from this membrane; on the other hand, cold diminishes the vascularity of the skin, and damp- ness of the air impedes evaporation. The combination of moisture with heat, however, increases the exhalation by the skin, which then appears in large drops. Large quantities of warm drinks also increase perspiration. Observation.—The skin is said to regulate the quantity of fluid given off by the kidneys and the quantity of fluid left in reserve in the blood and soft tissues generally, but the kidneys should rather be regarded as the true regulators. . Observation shows that in cold weather the skin exhales less and the kidneys excrete more fluid, while in warm weather the skin eliminates more and the kidneys less. 508. The use of the non-vascular and insensible outgrowth of the epidermis, the Hair, is protection ; and the function - of the Nails is not only protection, but support to the yield- ing softness of the flesh at the finger-tips. When they reach exactly to the extremities of the fingers, they then fulfill the intention for which they were made, by enabling the fingers to hold both small and hard substances, and to tear and peel off skins of vegetables or animals. They are called into action where nicety of execution is required in art. 23 M 266 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. ¢ 50. HyYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENsE.—Perversion of the Sense of Taste—Of Smell. How the Eye should be Used. Causes of Amaurosis. The Effect of Continued Oblique Position of the Hye— Viewing Objects at Different Distances. Bathing the Eye—Removal of Dust. Causes of Defective Hearing. Parts Essential to Hearing. Clothing. Kind of Material for Clothing. Class of Persons that need more Clothing. Cleanliness of Clothing. Bathing—Modes of Bathing —Time for Baths—General Rules for Bathing— Water a Curative Agent. Air Beneficial to the Skin. Effect of Light on the Skin. 509. The Sense of Taste becomes perverted by the im- moderate use of stimulants and condiments. These indul- gences lessen the sensibility of the nerve. In children this sense is usually acute, and their preference is for food of the mildest character. Observation.—This sense is varied more than any other by the refine- ments of social life; thus, the Indian’s like or dislike regarding par- ticular articles of food generally extends to every individual of the tribe, but among civilized men no two persons are alike in all their tastes. 510. The Sense of Smell may become impaired by being frequently and powerfully stimulated by pungent articles, as “smelling salts ;” also catarrh, or any influence that thickens the mucous membrane or renders it dry, diminishes the sensi- bility of the nerve of smell. Hence, the sense becomes very obtuse to persons addicted to the pernicious habit of “snuff taking.” ef 511. The Eye is a delicate organ, requiring care to preserve it in health; like other organs of the body, it should be exer- cised and then rested. The observance of this rule is par- ticularly needful to those whose eyes are predisposed to inflammation. If the eye be used too long at one time, it becomes wearied and the power of vision diminished. On the contrary, if not called into exercise, its functions are en- feebled or permanently impaired. 512. Sudden transitions of light should be avoided. The iris enlarges or contracts according to the degree of light, but the change is not instantaneous. Hence the imperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim light; an overwhelming sensa- tion is experienced when passing from a dimly-lighted apart- THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 267 ment to one brilliantly illuminated. A common cause of Amaurosis, or paralysis of the retina, is using the eye for a long time in a very intense light. 513. Long-continued oblique position of the eye should be avoided, or it may produce an unnatural contraction of the muscles called into action, producing squinting or strabismus. Observation.—The vision of a cross eye is always defective, as only one eye is used in viewing the object toward which the attention is directed. The defect is remedied by a surgical operation. Children should not be allowed to imitate the “cross eye,” as what is intended to be but temporary may become permanent. S14. The eye of the child should be trained to view objects at different distances. The ciliary muscles are as capable of education as any others, and may be made to act very effi- ciently in adapting the lenses of the eye to view near or re- mote objects. Care on the part of the instructor and parent regarding the distance from the eye at which the child should hold his book or work would save many cases of de- fective vision. Observation 1.—Bathing the eye in tepid or cold water is beneficial, pro- vided the eye be gently wiped and’ usually toward the inner angle; also to remove the secretion from the lachrymal gland that sometimes collects at this angle, as it contains saline matter. 2.—Particles of dust or cinders should be removed from the eye by means of soft linen or silk. If the substance is concealed beneath the upper lid, take a smooth rod, like a knitting needle, place it over the upper lid in contact with and just under the edge of the orbit; hold it firmly by means of the lashes, turn the lid gently back over the needle, and remove the intrusive substance. If unsuccessful, too many attempts should not be made, as inflammation may be induced, but: consult a surgeon immediately. 515. The Sense of Hearing, like the other senses, is capable of great improvement. By cultivation, the blind are able to judge with great accuracy of the distance of bodies in motion, and even of the height of buildings. ‘The Indian will distin- guish sounds inaudible to the untrained ear. 516, Hearing may be impaired by the destruction of the membrane of the tympanum. The obstruction of the Eusta- 268 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. chian tube is not unfrequently the cause of defective hearing. By its closure, the vibratory effect of the air within the tym- panum is diminished in the same manner as in the closure of the side of a drum. Enlarged tonsils, inflammation of the faxuces and nasal. passages, often attend and follow colds and attacks of scarlet fever, etc. For such deafness, remedial means should be directed by a skillful physician. Observation.—The nostrums for the cure of deafness are usually of an oily character, and may be useful in cases of defective hearing caused by an accumulation of wax in the external canal of the ear; but a few drops of any animal oil will serve the purpose as efficiently. 517. In hearing, the integrity of the drum of the ear is not absolutely essential for the due performance of the function. The loss of the small bones does not necessarily cause deafness unless the stirrup is diseased; but if the auditory nerve or membranous vestibule becomes diseased, there is no remedial agent for the loss of hearing. 518. The Hygiene of the Skin, the chief organ of the Sense of Touch, holds important relation to the general health of the body. To maintain its healthy action in every part, attention must be given to Clothing, Bathing, Light and Arr. 519. CLorure is chiefly useful in preventing the escape of too much heat from the body, and in protecting the body from exposure to the evil effects of a varying temperature of the atmosphere. In selecting and applying clothing, the fol- lowing should be observed : 520. The material for clothing should be a bad conductor of heat. As air is a non-conductor, material should be chosen which is capable of retaining much air in its meshes, and as moisture increases the conducting power, the material should not be such as will absorb or retain moisture. Observation—Furs retain much air in their meshes and absorb scarcely any moisture, and consequently are well adapted to those sub- ject to the great exposures of very cold climates. Woolen cloth, next to furs and eider down, retains the most air and absorbs the least moisture ; hence it is a good article of apparel for all persons, unless too irritable to an over-sensitive skin. In that case the flannel may be lined with cotton, or silk may be substituted. When of sufficient body or thick- THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 269 ness, silk is a good article for inner clothing, excepting when it pro- duces too much disturbance of the electricity of the system. Next to these articles, cotton is well adapted for garments worn next the skin. Linen should never be worn by persons in any way enfeebled, even in warm weather or in hot climates. It is a good conductor of heat and readily absorbs moisture; hence, with such covering, the body is sur- rounded by a layer of moisture instead of air. 521. The clothing should be both porous and loosely fitted. The necessity of porous clothing is seen in the wearing of India-rubber overshoes. In a short time the hose and under- boot become damp from retained perspiration. The residual matter thus left in contact with the skin is reconveyed into the system by absorption, causing headache and other dis- eases. Unimpeded transpiration, and a layer of air secured by loose clothing, enable the skin to imbibe oxygen, which gives it tone and vigor. Observation.—As the design of additional clothing is to enclose a series of strata of warm air, we should, in going from a warm room into cold air, put on our extra covering some time previous to going out, that the layers of air which we carry with us may be warmed by the heat of the room, and not borrowed from the heat of the body. 922. The clothing must be suited to the state of the atmosphere and to the condition of the individual. Sudden changes of temperature should be regarded; but it is usually unsafe to make changes from thick to thin clothing, excepting in the morning, when the vital powers are in full play. The even- ing usually demands an extra garment, as the atmosphere is more cool and damp, and we have also less vital energy than in the early part of the day. Observation.—Many a young lady has laid the foundation of a fatal disease by exchanging the thick dress, warm hose and shoes for the flimsy fabric, thin hose and shoes which are considered suitable for the ball-room or party. All sudden changes of this kind are attended with hazard, which is proportionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the system when the change is made. 923. The child and the aged person require more clothing than the vigorous person of middle age. Judging from ob- servation, we should infer that children needed less clothing 23 * 270 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. than adults. The exposure to which the vain and thoughtless mother subjects her child very frequently lays the foundation for future disease. Those who have outlived the energies of adult life also need special care regarding a proper amount of clothing. Observation.—The system of “hardening” children, of which we some- times hear, is as inhuman as it is unprofitable. To make the child robust and active, he must have nutritious food at stated hours, free exercise in the open air, and be guarded from the cold by proper apparel. 524. When a vital organ is diseased, more clothing is needed. In consumption, dyspepsia, and even headache, the skin usually is pale and the extremities cold, because less heat is generated. Persons suffering from these complaints need more clothing than those with healthy organs. 525. Persons of active habits need less clothing than those of sedentary employment. Exercise increases the circulation of the blood, consequently the vital activities become more energetic, and more heat is produced. We need less clothing when walking than when riding. 526. The clothing should be kept clean. Some portion of the transpired fluids of the body must necessarily be absorbed by the clothing; hence, warmth, cleanliness and health re- quire that it should be frequently changed and thoroughly washed. Under-garments worn through the day should not be worn through the night, nor the reverse. When taken from the body, such garments should not be hung in the closet or put into the drawer, but exposed to a current of fresh air. The covering of beds should be thoroughly aired every morning, and frequently renewed. 527. Damp clothing is injurious. All articles from the laundry should be well aired before being worn. When the clothing is wet by accident or exposure, it should be changed immediately, unless the person is exercising so vigorously as to prevent the slightest chill. When the exercise ceases, the body should be rubbed with a dry crash towel till a thorough reaction takes place. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 271 Beds and bedding that have not been used for some weeks become damp, and should be dried before use. A hostess cannot be guilty of a more inhospitable act than that of sending her guest to her fine guest-chamber, to occupy a bed which has been long unused, 528. Baruina is indispensable to sound health as well as to cleanliness. The skin soon becomes covered with a mix- ture of perspirable matter, oil and dust, which, if allowed to remain, interferes with the action of the skin as an excretory organ. ‘This increases the action of the lungs, kidneys, liver, etc., which take upon themselves the excretory work which the skin fails to perform. By overwork they soon become diseased, and if it is continued, the result will be consumption and other diseases of the vital organs. Again, obstruction of the pores will prevent respiration through the skin, and deprive the blood of one source of its oxygen and one outlet of its carbonic acid. 529. Bathing gives tone and vigor to the internal organs. When cool water is applied to the body, the skin instantly shrinks and the whole of its tissue contracts. This contrac- tion diminishes the capacity of the blood-vessels, and a por- tion of the blood is thrown upon the internal organs. The nervous system is stimulated, and communicates its stimulus to the whole system. This causes a more energetic action of the heart and blood-vessels, and a consequent rush of blood back to the skin. This is the state termed reaction, the first object and purpose of every form of bathing. By this re- action the internal organs are relieved, respiration is light- ened, the heart is made to beat calm and free, the tone of the muscular system is increased, the appetite is sharpened, the mind more clear and strong, and the whole system seems to possess new power. Regularity in bathing is necessary to produce permanently good effects. Observation 1.—The simplest modes of bathing are by means of the sponge or the shallow baths. The body may be quickly sponged over, wiped dry and followed by friction. The water may be warm or cold. If cold, the bath should be taken in the early part of the day, and - 272 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. followed by exercise. If exercise cannot be taken, the individual should rest under covering. The warm bath should usually be taken just be- fore retiring. If taken at other hours, it should be followed by rest from half an hour to one hour under proper covering. 2.—The shallow bath, in which the body is partly immersed in water, is very pleasant and safe, provided the bather exercises in it by vigorous rubbing and does not remain too long. For a cold bath it is not often safe to exceed five minutes, and with delicate persons the time should rarely exceed two or three minutes. A bath is considered cold when below 75°; temperate, from 75° to 85°; tepid, from 85° to 95°. This and every other form of bath should be followed by thorough friction with a coarse towel or flesh-brush. 530. The frequency of bathing must depend upon the con- dition and occupation of the individual. Daily bathing may be practiced with profit by most persons, but to the studious and sedentary it is in most cases’absolutely indispensable. 531. The hour for ablution is of importance. It should neither immediately precede nor follow a meal. The same is true of severe. mental and muscular exercise. The bath is less beneficial in the afternoon than the forenoon. The best time for cold baths is two or three hours after breakfast. The system is then at “ flood-tide,” while from that time till the retiring hour the tide is ebbing; hence, the worst time for a cold bath is at bed-time. For those who cannot choose their time, the hour of rising will answer very well—that is, for many persons, especially if they become accustomed to the use of water by beginning at another and a better hour. If the mind and body are brightened by the early bath, and an exhilaration follows, the bath is beneficial; if, on the con- trary, languor follows, and the skin looks blue or too pale, it is injurious. That the bath is to be followed by exercise must not be forgotten. 532. In diseases of the skin, and many chronic ailments of the internal organs, bathing is a remedial measure of great power. In disease which has baffled the skill of physicians depending wholly upon internal remedies, the effect of a systematic course of baths is often surprising. Like other curative means, the baths should be directed by those who THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 973 thoroughly understand the use of water as a remedial agency. Matters of diet, exercise, etc., require adaptation to the treat- ment of the particular case. Those who desire the full benefit of these means must avail themselves of the appliances of a well-conducted hygienic establishment, Observation 1—A few simple rules must be observed in bathing. The face and head should be wet in cold water before the bath. Cool baths should not be taken when the person is chilly, perspiring or greatly fatigued. All general baths should be taken briskly, the skin well rubbed and quickly dried, followed by a healthy glow over the whole body. Exercise should immediately follow all baths. Warm baths at night should be taken just before retiring; at other hours they should be followed immediately by rest, under coverings, after which exercise should be taken. 2.—Soap is admirably adapted to the removal of dirt from the skin, but if it is too freely used on the general surface of the body, it dissolves the oily exndation of the sebaceous glands, leaving the skin dry or wrinkled. The external epithelial cells may be removed too rapidly when soap is used in excess, consequently the skin is not properly protected. 533. Pure Arr is an agent of great importance in the functions of the skin. It imparts to this membrane some oxygen, and receives from it carbonic acid gas. It likewise removes perspiration and portions of the oily secretion. 534, Ligutr exercises a very salutary influence upon the skin. It is no less essential to the vigor of animal than of vegetable life. Dwelling-houses should be built with refer- ence to the free admission of sunlight and air into all occu- pied rooms. The dark, damp rooms so much used by indi- gent families and domestics in cities and large villages are fruitful causes of vice, poverty and suffering. Ladies often suffer s seriously from too much exclusion of sunlight. Ex- cepting in very warm weather, they should practice: sitting or exercising in the full sunshine of the out-door world. M#*. 274 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. ANALYTIC EXAMINATION. What are classed under Organs of Special Sense? CHAPTER XEI.—THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. ¢ 48. Anatomy of the Organs of Special Sense.—464. What is the organ of the sense af Taste? Give a description of the Tongue. From what nerves are filaments received ? 465. Describe the organ of the sense of Smell. Mention the nerves. 466. What is the tye? Name its parts. Of what service is the Sclerotica? Describe the Choroidea. What is said of the Iris? Of what do the ciliary processes consist? What is the Retina? 467. Describe the Aqueous Humor. Crystalline lens. Observation. 468. What is the Vitreous Humor? Distinguish between it and Aqueous Humor. 469. Speak of the muscles of the Eye. Observation. 470. What are the Orbits? Eyebrows? Eyelids? Observation. Of what does the Lachrymal Apparatus consist? Where is the Lachrymal Gland situated? Describe the Lachrymal Canals. Nasal Duct. 471. What is said of the sense of Hearing? 472. Why the Labyrinth so called? Give its divisions. 473. Describe the Vestibule. 474. Describe the Semicircular Canals. What is contained in the Vesti- bule and canals? 475. Speak of the Cochlea. 476. What is the Tympanum? Why called the Drum? Where is the Eustachian Tube? What are found in the tympanic cavity? 477. Describe the External Ear. 478. What is the seat of the sense of Touch? What is said of the Skin? 479. Of what does the skin consist? 480. Of what does the Epidermis consist? Give the relation of the Epidermis to the Dermis. What change does the Epidermis experience? What is the seat of color? 481. What is the Cuticle? 482. What is said of the Dermis? 483. Describe the Papillary layer. 484. Speak of the blood-vessels, lymphatics and nerves of the Dermis. 485. Describe the Hair-Follicles. Describe the different parts of a hair. 486. Describe the Oil-Glands. 487. Where are the Sweat-Glands? What are “pores”? What is “insensible transpiration”? 488, Speak of the Nails. Of what is the horny part composed? How do they grow? ?49. Physiology of the Organs of Special Sense-—489. State the primary use of the sense of Taste. What is said of this sense in man? What is the effect of cultivation? Observation. 490. Is the sense of Smell] one of great importance? Why not? Observa- tion. 491. When light passes through different media, to what changes are its rays sub- ject? What effect have convex or concave surfaces? Illustration. 492. Give the shape of those parts of the eye which act as media. State the use of so many lenses. Illustration. 493. How is the eye able to change the convexity of its lenses and vary its focal distances? Observation. 494. What is the function of the Sclerotic coat? What that of the pigment of the Choroid coat? Illustration. 495. Speak of the accessory parts of the eye. 496, What is Hearing? 497. What is the function of the External Ear? 498. What that of the Auditory Canal? State the design of the Eustachian Tube. Give the uses of the Vestibule, Cochlea and Semicircular Canals. 499. What are distinguished by this sense? How does this apparatus compare with that of vision? 500, Speak of the special organ of the sense of Touch. Observation. 501. State the threefold functions of the skin. 502. Give the uses of the Epidermis, Observation. 503. Where does vitality reside? Why there? 504, What power does the surface of the skin possess? 505. What are the uses of the oil derived from the oil-glands? 506. State the uses of Perspiration. By what is the quantity influenced? 607. What is the influence of the condition of the atmosphere. Observation. 508. Give the functions of the Hair and Nails. 250. Hygieneof the Organs of Special Sense.—509. What perverts the sense of Taste? Observation. 510. By what may the sense of Smell become impaired? 511. What care is necessary in using the eye? 512. What is said in regard to sudden transitions of light? ~ 518. What should be avoided? Observation. 514. How should the eye of the child be trained? Observations. 515. Can the sense of Hearing be improved? 516. How may this sense be impaired? Observation. 517. What parts are absolutely essential,. and what not? 618. To what must attention be given to maintain a healthy action of the THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 2715 skin? 519. What is said of the use of clothing? 520. Of what material should it be Observation. 521. Why should the clothing be porous and loosely fitted? Observation 522. To what must it be suited? Observation. 523. Who require the more clothing ? Observation. 524. What is said of clothing when a vital organ is diseased? 525. What persons need less clothing? 526. What is said of cleanliness of the clothing? 527. What of damp clothing? 528. What is indispensable to health? 529. What effect has bathing on the internal organs? 530, Upon what must depend the frequency of bathing? 531, What should the time be? 532. In what diseases is bathing of great importance? Observations. 5383. State the influence of pure air. 534. What influence does light exercise ? 276 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, RrasLs0 Fig. 180. A REPRESENTATION OF THE BRAIN, SPINAL CoRD AND SPINAL NERVES.— 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 8,3, Spinal cord. 4, The sciatic nerve. A. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ULFACTORY Nerve.—l, 2, Nerve of smell. B. Optic Nerve.—l15, The nerve of vision. C. Tur Gustatory Nerve.—l, 2, 3, 4, Branches of the nerve of taste. D. Aupirory Nerve.—13, Nerve of hearing. THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. Organs of Taste, Smell and Sight, Sclerotica, Chorvidea, Iris, Ciliary Processes, Retina, Aqueous, Crystalline and Vitreous Humors, Muscles of the Eye, Orbits, Eyebrows, Eyelids, Lachrymal Glands and Canals, Nasal Duct, 2 48. Organs of Hearing, Anatomy of. Labyrinth, Vestibule, Semicircular Canals, Cochlea, Tympanum, External Ear, Organ of Touch, Two layers of skin—Epidermis and Dermis, Hairs, Sebaceous and Perspiratory Glands, Nails. Sense of Taste, Primary use, Smell, Laws of Light, e Adaptation of the eye, Short-sightedness, Cause, Long-sightedness, “ Defect remedied, Coats, Function, Accessory parts of the eye, Hearing, External Ear, Function, Auditory Canal, “ ! 2 49. Eustachian Tube, “ hystolo ; Cochlea and Semicircular Canals, Function, ERY stolegs wr Hearing, Function, re Organ of Touch, Skin, Function, Epidermis and Cuticle, Function, Corium, Vessels, Oil-Glands, Function, Perspiration. Use, be Quantity, is - External condition, Hair and Nails. Sense of Taste. Perversion, ee Smell, ee Eye, how to be used, Amaurosis, Oblique positions, long-continued, Viewing objects at different distances, Bathing the eye, : Dust, removal, Defective Hearing, Cause, 250 Hearing, parts essential, ‘ee Clothing, Material for Hygiene of. Class of persons needing more clothing, Clothing, Cleanliness, : Bathing. Modes, 7 Time, Water a curative agent, Bathing, General Rules, Skin. Air beneficial, Ze: Effect of light. 277 CuHap. XIT. The Organs of Special Sense. State the Anatomy, the Physiology and the Hygiene of the Organs of Special Sense, the Care of the Sick, of Poisoned Persons and of per- sons injured in any way. 24 , “¢ ey : SF Tit ¥ ne of + z : . ‘ lis. 3 Bi A ae "+2 = ‘S > % a . 3 ae aA : Ae ry wer Blot ecrahed r sins, * - Ey ", —~ lovi-et a ; Re cure 9 A) QM, fe Oe Lape SE = bv A a oes ; 3 : OG inpeeEr qe bap ix it ee LPS | ia ~ " 4 ; Peg iat & a a 4 ; +? , i i, bs bys fives iin at Tht . ¥ > 2 + ~ “ ey + al _f sdawpemci=h i en, Ese TL ESy SAGGING He, ae . ca ip sy “mat ~ Sib brag Gai. 07 : x * . Pe , be 7 ‘eg. hey : vif Hol pore ae ee * e a oH : J ae a Paid ; 4 ot}. oy , a OS) ; Aneta pet eu. » : 7 “ : io: ie fed 2) 20 . -?- -3. ti 2} ata} ; Pa vit Seta u f aes. ers el ETS : rey sth Ba a ie F 2 eo. see Epil) fe RTS gS iy ial ezzh fii a Lersks ict ¢ : ; Ere get fat eee nt gdaiise? eens SeaeoL Le = ee pot 2 a x2 nit et; + ost ar, Se ee - bee : 2 By dee, A yd booted 1 tic lwak hi: 5 ee die rf at 4 v oa ; a erimiemiast) @ syed’ hindi sovse Vee grrr. =e m 2 * . aoe i. a! . hae row? SRR: 27 53 panienag ii Sony “a tote Sali. a EEE IN, .DLX:. CHAPTER XIII. CARE OF THE SICK. @ 1. In every home, however humble or dignified, woman is usually the Nurse, Nature seems to have endowed her in an especial manner to minister at the couch of disease and suffering. To be a good nurse requires a high type of womanhood; she should have both mental and physical power, blended with integ- rity and Christian trust. If “good nursing is half the cure,” how important that the daughter be early taught how to prepare drinks and nourishments, to administer medicine, and to perform the varied and important duties of the faithful nurse! In the first stages of disease, it is always proper treatment to rest both body and mind. It is wrong to tempt the appetite of a sick person; the disinclination for food is the warning of Nature that the system cannot well digest it. The beneficial effects of bathing can hardly be over-estimated, but the mode of the bath should be directed by the medical ad- viser. The best time, however, for bathing is when the patient feels most vigorous and freest from exhaustion. Care is necessary to wipe dry the skin, particularly between the fingers and toes, and also the flexions of the joints. Friction from a brush, moreen mitten or a dry flannel that has been saturated with salted water tends to relieve restlessness in patients. Chafing with the naked hand, making the movements from the nerve-centres to the ex- tremities, is peculiarly soothing, particularly if performed by a vigorous and healthy person. Air-baths have a tranquilizing influence. The physician well knows that his attention to the sick is quite unavailing unless the nurse obeys his directions; for a nurse, or immediate relatives or friends of the sick, to put their judgment 279 280 APPENDIX. in opposition to that of the physician, is not only arrogant, but endangers the patient. The room for the sick should be selected where sunlight may enter, and as far from external noise as pos- sible. It is poor economy, not to say unkind, to keep a sick person in a small, ill-arranged bed-room, when a more spacious and airy room is kept for only occasional “callers.” All superfluous furni- ture should be removed from the sick-room. Quiet should reign in the sick-room. No more persons should enter or remain in it than the welfare of the patient demands. It is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors should be ad- mitted or excluded, and the nurse should enforce the directions. The movements of the attendants should be gentle: no bustling to “clear up the room” at a fixed time; this should be done quietly, and when it will give the least annoyance to the sick. (It may be necessary to use a damp cloth in dusting the furniture, also the carpet, especially if the patient has disease of the lungs.) Creak- ing hinges should be oiled; shutting doors violently and heavy walking avoided. All unnecessary conversation should be deferred. If a colloquy must be carried on, let the tone be so high that the patient, if interested, can thoroughly comprehend it. The making of the bed is often badly conducted. All bunches should be removed, the material of the bed laid even and a thin quilt spread smoothly over a mattress. When convenient, have the head of the bed northerly (123), and so situated, at least, that the sick man may look on something more pleasurable than a table of glasses and phials. A nurse should never manifest impatience in arranging the pillows, but try to adapt them to the comfort of the weary patient. All utensils employed in the sick-room should be kept clean. Water designed for the patient to drink should not stand long in an open glass or pitcher, but be given fresh from a spring or well. A very sick person is fatigued by being raised to receive drinks, hence a bent tube or a cup with a spout should be used. Both the apparel and the bed-linen should be changed more fre- quently in sickness than in health, and oftener in acute than in chronic diseases. All clothing, whether from the laundry or bureau, should be well dried and warmed by a fire previous to being put on the bed or the patient. No agent is of more importance to the sick-room than pure air ; hence, the nurse, with all convenient speed, should remove every- thing that can emit an unpleasant odor. She should be chary of ‘APPENDIX. 281 keeping ripe fruit or bouquets of flowers any length of time in the sick-chamber. When a disinfectant is needed, procure some at the drugvist’s. To change quickly and effectively the air of the sick-room, cover the patient’s bed with an extra blanket and closely envelop his head and neck, except the mouth and nose; the door and windows can then be safely opened for a short time without detriment. After the windows are closed, retain the extra coverings on the patient until the room is of proper warmth. Unless duly protected, the patient should never feel ewrrents of air, although fresh air should be constantly admitted into the sick- room. (It is preferable to have pure air introduced from an ad- joining apartment.) Few persons realize the necessity of fresh air being constantly admitted into an occupied room, whether by the healthy or the sick. The air exhaled from the lungs contains not only carbonic acid gas, but a vapor which gives the peculiar odor to the breath (363). All know its stifling character that have opened a close chamber that has been occupied during the night. Disease may be contracted by inhaling this vapor of respiration, as well as by actual contact with contagious matter. A well-adjusted thermometer is indispensable, as the feelings of the patient or nurse are not to be relied on as a true index of the temperature of the room. Regulating the warmth of the patient is one of the many duties of the nurse. There is a “sweating tem- perature ;” when this is exceeded, perspiration will cease if it has been present, or that it will not take place during a high tem- perature. The patient should no more be allowed to complain of too much heat, without an attempt at its reduction, than he should be permitted to remain chilly when the removal is possible. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room longer than six hours at atime. She should exercise daily in the open air, also eat and sleep as regularly as possible. No doubts or fears of the ‘patient’s recovery, either by a look or a word, should be communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick; this duty devolves upon the physician. Medicines assist the natural powers of the system to remove dis- ease. They should be given regularly, judiciously and with a cheerful manner, and administered as directed by the physician. Life itself is often at the mercy of the nurse, and depends on the faithful discharge of her duty. Drinks have a more decided influence upon the system than is generally admitted. They may be acid or alkaline, cold or hot, as 24% 282 APPENDIX. the condition of the patient requires. The nurse should never depart from the quality of the drink, nor even exceed the due or prescribed quantity. Giving “herb-teas”’ without the sanction of the physician may cause serious evil. In diseases of a typhoid character, and also in chronic ailments, where prostration from the waste of tissues and diminished genera- tion of animal heat exists after the subsidence of active disease (when solid food cannot be taken), the gradual introduction into the system of the staminal elements of food that is easily digested and assimilated becomes an important matter. The albuminous, saccharine and oleaginous substances of food, together with an in- creased amount of carbon, is found in the admixture of refined sugar with sweet pure milk and a small amount of pure alcoholic spirits in the form of “ milk punch.” | Solid food, as masticating beef steak or dry toasted crackers, is often preferable to gruels and other liquid food, especially when it is necessary to excite an action in the salivary and mucous glands, The food of the sick should be prepared in the neatest and most careful manner, and the nurse ought to obey implicitly the physician’s directions about diet. When a patient is con- valescent, the desire for food is generally strong; great care, firm- ness and patience is required that the food be prepared suitably and given at the proper time. We append a few modes of preparing nourishment for the sick. Crust CoFFEE.—Take light, sweet bread or crackers, and brown them thoroughly as you would coffee berry; when wanted for use, pour over boiling water (the crusts will admit of several replenish- ings of boiling water); add sugar and cream to suit the condition of the patient. GRUELS.—Corn meal requires to be boiled several hours to be suitable nourishment for the sick. The mode of preparing gruel should be suited to the case and directed by the physician. Wheat, or oat-meal, farina and sago, can be prepared in less time, though they must be well cooked. Add salt while cooking. Egg Gruel—tTake the yolks of two eggs, boiled hard, and with a knife reduce them to a fine powder; beat this into a flour gruel made of new milk; salt and spices may be added if the condition of the patient admits. BrEF TEA.—Meat contains principles that may be extracted, some by cold, others by warm, and others, again, by boiling, water ; it should be cut very fine, and submitted for three hours each time, APPENDIX. 283 in succession, to half its weight of cold, of warm and of boiling water; the fluids strained from the first and second macerations are to be mixed with that strained from the boiling process, and_ the mixture should be brought to a boiling heat to cook it—the fat skimmed off; add a few drops of some acid, with salt, for a flavor. A quicker, though less nutritious, mode of making beef tea, is to cut beef fine, put it in a glass bottle, cork it, place it in a kettle of cold water, then boil the beef from two to three hours ; when cooled, strain the liquor and add salt. 3 2. The duty of the WATCHER is scarcely less responsible than that of the nurse, and, like the nurse, she should ever be cheerful, kind, firm and attentive in the presence of the patient. The watcher should be prompt, and reach the house of the sick at an early hour; before entering the sick-room, she should eat a simple, nutritious supper, and also during the night take some plain food. She should be furnished with an extra garment, as a heavy shawl, to wear toward morning, when the system becomes exhausted. The directions about the sick, especially the administration of medicine, should be written for the temporary watcher. Whatever may be wanted during the night should be brought into the sick- chamber or the adjoining room before the family retires to sleep, that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by haste or searching for needed articles. Sperm candles are preferable for the sick-room. Kerosene, in burning, emits a disagreeable odor, often annoying to the patient. All lights ought to be so arranged as not to be reflected in the part of the room where the sick lie. It is not necessary that watchers make themselves acceptable to the patient by exhausting conversation. If two watchers are needed, it is more imperative that they refrain from talking, and particularly whispering. Most sick persons have special need of nourishment about four or five o’clock in the morning. The attendant upon the sick should not sit between the patient ‘and the fire, and also should avoid sitting in the current of air that is flowing out of the room. When taking care of the sick, light-colored clothing should be worn in preference to dark apparel, especially if the disease is of a contagious character. It is always safe for the watcher to 284 APPENDIX. change her apparel worn in the sick-chamber before entering upon her family duties. Disease is often communicated by the clothing. It can hardly be expected that the farmer who has been labor- ing hard in the field, or the mechanic who has toiled during the day, is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay watchers who are qualified by knowledge and ¢raining to perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be practically manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants ? 2%. Tue TREATMENT OF WOUNDS OR INJURIES.—Contusions or bruises are generally treated by the injured person or some member of the family. The bruised limb should rest, be kept moderately warm, bathed frequently with tepid water and chafed moderately with the naked hand. INCISED WounpDs (“cuts”).—At first hanes is free bleeding from the many divided capillaries. If no large vein or artery is severed, the flow of blood will Fig. 181. soon cease; press the gaping wound to- gether, and trickle on cold water until the blood and all foreign matter is re- moved; then apply narrow strips of ad- hesive plaster. The union of the Fig. 181, a, a, REPRESENTATION OF Wounps on the back divided*varignemee part of the forearm, 06, 6, Wounds of the anterior part Pare of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow and fected by the action wrist, the incisions at a, a, are opened, while those at b,b, of the blood-vessels, are closed, Were the arm extended at the elbow and ‘ : wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at and not by healing b, b, would be opened. salves”, or “oint- ments.” The only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together and protect the wound from air and impurities. Nature performs her own cure. Such wounds seldom need a second dressing, and should not be opened till the incisions are healed. To lessen the liability of a reopening, a proper position for the union should be regarded. APPENDIX. 285 If the wound be between the knee and ankle, and on the anterior part, extend the knee and bend up the ankle; if on the posterior part, reverse the movement, and, in general, suit the position to the case. SH ss Ze Se = ize ty de —— Fig. 182. é . s > i Fic. 182 REPRESENTS THE MANNER of applying adhesive strips to wounds. LACERATED WouNDs.—In these injuries, the jagged, torn parts do not heal by the “first intention,’ but suppurate before cica- trizing. Cleanse the parts with cold water and apply a soft poul- tice. All wounds made by blunt or pointed instruments, as nails, should be examined by a surgeon. Wounds from Poison- ous Serpents or Rabid Animals should have cupping-glasses imme- diately applied, or sucked by the mouth. Give freely alcoholic stimulants until a phy- sician arrives. Observation.—A lthough animal poisons, when introduced into the cir- culating fluid through the broken surface of the skin, frequently cause death, yet they can be taken into the mouth and stomach with im- punity, if the mucous Fig. 183. Mr, : la, mM) Ss fassiiih) 1h vied g if) bi, BN : wi H] i l us Fig. 183, Turn MA4nNner OF CompressinG DivIDED AR- TERIES.—A, Compressing the large artery of the arm with the thumb. B, The subclavian artery. C, Com- pressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound with a finger. membrane which lines these parts is not broken. 286 APPENDIX. HEMORRHAGE FROM DIvIDED ARTERIES SHOULD BE AR- RESTED, otherwise the heart soon ceases its action, and the person faints. If a large artery is wounded, every beat of the pulse throws out the blood in jerks. Until surgical help can be summoned, the flow of the blood may be stopped either by compressing the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by compressing the end of the artery next the heart in the wound. Fie. 184. Fig. 185. La Fig, 184. THe MetHop or APPLYING THE KNOTTED HANDKERCHIEF, to Boe a divided artery. A, B, Track of the brachial artery. Fig. 185. A, C, The track of the femoral artery; the compress applied near the groin. After compression as described and illustrated, take a square: piece of cloth, or handkerchief, twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard knot in the middle. Place the knot over the artery between the wound and the heart, carry the ends around the limb and tie loosely. Place a stick under the handkerchief near the last tie, and twist till the fingers can be removed from the compression without a return of the bleeding. When an artery in a limb be cut, elevate the limb as far as possible, till the bleeding ceases. BurNs AND SCALDS.—When blisters are formed, the epidermis is separated from the other layer of the skin by the effusion of serum; this fluid should be let free by puncturing the cuticle, care being taken not to remove the thin raised skin, as it makes the best possible protection to the sensitive, inflamed tissues beneath. When this thin outside layer of skin is removed, immediately cover the denuded parts with wheat flour, or a plaster made of lard APPENDIX, . 287 and bees’-wax or the white of an egg; in a word, substitute a cuticle to protect the exposed nerves from the air. When dress- ings are applied, they should not be removed until they become dry and irritating. To prevent vesication, when only a small patch of the skin is scalded or burned, apply steadily cold water until the smarting pain ceases; then put ona simple dressing, “not to take out the fire or to heal it,” but to protect the injured membrane. When the epidermis, in particular spots, is exposed to excessive pressure or friction, it becomes too much thickened, producing “Corns.” These are not necessarily confined to the feet, but are produced in front of the clavicle of the soldier from the pressure of his musket, or on the knee of the cobbler. The pain of the callosity is due to its exciting inflammation in the sensitive dermis upon which it presses. Remove the pressure, and the affected part is restored to its normal state. FrRost-BireE is usually manifested first upon parts unprotected by covering, as the face or ears, and especially the nose. In such case, the skin first becomes red, from congestion of the dilated capillary vessels; next it becomes bluish, from arrest of the circu- lation; and afterward of a dead white hue. To restore circulation and sensibility, rub the frozen part with snow or apply iced water. Keep the sufferer at first in a cold room, and let the return to a higher temperature be gradual and cautious, or gangrene may supervene. The CHILBLAIN is not produced by the action of cold, but by the effect of heat on the chilled extremity. Bathe the inflamed parts with a mixture of sweet oil, glycerine and camphorated spirits. 24. Asphyxia from Drowning, Chloroform or Gas. “DrowninG.—Ist, Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, freely exposing the face, neck and chest to the breeze, except in severe weather. 2d, In order to clear the throat, place the patient gently on the face, with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid; and the tongue itself, may fall forward and leave the entrance into the trachea or windpipe free. 38d, To excite respiration or breathing, turn the patient slightly on his side and apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as harts- horn or dilute ammonia, cologne, etc. 4th, Make the face warm by brisk friction ; then dash cold water upon it. If not success- ful, lose no time to imitate respiration, 288 APPENDIX. “ ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION.—First, place the patient on the face and turn the body gently but completely on the side and slightly beyond; then again on the face, repeating alternately these move- ments, deliberately and perseveringly, fifteen times only in a minute. “ Observation 1.—When the prone or face position is resumed, make a uniform and efficient pressure along the spinal column or back-bone, removing the pressure immediately before rotation on the side; con- tinue these measures. (The pressure augments the expiration, and rotation commences inspiration. ) “2.—-When the patient lies on the chest, this cavity is compressed by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place; when turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and inspiration occurs. “3. Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with energy, to aid the return of venous blood to the heart. “4. Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash cold water upon it and repeat the rubbing. “ Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a dangerous loss of time. Avoid the warm bath. Substitute for the patient’s wet clothing, if possible, such other covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander supplying a coat until flannel blankets are obtained. To excite inspiration, let the surface of the body be slapped briskly from time to time with the hand.” (From Marshall Hall’s Treatment of Asphyzia from Drowning, Chloroform or Gas.) POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 85. PoIsonina, either from accident or design, is of such fre- quency that every household should keep some available remedy, and every person should know what to do in such alarming contin- gencies. Nearly every poison has its antidote, which, if used at once, may prevent much suffering and even death. When known that poison has been taken into the stomach, the first thing is to evacuate it by the use of the stomach-pump or an emetic, unless vomiting takes place spontaneously. As an emetic, ground Mustard mixed in warm water is always safe. Take one tablespoonful to one pint of warm water. Give the patient one-half in the first instance, and the remainder in fifteen minutes, if vomiting has not commenced. In the interval, drink copious draughts of warm water. Irritate the throat with a feather or the finger, to induce vomiting. After vomiting has begun, give mucilaginous drinks, such as flaxseed tea, gum-arabic water, or slippery elm. APPENDIX. 289 If the patient is drowsy, give a strong infusion of cold coffee, keep him walking, slap smartly on the back, use electricity ; it may be well to dash cold water on the head, to keep the patient awake. After the poison is evacuated from the stomach, to sustain vital action give warm water and wine or brandy. If the limbs are cold, apply warmth and friction. In ALL cases of poisoning call immediately a physician, as the after-treatment is of great importance. PoIsoNs. ANTIDOTES OR REMEDIES FOR POISONS, Aconite (Monkshood). ) a Belladona (Deadly Night-Shade). Bryony. Camphor. cuit™ | (Water Hemlock). Croton Oil. Digitalis (Foxglove). Dulcamara (Bitter-Sweet). For Vegetable poisons give an emetic Gamboge. of Mustard; drink freely of warm Hyoscyamus (Henbane). water; irritate the throat with a Laudanum. feather to induce vomiting. Keep Lobelia. the patient awake until a phy- Morphine. sician arrive. Opium, Paregoric. Sanguinaria (Blood-Root). Savin Oil. Spigelia (Carolina Pink). Stramonium (Thorn Apple). Strychnine (Nux Vomica), Tobacco. Arnica. Vinegar and water. Prussic Acid. Drink, at once, one teaspoonful of Bitter Almonds (Oil of). Water of Hartshorn (ammonia) in Laurel Water. one pint of water. 2 | Antidote is Vinegar or Lemon Juice, Ammonia (Hartshorn). : : followed with sweet, castor or lin- Potash. ; , : Ged | seed oil. Thick cream is a sub- gain | stitute for oil. No emetic. 25 N 290 APPENDIX. PoIsoNs. ANTIDOTES OR REMEDIES FOR POISONS. Starch or wheat flour beat in water. Iodine. J Take a Mustard emetic. Take, at once, a Mustard emetic; drink copious draughts of warm Saltpetre (Nitrate of Potassa). } | water, followed with oil or cream. Chili Saltpetre (Nitrate of Soda). aes Two teaspoonfuls of table salt (chlo- Lunar Caustic (Nitrate of Silver). } ride of sodium) mixed in one pint of water. 7} Beat the Whites of six Eggs in one quart of cold water; give a cup- ful every two minutes, to induce vomiting. A substitute for white of eggs is soap-suds slightly thick- CorrosiveSublimate(bug poison). | White Precipitate. Red Precipitate. Miah sng ened with wheat flour. Emetics should not be given. Use a stomach-pump as quickly as Arsenic. possible, or give a Mustard emetic Cobalt (fly powder). _ until one is obtained. After free King’s Yellow. vomiting, give large quantities Ratsbane. of Calcined Magnesia. The anti- Scheele’s Green. dote for Arsenic is Hydrated Per- oxide of Iron. White Lead. Epsom or Glauber Salts. The Acetate of Lead (Sugar of Lead). \ a Mustard emetic, followed by Litharge. antidote is diluted Sulphuric Acid. | The antidote is ground Nutgall. A Antimony (Wine of). | substitute, oak or Peruvian bark, Tartar Emetic. followed by a teaspoonful of pare- goric. Pearl-ash. Drink freely of Vinegar and water, Ley (from wood-ashes). followed with a mucilage, as flax- Salts of Tartar. seed tea. Drink largely of water or a muci- 7 zj lage. It isi tant that s - Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol). | ee ae ; thing be given quickly, to neutralize Nitric “ (Aquafortis). | ‘ ; : ; sab : the acid. The antidote is Calcined Muriatic “ (Marine). z : f ‘ Magnesia. Chalk, lime, strong Oxalic Acid. 2 soap-suds, are substitutes for mag- nesia. APPENDIX. 291 PoIsons. ANTIDOTES OR REMEDIES FOR Porsons. Give two tablespoonfuls of Calcined Magnesia, followed by mucilag- inous drinks, Matches (Phosphorus). Rat Exterminator. Verdigris, The antidote is Cooking Soda, or Blue Vitriol. White of Eggs. Drink milk freely. Ammonia, or cooking soda moistened with water, applied in the form Sting of Insects. of a paste. The wound may be sucked, followed by applications of water. Use a Mustard emetic, and drink Tainted Crabs, Oysters or Fish. : ‘ freely of vinegar and water. Charcoal -Fumes. ; Fresh air and Artificial Respira- Gas or Burning Fluid. tion. APPENDIX. CHAPTER XIII.—CARE OF THE SIOK. 21. The Nurse-—What is proper treatment in the first stages of disease? State some of the duties of the nurse in the sick-room—Location of the room—Quiet—Arrangement of the bed—Ventilation of the sick-room—Temperature—Food and drinks. Name the means of nourishment, and tell how they may be prepared. ¢ 2%. The Watcher.—Give the duties of the Watcher. ¢ 3. Give the manner of dressing wounds. How can hemorrhage be arrested? Speak of Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bite, and their treatment. ? 4. How may asphyxiated persons be recovered? 2 5. Poisons and their Antidotes—When poisons have been taken, what is to be done? Name the most common poisons, and their antidotes. 292 APPENDIX. Fig. 186. \ _-ORBICULARIS. PALPEGRARUM -- LARYNX TRACHEA Secr. 1. OOIMD oa Fwh . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Chemistry of. . Physiology of. . Hygiene of. . Comparative Osteology. . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Chemistry of. . Physiology of. . Hygiene of. . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Chemistry of. . Physiology of. . Comparative Splanchnology. . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Chemistry of. . Physiology of. . Hygiene of. . The Blood. . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Chemistry of. ° . Physiology of. . Hygiene of. . Comparative Angiology. . Assimilation, General and Specific . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Chemistry of. . Physiology of. . Hygiene of. . Comparative Pneumonology. . Anatomy of. . Histology of. . Physiology of. . Hygiene of. . Comparative Neurelogy. . Anatomy of. . Hygiene of. . Care of the Sick. 3. Treatment of Wounds, APPENDIX. The Three Kingdoms of Nature Compared. Definitions. . Cells. . Tissues. . Membranes. . Solids and Fluids. Comparative Myology. Hygiene*of. Physiology of. Hemor- rhage and Burns. . Asphyxia. . Poisons and Antidotes. | | | | | ! | | j Cuap. I. Crap. II. Cuap. ITT. Cap.’ IV. The Bones. CHAP. V. The Muscles. Cuap. VI." The Digestive Organs. Cuap. VII. The Absorbents. - Cuap. VIII. The Circulation. Crap, IX. Assimilation. CHaP. X. The Organs of Resptration. Cuap. XI. The Nervous System. Cuap. XII. The Organs of Special Sense. CuaP. XIII. Appendix, State succinctly the Anatomy, the Histology, Physiology and the Hygiene of Mammals. 25 * General Remarks. General Histology. General Chemistry. SUMMARY.—SYNTHETIC TOPICAL REVIEW. Division I, Outline Principles. Division IT, Motory Apparatus. Division ITI. Nutritive Apparatus. Division IV, Nervous Apparatus. 293 J “STVMUBIL the Chemistry, the 4 " % — i- : oo = by Buslewt SET TH TAS Mei be ae " =< sg ‘ ad) 96 cae “4 Ae ’ ee er a wey ee Ww : , a | £ a “Press ‘ A la ’ * : h u ae 4 ile : % et at ‘ ‘ ‘ es a ey) See 2 hy MO Ao 1 Relies ie SE ake ; : eure eee} : he. eee ee ‘ F * / > pars j } . ‘ i See . - 7 be ; + es . nike : bet x2 ‘aa adr we & osvig-nusg J ' : . “ae + en! o af . ’ 4 i ‘ i : ak ' j ah ve i 4 Lad 4 - “ in, ofa ae Y a "ay ai i ‘ was. 4 2 } , : ie : WP he. ¢ r 4 Wedge? At , ee : 5 " i ou > &: ~ peel ej y AA, : ‘ Ns Wy 4 “aA ‘ ” fee Phe + PAM wt TW ASSAY proud iv SES ‘ ! . < P , 5 G i oa : ; p any . , lea alle i all de als a Dm Te pie ae GLOSSARY. As-po/mMEN. [L. abdo, to hide.] That part of the body which lies between the tho- rax and the bottom of the pelvis. Ax-sorP/TION. [L. ab, and sorbeo, to suck up.] The imbibition of a fluid by an animal membrane or tissue. A-cre-TaB/U-LUM. [L. acetuwm, vinegar.] The socket for the head of the thigh-bone; an ancient vessel for holding vinegar. A-ce/tic. [L. acetum, vinegar.] Relating to acetic acid. This is always composed of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in the same proportion. A-onit/Lis. A term applied to the tendon of the two large muscles of the leg. A-cro/mI-on. [Gr. axpos, akros, highest, and wy.os, Omos, shoulder.] A process of the scapula that joins to the clavicle. A-Bu/MEN. [L. albus, white.] An animal substance of the same nature as the white of an egg. A-LU/mrn-uM. [L.] The name given to the metallic base of alumina. At/vxr-0-LaR. [L. alveolus, a socket.] Per- taining to the sockets of the teeth. Am-mo/ni-aA. An alkali. It is composed of three equivalents of hydrogen and one of nitrogen. AM-PHIB/I-ANS. [Gr. aude, amphi, both, and Bros, bios, life.] A class of animals so formed as to live on land and in water. At one period of their existence they breathe by gills, at another by lungs. A-Nnas/tT0-MosE. [Gr. ava, ana, through, and gtoua, stoma, mouth.} The com- munication of arteries and veins with each other. AN-A-ToM/I-cAL. Relating to the parts of the body when dissected or separated. A-nav/o-my. [Gr. ava, ana, through, and roun, tomé, a cutting.] The description of the structure of animals, The word anatomy properly signifies dissection. An-GI-ol/o-ay. ([Gr. ayyevov, angeion, a vessel, and Aoyos, logos, discourse.] A description of the vessels of the body, as the veins and arteries. An/eu-uI. [L. angulus, a corner.] A term applied to certain muscles on account of their form. ; An-I-MAL/ou-L&. ([L. animalcula, a little animal.] Animals that are only per- ceptible by means of a microscope. AN-NU-LO/sa. [L. annulus, a ring.] Fur- nished with rings; articulata. An-TE/RI-or. [L.] Before or in front in place; opposed to posterior. A-ort/A. [Gr. aoprn, aorté; from anp, aér, air, and typew, téred, to keep.] The great artery that arises from the left ventricle of the heart. AP-0-NEU-RO/sI8s. [Gr. azo, apo, from, and vevpov, neuron, a nerve.] The mem- branous expansion of muscles and ten- dons. The ancients called every white tendon neuron, a nerve. Ap-pa-RA/tUs. [L. apparo, to prepare.] An assemblage of organs designed to produce certain results. Ap-PEND/Ix. [L. ad and pendeo, to hang from.] Something appended or added. A/qus-ous. [L. aqua, water.] Partaking of the nature of water. A-RACH/NOID. [Gr. apaxvn, arachné, a spider, and ewdos, etdos, form.] Resembling a spider’s web; a thin membrane that covers the brain. Apsor. [L.] Arbor vite. The tree of life. A term applied to a part of the brain. Ap/tE-RyY. [Gr. anp, aér, air, and rypew, téred, to keep; because the ancients thought that the arteries contained only 295 296 GLOSSARY. air.] A tube through which blood flows | Cap/suLe. [L. capsula, a little chest.] A Jrom the heart. A-RyT-F/NoID. [Gr. apvtava, arutaina, a ewer, and evdos, efdos, form.] The name of a cartilage of the larynx. As-pHyx/t-a. [Gr. a, a, not, and odvéts, sphyxis, pulse.] Originally, want of pulse; now used for suspended respira- tion or apparent death. As-tRAG/a-LUs. [Gr.] The name of a bone of the foot; one of the tarsal bones. Aup-11-o/r1-us. [L. audio, to hear.] Per- taining to the organ of hearing. Av/rRi-cLe. [L. auricula, the external ear; from auris, the ear.] A cavity of the heart; the “deaf ear.” Ax-t/La. [L.] The armpit. A-zote/, [Gr.a, a, not, and wy, 20é, life.] Nitrogen. One of the constituent ele- ments of the atmosphere, so named be- cause it will not sustain life. Ben-zolic. Benzoic acid. A peculiar vege- table acid obtained from benzoin and some other balsams. Biceps. [L. bis, twice, and caput, a head.] A name applied to muscles with two heads at one extremity. Br-cus/Pips. [L. bis, two, and cuspis, a point. ] Teeth that have two points upon their crown. Bitz. [L. bilis.] A viscid, bitter fluid secreted by the liver. Bi-Pen/Ni-ForM. [L. bis, two, and penna, a feather.j Having fibres on each side of a common tendon. Bracwi-au. [L. brachium.] Belonging to the arm. Broneu/r-aA, -®. [L.] A division of the trachea that passes to the lungs. Bronon-y/t1s. [L.] An inflammation of the bronchia. : Bur/sH Mu-cofsm. [L. bursa, a purse, and mucosa, viscous.] Small sacs containing a viscid fluid, situated about the joints, under tendons. Ca/cum. [L.] Blind; the name given to the commencement of the colon. Cat/or-um. [L.] The metallic basis of lime. Car/cis. [L.] The heel-bone. Oan-a-tic/u-it. [L.] A little pipe or channel. Cap/in-La-ry. ([L. capillus, a hair.] Re- sembling a hair; a small tube. membranous bag enclosing a part. Ca/pur. [L.] The head. Caput coli, the head of the colon. Car/son. [L. carbo, a coal.] Pure charcoal. An elementary combustible substance. Car-Bon/ic. Pertaining to carbon. Cap/pi-ac. [Gr. xapdia, kardia, heart.] Relating to the heart, or upper orifice of the stomach. Cawne-a, -&. [L. Fleshy. Car-niv/o-rous. [L. caro, flesh, and voro, to eat.] Eating or feeding on flesh. Ca-ror/ip. [Gr. kapos, karos, lethargy.] The great arteries of the neck that con- vey blood to the heart. The ancients supposed drowsiness to be seated in . these arteries. Car/pus, -1. [L.] The wrist. Car/tr-LAGE. [L. cartilago.] Gristle. A smooth, elastic substance, softer than bone. : Cau-ca/stAN. One of the races of men. Ca/va. [L.] Hollow. Vena Cava, a name given to the two great veins of the body. CrrV/Lu-LaR. [L. cellula, a little cell.] Com- posed of cells. Crr-E-BEL/LUM. [L.] The hinder and lower part of the brain, or the little brain. CeEnr/E-BRO-SPI/NAL. and spine. Cer/e-sruM. [L.] The front and large part of the brain. The term is some- times applied to the whole contents of the cranium, Cer/yi-caL. [L. cervix, the neck.] Relating to the neck. Cuem/is-try. [Ar. kimia, hidden art.] It relates to those operations by which the intimate nature of bodies is changed, or by which they acquire new properties. Cuest. [Sax.] The thorax; the trunk of the body from the neck to the abdomen. Cuio/aing. [Gr. xAwpos, chldros, green.] Chlorine gas, so named from its color. Cuor/pa, -®. [L.] A cord; an assemblage of fibres. Cuo/row. [Gr. xoptoy, chorion.] A term applied to several parts of the body that resemble the skin. CuyLe. [Gr. xvAos, chulos, juice.] A nutri- tive fluid, of a whitish appearance, which caro, carnis, flesh.] Relating to the brain GLOSSARY. is extracted from food by the action of the digestive organs. Cuyt-!-Fi-ca/tion. [L. chylus, chyle, and facio, to make.] The process by which chyle is formed. Cuyme. [Gr. xvmos, chumos, juice.] A kind of grayish pulp formed from the food in the stomach. Cuym-i-r1-ca/ti0n. [L. chumos, chyme, and facio, to make.] The process by which chyme is formed. Cnri/ta-ry. [L. cilia, eyelashes.] Belonging to the eyelids, ‘Cin-E-RI/tiovs. [L. cinws, ashes.] Having the color of ashes. Ciav/r-cie. [L. clavis, a key.] The collar- bone; so called from its resemblance in shape to an ancient key. Cixy/po. A term applied to some muscles that are attached to the clavicle. Co-ac/u-LuM. [L.] A coagulated mass; a clot of blood. Coccyx. [Gr.] An assemblage of bones joined to the sacrum. Cocu/tr-a. [Gr. koxAw, kochlé, to twist; or L. cochlea, a screw.] A cavity of the ear resembling in form a snail-shell, Co/ton. [Gr. kwAov, kélon, I arrest.] A por- tion of the large intestine. ‘Co-LuM/NA, -®. [L.] A column or pillar. Com/mis-surE. [L. committo, I join to- gether.] A point of union between two parts, Com-PLEx/us. [L. complector, to embrace.] The name of a muscle that embraces many attachments. Con/pytz. ([Gr. «ovdvdos, kondulos, a knuckle, a protuberance.] A promi- nence on the end of a bone. Con-suNc-TI/VA. [L. con, together, and jungo, to join.] The membrane that covers the anterior part of the globe of the eye. Cor/per. A metal of a pale red color tinged with yellow. Cor-a/corp. [Gr. xopag, korax, a crow, and evdos, etdos, form.] A process of the scapula shaped like the beak of a crow. Co/ni-um. [Gr. yopuov, chorion, skin.] The true skin. Corn/e-A. [L. cornu, a horn.] The trans- parent membrane in the fore part of the eye. Cor/po-rA. [L. corpus, a body.] The name given to eminences or projections found 297 in the brain and some other parts of the body. Cos/ra. [L. costa, a coast or side.] A rib. Crip/ri-ForM. [L. cribrum, a sieve, and forma, form.] A plate of the ethmoid bone through which the olfactory nerve passes to the nose, Cri/comw. [Gr. xpixos, krikos, a ring, and evdos, eidos, form.] A name given to a cartilage of the larynx, from its form. Crrs/TAL-LINE. [L. crystallinus, consisting of crystal.] Crystalline lens, one of the humors of the eye. Cu/si-Tus, -1. [L. cubitus, the elbow.] One of the bones of the forearm; also called the ulna. Cu/sorp. [Gr. xvBos, kubos, a cube, and evdos, eidos, form.] Having nearly the form of a cube. Cu-nr/I-rorm. [L. cuneus, a wedge.] The name of bones in the wrist and foot. Cus/prp. [L. cusps, a point.] Having one point. Cu-ra/nz-ous. [L. cutis, skin.] Belonging to the skin. Cu/ti-cie. [L. cutis, skin.] The external layer of the skin. Cu/tis VE/RA. [L. cutis, skin, and vera, true.] The internal layer of the skin; the true skin. De-cus-sa/t10n. [L. decutio, I divide] A union in the shape of an X or cross, Dev/tow. [Gr. SeAra, delta, the Greek let- ter A, and evdos, eé¢dos, form.] The name of a muscle that resembles in form the Greek letter A. Den/taL. [L. dens, tooth.] Pertaining to the teeth. De-Press/or. [L.] The name of a muscle that draws down the part to which it is attached. Derm/orp. [Gr. depua, derma, the skin, and evdos, etdos, form.] Resembling skin. De-scenD/ens. [L. de and scando, to climb.] Descending, falling. Di/a-PHRAGM. [Gr. dvadpayya, diaphragma, a partition.] A muscle separating the chest from the abdomen; the midriff. Dr-aR-RA@/a. [Gr, dvappew, diarrhed, to flow through.] A morbidly frequent evacua- tion of the intestines. Dr-as/t0-LE. [Gr. dsacreAAw, diastelld, to put asunder.] The dilatation of the N # 298 heart and arteries when the blood enters them. Di-ces/tion. [L. digestio.] The process of dissolving food in the stomach and pre- paring it for circulation and nourish- ment. Dor/saL. [L. dorsum, the back.] Pertain- ing to the back. Du-o-p/nuM. [L. duodenus, of twelve fingers’ breadth.] The first portion of the small intestine. Do/ra Ma/rer. [L. durus, hard, and mater, mother.] The outermost membrane of the brain. Drs/en-rer-y. ([Gr. dvs, dis, bad, and evrepta, enteria, intestines.] A discharge of blood and mucus from the intestines, attended with tenesmus. Dys-per/si-a. [Gr. dus, dus, bad, and wemTw, pepts, to digest.] Indigestion or difficulty of digestion. En-am/et. [Fr.] The smooth, hard sub- stance which covers the crown or visible part of a tooth. En-po-car/pr-um. [Gr. evdov, endon, within, and xapéia, kardia, the heart.] The membrane that lines the heart. En-pos-mo/srs. ([Gr. evdov, endon, within, and woos, dsmos, to push.] The trans- mission of fluids through membranes, inward. E-pen/py-Ma. [Gr.] The membrane which lines the ventricles of the brain. Ep--pERM/Is. ([Gr. epi, upon, and depua, derma, the skin.] The superficial layer of the skin. Ep-r-ctor/tis. [Gr. emt, epi, upon, and yAwtra, glotta, the tongue.] One of the cartilages of the glottis; during the act of swallowing, it prevents the food enter- ing the larynx. Ee-v-rur/u-um. [Gr. em, ept, upon, and Ondrn, thélé, a nipple.] A layer of soft cells covering the surface of the lining membranes and part of the skin. Eru/mow. ([Gr. 700s, éhmos, a sieve, and evdos, etdos, a form.] A bone of the skull. Eu-sta/cai-aN Tuse. A channel from the fauces to the middle ear; named from Eustachi, who first described it. Ex/orE-MENT. [L. excerno, to separate. | Matter excreted and ejected; alvine dis- charges. eT, GLOSSARY. Ex/orz-r0-ry. A little duct or vessel, des- tined to receive secreted fluids and to excrete or discharge them; also a se- cretory vessel. Ex-na/tant. [L. exhalo, to send forth vapor.] Having the quality of exhaling or evaporating. Ex-rens/or. [L.] A name applied to a muscle that serves to extend any part of the body; opposed to Flexor. Fa/cran. [L. facies, face.] Pertaining to the face. Fatx. [L. fala, a scythe.] A process of the dura mater shaped like a scythe. Fas/cr-a. [L. facia, a band.] A tendinous expansion or aponeurosis. Fas-crc/u-Lus, -Li. [L. fascis, a bundle.] A little bundle. Faux, -ces. [L.] The top of the throat. Fem/o-RAL. Pertaining to the femur. Femur. [L.] The thigh-bone. Fr-nes/TRA, -UM. [L. fenestra, a window.] A term applied to some openings into the internal ear. Fi/sre. [L.fibra.] An organic filament or thread which enters into the composition of every animal and vegetable texture. Fy/srmn. A peculiar organic substance found in animals and vegetables; it is a solid substance, tough, elastic and com- posed of thready fibres. Fi/sro-Can/TI-LAGE. An organic tissue, par- taking of the nature of fibrous tissue and that of cartilage. Fip/u-ta. [L., a clasp.] The cutee and lesser bone of the leg. Fu/a-ment. [L. jilamenta, threads.] A fine thread, of which flesh, nerves, skin, etc., are composed. Firx/ion. ([L. flectio.] The act of panting: For/ur-cie. [L. folliculus, a small bag.] A little bag or sac formed of an animal membrane; the orifice is generally minute. Forr/arM. The part of the upper extremity between the elbow and hand. Fos/sa. [L., a ditch,] A cavity in a bone, with a large aperture. Fra/xum. [L., a bridle.] Frenwm lingua, the bridle of the tongue. Func/t1i0n. [L. fungor, to perform.] The action of an organ or system of organs. Fun/ai-rorm. [L. fungus and forma. GLOSSARY. Having terminations like the head of a | fungus or a mushroom. Fu-nic/u-Lar. [L.] Consisting of a small cord. Gan/@ut-on, -A. [Gr.] An enlargement in the course of a nerve. Gas/rrRic. [Gr. yaornp, gastér, the stomach. ] Belonging to the stomach. Gas-TRoc-Ne/MI-us. [Gr. yaornp, gastér, the stomach, and xvynun, knémé, the leg.] The name of large. muscles of the leg which serve to draw the heel upward. Gev/a-TInN. [L. gelo, to congeal.] A con- crete animal substance, transparent and soluble in water, GING/Ly-ForM. [Gr. yeyyAuvyos, ginglumos, a knife-like joint, and ewdos, etdos, a form.] An articulation that only admits of motion in two directions. GLAND. An organ consisting of tubes and follicles, with blood-vessels interwoven, from which the gland elaborates its secretion. Guer/Norp. [Gr. yAnvn, gléné,acavity.] A term applied to some articulate cavities of bones. Guios/sa. [Gr.] The tongue. Names com- pounded with this word are applied to muscles of the tongue. Guor/Tis. [Gr.] The narrow opening at the upper part of the larynx. Guiv/rs-us, -1. ([Gr.] A name given to muscles of the hip. Gom-pHo/sis. [Gr. youdovv, gomphoun, a nail.| The immovable articulation of the teeth with the jaw-bone, like a nail ina board. Gus-ra/to-ry. [L. gusto, to taste.] A name given to the nerve of taste. Hem/or-RHAcGe. ([Gr. aca, haima, blood, and pyyvuw, régnud, to burst.] A dis- charge of blood from an artery or vein. Henrs-tv/o-rovus. [L. herba and voro.] Feed- ing on herbs or vegetables. He-par/ic. [Gr. nmap, hépar.] The liver. His-row/o-ay. [Gr. iotos, histos, tissue, and Aoyos, logos, discourse.] A description of the minute structure of the body. Hvu/mer-us. [L.] The bone of the arm. Hy/s-torw. ([Gr.] A transparent mem- brane of the eye. Hy/pro-Gen. [Gr. vdwp, hyddr, water, and 299 yevvaw, gennad, to generate.] A gas which constitutes one of the elements of water. Hy/ai-ene. [Gr. vycecvov, hugictnon, health.] The part of medicine which treats of the preservation of health. Hy/oi. [Gr. v and edos, eidos, shape.] A bone of the tongue resembling the Greek letter Upsilon in shape. Hy/po-gios/sat. Under the tongue. The name of a nerve of the tongue. Iv/s-um. [Gr. evAw, eld, to wind.] A por- tion of the small intestines. Iv/t-um. ‘he haunch-bone. In-ci/sor. [L. tncido, to cut.] tees : x = a gee yest mas S , t howe ae 7. i), at eee ae ek is oe ae re ote % : . 2 ae } t ¥ pe ys 4 ; e : st: A ” ' n é ; ; . Fd > <4 + a .* - oF . E si . a i : } ria > * << ' Pe » nie oa nS i - Ws ra * i vol Ey f 4 \ of j Vi } : = . é - y “ i ; { : . - ’ m4 ] , irs * ’ ‘ ” 2 - or) ¢ ; * k t > 3 oF “ 7 Bids r Ni * * “s INDEX. ABSORBENTS, Anatomy of, 131. Histology of, 133. Chemistry of, 134. Physiology of, 135. Hygiene of, 137. ABSORPTION, 131. Acins, Cerebric, 29, Cholic, 29. Lactic, 29. Uric, 29. Arr, 119, 175, 273. ArR-CELLS, 174. ALBUMEN, 27. ALBUMINOIDS, 27. ALBUMINOSE, 27. AMPHIBIANS, 58, 92, 122, 159, 188, 234. ANATOMY, Definition of, 13. ANGIOLOGY, Comparative, 156. ANIMALS AND PLANTS, Distinctions of, 11. ANNULOSA, 64, 125, 191, 234. Aorta, Thoracic, 144. Abdominal, 145, APONEUROSIS, 71. Apparatus, Definition of, 18. ARTERIES, 144, 149, Hepatic, 146. AspuyxiA, from Drowning, 287. from Carbonic Acid Gas, 288, ASSIMILATION, 164, AURICLE, of the Heart, 144, AZOTE, 27. BATHING, 271, 279. Beps, Making of, 280. Bixg, 109. BILIVERDIN, 29, Brrps, 58, 89, 124, 157, 187, 233. Boop, 141, 150. BLooD- VESSELS, 77. Bones, Anatomy of, 35. Histology of, 44. Chemistry of, 49. Physiology of, 49. Hygiene of, 53. BraIn, 197. Broncul, 170, 173. BuRNS AND SCALDS, 286, Bursz Mucosa, 47. CANALICULI, 45. CANAL OF Havers, 45. CAPILLARIES, 145, 149. CaPsuLE, SUBCUTANEOUS, 47. Carzon, 30. CARTILAGE, 47, 52. CARTILAGEN, 28. CasEIN, 28. Crexts, Definition of, 15. CELLULAR TissuE, 18, CEREBELLUM, 199. CEREBRO-SPINAL AXI8, 198. CEREBRUM, 200. CHEMISTRY, Definition of, 13. CueEst, Compression of, 186. CHILBLAINS, 287. CHLORINE, 30. CHONDRIGEN, 28. CuyY1é, 111. Cuymg, 111. CIRCULATORY ORGANS, 143. Histology of, 147. Physiology of, 151. Hygiene of, 155. CLAVICLE, 40. CLOTHING, 268. CocHixra, 250. CommissuREs of the Brain, 198, Corns, Treatment of, 287. 307 308 Corpus CALLosum, 202. CRUORIN, 28. CRYSTALLINE LENS, 246. CUTICLE, 253. DERMIS, 253. Digestive Orcans, Anatomy of, 98. Histology of, 104. Chemistry of, 108. Physiology of, 110. Hygiene of, 112. DROWNED PeExsons, Treatment of, 287. Ear, 249. Eastin, 29. ENDOCARDIUM, 147. EPIDERMIS, 253, 263. Epre.orris, 170. EPITHELIUM, 22. EvustTacHIAN Tug, 251. EXCRETION, 166. Eve, 244, 259, 266. Protecting Organs of, 247. Face, Bones of, 37. Fascra, 71. FASCICULI, 75. Fisre, 75. - FIBRIN, 27. FisueEs, 58, 92, 125, 159, 188, 234. Foop, Quantity of, 113. Quality of, 114. Manner of taking, 116. Conditions when taking, 117. FRost-Bits, Treatment of, 287. GANGLIA, 197. GANGLIONIC CORPUSOLE, 21. Gastric JUICE, 109. GELATIN, 28. GLanps, Lachrymal, 248. Lymphatic, 132, 133. Oil, 256. Perspiratory, 256. Salivary, 101. GLOBULIN, 28. GLUCOSE, 29. GLYCERINE, 29. H2MATIN, 28. HAtR-FOLLICLES, 255, 265. Heart, 143. Auricles of, 144, 152. Ventricles of, 144, 151. HEARING, Sense of, 249, 262, 267. INDEX. Heat, Avimal, 176. HistoLoey, Definition of, 18. HYDROGEN, 30. Inosit, 29, 78. Insects, 160, 235. IntESTINES, 102-106. INTESTINAL JUICE, 110. INVERTEBRATA, Definition of, 58. Tris, 245. Jornts, 43, 47. Physiology of, 51. KERATIN, 29. Kiwnevys, 166. LABYRINTH, 249. LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, 248, LactTEALs, 134. LACTIN, 29. Lacuna, 45. | Larynx, 169, 172, 180. LIGAMENT, 48, 52. Ligat, 273. Liver, 103, 107. | Lunes, 170, 173. | Lympg, 133. | Lympuatics, 181, 133. | MamMats, 58, 89, 120, 156, 232. MARGABIN, 29. | Mepicrng, 281. | MEDULLA, 46. Oblongata, 199. | MELANIN, 29. | MEMBRANE, Basement, 22. Cerebro-Spinal System, 212. Gastro-Pulmonary, 25. Mucous, 25. Serous, 24. Synovial, 24. Urinary, 25. MESENTERY, 107. poms, Distinctions of, 11. MoLuusca, 65, 125, 160, 191, 235. MourH, Structure of, 98, 104. | Mucus, 108. Muscies, Anatomy of, 71. Histology of, 75. Chemistry of, 78. Physiology of, 79. Hygiene of, 84. Of eye, 247. MINERAL, VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL IHemoRRHAGE, Means of Arresting, 286. ‘Kina- Mucrn, 28. Mousouuin, 27. Myocomma, 92. MyYoLemMa, 76. MyoLoagy, Comparative, 89. Natxs, 257, 265. NasaL Duct, 249. NERVE-CELLS, 210, NERVES, 79. Cranial, 206. Cutaneous, 254, Pneumogastric, 205, Spinal, 207. Sympathetic, 209. Nervous System, Anatomy of, 197. Histology of, 204. Physiology of, 213. Hygiene of, 222. NeEurRILEMA, 211. NEURIN, 28. NevRro1oGy, Comparative, 232. NITROGEN, 27. NvucLeaTED CELL, 14, NoursE, Duty of, 279. NutRiTIvE APPARATUS, 98. CEsopHaaus, 102, 105. O1L-GLANDS, 264, OLEIN, 29. ORGAN, Definition of, 18. ORGANIZED BoptEs, Distinction of, 12. OsTEOLOGY, Comparative, 58, OxyGEN, 30, 175. PAPILL&, 254, PatateE, 104, PancrEAas, 103. PANCREATIC JUICE, 109. PANCREATIN, 28. Parotip GLanp, 101. PATELLA, 42. PEDUNCLES, of the Brain, 200. PELVIS, 39. PEpsIN, 28. Peptones, 109. PERICARDIUM, 143, 147. PERICHONDRIUM, 172. PERIMYSIUM, 76. PERIOSTEUM, 46, 53, PERITONEUM, 107. PERSPIRATION, Uses of, 264. PuHarynx, 102, 105. Puysto.oey, Definition of, 13. INDEX. 309 PLevRA, 174. PNEUMONOLOGY, Comparative, 187. Porsons, and their Antidotes, 288. Pons VaRroun, 199. Portal VEIN, 133, 146. PRorToPpLasM, 14, Protozoa, 66, 126, PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS, Organic, 27. Inorganic, 26. Pyramips of the Brain, 199. RapDiara, 66, 126, 236. Rantvs, 40. REPTILES, 58, 91, 124, 157, 188, 2383, RESPIRATION, Artificial, 288. RESPIRATORY ORGANS, Anatomy of, 169. Histology of, 172. Chemistry of, 174. Physiology of, 176. Hygiene of, 181. Retina, 246. Rooms, Ventilation of, 182. Warming of, 184, RuMINANTS, 122, Sacrum, 40. SALAVIN, 28. Sativa, 109. Scaputa, 40. SECRETION, 165. Sick-Room, 280. SKELETON, 35. SKIN, 252, 263, 268. SLEEP, 226, SLEEPING-RooM, 183. Sounp, 262. SMELL, Sense of, 243, 259, 266. SPINAL Corp, 198, « — CoLumn, 39. SPLANCHNOLOGY, Comparative, 120, SPLEEN, 108, 107. Srarcg, 28. Srearin, 29. STERNUM, 39. . Sromacu, 102, 106. Sweat GLanps, 256. Synovia, 47-52. Tarsus, 42, Taste, Sense of, 241, 258, 266. TrETH, 100, 105, 112. TENDONS, 77, 81. TxHoracic Duct, 182, THORAX, 38. 310 . INDEX. TrsrA, 40. TissuEs, Adipose, 19. Areolar, 18. Cartilaginous, 18. Connective, 17. Fibrous, 17. Muscular, 20. Nervous, 21, 197. Sclerous, 20. Tubular, 20. TonGugE, 104, 241. ToucH, Sense of, 252, 263. TRACHEA, 170, 173. TYMPANUM, 251. ULTIMATE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS, 30. Utna, 40. UNoRGANIZED Bop1Es, Distinction of, 12. URETER, 167. Uvea, 245. Vatves of the Heart, 147. of the Veins, 140. of the Intestines, 107. Vetns, 145, 149. Hepatic, 146. Portal, 133, 146. Pulmonary, 145. VENTILATION, 183. VENTRICLES, of the Heart, 144, of the Brain, 199. VERTEBRA, 39. VERTEBRATA, Definition of, 58. | VESTIBULE, 250, | Viiut, 107. | Vocaz Corps, 173. “ ORG@ANS, 169. WATCHER, Duty of, 281. | Wounps, Treatment of, 282. KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. In using these plates, we would suggest. that the pupil carefully examine the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text, in connection with the lesson to be recited. ‘The similarity between these and the plates will enable the pupil to recite, and the teacher to conduct his recitation from the latter. Let a pupil show the situation of an organ, or part, on an anatomical out- line plate, and also give its structure, while other members of the class note all omissions and misstatements. Another pupil may give the use of that organ, and, if necessary, others may give an extended explanation. The third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends, while other members of the class may supply what has been omitted. After thus presenting the subject in the form of topics, questions may be proposed pro- miscuously from each paragraph, and where examples occur in the text let other analogous ones be given. If the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied, confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared. When practicable, the three departments should be united; but this can only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned, while the physi- ology can be united with the anatomy in all chapters upon physiology. PLATE I. A FRONT VIEW OF THE SKELETON. Bones of the Head.—7, The sphenoid bone. 8, The frontal bone. 10, The parietal bone. 11, The os unguis. 12, The superior maxillary bone (upper jaw). 13, The nasal bone. 14, The ethmoid bone. 15, The malar bone (cheek-bone). 16, The vomer. 17, The inferior maxillary bone (the lower jaw). a,Its body. 6, Its ramus or branch. 18, The teeth. Bones of the Trunk.—1,1, The spinal column. 2, The sternum. 3, 3, The ribs. 4, The sacrum. - 5, The innominatum. . Bones of the Upper Extremities.—19, The clavicle (collar-bone). 20, The scapula (shoulder-blade). 21, The humerus. 22, The ulna. 23, The radius. 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, The bones of the carpus (wrist). 32, 32, 32, The five bones of the metacarpus (the palm of the hand). 38, 33, 33, The first i li KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. : range of finger-bones. 34, 34, The second range of finger-bones. 35, 35, 35, The third range of finger-bones. Bones of the Lower Extremities.—36, The femur (thigh-bone). 387, The patella (knee-pan). 38, The tibia (shin-bone). 39, The fibula. 40, 40, 40, The bones of the tarsus (instep). 41, 41, The bones of the metatarsus (middle of the foot). 42, 42, The bones of the toes. - ArtIcuLATIONS. (Left side of the plate.) Ligaments of the Trunk.—1, 1, The common spinal ligament. 2, 2, The intervertebral ligament (cartilage between the vertebra). 9, 10, 11, 12, Ar- ticulations of the ribs with the spinal column. 13, 13, 14, 15, 16, Ligaments that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum. Ligaments of the Upper Extremities.—25, The ligament that connects the clavicle and sternum. 27, The ligament that connects the upper rib and clavicle. 28, 29, 30, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the shoulder-joint. 35, 35, 36, Ligaments of the elbow-joint. 37, 38, 39, 40, Ligaments of the wrist. 41, 42, 43, 44, Liga- ments of the fingers. Ligaments of the Lower Extremities.—49, 49, Ligaments of the hip-joint. 50, 50, Ligaments of the patella. 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, Ligaments of the knee- joint. 56, A large bursa mucosa. 57, The ligament of the tibia and fibula. 58, 58, The interosseous ligament. 59, 59, Ligaments of the ankle-joint. 60, 61, 62, Ligaments of the metatarsus. 63, 64, Ligaments of the toes. A, The brachial artery. B, The brachial vein. C, The radial artery. D, The femoral artery. E, The femoral vein. F; G, The anterior tibial artery. PLATE Il. A BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON. Bones of the Head.—5, The occipital bone. 6, The parietal bone. 7, The temporal bone. 8, The frontal bone. 9, The sphenoid bone. 15, The malar bone. 16, The nasal bone. 17, The superior maxillary bone (upper jaw). 18, The inferior maxillary bone (lower jaw). 19, The teeth. Bones of the Trunk.—-1, 1, The spinal column. 2, The sacrum. 3, The coccyx. 20, The innominatum. 4, 4, The ribs. Bones of the Upper Extremities.—21, The clavicle (collar-bone). 22, The scapula (shoulder-blade). 23, The humerus. 24, The ulna. 25, The radius. 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, The bones of the carpus (wrist). 33, 33, 33, The bones of the metacarpus (palm of the hand). 34, 34, 34, The first range of finger-bones. 35, 35, The second range of finger-bones. 36, 36, 36, The third range of finger-bones. : Bones of the Lower Extremities.—37, The femur (thigh-bone). 38, The patella (knee-pan). 39, The tibia (shin-bone). 40, The fibula. Al, 42, 43, 44, 45, The bones of the tarsus (instep), 46, 46, The bones of the metatarsus (middle of the foot). 47, 47, Bones of the toes. KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. ili =. ARTICULATIONS. (Left side of the plate.) Ligaments of the Trunk.—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, Ligaments of the spinal column. 14, 14,15, 15, Ligaments that connect the ribs and spinalcolumn. 11, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Ligaments that connect the sacrum and innominatum. Ligaments of the Upper Extremities.—27, 28, Ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula. 29, The capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint. 30, 30, Ligaments of the elbow. 31, 32, 33, 34, Ligaments of the carpus (wrist). Ligaments of the Lower Extremities.—9, Tendon of the gluteus muscle. 35, The capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 36, 36, Ligaments of the knee-joint. 37, The ligament that connects the tibia and fibula. 38, The interosseous ligament. 39, 40, Ligaments of the ankle-joint. PLATE III. A FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. Muscles of the Head and Neck.—7, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 8, The sterno-hyoideus muscle. 9, The omo-hyoideus muscle. 10, The trapezius muscle. 11, The orbicularis oculi muscle. 12, The frontal muscle. 14, The erbicularis oris muscle. 15, The elevator muscle of the nostrils. 16, The zygomatic muscle. 17, The depressor of the lower lip. 18, The depressor anguli oris muscle. 19, The triangular muscle of the nose. 20, 21, The aural muscles. 22, The masseter muscle. Muscles of the Trunk.—2, 3, The external oblique muscles, Muscles of the Upper Extremities,—1, The grand pectoral muscle. 3, 4, The serratus muscle. 23, The deltoid muscle. 24, The biceps brachialis muscle. 25, The coraco-brachialis muscle. 26, The anterior brachial muscle. 27, The triceps brachialis muscle, 28, The long supinator muscle. 29, The external radial muscle. 30, The pronator teres muscle. 31, The anterior radial muscle. 32, The palmaris brevis muscle. 33, The anterior ulnar muscle. 35, The palmar muscle. 36, The abductor muscle of the thumb. 37, The adductor muscle of the thumb. 38, 39, Small flexor muscles of the thumb. 40, The abductor muscle of the little finger. 41, 41, The lumbricales muscles. 61, 61, The bifurcation of the tendons of the superficial flexor muscle, in the fingers. Muscles of the Lower Extremities—42, The fascia lata muscle. 43, The sartorius muscle. 44, The rectus femoris muscle. 45, The vastus externus muscle. 46, The vastus internus muscle. 47, The internal straight muscle. 48, The pectineus muscle. 49, The adductor muscle. 50, The psoas muscle. 51, The tibialis anticus muscle. 52, The long extensor muscle of the great toe. 53, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 54, The anterior peroneal muscle. 55, The long lateral peroneal muscle. 56, 57, The gastrocnemii muscles. 58, The long flexor muscle of the great toe. 59, The short ex- tensor muscles of the toes, 60, The abductor muscle of the great toe. The figures and letters on the left side of the plate indicate the position of important fasciw that cover the muscles and enclose the tendons. iv KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. PLATE IV. A BACK VIEW OF THE MUSCLES. Muscles of the Head and Neck.—4, The sterno-mastoideus muscle. 5, The complexus muscle. 6, The mylo-hyoideus muscle. 7, 8, The occipito-frontalis muscle. 9, The masseter muscle. 10, 11, 12, The anterior, middle and pos- terior aural muscles. 13, The temporal muscle. Museles of the Trunk.—1, 1, The trapezius muscle. 2, The latissimus dorsi muscle. 3, The rhomboideus muscle. 4, The external oblique muscle. Muscles of the Upper Extremities.—5, The deltoid muscle. 6, 7, The infra- spinatus muscle. 9, The triceps extensor muscle. 10, The internal brachial muscle. 11, The long supinator muscle. 12, The external radial muscle. 13, The second external radial muscle. 14, The anconeus muscle. 15, 16, The extensor digitorum communis muscle. 17, The extensor carpi ulnaris muscle. 18, The flexor carpi ulnaris. 19, 20, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis muscles. 21, An extensor muscle of the thumb. 22, 28, Interossii muscles. : Muscles of the Lower Extremities.—29, The gluteus maximus muscle. 30, The gluteus medius muscle. 31, The biceps flexor cruris muscle. 32, The semi-tendinosus muscle. 33, The semi-membranosis muscle. 34, The gra- cilis muscle. 35, The adductor muscle. 36, The vastus externus muscle. 37, The sartorius muscle. 38, 39, The gastrocnemii muscles. 40, The long peroneal muscle. 41, The external peroneal muscle. 42, The long flexor muscle of the great toe. 43, The long extensor muscle of the toes. 44, The short extensor muscle of the toes. 47, The short flexor muscle of the toes. The figures and letters on the left side of the plate indicate the position of membranous fascie which envelop the muscles and tendons. PLATE V. ORGANS OF THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. Fig. 1. The Mouth and Neck. (A side view.)—1, The upper lip. 2, The lower lip. 8, The upper jaw. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The tongue. 6, The hard palate (roof of the mouth). 7, The parotid gland. 8, The sublingual gland. T, The larynx. 10, The pharynx. 11, The cesophagus. 12, The upper portion of the spinal column. C, The spinal cord. The Chest and its Organs.—9, 9, The trachea. R, The right auricle of the heart. L, The left auricle. 13, The left ventricle of the heart. 14, The right ventricle. 15, The aorta. 16, The pulmonary artery. 17, The vena cava descendens. 18, The right subclavian vein. 19, The left subclavian vein. 20, The right jugular vein. 21, The left jugular vein. 22, The right carotid artery. 23, The left carotid artery. 24, 25, 26, The upper, middle and lower lobes of the right lung. 27, 28, The upper and lower lobes of the left lung. 29, 29, 29, The diaphragm. P, P, P, P, The pleura that lines the cavity of KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. vV the chest. 8S, 8S, The clavicles. 0, 0, 0, 0, The ribs. M, M, M, M, Muscles of the chest. 40, The thoracic duct, opening into the left subclavian vein. The Abdomen and its Organs.—30, The stomach. 31, 32, The right and left lobe of the liver. F, The fissure that separates the two lobes. 33, The gall- bladder. 34, 34, The duodenum. 35, The ascending colon. 36, The trans- verse colon. 37, The descending colon. 38, 38, 38, 38, The small intestine. 39, 39, The walls of the abdominal cavity turned down. 41, The spleen. Fig. 2. The Relation of the Lacteals and Thoracic Duct.—1, 1, A section of the small intestine. 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, Mesenteric glands, through which the lacteals from the intestine pass. 3, Several lacteal vessels enter- ing the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct. 5, 5, 5, The thoracic duct. 6, The thoracic duct opening into the left subclavian vein. 7, (See 40, Fig. 1.) 8, The right. subclavian vein. 9, The vena cava descendens. 10,11, 11, The aorta. 12, The carotid arteries. 13, 13, The jugular veins. 14, The vena azagos. 15, 15, The spinal column. 16, The diaphragm. Fic. 3. The Relation of the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchia and Air-Celle.— 1, 1, 1, An outline of the right lung. 2, 2, 2, An outline of the left lung. 3, The larynx. 4, The trachea. 5, The right bronchia. 6, The left bronchia. 7, 7, 7, 7, Divisions of the right bronchia. 8, 8, 8, 8, Divisions of the left bronchia. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. Fig. 4. An Ideal View of a Lateral and Vertical Section of the Larynx.— 1, 1, The superior vocal cords (ligaments). 2, 2, The inferior vocal cords. 3, 3, The glottis. 4,4, The ventricles of the larynx. PLATE VI. HEART, ARTERIES AND VEINS. Fie. 1. The Heart and Large Arteries—1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The right ventricle of the heart. 3, The left auricle. 4, The left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, The aorta. 7, 7, The descending aorta. 8, The arteria innominata. 9, The left carotid artery. 10, The left subclavian _artery. 56, The right subclavian artery. Arteries of the Neck and Head.—15, The right carotid artery. 16, The left carotid artery. 17, The right temporal artery. 50, The right facial artery. 54, The left temporal artery. Arteries of the Upper Extremities—11, 11, The left brachial artery. 12, The left radial artery. 13, 13, The right brachial artery. 14, The right radial artery. 51, The right ulnar artery. . Arteries of the Lower Extremities.—18, The left iliac artery. 19, The right iliac artery. 20, The left femoral artery, 21, The right femoral artery. 22, The peroneal artery. 23, The left anterior tibial artery. 24, The muscular artery. 25, 25, The right and left arteria profunda. 26, The right anterior tibial artery. 27, The right peroneal artery. The Veins of the Neck and Head.—28, The vena cava descendens. 29, The vi KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. left subclavian vein. 30, The right subclavian vein. 31, The right jugular vein. 382, The left jugular vein. 53, The right temporal vein. 55, The left temporal vein. 49, The right facial vein. Veins of the Upper Extremities.—33, The left brachial vein. 34, The left radial vein. 35, The right brachial vein. 36, The right radial vein. 51, The right ulnar vein. Veins of the Lower Extremities.—37, The vena cava ascendens. 38, The left iliac vein. 39, The right iliac vein. 40, The left femoral vein. 41, The right femoral vein. 42, The left anterior tibial vein. 43, The left peroneal vein. 44, The right anterior tibial vein. 45, The right peroneal vein. 46, 46, The profunda veins. 47, The muscular veins. 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, Intercostal arteries and veins. Fie. 2. The Relation of the Cavities of the Heart to the Large Blood-vessels.— 1, The vena cava descendens. 2, The vena cava ascendens. 3, The right auricle of the heart. 4, The opening between the right auricle and right ven- tricle. 5, The right ventricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. 10, The left pulmonary veins. 11, The right pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. 14, The left ven- triele. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The semilunar valves of the aorta. 18, The septum between the right and left ventricle. Fie. 3. An Ideal View of the Heart, Arteries and Veins.—A, The right auricle.” B, The right ventricle. ©, The tricuspid valves. D, The opening between the right auricle and right ventricle. HE, The left auricle. F, The ‘Jeft ventricle. G, The mitral valves. H, The opening between the left auricle and left ventricle. I, The septum between the right and left ven- tricle. K, The pulmonary artery. L, The semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery. M, M, The right pulmonary artery. N, N, The left pulmonary artery. 0, 0,0, 0, 0, 0, The capillary vessels of the lungs. P, P, P, The right pulmonary vein. Q, Q, The left pulmonary vein. R, R, The sorta. S, The semilunar valves of the aorta. T, T, A branch of the aorta to the upper extremities. U, U, U, U, A branch to the lower extremities. V, V, V, V, V, V, The capillary vessels at the extremity of the branches of the aorta. W, W, The descending vena cava. X, X, X, The ascending vena eava. In Figs. 1, 2, 3, the course of the blood through the circulatory vessels is indicated by arrows. " PLATE VIL. THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION. Fie. 1.—1, The right auricle of the heart. 2, The left auricle. 3, The right ventricle of the heart. 4, The left ventricle. 5, The pulmonary artery. 6, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung. 7, The branch of the pulmonary artery to the right lung. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, Branches of the pulmonary artery in the right and left lung. 9, 9,9, 9, 9, 9, Air-cells. 10, KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. vil 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Small pulmonary veins in the right and left lung. 11, The left pulmonary vein. 12, 12, The right pulmonary vein. Fie. 2. An Ideal View of the Pulmonary Circulation.—l, 1, The right lung. 2, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, The right bronchia. 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, The left bronchia. 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells, with arteries and veins passing around them. 7, The right auricle of the heart. 8, The right ven- tricle of the heart. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, 11, 11, 11, The right pulmonary artery. 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, The left pul- nionary artery. 13, 13, 13, 18, The right pulmonary vein. 14, 14, 14, 14, The left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. 18, The septum between the right and left ventricles. Fic. 3. An Ideal View of the Capillaries.—1, 1, A branch of the pulmonary artery. 2,2, A branch of the pulmonary vein. 3, 3, Capillary vessels be- tween the artery and vein. Fig. 4. An Ideal View of the Relations of the Bronchia, Air-Cells, Pul- monary Arteries and Veins.—l, A bronchial tube. 2, 2, 2, Air-cells. 3, A branch of the pulmonary artery. 4, A branch of the pulmonary vein. PLATE VIII. THE CEREBRUM, CEREBELLUM, SPINAL CORD AND NERVES. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, 3, The spinal cord. 4, The bra- chial plexus of nerves. 5, The lumbar plexus of nerves. 6, The sacral plexus of nerves. 17, The facial nerve. 8,17, The radial nerve. 9, 9, 16, The ulnar nerve. 10, The'median nerve. G, The circumflex nerve of the shoulder. 11, 11, The great sciatic nerve. 12, The external popliteal or peroneal nerve. 13, 13, The posterior tibial nerve. 14, The external tibial nerve. 15, The muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve. 18, The muscular branch of the sciatic nerve. P, Q, The posterior tibial nerve. The letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments distributed to the various muscles and the skin. PLATE IX. THE SKIN. Fig. 1. A Perspiratory Tube and Gland.—1, 1, The contorted portion of the tube that forms the gland. 2, 2, Two branches which unite to form the main duct of the gland. 3, 3, The perspiratory tube. 4, The cuticle. 5, Its colored portion. 6, The cutis vera (true skin). 7, 7, Fat vesicles in which the gland is imbedded. Fic. 2. A Papilla of the Skin—1, 1, Two papille, formed of an artery, vein and nerve. 2, 2, 2,2, Nerves forming a loop in the papille. 3, 3, Ar- teries of the papilla. 4, 4, Veins of the papilla. 5,5, A network of arteries, veins and nerves. 6, 6, Nerves of the skin. 8, 8, Arteries of the skin. 7, 7, Veins of the skin. Vill KEY TO ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES. Fie. 3. A Hair and its Oil-Glands.—1, 1, The hair. 2, 2, The sheath of the hair. 3, Oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair, the ducts of which open into the sheath of the hair (2, 2). Fie. 4. A Section of the Skin.—1, 1, The cuticle. 2,2, Its colored portion. 3, 3, The papillary layer. 4, 4, A network of arteries, veins and nerves upon the upper surface of the cutis vera. 5, 5, 5,5, The cutis vera (true skin). 6, 6, 6, Hairs that originate in the cutis vera. 17, 7, 7, Oil-glands, the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair. 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, Perspira- tory glands and their ducts. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, Nerves of the skin. 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, Arteries of the skin. 11, 11, 11, 11, 11, Veins of the skin. 12, 12, 12, 12, Papillex, or ridges of the skin. PLATE X. AN ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE EYE. Fic. 1.—1, 1, The sclerotic coat. 2,2, The cornea. 3, 3, The choroid coat. 4,4, The retina. 5,5, Theiris. 6,6, The posterior chamber of the eye that contains the aqueous humor. 7,7, The anterior chamber. 8, 8, The pupil. 9, The crystalline humor. 10,10, The vitreous humor. 11, The optic nerve. 12, A representation of a pen. 13, An inverted image of the pen (12) on the retina. 14, 14, A canal surrounding the crystalline humor. 15, 15, The beveled junction of the cornea and sclerotic coat. A, A perpendicular ray of light from the pen. B, B, Oblique rays that are refracted in passing through the humors of the eye. Fig. 2. 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School Legislation.—Means of Preventing Disorder— Means of Correcting Disorder—Means of Inducing Pupils to Discharge their Duties of their own Accord; IV. School Administration.—The Detection of Offenders—The Selection of Punishment for Offenders—The Manner of Inflicting Punishment upon Offenders. CHAPTER V.—THE AUTHORITIES OF THE SCHOOL: I. The Teacher.—The Teather’s Motive—The Teacher's Qualifications—The Teacher’s Duties to his Pupils—A Teacher's Life; II. The General School Officers.—Superintendents— School Trustees—School Directors—School Committees ; III. The Peopie in Respect to Schools.—Of the Relations of Education in Society—Of the Agenc23 by which an Education can be obtained. Hawes’s Manual of United States Surveying. A System of Rectangular Surveying employed in subdiviceng .2 Public Lands of the United States, etc. Illustrated with forms, diagrams and maps. Constituting a complete Text-8.0k of Gov- ernment Surveying. By J. H. HAweEs, Lave Principal Clerk of Surveys in the General Land Office. Crown 8vo. Extracloth. $3. “This book embodies in a complete form all the varied information so often sought after by county surveyors and others in regard to the system in use by the United States for surveyings, sub- dividing sections, running and making boundaries, etc.’—From the New Or- leans Times. ‘This volume contains the system of rectangular surveying employed in subdi- viding sections and restoring Jost corners of the public lands. The volume_is com- pact and handsome, and will be found ta answer its purpose admirably.””—/7vom the Chicago Tribune. PUBLICATIONS OF J B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. EEE cutter’s New Analytic Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, Human and Comparative. With 200 Illustrations, CALVIN CuTTER, M.D. For Colleges, Academies, I2mo, and Families, Half roan. “In general arrangement the present treatise is modeled after the former. The aim has been to improve the analysis; to bring the Chemistry and Histology to the present advanced state of the sciences; to make the Anatomy and Physiology con- cise and definite, the Hygiene plain and practical; to introduce some Comparative Anatomy ; and to furnish illustrating cuts both apposite and artistic.” By High Schools $1.60. “‘The above-named treatise not onl gives rules for the preservation of healt and the prevention of disease, but con- tains directions to nurses for treatment of sick persons ; antidotes for poison ; treat- ment of burns: treatment of drowned persons and of bleeding vessels: thus making it valuable for individuals and families as well as schools,” Cutter’s Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. With 150 Engravings, roan, I2mo. $1.70. “During the past ten years more than two hundred thousand (200,000) have been sold for schools. This is the only series of works upon the subject that is graded for all classes of pupils from the primary school to the college; the only works that embrace Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene for schools, and the only books arranged so as to be used advantage- ously with illustrating Anatomical Charts. These Charts are more valuable in teach- ing Physiology than outline maps are in giving instruction in Geography.” By CALVIN CUTTER, M.D. 456 pp. Half “In the annual report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York for 1863, one hundred and fifty-two Colleges, Seminaries and Academies are reported as having classes in Physiology. Of these, one hundred and twenty are reported as using Cutter’s Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. This is, prob- ably, a fair average of the relative use of the work as compared with all others in every part of the country for the past ten years,” Cutter’s First Book in Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. For Grammar and Select Schools. With 83 Engravings. By CALVIN CuTTER, M. D. 180 pp. Cutter’s Anatomical Charts. I2mo. Half roan. 80 cts. Ten wn a Set. Beautifully colored. Sheets, $8. 50. Mounted on rollers, $14. “These Charts are more valuable in teaching Physiclogy than outline maps are in giving instruction in Geography.” ‘““A good teacher, feeling his responsi- bility for the welfare and health of his Cutter’s District School pupils, will send and get the Charts if he has to give away the text-bouoks to a class, as the Charts are worth more than a dozen books ’—Hon. Isaac T. Goop- Now. Sets. Hight in a Set. Beautifully colored. Sheets, $5.50. Mounted on rollers, $11.50. Cutters (Mrs.) Anatomy, Physiology and Hy- giene. P. CUTTER. I2mo. 132 pp. “This small manual is designed for pupils of that maturity of mind at which they can profitably pursue the study of primary arithmetic, geography or gram- mar. Its object is twofold: 1. To teach For schools. With 100 Engravings, By Mrs. EuNIcE 50 cts. the child something of the general struc- ture of man and animals, with the use of the different parts, and to suggest practical] hints in relation to the preservation of health ” ¥ ity ay hy Ga Gn nth Wi co ie oy a ‘a R ty is f ¥. > ts Ss Z BwGr NANT? SS] VIL GROG NN SANTA YPQVIKW = ty iN as x \ \Y, { XY a : | . \W/ \ i }/ ~ | \ YI

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