a SS er Se aS / ~ ‘ ; Vj Ca X “x Sn { SI SS aN ' a Ris ¢ —- SN ea “Ee ‘ Sein Se? =f =. ee BN ‘ ; ‘ PONG - ZA 2 Ni Hae Xe ; C9 rt Mel ae fi.) i } i MOLE Ze “ ; é ay Al JPEG eae Pa fai j Visto pase \ ee fi S25 -S Saar ‘ NB THE UNIVERSITY He AAA) OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the collection a Julius Doerner, VO C880 Bae Purchased, 1918. ae ; mw es : ‘) 4 ) iA = la EXE gars ay) x } WZ s 0 fae : .S \ Wise stk ee ‘ek | | — —S \ ‘ o \ <2) ¢ t y ‘ \y Ne Pi mad, “erty ~ if ‘ SS Malar \ Sa) i S J \ 3 = 3 2 et > S oan j Si = te 4 ; a SF ii ade NHI ONES ie BF SS ON AF) ee ANS ‘ SST WN REY a fy ees j Ww i \ \ tee { as Ly ey S > ————— Se. So Se F % LS Private Library. | 'A, BURTON STANLEY. | REA Mace Sele me 6 r pis ws a < Fi Oak oe, Ay teat Orel Clee THE AMERICAN CYCLOPADIA. VOL. XI. MAGNETISM—MOTRIL. ET ie eae oe oe ~~. “ y War a ; nay Hae yy Pe 4! be ee ae hs Iie le + 7) ORS ES) ES , Pre ha fi v4 Foy tae be nth r tL Ve) TES + th ie ay Lan dedal ae AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA: Hopwlar Dictionary OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. EDITED BY GEORGE RIPLEY ann CHARLES A. DANA. WITH SUPPLEMENT. VOLUME XI. MA GNEEEISOM—MOTRIL. NEW YORK: DieeAebd hea ACN Db C.O MP AN Y, 1, 3, 48376 BOND STREET. , LONDON: 16 LITTLE BRITAIN. 1883. Enrerep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Enrerep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Knrérep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Entrrep, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. . 030 A am 31 vill Among the Contributors to the Eleventh Volume of the Revised Edition are the following : . Prof. CLevELAND ABBE, Washington, D. OC. METEOROLOGY. Rey. R. W. Atten, Cliftondale, Mass. MASSASOIT. Henry Carry Barrp, Philadelphia. Mint. Money. Prof. C. W. Bennett, D. D., Syracuse Univer- sity. METHODISM. Jutius Brine. Marre ANTOINETTE, MAxIMILian, Emperor of Mexico, Motrke, HeLMutTH KARL BERNHARD VON, Count, and other articles in biography, geography, and history. Franois ©. Bowman. MAReENzI0, Luca. MARSCHNER, HEINRICH. Marx, Apotex BrRNHARD. Epwarp L. Burrryeame, Ph. D. Monk, Grorae, Duke of Albemarle, and other articles in biography and history. Rey. Cuartes P. Busu, D. D. Missions, Foreten (Protestant). RosBert CARTER. Manmovp, MAMELUKES, Mann, Horace, Mormons, and other articles in biography and history. JouHn D. Camp in, Jr. MANUSCRIPT, MNEMONICS, Morocco, Moscow, and other articles in biography and geography. Prof. Joun A. Cuuron. MINERALOGY. Prof. E. H. Crarxe, M. D., Harvard University. Mercury (in Medicine), _and other articles in materia medica, T. M. Coan, M. D. Maott. Mauna Kaa. Mauna Loa. 2 Monovre D. Conway, London, Eng. Mortey, Henry. Morey, Joun. Joun Esten Cooks, Richmond, Va. Monzoz, JAMES. Prof. Jostan P. Cooke, Jr., Harvard University. - MOLECULE. Hon. T. M. Coorry, LL. D., Michigan Univer- sity, Ann Arbor. MASTER AND SERVANT, MILITIA, MITTIMUS, MorTGAGE, and other legal articles, Prof. J. CO. Darron, M. D. MALpPicui, MARCELLO, Marrow, and medical and physiological articles, Eaton S. Drone. MAINE, MASSACHUSETTS, MINNESOTA, Missouri, and other articles in American geography. Prof. Tuomas M. Drown, M. D., Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. METAL. METALLURGY. Rozerr T. Epes, M. D., Harvard University. Articles in materia medica. W. M. Ferriss. MATHEMATICS, MoHAMMEDANISM. Pres. Wittram W. Fotwert, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Minnesota, UNIVERSITY OF. Prof. W. E. Grirris, Imperial College, Tokio, Japan. MATSUMAE. Mikapo. J. W. Hawes. MANITOBA, MARYLAND, MICHIGAN, MIssISssIPPr, Montana, and other articles in American geography. Hon. Onartes OC. Hazewert, Boston, Mass. Mary Stuart, Queen. M. Herprin. * Marmonipes, Moses. MARsrI. Masinissa, King. Prof. JosepH Henry, LL. D., Smithsonian In- stitution, Washington. MAGNETISM. Cuartes L. Hocrsoom, M. D. MEOHANICS. RossitER JOHNSON. May, SAMUEL JOSEPH, Merapeg, RicHARD WoRSAM, Mosiz (war history), Morris, WILLIAM, and other articles in biography and geography. Prof. C. A. Joy, Ph. D., Columbia College, New York. MANGANESE, MOLYBDENUM, and other chemical articles. Prof. S. Kwrrnanp, M. D., Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology, Boston. MAMMALTA, MAMMOTH, MoLivusca, aud other articles in zodlogy. vl CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME. Rey. Samurt Locxwoon, Freehold, N. J. Mayer, ALFRED MaRsHALL. JAMES MoCarrott, Esq., Montreal, Canada. MONTREAL. Prof. A. M. Mayer, Stevens Institute of Tech- nology, Hoboken, N. J. MiIcROSCOPE. Prof, J. S. Newserry, LL. D., Columbia Col- lege, New York. MINERAL DEPOSITS. Rev. Franxiurn Nostez. MANDELAY, Meropacu, MESSAPIA, Monza, and other articles in biography and geography. Rev. Bernarp O’Rerty, D. D. Martin, Popes, Missions, Forrrgn (Roman Catholic), MonacuisM, and other articles in ecclesiastical history. Prof. S. F. Preoxnam, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. MALTHA. Count L. F. pz Pourraris, Museum of Com- parative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass. MEDITERRANEAN SEA. V. PRreont, MINERAL SPRINGS. MINERAL WATERS, ARTIFICIAL, Rionarp A. Proctor, A. M., London. Mars, MERCURY, METEOR, Moon, and other astronomical articles. Prof. A. Rauscuensuscn, Rochester Theologi- cal Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. MENNONITES. MENNO Symons. Prof. Rosstrrer W. Raymonp, Ph. D. MERCURY. METALLURGY (Ore Dressing). MINE. Puiuie Rrecrey. Manrrerte, Avcuste Epovarp. Mont pe Prierh. Moreaue. Prof. Putrip Scuarr, D. D., Union Theological Seminary, New York. MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP. Prof, A. J. ScHEM. Marx, SAINT, and other articles in biography and history. Rev. Epmonp Scuwernitz, D. D., Bethlehem, Pa. MOoRAVIANS. J. G. Suea, LL. D. MINNETAREES. Mopocs. MOHEG ANS. Mogulis. Rev. E. L. Surrn. Mason, FRANCIS. Prof. J. A. Spenorr, D. D., College of the City of New York. MAITLAND, SAMUEL ROFFEY, MASKELL, WILLIAM, and other articles in eccleeiastical biography. Rey. Wuuram L. Symonps, Portland, Me. Manzoni, ALESSANDRO, Count. MASSINGER, PHILIP, MOLIERE. MontTaicne, Micuen, Seigneur de. Prof. GEorcrE THURBER. MAGNOLIA, MAPLE, MELON, and other botanical articles. Prof. G. A. F. Van Ruyn, Ph. D. MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RAcES AND LANGUAGES, MANICHZANS, Moas, and cee archeological, oriental, and philological articles. I. pE VEITELLE. MALAGA, MANILA, MEXICO, and other geographical and biographical articles. C. S.. WEYMAN. MINIATURE PAINTING. Mosarc, Prof. J. H. Worman, A. M., Assistant Editor of “Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature.” Morrat, ROBERT. MoeiLa, PETER. Gen. James Harrison WILSON, Mississtppr RIvER. . THE Pein Ni Cy © © iP AD DT AY MAGNETISM AGNETISM, the name given to the phenom- ena displayed by magnets. If a bar of slightly tempered steel be held vertically and struck several blows with a wooden mallet, it will acquire the property of attracting iron filings at its two extremities, The same prop- erty may be communicated from one bar of steel to any number of similar bars, by rub- bing one half of the length of each of the lat- ter with the end of the former which was to- ward the earth in the experiment above men- tioned, and the remaining half with the other end of the same bar. In this process a remark- able fact becomes evident, namely, that the bar which is employed to impart the magnetic property loses none of its own power; on the contrary, if the process is properly performed, it will become stronger; and hence we deduce the conclusion, that in magnetization there is no transfer of any substance from one body to another, but the development of a latent prin- ciple. If a magnetized bar be suspended by a fibre of untwisted silk, in such a manner as to have perfect freedom of motion, it will assume a N. and S. direction; that is, it will exhibit the phenomena called polarity. If to either end of a magnetized bar thus suspended a piece of soft iron be approached, attraction will be exhibited between them; when a simi- lar bar is rolled in iron filings, the latter will be found to adhere in thick clusters at the two ends or poles, while none will attach them- selves to the middle of the bar. If, instead of presenting to the suspended magnet pieces of soft iron, we bring near to its two ends in suc- cession the two poles of another magnetized bar, repulsion as well as attraction will be exhibited; and by an attentive study of the phenomena we shall find that similarly mag- netized ends repel, and dissimilarly magnetized ends attract each other. These forces act at great distances, through all interposed bodies, and like gravitation diminish in intensity with the square of the distance from each pole. If a number of bars of soft iron be placed near each other in the same straight line, and the N. end, for example, of a strongly magnetized steel bar be brought near one end of the series, each piece of iron will become magnetic and exhibit polarity. The near end of the first magnet will be aS. pole, the far end a N. pole, and so on throughout the series, as follows : 8. Pct ek ae ena Cie Ne ee des: She, oN When the magnet is removed, the polarity of the iron bars ceases; and when the pole of the developing magnet is reversed, the polarity of the whole series is also reversed. The develop- ment of magnetism in this way is called induc- tion, and by it we are enabled to explain many facts which would be otherwise perplexing. In accordance with this principle, we can assert that a magnet does not attract soft iron in its natural state, but that it first renders the metal magnetic, and then the attraction takes place between the dissimilar poles of two magnets. Again, when we sprinkle iron filings on a paper placed over a magnetic bar, they arrange them- selves in beautiful curves radiating from each pole and joining near the equator of the bar. These lines result from the fact that each particle of iron becomes by induction a sepa- rate magnet, and attracts the adjacent filings, their arrangement in this case being the same as that of a series of small needles when under the influence of the two poles of a magnetic bar. The induction takes place readily in soft iron, and disappears as soon as the inducing magnet is removed, but not so with hardened steel; though the effect is less powerful in this, the polarity is permanent.—The method of making steel magnets of great power, which we have found from long experience the sim- 6 MAGNETISM plest and most efficient, is as follows: Procure say ten flat bars of good steel bent into the usual form of a horse shoe; let these be well hardened and fitted with their flat sides to- gether so as to form a compound magnet. Each of the members of this bundle may be magnetized separately to a small degree by supporting one of the legs on the lower end of a long rod of iron held nearly perpendicular in this latitude, and the other leg on the upper end of the same rod; or by rubbing one leg with the N. pole of a magnetized bar and the other with the S. pole. The several shoes, or bars, being in this way feebly magnetized, eight of them are joined together with their similar poles in contact, forming a compound magnet with which the remaining two bars are to be magnetized to a higher degree. For this purpose the latter are placed on a table on their flat sides, the N. pole of the one in con- tact with the S. pole of the other, so as to form a closed circuit; on any part of this circuit the compound horse shoe is placed perpendicu- lar to the plane of the table, with its N. pole in the direction of the S. pole of the bar or shoe on which it rests, and then caused to slide in either direction entirely, around the circuit, care being taken to retain its per- pendicularity. After having gone over the surface of the two shoes in this way several times, they are turned over without separating their ends, and the process is repeated on the side which was previously under. By this method the two bars will receive a magnetic power nearly equal to the sum of the powers of the eight magnets in the bundle. Next these two bars are placed in the bundle, and two others are taken out and subjected to the same process. These in turn are put into the bundle, and two others are taken out and rubbed in the same way, until each pair of bars has been gone over two or three times in succession. By this method, with the most feeble beginning, the magnetism of the several shoes may be developed to their full capacity, and a magnetic battery produced of great power. A compound horse shoe of this kind is the most convenient instrument for magnet- izing straight bars of hardened steel for prac- tical uses. Suppose, for example, we wish to magnetize four bars, each 16 inches long, an inch wide, and an eighth of an inch thick; these are placed on their flat sides in the form of a rectangular parallelogram with their ends in contact; the compound horse shoe is then placed perpendicularly on the middle of one of the bars, and slid entirely around the parallel- ogram several times in succession ; each bar is then turned over in its place so as to bring its lower side upward, and the process repeated, care being taken to keep the horse shoe per- pendicular to the plane of the parallelogram, and its poles in the same relative positions to those of the bars. By this method, if the compound horse shoe is sufficiently powerful, the four bars gan be magnetized to saturation in the course of a few minutes. If there are but two bars to be magnetized, the parallel- ogram is completed by joining the ends of these with two similar bars of soft iron, and the same process of rubbing performed as before.—We have seen, in the article ELEcrRo- Maaenettsm, that the most powerful magnetic induction is produced in soft iron by trans- mitting around a bar of this metal a current of galvanism, and that temporary magnets of great power can be produced in this way. The same method affords the readiest means of strongly magnetizing steel bars. Whatever may be the nature of the change which takes place in iron at the moment of magnetization, we are certain that it pertains to the atoms or molecules of the body, and not to the assem- blage of these as a whole. To be convinced of this, it is only necessary to magnetize a steel rod, for example a thick knitting needle, the polarity of which will be exhibited near its two ‘ends, while no attraction will be manifested near the middle. If however we break this into two pieces, we shall find each half is a perfect magnet ; the separated ends which were previously joined together in the middle of the whole length will now exhibit polarity. If each of these pieces be again broken in two, we shall have four perfect magnets; and how- ever frequent the division or small the parts into which the needle is divided, each part will still exhibit a N. and S. pole. We may con- tinue, at least in thought, this division, and we have no reason to doubt that however far it might be carried, the same result would be produced. We infer from this experiment that the reason why the middle of a bar exhibits no magnetism is not that none really exists there, but that it is neutralized by opposite polarities. Weare also certain that magnetization is at- tended with at least a momentary motion of the atoms of the iron. This is proved by the. fact that during the sudden magnetization of a bar of iron, by means of a current of elec- tricity transmitted through a spiral conductor enclosing the bar, a sound is emitted; and if the bar be rapidly magnetized and demagnet- ized by an interruption of the current, a mu- sical sound will be produced. This fact was first noted by Dr. Page of the United States, and subsequently experimented upon by De la Rive, Becquerel, and others in Europe. The fact that a change takes place in the molecules is also rendered evident by an experiment of Mr. Joule of Manchester, England, in which he found that, although the whole capacity of the iron bar did not change on being magnetized, yet its dimensions varied, its length being in- creased and its width correspondingly dimin- ished. That the magnetic force resides on or very near the surface of a magnet has been shown by Jamin, who finds that for every magnet there is a certain relation between the quantity of magnetism and the solid and super- ficial contents, such as to establish a limit be- yond which a given bar cannot exert magnetic MAGNETISM power. (See Comptes rendus, Paris, June, 1874.) Again, in the magnetization of iron, it is found that time is required to produce a full effect, as if it were necessary that inertia should be overcome; and Mr. Grove has shown that, in rapidly changing the polarity of a bar by means of an alternating current of electri- city, the iron increases in temperature. The fact that a magnet heated to a white heat per- manently loses its magnetism is well known; and in general the magnetism is diminished by any elevation of temperature. Dr. Maggie of Verona asserts that a circular plate of ho- mogeneous iron, when magnetized, conducts heat better in a direction perpendicular to the line joining the poles than in the direction of this line itself. It is also stated that iron strongly magnetized resists the action of the file in a greater degree than in its ordinary state.—It was formerly supposed that mag- netism could be developed only in iron, nickel, and cobalt; but we now know from the re- searches of Faraday, that all bodies exhibit signs of an inductive influence, provided the magnetic power applied be sufficiently great. From the results of his experiments, Faraday was led to divide all bodies into two great classes: those like iron, nickel, and cobalt, which, on being suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet, assume an axial direc- tion, were denominated magnetic bodies, or paramagnetic; while those which arrange themselves at right angles to the magnetic meridian were denominated diamagnetic. (See Dramaenetism.) The following series exhib- its some of the last results obtained by Fara- day on the magnetic and diamagnetic powers of bodies, in which the angle of torsion neces- sary to balance the force of a magnet expresses the power of the various substances, volume for volume, + representing the paramagnetic bodies, and — the diamagnetic: proto-ammo- niate of copper, +184°23°; oxygen, +17°5°; air, +3°4°; nitrogen, +0°3°; carbonic acid gas, 0°0°; hydrogen, —0°1°; glass, —18-2°; pure zinc, —74°6°; alcohol, —78°7°; wax, —86°73°; nitric acid, —87:96°; water, —96°6°; sulphuric acid, —104°47°; sulphur, —118°; bismuth, —1967°6°. other remarkable evidence of the action of magnetism on liquids and solids, as manifest in the effect produced on a polarized beam of light. Let a piece of gas pipe 18 inches long be closed at each end with a plate of tourma- line and filled with water. Let the axes of the tourmalines be placed transversely, so that the polarized beam of light which passes through the first may not be transmitted through the second. If while the apparatus is in this condition the iron be magnetized by a current of electricity passing through a long wire helix surrounding the tube, the beam of light will be partially transmitted by the sec- ond tourmaline. It is evident from this result that the magnetization of the iron has pro- duced an effect on the particles of the liquid, Faraday discovered an- TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM yi which has enabled them to react on the polar- ized beam of light and to produce as it were a twist in its plane of polarization. A simi- lar result will be produced if the liquid be con- tained in a tube of glass or any other sub-— stance, and placed between the poles of a pow- erful magnet. To observe the effect however in this case, the poles of the magnet should be perforated for the transmission of the light. A similar effect is produced upon solid trans- parent bodies, and particularly upon heavy glass of the silicio-borate of lead. The phe- nomena of magnetism admit of being investi- gated quantitatively and mathematically with- out adopting any particular ideas as to the fundamental nature of this force; the most complete investigations of this-kind have been those of J. Clerk Maxwell (‘‘ Treatise on Elec- tricity and Magnetism,” Oxford, 1873), who has been able thus to show the profound sig- nificance of Faraday’s lines of force, and to make some progress in the reduction of this study to a dynamical science. Quite recently Bichat has published a very extended experi- mental investigation of this subject, and among other things has established the fact that the power of this magnetic influence diminishes as the temperature rises. Faraday also discover- ed the fact that crystallization exerts a con- siderable influence upon the direction of crys- tallized bodies placed between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet; Plucker found that the axis of crystallization tended to assume the axial or equatorial direction; and Tyndall and Knoblauch established the fact that if the mole- cules of any body are more condensed in one direction than in any other, the magnetism will act along this direction with greatest intensity. If the substance is paramagnetic, the line of greatest condensation will assume an axial posi- tion; if diamagnetic, the same line will come into a state of rest in the equator. This is shown by mixing carbonate of iron with gum into a stiff paste, a disk of which being com- pressed between the fingers, so as to give a greater density in one direction, and afterward suspended between the poles of a powerful elec- tro-magnet, will settle with its line of greatest condensation in the axial direction. If a simi- lar experiment be made with a compound of powdered bismuth and gum, the line of great- est condensation of this factitious substance will assume an equatorial position.— Various attempts have been made to show a direct magnetizing influence in the solar beam to develop magnetism in soft iron needles, and it has even been asserted that the direct radia- tion from the moon has a powerful disturbing effect upon the needle of the mariner’s com- pass; but the most delicate experiments made by those best qualified for such investigations have failed to exhibit any result of this kind. MAGNETISM, Animal, See Anima MacGner- ISM. MAGNETISM, Terrestrial. Gilbert in 1600 was the first to announce the bold hypothesis that 8 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM the earth is a great magnet, and that the needle assumes a N. and §. direction because it is at- tracted by the dissimilar and repelled by the similar poles of the terrestrial sphere. He illustrated this hypothesis by magnetizing small globes of steel; but this illustration, though it served in a general way to represent the phe- nomena, is not strictly correct. In the first place, the magnetism of the earth is not sym- metrical like that of a steel magnet, but is to a considerable degree irregular; and secondly, it is not permanent, but subject within certain limits to almost continual changes both in di- rection and intensity. Indeed, the magnetic needle is scarcely ever absolutely stationary from one moment to another, but is constantly exhibiting minute variations. If the earth is a magnet, the free needle at any place should as- sume a definite direction; but it does not fol- low from the hypothesis that this direction must be the true north and south, since the magnetic poles of the earth do not necessarily coincide with its geographical poles. If the two poles be in the same meridian with a given place, the needle will at that place point to the true north; but if the magnetic pole lie either W. or E. of the meridian of a given place, the N. end of the needle will deviate either E. or W. of the true north, and the phenomenon of the declination or variation of the compass will be exhibited. That the needle does not point to the true north had long been known, and it was observed by Columbus in his first voyage of discovery that the direction of the needle is not the same for all portions of the earth. Thousands of observations have since been made to obtain the data for constructing charts to represent for the use of the mariner the declination in various parts of the earth. Again, if we assume that the earth is a great magnet, it will follow that in passing from the magnetic equator, the needle which is accu- rately balanced, so as to settle horizontally at the former place, will incline or dip as we ad- vance to either pole. That this is really the fact was first discovered by Robert Norman in 1576. Furthermore, if the earth is a magnet, we should expect that the magnetic intensity or the strength of the action would not be the same at all points of its surface, and this infer- ence has also been found to be true. By count- ing the vibrations of a delicate dipping needle, we find that the strength of the magnetism of the globe increases as we go from the equator toward the pole. The magnetic intensity, how- ever, exhibited by observations of this kind, does not indicate as rapid an increase of force as we approach the magnetic pole as might be expected from such a distribution of magnet- ism as would result from a magnetized sphere of iron. In conformity with the three mag- netic elements we have mentioned, namely, the variation, the dip, and the intensity, it is cus- tomary to represent the magnetic condition of the earth at a given time by three systems of lines supposed to be drawn on the surface of the globe. These are as follows: 1, the line drawn through all places where the needle points to the true north or south, to 5° W., to 5° E., 10° W. and 10° E., and so on, called the isogonic lines, or lines of equal variation or de- clination; 2, lines nearly at right angles to the former, drawn through all places exhibiting the same angle of dip of the needle, called iso- clinal lines; and 3, a system of lines joining all places having the same magnetic intensity, and consequently known by the name of iso- dynamic lines. It is a problem of much prac- tical importance in regard to the art of navi- gation, as well as to the study of the phenome- na of terrestrial magnetism, that these three systems of lines should be accurately deter- mined; and accordingly expeditions have been fitted out by different nations almost expressly for this purpose. All the observations, how- ever, which have been made in regard to them, indicate the fact that they are not permanent, but are constantly undergoing a change, of which the law is exceedingly complex. Hal- ley’s chart of declination for 1700 is very dif- ferent from that of Barlow for 1838; and Han- steen’s dip chart for 1780 does not represent the isoclinal lines of the present day. The great practical object then of investigation in this branch of science is to discover the law of these changes, in order that, the position and form of these lines being determined for a given epoch, they may be calculated for any future time. The phenomena were first refer- red to a very small magnet at the centre of the earth, the direction of which is subject to irregular changes. Tobias Mayer, instead of supposing a magnet to be placed at the centre of the earth, conceived one to be situated at about the seventh part of the earth’s radius from the centre, and from this hypothesis he was enabled to calculate the variation and dip in places not far distant from those in which these quantities had been determined by actual observation. Hansteen of Norway, who col- lected an immense number of observations, en- deavored to represent the phenomena by the hypothesis of two small eccentric magnets of unequal strength placed at the centre of the earth, giving rise to four magnetic poles, two in each hemisphere. In order to represent the variations of the needle, the poles of each of these two magnets were supposed to perform a revolution around an intermediate line, with different velocities. Gauss of Gottingen, how- ever, made the first rigid investigation of the problem in accordance with a definite plan. He founded his research on the assumption that the terrestrial magnetic force, or that which is exerted on a needle freely suspended by its centre of gravity, is the resultant action of all the magnetized particles of the earth’s mass. According to this assumption, the gov- erning power which affects the needle is due to the magnetism of the earth itself, while the different perturbations to which the needle is subjected are the results of extraneous forces. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM | 9 To give clearness of perception, he represents magnetization as consisting in the separation of two magnetic fluids, giving magnetic polari- ty to each particle, or in other words in a re- pulsive and attractive force acting inversely as the square of the distance. No change would be produced in the result by adopting the hy- pothesis of Ampére, in which magnetism is held to consist of constant magnetic currents; nor would there be any difference if terrestrial magnetism were ascribed to a mixed origin, as consisting partly of actual electrical currents and partly of permanently magnetized masses. Starting from these assumptions, Gauss obtain- ed a general mathematical expression for the action of the whole globe on a magnetic needle, however irregular might be the distribution of the magnetism of theformer. In other words, he obtained an expression by which, if the dis- tribution of the magnetism of the earth were known, and the intensity of its action ascer- tained with reference to a unit of distance and intensity, the position of the needle and the magnetic force by which it was acted upon at any point could be determined; and con- versely, if the action of the earth on the needle were known for a large number of places on the surface of the earth, the distribution of the magnetism might be considered the unknown quantity, and might be approximately found from the data thus afforded by observation. In this way Gauss was enabled to give a meth- od of constructing general charts to represent in every part of the earth the magnetic declina- tion, inclination, and isodynamic lines, the in- tensity and direction of the magnetic force be- ing known at a given number of places. The data necessary for improved charts of this kind have been furnished by the magnetic surveys made in various parts of the world in recent times, at the suggestion and principally under the direction of the British association. By repeating the construction of such charts for different epochs, the secular changes in dif- ferent parts of the earth will become known; and it is hoped that, in due time, if the sys- tem of magnetic observations which has been established should be continued, the law of the changes will ultimately be fully ascertained. The investigations of Gauss have shown that the hypothesis of two movable magnets at the centre of the earth does not explain the phe- nomena of terrestrial magnetism. He defines a magnetic pole to be the place at which the needle points directly downward, or at which the dip is 90°. Indeed, he has pointed out the very obvious fact, that if there be two such points in the northern hemisphere, then there must be somewhere between the two a third point at which the needle would also assume the vertical position. Gauss, how- ever, arrives at the remarkable conclusion that the place of greatest magnetic intensity does not coincide with that which is usually de- nominated the pole; and it would appear that there may be a diffused space in the northern hemisphere around which the isodynamic lines may be drawn, representing apparently at least two centres of greater magnetic attraction. These phenomena are best represented by the hypothesis of magnetism due to currents of electricity in the earth, but as yet no definite hypothesis has been advanced as to the nature of such currents. It is true, they have been referred to thermo-electricity; but how the varying heat of the sun or the high tempera- ture of the interior can give rise to currents constantly circulating round the earth, of such intensity and such flexures as would account for the observed direction and intensity of ter- restrial magnetism, has not yet even approxi- mately been made out.—What we have said in regard to the magnetism of the earth princi- pally relates to its state at a particular time. We shall now briefly give an account of the ‘discoveries which have been made in regard to the changes to which terrestrial magnetism is subject; and for the data from which these have been deduced science is indebted to the several magnetic observatories established in different parts of the earth. These are fur- nished with improved instruments, which in their present perfect state constantly record, by means of photography, the minutest changes in intensity and direction of the magnetic force. The magnetic perturbations were at first sup- posed to consist of two classes, namely, peri- odical and fitful. Many perturbations, how- ever, which had been regarded as fitful are now known to recur at regular periods, and are therefore not properly designated by this term. The changes of terrestrial magnetism are of three classes. The first consists in a movement of the magnetic poles, around the true poles of the earth, from E. to W. in both hemispheres, This motion is inferred from the secular changes which have been found to affect the position of the magnetic lines, as well as from the secular changes in the posi- tion of the magnetic needle at any given sta- tion. The magnetic lines at any given epoch present great irregularity of shape, because very slight differences of magnetic declination, due to local peculiarities, may largely affect the position of the magnetic lines. But when the changes of declination at any given station are considered, they are found to correspond, at least during the period within which sys- tematic observations have been made, to an oscillation such as would result from the mo- tion of the magnetic poles around the true poles of the earth in a period of between six and seven centuries. Thus in 1576 the decli- nation needle in London pointed 11° 15’ E.; in 1657 or thereabouts the needle pointed due N.; in 1760 it pointed W. by 19° 30’. The westerly declination attained its maximum in 1819, when it amounted to 242°. Since then the needle has been slowly travelling east- ward, the present annual rate of decrease be- ing more than 8’. The mean westerly decli- nation for the year 1873 was 19° 30’. Again, 10 in Paris, which lies 2° 20’ E. of London, the needle pointed due N. in 1663. Its subsequent motions have closely resembled those of the London needle; but the Paris needle ceased to move westward as early as 1817, and attained a maximum declination of only 224°. Now if we combine these facts with the changes of the inclination, we see at once that they point to a movement of the northern magnetic pole from a position between London and the N. pole in the middle of the 17th century to its present position in the extreme north of the American continent (or rather in the archi- pelago which lies beyond those parts north- ward). For in the middle of the 17th century the needle pointed northward, while afterward it pointed westward. Then the magnetic pole lay at that time either directly beyond the N. pole of the earth, or somewhere on (or near) the are joining London and the N. pole. But if the magnetic pole had lain beyond the true pole, the inclination would have been much less than that corresponding to a magnetic pole at the true pole of the earth, that is, less than 514°. Instead of this, however, the inclina- tion was much greater. Moreover, the incli- nation, which would then have been at a mini- mum had the magnetic pole been beyond the true pole, appears to have then been at a maxi- mum. For though exact observations of the inclination have not been made during so many years as observations of the declination, we find that in 1720 the inclination was 74° 42’ in London ; in 1800, 70° 35’; in 1865, 68° 9’; in 1870, 67° 55’: and in 1878, 67° 45’. The northern magnetic pole was therefore between London and the N. pole of the earth in the middle of the 17th century, and has since tray- elled westward, or in a direction from E. to W. around the true pole. If we assume the motion to be uniform (which is probably not the case), and that the needle at Greenwich responds uniformly to such motion (which is certainly not the case), we may calculate the period of polar revolution. Thus, taking the magnetic pole as due N. in 1657, and in 1833, according to Ross’s observations, as 95° W. of Greenwich, we have for the period of revolu- tion => (18831657) years = 667 years about. Combining Ross’s estimate with the Paris =, (1888—1668) years = 644 years about. We may take 650 years as a not improbable period of revolution. It may be added, as confirming the above, that in Russia the magnetic inclination has now reached a minimum, while in Peking it is in- creasing. The cause of this change is at pres- ent entirely unknown; it has no analogy with any other class of physical phenomena with which we are acquainted. By a rough com- parison of the isothermal lines and the lines of equal magnetic intensity, a general similarity has been observed, and hence the two have been considered as referable to the same cause; epoch, we get a period of TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM but it will be perceived that this analogy does not hold, since the magnetic lines are in con- stant motion, while the isothermal lines retain very nearly a fixed position, or at least change in comparison with the other lines with ex+ treme slowness.—The second system of changes has evident relation to the annual position of the earth in its orbit round the sun, and its revolution on its axis. These were at first ascribed to the influence of the heat of the sun on different parts of the earth; but they have the remarkable characteristic of exhibiting notably the same amount in the southern hemisphere as in the northern, and in the tropical as in the temperate zones. The mag- ~ netic force is found to be greater in the months of December, January, and February, when the sun is nearest to the earth, than in those of May, June, and July, when it is most dis- tant from it; whereas, were the effect due to temperature, the two hemispheres would be — oppositely instead of similarly affected in each of these two periods. We must therefore ascribe the effect to the direct magnetism of the sun itself, and consider it established that this luminary like the earth possesses attract- ing and repelling poles, and that the effects on the needle result from the different positions of the earth in regard to these centres of ac- tion. The pole of the needle which is least distant from the sun makes a double diurnal movement in the following manner. It arrives at its greatest western excursion four or five hours before the sun passes the meridian of the place, as if it were repelled; it then turns east- ward with increasing celerity, and reaches the limit of its eastern excursion one or two hours after that passage. As the sun passes the in- ferior meridian, there is repeated in the night the same variation as that which took place in the day. To illustrate the action, let us sup- pose two globes, a larger and a smaller, placed upon the same plane, with their axes of revo- lution not precisely parallel to each other, as in the case of the earth and the sun; and let us further suppose that one globe is made to revolve round the other, the axis of the former being constantly parallel to itself. It is evi- dent that in one half of the orbit of the mov- ing globe the northern poles will be inclined toward each other, while in the other half of the orbit the southern poles will be similarly inclined; and if we further suppose that the magnetic axis of the sun, as in the case of the | earth, does not differ very much from the axis of rotation, we shall have an explanation of the effects observed in the records of the diur- nal motions of the needle. The N. end of the needle, which is attracted by the N. pole of the earth, will be repelled by the N. pole of the sun, provided it has dissimilar magnetism to that of the earth, and consequently will de- cline from the sun; and as, on account of the revolution of the earth on its axis, this lumi- nary appears on the E. of every place in the northern hemisphere in the morning and on TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM the W. side in the afternoon, corresponding variations in the needle will be exhibited. In the other half of the year, for a similar reason, the S. end of the needle will be affected in an analogous but opposite manner; the strength of the magnetism of the earth will be increased by the nearer approach of the sun, in the same way that two magnets having their dissimilar poles opposite each other are increased or diminished in magnetic power by a diminu- tion or decrease of distance: We are indebted for the interesting discovery of the polar ac- tion of the sun to Gen. Sabine of England, who has had charge of the reduction of all the magnetic observations of the English colo- nial observatories; and to Dr. Kriel of Aus- tria for another of the same character, which leads us to extend the principle of magnetism to the moon. It is found that there is a varia- tion of each of the magnetic elements corre- sponding with the diurnal position of the moon in regard to the earth; but this resembles the tides in exhibiting two maxima and two mini- ma in the course of 24 hours, regularly chang- ing in time with the motion of the moon in her orbit around the earth. These phenomena in- dicate that the moon is not magnetic per se, that is, possessed of permanent magnetism, but its magnetic condition resembles that of soft iron developed by the continued but varying inductive influence on account of change of distance of the earth and the sun. That these changes in the magnetic elements cannot be due to heat in this case, must be evident, since the temperature of the moon as a mass is but little greater than that of celestial space.—The third class of variations, which was formerly denominated fitful, is now known in a cer- tain sense to be periodical. They were called by Humboldt magnetic storms, and were found by Arago to accompany the appearance of the aurora borealis. Although it is impos- sible to predict from our present knowledge the recurrence of individual cases of these great perturbations in the intensity and direction of the magnetism of the earth, yet they are known to increase in number and magnitude of ac- tion within the period of a little more than five years, and gradually to diminish through nearly an equal period, the whole cycle being completed in a little more than 11 years, The magnetic storms have been observed in the most distant parts of the earth, and no doubt can now exist as to their cosmical character. ’The lunar influence of which we have just spoken does not appear to participate in or be connected with this inequality. The period- icity of these apparently fitful variations of magnetism was first pointed out by Gen. Sa- bine, and has since been established by the in- vestigations of Prof. Lloyd of Ireland, Dr. La- mont of Germany, and by those of Prof. Bache from the observations made under his direc- tion at Girard college. But the most astonish- ing result in regard to this class of perturba- tions is that they coincide with the periodical MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY vt recurrence of the maxima and minima of the spots on the sun. A German astronomer, Schwabe, has established, by nearly 80 years of unremitting daily observation, the periodicity of this phenomenon. He finds that the solar spots increase in magnitude for about 54 years, and diminish through an equal period, the cy- cle, as in the case of magnetic storms, being completed in about 11 years. The discovery of a connection of this remarkable kind gives to magnetism a high position in the scale of distinct natural forces, and assigns to it equally with gravitation .a truly cosmical character. It is not impossible that the spots on the sun may be connected with the falling into its gaseous envelope of meteorites, and this suggestion is favored by an observation of Mr. Carrington of England, in which a remarkable appear- ance was observed on the surface of the sun, analogous to that which would have been pro- duced by an occurrence of the kind we have mentioned. Recently Prof. Loomis of Yale college has published his analysis of the obser- vations of many past years, apparently placing beyond all question the existence of a connec- tion between the sun-spot period, terrestrial magnetic disturbances, and the frequency of auroras. One of the most interesting ques- tions belonging to the future of this subject, is the possible existence of an association be- tween the phenomena of the sun’s colored prominences and the magnetic activity of the earth. Observations by Prof. Young of Dart- mouth college seem to show the extreme prob- ability of such an association. Moreover, the observations which have been made on. the prominences, by showing a connection between these objects and the solar spots, seem to force upon us the conclusion that some relation ex- ists between the colored flames and the phe- nomena of terrestrial magnetism, since the partial dependence of these upon the sun’s con- dition as to spots has been very nearly if not quite demonstrated.—It is not intended by what has been said.to convey the idea that meteorological changes may not affect the po- sition of the needle, and that even the magnet- ic condition of the atmosphere, according to the hypothesis of Faraday, may not produce appreciable results; but as yet the actions of these appear to neutralize each other, and to leave no definite record of their existence in the course of periods of considerable length. It is probable, however, that with the im- proved photometrical instruments and a more minute scrutiny of their records, the effects due to these causes will be shown. Since the agitation of the atoms of an iron bar is found to favor the development of magnetism by in- duction, it is not improbable that the magnet- ism of the earth may be disturbed during the continuance and shortly after the occurrence of an earthquake. MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY. As shown in the article Exrorro-Mag@netism, great magnetic power is developed by passing a current of 12 galvanism around a bar of soft iron; and since in all cases a mechanical action is accompanied by an equal amount of reaction, it is reasonable to suppose that electricity ought to be evolved by magnetism. Various fruitless attempts were however made to obtain this result; the form in which the effect was to appear was unknown, and it was not till 1831 that Faraday succeeded in exhibiting currents of electricity in a wire by means of magnetic reaction. It has also been stated in the same article that, in accordance with the theory of Ampére, all the mechanical properties of an ordinary mag- net may be exhibited by currents of electricity transmitted through spiral conductors; and hence, in order to present the phenomena of this class in the simplest form, we shall begin with stating the fundamental facts of what is called electro-dynamic induction, or electricity induced by a galvanic current. 1. Let a por- tion of a copper wire be extended in a straight line horizontally, and the two ends at a dis- tance be connected with a galvanometer so as to form a closed circuit in which acurrent may be induced. Let also a portion of another wire, connected with a galvanic battery, be placed parallel to the first, and a current sent through it. If the wire transmitting the bat- tery current be suddenly brought near the wire connected with the galvanometer, during the approach of the second wire toward the first a current of .the natural electricity of the latter will pass through the galvanometer in a direc- tion adverse to that of the inducing current. 2. The induced current continues only during the motion of the inducing conductor; when the motion of this is stopped, the induced cur- rent ceases, and while the current of the bat- tery remains stationary and continues the same in quantity and intensity, no perceptible effect is exhibited in the adjoining wire. 8. When the inducing current is suddenly moved away from the first wire, a current is observed to pass through the galvanometer in the opposite direc- tion to the former induced current, or in the same direction as the battery current. 4. Let the two wires be placed parallel and near to each other, while the circuit of the battery current is interrupted. If in this condition the current from the battery be suddenly estab- lished through the inducing conductor, an in- duced current of electricity will pass through the galvanometer in a direction adverse to that of the battery current; or in other words, the effect will be the same as that of the approach of the battery current to the inducing wire, as in case 1. 5. During the continuance of the battery current of unimpaired strength and intensity, no disturbance of the natural elec- tricity of the adjoining wire is perceived; but at the moment the current of the battery is stopped by a rupture of the circuit, a current passes through the galvanometer in the same direction as that of the current of the battery. All these phenomena are in accordance with the hypothesis that during the transmission of MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY a current of electricity through a wire, there is exerted in space on every side an inductive action diminishing with the distance which disturbs the natural electricity of any conduct- ing matter which may be brought within its influence; that while the conductor remains at rest within this influence an abnormal equi- librium exists; and when the conductor is removed from this influence, or when the lat- ter ceases, the usual equilibrium is established by a reverse motion. Since, according to the theory of Ampére, magnetism consists of cur- rents of electricity revolving at right angles to the length of the magnetized bar, it follows that analogous results ought to be produced by magnetism; and for this purpose, instead of the battery current in the last series of ex- periments, let there be substituted a magnetized bar held at right angles to the wire connected with the galvanometer. 1. If this bar be sud- denly brought down upon the wire perpendicu- lar to its length, the galvanometer will indicate a current in an opposite direction to the hy- pothetical current in the lower side of the mag- net. If the wire be E, and W. and the magnet be held across it with its N. pole toward the north, the current in-the lower side of the mag- net will be from the E. to the W., while the in- duced current will be in an opposite direction, i. e.,from W.to E. 2. When the motion of the magnet toward the wire is stopped, the in- duced current ceases, and no sign of electricity is exhibited so long as the magnet remains at rest. 3. When the magnet is suddenly removed from its proximity to the wire, a current in the opposite direction to that of the first, that is, in the same direction as the current in the lower side of the magnet, is indicated by the galvan- ometer. 4. When a bar of soft iron is placed across the wire at right angles, and this is sud- denly magnetized, either by a galvanic current or by touching its ends to the poles of a horse- shoe magnet, a momentary current is produced in the wire in a direction opposite to that of the hypothetical currents of the near side of the magnet. 5. So long as the soft iron bar re- mains at rest and its magnetism suffers no change, no current is indicated by the galvan- ometer; but the moment the bar is unmag- netized a reverse current takes place. The two series of results we have given above are precisely analogous; the latter being merely a case of the former, in which the hypothetical currents of the magnet are substituted for the real current of the battery.—All the effects that we have described are produced with much more intensity, when, instead of using extended wires parallel to each other, we em- ploy wires in the form of spirals, either flat or cylindrical. For example, to obtain an induced current of considerable intensity by means of magnetism, we place on a rod of iron, say four inches long, a spool of long wire covered with silk, which may occupy two inches of the length of the middle of the iron. If the two ends of this rod projecting beyond the spool MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY be suddenly brought into contact with the two poles of a horse-shoe magnet, an induced cur- rent will be developed for a moment in the sur- rounding wire; and when the same rod is sud- denly detached from the poles, a current in an opposite direction will take place; and in this way a continued series of alternate currents may be developed by alternately making and severing the contact of the poles of the magnet and the ends of the rod. A still greater effect may be produced by causing the rod to revolve on an axis at right angles to the middle of its length, before the poles of the magnet, so that each end in rapid succession may be brought in contact first with the N. and then with the S. pole, and so on.—Shortly after the discovery by Faraday of the laws we have stated, Mr. Joseph Saxton of this country, then a tem- porary resident of London, afterward attached to the United States coast survey, invented (1832) the first machine for giving sparks and shocks in accordance with the arrangement we have just described. Instead of a single bob- bin of wire on the middle of a straight bar, he employed two, one on each leg of a bar of soft iron bent into the form of a horse shoe, which were made rapidly to revolve by means of a multiplying wheel before the poles of a magnet. At each half revolution the mag- netism of the soft iron was entirely reversed, and in this way a series of currents was in- duced, of sufficient intensity to decompose water, fire combustible bodies, and powerfully to affect the nervous system. An instrument maker in London, who was employed to con- struct these machines, made a slight change in the arrangement, which principally consisted in placing the inducing horse-shoe magnet in a vertical position, and in causing the spools of wire to revolve in a plane parallel to its flat side, instead of parallel to its poles. This change, instead of improving the instrument, produced an opposite effect, since the strength of the induction was much diminished. The author of it, however, succeeded by advertise- ments, and an actual exhibition of it in France, in attaching his name to the invention, to the exclusion of that of Saxton. It is, however, gratifying to see that in the German works on the subject, and also in the better class of Eng- lish publications, justice is done to the original inventor. The next important series of inves- tigations on this subject, after the original dis- covery of Faraday, was by Professor Henry of Princeton, now secretary of the Smithsonian institution at Washington. He found that at the beginning and ending of the galvanic cur- rent in a long wire, an induced current was produced by an action which has sometimes been called the induction of a current on itself. To illustrate this, let the circuit of a small battery of a single elements be closed by a short wire of about a foot in length, dipping into acup of mercury. When the circuit is broken, no spark, or but a very feeble one, will be ob- served; but if we now substitute for the short 13 wire one of say 100 feet in length and of con- siderable thickness, a vivid spark will be ex- hibited when the circuit is interrupted. To obtain this result in the most striking manner, we should employ a copper ribbon at least an inch and a half wide and 100 ft. long, well covered with two thicknesses of silk, and rolled into the form of a flat spiral. At the rupture of a battery circuit of which this forms a part, aloud snap and deflagration of the metal will be produced, when with a short wire, the bat- tery remaining the same, scarcely any but a very feeble spark would be observed. By this arrangement several spires of ribbon react on each other, and increase the effect. By coiling a bell wire covered with silk of 600 or 700 ft. in length into a spiral ring, the intensity will be so much increased that shocks may be ob- tained by means of a small galvanic battery of a single element. If the same wire be coiled into the form of an elongated spiral, and in the centre of this a rod of soft iron be placed, or what is better, a bundle of iron wire, the intensity is still more exalted. In this case the magnetic reaction is combined with that of the current of galvanism, and the two actions be- ing in the same direction conspire to increase the effect. To produce, however, the most powerful inductive apparatus, a bundle of var- nished iron wires of about 15 in. in length, and together forming a diameter of about an inch, is surrounded with a coil of thick copper wire well covered with silk of 300 or 400 ft. in length. Around this, but separated from it by a cylinder of glass or pasteboard soaked in shell lac, is coiled a fine copper wire of 4 or 5 m. in length, care being taken that each spire be well insulated from every other. When a current of galvanism from a battery of even a single element is transmitted through the thick copper wire which surrounds the inner core or bundle of iron wire, the latter becomes magnetic; and at the instant the rupture is made in the battery current, a ‘sudden cessation of the magnetism, as well as that of the cur- rent itself, induces a current of great intensity, though of small quantity, in the outer sur- rounding fine wire. Each spire of the long wire in this arrangement is subjected to the inductive influence; and the rapidity of mo- tion of the electricity of the wire, were it not for the increased resistance, would be in pro- portion to the number of spires, or in other words to the length of the wire. This appa- ratus has received various ingenious improve- ments, the principle in all cases remaining the same. Dr. Page was the first to invent an ap- paratus on this plan by which the rupture of the battery current was rendered automatic ; the magnetization of the iron core caused the attraction of a small magnet attached to one end of a lever which broke the circuit, and the consequent disappearance of the same magnet- ism allowed the end of the lever to fall into a cup of mercury and thus again complete the circuit. This instrument was much enlarged 14 MAGNETO-ELECTRIOCITY can thus be instantaneously generated, produ- cing light, heat, or other effects in any locality whither the conducting wires are led. The ac- companying figures il- lustrate the forms of the most notable machines that have been con- structed. The first is the machine construct- ed by the compagnie @Malliance of Paris on the plans of Clarke and Nollet. In Clarke’s ma- chine, which is but a slight modification of Saxton’s, two soft iron cores, connected by cop- per and iron bars, re- volve rapidly in front of the poles of a power- ful horse-shoe magnet. Around these cores is coiled an insulated cop- per wire, whose ends Fra. 1.—Lighthouse Machine. are so connected with a “commutator” that can artisan, E. 8. Ritchie of Boston. The es- | the alternating currents of electricity circulate sential desideratum in the construction of this | always in the same direction through the exter- instrument is the perfect insulation of the sev- | nal circuit. In the machines of the Alliance eral spires of wire, so that the | company the use of the commutator may be intense electricity which is pro- duced may not strike across from one spire to another; and Mr. Ritchie effected this by means of an ingenious process of winding, together with an improved insulation. An ap- preciable time is required to overcome the resistance of the wire and to give it a full charge < of the current of electricity, ca y and also to magnetize iron ; ZZ Zz hence in the instrument we have described, when a single battery is employed, the in- duced current, which gives the intense spark, is that which is produced at the rupture of the battery current. We can how- ever increase the intensity at the beginning of the current, by employing a battery of a number of elements, which, producing electricity of greater intensity, more suddenly estab- lishes the current in the wire, and more rapidly develops the magnetism of the iron.—The improvements that have been and improved by Ruhmkorff of Paris, and was still further perfected by an ingenious Ameri- Hi s made of late in the construc- Fig. 8.—Wilde’s Machine. ee tion of magneto-electric or in- mature. duction machines have been so | omitted if the currents are designed only for the striking as to warrant the hope | production of light, since in this case tne rapid that we shall eventually derive great advan- | reversals of the current are an advantage. In tages from the powerful electric currents that | Siemens’s machine, fig. 2, invented in 1854, a peculiar core replaces the double iron armature of Saxton and Clarke; this is a long cylinder around which a wire is wound lengthwise. The cylinder is made to revolve rapidly be- tween the opposite poles of a series of horse- shoe magnets; the perpetually reversing mag- netism induced in the core by the magnets is carried in successive currents by the insulated wire coil to the commutator, and thence through the external circuit. In Wilde’s machine, fig. 3, the external current from a small Siemens machine, M, is made to pass through a large coil, A B, enclosing a soft iron horse-shoe bar, which is thereby magnetized and acts as a per- manent magnet on a second revolving core, F, larger than but similar to that of the smaller apparatus. The latter core collects a much more powerful current than that first pro- duced, and this can be used to generate a third or higher order of current; but with each such increase of current we increase the power required to turn the cores; and though the heat and light are magnificent, yet in no case can we convert into electrical energy more than a certain per cent. of the mechanical energy consumed. In the machine devised by Ladd in 1867, as shown in fig. 4, a principle has been introduced suggested a short time previously by both Siemens and Wheatstone. Two plates of soft iron, B B’, are so placed that if they possess the least initial magnetism, as is ordi- narily the case, then the rotation of the Sie- mens armature, a’, collects the currents, which are at once led into the coils about B and B’, and thus elevate the original magnetism of the plates to a high degree of intensity. Between the opposite poles of the magnets rotates a second Siemens armature, a, which collects the Fig. 4.—Ladd’s Machine. current for the external circuit. Gramme’s ma- chine, invented in 1871, two views of which are given in figs. 5 and 6, differs materially from its predecessors in that it offers a really con- tinuous current instead of rapid alternations. This is effected by using a circular ring of soft iron, A A, for the core in which the magnetism is to be induced. The coil of wire around the core offers a continuous metallic circuit, di- vided into numerous sections, the ends of the wires in each so connected with radial metallic 523 VOL. xI.—2 MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY 15 arms, R R, that as the ring rotates the induced current flows continuously from these arms to certain fixed metallic pieces in frictional con- tact with them, and thence to the external cir- Fie. 5.—Gramme’s Machine. cuit. By dividing the current, one half may be led back to the exciting magnets, S ON, and be used to increase the power of the ma- chine. The effect produced by these machines increases proportion- ately to the velocity of rotation up to an unknown limit; it also increases with the number of coils encircling the ring core. The machines of the Alliance com- pany have been em- ployed for illumina- ting purposes at some French lighthouses, and those of Wilde have been similarly employed in Great Britain. The Gramme ma- chine has been used for the illumination of the Victoria tower in London, and in the galvano- plastic works of M. Christofle in Paris.— Cur- rents of different Orders. An induced cur- rent, by its action on a third conductor, may produce another current, and this another, and soon. If we call the current of the battery a current of the first order, the first induced current is named that of the second order, and so on. The discovery and investigation of the principle and properties of currents of the dif- ferent orders is mainly due to Prof. Henry. On reflecting a little, it will be evident that these currents cannot be produced immediately by placing several straight wires parallel to each other and passing a current of electricity through one of them; in this case the battery current would act on the surrounding wires, and simply produce in each of them an induced current of the second order. To obtain, therefore, cur- rents of the different higher orders, we employ a number of flat spirals, through one of which placed horizontally on a table is transmitted the current from the battery. Immediately above this, and separated from it by a stratum of air or a plate of glass, is a second flat spiral, gis eo Fig. 6.—Gramme’s Machine. the ends of which are connected with a third 16 spiral placed at such a distance as to be entire- ly out of the influence of the battery current. Placing on the third a fourth (the two being separated as before by a plate of glass), and joining the ends of this with the ends of a fifth spiral, and so on, we shall have a series of successive currents. The current of the first order induced by the battery current induces a secondary current in the second spiral, which passes through the third spiral, and, thus free from the influence of the battery current, in- duces a current of the third order in the fourth spiral, which in turn, passing through the fifth spiral, induces a current of the fourth order in the sixth, and so on. Since each induced cur- rent must have a beginning and an ending, the current of the third order must in reality con- sist of two currents in immediate succession and in opposite directions, one produced at the beginning and the other at the ending; and for a similar reason a current of the fourth order must consist of four currents in immediate suc- cession and opposite directions. On this ac- count currents of the higher orders do not definitely deflect the needle of the galvanome- ter, but merely give it a slight tremor; the im- pulses in opposite directions follow each other so rapidly that the inertia of the needle is not overcome in the interval between the two. The existence therefore of currents of differ- ent higher orders could not be determined by the galvanometer; they however give intense shocks, and also permanently magnetize steel needles. This latter effect will be understood when it is recollected that, although the series of waves in different directions are the same in quantity, they differ very much in intensity ; that at the beginning of the agitation they have much the greatest energy. Hence the currents of different orders exhibit dominant impulses in definite directions. If the direc- tion of the battery current be represented by +, the current of the second order at the be- . ginning of the battery current will be repre- sented by —; the dominant current of the third order +, of the fourth —, and so on; while the series of dominant impulses at the ending of the battery current will be +, +, —, +,—, +. When acircular plate of cop- per or any other conducting substance is inter- posed between two spirals placed one above the other, and a current from the battery is transmitted through, for example, the lower one, the induced current at the ending of the current of the battery, in the upper spiral, will affect the galvanometer as if no plate were in- terposed, while the physiological effect, or the power of giving shocks, will be entirely neu- tralized. This remarkable effect is due to an induced current in the interposed conductor, which is rendered evident by cutting out a slip of the metal extending from the centre to the circumference of the plate; or in other words, by removing one of the:radii of which the cir- cular plate may be conceived to be made up, and thus interrupting the circuit, in which an MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY induced current otherwise could be produced ; the shocks with the plate thus cut will be near- ly as intense as when the plate is entirely re- moved. The same effect takes place when in- stead of the plates a third flat spiral is intro- duced between the first and second spirals; so long as the ends of this spiral are separated, its presence produces apparently no effect; but if the ends be closed so as to form a perfect cir- cuit which can be traversed by the induced cur- rent, the power of giving shocks is neutralized. But the question naturally arises as to how the current in the plate affects the current in the upper spiral so as to destroy its power of giving shocks. The explanation of this is to be found in the fact, that while the current in the battery tends toinduce a current both in the plate and in the spiral above it, each of these currents tends to induce an opposite current in the con- ductor of the other; we may therefore consider the upper spiral as being under the + influence of the current from the battery, and the — influence of the current of the plate; but asthe current in the plate produces an equal inductive action in opposite directions at its beginning and ending, the only effect of it will be to prolong the action of the induced current in the upper spiral, or in other words, to diminish its inten- sity, and hence to neutralize its power to give shocks without perceptibly diminishing its ef- fects on the galvanometer. These facts are of importance in the construction of the induc- tive apparatus previously described; for if two points of two adjacent spires of the long wire happen to be in metallic contact, so as to form a closed circuit, the effect is the same as that of the interposition of a plate or spiral between the battery current and the induced current ; the intensity of the latter will be neutralized, and hence the necessity of the perfect insula- tion of the several spires of the long wire. For the same reason, if the iron core be en- closed in a hollow cylinder of copper or any other conducting metal so as to separate it from the outer coil of long wire, the great in- ductive power of the instrument will be neu- tralized; and it is also on this account that a bundle of varnished iron wires is employed for the core instead of a solid rod of iron. If - however the copper cylinder we have just mentioned be interrupted by sawing out a thin slip parallel to its axis, and the solid iron core sawed down from its circumference to its cen- — tre, forming a saw-gash in the direction of the radius and in the plane of the axis, the inter- fering induced currents will be prevented. We have stated that an induced current of con- siderable intensity is generated in the conduc- tor of the battery itself at the moment of the rupture of the circuit. This also produces, on the principle of the interposed plate, an ad- verse action which tends to diminish the ener- gy of the induction apparatus; a defect in the instrument which M. Fesso has remedied by causing the rupture to take place in a cup of mercury the surface of which is covered with MAGNETO-ELECTRIOITY oil; the current of the battery is interrupted by drawing the end of the conductor out of the mercury while it still remains in the oil, which being a bad conductor stops in part the induced current. = r . ; - ¥ ; ye , * . . ‘ae he . * 7 y fa d a) 7 J Doe FA ° 7 ee Ro Pea (ROARY ae ae way | BN AL oa ee - PUERTO ean ) 9 ae ra ae huh aire ees’ = 4 ES 4 ; od “se i Wi rs h& aé ste ot ey .* , ( nee) foarte) iy ne iw e ~ y MAINE to the N. E. corner of New Hampshire. Maine is divided into 16 counties, viz.: Androscog- gin, Aroostook, Cumberland, Franklin, Han- cock, Kennebec, Knox, Lincoln, Oxford, Pe- nobscot, Piscataquis, Sagadahoc, Somerset, Wal- do, Washington, and York. The cities are Augusta, the capital (pop. in 1870, 7,808), Au- burn (6,169), Bangor (18,289), Bath (7,371), Belfast (5,278), biddeford (10,282), Calais (5,944), Ellsworth (5,257), Gardiner (4,497), Hallowell (3,007), Lewiston (13,600), Portland (31,418), Rockland (7,074), and Saco (5,755). Portland is the leading commercial city. The largest towns are Brewer (8,214), Brunswick (4,687), Bucksport (8,483), Camden (4,512), Cape Elizabeth (5,106), Deer Isle (8,414), East- port (8,736), Ellsworth (5,257), Farmington (3,251), Gorham (8,351), Hampden (3,068), Kittery (8,333), Skowhegan (8,893), Thomas- ton (8,092), Waldoborough (4,174), Waterville (4,852), and Westbrook (6,583).—The popula- tion of Maine and its rank in the Union, ac- cording to the federal enumerations, have been t:3 follows: White Colored |» Total DATE OF CENSUS. , Rank, . persons, | persons. | population. LUGO Rhee. datersthe Sle aerate 96,002 538 96,540 11 TOU MA cents D0 150,901 | 818 | 151,719 | 14 LRG eee meee Sates ae ec ais 227,736 969 228,705 14 OZ er cistciets, oe einen ell 29. 1.040 929 298,269 12 SOULE Pa ee ie atlelae tvs 898,263 | 1,192 899,455 12 SS Reree pe terete piece 500,488 | 1,855 501,793 13 Leh aie Rc aas See Senet 581.813 | 1,856 583,169 16 PEG MR emer tte cask eee 626,947 | 1,827 628,279 22 cea ae Vc ee Cae 624,809 | 1,606 | 626,915 | 28 Of the total population in 1870, 313,103 were males and 313,812 were females ; 578,034 were native and 48,881 foreign born; and there were 499 Indians and 1 Chinaman enumerated. Of those of native birth, 550,629 were born in Maine, 11,139 in Massachusetts, and 9,758 in New Hampshire. Of the foreigners, 26,788 were born in British America, 15,745 in Ire- land, and 8,650 in England. The density of population was 17°91 to a square mile. There were 131,017 families, with an average of 4°78 to each, and 121,958 dwellings, with an aver- age of 5°14 to each. Between 1860 and 1870 there was a decrease of 1,364 or 0°22 per cent. in the total population, this being the only state except New Hampshire in which there was a loss. The number of male citizens 21 years old and upward was 153,160. There were 175,588 persons from 5 to 18 years of age; the total number attending school was 155,140. Of persons 10 years of age and over, 13,486 were unable to read, and 19,052 could not write, of whom 9,646 were males and 9,406 females, making the percentage of illiterates 10 years old and over, to the total population (493,847) of the same age, 3°86, which is less than in any other state except Nevada, where the percentage was 2°38, and New Hampshire, where it was 3°81. In the total number (169,- 823) of male adults, 6,585, or 3°88 per cent., were illiterates; and of 174,068 adult females, 29 6,834, or 3°91 per cent. The number of pau- pers supported during the year ending June 1, 1870, was 4,619, at a cost of $367,000. Of the total number (8,631) receiving support, June 1, 1870, 3,188 were natives and 448 foreigners. The number of persons convicted of crime during the year was 431. Of the total num- ber (871) in prison June 1, 1870, 261 were of native and 110 of foreign birth. There were 324 blind, 299 deaf and dumb, 792 insane, and 628 idiotic. Of the total population 10 years of age and over (498,847), there were engaged in all occupations 208,225, of whom 179,784 were males and 28,441 females; in agricul- ture, 82,011, of whom 24,738 were agricultural laborers, and 56,941 farmers and planters; in professional and personal services, 36,092, including 890 clergymen, 11,321 domestic ser- vants, 13,838 laborers not specified, 558 law- yers, 818 physicians and surgeons, and 4,183 teachers not specified; in trade and transpor- tation, 28,115, of whom 11,670 were sailors; in manufactures and mechanical and mining industries, 62,007, including 2,697 blacksmiths, 8,757 boot and shoe makers, 6,474 carpenters and joiners, 3,896 fishermen and oystermen, 1,765 lumbermen and raftsmen, 4,187 saw-mill operatives, 2,256 ship carpenters, 2,482 wool- len-mill operatives, 8,774 cotton-mill opera- tives, and 1,131 mill and factory operatives not specified. The total number of deaths from all causes was 7,728; from consumption, 1,991, there being 3°9 deaths from all causes to 1 from consumption; from pneumonia, 495, or 15°6 deaths from all causes to 1 from pneu- monia; from diphtheria and scarlet fever, 502 ; from intermittent and remittent fever, 39; from cerebro-spinal, enteric, and typhus fe- vers, 641; from diarrhoea, dysentery, and en- teritis, 269. According to the census of 1870, there was a greater number of deaths from consumption in Maine, in proportion to the total mortality, than in any other state, the ratio being 25,598 deaths from consumption in 100,000 deaths from all causes; while in New Hampshire, the state ranking next in this re- spect, the ratio was 22,209 in 100,000.—The coast of Maine extends in an E. N. E. direc- tion, from Kittery point on the west to Quoddy head on the east, about 218 m. in a straight line; but following its exact outline, and in- cluding the islands, the length of shore line is 2,486 m. It is studded with numerous islands, and indented by many bays and inlets, forming excellent harbors. The largest island is Mount Desert, having an area of 60,000 acres, and lying: W. of Frenchman’s bay. Its formation is very peculiar, and its scenery picturesque and striking. Thirteen peaks, the highest of which has an elevation of about 1,800 ft., rise from its surface from W. to N. Besides this, the principal islands are Isle au Haut, off the entrance of Penobscot bay, in which are Deer, Long, and Fox islands, and the Isles of Shoals, a group of eight belonging partly to New Hampshire. Among the largest bays are Pas- 30 samaquoddy, Machias, Pleasant, Frenchman’s, Penobscot, Muscongus, Casco, and Saco. Maine is abundantly supplied with watercourses. The Walloostook, flowing into the St. John in the north, and the Aroostook in the east, each with numerous tributaries, drain the N. portion of the state. The St. Croix, which fiows S. into Passamaquoddy bay, forms a por- tion of the E. boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. The Penobscot, flowing into Penobscot bay, is the largest river, draining with its branches and connecting lakes the centre of the state, and navigable for large vessels to Bangor, 55 m. from its mouth. The Kennebec, W. of the Penobscot, affords great and valuable water power, and is navigable for ships to Bath, 12 m., and for smaller boats to Augusta, 50 m. from its mouth. Further W. are the Androscoggin and Saco. On the southwest the Piscataqua separates Maine from New Hampshire. Several of the rivers have falls of considerable note. Scattered over the surface of the state is a great number of lakes, the largest of which is Moosehead, 35 m. long and from 4 to 12 m. wide; among others are Sebago, Umbagog, Chesuncook, Bas- kahegan, Long, Portage, Eagle, Madawaska, Pamédumcook, Millinoket, Sebec, and Schoodie. —The surface is generally hilly, mostly level toward the coast, but rising in theinterior. A broken chain of eminences, apparently an ex- tension of the White mountains of New Hamp- shire, crosses the state from S. W. to N. E., ter- minating in Mars hill on the borders of New Brunswick. The highest elevation in the range is Mt. Katahdin, 5,385 ft. above the sea. Sad- dleback, Bigelow, Abraham, North and South Russell, and Haystack are among the others best known.—Maine is almost exclusively a region of the azoic rocks. The W. portion of the state is granitic. The metamorphic rocks abound in a great variety of interesting min- erals, and Paris, Oxford co., is noted for its beautiful colored tourmalines; Parsonsfield, York co., and Phippsburg, on the coast of Lincoln co., for varieties of garnet and various other minerals; Brunswick and Topsham for feldspar, &c.; and Bowdoinham for beryls. Over the surface of the country the drift for- mation is everywhere spread in the form of bowlders and sand and gravel. Even upon the highest summits are found scattered rounded fragments of formations situated in places fur- ther N. Along the S. portion of the state deposits of tertiary clays are found in many localities beneath the drift. They are charac- terized by beds of shells of the common clam and mussel, and consequently belong to the newer pliocene. They extend into the interior as far as Augusta and Hallowell, and are pene- trated by wells sunk 50 ft. or more below the surface. Limestone quarries are worked in many places among the metamorphic rocks. Along the shore of Passamaquoddy bay are beds of red sandstone, probably of the age of the Connecticut river sandstone. It is pene- _of red hematite. MAINE trated by dikes of trap, and at the contact of the two rocks are developed many interesting minerals. On Campbell’s island and on the shores of Cobscook bay veins of galena are found of some promise at the contact of trap dikes and argillaceous limestone. Trap abounds in this portion of the state, and in the interior it forms hills of considerable extent. The sources of the rivers are in a wild mountain- ous territory spreading over the central portion of the state. The mountains are in scattered groups, with no appearance of regular ranges. Their structure is of the metamorphic rocks; and so far as explored they present little of economical importance. On the Aroostook are numerous beds of limestone and one large body Argillaceous slates and lime- stones prevail over the N. portion of the state. —Maine is said to be rich in minerals, espe- cially in Aroostook, Piscataquis, and Washing- ton cos. Besides marble, slate, granite, and limestone, which are sources of wealth, iron, lead, tin, copper, zinc, and manganese exist. There is also abundance of material for the profitable manufacture of alum, copperas, and sulphur. Granite is obtained in blocks of im- mense size, some weighing more than 100 tons each. It is of fine grain, beautiful in color, and very durable. The marble is better adapt- ed for building than for ornamental purposes. The principal belt of roofing slate, which is found in immense quantities, extends from the Kennebec to the Penobscot river, a distance of about 80 m. The principal quarries are in Piscataquis co. Most of the slate is suitable for tables, blackboards, writing slates, and pencils. Few attempts have been made to work metallic ores.—The climate is one of ex- tremes. In the year the temperature ranges between 20° or 80° below to 100° above zero; and the isothermal lines vary with the lati- tude from 454° to 87° F. The following me- teorological summary for Portland, lat. 48° 40' N. and lon. 70° 14’ W., has been reported by the United States signal bureau: | Mean Total YEAR.! Month. —— thermom- | rainfall, Frovailing FOME‘EE> eter inches. b Loe 1871.. October..... 80° 058 50°0° 6°55 Southwest. |November..| 29°926 | 83:0 6°3T | Northwest. [December...| 80°004 | 238-0 8°00 Southwest. 1872.. January....| 29°910 | 22°5 0°77 | Southwest. February....| 29°924 | 23-0 0°35 | Northwest. | March.s-s0e 29-900 23°3 1°44 Northwest. Aprils 29-949 | 41°8 1°69 Northwest. \May-ac eames | 29°955 | 52°8 8°23 South. | June. eee 29-950 62°0 5°95 South. July:5.nee ee 29°919 68°7 2°9T South. |August..... 380° 007 67°1 6°97 Southwest. ee 30°020 | 59°8 8°12 | Southwest. ees pe Ae a ‘Ann’l mean.| 29°963 | 43°9° | 42°32 | Southwest. In the extreme northern part of the state the temperature ranges from 5° to 10° lower. The winters are severe, but the temperature is uniform and not subject to violent changes. The snow lies on the ground for from three MAINE Bal to five months. The northeast winds from the Atlantic in the spring and early summer, charged with cold fogs, constitute an unplea- sant feature in the climate of a portion of the state.—The soil varies greatly, being sterile in the mountains and fertile in the valleys; the most. productive land lies between the Kennebec and Penobscot and in the valley of the St. John. Great forests cover the central and N. portions of the state, yielding immense quantities of timber, which constitutes one of the leading sources of wealth. The most prev- alent trees are the pine, spruce, and hemlock; maple, birch, beech, and ash are common, and the butternut, poplar, elm, sassafras, and a variety of others are found in particular dis- tricts. Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees thrive, but the peach has not been cultivated with success. The dense forests still afford re- treats for the moose and caribou. There are also the bear, deer, wolf, catamount, wolverene, beaver, marten, sable, weasel, raccoon, wood- chuck, squirrel, &c. Wild geese and ducks, eagles, hawks, partridges, pigeons, owls, quails, crows, and humming birds are among the most common birds. The waters off the coast abound with fish, chiefly cod, herring, menha- den, and mackerel; and salmon, trout, pickerel, &ec., are found in great abundance in the lakes and rivers.—According to the census of 1870, there were 59,804 farms, containing 2,917,- 793 acres of improved land, 2,224,740 of wood- land, and 695,525 of other unimproved land. The cash value of farms was $102,961,951; of farming implements and machinery, $4,809,- 113; total amount of wages paid during the year, including the value of board, $2,903,- 292; total (estimated) value of all farm pro- ductions, including betterments and additions to stock, $33,470,044; of orchard products, $874,569 ; of produce of market gardens, $366,- 397; of forest products, $1,581,741; of home manufactures, $450,988; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $4,939,071; of all live stock, $23,357,129. The agricultural produc- tions were 278,793 bushels of wheat, 1,089,888 of Indian corn, 34,115 of rye, 2,351,354 of oats, 658,816 of barley, 466,635 of buckwheat, 264,- 502 of peas and beans, 7,771,363 of potatoes, 9,114 of grass and clover seed, 1,058,415 tons of hay, 5,435 lbs. of flax, 1,774,168 of wool, 296,850 of hops, 11,636,482 of butter, 1,152,- 590 of cheese, 160,805 of maple sugar, 155,640 of honey, 5,253 of wax, 1,374,091 gallons of milk sold, 28,470 of maple molasses, and 7,047 of wine. There were on farms 71,514 horses, 336 mules and asses, 139,259 milch cows, 60,- 530 working oxen, 142,272 other cattle, 484,- 666 sheep, and 45,760 swine.—The leading in- dustries are directly connected with the natu- ral yield of land and water, the most charac- teristic being the production of lumber and lime, the packing of ice, fish, and vegetables, ship building, and stone quarrying. It is esti- mated that the forests cover 10,505,711 acres, or very nearly one half the entire area of the 524 VOL. xI.—3 uv state. This is not exceeded in any of the other great lumber-producing states except Michigan and Pennsylvania; while the ratio of the wood- land to the entire area is greater in Maine than in any other state. The abundant water power renders the use of steam necessary in only a small number of mills. The great lumber mart is Bangor, where the amount surveyed during the season reaches about 200,000,000 ft. The most important centres of this industry are Penobscot co., where a capital of about $2,- 000,000 is employed; Washington co., about $1,500,000; Hancock, Kennebec, and Piscata- quis cos. According to the census of 1870, the number of saw mills was 1,099, having 76 steam engines of 3,213 horse power, and 1,660 water wheels of 38,898 horse power, and em- ploying 8,506 hands. The capital invested amounted to $6,614,875; wages, $2,449,182; materials, $6,872,723; products, $11,395,747. Ship building, which declined during the civil war, has within a few years attained a pros- perity exceeding that of former times. In 1870 Maine ranked next to New York and Pennsyl- vania in the value of work completed, and next to New York in 1873. In the former year 116 establishments were reported, employing 1,810 hands, and a capital of $908,173; the value of materials used was $1,267,146, and of products, $2,365,745. During the year ending Jan. 1, 1874, there were built in the state 276 vessels of 89,817 tons, being the largest tonnage ever built in one year. Among the vessels were 10 ships of 14,594 tons, 25 barks, 12 brigs, 206 schooners, 12 sloops, and 9 steamers. The principal yards are at Passamaquoddy, Machias, Frenchman’s Bay, Castine, Bangor, Belfast, Waldoborough, Wiscasset, Bath, Portland and Falmouth, and Kennebunk. According to the census of 1870, the products of the Maine fish- eries, exclusive of the whale fisheries, were exceeded only by those of Massachusetts, the value being $979,610. This included 79,873 quintals of cod fish, 2,475 of haddock, 10,955 of hake, 2,653 barrels of herring, 31,901 of mackerel, and 75,834 of miscellaneous fish, besides 40,011 barrels of fish oil. The value of fish cured and packed was $617,878. In 1878, 861 vessels of 46,196 tons were en- gaged in the cod and mackerel fisheries. About 2,000 men are employed in this indus- try. The propagation of salmon and trout by artificial means in the interior waters is car- ried on with success under the direction of the state commissioners of fisheries. Along the coast, from Yarmouth to Cape Sable, the packing of fish, lobsters, clams, &c., is exten- sively carried on. The catching of lobsters is perhaps more extensive here than anywhere else inthe country. The canning of vegetables in the interior is an important industry. The value of canned products in 1873 was $1,842,- 000; the number of cans was 735,700 dozens, embracing 475,000 dozen cans of corn, 7,500 of succotash, 231,600 of lobsters, 20,000 of salmon, and 1,600 of clams. Ice is gathered 32 ' MAINE chiefly in Kennebec and Knox cos. for exporta- tion to various parts of the world. In 1873, 24 establishments cut 301,000 tons, valued at $552,000. Most of the granite quarries are on the coast, the principal ones being in Knox and Lincoln counties. Here the granite is dressed and shaped for use in buildings in dis- tant parts of the country. The stone quarried in 1870 was valued at $536,788, and the slate at $85,000. According to the census of 1870, Maine had more capital invested in the pro- duction of lime than any other state except New York, and produced more in value than any except Pennsylvania; the capital invested amounting to $1,058,000, and the products to $1,741,553. In the manufacture of cotton goods Maine in 1870 ranked sixth among the states. The manufacture of woollen goods is also an important industry. The census of 1870 gives the number of manufacturing es- tablishments at 5,550, using 354 steam engines of 9,465 horse power, and 2,760 water wheels of 70,108 horse power, and employing 49,180 hands, of whom 34,310 were males above 16 years of age, 13,448 females above 15, and 1,422 youth. The amount of capital invested was $39,796,190; wages paid during the year, $14,282,205; value of materials, $49,397,757 ; of products, $79,497,521. The leading indus- tries are indicated in the following statement: Steam To. is engines, INDUSTRIES. establish- is ments. . power. SLACK SIMIGhING 8 New. Seige sie eee rie.cs eielelel ok 604 22 Bleaching and cdyeing. V's). os ae as as e's 16 BAB BOOts ANG BHOER Ise Hic/(c/a28 4 - cided. sen 393 388 Carriages and wagons.................... 291 12 MOLINE SIMON Nee. cco ee aachaseise mie ae 143 arse Cotton goods not specified................ 20 820 “ batting and wadding.............. 1 sas “ thread, twine, and yarn........... 2 Sets Hdge tools'and axesz: ci. .'o. ccc ecle scion 9 180 Hishs cured and! packed v2 0)i2..cen taste 40 ee Flouring and grist mill products.......... 205 200 iron storzedand.rollgds.. yee. dene tseek ee 4 780 ** anchors and eable chains............ 2 6 “ nails and spikes, cut and wrought.... 2 sts Ste “castings, not specified. .............. 44 850 a Ag stoves, heaters, and hollow WEDS ie ctstecartialt.. siageack ss 3 10 eather tanned se seus, ich seer 128 552 ve CUrriGde tne. cama eee conan 76 109 af morocco, tanned and curried..... LT acer Gard eh nea sine ee Cacia tae « 2 ESTING as poactee Pye erciata vines ak srcie's, Staleve vlovere. iets 41 rita Gambersplanediys. te. wavsewtoeus «steel 18 828 a BOWE. Soria ce tide ae uae lcs 1,099 3,218 Molasses and sugar, refined............... 3 240 CHT OOY CLORH i oer cle pies oh ete ed 6 98 Vp Lishr eter (abate a oe aie sale Retls cat 28 111 BADER Cee itnat tree check 4a) towels Mae ae 12 10 Ship building, repairing, and ship mate- MAGI Was ioe esc we Mehee cake Vara teeta, 118 180 Vibgetables, eannedede. which Poss did ce de eee 3 27 Woollen PO0dS: 87. ss.cied +cat Ueno fafa 56 140 . Water wheels, Hands horse jemployed. power. Capital. Wages. Materials. | Products, 15 | 1,282 | $417,595 | $175,418 | $346,191 $1,012,117 0G 175 | 268,500 | — 66,980 | 2,570,522 | 2,718,950 19 | 2,786 | 871,683 | 994/837 | 2,261,229 | 3 438 | 1,128 | 533,080] 356.207 | 985,544 | 1,051,488 .... | 4563 | 551,610 | 509/018 | 1,868,391 | 2'8 7,908 | 9,879 | 9,789,685 2,000,007 6,671,280 11,789,781 8 ; ,500 5,000 BT 48.000 14,000 71,000 98,800 260 214,750 | 111,882 | 118,767 | 842,050 160,920 70,230 : 559 | 944.350 | 115,308 | 8,887/370 | 4,415,998 120 468 | 550,000 | 272.958 | 1,051,890 | 1,591,196 40 24 85.000 |. 17,400 |” 81,300 53,800 60 Ey) 80,000 | 12,400 | 24,590 40,636 224 501 | 704,718 | 242,654 | 845,427 | 749.275 5 11 7,666 4,818 | 15.479 28,690 1,318 781 | 1,606,740 | 285,882 | 3,021,127 | 8.779.297 126 219 | 238209 | 64,244 | 894/862 | 1,082/554 pes 20 20,000 | 10,000 | 40,850 50,000 120 18 86,000 7,800 ; : 739 | 1,058,000 | 211.527 | 1,222'309 | 1,741'553 107 129 | 107,800] 41,940 | ‘288.575 | ’329'875 88,598 | 8,506 | 6,614,875 | 2,449,132 | 6,872,723 | 11,895,747 A 185 | 775,000 | 117,000 | 2,958,118 | 31149,182 Mi 297 | 525,000 | 149,500 | 859.200 | 1,314,000 876 | 149,764 | 41,560 | 74.985] 172,017 399,000 | 146.477 | 864,158 | 1,214.607 1,802 | 904,473 | 627,185 | 1,268,821 | 2,858,445 308 | 848,000 | 82,500 | ‘247,000 | 605,000 The industrial interests of Maine have been greatly extended in recent years. The condi- tion of the most important industries in 1873, according to the state industrial statistician, is approximately given in the following state- ment, the number of establishments making returns being less than the actual number: ssl sh] a3 a INDUSTRIES. 648] 8 2 ay 33 AE pol eA t= eB. Bleaching and dyeing... 8 180} $300,000 |$5,500,000 Boots and shoes........ 112 | 5,894) 1,863,964 | 8,820,986 Brick Joe nen lae oe Se 93 917| 817,185 | 520,574 Canned goods.......... | . 83 | 4,087} 825,000 | 1,842,000 Carriages, wagons, and sleighs........ : ee 59 261) 194,165 | 824,550 Clothing,men’sand boys’| 42 | 8,693} 267,248 811,250 Cotton goods........... 16 | 10,699) 12,252,000 |12,151,750 Cotton batting, warp, and ‘yarn. 72k 252.958 5 145] 130,000 | 275,920 Edge tools... 02.02.41. 20 828} 430,000 638,800 Fish, cured and packed. 7 176; 21,860 245,256 | 8,867 | 2,925 | 4,092,685 | 1,085,483 | 8,761,715 | 6,150,620 Ses 4 3 33 es INDUSTRIES. pee SR oe 23 Z z 8/ x ey io) g S E Flouring and grist mill products .’;.. 9 aen 85 | 161) 620,600 | 2,276,122 Ice, prepared for market] 24 160} 60,000 | 552,000 Iron, cast, forged, and rolled. :, (aaa 22 472) 695,200 | 1,649,640 Leather, tanned and cur- Fled..«:: i. sene eens 61 663) 1,529,380 | 8,187,800 Lime .....3 oo eee 25 456) 1,099,500 | 1,585,025 Lumber, long and short.| 1,086 | 7,476! 6,879,492 | 9,020,222 rf planed 23. 25." 6 80 80,000 210,000 Machinery, cotton and woollen... ss weneeece: 8 250) 212,800 | 815,500 Machinery, steam en- gines, cars, &€....... 80 | 1,101) 1,097,500 | 2,501,247 Oil fish i. nae ae 12 446} 828,500 852,550 “' Kerosene! 5.1. 07. il 25) 200,000 | 254,500 Paper, print’g and wrap- DING .5:5./6 sated ean ce 9 836) 1,500,000 | 3,041,600 Printing and publishing.| 31 274} 440,262 801,600 Sash, doors, and blinds.| 21 241! 870,000 | 864,450 Shooks, box and hogs- Dead, 7.34 Rone 23 868} 149,950 652,013 Woollen goods.........| 89 | 2,727 8,217,000 | 6,605,292 ne ie at et ee SP See ae ei a est a Ce esiceeret ee gt SRE ees. soy MAINE According to the same authority, the total number of establishments devoted to manu- facturing and mechanical industry was 6,072, employing 55,614 hands; the capital invest- ed amounted to $48,808,448; materials used, $57,911,468; wages paid, $16,584,164; value of products, $96,209,1386.—The extensive sea- coast and numerous harbors of Maine give the state great facilities for commerce. The harbor at Portland is one of the best on the Atlantic coast. There are 14 United States customs dis- tricts, viz.: Aroostook (port of entry, Houl- ton), Passamaquoddy (port of entry, Eastport), Machias, Frenchman’s Bay (port of entry, Ells- worth), Castine, Bangor, Belfast, Waldobor- ough, Wiscasset, Bath, Portland and Falmouth, Saco, Kennebunk, and York. Theimports from foreign countries and domestic exports for the year ending June 30, 1874, were as follows: CUSTOMS DISTRICTS. Imports, Exports. ATOOBLOOKIE te Sheds es 2 ie Aes EP aly eT Sa ee BANG OY) ed, eres sd ease es 15,834 $298,367 DAG ataye te aie cour states hee dates 21,744 79,071 Beliasteeae ts Wat cose weeks 15,930 5,787 OS titre cee soketee ours t eco < 2,919 7,719 Wrenchmat’s) Bay ....<. <0 400 6,508 IMaGhian Weis. ste, A (lage It, € Ail Malaga. ra, Colmenar, Ronda, Marbella, and Estepona. i, A city, capital of the province, on a gulf of the same name in the Mediterranean, 262 m. S. by W. of Madrid; pop. about 100,000, or with the suburbs, 130,000. It stands in the centre of a wide bay, surrounded by walls with nine gates, and flanked by high mountains, on the base of which it rises in amphitheatre; and seen from the sea it presents, with the ruins of its ancient fortifications and its Moorish cas- tle, the Gibralfaro, on a lofty eminence to the east, an aspect of much grandeur. The streets, nearly all extremely narrow, and many of them not admitting vehicles, give the town a pecu- liarly Moorish appearance. The Guadalmedina, crossed by two good bridges, traverses the city from N. E. to 8. W., dividing it into two quar- ters; but the river, which in winter becomes a formidable torrent inundating the streets, is dry in summer, when its bed serves as a thor- oughfare. The houses (numbering about 7,000 in 1864) are large and high, and, being all white, look remarkably gay and clean. Most of them are built round a court. The Alameda, near the port, one of the most beautiful promenades in Spain, is surrounded by sumptuous edifices, and embellished with a number of fountains and statues, with rich marble seats at intervals through the grounds. In the Plaza del Riego is a monument to the memory of Torrijos and his 49 confederates executed by order of Mo- reno on Dec. 11, 1831; and the Paseo de Re- ding is an agreeable resort. Chief among the public buildings is the cathedral, begun in 1538, and completed in 1719; it is a stately structure in the composite style, with a spire 300 ft. high, and magnificent decorations; the high altar and choir are noteworthy for the perfec- tion of their carved works representing the twelve apostles and many saints. The episco- MALAKHOFF pal palace and the custom house are handsome edifices. Among the other notable buildings are four parish churches and two chapels, ele- yen convents, ten nunneries, two foundling, one military, and three general hospitals, a prison, four barracks, the post office, and a superb aqueduct. The places of amusement are the theatre and the plaza de toros or bull ring, with « number of concert and dancing rooms. Pipes for the supply of water from the river Torremolinos, 6 m. distant, were laid in 1874. The port is one of the finest and most commodious on the Mediterranean, sery- ing as a refuge for vessels compelled to leave Gibraltar during the prevalence of the S. W. winds. A mole to the east upward of 1,200 ft. long, with a lighthouse upon its outer ex- tremity, offers good protection; and the har- bor, which has good anchorage for about 500 ships, is defended by four forts. Among other fortifications is the Gibralfaro, a Moorish cas- tle on the site of a Roman fortress, on a hill commanding thecity. The principal articles of export are wines and raisins, including muscatel, the finest in the world, lejia or lye, and sun raisins. The crop of muscatel grapes yielded 2,700,000 boxes of raisins, the best of which go to England and Russia, and the lower grades to the United States. Sugar is extensively manufactured for export; the total production in 1872 was 21,960,000 lbs. The export trade in olive oil has greatly increased, mostly with France, Germany, England, and Russia; France and the United States take the most of the lead exported. The total value of the exports to the United States in the year ending Sept. 30, 1873, was $2,814,682 79, raisins, lemons, and lead forming the principal part. The chief imports are linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, hard- ware, machinery, and cutlery. The port move- ments for the year ending June 30, 1878, were 1,028 steamers and 2,749 sailing vessels, with an aggregate of 542,802 tons. The chief man- ufactures are soap, cigars, hats, leather, white lead, and porcelain; and there are iron foun- deries, saw mills, lime and brick kilns, and silk- weaving establishments. The educational in- stitutions are a seminary, a naval school, two endowed Latin, and a number of primary schools.—Malaga (anc. Malaca) was founded by the Phoenicians, and subsequently passed under the dominion of Carthage and of Rome. Its name is variously derived. Humboldt as- cribes it to the Iberians; others connect it with mela‘h, supposed to be the Pheenician name for salt fish, for the exportation of which the town was famous. In 714 it was seized without opposition by the Moors, who held it till 1487, when it was taken by Ferdinand the Catholic after a protracted siege. In 1810 Se- bastiani, the French general, took the city, and exacted a contribution of 12,000,000 reals. It was again taken by the French in 18238. MALAKHOFF, or Malakoff. See CrimeEa. MALAN. I. César Henri Abraham, a Swiss theologian, born in Geneva, July 8, 1787, died MALARIA 53 there, May 8, 1864. His ancestors, who were noble and Protestant, fled on account of perse- cution from Mérindol in southern France to Switzerland in the 17th century. At an early age he became a minister of the state church and a regent in the college of Geneva. After- ward, through the influence of Dr. Mason of New York and Robert Haldane of Scotland, from a Socinian he became a Trinitarian, and received much sympathy from English and Scotch Christians. He often visited England. He published ‘The Church of Rome” (trans- lated into English, New York, 1844); “Stories for Children” (1852); and ‘Pictures from Switzerland” (1854). The American tract so- ciety and the publishing department of the Dutch Reformed church have printed many of his tracts. His most important work is his vol- ume of hymns, entitled Chants de Sion (1826; enlarged ed., 1841), of which he composed both the words and the music. I. Solomon Czsar, an English clergyman, son of the preceding, born in Geneva in 1812. After completing his education at Geneva he went to Oxford, where he graduated. He was appointed classical pro- fessor in Bishop’s college, Calcutta, in 1838, but from impaired health returned in a few years to England, and afterward resided some time in Arabia. He became vicar of Broad- windsor, Dorsetshire, in 1845, and prebendary of Sarum in 1871. He is said to be able to use in conversation familiarly upward of 20 languages, and to translate upward of 1060. Among other works, he has published ‘“‘ Three Months in the Holy Land” (1848); ‘‘A Plain Exposition of the Apostles’ Creed” (1847); “A Catalogue of the Eggs of British Birds,” and “A Systematic List of British Birds” (1848); ‘‘Magdala and Bethany,” and ‘The Coast of Tyre and Sidon” (1857); ‘‘On Ritu- alism” (1867); ‘‘Life, Labors, &c., of Cesar Malan” (1869); ‘‘ Our Lord’s Miracles and Par- ables” (1871); and numerous translations. MALARIA (Ital. mala aria, bad air), or Marsh Miasm (Gr. paivey, to infect), an emanation which produces in mankind intermitting end remitting diseases. This poison is not cog- nizable by the senses, nor can it be detected by chemical tests; it is known only by its effects. The concurrence of vegetable matter suscepti- ble of decay, of moisture either on the surface or a short distance below it, and of a certain elevation of temperature, is necessary for its evolution; of these, long continued heat has the greatest influence in increasing the intensity of the poison. Comparatively harmless in the northern part of the temperate zone, it becomes malignant and deadly in places equally favor- able to its production, just in proportion to the increase in the mean annual temperature. Marshes, whether salt or fresh, and wet mea- dows are especially subject to malaria, particu- larly when drying under a hot sun. Grounds alternately flooded and drained are fertile sources of it, and it is this which renders the cultivation of rice so deleterious. Grounds 54 MALARIA which, from the nature of the subsoil, retain the moisture a short distance beneath the sur- face, though that may be dry and parched, are favorable to the production of malaria. The process of clearing a new country of its woods, and thus exposing the soil to the full action of the sun, is commonly followed by the prevalence of fevers; and the same evils often follow the ploughing up of meadow lands. It is not ne- cessary that the amount of the vegetable matter be great or its growth recent, since malarious diseases have often been caused by the drainage of ponds and lakes; and the fevers that pre- vailed at Bourg-en-Bresse ceased on filling in the half wet. ditches of the fortifications. The low grounds on the margin of lakes and the al- luvial lands bordering rivers in warm countries are always plagued with malaria. In India ground covered with low thick growths of brushwood or of weeds and grass, called jun- gles, are so well known to produce malarious fevers, that they are there termed jungle fevers; even open woods in tropical climates are pro- ductive of malaria. The steeping of hemp and flax, and the decay of vegetable refuse, pota- toes, &c., in confined localities, as cellars or the hold of a vessel, have resulted in fever.—The quantity of water required for the generation of malaria is not large, a marsh completely covered with water being innocuous; it is only when the moisture is drying up under the in- fluence of the sun that it becomes pestilential. So in tropical climates disease prevails chiefly at the commencement and after the termina- tion of the rainy season, and is less prevalent while the earth is saturated. In some cases the quantity of vegetable matter concerned in the production of malaria must be exceedingly small. Dr. Ferguson, one of the medical offi- cers in the army of the duke of Wellington, says: “In Spain, during the month of May, 1809, which was cold and wet, the army re- mained healthy; but in June, which was re- markably hot and dry, marching through a sin- gularly dry, rocky country of considerable ele- vation, several of the regiments bivouacking in the hilly ravines which had lately been water- courses, a number of the men were seized with violent remittent fever (the first which had shown itself on the march) before they could move from the bivouac the next morning; and this portion of the troops exclusively were affected with this disorder for some time. In this instance, the half dried ravine having been the stony bed of a torrent, in which soil never could be, the very existence of vegetables, and consequently of their humid decay and putre- faction, was impossible, and the stagnant pools of water still left among the rocks by the wa- tercourse were perfectly sweet. Yet this sit- uation proved as pestiferous as the bed of a fen.” (‘On the Nature and History of Marsh Poison,” Edinburgh, 1821.) Here, however, the total absence of vegetable matter would be difficult to prove, and would be in contradic- tion with all other experience.— Whatever may MALATESTA be the nature of malaria, it is most concentra~ ted near the surface of the earth, and becomes weaker as we rise above it; it is also most active at night, probably from the influence of the sun in rarefying and producing currents in the atmosphere, and perhaps, too, because it has a peculiar affinity for the fogs that are then apt to prevail. In malarious countries it is well known that exposure to the night air is apt to be followed by fever, and that those who sleep in the upper rooms of a house are safer than those who lodge on the ground floor. While as a general rule low and damp grounds are much more unhealthy than the hills in their neighborhood, yet in numerous instances this rule does not hold good, or is even reversed. The experience of the British army in the East and West Indies is conclusive on this point. In many cases this can readily be explained by the effect of winds and currents of air carry- ing the malaria to the higher ground, which had been generated on the lower; thus in Italy the malaria from the borders of Lake Agnano reaches the convent of the Camaldules, situ- ated on a high hill three miles distant. Con- nected with the propagation of malaria by cur- rents of air is the fact that woods sometimes act as ascreen, protecting a place from the ma- laria which would otherwise be conveyed to it from some neighboring source; in Italy fevers have frequently become prevalent on the cut- ting down of trees which have thus served as a shelter. It becomes an interesting question how far malaria can be carried by winds. This has been very variously estimated ; probably three or four miles is the maximum.—The ef- fects of malaria are by no means confined to the production of fevers and diseases of an in- termittent type, but it is only in warm climates and in certain unfavorable localities that its full effects upon the constitution are observed. In such places the growth is stunted, the complex- ion sallow, the limbs slender, the abdomen tu- mid, the hair lank and scant, and the teeth de- fective; life is commonly extinguished before 40 years of age, and the population is only kept up by immigration from healthier locali- ties. Yet it is remarkable that when in such places persons live beyond their 40th year, they frequently recover some measure of health and attain to old age. MALATESTA, a family of Italy, many of whose members were rulers of Rimini and other cities of the Romagna, and which became affiliated with the house of Montefeltro and with the dukes of Urbino. The founder of the family was Count Oarpegna la Penna de’ Billi, who lived in the 11th century, and who on ac- count of his violent disposition was called mala testa (‘bad head”), whence the surname of his descendants. Among the latter was Mala- testa, count of Verrucchio, who distinguished himself against the Ghibellines, became ruler of Rimini in 1295, and died in 1312. He was succeeded by his son Malatestino, a zealous en- emy of the Ghibellines, who in 1814 added Ce- MALAY ARCHIPELAGO sena to Rimini, and died in 1317. Three of his brothers were deformed. ° Giovanni, one of the most repulsive of them, had for wife Fran- cesca da Polenta, daughter of Guido the elder, lord of Ravenna. She became the mistress of her brother-in-law Paolo, though he was also married, and Giovanni killed his wife and brother with the same sword (1289). Dante, in his Inferno, gives a thrilling narrative of this tragic end of Francesca and Paolo da Rimini, and the story is a favorite theme of poets and artists. Malatestino was succeeded by his broth- er Pandolfo L., instead of by his son Ferrantino, the former being confirmed by the pope on ac- count of his vigorous opposition to the Ghi- bellines. He was munificent, but disgraced his reign by the murder of his nephew, the count of Ghiazzolo. On the death of Pan- dolfo in 1326, his nephew Ferrantino was in- stalled as ruler. Heserved against the infidels in Palestine, but after a conflict with one of his relatives he was expelled from Rimini by the pope in 1335, and died in 1853. Two sons of Pandolfo, Malatesta II. (died in 1364) and Galeotto (died in 1385), became joint rulers after the expulsion of Ferrantino. They made peace with the pope, and added to their do- minion Fano, Fossombrone, Pesaro, and some other possessions. Galeotto was succeeded by his sons Carlo (died in 1429) and Pan- dolfo III. (died in 1427). The former was lord of Rimini and a part of Romagna, sided with Pope Gregory XII. during the schism, and represented him at the council of Con- stance, after having commanded the Venetians against the emperor Sigismund. Subsequently, while aiding the Florentines to expel the Milan- ese, hé was for some time imprisoned at Milan (1427). He was the best soldier and the most renowned ruler of the whole family. Pan- dolfo III., after having conquered Brescia and Bergamo, was driven in 1421 from the latter city by the duke of Milan. The most remark- able among their descendants was Sigismondo Pandolfo (died in 1468), who successively com- manded the Florentine, Neapolitan, Aragonese, Venetian, and Sienese armies, and conquered for Venice a portion of the Morea. He was excommunicated by the pope in 1462 for hav- ing made war upon the Roman see. He was a munificent patron of letters and art, and had palaces built and libraries established in Rimini. His first wife was a daughter of the marquis of Este, and his second of Francesco Sforza. The Jast ruler of Rimini was Pandolfo IV., who in 1503 was robbed of his patrimony by Cesare Borgia. After Borgia’s death he returned to Rimini, but was expelled in 1526 by Pope Clement VII., and died in want at Ferrara. MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. See Inp1an ARcut- PELAGO. MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES. The Malayo-Polynesians are the light-complex- ioned, olive-colored, and straight-haired inhab- itants of the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans, from the Andamans in the bay of Ben- MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES 55 gal in the west to Easter island on the east, and from Formosa and the Hawaiian islands in the north to New Zealand in the south. They oc- cupy also the Malay peninsula on the Asiatic continent, and partly also the island of Mada- gascar adjacent to the African coast. Ethno- logically and linguistically they form two great divisions, Malayans proper and Polynesians. The former chiefly occupy the western islands, and the latter the groups E. of the Philip- pines and Booro, subdivided into Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia (in the narrower sense). The original inhabitants of all these islands were the Papuans, a dark race, with woolly hair growing in tufts. (See Parvan Races anp Lanevuaces.) The Malayo-Poly- nesians came from the 8. E. of Asia, occupied at first only the islands adjacent to it, and gradually extended their territory to the east, either extirpating the previous inhabitants, or driving them into the interior of the islands and taking possession of the coasts, Their relation to the Papuan population of these islands therefore is similar to that of the Ary- ans to the Dravidas of India. Some contend that Polynesia was the earliest home of these races, and that they came originally from the American continent, but the hypothesis seems untenable. Though the Malayo-Polynesian type and culture are purest and quite primi- tive in the eastern groups of islands, yet the character of their fauna and flora is exclusive- ly Asiatic, and the numerous historical tradi- tions current among the people record migra- tions only from the west. These traditions, together with the fact that many of the names of the islands of Polynesia proper are varia- tions of those belonging to the Tonga and. Sa- moa groups, point to the latter as the common source of the population of the former. On ‘Tonga and Samoa there are traditions that the paradise and cradle of the Polynesians is the island called Bulotu or Purotu, which is proba- bly Booro, E. of Celebes. From the great simi- larities existing among the languages and cus- toms of the various Polynesian races, it is in- ferred that the migrations from Tonga and Sa- moa do not date back to very remote periods. The circumstance that the traditions leap from Booro at once to Tonga, leaving the whole of Melanesia entirely untouched, renders it prob- able that the Polynesians on their departure from Booro made no large settlements on any of the islands between Papua and the Sa- moan archipelago, and that the few who chose to establish themselves on them accordingly became largely intermixed with Papuan ele- ments. Of a similar impure type are the Mi- cronesian Polynesians. The separation of the Polynesians from the Malayans and their emi- gration from Booro may be fixed at about 1000 B. C., as the literature of the latter was de- veloped before our era, and shows even then a strong mixture of Old Indic or Sanskrit ele- ments, which cannot be found in the speech of | the former. The Polynesian languages, there- 56 MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES fore, are considered to represent the primitive forms of speech.—To the western or Malayan division of the Malayo-Polynesian races be- long the Tagalas and Bisayas (inhabitants of the Philippines), the Malays of Malacca, the Achee- nese of Sumatra, the Sundanese, the Javanese, the inhabitants of Bali and Madura, the Ba- taks of the interior of Sumatra, the population of Nias and Batoo islands, the Hovas of Mada- gascar, the Dyaks of Borneo, the Mankasars (Macassars) and the Bughis of Celebes, and the Alfooras of the Moluccas and the adjacent isl- ands. To the eastern or Polynesian division belong the Polynesians proper, the Melane- sians, and Micronesians. The Polynesian race embraces the inhabitants of the Samoa group or Navigator’s islands, the population of the Tonga group or Friendly islands, the Maoris of New Zealand, the Tahitians, the inhabitants of the Rarotonga group or Cook’s islands, the people of the Tubuai group or Austral islands, of the Low archipelago or Touamotou islands, of the Marquesas islands, of the Hawaiian or Sandwich islands, and of numerous isolated islands in the Pacific ocean. The most east- ern island inhabited by Polynesians is Vaihu or Easter island, and the most western Tikopia or Tukopia. To Micronesia belong the islands E. of the Philippines to lon. 180°, and from the Marianas or Ladrones in the north to the equator in the south. .The population of the Marianas or, Ladrones is in part extinct, and many groups of the Carolines are also unin- habited.. The people of the Gilbert archipela- go form the transition from the Micronesians to the Polynesians. The Melanesians embrace the inhabitants of the Feejee islands, of New Caledonia, of the New Hebrides, and of sev- eral of the islands extending thence to Papua, whose ethnological character has not yet been definitely established. The physical constitu- tion of the Malayo-Polynesians (excepting the Melanesians, who present a strong Papuan type) presents three fundamental forms, gen- erally designated as the Malayan, Batak, and Polynesian. The pure Malayan type is com- monly found among the Malays proper, Rejangs, Acheenese, Javanese, Madurese, and Tagalas. They are generally 4} or 5 ft. high; the skull is equally long and broad ; the back of the head is short and square ; the cheek bones protrude; the jaw bone is broad and prominent; the nose flat; the nostrils broad and large; the eyelids not as large as those of the Mediterranean races, nor as narrow as those of the Mongolians; the eyes are black, but not brilliant; the mouth is large, with thick lips, but not puffed up; the skin is copper-brown with a tint of yellow; there is scarcely any beard, and the hair is straight, coarse, and black with a touch of brown; the loins and calves are thin and weak. The women are shorter than the men; their breasts are small, pointed, and firm, and their bosoms little developed and often quite flat. The Batak type is represented by the Bataks, the inhabitants of Nias, Batoo, and Bali, the Bughis, and the Mankasars and Alfooras. The body is taller, larger, and more muscular, the skull and face more oval, and the back of the head rounder; the cheek bones are less prom- inent and the jaw not quite so broad; the nose is rather pointed and straight, and depressed at the root; the mouth is smaller and better proportioned ; the skin is light brown, and the cheeks show a tinge of red ; the hair is straight but thinner, and with a clearer shade of brown; the breasts of the women are larger and hemi- spherical, and the bosom is fuller and higher. The Polynesians are of a still higher stature, and their bodies are generally well propor- tioned and athletic; the women, however, are rather short and stout, with breasts like those of the Malays; the skin is several shades ‘darker, especially in the furthest north and south, while the population of the equatorial islands is the lightest of all; the eyes are small, black, and not very vivid; the hair is straight, coarse, black with a tinge of blue, and a little inclined to curl, the use of coral chalk giving it sometimes a reddish or flaxen color; the growth of beard is little developed. The principal trait of the character of the Malayo- Polynesians is undoubtedly taciturnity and re- serve, which is softened only in case of ad- mixture with Papuan blood; they dislike to be approached very closely, and they lay great stress on keeping within the bounds of deport- ment which custom prescribes for the various classes of society; there is therefore an abun- dance of ceremonial laws among the peoples of the west, and of tabu laws among those of the east. They are possessed also of an almost incredible degree of savagery and bloodthirsti- ness. They are the cannibals par éminence, not through want of food but through the pe- culiar hardness of their character. Cannibal- ism is practised not only among the inhabitants of the South sea islands, but even among sey- eral of the half civilized races of the west, such as the Bataks of Sumatra, who have pro- duced a written literature, and who have can- . nibal rites in certain cases even prescribed by law. They are generally good and fearless seamen, and readily undertake long journeys in boats apparently very unsafe. They possess good powers of observation, and are inclined to adopt the ideas of foreigners, and also to imi- tate their customs. The sentiments of family ties and obligations are but little developed. Infanticide is of frequent occurrence; old, fee- ble, and sick persons are badly treated and some- times killed; prostitution is prevalent, and pa- rents exercise but little authority. Love of gain, however, is the strongest passion among them, and lying, stealing, murder, and all man- ner of crimes are unscrupulously employed whenever they offer a chance of profit. The hope of plunder is their principal cause of war, and piracy is in the Indian archipelago considered to be an honorable and chivalrie occupation. They are brave, but do not hesi- tate to poison their weapons and to play cow- MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES ardly tricks on their enemies. They are easily excited to religious emotions, and their rich store of legends testifies to the vivacity of their imagination. The Javanese are the most cul- tured among them, and evince capacity for a high degree of intellectual development. (For the peculiar customs of the various races, see the articles descriptive of their habitats.)— Laneuaces. The Malayo-Polynesian languages form an independent group, unconnected with any other. They are derivatives of an extinct primitive form of speech, which suffered three or four dialectical variations before it had attained its complete development. They do not possess the same grammatical structure throughout, but only agree more or less in the system of sounds, the general form of the ver- bal roots, and the main principles of grammar. In degree of development the Polynesian lan- guages stand lowest; the Micronesian and Me- lanesian are a step higher; and the Malayan, and especially the Tagala languages, occupy the highest rank. The known languages of the eastern or Polynesian division are the idiom of the Marianas or Ladrones, which forms the connecting link with the Malayan languages; the languages of the Feejee, Annatom, Erro- mango, Tanna, Malikolo, Mare, Lifoo, Baladea (New Caledonia), Bauro, and Guadalcanar isl- ands, which are all more or less closely related ; and the Maori, the language of New Zealand, with its kindred languages of the Tonga, Raro- tonga, Tahiti, Hawaiian, and Marquesas islands. Of the western or Malayan division, there are known in the Philippines the Tagaia of the south of Luzon, the Pampanga of the south- west, the Ilocana and Bicol of the southeast, the Ybanag of the province of Cagayan, the Bisaya spoken on several islands south of Luzon, and the Zebuana on Cebu and the adjacent islands. Closely related to them are the languages of Formosa, of which the Favorlang and Sideia dialects are best known. Three dialects are known of the Malagasy, or language of Mada- _gascar, viz.: the Ankova dialect, spoken by the Hovas in the interior of the island, the Betsimisaraka dialect of the east, and the Saka- lava dialect of the west. The Malay language proper, which is in extent and in regard to its literature the first among the whole group, is spoken on the Malay peninsula and the adja- cent islands, and on the coasts of Sumatra. Two dialects may be distinguished in it, the Malacca and the Menankabow or Padang. Be- sides these dialects, a literary or choice lan- guage is employed by the Malays. Several au- thors divide the various modes of speech ac- cording to castes: bahdsa délam, the language of the court; bahdsa bansdvan, that of the edu- cated classes; bahdsa ddgan, that of merchants and traders; and the bahdsa collin that of the common people. The Malay language pos- sesses a large and varied literature, the begin- nings of which date back to the 13th century A. D., and which is especially rich in poetical works, legendary narratives, Mohammedan the- 57 ology, jurisprudence, chronicles, travels, and various paraphrases of Indic epics. Besides the Malay proper, there are several minor lan- guages spoken on Sumatra, as the Batak in the interior of the northern portion of the island, and the languages of the Rejang and the Lam- pong in the south. Javanese is spoken on Java and several adjacent islands, and stands in importance next to Malay, but its literature reaches back to the 1st century of our era. (See Java, LaneuacEe anp LITERATURE OF.) Closely related to Javanese is the Sunda lan- guage, spoken on the western portion of Java. Of the languages in Borneo, that of the Dyaks is well known; according to the missionary Hardeland, it has four dialects. The Dyaks have not produced a written literature, but they possess a number of ancient songs com- posed in a peculiar and only partly intelligible language, which they call basa sanian or the language of the good beings, 7. ¢., the spirits of their ancestors. The Bughis and Mankasar (Macassar) languages, spoken in Celebes, have also been investigated.—The statement above made that these languages form an isolated family of speech is in accordance with the la- test researches of Friedrich Miiller, on whose elaborate treatise on the Malayo-Polynesian languages in the Reise der dsterreichischen Fre- gatte Novara: Linguistischer Theil (Vienna, 1867), and excellent ethnological account of the races in his Allgemeine Hthnographie (Vienna, 1873), this article is based. Bopp, in the Ad- handlungen der Berliner’ Akademie (1840), is not of the same opinion. He holds the Malayo- Polynesian languages to be a branch of the Aryan or Indo-European family, and direct descendants of the Indic group. He drew his conclusion from the fact that the Malay and Javanese languages contain a large amount of Sanskrit elements, which however do not be- long to the original stock, and were gradual- ly incorporated, as both history and the ab- sence of Indic forms in the Polynesian lan- guages amply testify. Max Miller has taken still another view of the relation which these languages hold to other families of speech. In Bunsen’s ‘Christianity and Mankind” he attempts to establish that the Malayo-Polyne- sian languages form a member of the great so-called Turanian family, and that they are especially closely related to the Tai languages. He says: ‘‘ A Janguage which shares so many grammatical principles in common with Khamti and Siamese, and differs from Sanskrit on every essential point of grammar, can no longer be counted as a degraded member of the Aryan family, however great the authority of him who first endeavored to link Sanskrit and Malay to- gether.” Friedrich Miiller has a satisfactory argument in the above cited work to show that the seeming similarities of several grammatical forms in the Tai and Malayo-Polynesian lan- guages do not warrant us in considering the lat- ter a derivative group of the former. Numbers constitute one of the highest linguistic tests of 58 relationship, and the following table of the first ten cardinal numbers in the most im- portant of the Malayo-Polynesian languages THE FIRST TEN CARDINAL NUMBERS IN MALAYO-POLYNESIAN RACES AND LANGUAGES shows at once the close connection existing among them, and their isolation from other families: THE MALAYO-POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. Malay. Javanese, Sundanese. Mank&sari. Dyak Tagala. Bisaya. Tlocana, ONT gee ee oct situ or sa | sa sa or sidi si ija, ja isd usa meysa LW. O Paras stare bier diva ré dua or duva) ruva dua dalua duha dua THREE. selec tiga tigh tilu tallu telo tatlo tolé tal NOUH. 10a. oeent Ampat papat opat appa aipat apat upat eppa Rives eee lima lima lima lima lima lima lima lima Bix cot coe 4nam néném génap annan dahaven anim unum niném Sevaen.7: fel. tidoh pitu tuduh tudu udu udu pits pité BiGaT verter. delapan volu dalapan sagantudu | hana uald uald oald NINE Sites teie sembilan sana salapan salapan dalatien siyam sigua| siam siam DEN tite seas a. sc sapfiloh sapuluh sapulub sampulo sapulu polo napulo sahapulo | Marianese. Malagasy. Samoa. Tonga. Maori. Rarotonga. | Tahitian. ,; Hawaiian. Feejec, CONE Se iets sees 2s yakha isa or iray | tasi taha tahi tai tahi tahi dua EWOS See wos use + yugua roa lua ua rua rua rua Iua rua THREE, (0020445 tulo telo tolu tolu toru toru toru kolu tolu MOURi mea ttts fafat éfatra fa fa va a ha ha va Rives oAwesi. lima dimy lima nima rima rima rima lima lima SU Kor AAee Pe rallonte teh gunun eninad ono ono ono ono ono ono ono SRV IN see ciced. ite fiti fito fitu fitu vitu itu hitu hiku vitu BIGHT iatog saree sce gualo valo valu valu valu varu varu varu valu WON eran sistas eee sidm sivy iva hiva iva iva iva iva civa TL ENerasrcsrregies as manot folo sefulu honvfulu | nahura nauru aburu umi tini We shall state only the principal features of the two groups. The Polynesian languages possess the consonantal sounds &, v, h,’, t, n, 8, l, r, p,m, f, w, %, and the vowels a, ¢, 2, 0, u, both short and long. In several of the lan- guages some of these consonants are absent, and diphthongs are entirely unknown. Sylla- bles may begin with a consonant, but must end with a Vowel; accumulations of consonantal sounds are carefully avoided. The accent rests generally on the penult, and seldom on the antepenult or the ultimate. Roots, like those of the Aryan and Turanian families, are not found; there are only a sort of verbal stems, which in their external verbal movement re- semble those of the Semitic languages, but con- sist throughout of two syllables. The various derivatives are formed from these either by means of reduplication, or by prefixes or suf- fixes. Distinctions of number like those in the inflected languages are wanting. Nouns designate thoughts or objects in a peculiar vague manner, implying rather plurality than singleness, and require the introduction of cer- tain elements into the sentence to render more definite their use in the singular number. Some of these elements represent the numeral one, and others have the force of demonstration. When it is desired to render the plural number more distinct and definite, the noun is coupled either with a numerical expression or with some indefinite pronominal stem. A number of par- ticles are used to designate nominative, geni- tive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, social, abessive, and ablative cases. As nouns do not possess grammatical gender and do not admit of inflection, adjectives also remain en- tirely unchanged, and are used attributively by placing them behind, and predicatively by pla- cing them before their nouns. The dual and plu- ral of pronouns-are indicated by composition with the numbers two and three, and possess an exclusive and inclusive form, according as the person addressed is excluded or included. The Polynesian verb is extremely indefinite. Ex- ternally indistinguishable from the noun, it is recognized as a verb only by its position in the sentence and its connection with the pronoun. The essentials of time and voice remain vague 3" even whether an action or a state of being is designated must be inferred from the introduc- tion of certain affirmative particles—The Ma- layan languages employ the consonants &, g, , h, x 4 d, 2d, Y, t, d, n, 8, l, T, P; b, m, J %, and the vowel sounds a, @, d, 2, u, 4, e, 0, d, 4, 4, é, & (see Writine); genuine dipththongs are un- known. This system of sounds does not in- clude the foreign elements found in Malay and Javanese. The Tagala languages have no pal- atals; Javanese makes use also of cerebrals,- and Bughis of nasals. Malayan syllables’ al- ways open with a single consonant, and the pe- nult is always accented, causing a lengthening of the vowel. Instead of roots, the Malayan: languages possess only stems or variations of roots, which were originally dissyllabic, though probably after having passed through trisyl-’ labic forms developed from monosyllables. Words of a single syllable now used are un- mistakably contractions of dissyllables. Re~ MALAY PENINSULA duplication, prefixing, suffixing, and infixing are the processes of word-building. While the Polynesian languages employ certain forms of words as nouns and verbs without any special vocal changes and additions, the Malayan lan- guages attempt to distinguish the parts of speech independently of their position in a sentence. A noun not specially qualified des- ignates the sum of all the persons or objects of which it is the name, or has always the force of an indefinite plural. The numeral one, or a demonstrative or possessive pronoun, added to it, reduces a noun to the singular number. The definite plural is formed either by reduplica- tion, as in Malay rdda, king, rada-rdda, kings, or by the addition of plural expressions, many, multitudes, &c. The cases are indicated by prefixing prepositions. Adjectives remain in- variable; comparison also is made by exter- nal aids. Besides the usual pronominal forms, it is customary, especially in Malay and Java- nese, to employ servile and ceremonious ex- pressions for the first and second persons. The force of a verb is indicated by prefixes, its relation to the object by suffixes; and though the Malayan verb differs somewhat from a noun, yet it may take the place of the latter by being merely placed in conjunction with parti- cles used to modify nouns. In Malay the pres- ent tense is determined by /dgi, still; the pre- terite by sudah or télah, done, passed; and the future by hendak or mdu, to will, nanti, to ex- pect, or akan, to, in order to.—See, besides the works of Friedrich Miller above cited, Ellis, ‘Polynesian Researches” (London, 1829); Yvan, ‘Six Months under the Malays” (Lon- don, 1855); Turner, ‘‘ Nineteen Years in Poly- nesia’’ (London, 1860); Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvélker, continued by Gerland (Leip- sic, 1860-’69); Cameron, ‘‘ Our Tropical Pos- sessions in Malayan India” (London, 1865); West, ‘“‘Ten Years in South Central Polynesia ” (London, 1865); Wallace, ‘‘The Malay Archi- pelago”” (London, 1869); Semper, Die Philip- pinen und ihre Bewohner (Wurzburg, 1869) ; and Perty, Anthropologie (Leipsic, 1873-74). MALAY PENINSULA, the name given by ge- ographers to the long and narrow tract which projects southward from Indo-China, and forms the southern extremity of the Asiatic continent, bounded E. by the China sea and the gulf of Siam, and W. by the bay of Bengal and the straits of Malacca. It is sometimes called by the Malays Tana Malayu, ‘‘ Malay Land,” and is supposed to be the Golden Cher- sonesus of the ancients. It extends from the parallel of the head of the gulf of Siam, in lat. 13° 30’ N., to Cape Burus on the southwest, about 80 m. from Singapore, in lat. 1° 15’ N., and to Cape Romania on the southeast, in Jat. 1° 17’ N.; length about 900 m., greatest breadth about 180 m.; estimated area, exclu- sive of Tenasserim, about 80,000 sq. m.; pop. conjectured to be about 500,000. The upper and narrower part of the peninsula has a population composed chiefly of Siamese, or a 59 mixed race of Siamese and Malays called San- sam. The western half, N. of lat. 10°, forms a part of the district of Tenasserim in British Burmah. The lower part, or the peninsula in the restricted sense, is the country of the Malays, and has an area of about 60,000 sq. m. Along the shores of the peninsula are many islands, of which the principal are Salang, Tru- tao, Lancava or Langkavi, and Penang on the W. side, Singapore, Batan, and Bingtang at the southern extremity, and Tantalem on the E. coast. The most important political divi- sion of the peninsula is the British Straits Set- tlements (Penang, Malacca, and Singapore), which, though small in area, have about half the population of the country. With the ex- ception of the portion included in Tenasserim, the N. part of the peninsula, as far S. as the bay of Chya on the E. coast, in about lat. 9° N., is subject to the king of Siam. The Malay states are Quedah, Perak, and Salangore on the W. side; Patani, Kalantan, Tringanu, and Pa- hang on the E. side; Rumbowe, Jehole, and Jompol in the interior; and the principality of Johore, which comprises the southern ex- tremity of the peninsula. A few of these are dependent on Siam, several only nominally; but most of them are independent and under the protection of the British. A range of granite mountains runs through the whole length of the peninsula, on both sides of which spread alluvial plains, not much elevated above the sea. The maximum altitude of the range is attained E. of Quedah, between lat. 6° and 7° N., where it is about 6,000 ft. Further N. the loftiest peaks are only about half this height. The most extensive of these plains are on the W. side of the mountains. The rivers are numerous but small, and few of them nav- igable except.so far as the tide ascends them; the largest are the Perak on the west and the Pahang on the east. The only lake of any considerable extent lies between Malacca and Pahang.—The zodlogy of the peninsula is va- ried and extensive. There are ten species of monkeys, and an ant-eater. There are several species of bats, of which the most remarkable is the kalung or vampire, which is larger than a crow; it flies high in great flocks, and is very destructive to fruit. The only planti- grade animal is a small bear (ursus Malayen- sis). There are eight species of the feline fam- ily, of which the largest are the tiger and the leopard, both very numerous and destructive to human life. The domestic cat has a tail about half as long as that of the European cat. The domestic dog exists as a vagrant without a master, and there are said to be wild dogs in the forests. The Indian elephant and two species of rhinoceros are met with. The Ma- lay tapir and the wild hog are abundant. The ox and the domesticated buffalo are used for riding and for draught. The domestic ox is small and short-legged, but strong and hardy ; and there are two species of wild ox, one of which, called by the Malays saladang, seems to 60 MALAY PENINSULA be peculiar to the peninsula. There is a species of wild goat, and a small species of domestic goat: Three species of deer are met with in the peninsula, one of which is the small muntjac. The sheep and the rabbit are not indigenous, but have been introduced by Europeans. Swine and fowls are very abundant. The most re- markable birds are the marak or wild peacock, the double-spurred peacock, a small and beau- tiful species, several species of pheasants, a partridge, snipe, sun birds, woodpeckers, the wild cock, and the domestic cock, the last a small but very courageous bird. The species of pigeons are very numerous, and some are no larger than a thrush; the prevailing color is green. The parrot family is numerous, but is not remarkable for brilliancy of plumage. The swallow whose nest is eaten by the Chinese is found in the caves of the islands. The birds of prey consist of a variety of kites and hawks. Among the reptiles are the alligator, the iguana, several species of small lizards, and about 40 species of snakes, of which three or four, among them the cobra, are venomous. Fish are very plentiful, and form the principal animal food of the mass of the people. The white pomfret, called bawal by the Malays, is said to be one of the most delicate fishes in the world to the European palate. The only cetaceous ani- mal is the dugong. The neighboring seas af- ford a large and beautiful variety of shells. —The forests yield ebony, sapan, and eagle wood, and several species valuable for timber. Rattans, bamboos, and palms furnish most of the materials used by the Malays in construct- ing their houses. Rice, cocoanuts, yams, the sugar cane, and esculent fruits are the chief products of agriculture. The grain used on the peninsula is mostly imported from Sumatra and Bengal. Among the fruits, those most es- teemed are the durian and the mangosteen. The durian is an oval spine-covered fruit, of a green color and about as large as a cocoanut, while the mangosteen is reddish brown in color and spherical in shape. Pineapples are plenti- fully produced in great perfection. Caoutchouc and other valuable gums and resins, drugs, spi- ces, ivory, and horns are exported, and coffee, cotton, and tobacco are raised. The most re- markable and valuable product of the penin- sula, however, is the gutta percha tree, which was here first made known to Europeans. The tin mines in many parts of the country are ex- tensive; but they are imperfectly worked, and of late years, owing to the exhaustion of sur- face ores, the product has declined. Some gold is produced. The climate of the peninsula is hot and moist. The mean annual temperature at the level of the sea is nearly 80°, the mean range being from 70° to 90°. There is no rainy season, but rain falls at short intervals throughout the year, and there are heavy dews and frequent fogs. Generally the climate is not unhealthy, though there are some spots infected with a most pestiferous malaria.— The native population of the peninsula, with MALBONE the exception of the northern portion and the black woolly-haired people known as the Se- mangs, who inhabit the interior, are of the Malay race, and speak the Malay language. Most of the Malays are settled and civilized, but others lead a nomad life on the land, the rivers, or the sea. The land nomads prac- tise a rude agriculture; the river nomads live entirely in boats, and subsist on fish and wild roots. Their boats are about 20 ft. in length; at one end is the fireplace, in the middle are their utensils, and at the stern is the sleep- ing place, where beneath a mat a family of five or six, together with a cat and dog, fre- quently find shelter. In these boats they skirt the shores of the rivers, collecting their food from the forests, and when one spot is ex- ‘hausted proceed to another. These people are pagans, and are very ignorant and filthy in their mode of life. The sea rovers roam over the whole archipelago in their prahus or boats, and are genarally pirates. The civilized and settled Malays are Mohammedans, and their governments are despotic. The peninsula is supposed by some writers to have been the original seat of the Malay race. The civilized Malays all claim to be descended from emi- grants from Sumatra, who in the 12th century (about 1160) entered the peninsula at its 8, E, extremity, where they founded Singapore, and gradually drove back the indigenous inhabi- tants into the mountains. At the close of the 13th century the Malays, who had been pagans up to that time, adopted Mohammedanism, and from the year 1276 Mohammedan monarchs reigned at Malacca. In the 15th century a large part of the peninsula became subject to Siam. In 1511 Mohammed Shah, the Malayan sultan, was overthrown by the Portuguese un- der Albuquerque. At present the peninsula is much less populous than formerly, owing to foreign and intestine wars and the incursions of pirates. (For British possessions on the peninsula, see Maracoa, Penane, SINGAPORE, and Straits SETTLEMENTS.) MALBONE, Edward G., an American portrait painter, born in Newport, R. I., in August, 1777, died in Savannah, Ga., May 7, 1807. When very young he painted a landscape scene for the Newport theatre, afterward employed himself in drawing heads in miniature, and at 17 years of age settled in Providence as a portrait painter. He removed in the spring of 1796 to Boston, where he was well received, and du- ring the next four years pursued his art with industry in various cities. In 1800 he accom- panied Washington Allston to Charleston, and in 1801 sailed for Europe. Malbone remained a few months in London, where he was urged by Benjamin West, the president of the royal academy, to take up his permanent residence ; but he returned to Charleston in December. For several years he painted miniatures in the chief cities of the United States; and in 1806 he visited the West Indies, hoping to regain his health, but in vain. His best picture is , MALCOLM “The Hours,” in which three female figures represent the Present, Past, and Future. MALCOLM, Sir John, a British diplomatist, born in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, May 2, 1769, died in London, May 31, 1833. He was sent to In- dia at the age of 13, in the charge of his uncle, Dr. Paisley, and received a cadetship under the East India company. In 1797 he was made captain, distinguished himself in a series of im- portant services by bravery and intelligence, and after the fall of Seringapatam was secre- tary to the commission appointed to divide ‘Mysore. In 1799 he was commissioned by Lord Wellesley to negotiate with Persia a de- fensive alliance against an anticipated French invasion of India. He had at this time ac- quired several eastern languages, and had been in 1792 staff interpreter of Persian. In 1801 he was appointed private secretary to the gov- ernor general, but was again sent to Persia in the following year. In February, 1803, he became commissioner of Mysore, and joined the army of Gen.’Arthur Wellesley in the Mahratta campaign. In 1805 he was recalled to Bengal, where he was actively occupied in forming treaties of alliance with native princes. In 1808 he went again to Persia, but did not obtain the advantages hoped for by the British government. On returning thither the next year as plenipotentiary, owing to a change in the ministry, he was received in the most flat- tering manner, and on his departure in 1810 was honored with the order of the sun and moon and made a khan and sepahdar of the empire. In 1812 he went to England, was knighted, and published a ‘‘ History of Persia ” (2 vols. 4to, 1815), the materials for which he had drawn from original Persian annals as well as extensive personal research and observation. On returning to India in 1817, he was appoint- ed political agent in the Deccan, with the rank of brigadier general in the army. He served under Sir T. Hislop as second in command during the Mahratta and Pindaree wars, and especially distinguished himself at the battle of Mehidpoor, in which Holkar was routed. After this war he was appointed governor of Malwa and the adjoining provinces, with the rank of major general. The country was then in a state of anarchy, brigandage and rapine being generally prevalent; he succeeded in restoring order, and governed mildly but firm- ly. An account of this part of India was pub- lished by him in 1828, under the title of “A Memoir of Central India.” He was in England from 1821 to 1827, when he was appointed governor of Bombay, which office he held for three years, and then returned to England. He was elected not long afterward to parliament for Launceston, and distinguished himself by active opposition to the reform bill. A monu- ment was erected to his memory in Westmin- ster abbey, and also an obelisk 100 ft. high near Langholm, in Eskdale. He also published a “Sketch of the Political History of India from 1784 to 1823” (London, 1826), and a “Life of MALCZEWSKI 61 Lord Clive” (1836).—See ‘Life and Corre- spondence of Sir John Malcolm,” by John W. Kaye (2 vols., London, 1856). MALCOM, Howard, an American clergyman, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 19, 1799. He en- tered Dickinson college in 1818, was licensed to preach in May, 1818, by a Baptist church in Philadelphia, and entered Princeton theolo- gical seminary, where he remained two years. On finishing his studies he was settled over a church in Hudson, N. Y., and afterward in Boston and Philadelphia. He was president of the college at Georgetown, Ky., from 1839 to 1849, and of the university at Lewisburg, Pa., from 1851 to 1859, having been obliged by the failure of his voice to relinquish preaching. In both institutions he filled also the chair of metaphysics and moral philosophy. The dis- ease in the throat increasing, he retired to pri- vate life in Philadelphia. In 1841 he received the degree of D.D. simultaneously from the university of Vermont and Union college, N. Y., and after his resignation at Lewisburg was made LL. D. by that institution. He visited most of the countries of Europe, and travelled as a deputy from the Baptist missionary soci- ety in Hindostan, Burmah, Siam, China, and Africa. He was one of the founders of the American tract society, of which he was a vice president from the beginning. He was also one of the prominent laborers in establishing the American Sunday school union, having visited on its behalf, when first organized, every principal city in the United States. Among his works are: a ‘Dictionary of the Bible” (18mo, Boston, 1828; enlarged ed., 1853); “The Extent of the Atonement;” “The Christian Rule of Marriage” (1830) ; ““Memoir of Mrs. Malcom” (1883); ‘‘ Travels in Southeastern Asia” (2 vols. 12mo, Boston, 1839); and ‘‘Index to Religious Literature” (2d ed., Philadelphia, 1870). He has also pub- lished several addresses and other tracts, and edited the “Imitation of Christ,” Law’s ‘‘ Se- rious Call,” Keach’s ‘‘ Travels of True Godli- ness,” Henry’s “‘ Communicant’s Companion,” and Butler’s ‘“ Analogy of Religion.” } MALCZEWSKI, Antoni, a Polish poet, born in Volhynia about 1792, died in Warsaw, May 2, 1826. He served in the army from 1811 to 1816, and afterward travelled in Italy, Switzer- land, and France. Having gone to Volhynia, he eloped to Warsaw with the young wife of one of his neighbors, whom he had cured of @ dangerous illness by magnetism. Want and misery, however, soon embittered the life of the lovers, and hastened the death of the poet. His principal work, Marja (Warsaw, 1825), a metrical romance in the style and spirit of Byron, which appeared in the last year of his life, was severely criticised, but is now gener- ally recognized as one of the gems not only of Polish but of modern poetry. It has passed through numerous editions, and has been trans- lated into French by Clemence Robert, and into German by K. R. Vogel. 62 MALDEN MALDEN, a town of Middlesex co., Massachu- setts, on a stream of the same name, navigable by vessels of 800 tons to within half a mile of the main village, and on the Boston and Maine railroad and the Saugus branch of the Eastern railroad, 5 m. N. of Boston; pop. in 1870, 7,367. It is connected with Charlestown by a bridge 2,420 ft. long. The manufacturing in- dustry of the town is extensive, the chief arti- cles produced being India-rubber boots and shoes, lasts, boot trees, enamelled leather, coach lace and tassels, and iron pipes. There are es- tablishments for dyeing silks, cottons, &c., and staining glass. The town contains a national bank, a savings bank, good public schools, two weekly newspapers, and eight churches. MALDIVES, or Malediva Islands, a chain of small coral islands in the Indian ocean, about 450 m. W. of Ceylon, extending in a straight line from lat. 7° 6’! N. to 0° 40’S., between lon. 72° 48’ and 78° 48’ E. The length of the chain is about 550 m., and its breadth about 50 m. The number of islands is commonly stated by the natives at 12,000, but is supposed to be in reality nearly 50,000. Their aggregate area is about 2,600 sq.m. The great majority of them are mere rocks or sand banks, and only the larger islands are inhabited. They are divided into 17 atolls or circular groups, each atoll being enclosed by a coral reef, gen- erally about 90 m. in circumference. These reefs have channels through them navigable by the boats of the natives; and though the sea beats with great violence on the outside, the water within the reefs is calm and generally shallow. There are deep channels between the atolls, four of which have been examined by European vessels and found navigable by the largest ships. The principal island is Male, in lat. 4° 10’ N., lon. 78° 40’ E. It is 7 m. in cir- cumference, and contains 2,000 inhabitants. It is the residence of the sovereign, who bears the title of sultan of the Twelve Thousand Isles, and who acknowledges some degree of depen- dence on the British government of Ceylon, to which he annually sends an embassy with tribute, and receives presents in return. The population of the whole cluster is estimated at from 150,000 to 200,000. The highest land in the islands is only 20 ft. above the sea. Each island is circular in form, and has a lagoon in the centre. The soil is sandy, and at the depth of 3 ft. a layer of sandstone is found. The inhabited islands are richly wooded with palms, fig trees, citron trees, and breadfruit trees. They produce abundance of millet, and of a similar small grain called brinby, of both which the inhabitants reap two harvests in the year. They also gather various roots, which, with rice imported from Hindostan, and fish and cocoanuts, constitute their food. The climate is excessively hot, though the nights are cool and the earth is refreshed by heavy dews. The islands are unhealthy for Europeans. From April to October is the rainy season, during which the westerly winds are boisterous. ‘ Hindoo origin. MALDIVES In the dry season, from October to April, the winds are easterly. The islands breed prodi- gious numbers of wild ducks, pigeons, and other wild fowl, which are much used for food, and sold very cheap. There are no large quadru- peds except afew sheep and cows. Cats, pole- cats, and ferrets are found, and rats are very numerous and troublesome. There is a poison- ous species of water snake, and the mosquitoes are said to be larger and fiercer than in any other part of the East Indies.—The Maldivians are strict Mohammedans. They are handsome, well made, and generally of an olive complex- ion, though some have much fairer complexions than others, which is probably attributable to their descent from Persian or Arab stock, while the majority of the population are obviously of The people are ingenious and industrious, and have attained to some degree of civilization. They clothe themselves in silk or cotton robes, and are cleanly in their habits, both sexes bathing regularly once.a day. The men shave their heads, but allow their beards to grow. The women allow the hair to grow long, and fasten it up behind. They are not kept secluded as in other Mohammedan coun- tries, but enjoy a tolerable degree of liberty. The Koran is the supreme law, but there are various peculiar local laws and usages. An in- solvent debtor becomes the servant of the cred- itor until the debt is worked out. The ordinary punishment for criminals is whipping, which is sometimes inflicted so severely as to produce death. Frequently criminals are punished by banishment to the southern islands. The peo- ple learn to read and write Arabic as well as their own native language, and they have schools in which the mathematics and naviga- tion are taught. Polygamy to the extent of three wives is tolerated, and divorceis restricted only by the necessity of paying back the dowry received with the wife. The people are a quiet and pacific race, kind and hospitable to stran- gers, though distrustful of foreigners. They are friendly toward each other, and the ties of kindred are cherished with much affection. The internal commerce of the islands is con- siderable, for each atoll has its peculiar branch of industry; in one the brewers reside, in another the goldsmiths; locksmiths, mat ma- kers, potters, turners, and joiners, each inhabit exclusively their respective atolls. This divi- sion of labor gives rise to a constant inter- course and interchange of commodities, car- ried on by means of boats, which are some- times absent for a year from their own islands. Every family, even the poorest, has a boat, and the rich keep several. The multitude of rocks and reefs is so great that this navigation is extremely difficult, and much property is lost by accidents at sea; but the natives being uni- versally good swimmers, their lives are seldom endangered by these shipwrecks. There is some trade with the continent of India, carried on by native boats of about 30 tons burden, built of cocoanut trees. With these boats they MALEBRANCHE make voyages to Calcutta, Ceylon, Sumatra, the Malabar coast, and other distant parts, carrying cocoanuts, coir, mats, cocoanut oil, tortoise shell, dried fish, and cowries, or small shells, which pass as coin over all India. In return they bring home gold and silver, rice, tobacco, cotton and silk goods, and European articles.—The Maldives have been seldom vis- ited by Europeans. The Portuguese touched at Male in the 16th century. In the beginning of the 17th a French merchant vessel was wrecked upon them, and one of the survivors, Pyrard . de Laval, remained there nearly five years, and wrote an account of the islands, which was published in Paris in 1679. - MALEBRANCHE, Nicolas, a French metaphysi- cian, born in Paris, Aug. 6, 1638, died there, Oct. 18,1715. In his childhood he was feeble, and was educated at home with great care. Intended for the priesthood, he studied philoso- phy at the college of La Marche and theology at the Sorbonne, and in 1660 entered the con- gregation of the Oratory. But he wearied of theological and critical studies, and his phi- losophical vocation was determined by reading the Zraité de Vhomme of Descartes, which he accidentally met with, and which impressed him so strongly that his perusal was more than once interrupted by palpitations of the heart. From that time (1664) he devoted himself to philosophy, renouncing all other sciences ex- cept mathematics, aiming thus to enlighten his mind without burdening his memory. After ten years he produced his principal work, De la recherche de la vérité (Paris, 1674), which received numerous additions, and in its 6th edition (1712) extended to four volumes. It was translated into English by Richard Sault (2 vols, 8vo, London, 1692-4; 2d and 3d eds. by Thomas Taylor, fol., 1700 and 1720). In 1677 he published Conversations métaphysiques et chrétiennes, a discussion on the relation of philosophy to religion and Christian dogmas, which involved him in a long controversy with theologians and Cartesian metaphysicians, es- pecially with Arnauld and Régis. In 1699 he was elected an honorary member of the acad- emy of sciences. Withering slowly away, till he was hardly more than a skeleton, he died ‘‘a tranquil spectator of his own long dissolution.” His later more important publi- cations, partly philosophical and partly reli- gious, were the Traité de la nature et de la grace (1680); Méditations métaphysiques et chrétiennes (1683); Traité de morale (1684) ; Entretiens sur la métaphysique et sur la re- ligion (1687); and Réponses de Malebranche | a Arnauld (4 vols., 1709). A complete edi- tion of his works was published at Paris in 1712, in 11 vols.—The philosophical system of Malebranche begins with the admission of the Cartesian doctrine that mind and matter are utterly opposed and mutually impermeable, the mind knowing nothing but its own states, which it sees in self-consciousness. It is like one in the dark, who can perceive nothing but 526 VOL. xI.—5 MALE FERN 63 himself. To this he added that we are able to see external objects in God, who is the light of our knowledge. He is the absolute sub- stance, in whom exist alike the persons who know and the ideas which they know. He is the home of the world of ideas, as space is the home of physical bodies; and in him the-mind knows objects other than itself. Malebranche recognized, with Descartes, three substances: the thinking, the extended, and the infinite substance, or the soul, matter, and God; but there is throughout his system a tendency te reduce them to one. In Descartes they describe excentric circles; in Malebranche they are concentric, including each other. Matter is grasped by the soul, and souls by the Deity; ideas enter the mind, the mind itself existing in God. Thus he marks the transition from Descartes to Spinoza, recognizing a personal God, but with pantheistic forms of thought, tending to reduce spirit and matter to one ab- solute substance. His most important works are contained in the edition by De Genoude (Paris, 1837), and in an edition by Jules Simon (2 vols., Paris, 1853). La philosophie de Male- branche, by Ollé-Laprune, received a prize from the French academy in 1872. MALE FERN (aspidium jiliz-mas). Theo- phrastus and other ancient writers mention two kinds of fern, the male and female; whether or not this was the fern referred to as the male, it retains the name in common as well as in botanical nomenclature. There are some- thing over a dozen aspidiums or shield ferns found in this country, some of which are very common, while a few, including the male fern, are exceedingly rare; this, while one of the Male Fern. common ferns of Europe, has thus far been found here only at Lake Superior. It hasa large scaly root stock, from which arise the handsome fronds in a circular tuft, 2 to 8 ft. high and of the outline shown in the engra- ving ; its elegant appearance makes it a desirable 64 MALESHERBES plant for the outdoor fernery, but its chief in- terest lies in the use that has been made of the root stock in medicine. It was known to the ancients as an anthelmintic, but attention was called to it anew by the widow of a Swiss surgeon, Mme. Nouffer, who had such great success in expelling tapeworms that Louis XIV. paid her 18,000 francs for her secret; it was found that her principal remedy was the root of the male fern, which was aided by pow- erful purges. The root stocks are collected when 8 to 6 in. long and dried, in which state they are kept in the shops; the male fern roots, as they are called, contain about 10 per cent. of oily and resinous matters, upon which their worm-destroying properties depend; the oil of male fern is an ethereal extract, and contains such constituents of the roots as are soluble in that menstruum. Like other agents for the destruction of tapeworms, it has had a varying reputation, some attributing its effi- cacy solely to the active cathartics used with it; on the other hand, it is asserted that while it is effective against the unarmed tapeworm, common among the Swiss, it has much less or very little effect upon the armed tapeworm, the one most common in this country. The medi- cine appears to act as a poison upon the worm, which is then easily expelled. The dose of the powdered root is two or three drams, or of the oil half a dram, followed by castor oil. MALESHERBES, Chrétien Guillaume de Lamoi- gnon de, a French statesman, born in Paris, Dee. 6, 1721, guillotined April 22,1794. Of an illus- trious family, son of a chancellor of France, he was educated in the Jesuits’ college, became counsellor of the parliament of Paris in 1744, succeeded his father in the presidency of the court of aids in 1750, and was at the same time appointed superintendent of the press. He fa- vored the publication of the Hneyclopédie and other works of its authors in defiance of the anathemas of the Sorbonne. He protested in 1770 and 1771 against the imposition of new taxes and the abuses of lettres de cachet, for which he was banished from Paris. After the accession of Louis XVI. in 1774, he was called into the ministry with Turgot, and the de- partment of Paris and the police of the king- dom was intrusted to him. His counsels were rejected, and he resigned in 1776 when Turgot was dismissed. He passed the time until the revolution in travels in France, Holland, and Switzerland, and in the pursuits of literature, with the exception of a brief interval in 1787 when he was called into the ministry. When Louis XVI. was arraigned before the national convention in 1792, Malesherbes obtained the dangerous honor of pleading his cause, and was one of the last to take leave of the condemned monarch. Eleven months afterward he was arrested with his family by the revolutionary tribunal, and condemned with them to the scaffold. His Discours et remontrances‘(1779) are valuable with reference to financial ques- tions, and his paper Sur la liberté de la presse MALHERBE (1809) is remarkable for its enlightened views. A monument was erected to his memory un- der the restoration. —See Boissy d’Anglas,’ + Essai sur la vie, les opinions et les écrits de Malesherbes (2 vols., 1818), and Sainte-Beuve, Malesherbes, in Causeries du lundi, vol. ii. MALET, Claude Frangois de, a French conspira- tor, born in Dole, June 28, 1754, executed in Paris, Oct. 29,1812. In 1799 he distinguished himself in the army during the passage of the Little St. Bernard, and was made brigadier general. He disapproved of the promotion of Bonaparte to the consulate, but apparently adhered to the empire, expressing in a letter to Napoleon a hope of its becoming beneficial to and not destructive of liberty. But Prince Eugéne expelled him from his headquarters in Italy, on the charge of conspiring against the emperor, and he was imprisoned during ten months till May, 1808, and soon rearrest- ed. In prison he continued to plan conspira- cies with other opponents of Napoleon, espe- cially in 1809, after the defeat at Essling, but this attempt was abortive. The emperor or- dered him to be transferred from La Force to a regular state prison, but Fouché neglected to do so, and even permitted him in June, 1812, to remove to a private sanitary asylum. Here he met the Polignacs and Abbé Lafon, the prin- cipal Bourbon agents, while his wife, the cor- poral Rateau, and others worked against Na- poleon in the interior of the country. Malet’s plot was ripe in October, when he deemed the anxiety respecting the Russian campaign favor- able for its execution. In the night of Oct. 23-24, when the disastrous retreat from Mos- cow became known, he announced to the gar- rison of Paris the death of Napoleon, and at first met with some success, with the aid of his confederates, and by promising rewards to those who would join him. He shot dead the recalcitrant Gen. Hullin, commander of the first division, but was disarmed by two officers, who disclosed the deception which had been practised, and the populace responded with the ery, Vive lempereur. The whole plot fell to the ground, and Malet was sentenced to death. His wife was arrested; and as she sub- sequently received a pension, and her son an appointment, from Louis XVIIL, it was sup- posed that Malet had conspired in the interest of the Bourbons, but it is generally believed that he was a sincere republican. MALHERBE, Fran¢ois de, a French poet, born in Caen in 1555, died in Paris, Oct. 16, 1628. While young he studied at Heidelberg and Basel, and afterward bore arms in the wars of the league. He acquired some reputation in 1600 by an ode on the arrival in France of Maria de’ Medici. In 1605, having gone to Paris on business, Henry IV. sent for him, praised his talents, and provided him with the means of remaining at court. After the death of Henry IV. his widow, Maria de’ Medici, set- tled on Malherbe a pension of 500 crowns, ‘in | gratitude for the ode addressed to her.” He MALIBRAN was noted for his avarice, his pretended con- tempt of poets, his fondness for female soci- ety, his wit, and his dilettantism in language. He wrote for the most part light lyrics, odes, stanzas, epigrams, sonnets, and a few devo- tional pieces. The latest edition of his works is that of M. L. Lalanne (4 vols., Paris, 1865). MALIBRAN, Maria Felicia, a Spanish singer, born in Paris, March 24, 1808, died in Man- chester, England, Sept. 23, 1836. She was the eldest daughter of the singer and instructor Manuel Garcia, by whom she was taken when nine years old to England, where she remained for a number of years. Her father instructed her in singing, and by her 17th year she had acquired so great a facility that on June 7, 1825, she was enabled to make her début in London as Rosina in the Larbiere di Seviglia, on the occasion of the sudden departure of Mme. Pasta, who was to have undertaken the part. She sang with success in other operas and at private and public concerts in London, Manchester, and Liverpool, during the same season, giving promise of great future emi- nence; and in the autumn of 1825 she accom- panied her father to the United States as prima donna of an opera company of which he had assumed the direction. She appeared in New York, Nov. 29, in the part of Rosina, the oc- casion being memorable in musical annals as that which witnessed the introduction of the Italian opera into the United States. Her re- ception was enthusiastic, and she appeared successively in a number of parts, each of which subsequently became a perfect creation in her hands. In the midst of her triumphs she was married, March 238, 1826, to Eugéne Malibran, an elderly French merchant of New York, reputed to be possessed of considerable wealth. He afterward failed, and Mme. Mali- bran, offended by the readiness with which her husband sought to retrieve his fortunes by her professional labors, surrendered to his creditors the property settled upon her as a marriage dower, and in September, 1827, returned alone to Europe. From Jan. 14, 1828, when she made her first appearance before a Parisian audience, until the close of her life, her career was prosperous and brilliant. She was accus- tomed to spend the winter in Paris and the spring and autumn in England and the larger continental cities; and on two occasions she made professional tours to Naples, Milan, and other Italian cities. The French courts hav- ing in 1835 pronounced her marriage with M. Malibran void, she was married, March 29, 1836, to De Bériot, the celebrated violinist. In April following she was injured by a fall from her horse; but professing to make light of the matter, she appeared in opera in Brussels and at Aix-la-Chapelle during the summer. In September she went to the Manchester musi- cal festival, and, contrary to the advice of her physician, took part in the performances. A nervous fever set in, which soon proved fatal. —Mme. Malibran was one of the first singers MALLET 65 of the age, and her dramatic ability was scarce- ly less remarkable than her vocal. Her voice, a mezzo-soprano approaching a contralto, of great volume and purity, had been brought to almost absolute perfection by the severe train- ing of her father; and in the variety and beau- ty of her vocal embellishments, as well as in the felicity and dramatic propriety with which she interpreted her music, she has rarely been equalled. Her range included some of the finest réles, both tragic and comic, in the ope- ras of Rossini, Bellini, and Mozart, including those of Rosina, Semiramide, Tancredi, Desde- mona, Romeo, Zerlina, Ninetta, Cenerentola, and Amina. She also sang with wonderful effect the stblime music of Handel’s oratorios, and many choice selections from Gluck and others. Her personal qualities accorded with her lyrical genius, and few women have been more beloved for their amiability, generosity, and professional enthusiasm. Her benefac- tions amounted to such considerable sums that her friends were frequently obliged to interfere for the purpose of regulating her finances. Her intellect was of a high order, and the charms of her conversation fascinated all who were admitted into the circle of her intimate friends. She was also an accom- plished linguist, speaking fluently and singing in the chief languages of Europe. She com- posed several songs, nocturnes, and romances, some of which have been published. A me- moir of her, by the countess of Merlin (2 vols.), appeared in England soon after her death, and was republished in the United States, MALINES. See Mrourin. MALLARD. See Dvuox. MALLET, Charles Auguste, a French philoso- pher, born in Lille, Jan. 1, 1807. He studied at the normal school, and was professor in va- rious colleges of the interior till 1842, when he was called to the collége St. Louis in Paris, From 1848 to 1850 he was inspector of the academy of Paris, and afterward rector of the academy of Rouen, retiring in 1852. His prin- cipal works are: Htudes philosophiques (2 vols., Paris, 1837-8; 2d ed., 1848); translation of Beattie’s ‘‘ Elements of Moral Science” (2 vols., 1840); Histoire de la philosophie ioni- enne (1842); Histoire de Vécole de Mégare et des écoles d’ Elis et d’Erétrie (1845); and E/é- ments de morale (1864). MALLET, David, a Scottish author, born at Crieff, Perthshire, about 1700, died in London, April 21, 1765. His original name was Mal- loch, which he changed to Mallet in 1726. He was educated at Aberdeen, and settled in Lon- don as a literary man. In1733 he published a poem entitled ‘Verbal Criticism,” which so pleased Pope that he introduced him to Boling- broke, who obtained for him the office of under secretary to Frederick, prince of Wales, with a salary of £200. From the Newcastle adminis- tration he got a pension, said to have been the reward of his attacks on Admiral Byng. His pen was always at the service of those who 66 MALLET would pay for it, not sparing even his old friend Pope, whom after his death, at the instiga- tion of Bolingbroke, he assailed in his preface to that nobleman’s “Idea of a Patriot King.” Bolingbroke made him his literary executor, and the duchess of Marlborough left by her will the sum of £1,000 to Glover and Mallet jointly, provided they drew up from the family papers a life of the great duke. Glover de- clined, but Mallet aecepted, and on pretence of being engaged upon the work received for the rest of his life a pension from the second duke. On his death, however, it was found that hée had never written a line of it. A collection of Mal- let’s works was published by himself (8 vols., 1750). A new edition of his songs‘and ballads, by Frederick Dinsdale, appeared in 1857. . MALLET, Paul Henri, a Swiss historian, born in Geneva, Aug. 20, 1730, died there, Feb. 8, 1807. After completing his education he went to Copenhagen, where he was appointed regius professor of belles-lettres in 1752. He em- ployed his leisure in studying the language, history, and archeology of the ancient Scandi- navians, and wrote his Introduction a Vhistoire de Danemark (Copenhagen, 1755-6). In 1760 Mallet returned to Geneva, and filled the chair of history in the college of that city for four years. The most important of his works, be- sides that above named, are: Histoire de Dane- mark (8 vols. 4to, Copenhagen, 1758-77) ; Mémoires sur la litérature du nord (6 vols. 8vo, Copenhagen, 1759-’60); Histoire des Suisses (4 vols. 8vo, Geneva, 1803); and Histoire de la ligue Hanséatique (Geneva, 1805). His Jntro- duction @ Vhistoire de Danemark was trans- lated by Bishop Percy (‘ Mallet’s Northern Antiquities,” 2 vols., 8vo, London, 1770; new ed., by I. A. Blackwell, 1 vo]., 12mo, 1847). MALLOCK, William Hurrell. See supplement. MALLOW, a common name for plants of the genus malva (from Gr. waddooerv, to soften, in allusion to their softening and emollient prop- erties). The genus, as at present restricted, includes about 16 species, none of which are indigenous to this country, though several of them are more or less extensively naturalized ; it is the type of the natural order malvacea, which comprises many kindred genera dis- tinguishable mainly in the structural differ- ences of the fruit, but all agreeing in hav- ing their stamens united into a tube by their filaments, and in having one-celled anthers; about 700 species are known, distributed among 59 genera. It is remarkable that none of the order possess any unwholesome qualities, while all abound in mucilage. The wild or high mallow (i. sylvestris) is a handsome biennial, with an erect stem and kidney-shaped leaves having five to seven deeply crenate lobes; the flowers are large, of a purple or a rosy color, the calyx hairy, the carpels wrinkled. It grows:on waste places and roadsides in Eu- rope, and is an introduced and naturalized weed in the older portions of this country. For fomentations and poultices, its properties MALLOW are not inferior in value to those of the marsh mallow (see AttH#A), and decoctions of its leaves have been used in dysentery and urinary troubles. This is the mauve of the French, who use the dried flowers in preparing a tisane, or diet drink, which is in great repute with them; Wild Maliow (Aialva sylvestris). the name mauve is also applied to a dye re- sembling the flowers of this plant in tint. By far the most common with us is the familiar weed known as common or dwarf mallow (17. rotundifolia), so abundant by the wayside, in rich shaded dooryards, and cultivated grounds generally. Its stems are prostrate, spreading, and spring from a long, deeply buried root ; its leaves are round-heart-shaped, somewhat lobed and crenate on their edges; the flowers small, whitish, with purplish veins. The plant is much prized by children, who in play seek its flat and circular mucilaginous fruits under the name of ‘ cheeses.” The musk mallow (M. moschata) is a low perennial, sometimes cultivated in gardens, from which it has to some extent escaped, and is occasionally found naturalized along waysides; it has handsome, deeply cut leaves, diffusing a pleasant, musky fragrance, and large rose-colored or white flowers. The curled mallow (¥. crispa) is likewise seen in old gardens, conspicuous for its large, strong, tall stem, and rich, deep green, singularly curled foliage, the beauty of which supplies the defect of its flowers, which are rather inconspicuous. The hollyhock mallow (M. Alcea), a European perennial species about 3 ft. high, with palmately five-cleft leaves and rosy-purple flowers 2 in. across, is cultivated and has become naturalized in some parts of Pennsylvania. The American species formerly placed in malva are mostly now in the genus malvastrum.—There are many very showy flowers belonging to the order malvacea, such as those of Lavatera, malope, abutilon, and sida, prized in border and greenhouse cultivation. MALMAISON MALMAISON, La, a village of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, about 7 m. W. of the enceinte of Paris, noted for a palace which became celebrated through Josephine, the first wife of Napoleon I. The Norman pirates com- mitted ravages in this vicinity in the 9th cen- tury, and the locality was thence called mala mansio (‘evil spot”). In the 17th century it was owned by Christophe Perrot, councillor of the parliament of Paris, styling himself lord of Malmaison. Afterward it had various propri- etors; and from Mme. Harenc, who received here many literary and scientific notabilities, it passed into the possession of M. Le Couteulx, who in 1798 sold the domain to Josephine for 160,000 francs. She made it a brilliant centre of fashionable and intellectual society, enlarg- ing and embellishing the grounds after the model of Marie Antoinette’s Trianon, furnish- ing it with a good library, and adding many fine pictures and other works of art to the collections. The chateau itself, however, re- tained a rather unseemly appearance. Bona- parte often resided here previous to his removal to St. Cloud, and Malmaison preserved great prestige until the establishment of the empire in 1804. After her divorce (Dec. 16, 1809) Jose- phine kept up here the semblance of a court, and she was frequently visited by Napoleon, who also spent several days here with Hortense after the battle of Waterloo. The emperor Alexander, as well as the king of Prussia and his son, visited Josephine at Malmaison, on the first occupation of Paris. After her death here (May 29, 1814) the property reverted to her son, Eugéne de Beauharnais. The Swedish banker Haguerman purchased it in 1826, reducing the grounds to their original small dimensions. He sold it in 1842 to the dowager queen Maria Christina of Spain for 500,000 francs, and she resold it in 1861 for 1,500,000 francs to Napo- leon III., who had it restored. Among the works which he collected here are Isabey’s painting of ‘Bonaparte at La Malmaison,” Hortense’s portrait of herself, and a portrait of Josephine. The room which Napoleon used to occupy contains the bed on which he died at St. Helena. MALMESBURY, a parliamentary borough of Wiltshire, England, on the Avon, which is here crossed by six bridges, 82 m. W. of London; pop. in 1871, 6,880. Formerly the manufacture of woollen cloth was the chief branch of indus- try, but it has given way to wool-stapling. The parish church is a portion of a famous old Saxon nunnery, and contains a tomb reputed to be that of King Athelstane. The town is the birthplace of the philosopher Hobbes. MALMESBURY. I. James Harris, first earl of, an English diplomatist, born in Salisbury, April 21, 1746, died in London, Nov. 20, 1820. He was the eldest son of James Harris, secretary and comptroller to Queen Charlotte, and author of “‘ Hermes,” studied at Oxford and Leyden, and was appointed in 1767 secretary of lega- tion at Madrid. He was for four years Eng- MALMO 67 lish ambassador in Berlin, and from 1777 to 1784 in St. Petersburg. In the house of com- mons he was the follower of Fox, after whose withdrawal from the cabinet he received from Pitt the appointment of ambassador at the Hague, and in September, 1788, was raised to the peerage as Baron Malmesbury, having been knighted in 1780. In 1793 he joined the party of Pitt, who again appointed him to a mission to Berlin. In 1794he negotiated the marriage between the prince of Wales and Caroline of Brunswick, and accompanied the bride to Eng- land. In 1796 and 1797 he was employed in fruitless negotiations for peace with the French republic. Becoming deaf, he spent the rest of his life in retirement. In 1800 he was created Viscount Fitz-Harris and earl of Malmesbury. II. James Howard Harris, third earl of, grand- son of the preceding, born in London, March 25,1807. He studied at Eton and at Oxford, where he graduated in 1828. He was returned to the house of commons for the family bor- ough of Wilton in June, 1841, and in Sep- tember succeeded his father in the house of lords. He was secretary of state for foreign affairs in the Derby administration from March to December, 1852; and being a personal friend of Louis Napoleon, he was among the first to urge the recognition of the second em- pire. He was reappointed foreign secretary in March, 1858, but resigned in April, 1859. He was lord keeper of the privy seal from 1866 to the end of 1868, when he retired on account of failing health. Besides editing the ‘‘ Diaries and Correspondence” of his grand- father (4 vols., London, 1844), he has published ‘“The First Lord Malmesbury, his Family and Friends: a Series of Letters from 1745 to 1820” (2 vols., 1870). MALMESBURY, William of, an English histo- rian, born in Somersetshire about 1095, died at Malmesbury about 11438. He was destined for the church, and early entered the monastery of Malmesbury, of which he became librarian. Several of his numerous works were published by Sir Henry Savile in 1596, in his Scriptores post Bedam. His “History of the Kings of England” and ‘‘ Modern History” (De Gestis Regum and Historie Novelle), the former translated by the Rev. John Sharpe (London, 1815), were reprinted in 1847 in Bohn’s ‘‘ An- tiquarian Library.” MALMO (Swedish, Malméhus). ¥. A lan or province of Sweden, bordering on Christian- stad, the Baltic, and the Sound; area, 1,852 sq. m.; pop. in 1878, 322,175. It is one of the most fertile portions of Sweden, rears the best horses and cattle, and produces excellent - cheese and great quantities of grain. It con- tains several lakes, of which the largest is Lake Ring. IL. A city, capital of the lan, on the Sound, 16 m. S. E. of Copenhagen; pop. in 1878, 27,485. It consists of the town proper and two suburbs, Oster and Wester Warn, connected with it by acanal. The streets are spacious, and the market place is planted 68 MALMSEY with trees. The former fortifications have been converted into promenades. The ancient castle of Malm6 is used for barracks, and for a prison and penitentiary. Two churches, the old town hall, and the theatre are among the conspicuous buildings. There are a gymna- sium and schools of technology and naviga- tion. Among the charitable institutions is a richly endowed lunatic asylum. Steamboats, railways, and especially the improvement of the harbor, have greatly promoted the mari- time and commercial importance of Malmo. About 5,000 vessels enter and leave the port annually. The principal export is grain. MALMSEY. See GREEcE, WINES OF. MALONE, Edmond, an_ Irish Shakespearian scholar, born in Dublin, Oct. 4, 1741, died in London, May 25, 1812. He graduated at Trinity college, Dublin, and was called to the bar in 1767; but having inherited a consider- able fortune, he removed to London, devoting himself to literary pursuits. In 1780 he pub- lished two supplementary volumes to Stee- vens’s edition of Shakespeare, and in 1790 his own edition of the great dramatist appeared in 11 vols. 8vo. In 1796 he exposed the Shakes- pearian forgeries of Samuel Ireland. At his death he left a greatly improved edition of his Shakespeare, which was published in 1821, un- der the supervision of James Boswell, in 21 vols. 8vo. He edited ‘‘The Prose Works of John Dryden, with a Memoir ;” “The Works of Wil- liam Gerald Hamilton, with a Sketch of his Life ;” “The Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds,” and other works.—See “Life of Edmond Malone,” by Sir James Prior (London, 1860). MALPIGHI, Mareeilo, an Italian anatomist, born near Bologna in 1628, died in Rome, Nov. 29, 1694. In 1656 he was appointed by Fer- dinand IT. of Tuscany professor of medicine at Pisa, where he made the acquaintance of the celebrated mathematician Borelli, who first convinced him of the propriety of applying experimental researches to the elucidation of physical science. Ill health, however, soon compelled his return to Bologna, where he continued to practise as a physician till 1662, when he was called to a professorship at Mes- sina. In 1691 he was invited to Rome by In- nocent XII., who appointed him his chief physician and chamberlain. His reputation is mainly due to the fact that he was the first to employ the simple microscope, then recently invented, in investigating the anatomical struc- ture of plants and animals, and particularly upon his discovery by this means of the capil- lary circulation of the blood from the arteries - to the veins. Harvey had already in 1628 de- monstrated the circulation of the blood as a whole; that is to say, the return of the blood which had passed out from the heart by the arteries back again to the heart by the veins. The mode in which the blood passed through the substance of. the tissues, from the arteries to the veins, was however still unknown; and no doubt it was partly this fact which prevent- MALTA ed the ready acceptance of Harvey’s doctrine by the anatomists of the time. But in 1661 Malpighi saw with the microscope the circula- tion of the blood through the capillaries in the frog’s lung, and afterward in the mesentery ; thus demonstrating its passage by minute ca- nals from the arteries to the veins, and supply- ing the only deficiency which had existed in Harvey’s discovery. His name has been per- petuated in that of several anatomical textures discovered and described by him, viz. : the rete Malpighianum of the epidermis, the Malpi- ghian bodies of the spleen, and the Malpighian tufts of the kidney. His principal works are: Observationes Anatomice de Pulmonibus (fol., Bologna, 1661); De Viseerum Structura Ezxer- citationes Anatomice (1666; many times re- printed and translated into French); Disser- tatio Epistolica de Formatione Pulli in Ovo (London, 1673); Dissertatio Epistolica de Bom- byce (London, 1669); De Pulmonum Substan- tia et Motu (Leyden, 1672); Anatome Planta- rum (London, 1675-’9) ; and Epistola de Glan- dulis Conglobatis (London, 1689). The only complete collective edition of his works was published at Venice in 1743. MALPLAQUET, a village of France, in the de- partment of Le Nord, 10 m. S. by W. of the Belgian town of Mons, celebrated for a battle between the allied forces under Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and the French under Marshal Villars, Sept. 11, 1709. The battle commenced: at 8 o’clock in the morning, the principal attack of the allies being directed upon the enemy’s left, where Villars himself held command. The French at first repelled their assailants, but Villars having become disabled by a wound, the allies succeeded in forcing the position; and the French, in spite of desperate efforts by the new commander, Bouflers, and the chevalier St. George, son of James II., eventually succumbed, though they effected their retreat in good order. In this battle, the bloodiest in the war of the Span- ish succession, the allies, who brought into the field 80,000 men and 140 guns, lost in killed and wounded more than 20,000 men; the French, who numbered 70,000 men with 80 guns, lost more than half that number; but some accounts place the loss on both sides as high as 42,000. During the battle Marlbor- ough exposed himself to frequent perils, and the report of his death, which was at one time prevalent in the French ranks, gave rise to the once popular military refrain: MJal- brook sen va ten guerre, which was repro- duced from a song of the 16th century on the death of the duke of Guise. MALT. See Brewrine. MALTA (anc. Melita), a British possession in the Mediterranean, including the islands of Malta, Gozo, and Comino, and the uninhabit- ed islets of Cominotto and Filfla, the entire group lying between lat. 35° 48’ and 36° 5’ N. and lon. 14° 10’ and 14° 85’ E., about 60 m. S. W. of the southernmost point of Sicily, and MALTA 200 N. of Tripoli in Africa; area, about 145 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 143,799, exclusive of the troops. The area of Malta proper is about 100 sq. m.; pop. about 130,000. There are neither lakes nor rivers in the island, and no forests or brushwood; and most of the surface is a calcareous rock exposed to the winds from the African deserts, and but thinly covered with an artificial soil, chiefly brought from Sicily. This is, however, by careful cultiva- tion made to yield abundant crops of cotton, grains, beans, and grass, and excellent fruits, of which the orange, olive, and fig are re- nowned, In summer the heat is excessive day and night. The sirocco prevails especially in autumn, and there is little land or sea breeze. But in winter the climate is delightful. The _atmosphere is so clear that at all times of the year the summit of Mt. Etna may be distinctly seen during the rising or setting of the sun, al- though at a distance of 180m. The E. portion of the island contains all the towns and villages, and is separated by a ridge from the W. part, which, although less densely settled, is well cul- tivated, and abounds with the wild thyme and other odoriferous plants, attracting bees, which furnish excellent honey. There are about 25,- 000 head of live stock, including about 6,000 cattle. Cotton is the staple product, and gives rise to an extensive manufacture of cotton goods. The cabinet work of Malta enjoys a high reputation. Soap, leather, macaroni, and iron bedsteads are manufactured to some ex- tent. The goldsmiths are noted for their ele- gant workmanship, and the Maltese artisans are generally able and intelligent. They are excellent seamen, and their services are in great demand in the Mediterranean. But the bulk of the people are either employed in ag- ricultural labor or in stone cutting.—The isl- and of Gozo or Gozzo, about 9 m. long and 5 m. broad, lies N. W. of Malta, and is separa- ted from it by a channel 8 m. wide. | It is sur- rounded by a belt of rocks and shoals, with openings leading to several small harbors. The interior is very rocky and hilly, with a thin soil, which however is very fertile. Grain and fruit are raised in abundance; but the most im- portant crop is cotton, much of which is spun on the island. There are salt works at Port Maggiore, on the S. side, and an alabaster quar- ry in the northwest. The highest point of land is near the centre of the island, and is crowned with the fort of Rabato. The principal town is Rabato (pop. about 2,000), and there are several villages. The island contains a great natural curiosity called the Giant’s Tower, and several Roman monuments. Comino, about 2m. long and 14 m. broad, lies in the channel between Malta and Gozo. hilly and the coast deeply indented. The principal settlement is Santa Maria.—The Mal- tese are derived from an Arabic stock; it is probable, however, that the Arab conquerors have been mixed up with the previous Punic population. Greek is supposed to have been The surface is very: 69 in ancient times the medium of conversation of the higher classes, as English is at the pres- ent day. The present common language is the lingua franca, a patois of the Arabic, mixed with Italian and other languages. The com- plexion of the Maltese is almost as dark as that of the natives of Barbary. The dress of the working classes is a short loose waistcoat, covering a cotton shirt, short loose trousers, woollen caps in winter and straw hats in sum- mer, and a kind of sandals resembling those of the ancient Romans. The women are of dark complexion, and are small, delicate, and generally graceful, and wear in the streets a black veil (faldetta). The dress consists most- ly of a cotton shift, blue striped petticoat, a corset with sleeves, and a loose jacket cover- ing the whole. Drunkenness is almost un- known, and the people, although coarser in their appearance, are less vindictive and im- pulsive than other races of southern Europe. They are fond of poetry, especially in the rural districts, where the taste for improvisation prevails extensively. In music they prefer ncisy instruments, as the tambourine, mando- line, and particularly the bagpipe, which ac- company the national dances, They marry at an early age. Many of them seek employment in the Levant, where they are however exceed- ingly unpopular on account of their crafty and treacherous nature, and they are generally em- ployed only in the meanest labors. The fami- lies ennobled by the knights of Malta have dwindled down to a small number; and the few which remain are not very affluent. The national religion is Roman Catholic, under the direction of a bishop and more than 1,000 priests, the church property being considerable. The number of Protestants is about 5,000, whose places of worship consist only of a few chapels. Education is promoted by the uni- versity of Valetta, colleges at Citta Vecchia and several other places, and about 50 public and 100 private schools.—The value of im- ports paying duty in 1871 was $87,400,000; of exports, $37,500,000. The number of steamers arrived in 1871 was 1,787, tonnage 1,466,000; of sailing vessels arrived, 2,954, tonnage 519,000; total number of vessels, 4,691, tonnage 1,985,000. The direct trade with the United States is inconsiderable, but a large number of American vessels are en- gaged in the trade of foreign countries with Malta. A new government grading dock, ca- pable of receiving the largest men-of-war, has been recently opened, and new submarine telegraphs have been laid connecting Malta with Algiers and Alexandria. The hydrau- lic lift dock, completed in 18738, is of great benefit to commerce, especially to the steamers of the India route, as by means of it vessels can be repaired without discharging their cargo. The revenue in 1870 was £158,630 ;° expenditures, £171,788; public debt, £79,202. —Malta is a crown colony, the local govern- ment being conducted by a governor who is 70 MALTA at the same time commander-in-chief, assist- ed in legislative matters by a council of 18 members, of whom 10 are official and 8 elec- tive. The British troops and their families in December, 1872, numbered 6,752 persons. The duties of the native regiment, called the Malta fencibles, are exclusively local, and their maintenance is defrayed out of the revenues of the islands. The central position, military strength, and excellent harbor, one of the most commodious and convenient in the Mediter- ranean, render the possession of Malta of great importance to Britain, and make it very ad- vantageous for the accommodation and repair of the men-of-war and merchant ships fre- quenting the Mediterranean. The storehouses or caricatori for grain are excavated in the rock, making Malta an excellent centre of the corn trade between the Mediterranean and Black seas.—Besides Valetta and Citta Vec- chia, and a few other towns, Malta possesses about 40 casals or hamlets, chiefly remarkable for their picturesque churches. The former capital of Malta was Citta Vecchia. The pres- ent capital, Valetta, is one of the best forti- fied places in the world, and serves as a station for the Mediterranean fleet.—The ancient Me- lita was important as a commercial centre among the nations of antiquity, and it was occupied probably at a very early period by a Phoenician colony. Afterward it became a Carthaginian settlement. Ata later period it appears to have been in a measure Hellenized, though there is no historical evidence of its having been in the possession of the Greeks. In 257 B. C. it was ravaged by a Roman fleet under Atilius Regulus; and surrendering to the Romans at the beginning of the second Punic war, it was annexed to the province of Sicily. It became notorious as a resort of the Cili- cian pirates, but was in a flourishing condi- tion in the days of Cicero, who during periods of disturbance entertained the project of reti- ring thither. The Maltese cotton fabrics (vestis Melitensis) were in great demand in Rome, and they were probably manufactured from the cotton which still forms the principal product of the island. In sacred history Malta is cele- brated as the supposed scene of the shipwreck of St. Paul on his voyage to Italy (A. D. 60); though according to some critics Melita (now Meleda) in the Adriatic, on the coast of Dal- matia, was more probably the island visited by the apostle. After the fall of the Roman empire the island was for some time in the possession of the Vandals, but was taken from them by Belisarius (538), and was subject to the Byzantine empire until the latter part of the 9th century, when it was conquered by the Arabs. It was wrested from them at the close of the 11th century by Count Roger, the Nor- man conqueror of Sicily, and it was united with Sicily until the early part of the 16th century, when Charles V. took possession of that coun- try and of Malta as heir of Aragon. Under this emperor the knights of Malta (see Saint MALTE-BRUN Joun, Knicuts oF) became its sovereigns, and held it till 1798, when the French expedition to Egypt under Napoleon seized the island. After the battle of the Nile the inhabitants rose in insurrection and compelled the French to shut themselves up in the fortress of Valetta. They were subjected to a stringent blockade until Sept. 5, 1800, when, reduced by famine, they surrendered to the English, who had come to the assistance of the Maltese. The island has since remained under British rule. MALTE-BRUN. I. A Danish geographer, whose actual name was Matrue Conrap Bruun, born at Thisted in Jutland, Aug. 12, 1775, died in Paris, Dec. 14, 1826. He studied in Copen- hagen, devoting himself especially to literature and politics. He embraced republican prin- ciples, and in 1795 published a pamphlet en- titled ‘‘Catechism of the Aristocrats,” for which he was prosecuted by the government and obliged to take refuge in Sweden. A poem on the death of Bernstorff which he published during his exile procured for him permission to returnto Denmark. But another pamphlet against the aristocracy subjected him to a new prosecution, and he left his country, and finally took up his residence in Paris. In December, 1800, the Danish courts pronounced sentence of perpetual banishment against him, which was rescinded about the time of his death. In Paris he wrote largely for various journals, and in 1806 became one of the principal writers for the Journal des Débats. He at first opposed the consular goy- ernment, but subsequently became a zealous imperialist, and after the fall of Napoleon an equally zealous monarchist, publishing in 1824 Traité de la légitimité considérée comme base du droit public de ’ Hurope chrétienne. In the mean time he devoted himself especially to geographical studies, and in 1803, in conjunc- tion with Mentelle and Herbin, commenced the publication of Géographie mathématique, phy- sique et politique, which was completed in 1807, comprising 16 volumes. In 1808 he es- tablished the periodical Annales des Voyages, which was discontinued in 1814, and resumed in 1819, with the collaboration of Eyriés, under the title, Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, and is still issued under charge of his son. He was one of the founders of the geographical society, of which he became secretary. He wrote a number of miscellaneous works, among which is a posthumous collection, Mélanges scienti- Jiques et littéraires (8 vols., 1828). His most important work is Précis de géographie uni- verselle (8 vols., 1810-29, the last two volumes being by Huot). This has been several times re- published, the last edition by Lavallée (6 vols., 1856~7). It was translated into English, and an edition published at Boston, with notes and additions by James G. Percival (8 vols. 4to, 1828-32), and one at Philadelphia (5 vols. 8vo, with atlas, 1882-’7). JI. Vietor Adolphe, a French geographer, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1816. After having been profes- MALTBY sor of history in several colleges, he devoted himself especially to geographical studies. He is secretary of the geographical society, and principal editor of the Nowvelles Annales des Voyages, and has published numerous works re- lating to geography. Among these are: Des- tinge de Sir John Franklin dévoilée (1860) ; Nouvelles acquisitions des Russes dans VU’ Asie orientale (1861); Les Htats-Unis et le Mexique (1862); Coup @ wil sur le Yucatan, and Sonora et ses mines (1864); Canal interocéanique du Darien (1865); Histoire de Marcoussis (1867) ; and Histoire géographique et statistique de ? Allemagne (4to, 1866-’8). He has also issued a revised edition of his father’s geography (8 vols., 1852-’5), and, in conjunction with others, France illustrée (8 vols., 1855-7). MALTBY, Edward. See supplement. MALTHA (Gr. ydA6a, soft wax; also denoting a mixture of wax and pitch, used for the sur- face of writing tablets, and for some kinds of cement). Pliny describes under this name an inflammable mud flowing from a pool at Samo- sata, on the Euphrates, which he says was simi- lar in nature to naphtha; and this use of the word has led to its later application to viscid bitumens. It is the proper name for mineral tar, or all bitumens having the consistence of tar, and holding water and air in mechanical admixture in consequence of their viscidity. It occurs on the surface of the ground and issuing from springs, often accompanied by water, in various parts of the world, but most frequently in localities noted for the production of petro- leum, for which substance maltha is frequently mistaken. It appears to be a product of the partial oxidation or decomposition of certain unstable varieties of petroleum, and doubtless in all cases has a common origin with it (see PETROLEUM), as it passes by insensible degrees into petroleum on the one hand and asphal- tum on the other. It is found in this country throughout the length of California, in Texas, and at various places in the southwest, on both flanks of the Rocky mountains, and in Alaska. Among foreign localities may be mentioned Enniskillen in Canada, the islands of Barba- does and Trinidad, many localities in South America, some of the islands of the Grecian archipelago, and the Caucasus. In California, where there are immense quantities of this material, it occurs in every variety of density, from 0°94 to 1. In consistence it varies from that of a thin sirup to that of soft mortar. It issues there from a stratum of shale of consid- erable thickness which occurs in the miocene sandstones of the Coast range. It oozes from springs upon hillsides, over which it trickles; it accompanies water in pools, and flows upon the surface of streams. It has been obtained from artesian borings at a depth of more than 450 ft. of the consistence of tar, and at a depth of 117 ft. so tenacious as to prevent the drill from penetrating further. In a few localities in this region the maltha is mixed with sand, the mixture forming strata or beds of great MALTHUS 71 extent. At Enniskillen the maltha forms what are known as “‘ gum beds.” Barbadoes tar was long an article of. commerce, used in medicine as a liniment. The California malthas have been used to some extent as a crude material for the manufacture of kerosene; but they have not been found to possess much value for this purpose when treated in the same appara- tus as is used for petroleum; when it is distilled under pressure, or “cracked,” a better result is obtained both as regards yield and quality.— Little is known regarding the chemical consti- tution of maltha; but it is without doubt a mixture of hydrocarbons more dense than those found in petroleum. Some specimens contain nitrogen, as is proved by the fact that maggots are developed in immense numbers in pools of this substance. It is also possible that oxygen is a constituent of some varieties. While this substance is widely distributed and occurs in vast quantities in some localities, it is at present very much less valuable than petroleum. It is readily distinguished from it by its greater viscidity and its tendency to froth when heated, the froth often occupying 20 times the bulk of the maltha at thé temperature of boiling water. MALTHUS, Thomas Robert, an English political economist, born at Albury, Surrey, in 1766, died in Bath, Dec. 29, 1834. His father was a gentleman of fortune, interested in classical and philosophical studies, and so intimate a friend of Rousseau that he was appointed one of his executors; and David Hume was like- wise among his friends. In 1784 he was ad- mitted to Jesus college, Cambridge, and became one of the first classical scholars. He received his master’s degree and a fellowship in 1797, entered holy orders, and divided his time be- tween the care of a small parish in Surrey and his studies in Cambridge. In 1798 he published anonymously the first edition of his work on population, which was subsequently much en- larged and modified. The title of the sixth and last revision (1826) is: ‘‘ An Essay on the Prin- ciple of Population, or a View of its past and present Effects on Human Happiness, with an Inquiry into our Prospects respecting the future Removal or Mitigation of the Evils which it oc- casions.” His object at first was to refute the theories of Condorcet and Godwin on human perfectibility and political optimism, by show- ing the necessary sufferings of the poor from the tendency of population to increase faster than the means of subsistence. The condition of the poor became the prominent feature of the sub- sequent editions. In 1799 he visited Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia, collecting facts and documents in illustration of his subject; and during the interval of peace in 1802 he explored France and Switzerland. He married in 1805, and was appointed professor of history and political economy in the East India college at Haileybury, which post he held till his death. His other principal writings are: ‘ Observa- tions on the Effects of the Corn Laws” (8d ed., 1815); ‘“‘ An Inquiry into the Nature and Pro- 72 MALTITZ gress of Rent” (1815); ‘‘ Principles of Political Economy ” (1820); and ‘ Definitions in Polit- ical Economy” (1827).—His reputation rests almost exclusively upon the views advanced in his work on population. He held that popu- lation, when unchecked, increases in a geomet- rical ratio, while food can be made to increase at furthest only in an arithmetical ratio. Pow- erful checks on population must be constantly in action, which may be resolved into vice, misery, and moral or prudential restraint. MALTITZ, Apollonius yon, baron, a German author, born in Kénigsberg in 1795, died in Weimar, March 2, 1870. He was a brother of the poet Franz Friedrich von Maltitz (1794— 1857), and like several of his relatives he was employed in the diplomatic service of Russia, representing that empire at Weimar from 1841 to 1865. He published novels, poe- try, dramas, tragedies, comedies, and an au- tobiography (1863). His best known tragedies are Virginia (1858), Anna Boleyn (1860), and Spartacus.—Another distinguished poet of the same family was Gorrnitr AuagusT von Mat- TITz (1794-1837). MALTZAN, Heinrich Karl Eckardt Hellmuth, bar- on of Wartenburg and Penzlin, a German trav- eller, born in Dresden, Sept. 6, 1826, died in Pisa, Italy, Feb. 22, 1874. He studied at sev- eral German universities, made explorations in north Africa, Arabia, and other countries, and published Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika (4 vols., Leipsic, 1863; 2d ed., 1868); Wallfuhrt nach Mekka (2 vols., 1865); Reise auf der Insel Sardinien (1869); Sittenbilder aus Tunis und Algerien (1869); Reise in den Regentschaften Tunis und Tripolis (8 vols., 1870); and feise nach Sidarabien (Brunswick, 1872). He was a high authority in Pheenician and old Egyptian archeology, and in S. Ara- bian geography, ethnology, and philology. MALUS, Etienne Lonis, a French engineer and physicist, born in Paris, June 28, 1775, died there, Feb. 23, 1812. He belonged to a dis- tinguished family, and his intellectual preco- city manifested itself while he was at school in the composition of an epic poem and of two tragedies. At the same time he was proficient in mathematics, and passed a bril- liant examination as a military engineer. . In 1793 he received the rank of sub-lieutenant, but as the school of Méziéres which had con- ferred it was closed, he enlisted as a volun- teer, and exhibited so much talent while em- ployed on the fortifications of Dunkirk, that he was sent as a pupil to the newly establish- ed polytechnic school, which he left in 1796 with the grade of sub-lieutenant; and next year he entered the army as captain. He distinguished himself at the capture of Malta and of Jaffa, where he narrowly escaped losing his life by the plague. He was among the earliest members of the Egyptian institute, and in 1799 he was made by Kléber chief of bat- talion. Shortly after his return from the East he married the daughter of Chancellor Koch, MALVOISINE of the German university of Giessen, whose acquaintance he had made while formerly sta- tioned there. In 1804 he was commissioned by Napoleon to draw up plans for the enlarge- ment of the harbor and fortifications of Ant- werp, and he subsequently superintended the reconstruction of the fort at Kehl, opposite Strasburg. In 1810 he became mayor, mem- ber of the academy, and examiner at the poly- technic school, and next year provisional direc- tor of that institution. His chief publications include a mathematical Traité doptique, first published in 1810, in which he promulgated some valuable discoveries respecting the refrac- tion of light in transparent media; and the “Theory of Double Refraction” (Mémoires présentés ad Uinstitut, vol. il.), containing an account of his discoveries respecting the po- larization of light, and showing that light may acquire properties identical with either of two rays yielded by refraction through Iceland spar by the process of simple reflection at a particular angle from any transparent body. This famous memoir received an academical prize at the suggestion of Laplace. He also published an “Essay on the Measurement of the Refractive Force of Opaque Bodies;” ‘ Re- marks on some new Optical Phenomena,” in- tended to prove that two portions of light are always polarized together in opposite direc- tions; a paper ‘“‘ On Phenomena accompanying Refraction and Reflection,” and one “On the Axis of Refraction of Crystals.” MALVERN, Great, a town of Worcestershire, England, celebrated as a watering place, on the E. side of the Malvern hills, 8m. 8S. 8. W. of Worcester; pop. in 1871, 7,825. The springs, which are sulphuretted and slightly tepid, are especially beneficial in glandular and skin com- plaints. They are situated between Great and Little Malvern, the latter place being 4 m. 8. of the former, which is surrounded by fine country residences and contains delightful walks and good accommodations for bathers and visitors. There are several schools, an ex- cellent library and reading room, and a chapel of the countess of Huntingdon’s connection. The ancient church, formerly part of a monas- tery founded by Edward the Confessor, is one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in England. The Malvern hills, which reach a height of about 1,400 ft., extend about 9 m. N. and §. MALVERN HILL, Battle of. See CatcKaHoMINY. MALVOISINE, or Mawmoisine, William de, a Scot- tish ecclesiastic, died July 9, 1238. He was educated and perhaps born in France, but was at an early age archdeacon of St. Andrews. In 1199 he became chancellor of Scotland, in 1200 bishop of Glasgow, and in 1202 bishop of St. Andrews, retaining the latter see until his death. In 1211, as papal legate, in concert with the bishop of Glasgow, and at the request of the pope, he convened a council of the clergy and people at Perth to urge an expedition to the Holy Land. In 1214 he officiated at the MALWA MAMELUKES %3 coronation of Alexander II., and from 1215 to | devotional works, small books for religious edu- 1218 attended the fourth Lateran council as one of the representatives of the Scottish church. He was a zealous churchman, and, according to Fordun, was equally zealous in support of his personal rights, having deprived the abbey of Dunfermline of the presentation to two livings because its monks had once neg- lected to provide him with wine for supper. He introduced new monastic orders into Scot- land, established many Dominican and other convents, and wrote the lives of St. Ninian and Kentigern. MALWA, an old province of central India, comprising a table land from 1,500 to 2,500 ft. above the level of the sea, bounded N. E. by the valley of the Ganges, E. by Bundelcund, S. by the Vindhya, and W. by the Aravulli moun- tains, and lying chiefly between lat. 22° and 24° N., and lon. 74° and 78° E. ; length about 220 m., average breadth 150 m. The people are mostly Hindoos. It is divided into a number of native states under British protection, and includes part of the possessions of Sindia and Holkar. The surface is uneven, with a gradu- al descent from the Vindhya mountains. It is watered by many rivers, the chief of which is the Chumbul, an affluent of the Ganges. The soil is fertile, producing cotton, tobacco, opium, indigo, sugar, and grain, and affording pastur- age for large numbers of sheep and cattle. The rivers are not navigable, but a considerable overland trade is carried on in cottons, printed cloths, opium, and other products. The prin- cipal towns are Oojein, Indore, Bhopal, and Bilsa.—Malwa became tributary to the sover- eign of Delhi in the 13th century, but at the beginning of the 15th threw off the yoke, and for 1380 years formed a powerful independent kingdom. It was subsequently conquered by Shir Khan, annexed to the Mogul empire by Akbar, overrun by the Mahrattas early in the 18th century, and separated from the Mogul territory about 1732. It was long desolated by the Pindarrees, who were subdued by the marquis of Hastings and Sir John Malcolm. A police force of Bheels was subsequently or- ganized by the British, and for some time proved highly efficient, but a large portion of it mutinied in 1857. MAME, Alfred Henri Armand, a French printer, born in Tours, Aug. 17, 1811. In 1833 the printing establishment founded by his father in Tours came into his possession, in partner- ship with his cousin Charles Ernest Mame, who was mayor of Tours from 1851 to 1865. The cousins, who are also brothers-in-law, together extended the business till 1845, when it came under the sole direction of Alfred Mame, who raised it to the greatest importance. The es- tablishment includes departments for print- ing, binding, and bookselling. About 700 per- sons are employed within and 500 without the premises. It produces daily about 20,000 vol- umes, bound and unbound. Among the spe- cial publications of this house are liturgical and __ cation printed under the auspices of the arch- bishop of Tours, editions of the classics, and elementary treatises on science and education, issued likewise under ecclesiastical authority. Its small prayer books (Paroissiens), bound’ in leather and with gilt edges, are sold at re- tail for 85 centimes (about 7 cents). About 1854 M. Mame entered upon the publication of richly illustrated works, among the most celebrated of which is the Bible with illustra- tions by Doré (1865-’6). He obtained prizes at the London exhibition of 1851, the grand medal of honor at the French exposition of 1855, and the grand prize at that of 1867. In the last year he also received one of the prizes of 10,000 francs offered to model establish- ments in which the greatest social harmony and comfort prevail among the werkmen. MAMELUKES (Arabic, memalik, a slave), a body of soldiery who ruled Egypt for several centuries. They were introduced into that country by the sultan Malek el-Adel II. about the middle of the 18th century, and were composed originally of young captives pur- chased from the Mongols. They were called the Bahri Mamelukes, or Mamelukes of the river, because they were trained on an island in the Nile. They formed the body guard of the sultan. Turan Shah, the son and suc- cessor of Malek el-Adel, becoming unpopu- lar, the Mamelukes deposed and murdered him about 1250, and raised their commander Eybek to the throne. A line of sultans known as the Bahri or Turkish dynasty now followed, all of whom were raised to power by the Mamelukes, and many of them deposed and slain. A new band of Mamelukes, however, had been created by these sovereigns, composed of Circassians and Georgians, who were called Borgis, suggestive of a tower or castle, from the fact that they had been employed on forti- fications in Fgypt. In 1382 the Borgi Mame- lukes gained the ascendancy over the Bahris, and made their commander Barkok sultan. The Borgis continued in power till 1517, when they were subdued by the Ottoman Turks, and Egypt became a dependency of Constantinople. The Turkish sultan, however, placed the 24 provinces into which he di- vided Egypt under Mameluke governors or beys, who served to keep the Turkish viceroy in check. The beys also had the right to elect the governor of Cairo, an official of great pow- er. The number of the Mamelukes was about 12,000, and they were nearly all from the region between the Black sea and the Caspian, whence they were brought in their youth to Cairo, compelled or persuaded to embrace Mo- hammedanism, and educated as soldiers. They did not intermarry with the natives of Egypt, but bought wives of their own race from the traders in Circassian slaves. These women from the north seldom bore children in Egypt, or if they did their offspring were sickly and short-lived. Though instances of hereditary [4 MAMELUKES succession among the Mamelukes were not un- known, they were comparatively rare, and it was generally from master to slave, and not from father to son. Volney, who visited Egypt in the latter part of the 18th century, asserted that all Mameluke children perished in the first or second descent. Each of the 24 beys maintained 500 or 600 followers, thor- oughly armed and equipped, and forming an admirable cavalry force. Each of the Mame- lukes was attended by two armed slaves who fought on foot. In 1798, when Bonaparte in- vaded Egypt, his army first encountered the Mamelukes while on the march from Alexan- dria to Cairo. ‘The whole plain was covered with Mamelukes,” says Scott, ‘‘mounted on the finest Arabian horses, and armed with pistols, carbines, and blunderbusses of the best English workmanship, their plumed turbans waving in the air, and their rich dresses and arms glitter- ing inthe sun. Entertaining a high contempt for the French force, as consisting almost en- tirely of infantry, this splendid barbaric chiv- alry watched every opportunity for charging them, nor did a single straggler escape the un- relenting edge of their sabres. Their charge was almost as swift as the wind, and as their severe bits enabled them to halt or wheel their horses at full gallop, their retreat was as rapid as their advance. Even the practised veterans of Italy were at first embarrassed by this new mode of fighting, and lost several men; espe- cially when fatigue caused any one to fall out of the ranks, in which case his fate became certain. But they were soon reconciled to fighting the Mamelukes, when they discovered that each of these horsemen carried about him his fortune, and that it not uncommonly amounted to considerable sums in gold.” At the battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798, the Mamelukes mustered their full force, consisting of 7,000 men under Murad Bey, and attacked the French with desperate courage; but they were repulsed with terrible slaughter, and about 2,500 of them who survived fled to Up- per Egypt. ‘Could I have united the Mame- luke horse to the French infantry,” said Na- poleon, ‘‘I would have reckoned myself master of the world.” After the French were driven from Egypt by the British, the Mamelukes re- gained in some degree their power, and a civil war broke out between them and the Turks. They were twice victims of treacherous mas- sacres, and were completely crushed March 1, 1811, when Mehemet Ali beguiled 470 chiefs into the citadel of Cairo, and then closed the gates and ordered his Albanian soldiers to fire upon them. Only one escaped, a bey who leaped his horse from the ramparts and alighted uninjured, though the animal was killed by the fall. Immediately afterward a general mas- sacre of the Mamelukes in every province of Egypt was ordered. The few who escaped fled to Nubia, and especially to the province of Sennaar, where they built the town of New Dongola and attempted to keep up their force MAMIANI by disciplining negroes in their peculiar tac- tics. They did not succeed, however, and a few years later their number was reduced to about 100, when they dispersed, and the Mame- lukes ceased to exist. MAMERTINES. See Messina. MAMIANI, Terenzio della Rovere, count, an Ital- ian philosopher, born in Pesaro about 1800. He received a superior education, and in 1831 took part in the revolutionary movement in the Romagna, and was proscribed. He took refuge in Paris, where he was occupied in lit- erary labors until he was permitted to return to Italy by the amnesty granted in 1846 by Pius IX. He became prominent among the liberal statesmen who gathered around the pope, and accepted a place in the administra- tion. The vacillating policy of Pius [X., how- ever, soon led to his retirement, and he went to Turin, where with Gioberti and others he founded a patriotic society, of which he became president. In November, 1848, after the flight of the pope to Gaéta, he returned to Rome and became minister of foreign affairs; but he soon retired in consequence of the predomi- nance of the ultra-republican element, and also resigned his seat in the constituent assembly. After the restoration of the papal power in 1849 he went to Piedmont, and subsequently became professor of philosophy in the Turin university, and a member of parliament. He warmly supported the policy of Cavour, and in 1860 was appointed minister of public in- struction. From 1861 to 1865 he was minister at Athens. In 1866 he was accredited to Switzerland, but soon afterward became a member of the Italian senate. In 1870 he was restored to the chair of the philosophy of history in the Sapienza college at Rome, which he had formerly held. He is promi- nent among Italian ontologists. In his ear- liest philosophical work, Del rinnovamento dell’ antica filosofia italiana (1834), he ad- hered to the doctrine of empiricism based on psychological investigation. But he soon be- came a convert to Rosmini’s opinion that the ~ experimental method alone cannot philosophi- cally reconstruct the science of nature and mind; and in his Discorso sull’ ontologia e sul metodo (1841), and Dialoghi di scienza prima (1846), he strove to find a philosophical basis in common sense, and expressed for the first time his doctrine of immediate perception as the only foundation of a full insight into real- ity. This last phase of his doctrine is ex- pounded in his Confessioni di un metafisico (1865), which is divided into two parts, re- spectively relating to ontology and cosmology. —A complete edition of his poetical works was published by M. Lemonnier (Florence, 1857). An English translation of his Prinei- pi della filosofia del diritto (‘Rights of Na- tions”), edited by Roger Acton, was published in London in 1860. Among his later works are: Rinascimento cattolico (1862); Saggi dé Jilosofia civile (1865); Meditazioni cartesiane MAMMALIA (1868); and Teoria della religione e dello stato, e dei suoi rapporti speciali con Roma e colle nazioni cattoliche (1868). He also contrib- utes largely to the philosophical review La Filosofia delle Scuole italiane. MAMMALIA, the highest vertebrated animals, including man, warm-blooded, breathing by lungs separated from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, generally covered with hair, and bringing forth their young alive, which they nourish by the secretion of mammary glands (whence their name). Most mammals are com- monly known as quadrupeds, from their hav- ing four feet suited for progression on a solid surface; but the terms are not synonymous, as most reptiles are four-footed, and the whales cannot be called quadrupeds. The form of mammals is very various; among them we see man walking erect, the flying bats, the swim- ming cetaceans, the bulky elephant, the slow- moving sloth, and the agile squirrel; yet the three regions of head, neck, and trunk can al- ways be recognized in the skeleton, and gen- erally in the living animal. The neck, though varying in length from that of man (one sev- enth of the spinal column) to that of the giraffe (three sevenths), with two or three exceptions, consists of 7 vertebree; some of the sloths have 8 or 9, and some manatees are said to have 6 only; in the hoofed animals the length of the neck depends on that of the fore legs, for the purpose of grazing; but the elephant has a long proboscis to compensate for the shortness of the neck rendered necessary by the ponderous head; the extra vertebrae of the sloths are by some considered as dorsals with rudimentary ribs to give additional mobility to the neck. The number of dorsal vertebre va- ries from 11 in some of the bats to 22 in some of the sloths, man having 12; the lumbar ver- tebree, 5 in man, are 2 in the ornithorhynchus and 9 in some lemurs, stronger than the dor- sals, and without ribs, which are replaced by long transverse processes ; the sacral vertebra, usually 4, vary from 1 to 9; the rudimentary tail of man, the 0s coccygis, consists of 4 bones, but in the long-tailed manis there are 46 cau- dal vertebree. The skull is articulated to the spine by two occipital condyles, which permit the upward and downward motions of the head, the lateral and rotating movements de- pending on the articulation between the first and second vertebra; in whales the short neck is immovable as in fishes, and its bones are very thin and more or less consolidated to- gether; the strong ligamentum nuche, which supports the head, is attached to the spinous processes and skull. The caudal vertebra are of two kinds, one having a spinal canal, the other not, and the processes are always devel- oped in accordance with the use made of the tail; in most mammals its movements are con- fined to brushing away insects from the skin, but in the kangaroo it forms with the hind legs a firm tripod from which the animal springs, and in some South American monkeys (©) it is prehensile and used as a fifth hand in hanging from trees; in the whales it becomes a powerful swimming organ, is provided on its under surface with V-shaped bones for the protection of the blood vessels, and, being horizontal, is used principally as an organ by which to rise to the surface to breathe; in the beaver the transverse processes and the lower spinous are very large for the attachment of the muscles, which move the tail like a trowel chiefly in a downward direction. The bones of the spine are united by elastic fibro-cartila- ges; these, in whales, form osseous disks, sep- arating on maceration, and frequently used by arctic travellers for plates.—As all mammals breathe air, the mechanism of their respiration depends on the movable ribs and the dia- phragm ; man has 7 true and 5 false ribs, the former united to the sternum, the latter not; the number is in proportion to that of the dor- - sal vertebree; in the whale, of 12 ribs, 11 are false, in the unau 11 out of 23, in the horse 8 out of 18, in the cats 4 out of 18, and in the manatee 14 out of 16; in the carnivora they are dense and narrow, in the herbivora large, broad, and thick. The breast bone varies in shape according to the presence or absence of clay- icles; in non-claviculated mammals the chest is compressed laterally, and the breast bone has a projecting keel as in birds; in bats it is much keeled, in the higher apes flat as in man, and in the moles it extends in front of the ribs, forming a distinct piece; in mammals with clav- icles the chest approaches very nearly to that of man; the human chest, however, is the only one in which the transverse exceeds the antero- posterior diameter, causing the greater separa- tion of the shoulders and the increased facility of movement of the arms. The anterior ribs always extend as far as the breast bone, and are thus true ribs, differing in this respect from those of birds. Each of the ribs is usually connected by its head to an articular cavity formed by the bodies of two vertebrw, and by its tubercle to the transverse process of the posterior of the two; in the monotremata they are connected with the body alone, and in ceta/ ceans often only with the transverse processes. The breast bone consists of several pieces, one behind the other, to which the anterior or true ribs are joined by cartilages which rarely be- come ossified; the posterior are the false or floating ribs, and are not attached immediately to the breast bone; this arrangement gives mo- bility to the chest and allows the elevation and depression of the ribs during respiration. The bones of the skull and face are immovably connected with each other, a character which does not occur in any of the lower classes ; the brain cavity is larger than in birds and rep- tiles; the occipital condyles, near the centre of the base in man, are gradually removed to the posterior portion as we descend in the scale; the number of cranial bones, eight in man, is less than in most lower vertebrates. For the general characters see COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, XG MAMMALIA where also are given sufficient details on the organs of sense, teeth, digestive system, and hairy covering. The lower jaw consists of two pieces, and is alone movable; in man it is sus- ceptible of motion up and down, laterally, and from before backward; in the carnivora the first movement, in the ruminants the second, and in the rodents the third, is specially provided for by the shape of the condyles and the form of the glenoid cavity.—The limbs of mammals vary exceedingly in shape, according to the offices to be performed by them; we find the hand of man with its thumb opposable to the fingers, the four hands of the monkey, the paddles of the whale, the walking feet of the horse, the wing of the bat, the paw of the lion, the shovel of the mole, all constructed on the same type and modified from the same bony elements. The anterior limbs are always present, with a well developed scapular arch, usually kept in place by a clavicle; this last is present in man, monkeys, the insectivora, squirrels, and bats, but absent in cetaceans, the hoofed animals, and some edentates; in most carnivora and in some rodents it is imperfect- ly developed; it corresponds to the furcular bone in birds, and the monotremata have in addition the second or coracoid clavicle of birds. The shoulder blade is thin, flat, and more or less triangular, generally with a well marked spine; it is long and narrow in herbi- vora, and placed perpendicularly on the anterior and lateral portion of the chest; in carnivora and rodents, requiring more freedom of motion, it is oblique, and so of course is the glenoid cavity; jockeys are well aware that an upright shoulder is the mark of a stumbling horse. The arm bone is nearly straight in man, much bent in the carnivora, long in monkeys and sloths, and short in ruminants and cetaceans; it is con- nected by a ball and socket joint with the scap- ula; below it articulates with the radius and ulna of the forearm by a hinge joint. The ulna is the longest in man and lies on the inside, and receives the arm bone in a deep sigmoid cavity ; the radius is connected with the wrist, and turns with the movements of the hand, rolling around and upon the ulna; this independence of movement becomes less and less, acccording as the limbs are more used as instruments of progression; in the carnivora and rodents the two bones are distinct, but the rotation is very imperfect, and in the hoofed animals generally the two make a single bone; the radius seems to form the principal bone, the ulna being fre- quently, as in the horse and bats, very rudi- mentary. The wrist in man consists of eight bones in two rows, in other mammals varying from five to eleven; to these are attached the five parallel metacarpal bones in man, followed hy the five fingers, each having three joints, except the first or thumb, which has only two; in the ruminants the two metacarpals form the single cannon bone, sometimes with rudi- mentary bones on the side, as the splint bones of the horse; most pachyderms have three metacarpals, the elephant having five. In ani- mals which walk on the ends of the toes, the metacarpus is so lengthened that it has been ~ mistaken for the forearm, and supposed there- fore to be flexed in an opposite direction to that of man; but the lower part of the fore leg of a horse, for instance, is in reality the meta- carpus, and the part called the knee is the wrist joint. The fingers vary from one to five; the third or middle finger is the most constant, and commonly the longest, and is the only one found in the horse; the thumb disappears first, then the little finger, and then the fourth finger; ruminants have the second and third, or fore and middle fingers. The hind limbs are more firmly connected to the trunk than the ante- rior; the supporting arch is the pelvis, com- posed of the ilium, ischium, and pubis on each side, the first joining the sacrum, the second forming the prominences upon which man sits, and the third uniting in front; in cetaceans there is only a rudiment of this bony arch, and the hind limbs are absent. The thigh bone, the longest in man, is in most other mammals relatively shorter; it is attached by a ball and socket joint to the pelvis, in man its axis being nearly that of the body, but in the lower mam- mals bending more and more forward until it forms an acute angle with the trunk. The tibia and fibula correspond to the radius and - ulna of the forearm, and have the patella or knee-pan in front of the articulation with the thigh bone; these are coalesced in various ani- mals somewhat as are the radius and ulna; the tarsal bones correspond to the carpal, and are followed in the same manner by the metatarsus and toes. In the apes the great toe is opposable to the others, like the thumb, whence they are called guadrumana, four-handed; while man rests his whole foot, from the heel to the toes, on the ground, other mammals walk chiefly on the toes; the horse stands on the tips of the middle fingers and toes, the heel being nearly as high up as the knee in man, the cat on the last two joints of several toes, and the bear on the metatarsus and toes; there is no animal, ex- cept man, that can be properly said to touch the ground with the entire foot; in the seals all the bones of the leg and foot may be recog- nized, but they are united by a membranous web into a kind of caudal fin. The bones of mam- mals have not the air cells found in birds, but are either solid or their cavities are filled with an oily matter called marrow ; there are, how- ever, air cavities called sinuses, especially large in the frontal bone of ruminants, as in the ox and sheep, and greatly developed in the fron- tal region of the elephant; these communicate either with the nasal or auditory passages.— While most mammals resemble man in the arrangement of the muscles, others approach birds and even fishes in this respect; as they are less active than birds, their muscles are less firm and the tendons less liable to ossify ; they are generally fewer in number than in man, and their variations from the human type are MAMMALIA noticed chiefly in the limbs; in the mole, for instance, the flexors of the arm, the great pec- toral, and the latissimus dorsi are very large ; the herbivora and pachyderms require mas- sive muscles, and the agile carnivora compact and energetic ones; the muscles of the ears are specially developed in the herbivora, and those of the nose in the hog; the gluteus maz- imus, the largest of all in man, is much small- er in the monkeys, and very small in the low- er mammals; the nates in the horse are com- posed. principally of the gluteus medius ; the muscles of the calf, so characteristic of man, are small in all below him, and the short mus- cles of the human hand are absent in the low- er mammals; those of the wings in bats are arranged somewhat as in birds, and those of cetaceans as in fishes. A muscle remarkably developed in many mammals, but rudimen- tary in man, is the cutaneous layer, the pan- niculus carnosus, of which the human analogue is the platysma myoides of the sides of the neck and face; we notice its action in the horse when a fly or any irritating object touch- es the skin, in the erection of the quills of the porcupine, and in the coiling of the body of the armadillo and hedgehog. The minute coccygeal muscles of man are represented by numerous and powerful ones in the pre- hensile tail of certain monkeys, in the strong trowel of the beaver, and in the fluke of the whale, analogous to the human multifidus spine.—In man and mammals the heart is composed of two distinct halves, each divided into two cavities, an auricle and a ventricle; the course of the blood is from the left ventri- cle to the aorta and over the body, pure arte- rial; then traversing the systemic capillaries it enters into the veins, and is carried to the right auricle; thence it passes to the right ven- tricle, and thence by the pulmonary artery to the lungs, in whose capillaries it becomes pu- rified by the oxygen of the respired air, and is returned by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, whence it enters the left ventricle to be distributed as before. Here, therefore, the blood passes twice through the heart and through two systems of capillaries before com- pleting its circle; hence the circulation is called double, and it is also complete, as the whole mass of the blood is purified in the lungs before itis sent over the body. Before birth, when the lungs are impervious, the auricles communicate directly, and one or more vessels pass from the right ventricle to the aorta, conveying the blood over the body without sending it to the lungs; but when respiration begins these communica- tions between the arterial and venous systems are closed. In the dugong the two ventricles are separated by a deep cleft; in some mam- mals the right auricle receives three ven cave ; the apex is not inclined to the left, as in man, ex- cept in some monkeys, and in some hoofed ani- mals two small flat bones are imbedded in the substance of the left ventricle. In cetaceans there is a plexiform arrangement of the arte- ei) ries of the walls of the chest, allowing an ac- cumulation of blood in them, to be used as re- quired during prolonged submersion ; in many ruminants the internal carotid forms a rete mirabile, or network of vessels, at the entrance of the skull, doubtless to prevent injury to the brain from too great force of the blood while the head is in a dependent position; in the slow-moving sloths the arteries of the limbs communicate very freely, rendering compres- sion during their climbing impossible except in a few vessels at a time. A similar disposition prevails in the venous system; in the seal and otter, as in the ducks, the inferior cava is di- lated into a receptacle which holds the blood while they are under water, and only permits it to pass on to the lungs when they come to the surface; in the porpoise tortuous sinuses receive the intércostal veins, and in the foot of the horse a fine network is distributed on the front of the coffin bone. The heart is composed of muscular fibres, each cavity hav- ing its own, arranged in a spiral manner from the point to the base; the course of the blood is directed from the auricles to the ventricles by the mitral valve on the left side and the tricuspid on the right, kept in place by tendi- nous cords attached to fleshy columns, and the entrances of the aorta and pulmonary artery are guarded each by three semilunar valves which prevent regurgitation. The lungs of mammals are almost always in pairs, and hang freely in the chest suspended by the straight windpipe, and enclosed within the serous cavity lined by the pleura; the air tubes are distributed to all their parts, and the pulmonary cells are minute- ly subdivided and do not communicate with any other air cells in the body as they do in birds. The windpipe varies much in length, in the number of its rings (which are from 14 to 78), and in their completeness; the cartilages do not generally form a complete circle, being membranous posteriorly, and in the whales the membranous portion is said to be in front. The mechanism of the mammalian respiration has been described under Drapuracm, the muscular’ partition which separates the thoracic and ab- dominal cavities in this class.—The voice, under the control of the will, is produced by the pas- sage of air from the lungs over certain organs in the larynx or upper portion of the wind- pipe; in man the larynx is a short and wide tube, suspended as it were from the hyoid bone, formed of cartilaginous plates, called the thyroid, cricoid, and two arytenoid cartilages ; the prominence commonly called ‘‘ Adam’s apple” is the anterior surface of the thyroid cartilage. The mucous membrane forms two lateral folds from before backward, like the lips of a buttonhole, the vocal cords or liga- ments; above these are two other folds, be- tween which and the vocal cords is a cavity on each side, the ventricle of the larynx; the space between these four folds is the glottis, which is covered above, during the passage of food or drink, by a fibro-cartilaginous tongue, 78 the epiglottis. In ordinary respiration the air passes noiselessly ; but when the will contracts or otherwise modifies these cords, sound is produced, which in man becomes articulate speech by the action of the pharynx, nasal pas- sages, and parts contained within the mouth. The epiglottis exists in all mammals, but it is sometimes divided at the upper end; in ceta- ceans, the larynx ascends to the posterior nares and communicates with the blow-hole on the top of the head. The lion’s roar de- pends on the great size of the larynx ; the grunt of the hog is produced in cavities com- municating with its ventricles; the neigh of the horse by vibration of folds connected with the vocal cords; the bray of the ass by re- verberation in a large cavity with small aper- - ture under the thyroid cartilage; in the howl- ing monkeys the hyoid bone is dilated into a bony pouch, and each ventricle opens into a large membranous sac, in which the loud sounds of these animals are produced; in the marsupials the voice is very weak.—The uri- nary system of mammals consists of secretory organs (the kidneys), and a reservoir for the secreted fluid (the bladder), communicating with the former by the ureters and externally by the urethrg. The kidneys of mammals pre- sent the same external cortical and internal tubular portions as in man, and also the supra- renal capsules, in the lumbar region near the vertebres and external to the peritoneal sac; they differ somewhat in form, being more or less lobulated, as in the human foetus, in ceta- ceans, seals, otters, bears, the elephant, and ox; the lobules vary from 10 in the otter to 130 in the seals, in cetaceans resembling a bunch of grapes; in all, except the monotre-: mata, the ureters open into the bladder; in these into the urethra, as in chelonians. The bladder is generally more loosely connected in other mammals than in man; it is largest in the herbivora, smaller and more muscular in the carnivora and rodents. The chemical com- position of the urine is about the same in car- nivora as in man, except in the absence of uric acid; in the herbivora it is alkaline, contain- ing hippuric acid and much earthy carbonate. In the stags, below the inner angle of the eyes, there is an opening communicating with a large membranous pouch, from the glands of which is secreted a brownish liquid, flowing down the sides of the face, like tears; many animals have glands on the abdomen, in the groins, or about the genito-anal openings, whose secretion is very odorous, as in the musk deer, beaver, civet, and skunk.—The special internal male organs are the testes, which se- crete the sperm, with certain accessory glands (as the prostate and Cowper’s), and seminal receptacles or vesicule; in the female the germs are formed in the ovaries, whence they escape through the Fallopian tubes into the uterus, and thence when full-grown externally ; as the name mammal imports, they have also external glands for the secretion of milk, the MAMMALIA mamme or breasts. The testes may be per- manently external, as in the dog; always ab- dominal, as in the seal, elephant, and cetace- ans; or external during the rutting season, and at other times internal, as in the mole and porcupine. The epididymis is usually largely developed; the seminal vesicles are found in monkeys, bats, rodents, and pachyderms, but are wanting in carnivora, most plantigrades, ruminants, and marsupials; the prostate gland exists in some form in all mammals; the ab- sence of Cowper’s glands in most pachyderms, rodents, and carnivora shows that their action is not essential to reproduction. The human ovaries are two oval, glandular bodies, about an inch long, in the posterior portion of the broad ligaments; each contains about 20 Graa- fian vesicles, enclosing an ovum. All the in- ternal organs, except the uterus, are much alike in the other mammalia. This last organ, single in the monkeys, is in carnivora, many rodents, pachyderms, ruminants, and cetaceans, generally divided at the base into two horns (cornua), each sometimes having its distinct opening; in marsupials the ovaries are more or less racemose, as in birds. In most mam- mals, after the fecundated ovum has descend- ed through the Fallopian tube (in the higher orders about the 12th day), an intimate vas- cular connection takes place between the si- nuses of the parent and the chorion of the foetus, forming the placenta, which continues to supply the young with nutriment until it is capable of an independent existence. The period of utero-gestation, about 270 days in the human mammal, varies in the different families. This group of placental mammals has been called monodelphians to distinguish them from the didelphians, which include the marsupials and monotremata; the former have a more perfect brain, with its hemispheres united by a corpus callosum ; the latter bring forth their young in a very imperfect condition, but have the brain destitute of a corpus callosum, the ab- dominal walls supported in front by two bones arising from the pubis, and an external pouch for the reception of the young. Prof. Jeffries Wyman (“‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,” vol. vi., p. 863), from the examination of a large number of fetal pigs, has shown that the above division of mammals into ‘‘placentals” and ‘‘implacentals” is not well defined; he found that in pigs there is, strictly speaking, no placenta, the maternal and fcetal vessels being in relation only by means of very minute diffused villi and slight foldings of the chorion; this condition is in- termediate between those of marsupials and ruminants, and shows such a gradual transi- tion in this respect that the former must be brought nearer than has been usually admitted to ordinary mammalia. Mammary glands ex- ist in both sexes, but serve for purposes of lactation only in the female; the number is generally in relation with the number of the young at a birth; there are 2 in monkeys, MAMMALIA the elephant, the goat, and the horse; 4 in the cow, the stag, and the lion; 8 in the cat; 10 in the hog, rabbit, and rat; and 12 or 14 in the agouti. The position also varies; in monkeys and bats they are on the chest, in most carnivora on the chest and abdomen, and in the ruminants far back between the pos- terior limbs; in marsupials they are concealed within the abdominal pouch. Some mammals are born with the eyes open, and are at once able to run in search of food; many, however, are born with the eyes closed and in a very weak condition; and a few, as the marsupials, leave the uterus in such an imperfect state that they would perish did not the parent place them in her pouch, where they complete their development, each suspended to a teat. In the monotremata (ornithorhynchus, &c.), which seem to form the connecting link between the mammals and birds, in addition to the horny bill, cloaca, and bird-like ovaries, there are the form, external covering, skeleton, and milk- secreting glands of the mammals.—As to phys- ical distribution, some mammals dwell entirely in the sea, as the cetaceans and most seals; some of the latter and the sirenoid pachyderms (manatee, &c.), live chiefly in fresh water; others, beavers, muskrats, the ornithorhyn- chus, &c., frequent rivers and lakes; but most live upon the land, some on mountains like the chamois and ibex, some on plains like the antelopes and bison, some on trees like the apes, squirrels, and sloths; others sail or fly in the air like the flying lemur and the bats, and others live under ground like the moles. For these different methods of progression and habits of life, the limbs are variously adapted by modifications of the same few osseous ele- ments, and the.study of fossil mammals de- velops the same order in past geological ages. The study of the geographical distribution of mammals shows that the number of genera and species increases from the poles to the equator, with the exception of the whales and seals, which are most numerous in the polar regions; within the northern arctic circle there are spe- cies common to both hemispheres, as the arc- tic fox, white bear, reindeer, and ermine; in temperate North America the species are dif- ferent from those of the eastern hemisphere, and in South America even the genera from those of the old world, as those including the peccary, llama, armadillo, ant-eater, sloth, cavy, agouti, vampire bat, marmoset, the howling and prehensile-tailed monkeys; the raccoon and muskrat are exclusively American; the hog, horse, camel, rhinoceros, elephant, lion, tiger, lemurs, and anthropoid apes belong now to the eastern world; the giraffe, hippopotamus, chimpanzee, and most of the antelopes, are African; all the marsupials (except the Ameri- can opossums) and the monotremata are Aus- tralian, while the stags, squirrels, cats, bears, dogs, and bats are absent from this region. The marsupials, though forming scarcely one fifteenth of the land mammals in the world, 527 VOL. x1.—6 79 constitute three fourths of the mammalian fauna of Australia; exclusive of cetaceans and seals, the rodents form one third of the entire number of species of the world, the bats and carnivora one third, the remaining third being chiefly the monkeys, ruminants, marsupials, and insectivora, according to Van der Hoeven; in Europe, wanting marsupials and monkeys, the rodents are one third, bats one sixth, and insectivora about one thirteenth; in North America the species of rodents form perhaps half the entire number of land mammals; the large pachyderms, edentates, and the apes be- long to the warm regions, most of the latter being African; the insectivora are almost pe- culiar to the northern hemisphere, and the le- murs are most common in the southern. Ex- cepting the whales and bats, mammals do not migrate, but spend the summer and winter in the same locality ; the whales pass the summer in the polar regions, and come southward in winter into the lower Atlantic. The phenom- ena of hibernation or winter-sleep in mammals have been described under the former title.— Mamma coey includes the classification of mam- malia. The mammalia were first separated from other four-footed animals by Aristotle, who called them zoétoca or viviparous animals; he divided them into three sections according to their locomotive organs: 1, dipoda, or bipeds; 2, tetrapoda, or quadrupeds; 3, apoda, impeds or whales. The quadrupeds, including all but man and the cetaceans, he subdivided into two great groups according to the modifications of the organs of touch, in the first of which the ends of the digits are left free for the sense of feeling, the nail being on the upper surface only, and in the second the feet ending in hoofs, corresponding respectively to the un- guiculata and ungulata of Ray. The unguicu- lates he divided by the teeth into three fami- lies: 1, those with cutting incisors and tritu- rating or flattened molars, like the apes (pithe- coida) and the bats (dermaptera); 2, those with canine or carnivorous teeth, carcharo- donta or gampsonucha ; 3, those correspond- ing to the rodents, with the negative character of the absence of canine teeth. The ungulate or hoofed quadrupeds he divided, according to the organs of motion, into: 1, polyschid@ or multungulates, like the elephant; 2, dischide or bisulcates, including the ruminants (mery- cizonta) and the hogs; and 38, aschida@, or so- lidungulates, like the horse. The apodal quad- rupeds included the cetaceans or cetoda. It thus appears that Aristotle clearly perceived the principles upon which mammals are classi- fied by the best modern naturalists.—This ar- rangement was not improved upon until John Ray published his Synopsis in 1693 in London, and his improvements relate to the four-foot- ed mammals. In his ungulate quadrupeds he places the solipedous (as the horse), the bisul- cate ruminants (like the ox and stag) or non- ruminants (as the hog), and the quadrisulcate (rhinoceros and hippopotamus); in the un- 80 guiculate the feet are either bifid (as in the camel), or multifid with digits adhering togeth- er (as in the elephant), with distinct depressed digits (as in apes), or compressed (as in car- nivora, insectivora, rodents, and edentates). —Linneus founded his primary divisions on the locomotive organs, deriving his orders from the modifications of the teeth; in his earlier editions of the Systema Natura, up to the 10th, he called the class guadrupedia, in- cluding the cetaceans among fishes ; in his 12th edition (1766) he makes seven orders, as fol- lows: A. Unguiculata: I., primates, with four front cutting teeth, including man, the mon- keys, and bats (4 genera); Il., ruta, with no front teeth in either jaw, including the ele- phant, walrus, and edentates (6 genera); II., fere, with front teeth, conical and long canines, including the carnivora, opossum, and insecti- vora (10 genera); IV., glires, with two front cutting teeth in each jaw, including the ro- dents (6 genera). B. Ungulata: V., pecora, with cutting front teeth in the lower jaw, but none in the upper, including the ruminants (6 genera); VI., belluw, with obtuse front teeth in both jaws, including the pachyderms gen- erally (4 genera). O. Mutica: VIL, cete, with horny or bony teeth, pectoral fins instead of feet, and horizontal flattened tail, including the cetaceans (4 genera). He thus made 40 genera in all. Linneeus followed Ray in placing the elephant among the wnguiculata, an error avoided by Aristotle. In 1798 Cuvier pub- lished his Tableau élémentaire des animaua, in which he laid down the basis of his classi- fication, which was variously modified until the second edition of his Régne animal in 1829; in that work he makes the nine fol- lowing orders of mammalia: bimana, qua- drumana, carnivora, marsupialia, rodentia, edentata, pachydermata, ruminantia, and ce- tacea. In his first edition the marsupials were ranked among carnivora, and in the Zubleau élémentaire there were three grand divisions: I., unguiculata, with the orders bimana, qua- drumana, cheiroptera, plantigrada, carnivo- ra, pedimana, rodentia, edentata, and tardi- grada ; Il., ungulata, with the orders pachy- dermata, ruminantia, and solipeda ; and IIL., mutica, with the orders amphibia and cetacea. —The systems-of Blumenbach, Illiger, and Desmarest differ little from that of Cuvier, ex- cept in the names of the orders and their sub- divisions. De Blainville (1822) makes in the type osteozoaria, or vertebrates, the sub-type vivipara and the class pilifera or mammifera, with the divisions monadelphya and didelphya. Temminck (1827) makes the 11 orders of man, monkeys, bats, carnivora, marsupials, rodents, edentates, pachyderms, ruminants, cetaceans, and monotremata. Fischer, in his Synopsis Mammatlium (1829), makes the nine orders of primates (man and monkeys), cheiroptera (bats), fere (carnivora), besti@ (insectivora and marsupials), glires (rodents), bruta (edentates and monotremata), bellue (pachyderms and MAMMALIA solipeds), pecora (ruminants), and cete (her- bivorous and ordinary cetaceans). — McLeay (1821), the founder of the quinary classifica- tion, makes five orders of mammals, which may be arranged in a tabular form as follows: Mammals. Characters, Birds. 1. Fere. Carnivorous. Raptores. 2. Primates. Omnivorous. Insessores. 8. Glires. Frugivorous. Rasores. 4. Ungulata. Frequenting the vicin- Gradiatores. ity of water. 5, Cetacea. Aquatic. Natatores. This shows the analogies between mammals and birds, in regard to food and _ habits, which were afterward modified by Swainson (1835) as follows: I., typical group, quadru- mana, organized for grasping, analogous to insessorial birds; IL, sub-typical, fe7@, with retractile claws and carnivorous, to the rap- tores ; III., aberrant group, including cetacea, eminently aquatic, with very short feet, to natatores ; glires, with lengthened and point- ed muzzle, to grallatores ; and wngulata, with crests on the head, to rasores.—Oken in 1802 divided animals into five classes according to the organs of sense; this view is elaborated in his *“‘ Physiophilosophy” (Ray society edi- tion, 1847); of these five classes the fifth and highest is the ophthalmozoa or mammalia, so called because in them the eyes are movable and covered with two perfect lids, the other sense organs having however suffered no deg- radation; he also calls them thricozoa or pi- lose animals on account of their hairy cover- ing, and esthetic or sensorial animals from the completion and combination of all the or- gans of sense. They belong to his province of sarcozoa or flesh animals. His divisions are as follows: A. Splanchno-thricozoa: or- der I., rodents; II., edentates and marsupials; III., insectivora and cheiroptera. B. Sarco- thricozoa: IV., ungulata, O. Atsthesio-thri- cozoa: V., unguiculata. Every family of the thricozoa contains five genera, in accordance with the five organs of sense; the human family or genus has also five varieties on the same principle: 1, the skin man, the black African; 2, the tongue man, the brown Aus- tralian and Malay; 3, the nose man, the red American; 4, the ear man, the yellow Mongo- lian; and 5, the eye man, the white Euro- pean.—Another philosophical system is that of Carus. The mammalia are made the sev- enth class of his third circle, the cephalozoa. He makes ten orders, as follows: 1, natantia, or herbivorous and carnivorous cetaceans, with evident relations with fishes; 2, reptantia, or monotremata and edentates, related to rep- tiles; 38, volitantia, bats and flying lemurs, related to birds; 4, mergentia, seals and wal- rus, a repetition of the first; 5, marsupialia, a repetition of the second; 6, glires or rodents, a repetition of the third; 7, pachydermata, a second repetition of the first; 8, ruminantia, a second repetition of the second, indicated by the fifth, which is half ruminant; 9, jerae, MAMMALIA a second repetition of the third; and 10, quadrumana, having relations with man.— Che fundamental idea of the classification of Fitzinger (1843) is the same as that of Oken, the class mammalia having five series, accord- ing to the development of the organs of sense, and each series three orders, viz. : Touon, TASTE. SMELL. Cetacea. Pachydermata. Edentata. it. Balanodea. 1. Phocina. 1. Monotremata, 2. Delphinodea. 2. Obesa. 2. Lipodonta. 8. Stirenia. 8. Ruminantia. 8. Tardigrada. HEARING. VISION. Onguiculata. Primates. 1. Glires. 1. Chiropteri. 2. Bruta. 2. Heméipithect. 8. Fere. 3. Anthropomorphi. —Of the embryological systems of classifica- tion may be mentioned those of Von Baer, Van Beneden, and Vogt. Von Baer (1828) proposed the following divisions of this class of his doubly symmetrical or vertebrate type, with osseous skeleton, lungs, an allantois, and an umbilical cord: the cord may disappear early, 1, without connection with the mother (monotremata), or 2, after a short connection with the mother (marsupialia); or the cord may be longer persistent, 1, the yolk sac con- tinuing to grow for a long time, the allantois growing little (rodentia), moderately (insec- tivora), or much (carnivora), or 2, the yolk sac increasing slightly, the allantois growing ‘ little and the umbilical cord very long (mon- keys and man), continuing to grow for a long time and the placenta in simple masses (ruminants), or growing for a long time and the placenta spreading (pachyderms and ceta- ceans). According to Vogt (1851), mammals may be arranged in two divisions: I., aplacen- taria, with the orders monotremata and mar- supialia ; and II., placentaria, with series 1, composed of the orders cetacea, pachyder- mata, solidungula, ruminantia, and edentata ; series 2, of the orders pinnipedia and carni- vora; and series 3, of the orders insectivora, volitantia, glires, gquadrumana, and bimana. Van Beneden (1855), in the class mammalia of his hypocotyledones or hypovitellians (ver- tebrates), in which the vitellus or yolk enters the body from the ventral side, establishes the ten orders primates, cheiroptera, msectiwora, rodentia, carnivora, edentata, proboscidea, un- gulata, sirenoidea, and cetacea. Prof. Baird (in vol. viii. of the ‘ Pacific Railroad Survey,” 1857) adopts the following arrangement: A, unguiculata, with the orders: 1, guadrumana ; 2, cheiroptera; 8, rapacia; 4, marsupialia ; 5, rodentia ; and 6, edentata ;—B, ungulata, with orders: 7, solidungula; 8, pachyder- mata; and 9, ruminantia ;—O, pinnata, with orders: 10, pinnipedia ; and 11, cetacea. All of these, except the first, are found in North America; the horse, though not now existing native, was formerly an inhabitant of this country. Agassiz, in his essay on classifi- sation (1857), makes mammals the eighth class 81 of vertebrates, with only the three orders of marsupialia, herbivora, and carnivora.—Owen (in the article ‘‘ Mammalia” in the ‘‘ Cyclope- dia of Anatomy and Physiology,” 1847) admits in the sub-class of placentalia the ten orders of bimana, guadrumana, cheiroptera, insecti- vora, carnivora, cetacea, pachydermata, rumi- nantia, edentata, and rodentia, and in the sub-class implacentalia the orders marsupialia and monotremata ; the monkeys by the galeo- pithecus are connected with the cheiroptera, and by the lemurs with the carnivora; the last by otaria are related to cetacea, which in turn have certain affinities with the fishes; the rodents are connected with ruminants by the musk deer; the monotremata lead to rep- tiles. —Before introducing the more recent classification of mammals by Prof. Owen, ac- cording to the cerebral system, the reader should be reminded that until the time of Cuvier the principal subdivisions were based upon the Aristotelian characters derived from the organs of locomotion, the secondary groups being established on the peculiarities of the dental system; Cuvier added others drawn from the osseous and generative systems; De Blainville in 1816 first adopted the division, according to the method of reproduction, into monodelphs, didelphs, and ornithodelphs, or or- dinary mammals, marsupials, and monotremes, retaining for the most part the Linnean or- ders. Classification by the placenta seems to have been first proposed by Sir Everard Home, but, as modified by successive naturalists, leads to many unnatural affinities; placing, for in- stance, rodents and insectivora with monkeys, and solipeds, pachyderms, and some ruminants with the carnivorous cetaceans. Prince Bona- parte, in his Systema Vertebratorum (1840), adopts the division of placentalia and impla- centalia, subdividing the first into the sub- classes of educabilia and ineducabilia, the lat- ter including the orders bruta, cheiroptera, in- sectivora, and rodentia, with the common char- acter of a single-lobed cerebrum; Prof. Owen regards this as the most important improve- ment since the establishment of the natural character of the ovo-viviparous or implacental division. In 1845 Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hi- laire raised the marsupials to the rank of a distinct class, making its subdivisions orders equivalent to those of the placentalia ; Owen, however, did not regard them as groups of equal rank and value. In 1849 Prof. Owen, from the consideration of the times of forma- tion and the succession of the teeth, divided mammals into two groups, monophyodonts, or those which generate a single set of teeth (as the monotremata, bruta, and cetacea), and the diphyodonts, or those which generate two sets of teeth (comprising the great bulk of the class); at the same time he wished it to be clearly understood that this dental character is not so associated with other organic charac- ters as to indicate natural or equivalent sub- classes. As early as 1842 he drew attention 82 to the value of the principal modifications of the mammalian brain in regard to their asso- ciation with concurrent modifications in other systems of organs; it was not till 1857, how- ever, that he felt himself justified in proposing to the Linnean society a fourfold division of this class, based upon the four leading modifi- cations of the cerebral structure. His first and lowest group or sub-class is called lyen- cephala, signifying the loose or disconnected state of the cerebral hemispheres, which leave exposed the olfactory ganglia, the cerebellum, and more or less of the optic lobes, have the surface generally smooth, and the anfractu- osities, when present, few and simple; in this division the absence of the corpus callosum commissure is associated with the marsupial mode of development and the non-develop- ment of the placenta; it includes the mono- tremes and marsupials. The next stage in the development of the brain is where the corpus callosum is present, but the hemispheres leave the olfactory lobes and cerebellum exposed, and are commonly smooth or with few and simple convolutions; these are the lissencepha- fa, or smooth-brained mammals, or rodents, insectivora, bats, and edentates, in many re- spects, in common with the preceding subdi- vision, resembling birds and reptiles. The third modification is an increased relative size MAMMALIA of the hemispheres, which extend over more or less of the cerebellum and olfactory lobes, and have their surface, except in a few of the lower quadrumana, folded into more or less numerous gyri or convolutions; hence this sub-class is called gyrencephala ; among these are not found marks of affinity with the ovi- para, but the highest mammalian perfection is attained, as shown by the size, strength, ac- tivity, sagacity, and docility of many of its members; this sub-class comprises the other orders of mammals, man only excepted. In man the hemispheres overlap the olfactory lobes and cerebellum, extending in advance of the former and further back than the latter; in man only is there what is called a third or posterior lobe, and in him the superficial gray matter attains its highest development through the number and depth of its convolutions; as representing a distinct sub-class of mammalia, and ruling naturally over all the other mem- bers of the class, he proposes for man the name of archencephala, signifying that he is master of the earth and of the lower creation. For details on the characters of the secondary groups and their distribution in time and space, the reader is referred to the original paper in the ‘Proceedings of the Linnwan Society” of London, vol. ii., pp. 1-87, 1857. His tabular arrangement is as follows: Class. Sub-class. Order. Family or genus. Example. (VAROHENCBPHALA crac sc sents se ccue ot oe es BIMAMNALS Pon sitet ne ETONO SE RATER, sete Man. CALaTiinil. sen Ape. ( QUADRUMANA........... SARE Aare Marmoset. - tEPSIThiNG .... 06. Lemur. Unguiculata..... Digitigrada........ Dog. CARNIVORA seen en ee Plantigrada....... Bear. . Pinmnigradd.....2.. Seal. OMNMVOTA.........- Hog. ARTIODAOUYI:A. eee ie } Runtaghiat ne Sh eep Solidungula........Horse. GYRENCEPHALA. Taster PERISSODACTYLA........ , Multungula ........ Tapir. Fei ee RR Proponeore $ Blepnde ieee ev sks« Elephant. cunaanes Are | Dinotherium,. ...... Extinct. ab TOXODONTIA........004: ; pe Ge, ie NT aa Pi MM ORGLUS 2 can ore tere Sea cow. MAMMALIA. Mutilata BIRENTA. +. .0.s + 00e sees LOUACOT tern aoe Dugong. ie ete es Cexicek | Delphinide.........Porpoise. CS" CS aaa Balenide.......... Whale, Bradypodide@...... Sloth. { Beuvs 2.0.7! a. eee Dasypodide@........ Armadillo, pe LO nierseta Ant-eater. CHEIROPTERA.,......ss0e8 ; So hhs lg aeeemnaey Roussette. LASSEN GHERATA ob) tro hcercaie, cas5 citi oe ange fo INSECTIVOBA.......000- Erinaceid@........ Hedgehog. Bee. sel ame Shrew. on-claviculata.... Hare. RODENTIA 7. -. ose eee ; Clavéculata <2... Rae. [ Rhizophaga......... ‘Wombat. MARSUPIALIA..........- POE DAGO ae cen nee Kangaroo. LYENCEPHALA........... Carpophaga........Phalanger. bp ase? GU Sage } Entomophaga.......Opossum, | MonoTREMATA.......... ; WCRIGNG Vos anancee Echidna. Ornithorhynchus....Duck-bill. The later classification of Huxley does not dif- fer materially in its orders from that of Owen. —Among the many recent American labor- ers in the department of mammalian classifica- tion may be mentioned Prof. Theodore Gill of Washington, D. C., whose articles on this subject, too long to be condensed here, will be found in the “ Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science” for 1870 and 1871.—The fossil mammals must be considered before the student can form an idea of the affinities of the class; these and the orders of existing mammalia will be treated under their respective titles. The mammalian class has existed certainly from the lower odlitic period, and probably from the triassic; during MAMMARY GLANDS this immense lapse of time genera and species have changed, either that they have been newly created at the several epochs, or, as Darwin and others maintain, have been modified by pro- cesses of natural selection and development, many original and intermediate forms having become extinct, and, from the imperfection of the geological record, as yet having afforded no indication of their existence. None of the mammalian genera of the secondary epoch have been found in the tertiary ones; no genus of the older eocene has been discovered in the newer; very few eocene genera have been found in the miocene, and none in the pliocene;. many of the miocene genera are peculiar to that division, and some indistinguishable from existing species begin to appear only in the newer pliocene; while the perissodactyls and omnivorous artiodactyls have been gradually dying out, the true ruminants have been in- creasing in genera and species. One class of organs seems to govern one order, and another class another order; for example, the teeth, which are so diversified in marsupials and edentates, are remarkable for the constancy of their characters in rodents and insectivora; and as a general rule, the characters from the dental, locomotive, and placental systems are more closely correlated in the gyrencephala than in the two inferior sub-classes. MAMMARY GLANDS, the organs which secrete the nutritive fluid, milk, by which the young of man and the mammalia are nourished during the early periods of life. They vary from two in the human female to 10 or 12 in the lower mammals, and may be pectoral as in the former, or pectoral and abdominal, or only abdominal, as in the latter. Each gland is made up of a number of separate lobules, more or less closely connected by fibrous tissue and fat, and bound down by the same to the pectoral or abdominal muscles. The lactifer- ous tubes arising from the minute ultimate follicles of the lobules terminate in the mam- millary tubes of the nipple, 10 or 12 in the hu- man female, straight but of variable size; at the base of the nipple, and extending into the gland, are reservoirs for containing a constant supply during lactation; these are often much larger in the lower animals than in woman. The skin covering them is very delicate and smooth; the colored circle around the nipple is called the areola, which becomes darker during and after gestation; the irregular surface of the nipple is covered with a very sensitive skin, and much erectile tissue enters into its sub- stance. The tubes are lined with a very vascu- lar mucous membrane, which has its own secretion sometimes in considerable quantity. These glands, especially during lactation, are well supplied with blood from branches of the subclavian and axillary arteries; their nerves come from the brachial plexus and the inter- costals, and the sympathetic plexus accompa- nying the mammary arteries. The inner sur- face of the follicles is covered with a layer of MAMMEE APPLE 83 epithelium cells, the real agents in the secreting process. They present no great difference in size in the sexes until near the age of puberty, when a considerable enlargement takes place in the female; from the increased supply of blood during gestation, there is a sense of ten- derness and distention which is one of the earliest and most valuable signs of pregnancy. These glands in the male are miniatures of those of the female, but the essential structure is the same, as is shown by the authentic cases in which they have become sufficiently devel- oped in men to produce a secretion of true milk. Though the functional activity of these glands is naturally limited to the period succeeding parturition, their secretion is sometimes seen in virgins and in aged women, in whom a strong desire to furnish milk and a continual irritation of the nipple by the infant’s mouth have stimulated the organs to unnatural ac- tivity. The prolonged secretion of milk in domestic cows, which usually lasts for about ten months after calving, is simply a continued action of these glands due to artificial treat- ment. The presence of these organs has given the name to the mammalia, the highest class of vertebrated animals, implying a mode of intra-uterine and extra-uterine development not found in birds, reptiles, or fishes. Physio- logically these glands belong to the generative system, and are gradually removed from the caudal to the pectoral region, as we ascend from cetaceans to the human female; the for- ward, outward, and upward direction of the nipples is exactly adapted to the position of the child lying in its mother’s arms, and the greater abundance of the lactiferous tubes at the lower portion of the breast forms a soft cushion for its head to rest upon. In the African and sometimes in other races, after lac- tation, the skin covering the breasts becomes so lax, and the organs so elongated, that they can be thrown over the shoulders like bags. The mammary glands are subject to many painful and dangerous diseases, among which may be mentioned acute and chronic inflam- mations, abscesses, and encysted, fibrous, and cancerous tumors; they are sometimes enor- mously overloaded with fat. MAMMEE APPLE (mammea Americana), a handsome tree of 60 ft. in height, native of the Caribbean islands and the neighboring conti- nent. It has large, oval or obovate, shining, leathery, opposite leaves, white, sweet-scented flowers, and large, round, obsoletely three- or four-cornered fruit, which sometimes grows to the size of a child’s head. The fruit is cov- ered with a double rind; the outer is leathery, tough, and brownish yellow; the inner, thin, yellow, closely adhering to the flesh, which is firm, bright yellow, and of a singular pleasant taste and a sweet aromatic smell; but the skin and seeds are very bitter and resinous. The pulp is eaten alone, or cut up into slices with wine and sugar, prepared as a jam or marma- lade, or with sirup. From the yellowness of 84 the pulp, like that of an apricot, it is called by the French abricot sauvage. This fruit is oc- casionally brought to our seaport cities, but rarely in an eatable condition. The seeds, hay ) My Mammee Apple. which are sometimes as large as hen’s eggs, are used as anthelmintics, and an aromatic liquor called eau de créole is distilled from the flow- ers. The tree belongs to the natural order of guttifere. Browne (‘‘ Natural History of Ja- maica,” London, 1756) speaks of the species as among the largest trees of Jamaica, and esteemed among the best timber trees. It has been observed that no one can behold this tree towering above a cluster of fruit trees without a sentiment of respect for it. The mammee tree has become naturalized in some parts of Africa, where it produces excellent fruit. Two or three other species, natives of tropical Asia, are known to botanists. MAMMOTH, the fossil elephant of Siberia (elephas primigenius, Blumenbach), found in Mammoth (Elephas primigenius), the diluvial strata of Europe and Asia, and perhaps also in North America. Large fossil bones were alluded to by Theophrastus, Pliny, and many ancient authors, and were general- MAMMOTII ly supposed to be the remains of giant men. They are abundant in the drift of central and northern Europe, mingled with the bones of other pachyderms, principally in river basins; in Great Britain, in the Kirkdale cavern of Yorkshire; in Sweden and Norway; but most abundantly in the frozen region of European and Asiatic Russia, about the mouths of riv- ers descending into the icy sea; there is in- deed hardly a river in Siberia in whose bed or on whose banks these remains have not been found, as well as in the neighboring plains, in connection with bones of other animals now strangers to the climate; they are not found in the elevated districts. In Siberia fossil ivory is so abundant and so well preserved that it gives rise to a considerable traffic both for home and foreign use. The most remarkable discovery in relation to the mammoth was the occurrence of a carcass found by a Tungus fisherman in a block of ice on the border of the Arctic sea in 1799, near the river Lena; in the course of Skeleton of Mammoth. a few years this immense mass was thawed out, and it was found to bean elephant having the flesh and soft parts well preserved, with the exception of such portions as had been de- voured by bears, dogs, and. other carnivorous animals; the tusks were very fine, weighing 300 Ibs., and were removed by the fisherman. In 1806 Mr. Adams, travelling for the museum of St. Petersburg, visited the locality and collected the remains, which were transported to St. Petersburg, where this skeleton now is, with many others, in a nearly perfect condi- tion; he ascertained that the skin had an abun- dant covering of hair and wool, indicating that it was fitted to resist a cold climate. It is evi- dent that the climate of Siberia during the di- luvial period was not like that of the regions now inhabited by elephants; it must have been moderately cold, though such as would permit the growth of a vegetation more luxuriant than any in the present arctic regions, and sufficient for the nourishment of these bulky animals. Another more recently discovered specimen allowed even a microscopic examination of the tissues. The following are the differences be- MAMMOTH tween the fossil and living elephants, as deter- mined by Cuvier. In the former the laminz of the teeth are narrower and more numerous than in the Indian elephant, which they most resemble, with the lines of enamel more slen- der and less festooned, and the teeth absolutely and relatively wider. The tusks are larger than in most living specimens, and generally more curved, but the structure is the same. In the skull, there is much greater length and perpendicular- ity in the sockets for the tusks; the head is more elongated, with a greater development of occiput, and concave and nearly vertical forehead; the long alveoli must have modified the trunk, and have given the animal a different physi- ognomy from that of the pres- ent elephant; the antero-posterior length of the lower jaw is less, the lower molars are parallel instead of converging forward, and the jaw is truncated in front instead of having a projecting grooved symphysis. The bones of the limbs are more massive, and the usual distance between the two condyles of the femur is reduced to a narrow line. The skin is like that of the living elephant, but is cov- ered with hair of three kinds; the longest, 12 or 15 in., is brown and like horse hair; the shorter, 9 or 10 in., is more delicate and fawn- colored; and the wool at the base of the hair, 4 or 5 in. long, is fine, smooth, fawn-colored, and a little frizzled toward the roots; there is a mane on the neck, and the whole covering is well suited for a cold climate. The mam- moth has never been found living, nor have any of the existing elephants been discovered in the fossil state; it was probably not much if at all higher than the elephants of the pres- ent epoch, but was stouter, more clumsy, and heavier. Their bones are found mingled with those of the rhinoceros, ox, antelope, horse, often with marine animals, and sometimes with fresh-water shells. They were undoubtedly overwhelmed by a comparatively recent and sudden catastrophe during some portion of the long drift period, accompanied by a depression of temperature, and probably by a subsidence of the land and an invasion of the sea, general over the northern regions of both hemispheres; during the preceding tertiary epoch there was an elevation of temperature, permitting tropi- cal animals to go far to the north; this tem- perature gradually became colder, the animals becoming adapted for it, as shown by their external covering, until they suddenly became extinct during the glacial period of the drift. From the abundance of the remains found in Siberia, it is inferred that elephants were more numerous during the diluvian epoch than at the present time. To the /. primigenius be- long the Siberian fossils, and most, if not all, of those of the drift of Europe.—Several spe- cies of fossil elephant have been found in Tooth of Mammoth. MAMMOTH CAVE 85 North America, referred by some to the Z, primigenius. Prof. H. D. Rogers (‘ Proceed- ings of the Boston Society of Natural His- tory,” vol. v., Feb. 1, 1854) drew attention to the fact that while the European mammoth is found in the drift stratum, the North Ameri- can fossil elephant is imbedded in strata above the drift, of a distinctly more recent age, and was a contemporary of the mastodon giganteus, their bones being found together in the marshy alluvium of Big Bone Lick; he maintains that they lived together in the long period of sur- face tranquillity which succeeded the strewing of the general drift (the period of the Lauren- tian clays), and were overtaken and extermi- nated together by the same changes, partly of climate, partly of a second but more local dis- placement of the waters which reshifted the drift, and formed the later lake and river ter- races. From figures on bones, it is beyond doubt that the mammoth lived with man in the early stone age. In the pliocene deposits of Kansas and Nebraska Dr. Hayden found bones of mastodon and elephant (2. impera- tor, Leidy), and a similar coexistence has been ~ ascertained in the pliocene of Europe; the re- mains of this and #. Americanus have been found in Kentucky, Texas, Mexico, Spanish America, from Alaska to Georgia and the Mis- sissippi valley, and as far west as Oregon and California. The elephants of the tertiary sub- Himalayan Sivalik hills have been described by Cautley and Falconer; in these the dental laming are so separated that each forms the summit of a ridge, making a transition from elephant to mastodon, constituting the genus stecodon (Cautley and Falconer). The mam- moths of the American continent are now ad- mitted to be different species from those of Europe and Asia.—For details on the mam- moth, see Cuvier’s articles in vol. viii. of the Annales du Muséum, and in vol. i. of the Osse- mens fossiles ; Pictet’s Traité de paléontologie, vol. i.; vol. v. of the ‘‘ Naturalist’s Library,” which treats of the pachyderms; and vols. ii. and iv. of the ‘“‘ American Naturalist.” MAMMOTH CAVE, the largest cavern known, situated in Edmondson co., near Green river, in Kentucky, about 75 m. 8. 8. W. of Louisville. Its mouth is reached by passing down a wild rocky ravine through a dense forest; it is an irregular, funnel-shaped opening, from 50 to 100 ft. in diameter at the top, with steep walls about 50 ft. high. The cave extends about nine miles, and it is said that to visit the por- tions already traversed requires from 150 to 200 miles of travel. This vast interior contains a succession of marvellous avenues, chambers, domes, abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts, &c., which for size and wonderful appearance are unsurpassed. The rocks present numer- ous forms and shapes of objects in the exter- nal world, while stalagmites and stalactites of gigantic size and fantastic form abound, though not.so brilliant and beautiful as are found in some other caves. Chief among the objects of 86 MAMMOTH CAVE interest are Silliman’s avenue, about 14 m. long, from 20 to 200 ft. wide, and from 20 to 40 ft. high; Marion’s avenue, of about the same dimensions; the Star chamber, about 500 ft. long and 70 ft. wide, the ceiling of which, 70 ft. high, is composed of black gypsum, and is studded with innumerable white points, which by a dim light present a most striking resem- blance to stars; and Cleveland’s cabinet, an avenue about 2 m. long, spanned by an arch of 50 ft., with an average central height of 10 ft. By many the last is regarded as the most won- derful object in the cave. “It is incrusted from end to end with the most beautiful for- mations in every variety of form. The base of the whole is sulphate of lime, in one part of dazzling whiteness and perfectly smooth, and in other places crystallized so as to glitter like diamonds in the light. Growing from this, in endless diversified forms, is a substance re- sembling selenite, translucent and imperfectly laminated. Some of the crystals bear a stri- king resemblance to celery, and all are of about the same length; while others, a foot or more in length, have the color and appearance of vanilla cream candy; others are set in sulphate of lime, in the form of a rose; and others still roll out from the base in forms resembling the ornaments on the capital of a Corinthian col- umn. Some of the incrustations are massive and splendid; others are as delicate as the lily, or as fancy work of shell or wood.” Proctor’s arcade is a magnificent natural tunnel three fourths of a mile long and 100 ft. wide, cov- ered by a ceiling of smooth rock, 45 ft. high. The Temple or Chief City is a chamber having an area of between four and five acres, and covered by a single dome of solid rock 120 ft. high. Lucy’s dome, the highest of the objects of this class, is over 300 ft. high and about 60 ft. in its greatest diameter. Mam- moth dome and Stella’s dome are each about 250 ft. high, while Gorin’s dome is about 200 ft. Sidesaddle pit, over which rests a dome 60 ft. high, is about 90 ft. deep and 20 ft. across. This and some of the other pits and domes in the cave have been formed out of the solid rock by the solvent action of water charged with carbonic acid. The deepest of the pits are the Maelstrom, 175 ft. in depth and 20 in diameter, and the Bottomless pit, of about the same depth. There are several bodies of water in the cave, the most con- siderable being Echo river, which is about three fourths of a mile long, 200 ft. wide at some points, and from 10 to 30 ft. deep; its course is beneath an arched ceiling of smooth rock about 15 ft. high. This river has invisi- ble communication with Green river, the depth of water and the direction of the current in the former being regulated by the stage of water in the latter. The river Styx, 450 ft. long, 15 to 40 wide, and from 80 to 40 deep, is spanned by an interesting natural bridge about 30 ft. above it. Lake Lethe is about 450 ft. Jong and from 10 to 40 wide, and varies in MAN depth from 8 to 30 ft.; it lies beneath a ceil- ing about 90 ft. above its surface; its waters sometimes rise to the height of 60 ft., in consequence of freshets in Green river. The Dead sea is a gloomy body of water somewhat smaller than the preceding. Two remarkable species of animal life are found in the cave, in the form of an eyeless fish and an eyeless crawfish, which are nearly white in color. Another species of fish has been found with eyes, but totally blind. Other animals known to exist in the cave are lizards, frogs, crickets, rats, bats, &c., besides ordinary fish and craw- fish washed in from Green river. The atmos- phere of the cave is pure and healthful; the temperature, which averages 59°, is about the same in winter and summer, not being affected by climatic changes without.—The Mammoth cave was discovered in 1809, and has always been the property of private individuals. For some time after its discovery saltpetre was made here. In this vicinity are also Proctor’s cave, about 38 m. in length; White’s cave, Diamond cave, and Indian cave, each about a mile long. Several accounts of this wonderful curiosity have been published, the most recent and complete being ‘“‘ The Mammoth Cave,” by W. Stump Forwood (Philadelphia, 1870). MAN. See Anatomy, AroHZoLoay, Com- PARATIVE ANATOMY, ErHnoLocy, MamMaAtta, PuitosopHy, and PHystonoey. MAN, Isle of (Manx, Mannin, or Ellan Van- nin; Lat. Monapia), an island belonging to Great Britain, in the Irish sea, about mid- way between England, Scotland, and Ireland, its centre lying in lat. 54° 16’ N., lon. 4° 80! W.; length N.iN: HE.’ and 8: 8. Wii 8iame greatest breadth 12 m.; ‘area, 227 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 54,042. The coasts are very irregular, and on the east and southwest are precipitous. There are numerous bays with good anchorage. A ridge of mountains trav- erses the length of the island, culminating in Mt. Snaefell at an elevation of 2,024 ft. above the sea. Its prevailing geological formation is clay slate, varied on the E. side with large masses of granite. The principal rivers are the Neb, Colby, and Black and Gray Waters, all of which are very smal]. The climate is mild and equable, the mean temperature of summer being about 60° F. and of winter 42°. The chief mineral resources of the island con- sist of lead, zinc, copper, and iron; lead is ex- tensively mined. The soil is fruitful, but agri- culture is not in a very forward state. Oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and hay are the principal crops. A native breed of small sturdy horses, an inferior kind of sheep, horned cattle, and pigs in great number, are among the domestic animals. The island pos- sesses a breed of cats having either no tail, or at most a merely rudimental substitute for it. Sea birds and some. rare kinds of fish are also found. The fisheries of herring were formerly the principal reliance of the islanders, but of late have become inconsiderable. There are MANAGUA some bleaching works, but few manufacturing establishments. The government is vested in the queen in council, the governor, and the ‘“‘house of keys,” a self-perpetuating body, consisting of 24 landed proprietors, who are considered the representatives of the people, and whose concurrence is necessary to give validity to every law; the acts of the British parliament do not affect the isle of Man unless expressly extended to it. The governor is ap- pointed by the crown and assisted by a coun- cil of officers. Besides the ordinary civil and ecclesiastical courts, there are ancient tribu- nals called ‘‘deemsters’ courts,” the judges of which, called deemsters, are chosen by the people, one for the N. and another for the S. division of the island, and possess very exten- sive authority. Questions relating to the her- ring fishery are tried before an officer called the water bailiff, who also appoints two fisher- men called admirals to preserve order among their fellows. The established religion is that of the church of England, under the bishop of Sodor and Man, who has a seat but no vote in the British house of lords.—The island was originally peopled by the Manx, a Celtic tribe, whose language, a sub-dialect of the Gaelic or Celtic, forming one branch with the Erse and Irish, is still spoken in the northwest and west, though English is generally understood. The island was held for some time as a feu- dal sovereignty by the earls of Derby, and af- terward by the dukes of Athol, from whom the sovereignty and revenues were purchased by the crown in 1765 for the sum of £70,000, to which an annuity of £2,000 was subse- quently added. In 1829 the ducal family’s remaining interests in the island, including the manorial rights and patronage of the see, were sold to the crown for £416,114. The chief towns are Castletown (the capital), Peel, Douglas, and Ramsay. MANAGUA, a city and the capital of Nicaragua, and of the department of Granada, situated on the S. shore of the lake of the same name, 220 ft. above the level of the Pacific, in lat. 12° 7’ N., lon. 86° 12’ W.; pop. about 6,500, for the most part proprietors of the fertile lands which surround it, and which are productive in all tropical staples. The public buildings are few and devoid of beauty. The old parish church, which was in a state of ruin, has been demolished, and a new edifice is in process of construction ; and there are four other churches. The national palace is a low square edifice with balconies in the Spanish style, the only ornate portions of which are the congress halls and those occupied by the president of the repub- lic. A new structure beside the palace con- tains the cabildo or city hall, a prison, and barracks. The environs of Managua are very picturesque; on the declivities of the moun- tain range to the south there are more than 100 coffee plantations, yielding copious crops, despite the lack of water for irrigation in some of them; and in another direction are the MANAKIN 87 lakes of Tiscapa, Nejapa, and Asososca, near the banks of which last exist curious antique paintings. Managua owes its rank as capital chiefly to the rivalries of the cities of Granada and Leon, and partly to its central position. MANAGUA, Lake, a beautiful body of water in Nicaragua, about 40 m. long by 16 m. wide, 157 ft. above the Pacific ocean, from which it is separated by a ridge of land 15 m. broad in its narrowest part. It has a depth of water varying from 2 to 40 fathoms; but numerous moving sand banks render its navigation diffi- cult for large vessels. The N. and E. banks are unhealthy marshy deserts; the W. shores are sandy, interspersed with bold rocks; and there are several ports, that of Managua being the best, and the point designated for the in- land terminus of the projected railway from the lake to the port of Corinto via Leon. It has an outlet at its S. extremity called Rio Tipitapa or Estero de Panaloya, connecting it with Lake Nicaragua. The difference of level between the two lakes, at average stages of water, is 28 ft. The Rio Tipitapa, during se- vere rainy seasons, has a considerable body of water; but it is frequently almost dry, the evaporation from the surface of the lake ex- ceeding the supply of water from its tributa- ries, which are all intermittent streams, ex- cept Sinogapa and Rio Viejo. In the various projects for an interoceanic communication through Nicaragua, it has been proposed to connect the two lakes by means of a canal, deepening the Tipitapa and constructing a se- ries of locks to the superior lake, with another canal from the lake to the port of Realejo, or by means of the Estero Real to the bay of Fonseca. Between the N. portion of the lake and the Pacific there is only the magnificent plain of Leon, having an elevation at its high- est part of about 50 ft. above the level of water in the lake. The volcano of Momo- tombo projects boldly into the lake at its N. extremity, and within the lake itself rises the island cone of Momotombita, which had a sa- cred repute among the aborigines, and still contains numbers of their idols and other monuments, concealed beneath the shadows of its dense forests. The city of Leon was first built on the shore of the N. W. extremity of the lake, at a place called Imbita, abandoned for the present site in 1610. MANAKIN, the name applied to the denti- rostral birds of the family ampelide@ or chat- terers and subfamily piprinew ; they are gen- erally small and of brilliant colors, and with one exception inhabitants of the warmer parts of South America. They have a moderate or short bill, depressed, with broad base, curved ridge, compressed sides, and toothed tip; the nostrils are hidden by the frontal feathers; the wings generally short and pointed; tail short and even; tarsi moderate and slender; toes long, the outer united to the middle to beyond the second joint; claws acute. The red manakin or chatterer (phaenicercus carnifex, Swains.) is 88 MANAKIN about 7 in. long; the crest, lower back, rump, lower belly, thighs, and vent, bright crimson ; rest of plumage dull red, dusky on the back; tail crimson, with end and outer web dusky brown; the female is of a general greenish olive color, with tinges of red on the head, ab- domen, and tail; the young birds are brown- ish with whitish markings. This and the P. nigricollis (Swains.) inhabit the eastern parts of tropical South America.—The blue-backed manakin (pipra pareola, Linn.) is 44 in. long; the plumage is black, with the back and lesser wing coverts blue, and a crest of bright crim- son feathers; the female and young are green- ish, There are more than 30 other species. These beautiful and active birds inhabit damp woods, on the borders of which they live in small flocks, seeking for insects and fruits.— The rock manakins belong to the genus rupi- cola (Briss.), of which the best known species Orange Manakin (Rupicola crocea). is the orange manakin or cock of the rock (R. erocea, Bonn.); the plumage is saffron orange, with the quills partly white and partly brown, and the wing coverts loose and fringed; it has a singular crest of feathers arranged in two planes, arising from the sides of the head and MANATEE meeting over and in front of the bill; the size is that of a small pigeon. This handsome spe- cies inhabits rocky places near the horders of the streams in Guiana, andits legs and feet are nearly as stout as in a gallinaceous bird of the same size, whence its common name; it is ac; tive and suspicious, feeding on fruits and ber- ries; the nest is placed in holes in the rocks, composed of roots, grass, and earth, lined with finer materials; it lays two white eggs, about the size of those of a pigeon; it is now com- paratively rare, as it is ‘hunted for the beauty of its plumage. There is a species in Peru (2. Peruviana, Lath.), of a reddish saffron color, with black quills and tail, and ashy wing cov- erts; it is a little larger than the other.—The only old-world representative of this subfam- ‘ily belongs to the genus calyptomena (Rafiles), found in the thick forests of Java and Suma- tra; the plumage is shining green, with a spot on each side of the nape, three oblique stripes on the wings, and the quills, except the out- er margins, dark-colored. The only species described by Gray is the green manakin (C. viridis, Rafil.), about 6 in. long; the color so nearly resembles the foliage of the high trees upon which it generally perches, that it is very difficult to see and to procure; its food is en- tirely vegetable. MANASSAS JUNCTION, Battle of. See Butt Run. MANASSEH. I. The elder son of Joseph, son of Jacob, adopted by the latter on his death- bed to become the head of one of the tribes of Israel, yet made inferior to his younger brother Ephraim. At the time of the census at Sinai the tribe of Manasseh numbered 32,- 200, and 40 years later 52,700. On the con- quest of Palestine, half of the tribe received from Moses its allotment E. of the Jordan, N. of Gad, and the other half received from Joshua the region W. of the Jordan, between Issachar on the north and Ephraim on the south, the Mediterranean forming the western boundary. The eastern division contained among others the districts of Itureea, Tracho- nitis, Gaulonitis, Bataneea, and part of Gilead- itis, and the towns of Gadara, Ashtaroth, Edrei, Gamala, Jabesh-Gilead, Mahanaim, and Gerasa. The western division was less impor- tant in history, it being almost always over- shadowed by its southern neighbor, Ephraim. ii. A king of Judah, 696-641 B. C. See He- BREWS, VOl. viii, p. 589. MANATEE, Lamantin, or Sea Cow, a large aquat- ic mammal (manatus, Cuv.), which was ar- ranged by Cuvier among cetaceans, forming with the dugong the herbivorous group of this order, the family sirenia of Illiger. Re- cently, on account of the many important dif- ferences in their organization, they have been removed from cetaceans and placed in an or- der called sirenoids, intermediate between the old order of pachyderms and the cetaceans. The manatee has an elongated, fish-like body like that of the whales, the anterior limbs be- MANATEE ing flattened into fins, and the posterior limbs wanting and only represented by a rudimen- tary pelvis; the tail is oval, about one fourth of the extent of the body, ending in a flatten- ed, horizontal, rounded caudal expansion; in these respects it resembles cetaceans. It dif- fers from cetaceans in the separation of the cervical vertebree; the smaller total number in the whole column, and the absence of osseous disks between the bodies; the articulation of the ribs to two vertebral bodies and to trans- verse processes; the long and narrow scapula; the regularly shaped humerus; the rounded radius and ulna; the compact structure of the phalangeal bones ; the wide separation of the occipital condyles, and their partly horizontal position, and the large size of the occipital foramen; the well marked and strong su- tures, and the absence of internal bony falces ; the fusion of the parietals into one; the posi- tion of the frontals as usual in front of the parietals; the strong zygomatic arches; the Manatee (Manatus latirostris). symmetry of the cranial bones and their usual position ; the shape of the jaws, and the char- acter of the molars; and the structure of the stomach and heart. Many other distinctions are given in the ‘‘ Proceedings” of the third meeting of the American association for the advancement of science, Charleston, §. C., 1850 (pp. 42-47). The head is conical, without a distinct line of separation from the body; the fleshy nose much resembles that of a cow, the nostrils opening as usual on the end of the snout; the full upper lip has on each side a few bristly tufts of hair; the mouth is not large, and the eyes are small; the openings of the ears are very small. The swimming paws are more free in their motions than in cetaceans, and may be used also for crawling up the muddy banks of the rivers in which they dwell; the separate bones may be felt through the skin, and the fingers are provided with small nails. The skin is of a grayish black color, becoming black on drying, with a few scattered bristles. In the young animal 89 there are two sharp incisor teeth in the up- per jaw, which afterward fall out; there are no canines; the molars are generally 8-8, with quadrangular flat crowns, divided by a transverse groove. The bones are dense. and heavy, differing in this from cetaceans; the ribs are numerous and rounded; the mamma are two and pectoral; the intestinal canal is 10 or 12 times the length of the body, in ac- cordance with the vegetable character of their food; the stomach has two cecal appendages in the pyloric portion, which is separated from the cardiac by a constriction. They inhabit the sea shores, especially about the mouths of rivers, and the rivers themselves, keeping near the land, feeding upon alge and aquatic plants; they do not feed upon the shores, though they sometimes quit the water, and not unfrequently support themselves in the shallows in a semi-erect position; under these circum- stances they present at a distance somewhat of human appearance, increased by the dis- tinct lips, the long whiskers in the male, and the pectoral mamme in the female. The largest and best known species is the Florida manatee (I. latirostris, Harlan), which inhab- its the gulf of Mexico and the West Indies; it sometimes attains a length of 15 or 20 ft., but is generally about 12. They are usually seen in small troops, associating for mutual protection and for the defence of their young; they are harmless even when attacked, of gen- tle disposition, not afraid of man, and rarely quarrelling with each other. Being found only in shallow waters, they are easily cap- tured. Their flesh is wholesome and palatable. The South American manatee (/. australis, Wiegm.), usually 9 or 10 ft. long, is not un- common about the mouths of the great riv- ers of northern Brazil and Guiana; it ascends the streams several hundred miles, and even into inland fresh-water lakes; the flesh of this aquatic mammal is considered fish by the Ro- man Catholic church in Brazil, and may conse- quently be eaten on fast days; salted and dried © in the sun, it is an excellent meat; the oil from the blubber is of fine quality, and free from smell; the hide is made into harnesses and whips, and is noted for strength and dura- bility. An African species (M. Senegalensis, Desm.) is rarely more than 9 ft. long. The manatees are all tropical, but are not found in the Pacific or Indian oceans, their place being there taken by the allied dugongs (halicore, Illi- ger).—There was among the Russians an animal called the northern manatee or sea cow; this is the creature described by Steller, forming the genus rhytina (Ill.) or Stellera (Cuv.). This, the R. Stelleri (Desm.), was unknown before 1741, when Behring’s second expedition was wrecked on an island in the straits bearing his name; its flesh formed the principal food of the shipwrecked mariners for nearly a year; one of the party, Steller, described the ani- mal, and his account was published in St. Pe- tersburg, and probably contains all that will 90 MANATEE ever be known concerning it, as in 1768 the crews of the ships in pursuit of sea otters had entirely exterminated it; it has met the fate of the dodo, but at a much more recent pe- riod; askull and a few fragments are said to exist in European museums. It had no teeth, the jaws being covered with an undulating surface of horny tubular matter; the head was small, the body covered with a thick, fibrous, fissured epidermis, and the caudal fin lunate. It attained a length of 25 ft., and formerly lived in the neighborhood of Behring island on the coast of Kamtchatka. The epidermis had a singular structure, being composed of perpen- dicular horny tubes, sometimes an inch in length, of a blackish brown color, rough and wrinkled like the bark of a tree, and so tough as to be with difficulty cut with an axe; it served to protect the animal from the ice and sharp rocks among which it fed. They lived in shallow water in troops, the older protect- ing the younger; they were harmless and very tame, and strongly attached to each other; they fed on fuci under water, and the skin, fat, and flesh were esteemed by the natives. MANATEE, a S. W. county of Florida, bor- dering on the gulf of Mexico, touching Lake Okeechobee at the S. E. corner, bounded S. by the Caloosahatchee river, and watered by the Manatee river, Pease creek, and other streams; area, 4,070 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,931, of whom 88 were colored. Along the coast are numerous low sandy islands, Sara- sota bay, and Charlotte harbor. .The main- land is low and level. The chief productions in 1870 were 12,727 bushels of Indian corn, 21,652 of sweet potatoes, 29 bales of cotton, 41 hogsheads of sugar, and 71,452 lbs. of rice. There were 830 horses, 44,970 cattle, and 5,197 swine. Capital, Manatee, or Pine Level. MANAYUNK. See PainapeLpata.. MANBY, Charles. See supplement. MANBY, George William, an English officer, born at Hilgay, Norfolk county, Nov. 28, 1765, died at Southtown, Nov. 18, 1854. He was educated at the military college of Woolwich, and became in 1803 barrack master at Great Yarmouth. Here he attempted casting a rope from the shore to a wreck by means of gun- powder. The problem to be solved was the maintenance of the connection between the rope and the mortar during its transmission. Chains were unable to stand the shock of the discharge, but stout strips of raw hide closely platted together were found to answer; and on Feb. 12, 1808, the entire crew of the brig Elizabeth, wrecked within 150 yards of the beach, were rescued by this simple contrivance.* In 1810 his invention was brought before a committee of the house of commons, and he received a grant of money, and all the dan- gerous stations on the British coasts were sup- plied with his apparatus. He also contrived a pyrotechnic which renders vessels visible from shore on the darkest night; and shells filled with luminous matter, to enable the crew to MANCHESTER perceive the approach of the rope. He pub- lished ‘‘The History and Antiquities of the Parish of St. David, South Wales” (1801), and kindred works; also “Journal of a Voyage to Greenland in 1821” (1822). MANCHA, La, an old province of Spain, chiefly in the S. part of New Castile, now included in the central and eastern portions of Ciudad Real, and the adjoining parts of Cuenca and Albacete; area, about 7,000 sq. m.; pop. about 200,000. The N. W. and 8. E. poftions are mountainous, and the centre in general a deso- late sandy plateau. The towns are few and uninteresting; the cottages in the villages are built of mud. Most of the country is denuded of trees, exposed to the wintry blasts, and scorched by the summer heat. The earth is -arid and stony; the dust is impregnated with saltpetre, and the glare of the sun almost blinds the eye. Water is wanting, and dry dung is used for fuel. In some places, however, corn, saffron, and wines are produced; and the mules of La Mancha are celebrated. The natives are jovial, honest, industrious, brave, and temper- ate. The scenery has become celebrated by the descriptions in ‘‘ Don Quixote.” MANCHE, La, a N. W. department of France, in Normandy, bordering on the English chan- nel and the departments of Calvados, Orne, Mayenne, and Ille-et-Vilaine; area, 2,289 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 544,776. The coast is gen- erally flat, and lined with swamps. There are several excellent harbors, the principal of which are Cherbourg, La Hogue, and Gran- ville. La Manche has several short but navi- gable rivers, the principal of which is the Vire, and is traversed from N. to S. by a hilly range of moderate height, called Cotentin, which gives its name to the peninsular portion of the department. The rest of the surface is undu- lating, the soil rich, and the climate moist and mild. A prevailing crop is a species of black oats. The quantity of cider made is very great. A considerable portion of the land is under pasturage. The horses are among the best in France. Iron, lead, and coal are mined, and granite, marble, slate, and limestone are quar- ried. Salt is largely manufactured on the coast, and in the towns iron, zinc, copper, woollen, and cotton. The department is di- vided into the six arrondissements of St. Lé, Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain, and Valognes. Capital, St. Lé. MANCHESTER, one of the shire towns of Hills- borough co., New Hampshire, and the largest city in the state, situated on both banks (but chiefly on the E.) of the Merrimack river, 18 m. S. by E. of Concord, and 46 m. N. W. of Bos- ton; pop. in 1850, 13,932; in 1860, 20,107; in 1870, 23,5386, of whom 7,158 were foreigners, including a considerable number of French Ca- nadians. The villages of Amoskeag and Piscat- aquog are on the W. side of the river, which is crossed by five bridges. The city is regularly laid out in squares, and the main street is 100 ft. wide, planted with elms on each side at in- MANCHESTER tervals of 40 ft. for more thana mile. There are five public squares of considerable extent in the central portion, three of them containing ponds. Valley cemetery, the largest in the city, is situ- ated in the 8. W. part, E. of the Merrimack ; and there are two small cemeteries W. of the river. Manchester has railroad communication with Boston, Concord, Portsmouth, and other points, by means of the Concord, the Manchester and Lawrence, the Manchester and North Weare, and the Portsmouth railroads. It is one of the principal manufacturing cities of New England, 91 being supplied with ample water power by the Blodgett canal, built in 1816 around the Amoskeag falls in the Merrimack. The fall is 47 ft., with rapids above, giving a total de- scent of 54 ft. in the space of a mile. The water power is owned by the Amoskeag man- ufacturing company, which has a reservoir in the N. E. part of the city capable of holding 11,000,000 gallons, for supplying the mills. The following table exhibits the statistics of the five corporations engaged in the manufac- ture of cotton and woollen goods in 1874: Date of No. of cee Yards manu- oe of ee gee CORPORATIONS. incorpora-| Capital. Weatnt Spindles. Ae factured per |"20,W00! con- tion. ; ci week, sumed per week, Amoskeag manufacturing company............ 1881 | $3,000,000 | 8,500 | 125,000 | 4,200 600,000 200,000 tac Sept roel cles eis cin sles ede cia oi clave 1888 | 1,250,000 | 1,800 40,000 | 1,200 830,000 110,000 Manchester print wOrkSaas aces ahe css oclsle ne ee 18389 | 1,800,000 ; 2,150 | 100,000 | 8,000 400,000 110,000 Langdon manufacturing company.............. 1857 500,000 704 88,600 500 100,000 28,000 INSMESKO MN ey motes clans telah races 1857 100,000 SBOE 5,000 OO GIMns cstehee eter Bev ccs.acd VOUBEE ec rahe tl aerc Sak ee eaters rete oes eiab bake eons $6,650,000 | 7,654 | 303,600 | 9,000 1,480,000 448,000 Of the operatives, 2,700 were males and 6,300 females. The Amoskeag company also manu- factures steam fire engines, and the Manchester company operates extensive print works. The Manchester and Namaske companies manufac- ture woollens as well as cottons, and the Stark mills some linens; the others, only cotton goods. The principal kinds of goods are tick- ings, denims, stripes, ginghams, sheetings, shirt- ings, print cloths, balmorals, cotton flannels, cotton duck, seamless bags, delaines, angola flannels, fancy cassimeres, alpacas, poplins, silesias, &c. The Amoskeag paper mill em- ploys about 40 hands. There are also a manu- factory of hosiery, one of boots and shoes, one of edge tools, one of locomotives, several of machinery and iron castings, of carriages, and of circular saws, a brass foundery, and an ale brewery. The city contains four national banks, with an aggregate capital of $650,000; five savings banks, with about 18,500 deposi- tors and $7,250,000 deposits; and a fire insu- rance company, with $200,000 capital. It is ' divided into seven wards, and is governed by a mayor and a board of aldermen of one mem- ber and a common council of three members from each ward. There is an efficient police force, and the fire department is well organ- ized. The streets are well paved and sewered and lighted with gas. Water is supplied from Lake Massabesic on the N. E. border of the city by works recently erected. The assessed. value of property in 1873 was $12,001,200 ; tax, $300,768; value of city property, $717,- 120 45; net debt, Jan. 1, 1874, $807,860 16. Manchester is the seat of the state reform school, which occupies a brick building on the E. bank of the Merrimack, capable of accom- modating 150 inmates. The public schools are in a flourishing condition, and in 1873 embraced 45 departments (1 high, 1 training or normal, 5 grammar, 6 middle, the rest primary or un- graded); number of teachers, 69; pupils en- rolled, 3,779; average attendance, 2,284; cost of maintenance, $49,062 17, including $36,- 451 58 for teachers’ wages; value of school property, $249,675. Besides these, evening schools are maintained during a portion of the year, and there are several Catholic schools connected with the churches and convent. The latter also conducts an orphan asylum. The city library at the close of 1873 contained 17,672 volumes. Two daily and three weekly newspapers and a monthly periodical are pub- lished. The number of churches is 16, viz.: 2 Baptist, 1 Christian, 2 Congregational, 1 Episcopal, 2 Freewill Baptist, 2 Methodist, 8 Roman Catholic (1 French), 1 Second Advent, 1 Unitarian, and 1 Universalist,—The place was first settled near the falls about 1730, incorpo- rated under the name of Derryfield in 1751, and riamed Manchester by act of the legislature in 1810. It received a city charter in 1846. MANCHESTER, a town of Hartford co., Con- necticut, on the Hartford, Providence, and Fishkill railroad, 5 m. E. of Hartford; pop. in 1870, 4,228. It contains extensive manufac- tories of book, government, and bank-note paper, of woollens and ginghams, print works, a silk factory, several carriage factories, &c. A weekly newspaper is published. The paper mills are at North Manchester, 3 m. from which is South Manchester, which has grown up around the Cheney silk works, the most ex- tensive in America. Dress silks and sewing silks are manufactured in immense quanti- ties, by ingenious machinery, much of which was invented solely for use here. The cocoons are imported, and all the work of spinning, weaving, and dyeing is done here. The village was laid out by a landscape gardener; there are no fences, and pigs and poultry are prohib- | ited. It is lighted with gas. There is a hand- some public hall, with a library and reading room, and a free school to which the opera- tives are required to send their children. 92 MANCHESTER (anc. Mancunium), the most important manufacturing city in Great Britain, situated in the S. E. corner of Lancashire, on both sides of the river Irwell, 162 m. N. N. W. of London, and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. It consists of Manchester proper, including several suburbs on the E. bank of the Irwell, and the borough of Salford on the W. bank; pop. in 1871, 475,990, of whom 351,189 were in Manchester city, and 124,801 in Salford (ex- clusive of suburban districts not lying within the municipal limits), Thetwo towns, although having distinct municipal governments, consti- tute in all other respects one city. They are connected by eight bridges, among which are the Victoria, of a single arch, and Blackfriars, of three arches, of stone; the bridges of Strange- ways and Springfield Lane, of iron; and the iron suspension bridge of Broughton. The streets are intersected by numerous canals, crossed by bridges, and are generally well paved and lighted; but the site is low, and notwith- standing the recent improved drainage and the introduction of an abundant supply of pure water, Manchester is still one of the most unhealthy places in the kingdom, the annual death rate being about 3-2 per cent. A portion of the place still presents an antiquated ap- pearance, but there are many handsome streets, such as Market street, Portland place, Grosve- nor square, Mosley street, George street, King street, Ardwick green, Salford crescent, &c. There are several handsome public parks and gardens, of which the most important are the botanical and horticultural gardens; the Peel park, on the Irwell, MANCHESTER church, commenced by Lord Delaware in 1422, and since 1847, when Manchester became a bishopric, the cathedral, is a highly ornamented Gothic structure, 216 ft. long and 120 ft. wide; but being built of a soft and mouldering stone, many repairs have been necessary, which give the structure a modern appearance; it has within a few years been restored at a great ex- pense, and a new tower has been added to re- place the old one, which was found incapable of restoration. There are several other hand- some churches, among which are St. George’s, in the suburb of Hulme, and the Roman Cath- olic cathedral of St. John, in Salford. Trin- ity church in Salford, the oldest in the bor~ ough, has a fine Gothic tower, and is interest- ing from the antique aspect of the interior. The old town hall, in King street, is in the Grecian style, and contains a hall 130 ft. long by 388 ft. wide, having its walls and dome coy- ered by allegorical frescoes; but having become inadequate to the needs of the city, anew town hall, commenced in 1868, has been completed at a cost of £250,000. The new exchange is an Italian edifice, with a porch flanked by two towers, the great hall having a clear breadth of 120 ft. The corn exchange is an Ionic structure capable of holding 2,400 persons. The free-trade hall, somewhat irregular but large and effective, occupies the site of the old free-trade hall, and like it is noted in the his- tory of Manchester as the place of several im- portant political meetings. The new building, erected in 1856, occupies an area of 20,700 sq. ft.; it contains a hall 134 ft. long, 78 with an area of 382 acres; Victoria park, between London and Oxford roads, a space of 140 acres, cov- ered with villas; the Queen’s park, Phillips park, and Alexandra park, opened in 1870. The buildings devoted to business and man- ufactures have gener- ally an imposing ap- pearance. A marked change has been made of late years in the architectural charac- ter of the city. New squares have been laid out, new streets opened, and commer- cial buildings of a more ornamental ap- pearance have been erected. In Manches- ter proper, in 1872, there were 168 places of worship, of which 8 were Baptist, 51 Church of England, 26 Independent, 45 Wesleyan and other Methodist, 12 Roman Catholic, 9 Pres- byterian, and 5 Unitarian; including Salford, the whole number exceeds 200. The parish Royal Exchange, Manchester. wide, and 52 high, and will hold 5,000 per- sons. The Salford town hall is one of the handsomest buildings in the town. The new royal exchange has a handsome front with Corinthian columns; its great room is 207 ft. long, 198 wide, and 80 high; the roof is sup- ported by two rows of pillars, with a span of , MANOHESTER 93 nearly 100 ft. between them. The new assize | three sides of a quadrangle, each with a por- courts were opened in 1864; the building is | tico supported by four fluted Ionic columns, Gothic, 270 ft. long and 140 deep, with a tower | the whole surrounded with grass borders and 210 ft. high. The branch bank of England, op- posite the town hall, is a fine structure, in the Grecian style, with a Doric colonnade. The royal infirmary, erected in 1755, is built on walks, with a sheet of water in front; it has an income of £9,000, and annually relieves more than 20,000 patients. Among the other notable public buildings are the court halls, The Assize Courts, Manchester. the jails, and the asylum for the blind and the deaf and dumb. In front of the new town hall is the Albert memorial, including a statue of Prince Albert. Two statues of Richard Cobden were erected in 1867, one in St. Anne’s square, the other in Peel park. In front of the royal infirmary is a statue of Dal- ton; and there are also statues of Watt, Wel- lington, and Peel.—Among scientific, literary, and art associations are the royal Manches- ter institution, occupying buildings which cost £40,000, and devoted to the exhibition of paintings, lectures, &c.; the mechanics’ insti- tution, founded in 1825, for which a new edi- fice was erected in 1856, established for the instruction of the working classes, male and female, in the principles of the arts they prac- tise and in other branches of useful knowledge; and natural history, botanical, horticultural, ge- ological, statistical, and medical societies. The royal school of medicine and surgery, founded in 1824, has 80 to 100 students. The literary and philosophical society, established in 1781, has numbered many distinguished members, and has issued several volumes of valuable trans- actions. The Chetham society, established in 1848, has published 22 volumes of historical and literary remains. There are many public libraries. The free library, founded by volun- tary subscription, and maintained by a muni- cipal rate, has four branches, and is divided into two departments, reference and lending, each having about 40,000 volumes. A free library of about 25,000 volumes is attached to Chetham’s hospital, or the ‘‘ College” as it is now simply called, an institution founded in 1651 by Humphrey Chetham, for the educa- tion of poor boys. Owens college was found- ed in 1846 by the munificence of a merchant of the city, who bequeathed for the purpose more than £100,000, which has of late been considerably enlarged by means of a fund raised by public subscription; it issues certificates to candidates for the degrees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of laws, to be conferred by the university of London. The Lancashire In- dependent college was established by the In- dependents as a theological seminary, and will accommodate 50 students. Manchester New college, Unitarian, founded in 1786, was re- moved to London in 1857; and in 1865 Memo- rial Hall was erected in Manchester as a Uni- tarian college. There is a free grammar school founded by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter, in 151525. The Jubilee school trains pupils for domestic service.—Manchester is supplied with water from a “gathering ground,” about 24 m. distant, of nearly 20,000 acres. The reservoirs form a series of 10 artificial lakes of a capacity of 600,000,000 cubic ft. The pure water only is supplied to the city, the turbid water being collected in separate reservoirs and used for mill purposes. The water is con- veyed in aqueducts 12 m. to Godley, thence to 94 two reservoirs at Denton, and thence 4 m. to Manchester. The works are capable of fur- nishing 40,000,000 gallons daily, and their cost was about £1,050,000. Manchester is the cen- tre of a great system of canals, and has rail- way communication with nearly all parts of England. The Liverpool and Manchester line was the first railway on which was attempted the practical application of steam power for the transportation of passengers.—The borough of Manchester, comprising besides the city itself the townships of Charlton-upon-Medlock, Hulme, Ardwick, and Chetham, with the ex- tra-parochial district of Beswick (total pop. in 1871, 379,374), was incorporated by royal char- ter in October, 1838. The management of its local affairs is intrusted to a town council of 64 members, styled respectively mayor, alder- men, and councillors, who appoint from their body committees for the transaction of public business, who report their proceedings for ap- proval at the general meeting of the council. This council have introduced many valuable improvements, notable among which are the water works; it is anticipated that when these are fully completed, the sale of water for the purposes of trade will be sufficient to defray the entire expense, leaving free that required for domestic purposes. The gas works are also under control of the council, and notwith- standing the price of gas has been frequent- ly reduced, there is a profit of about £35,000 a year, which is expended in improving and widening the streets. In 1846 the town coun- cil purchased from Sir Oswald Mosley his ma- norial rights for £200,000, of which £195,000 was left on mortgage at an interest of 3% per cent.; the income from this property now amounts to £16,000 a year. The borough for- merly returned two members to parliament, but by the reform act of 1867 the number was raised to three. The borough of Salford, con- stituted by the reform act of 1832, returns two members to parliament. It is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen, and 24 councillors.—Man- chester has from a very remote period been con- nected with industry and trade ; but its present great importance is specially due to the mag- nitude of its cotton manufactures, the great- est in the world. It is mentioned as having maintained a trade with the Greeks of Massilia (Marseilles). In 1552 an act was passed for the better manufacture of ‘‘ Manchester cottons ;” and in 1650 its manufactures ranked among the first in extent and importance, and its peo- ple were described as “‘ the most industrious in the northern parts of the kingdom.” The in- adequate supply of cotton goods about the middle of the last century stimulated efforts for increasing the means of production; and the machines successively invented by Leigh, Hughes, Arkwright, Hargreaves, and others, had their efficiency vastly increased by the steam engine of Watt. The value of the ex- ports of the cotton industry in 1780 was £355,- 060; it rose in 1781 to £1,101,457, and in MANCHESTER 1856 it had reached upward of £38,000,000. The imports of raw cotton in 1751 were to the amount of 2,976,610 lbs.; in 1780, upward of 6,700,000; in 1800, 56,000,000; and in 1860, 1,115,890,608. In 1857 an advance in the price of American cotton caused the formation in Manchester of the cotton supply association, to procure the staple from other countries. After the outbreak of the civil war in the Uni- ted States, Manchester suffered severely from the cotton famine, and in 1862 more than one third of the operatives were thrown out of employment. At the close of the war there was a renewal of activity, though the import of United States cotton in 1870 was but little more than half the supply from the same source in 1860. Sole reliance, however, is not now placed on the American supply. During the war the machinery of many of the mills was altered to adapt it to the fibre from India and Egypt, and these mills still continue to use to a large extent the cotton from those countries. Connected with the cotton manufacture are many important and extensive branches of in- dustry, such as bleaching, printing, and dyeing works, manufactures of the various materials employed in those processes, and particularly the great establishments for the construction of steam engines and machinery. It is also the chief market in the world for cotton yarn or thread, the supply of which passes through the hands of numerous resident foreign merchants, who export it to their respective countries, giving to Manchester in this respect a char- acter quite unique among inland cities. The manufacture of silk and silk goods, and of mixed cotton and silk fabrics, is also largely carried on. The following table, furnished by the inspector of factories, presents the statis- tics of the manufacturing industry in 1871: . | N Total No. 0. of Steam MANUFACTURES. worke a1) power, | ee * employed. Textile fabrics and clothing: Cotton factories? icca:. ees eo 111 16,564 | 20,846 ‘Worsted |"! Sees eeade 13 671 2.538 Silk We. a tOL emia ones sa 11 185 1,980 Bleaching and dyeing works... 26 769 2,281 "Warchouses:,Jceeeapeee teens 80 1,218 1,236 Calendering and finishing works} 161 1,528 5,490 Millinery, mantle, stay, corset, and dress making........... 846 32 8,334 Tailors and clothiers.......... 218 1,914 Miscellaneous..........-..-.+- 417 7712 4,476 Totaleetasreeiiesictss 5 1,333 21,7389 | 48,595 Metal manufactures: Manufacture of machinery..... 83 2,750 8,981 Miscellaneousss.si-0- so. se. 989 942 8,665 Total stmt. et IP Cw Ss Marjoram. other volatile oils, will allay toothache when introduced into a carious cavity. Internally it is a stimulant, but has no great value. MARK, Saint, the evangelist, according to the opinion of most theologians, identical with John Mark, mentioned in the Acts (xii. 12, 25). By comparing the passages of the New Testament relating to both Mark and John Mark, we learn the following facts of his life. He was the son of a certain Mary, who pos- sessed a house at Jerusalem which served the Christians as a place of refuge. About the time when James the Elder was executed, he left Jerusalem with Paul and Barnabas, his kinsman (A. D. 42), went to Antioch, and from there to Cyprus and Asia Minor, but sepa- rated from them at Perga, in order to return to Jerusalem. Paul blamed this conduct; and when later Barnabas proposed to take Mark along on a new missionary tour, Paul objected, and Barnabas and Mark undertook a journey of their own. But we find him again as a friend and fellow laborer of Paul during the first captivity of the latter. It appears that both intended, after the end of the captivity, to visit the Christians of Asia Minor. Mark probably executed this design, for Paul re- quests Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 11) to bring Mark to Rome. He was with the apostle Peter, near Babylon (which, according to many in- terpreters, designates Rome), when that apos- tle wrote his first epistle. According to the testimony of the ancient church, Mark was in a particularly intimate relation to the apostle Peter, who employed him as secretary in the same way as Titus was employed by Paul. After the death of Peter, Mark is said to have gone to Egypt, and especially to Alexandria, to have collected congregations there and in the 533 VOL. XI.—12 neighborhood, to have been the first bishop of Alexandria, and, finally, to have suffered mar- tyrdom there. He is the patron saint of Ven- ice, which city claims to possess his body. His festival is celebrated in the Roman Catholic church on April 25.—The Gospel of Mark is distinguished from the three others by being more exclusively historical, and excluding long- er didactic portions, such as the sermon on the mount. All the facts recorded in it may be found also in Matthew or Luke, and only 27 verses belong exclusively to Mark; a cir- cumstance which has given rise to wide differ- ences of opinion concerning the position of Mark in relation to the other two. Augustine advanced the opinion that Matthew wrote first, that Mark wrote an abridgment of the Gospel of Matthew, and that Luke in writing his Gos- pel made use of both Matthew and Mark. This view continued to prevail among exegetical writers until the 18th century, when the ques- tion of priority of composition among the three synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) became the subject of vehement controversy, every possible combination finding its defend- ers. Eichhorn in 1794 advanced the theory that all the three synoptic Gospels of our can- on had made use of a primitive Gospel (Ur- Evangelium), no longer extant. Many Ger- man critics assume a primitive Gospel of Mark (Ur-Markus), of which the Gospel in our canon is a revised and enlarged copy. Among the prominent defenders of this view are Ewald (1849), Scholten (1867), Volkmar (1870), and Weiss (1872). Others have advanced similar views with regard to Matthew and Luke. Most of these writers agree in regarding the Gospel of Luke as the latest of the synoptic Gospels in their present form ; the most notable exception being Keim, who (in his ‘‘ Life of Jesus’’) main- tains that the Gospel of Mark is the latest of the three. The defenders of the originality of the Gospel of Mark in its present form gener- ally place the time of its compilation between the death of the apostles Peter and Paul and the destruction of Jerusalem. Rome is almost unanimously regarded as the place where it - was written. The evangelist undoubtedly used the Greek language ; a note to the Syrian trans- lation, stating that the Gospel was compiled in Latin, received for a time wide currency among Roman Catholic scholars through the support of Baronius, but it has been almost entirely discarded since the time of Richard Simon. Doubts are entertained also by prominent the- ologians of the orthodox school whether the last 12 verses are by Mark, or were added after his death; in support of the latter view it is adduced that Jerome, Gregory of Nyssa, and other fathers expressly mention that the Gos- pel closed with the words, ‘‘For they were afraid ” (xvi. 8); in favor of the other, that all the Latin and Syrian manuscripts have these verses.—For commentaries on Mark, see the collective works on the Gospels mentioned in the article Luxe. Commentaries on Mark | 176 MARK ANTONY. alone have been published, among others, by J. A. Alexander (New York, 1858), Klostermann, Das Markus-Hvangelium (Gottingen, 1868), and Weiss, Das Markus-Hvangelium und seine synoptischen Parallelen (Berlin, 1872). . i uaaiy) ied &-s aaaarpaty re : pce HLNOs SSOTPUOIT ® _ o fa" —————— z -dyvrione HY) SOIL JO ofeog | CRluwomsaoovs Sh — : : y 0, A * § L Hefti SAUTE on Sos Hg wraapkepods > - : - aS {Ho = a © - : ‘Tre Sf fy a *H'O 281009 Sury 2 P MNO fpae ao; > & Fea ki Room ATOEL = WOTHOTOS5 RN - : as ———— SPVOI[IRY ® sumoy, AJuUNOD AYE OF Ge 0g Ge. 0G STOOL g 0 M9 p4ogzeIg cae s eS g \ SING AOS LAIBEL E 7, JP, UMO Ly oqLeWL whoyT oO aTpAdpusyyo oi s / E Woy UaIAB uadojuay’D 68 Aye HUVMV TAL . AS10318 MA § Aq.taquT UE _ USH set0y, jsodag 310g \ uMoysdoog 2s sé . ysingsiqjeye s soyseu0 WM) AP), , : 9L [ewe ayn SS (0) MARYLAND census yEars.| _ White Fe Slaves! poe persons, colored. population. 190s sicneeioe’ 208,649 5,043 103,036 819,728 Leer eeleee 246,326 19,587 | 105,685 | 841,548 LTSLOTA Jee nee 235,117 33,92T 111,502 880,546 1820" ete. 260,223 39,730 107,397 407,350 L550) tir ee aeebee 291,108 52,938 102,994 447,040 LEU ro nceistoteie sero 818,204 62,078 89,737 470,019 Si) jae Raaee hte 417,943 74,723 90,368 583,034 1860 a rdlees ens 515,918 83,942 87,189 687,049 LOT ee nets eters 605,497 CO; 9 ba care saree 780,894. Included in the last total are 2 Chinese and 4 Indians. In 1870 Maryland ranked 20th among the states in total population, a gain since 1860 of 13°66 per cent.; 18th in white population, gain 17°36 per cent. ; 11th in colored population, gain 2°49 per cent. Of the total population, 697,482 were native and 83,412 foreign born. Of the natives, 629,882 were born in the state, 22,846 in Pennsylvania, 20,237 in Virginia and West Virginia, 6,876 in Delaware, 3,890 in New York, 1,853 in New Jersey, 1,212 in Mas- sachusetts, and 1,163 in Ohio. There were 175,666 persons born in the state living in oth- er states and territories. Of the foreigners, 47,045 were born in Germany, 23,630 in Ire- land, 4,855 in England, and 2,482 in Scotland. There were 384,984 males and 895,910 females. Of the colored inhabitants, 151,463 were blacks and 23,928 mulattoes. The number of male citizens of the United States 21 years old and over was 169,845. The number of families was 140,078, having an average of 5°57 persons to a family; of dwellings, 129,620, with 6:02 persons to a dwelling. There were 114,100 persons 10 years old and over who could not read; 135,499 could not write, of whom 126,- 907 were natives and 8,592 foreigners, 46,796 whites and 88,703 colored, 61,981 males and 73,518 females; 21,572 were from 10 to 15 years of age, 21,452 from 15 to 21, and 92,471 were 21 and over. Of the last number, 13,344 were white males and 27,123 colored males. There were 427 blind persons, 384 deaf and dumb, 733 insane, and 362 idiotic; number of paupers supported during the year ending June 1, 1870, 1,857, at a cost of $163,584; receiving support June 1, 1,612, of whom 265 were for- _ eigners and 566 colored; number of persons convicted of crime during the year, 868; num- ber in prison June 1, 1,035, of whom 68 were foreigners and 663 colored. The number of persons 10 years old and over returned as engaged in occupations was 258,543 (213,691 males and 44,852 females), of whom 80,449 were employed in agriculture, 79,226 in pro- fessional and personal services, 35,542 in trade and transportation, and 63,326 in manufac- tures and mining. Included in these numbers were 48,079 agricultural laborers, 31,213 farm- ers and planters, 938 clergymen, 34,742 do- mestic servants, 28,571 laborers, 772 lawyers, 1,771 officials and employees of government, 1,257 physicians and surgeons, 2,190 teachers, 9,775 traders and dealers, 9,840 in other mer- cantile pursuits, 2,859 officials and employees 221 of railroad companies, 3,529 carmen, draymen, teamsters, &c., 5,968 sailors, steamboatmen, watermen, &c., 3,231 blacksmiths, 4,793 boot and shoe makers, 2,806 masons and stonecut- ters, 1,128 brick and tile makers, 1,566 butch- ers, 1,235 cabinetmakers and upholsterers, 7,904 carpenters and joiners, 1,086 cigar makers and tobacco workers, 1,488 coopers, 1,992 cotton and woollen mill operatives, 1,569 fishermen and oystermen, 1,709 iron and steel workers, 1,027 machinists, 1,116 millers, 2,041 milliners and dressmakers, 2,838 miners, 1,845 painters and varnishers, 5,868 tailors, tailoresses, and seamstresses, 1,256 tinners, and 1,026 wheel- wrights.—The surface of the eastern shore of Maryland, which forms a part of the penin- sula lying between Chesapeake and Delaware bays, is low and level except in the N. part, where it is somewhat broken and rocky. The soil of this region is generally sandy. That part of the western division of the state which forms the peninsula between Chesapeake bay and the estuary of the Potomac presents the same natural features. The northwest is rug- ged and mountainous. The Blue Ridge, and other main ranges of the Alleghanies, cross it from Virginia and West Virginia into Pennsyl- vania. None of these chains attains a great elevation.—The seacoast has a length of only 33 m.; but including the whole tide-water region of Chesapeake bay, the shore line is estimated at 411 m., and if the shores of islands be included, at 509 m. The principal rivers belonging wholly or in part to Maryland are the Potomac, Patuxent, Severn, Patapsco, Sus- quehanna, Elk, Choptank, Nanticoke, and Po- comoke. The rivers of the eastern shore, with the exception of the Choptank and Nanticoke, are rather inlets into which flow numerous small creeks than rivers, and are navigable only near their mouths. On the western shore, however, are the Potomac, navigable about 125 m.; the Patuxent, 50 m.; the Patapsco, 22 m.; and the Susquehanna, navigable beyond the Maryland boundary. Above Washington the Potomac receives the Monocacy river, Antietam creek, the Conecocheague river, and many smaller streams. The extreme W. part of the state is drained by the Youghiogheny river, which through the Monongahela empties into the Ohio. Chesapeake bay, which almost bisects the state, extending northward within 14 m. of the frontier of Pennsylvania, receives near: ly all the rivers of Maryland. At its mouth, between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, it is 15 m. wide, its opening facing east; but on penetrating the land it almost immediately changes its direction, its length lying almost due N.and S. A little below the mouth of the Potomac it is about 80 m. wide, after which it again contracts, and at its head branches off into several small estuaries, just above the mouth of the Susquehanna, It is nearly 200 m. long, and navigable throughout: It con- tains many small islands, and its shores are in- dented with innumerable bays and inlets. The - 222 Atlantic coast of Maryland has no harbors, and is bordered throughout by a sandy beach from a few yards to more than a quarter of a mile in breadth, enclosing a shallow lagoon.—In the variety of its geological formations and mine- ral productions, Maryland is one of the most remarkable states in the Union. Along the seaboard and the shores of Chesapeake bay occur alluvial deposits of the present epoch. Next older are the beds of the pleistocene rec- ognized in St. Mary’s co., whence the forma- tion extends southward along the coast of Vir- ginia and North Carolina. The eastern shore * is overspread almost exclusively with the clays, sands, and calcareous marls of the miocene; and the same formation is found on the W. side of the bay, reaching back to the E. edge of the metamorphic rocks, the line of which is commonly marked by the lowest falls of the rivers, as they descend from this platform of ancient rocks. The miocene formation is exposed in the banks of the creeks and rivers, and its beds of shell marl are there largely . excavated for their valuable fertilizing mate- rials. Deposits of bog ore are found in this formation, as well as in more recent ones. Among the tertiary ferruginous sands and clays spread over the western shore, from the vicinity of Washington to the head of the bay, are numerous deposits of argillaceous carbonate of iron in flat bands and balls. The cretaceous formation enters the N. E. corner of the state from New Jersey and Delaware; but it is lost S. of the Susquehanna river. Immediately back of Baltimore are hills of metamorphic rocks, talcose and mica slates, and limestones, which extend N. E. and S. W. across the state. Among them are serpentine rocks, which con- stitute barren hills known as the ‘ Bare Hills.” In these, beds of chrome iron have been exten- sively worked, and their products have been converted into chrome pigments, and also ex- ported to Europe. The same formations have yielded large quantities of the silicates and hydrates of magnesia. Mines of copper ore have also been worked in the metamorphic rocks, and others of hematite support numer- ous blast furnaces; in the same group of rocks are also extensive quarries of limestone and marble. At Sykesville, on the Patapsco, specu- lar iron ore is found, and worked in connection with pyritous copper ores. Passing westward across the metamorphic belt, and included in it, is a narrow strip of the ‘“‘middle secondary red sandstone,” which is traced from New Jersey through Pennsylvania and Maryland into Virginia. It passes through Carroll and the eastern part of Frederick co., crossing the Potomac just W. of Montgomery co. In this region was obtained from this formation the brecciated marble of which the pillars in the old hall of representatives in the capitol at Washington were, made. In Frederick co., along the range of this belt, have been work- ed several copper mines. The portion of the metamorphic group lying W. of this trough MARYLAND of the middle secondary is but a few miles wide; and in the Catoctin and South moun- tains, on the W. line of Frederick co., are found the Silurian rocks, the Potsdam sand- stones, and the Trenton and associated lime- stones, the lower members of the Appalachian system of rocks. The calcareous strata over- spread the E. portion of Washington co., ex- tending N. in a broad belt into Pennsylvania and §. into Virginia. The finest valleys of the middle states lie on their range, and wherever met with these rocks give fertility to the soil and beauty to the scenery. Newer members of the Appalachian series of rocks succeed toward the west these lower formations, and are repeated with them in successive parallel ridges, which are the eastern members of the Appalachian chain. At Cumberland in Alle- gany co. commences the ascent of the main ridges. Up their slope the middle Silurian rocks soon give place to the red shales and sandstones of the Devonian, and’these are suc- ceeded by the carboniferous formation, which caps the summits of Dan’s and Savage moun- tains, and overspreads the intervening valley of George’s creek, as the strata dip in each direction into the trough-shaped basin. At Frostburg, Lonaconing, Westernport, and other points in the valley, is obtained the semi- bituminous coal known in the eastern markets as Cumberland coal. Extensive works have been in operation at Mt. Savage, and also at Lonaconing, converting the iron ores of the coal formation into pig iron, and this into rails and other forms of wrought iron. The supply of ores, however, has proved uncertain, and, like most other attempts to found large opera- tions upon these ores, the enterprises have not prospered. From this point to the W. bound- ary of the state the country continues moun- tainous, consisting of parallel ridges and val- leys, the former capped by the coal formation or the underlying conglomerate and red and gray sandstones, and the valleys occupied by the coal measures. According to the census of 1870, the number of mining establishments in operation was 80, having 32 steam engines of 888 horse power, and 2 water wheels of 32 horse power; number of hands employed, 3,801 (1,241 above and 2,560 below ground); amount of capital invested, $25,369,730; wages paid, $1,839,952; value of materials used, $205,547; of products, $3,444,183. There were 22 mines of bituminous coal, yielding 1,819,824 tons, valued at $2,409,208; 48 of iron ore, yielding 98,354 tons, valued at $600,- 246; 2 of copper, producing $71,500 worth of ore; 2 marble quarries, yielding $275,000; 2 slate, and 9 stone quarries. Of the coal mines 20 were in Allegany co. Of the iron 50,487 tons were produced in Baltimore co., 18,300 in Carroll, 12,000 in Frederick, 9,300 in Alle- gany, and 6,190 in Anne Arundel.—The eli- mate of the state is temperate, and in most places salubrious, although the lowlands border- ing on the bay are subject to miasmata which MARYLAND produce bilious fevers: and fever and ague. The mean annual temperature in the middle portion of the state is 56°; in the north, 54°; and’ in the highest parts in the west, 50°. Rain is abundant, the largest annual fall (50 inches) occurring on the W. shore of Chesa- peake bay. The mean temperature at Balti- more for each month of the year ending Sept. 80, 18738, was as follows: October, 58°3°; November, 43°6°; December, 32°2°; January, 34°; February, 35°5" 5 March, 40°35 April, 51:9°; May, 62'3°; ; June, 73:9°; July, 79°4°; August, 76°3° ; September, 68°; ’ year, 54: 64°. The minimum was 2° (in February); the maxi- mum, 96°5° (in July). The total rainfall was: October, 4°08 inches; November, 3°17; De- cember, 2°72; January, 4°27; February, 4°74; March, 3°02; April, 2°77; May, 6°31; June, 0°94; July, 2°90; August, 9°49; September, 3° 70: year, 48° 11. The number of deaths in 1870 was 9,740, of which 3,978 were from general diseases, 1,161 from diseases of the nervous, 339 of the circulatory, 1,342 of the respiratory, and 1,499 of the digestive sys- tem, and the rest from miscellaneous causes. Among deaths from special diseases were: consumption, 1,678; pneumonia, 742; cholera infantum, 604; enteric fever, 434; scarlet fever, 331; whooping cough, 281; croup, 272; encephalitis, 249; convulsions, 239; paralysis, 231; diphtheria, 218; dropsy, 186; measles, 177; dysentery, 167; diarrhoea, 157; teething, 143; and hydrocephalus, 112.—The soil of the eastern shore is not naturally rich, but by the aid of manure it may be made to yield abun- dant crops. On the other side of the bay a tract closely resembling this lies along the shore. It has been much improved by the use of marl, bone dust, and guano, and forms the chief tobacco-growing region of the state. Some of the valleys of the interior and north- ern counties are extremely fertile. The com- monest forest trees are the oak, hickory, chestnut, pine, locust, walnut, cedar, gum, and beach. Tobacco, wheat, and Indian corn are the staple cultivated crops. In 1870 Mary- land was fifth among the states in the produc- tion of tobacco. Oats, rye, Irish and sweet potatoes, hay, milk, butter, wool, &c., are also produced. Peaches, strawberries, &e., are eX- tensively cultivated in the E. part, of the state. The number of farms in 1870 was 27,000, of which 1,314 contained less than 10 acres each, 1,764 from 10 to 20, 4,825 from 20 to'50, 7, 026 from 50 to 16021 894 from 100 to 500, 163 from 500 to 1, 000, and 14 1,000 acres and over. The number of acres of improved farm land was 2,914,007; cash value of farms, $170,- 369, 684; of farming implements and machine- ry, $5, 268, 676; amount of wages paid during the year, "including value of board, $8,560,- 367; estimated value of all farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, $35,848,927; value of orchard products, $1,319,- 405 ; of produce of market gardens, $1, 039, - 782; of forest products, $613,209; of home 536 VOL. x1.—15 223 manufactures, $63,608; of animals slaughter- ed or sold for slaughter, $4,621,418; of live stock, $18,433,698. The pr oductions were 1 095 bushels of spring and 5,773,408 of winter wheat, 307,089 of rye, 11,701, 817 of Indian corn, 3,221,- 643 of oats, 11 B15 of barley, 77,867 of buck- wheat, 57, 556 of peas and beans, 1,632,205 of Trish potatoes, 218,706 of sweet potatoes, 35,- 040 of clover seed, 2,609 of grass seed, 1 bl of flax seed, 15, 185, 339 Ibs. of tobacco, 435, - 213 of wool, B, 014 ,729 of butter, 6, 732 of cheese, 2,800 ‘of hops, 30,760 of flax, 70, 464 of maple sugar, 3,439 of wax, 118, 938 of honey, 11,583 gallons of wine, 1 520, 101 of milk sold, 28, 568 of sorghum molasses, 374 of maple mo- lasses, and 228,119 tons of hay. The live stock consisted of 89, 696 horses, 9,880 mules and asses, 94,7794 milch cows, 29) 491 working oxen, 98, 074 other cattle, 129, 697 sheep, and 257,- 893 swine. There were also 12,520 horses and 16,040 cattle not on farms. —The number of manufacturing establishments was 5,812, hav- ing 531 steam engines of 138,961 horse power, and 937 water wheels of 18,461 horse power; number of hands employed, 44,860, of whom 84,061 were males above 16, 8,278 females above 15, and 2,521 youth; amount of capital invested, $36,438,729; wages paid, $12,682,- 817; value of materials used, $46,897,082; of products, $76,593,618. The following table exhibits the number of establishments, with the capital and value of products, of the prin- cipal branches : No. of Vv INDUSTRIES. establish- | Capital, | V#lue of sais products, Agricultural implements....... 84 | $281,300 | $549,085 Bags, paper and other than pa- POL ee he steers eee at aes 8 100,000 | 588,275 Boots and shoes............-- 812 767,105 |8,111,076 Bread and bakery products.... 159 874,195 |1,220,899 Bricks aes seas aeons e oeciree ss 73 {1,068,800 |1,191,545 Carriages and wagons......... 1383 297,650 | 667,157 Clothing 5 sissies sisrste etetesl 823 |2,284,825 |5,970,713 Coaljoil) mectified yonie<10< csieie ci 8 198,000.| 647,889 Confectionery Rar ealae sie ine avcisuerale 52 249.585 | 733,481 WOODETAL ER Ae. 210 stats «wate isnietos 88 290,454 78,782 Copper, milled ane smelted... 1 800,000 |1,016,500 Cotton’ so0dstetses-cicoon ean. 22 |2,784,250 |4,852,808 MOTULIZERS Hy NatarcHle tise © epleiatexe she 15 438.800 | 632,852 Flouring and grist mill products; 518 [2,790,700 |6,786,459 Fruits and vegetables, canned. 19 603,800 |1,587,280 AIPMIGTNe Bes ctor cts eiete cere eirie.s 181 845,945 {1,888,698 Gantt tabieesitclnt. cde snes ss 5 {1,820,000 |1,027,165 (EG OS cliticr puec ds OBeneeSaan 4 145,700 | 246,400 Iron, forged, rolled) &C.25.-50-. 18 1,015,500 3,654,212 DIGSeen eter 14 {2,005,000 |2,143,089 SM CAB Up RUe ela tales cielo apiece 43 784,185 | 928,094 Leather, GATINEAS Peete) cle sir wisie.olsin 69 792,430 |1 265, 4888 CUUrle deen re tise s aici 50 288, 145 "628, 308 is morocco, tanned and CUNTIOM Hares oie ciao. 4 64,000 | 163,000 Mamie M pede tate sat nee uw, aie iets 24 106,150 | 284,199 Liquors, Saree Rive toro uneart 8 220,700 | 889,261 Eh tis. t Spices. ance 82 588,500 | 665,743 Lumber, piace SAO « itetaionrelals 11 241,800 | 474,857 BAW EUieaaec o's ier cues 891 |1,055,600 |1,501,471 Machinery, not specified....... 22 872,700 ‘581, 391 steam engines and boilers........2.2+ ~ | | 485,000 | 878,475 Molasses and sugar, refined... . 4 958,000 |7,007,€57 Musical instruments and ma- POMONA eee ie esate cane site « 9 | 594,000 | 674,600 OM vegetable. cs...¥.csseaecres 2 | 145,000 | 478,125 Oysters and fish, canned....... 13 553,300 |1,418,200 DP GAN US ehtateieteia ei ciniclole s\sielele «isle! re 5 | 440,000 |1,027,500 224 MARYLAND were 76,053,533 Ibs. of, leaf tobacco, valued at No. of Value of | $0,868,405; 6,809,609 bushels of Indian corn, piped i establish} Capital. | products. | $5,287,444; 412,743 barrels of flour, $3,240,- a ee _|____|________ | 967; 38,665 bales of cotton, $2,669,219; and Seniteteme ONG 26 /$1,206,000 | $948,710 | 13,321,567 lbs. of lard, $1,325,636. There were Baddlecy and Warnene tae: 135 | 207385 | 539,033 | 1,117 entrances, tonnage 558,599, and 1,026 Sash, doors, and blinds.....| 17 | 282,425 | 419,506 | clearances, tonnage 524,847. The number of i rey citer and’ st | 172.800 | 857404 | entrances in 1873 was 861, with an aggregate sce cacy 2 | 2B) BS |e en ee ; ee LE v.s.{ 188 | 663,500. | 1,634,009 ) ’ Tobaceo and cigars... 2s4 | 910.000 | 72237 | 580 tons, foreign; clearances, 853, with an ag- Woollen goods............. 28 |) 198,945 390,086 | gregate tonnage of 411,161, of which 321, of The value of manufactures in 1810 was $8,- 879,861; in 1840, $13,509,636; in 1850, $33,- 048,892; in 1860, $41,735,157. — Maryland ranks sixth among the states in the value of foreign commerce, which is carried on wholly through Baltimore. The imports for the year ending June 30, 1874, amounted to $29,302,- 138; domestic exports, $27,513,111; foreign exports, $179,598. The chief items of export 109,490 tons, were American, and 5382, of 301,- 671 tons, foreign. Besides Baltimore, Mary- land includes the customs district of Annapo- lis, the eastern district, and part of the district of Cherrystone, Crisfield being the port of en- try of the two last. The following table gives the details of the coastwise trade, with the vessels registered, enrolled, and licensed, for the year ending June 30, 1874, and those built during the previous year: ENTRANCES, CLEARANCES, | REGISTERED, &0. BUILT IN 1873. DISTRICTS. rs Aa eeare En Veasels. Tons. Vessels, | Tons. | Vessels, Tons. Vessels. Tons. IATITIA DONG, sacswsicce cere e tis se 4 188 3 | 176 94 1,904 2 (Ble BAGONG 550 25) « ZA Qa s a oe ph ee ee di S ° ~ = rasKet bess Lal ere 4 She gset a> x = sHcituate Sy t S ¢ Seituate Centre , “Scituate Ze S t nbush : §ok N.Matghficl o Le ocklande -W Handyer Cape Cod : Provincettwn ¢ Oyen \ NMfruro Ae ‘i . Hilimx p mouth Bay Lo ZN.Plymouth\ \ | x a Plymton Plymouth ©} lisha's Point §.Trurp s,s het \ Opiastles = én a veeey : Bue oe : CA PE ee Zo ( ° Dodgeville eborough “" Sea §.Plymouth9 — oN. O wey (Ma ENT S\Wellficet ~N Eddyville® Carver Gt.South fF : 6}; qdleborough Pond ¢ ST sland SS = Ban o yy q Furnace ON n« fastham J akeyilleg Carver Cs S ee - BILLINGSGATE I. eee By - yr" )Lookout Pt. ° o/Helway == Easthatn 4 & Pd. q a Sandy \ & * 7 G eat Herring }, \ 4 ae = —. ea Bours ale o Sagamore ny 5 2 oe bi ¥.> ean wiche og, “ay Sd — - {4 Bourne ghring Hil % Ef %o g Brews? “>? Monument ae sanov WeTE, 4. Pleasant Lakeg VN. Ee po [B.Sandwich Fer eae Ok dtham SPocasset W.Barnstable*Bary--2 yeu 4 od = 5 Cataumet [Mashpee Pond tbe / S8,Dente of Harwich Oo §.Sand Fhow Marston's tI gals ff of ©N Falmoutl . Mills 2. Yarmou:7, fw s & 5 {yhvilles ¢ fr = A pee ERS Wott ox t PS SA So SERIE 5 8 - ‘ g 3 A} Wagner Se SF oe Ss rod N v 41 30 PENIKESE Ie ¢~ & & * SS, x) . ° v. Ss r ) C P. O ; Cuttyhun U K, aa ee: og S cae AGF CUTTVHUNK |. 9 2 eZ |} Quio0ick Ss Phew 7 A fsb pre ~ ARTHA’S VINEYARD LS ISLAND SD NO MAN’S LAND C O C i A gost") 74. N bos 71° 30! Greenwich 71° 70°30" 70° ting, ati oe >THE LIP SARY RETR ce WUIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS MASS often left to commune alone. Still, in popu- lous parishes in most Roman Catholic coun- tries, communion is distributed at most private masses, and the utility of frequent communion is sedulously inculcated.— With respect to the language used in the celebration of mass, the western churches use the Latin, and the Ro- man missal. (See Lirurey, and Maissat.) The eastern churches in union with that of Rome use the ancient idioms of their respec- tive peoples, and are not allowed to celebrate in Latin. The wishes sometimes expressed by larger or smaller bodies of the Catholic church to translate the liturgy of the mass into the modern languages, and to let the re- sponses at the mass be recited or sung by the entire congregation, have never been favored by the highest ecclesiastical authorities, though in some cases it has been permitted as a privi- lege, as for instance to the duke Eugene of Wirtemberg, who in 1786 received from Pius VI. permission to introduce the German mass into his court chapel.— There are different kinds of masses. A high or solemn mass is celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and subdeacon, and is sung by choristers; but the principal mass on Sundays and festivals, in which part of the service is sung by the priest without deacon or subdeacon, is usually called in this country high mass. A low mass is one of which no part is sung, and at which the priest has no assistant but his clerk. The or- dinary duration of a low mass is half an hour. The mass of the presanctified (missa presancti- Jicatorum) is the name given to the service celebrated in the Latin church on Good Friday, and in the orthodox Greek church on nearly all the week days in Lent. It consists in the consumption by the priest of the bread con- secrated on a previous day; and is, properly speaking, not a mass at all, the consecration being an essential part of the sacrifice. At all masses the priest wears vestments which in- dicate by their color the ecclesiastical season of the year or the stated festival which is cele- brated. Thus red is used for the feast of mar- tyrs, white for those of virgins, purple for the penitential seasons of Lent, Advent, and vigils. At the masses for the dead black vestments are used, some psalms and ceremonies omitted, and the people are dismissed without the bene- diction.—Masses may be said for any special purpose (votive masses), as for the recovery of health, for the avoiding of danger, for obtain- ing a special favor, &c. In the middle ages some practices crept in which the church con- demned, as the celebration of the mass without the assistance of a clerk, the combination of several masses in one in order to get a greater payment, &c. The ‘Congregation of Rites,” instituted by Sixtus V. in 1587, watches over the purity of the ritual. The Greek church and the other eastern churches hold, in the main, the same views with regard to the mass as the Roman Catholicchurch. The difference is mostly limited to ceremonies.—Every mem- MASSACHUSETTS 245 ber of the Catholic church is bound, under pain of mortal sin, by one of the “precepts of the church,” unless prevented by sickness or other grave impediment, to attend mass every Sunday and on certain holidays called days of obligation. MASSA, a town of Italy, capital of the prov- ince of Massa e Carrara, on the Frigido, 85 m. N.N. W. of Leghorn; pop. about 5,000. It has a lyceum, a gymnasium, a beautiful castle, and important silk manufactories. MASSA E CARRARA, a central province of Italy, in Tuscany, embracing the former duchy of Massa-Carrara; area, 680 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 161,944, The principal rivers flowing through it are the Serchio and the Magra. Branches of the Apennines conjointly with the Apuan Alps traverse the entire province. The most important product is the marble of Carrara. Wine and olives are cultivated. It is divided into the districts of Massa, Carrara, Pontremoli, and Castelnuove. Capital, Massa. The former duchy was before 1741 the posses- sion of the house of Cibo-Malaspina, and sub- sequently, through the marriage of the daugh- ter of the last duke, a possession of the Estes of Modena, together with which it was oc- cupied by the French in 1796. After vari- ous changes it was reunited with Modena in 1829, and annexed to the dominions of Victor Emanuel in 1860. MASSAC, a S. county of Illinois, bordering on the Ohio; area, 240 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,581. The surface is diversified and heavily timbered, and the soil fertile. It contains coal and lead. The chief productions in 1870 were 72,316 bushels of wheat, 133,126 of In- dian corn, 22,097 of oats, 13,125 of potatoes, 67,560 lbs. of tobacco, 42,505 of butter, and 2,084 tons of hay. There were 762 horses, 948 milch cows, 1,268 other cattle, 2,297 sheep, and 5,424 swine; 1 manufactory of wagon materials, 1 of tobacco and snuff, 4 saw mills, and 5 flour mills. Capital, Metropolis. MASSACHUSETTS, one of the thirteen original states of the American Union, and one of the New England states, between lat. 41° 15’ and 42° 58’ N., and lon. 69° 56’ and 78° 32’ W.; ex- treme length N. E. and 8. W., 160m.; breadth from 47 to about 90 m.; estimated area, 7,800 sq.m. It is bounded N. by Vermont and New Hampshire, E. by the Atlantic ocean, S. by the Atlantic, Rhode Island, and Con- necticut, and W. by New York. It is divided into 14 counties, viz.: Barnstable, Berkshire, Bristol, “Dukes, Essex, Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire, Middlesex, Nantucket, Norfolk, Plymouth, Suffolk, and Worcester. Boston, the commercial centre and the largest city of New England; is the capital; in 1870 it con- tained 250,526 inhabitants, but by the annexa- tion of Charlestown, Brighton, and West Rox- bury, in 1878, its population was, according to assessors’ returns, increased to about 360,000 in 1874. The other cities are Cambridge, which in | 1870 had 39,634 inhabitants; Chelsea, 18,547 ; 246 Fall River, 26,766; Fitchburg, 11,260; Glou- cester, 15,359; Haverhill, 13,092; Holyoke, 10, 733 ; Lawrence, 28,921; Lowell, 40,928; Lynn, 28, 233 ; New Bedford, 21 320; New- buryport, 12, 595 ; Newton, 12, 825 ; Salem, 24,- ie Somerville, 14,685 ; Springfield, 26, 703; Taunton, 18,629 ; and Worcester, 41,105. The population and rank of the state in the Union, according to the national census, have been: YEARS White. Colored. Total. Rank, BB AETV PRS ey ha 873,324 5,463 873,787 4 LS00L eae cee 416,393 6,452 422/845 5 TSLO SR weenie 465,303 6.737 472,040 5 TO20 Cott Bene 516,419 6,740 528,159 T LS80iaa ie e-ohaee se 603,359 7,049 610,408 8 ESA0 i ecarofemmoeieie 729,030 8,669 737,699 8 TT SOO We aintela ne ees 985,450 9,064 994,514 6 TEGOE eS AO: 1.221.482 9,602 1,231,066 T 18105 cee pice 1,443,156 | 13,947 | 1.457.951. | 7, Included in the total population of 1860 were 32 Indians, and in'that of 1870 87 Chinese, 10 Japanese, and 151 Indians. Of the whole number of inhabitants in 1870, 703,779 were State Seal of Massachusetts, 1,104,032 were males and 753,572 females; native and 353, 319 foreign born. Of the na- tives, 17,313 w ere born in Connecticut, 55,571 in Maine, 903,297 in Massachusetts, 47, 773 in New Hampshire, 24,628 in New York, 14,356 in Rhode Island, and 22,110 in Ver mont: 243, - 784 persons born in Massachusetts were living in other states. Of the foreign born, 65, 055 were natives of British America, 13 072 of Germany, 34,099 of England, 216, 120 of Ire- land, and’9, 003 of Scotland. ‘The average den- sity ‘of population was 186°84 persons to a square mile, being greater than that of any other state. There were 305,534 families, with an average of 4°77 persons to each, and 236 473 dwellings, with an average of 6° 16 persons to each. The increase of population from 1860 to 1870 was 18°15 per cent. The number of male citizens 21 years old and upward was 312,770. There were 74,935 persons 10 years of age -and over unable to read, and 97,742 who could “not write, of whom 89, 830 were foreign born; MASSACHUSETTS 81,746 of the male adult population, or 7:97 per cent., and 53,940, or 12°27 per cent., of the female adults, were illiterate. The num- ber of paupers supported during the year end- ing June 1, 1870, was 8,036, at a cost of $1,121,604; of the number (5,777) receiving support June 1, 1870, 5,396 were natives and 381 foreigners. There were 1,598 persons con- victed of crime during the year; of the num- ber (2,526) in prison June 1, 1870, 1,291 were of native and 1,235 of foreign birth. The state contained 761 blind, 538 deaf and dumb, 2,662 insane, and 778 idiotic. Of the total popu- lation 10 years of age and over (1,160,666), there were engaged in all occupations 579,- 844 persons; in agriculture 72,810, of whom 31,019 were laborers and 39,766 farmers and planters; in professional and personal services 131,291, including 2,040 clergymen, 45,770 domestic servants, 279 journalists, 50,564 la- borers not specified, 1,270 lawyers, 2,047 phy- sicians and surgeons, 7,220 teachers not speci- fied, 847 teachers of music, and 506 professional musicians; in trade and transportation, 83,078 ; in manufactures, mechanical and mining in- dustries, 292,665, of whom 5,774 were black- smiths, 1,102 bookbinders, 48,255 boot and shoe makers, 28,506 carpenters and joiners, 39,195 cotton mill operatives, besides 4,629 mill and factory operatives not specified, 5,311 fishermen and oystermen, 8,273 machinists, 7,887 painters and varnishers, 16,787 tailors and seamstresses, besides 7,649 milliners and dress and mantua makers, and 19,863 woollen mill operatives. The total number of deaths during the year was 25,859, being 1°77 per cent. of the entire population. Chiet among the causes of mortality were consumption, from which 5, 157 persons died, and pneumonia, 1,696; the number of deaths from all causes to 1 from consumption being 5, and 15:2 to 1 from pneu- monia. There were ft 685 deaths from cholera infantum, 1,142 from enteric fever, 911 from scarlet fever, 280 from diphtheria, and 1,114 from diarrhoea, dysentery, and enteritis—From the west for about 100 m. Massachusetts has the regular form of a parallelogram about 50 m. wide; thence it spreads out N. E. and S. E. on two sides of Massachusetts bay, termina- ting S. E. in the long peninsula of Cape Cod, which, describing to the north and slightly to the west a segment of a circle, encloses Cape Cod bay. It also includes several islands, of which Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket are the largest. Besides the two mentioned, there are Buzzard’s bay on the S. coast, 30 m. long, with an average width of 7 m., and Plymouth bay, a small inlet communicating on the east with Cape Cod bay. The Elizabeth islands are a group of 16 off Cape Cod. (See ExizaseTra Istanps.) The state has many excellent har- bors, the best of which are at Boston and New Bedford. No large and navigable rivers, excepting the Merrimack, find their outlet on the coast. The Housatonic river, which rises in the W. part of the state, and the Connecti- MASSACHUSETTS cut, flow S. through Connecticut into Long Island sound; the Merrimack, which is navi- gable for sloops to Haverhill, 18 m. from its mouth, flows through the N. E. corner, and supplies immense water power to Lowell, Law- rence, and other manufacturing centres. The falls in the Connecticut afford valuable water power. The other principal streams are the Nashua, Taunton, Concord, Blackstone, and Charles. It contains several small lakes.— The surface of the state is greatly diversified. The extreme west is mountainous, having two ranges of the Green mountuins, the Taghkan- nic or Taconic and Hoosae ridges, which run nearly parallel to each other and into Connec- ticut. Saddle mountain in the N. W. corner is 8,600 ft. high, and Mt. Washington in the S. W. corner 2,624 ft. Further E. is the beauti- ful and fertile valley of the Connecticut. In this section are several elevations, detached members of the White mountain system, the highest peaks of which are Mt. Tom (about 1,300 ft.) on the W., and Mt. Holyoke (1,120 ft.) near Northampton, on the E. bank of the Connecticut river, and Wachusett moun- tain (2,018 ft.) N. of the middle of the state. The east and northeast are hilly and broken, and the southeast generally low and sandy. —Massachusetts is eminently a region of meta- morphic rocks. Those in the E. part of the state especially are largely overspread with the sands, gravel, and bowlders of the drift formation; and the long point of land making the S. E. extremity of the state (see CarE Cop) is so covered with these loose materials, that the rocky beds beneath are entirely concealed. Syenite and granite prevail along the coast, and extensive quarries of these rocks are worked at Quincy, Cape Ann, and other points. Around Boston is a formation of coarse conglomer- ates and argillaceous slates of obscure age on account of the metamorphic action to which they have been subjected. At Braintree, near Quincy, the slates contain trilobites, but gen- erally no fossils have been met with in these rocks. The fossils would seem to refer the slates to the lower Silurian period. These obscure formations are traced in an irregular belt toward Providence, and near the Rhode Island line they are connected with coal-bear- ing strata, referable, it is supposed, to the true carboniferous epoch. In many localities in Bristol and Plymouth .counties these strata contain beds of anthracite, some of which, as at Mansfield, have been worked for many years; but they are of little or no value, the coal always being much crushed, and the beds very irregular in their production. Gneiss and talcose and mica slates in broad belts traverse the state from N. to S. from the E. portion to the waters of the Housatonic in Berkshire. Among these rocks are interspersed a few beds of metamorphic limestone, but no minerals or ores of value. Along the Connecticut river valley, in the triassic or new red sandstone formation, known as the Connecticut valley 247 area, are found very extensive fossil footprints, which from their resemblance to the feet of birds are first called ornithichnites ; but they have since been fotnd by Prof. Edward Hitch- cock, who gave the name, to be not only the tracks of birds but of other animals. Some of them indicate that they were made by animals of gigantic size. (See Fossi Foorprints.) Trap rocks are associated with it, and near the contact of the sandstone and trap, or of the sandstone and the gneiss, are found veins of metallic ores, as of lead, copper, and zinc, none of which, however, have repaid the money spent in their exploration. The prin- cipal localities of these ores are at Southamp- ton, Leverett, Montague, Whately, and a few other towns. The high lands which traverse the state from N. to §., dividing the waters that flow into the Connecticut from those of the Housatonic, and called the Hoosac moun- tains, are chiefly of gneiss and mica slate. In Middlefield a belt of talcose slate, continued further N. in the mica slate region, reaches the gneiss; and here are developed in near prox- imity beds of limestone, steatite, and serpen- tine. The towns along the Housatonic and on the same range extending to the N. border of the state are in the region of the altered Si- lurian sandstones and calcareous formations. This is the most important mineral district of the state, numerous beds of iron ore having been worked for many years, and the quartz rocks affording in their disintegrated beds bodies of glass sand of unusual purity. In 1874 deposits specially rich in silver, and con- taining also lead and gold, were discovered in Essex co., near Newburyport, where mining operations have been begun.—In the valleys, particularly of the Housatonic and Connecti- cut, the soil is rich and productive, but a large portion of the more elevated lands and the long sandy coast do not repay the husband- man. The climate near the coast is very va- riable, with prevailing E. winds, especially in spring. The mean annual temperature is about 48°; spring, 48°; summer, 71°; autumn, 51°; winter, 21°. The annual rainfall is about 55 inches. In the interior it is more equable, and in the mountainous districts very severe in winter.—Of the total area of the state, somewhat less than one half is improved. According to the census of 1870, there were 26,500 farms, of which 1,129 contained be- tween 3 and 10 acres each, 2,532 between 10 and 20, 8,881 between 20 and 50, 8,727 be- tween 50 and 100, 5,643 between 100 and 500, and 40 between 500 and 1,000. The num- ber of acres of improved land on farms was 1,736,221; woodland, 706,714; other unim- proved, 287,348. The cash value of farms was $116,482,784; of farming implements and machinery, $5,000,879; total amount of wages paid during the year, including value of board, $5,821,032 ; total estimated value of all farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, $32,192,378 ; of or- 248 chard products, $939,854; of produce of mar- ket gardens, $1,980,321; of forest products, $1,616,818; of home manufactures, $79,378 ; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $4,324,658; of all live stock on farms, $17,- 049,228. The chief productions were, 17,574 bushels of spring and 17,074 of winter wheat, 239,227 of rye, 1,897,807 of Indian corn, 797,- 664 of oats, 133,071 of barley, 58,049 of buck- wheat, 24,690 of peas and beans, 3,026,363 of potatoes, 597, 455 tons of hay, 1, 312, 885 Ibs. of tobacco, 306, 659 of wool, 6, 559, 161 of but- ter, 2,245, 873 of cheese, 61, 910 of. hops, 399,- 800 of maple sugar, 25,299 ‘of honey, and sie 284,057 gallons of milk sold. Besides 45,227 horses and 52,263 neat cattle not on farms, there were 41,039 horses, 114,771 milch cows, 24,430 working oxen, 78,851 other cattle, 78,- 560 sheep, and 49,178 swine-—As a manu- facturing state, Massachusetts ranks with the first in the Union. The amount of capital in- vested in manufactures, and the value of the annual products, are greater in New York and Pennsylvania; but in proportion to the popula- tion the industries of Massachusetts are more extensive than those of either of the states named. In 1850 the capital invested in manu- factures amounted to $88,940,292, and the an- nual products to $157,743,994; in 1860 the former had increased to $132,792,327 and the latter to $255,545,922. In 1870 the amount of capital invested was $231,677,862, and the value of annual products $553,912,568; the materials used were valued at $334,413,982, while the wages paid amounted to $118,051,- 886. There were 13,212 establishments using 2,396 steam engines of 78,502 horse power and 3,157 water wheels of 105,854 horse power, and employing 279,380 hands, of whom 179,032 were males above 16, 86,229 females above 15, and 14,119 youth. The aldermen and select- men of the various cities and towns are re- quired by law to ascertain and return decen- nially to the state secretary the industrial sta- tistics of the commonwealth. The value of the products of all industries as thus returned amounted to $124,000,000 in 1845, $295,000,- 000 in 1855, and $577, 000, 000 in 1865 : show- ing an increase during the last named decade in the value of industrial products of 72 per cent., while the population during the same period i in- creased only 3 percent. The leading products returned for the year ending May 1, 1865, were: PRODUCTS. Value. Capital. Hands, Boots and shoes........ $52,915,243 | $10,067,474 55,160 Calico and delaine ...... 25,258,703 4,222,000 4,208 Clothing yt. atep. decid 17,743,894 4,634,440 24,722 COTLON rte soe 54.436,881 | 383,293,986 23,678 Hay Sees wee eee ek 131 OG 2 (Gaiam en 5. Ree alee’ Horses, oxen, andscows.|!) 19,154.790 | t....022. |) heen, Mackerel and cod fishery; 4.832,218 3,757,761 11,518 Paper Coceatee ccppetaireniels 9,008,521 8,785,300 8,554 Printing and newspapers! 5,358,148 1,919,400 2,409 Rolled and slit iron and AUS cpancee cee ee 8,886,502 2,827,300 8.194 Tanning and currying.. 15,821.712 4,994,933 8,847 Whale fishery.......... 6,618,670 5,879,862 8.496 Woollen goods ......... 48,430,671 14,735,830 18,483 MASSACHUSETTS In the manufacture of boots and shoes, cord- age and twine, cotton goods, cutlery, chairs, lasts, straw goods, and woollen goods, as well as textiles in general, and bleaching and dye- ing, Massachusetts ranks above all other states. The extent of these industries in this state, as compared with the United States, in 1870, is indicated in the following statement: MASSACHUSETTS. UNITED STATES. INDUSTRIES. Capital. Products. Capital. Products. Bleaching and dyeing. aa Ss ees $1,068,650 $22,252,000} $5,006,950 $58,571,498 Boot and shoe findings...... 872.030) 2,161,481 858,560} 3,389,091 Boots and shoes|19,559,788) 88,399,583] 48,994,866 181,644,090 Cordage and DY BUIEE Gomme as 666,900] 2,886,848} 3,530,470] 8,979,882 Cotton goods... |42,153,175) 59,493,158) 133,238,797) 177, "489, 139 Cutleryern era: 1,135,400} 1,617,904} 2,246,830 2,882,808 Chairs ener: 2,636,650) 3,971,522] 7,643,884) 10,567,104 TASCA NE ete. Sok 146,000 313,768 830,800 665,703 Paper ature eee. 7,728,628) 12,696,491) 35,780,514] 50,842,445 alls eet ccatas 111,400 503,385 583,290) 2,255,446 Straw goods....| 1 361, 400} 4,869,514) 2,119,850) 7,282,086 Textiles, inclu- ding cotton goods, flax and linen goods, carpets, wool- Jen goods, and worsted goods| 72,548,475 ' 112,768,211 | 265,084,095) 380,913,815 Woollen goods .|20, 609" ,400| 39, 489,242) 97,173,432] 151,298,196 While Massachusetts holds the first rank in re- spect to the industries named, the state is spe- cially noted for the extent of its manufactures of boots and shoes and cotton and woollen goods. Here are the great centres of these industries in the United States. Of the boot and shoe establishments, 1,123 were each pro- ducing annually more than $5,000. In these were employed 7,042 sewing and 636 pegging machines and 51,167 hands. The products embraced 10,129,910 pairs of boots and 29,- 164,594 pairs of shoes. Nearly one third of the capital invested in the manufacture of cot- ton goods in the United States was employed in Massachusetts. The machines in use em- braced 55,343 looms and 1,255,552 frame and 1,363,989 mule spindles. The cotton consumed amounted to 130,654,040 lbs. ; the products in- cluded 22,123,147 yards of sheetings, shirtings, and twilled goods, 12,484,858 of lawns and fine muslins, 229,613,105 of print cloths, 2,108,- 952 lbs. of yarn not woven, 2,595,358 dozens of spool thread, 33,712,996 yards of warps, 3,773,664 lbs. of bats, wicking, and wadding, 6,864,954 yards of flannel, 13,690,000 of ging- hams and checks, and 407,527 lbs. of thread. The value of all products increased from $21,- 394,401 in 1850 to $38,004,255 in 1860, and $59, 493,153 in 1870. In the woollen mills were 1 367 cards, with a daily capacity for 159 (484. Ibs. of carded wool, 4,469 broad and 3.3774 narrow looms, and 470,785 spindles ; 37,146,190 lbs. of domestic wool were con- sumed, besides 2,813,449 of cotton and 5,994,- 110 of shoddy. The products embraced 403,- 785 pairs of blankets, 21,819,879 yards of cloths, cassimeres, and doeskins, 285,000 of MASSACHUSETTS 249 felted cloth, 22,821,684 of flannels, 7,701,880 | The leading industri Ited g industries of the state, as reported of satinets, 585,435 shawls, 808,920 yards of | by the census of 1870, are shown in ie fol- tweeds and twills, and 1,285,161 lbs. of yarn. | lowing table: Sasol Steam ae INDUSTRIES. alae en eee irny. Hands Value of | Value of siealat mae pe employed, carols Py exes: materials, er in . Pp wer, Agricultural implements........ ahi da cia. se 8 Bisckamiuone SO ae opats cle oyeiara, skens oie 661 a 300 1 ane Se eser erate el prot: Bleaching and dyeing................+... ‘ 7 3 on 115,667 | 650,058 |__ 565,587 | 1,982,448 Bete fs WIE U Baars vere si ses Gaisig. he. eie 32 1,753 187 1,387 | 1,068,650 608,848 | 20,623,653 |22,252.429 Se er eke OTe eee es uns | et een “YEO ae eer , 204, 2.16 fol and shoes... EE asl acaante 2,302 2,266 94 04,831 19,500,738 97,265,283 |61,368,406 |88 399/588 ; roducts ree 08 8,650 | 552,215 | 2,12 "130, Bricks... seseeceecasscussseserereeeress 107 | $23 ia | 2901 | 24a5'310 | tooties | “978'508 DDD 0e4 yaliaD she Sonal Tyee atge Seon eae 901 468 112 5,825 | 1,880,202 | 3,484,104 | 6,308,115 |12,429,739 yaaa seam NOE aay ayaa) Says a1 6/8 ci agauar ee i. 6 803 100 2.200 | 8,250,000 832,954 | 3,256,628 | 4,487,525 . ‘a A ards POU State Sead waa es es 826 119 181 2,914 | 1,729,091 | 1,486,959 | 1,826,968 | 4,088,656 ee reight and passenger............... 6 280 werere 866 | 1,245,000 636,760 | 1,486,929 2.408.827 0) hing, Liat ae Be iecreserdic sie) bak os siuciaa ae 82 Sacer pare sees 8,815,742 |11,918,817 | 20,212,407 D'Se. ns ees e cece ene eceevees a Hee i} , 248,268 889,731 Cordage pnddawin lie ca tas lck ud ocicleh tgs 82 | 1,069 208 988 | 666,900 | 395,978 | 1,961,410 a esate Jotton goods, not aot daSia aie oiteate ate 159 | 16,700 | 30,398 41,446 /42,148,175 |12,912,523 |85,462,617 56,257,580 ane sir roe x Inve ne eee. i ay 120 one 47,228 802,585 884,030 HOS. sees sees cece eee eeees wee ; 1,500 15,000 28,000 Genesee twine, and yarn........... a ee Aer ah sorenit Lees cea 8,009,543 BUULIONY oe ger te Sora oe me, ere eee i) 1, 185, 5247 | 1,001,891 | 6,215,825 Drugs and chemicals. . nance Sean eae et ee 22 235 deus 8,998 | 4,287,871 | 2,291,870 857,288 | 1,617,904 Fisheries, exclusive of the whale fisheries. . 287 ara Bees 854 | 1,230,800 190,545 | 1,152,780 | 1 800.399 Mouring and grist mill products.......... 316 | 1,810 | 9,013 855 | 2171314 | 271.248 | 8.768.926 | 9,720,374 urniture, net SOL y ie eeceaiseacesteiseetac 243 1,275 675 4.044 | 8,872,225 | 2.248.980 | 3,146,828 7,897,626 us chatenattotlslacit Beta ks 76 693 | 1,899 | 5.663 | 2,636,650 | 1.291.371 | 1,681,006 | 8,971,522 ass, cut. a Let eesatets cui viaisis: «trate so stds «oo ahe tare 8 21 sista 104 50,500 51,400 70,000 171,000 * WATE... eee eect cece eee ee ce eeees 11 164 es 1,570 | 1,203,000 669,520 531,684 | 1,571,000 she WIDOWER SER ee eae oe oe eles cles eras 3 60 110 404 883,560 257,200 127,300 800,000 Bea Sits Be 1 -Prlase dais Sa 119 591 73 | 1,757 | 1,908,050 | 929,788 | 891,665 | 2,515,429 uae and ApS. .-ssacerssceeresseeeeees 50 029 mee 8,200 855, 600 | 985,304 | 1,€46,566 | 3,416,191 p skirts and corsets....-.........+5++ Salas 6 800 170,561 849,225 710,772 Tiaacibhas enrelastiogeods.¢s ak. 16 | Gos | 55 | 1405 | tozn'600 | Ben's | Lasd008 | Sisnar8 sya tees HSB 5 ‘ ,920,6 "798 | 1,554,006 | 8,188,218 Iron, forged and rolled Frareltratetore a’ sale, s) 3 e's: esos 29 5,463 715 2,590 | 2,760,125 | 1,827,675 | 4,538,866 | 6,699,907 as nails and spikes, cut and wrought.... 49 1,767 1,459 2,458 | 2,600,850 | 1,059,230 | 4,082,775 | 5,986,144 a pipe, wrought.. beading) 4 ata sla Saleh b 5 230 25 880 385,000 219,500 976,218 | 1,407,000 castings not, specified.........2.+... 101 955 650 2,749 | 2,496,900 | 1,640,402 | 2,574,820 | 5,265,154 stoves and hollow ware.............. 18 815 114 965 940,500 646,401 555,675 | 1,781,548 ris, not specified 22. ekiacs daskrekiealas 59 186 62 1,642 972.500 786,650 825,523 | 2,842,025 te s cee eabial grenete sis ed slodet e948 oa aaiahaie a +a ; oy lee ! ria . gts 135,960 68,617 318,768 ther, OD. eee eee cence eee eeeneers 30 42 130, 756,467 | 8,025,578 | 9,984,497 - Curried focckesekee fete A cake 196 1,350 85 8,194 | 3,163,076 | 1,812,082 |14,969,920 |19,211,3830 pea 6 soeatens tanned and curried...... - i te aie ; ie Boe 450,200 | 2,815,800 | 8,158,020 ber, p! UGS RR ATE Sete MER ANS He SA: . Of 1,686,600 758,881 | 8,788,501 | 3,155,370 ance sawed.... sete tee e ee ee eee ee eens 638 2,019 | 18,900 2,258 2,031,879 558,055 | 2,028,488 | 3,496,820 achinery, not specified PAAtinianee eae 200 1,731 1,274 8,626 | 4,105,600 | 2,116,494 | 2,570,666 | 6,723,102 te cotton and woollen Sse. ale hela spreisie 95 8238 $72 2,816 | 2,940,750 1,575,917 2,258,392 | 4,621,314 ‘ railroad repairing,.... Soc sehr 3 205 ves 1,101 708,500 635,835 812,825 | 1,898,894 . peieurrmcerene votes Cf es YRS | | Fae ee | eee | Oe Tt Role osilsja Se isle caine ese e 4 Jos ars la | 79,83 2,178,450 Molasses SM BUPA, LOUNCU. « aic/ecls cis atest zt 900 Boer 460 | 2,200,000 226,848 | 6,944,395 | 7,665,485 Musical instruments, organs and materials. 17 124 aa 745 698,000 581,556 819,050 | 1,874,614 : a DISNOB?. Avie agitoshnes 21 3820 23 994 | 2,075,711 949,133 675,759 | 2,581,565 Oil, Fis 20. ..eeeeee ener ces ce cee ceeeeenes 9 85 aes 152 482,000 57,133 | 1,970,282 | 2,578,176 We ee tas tac an cree anes 2 215 woes 69 | 200,000 47,500 | 914,000 | 1,003,610 Paper, not specified ............05. 20.08 17 188 alates 864 558,100 144,908 555,189 | 1,052,784 & prauee Pee aie Rho oe, nes he dE wee 2 i Ere be 73 eee 549.190 | 8,052,971 | 4,819,924 TAPPING... ...-seeeeceee se ceeeeees 3 so 16 14,500 | 181,752 | 769,769 | 1,289,178 ME wring sec diet ra. wes eeeve cece ees 80 170 38,054 2,602 | 4,887,828 979,000 | 8,638,470 | 6,025,595 Printing, cotton and woollen goods........ 11 1,806 1,165 2,996 | 2,894,653 | 1,110,055 |15,420,580 17,825,150 Printing and publishing, not specified..... 18 64 aye) 6 435 520,400 268,533 808.611 | 1,702,740 : ‘ HOOK ee ue ok aa ee 811 268,000 177,456 872,860 | 1,205,000 prom] ae ame) | ae | ea | ne | ane | Sa F a as STeie.* slg * "<2 S10 aja Ta lee 5 4 . 5) ’ 5) 7,811 Ship building, repairing, and ship materials 98 38T Se 1,166 | 1,192,350 727,473 902,845 | 2,070,201 — and spades. fy ee es PA ae, me se 390 ee 371,100 anor 1,080,144 | 1,820,526 MLOw. mle tiiaie eae Mseh ieee Lets bales sisiels ls s tees 1 662,750 90,195 132,444 | 1,204,148 Straw goods,......... save eecsedcevereces 39 28T 85 | 11,441 | 1,861,400 | 1,411,850 | 2,503,070 | 4,869,514 Tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware.......... 800 84 acd 1,584 | 1,284,900 766,485 | 1,884,095 | 2,785,674 Panmatery we 2 hel. £8). Bares. bead 7 +: tees 901 | 978,655 | 461,909 | 1,284,157 | 2,424,457 Watches......cesseeecsecceescncseeeneece 3 55 vase 758 980,000 610,024 | 175,909 | 1,281,160 Ree eck Taetarlpa sone ta: Kags m0 = 6 | 1,100 343 910 | 1,418,500 | 555,887 | 1,288,822 | 2,354,672 Wioollen’ fOOUS 7). |. tet.se sees e's es. mA Ss. 182 0,421 12,230 20,841 |20,622,400 | 7,296,752 24,€66,118 |89,489,242 Worsted goods eee ee ee 85 130 2,079 5,275 2,839,500 1,678,462 5,663,048 8,280,541 Not included in the above statement for 1870 | and those of fisheries, with $4,287,871 capital are the statistics of mining and quarrying, in | and $6,215,825 annual products. The stone which the capital invested amounted to $944,- | quarried, including large quantities of Quincy 250, and the annual products to $1,498,522; | granite, was valued at $1,294,148.—For com- 250 mercial purposes, the state is divided into 11 customs districts, of which the ports of entry are given in the following statements. The imports and exports for the year ending June 30, 1874, were as follows: PORTS OF ENTRY. | Imports. poecere Poreige exports. exports. Boston. 22. asecteielsr $52,212,405 | $28,385,627 | $2,275,023 Fall River? sine sed OA OTAG reetes. te Subs sed slew Sei ce Gloucester.......... 94,007 1,400 109 Marblehead ........ de DOS presi tae sto cBile see niece tre New Bedford....... 95,971 80,369 233 Newburyport....... 227,353 39,076 8,663 Plymouth | ern sere 128 BLA steralcye ertecyes Salem and Beverly.. 60,717 49,009 1,744 Total, f.cteccec: + $52,787,280 | $28,455,515 | $2,280,772 The movement of foreign shipping at the vari- ous ports, and the number of vessels registered; enrolled, and licensed, were as follows: ers OF ENTERED. CLEARED. /REGISTER’D, &O. ENTRY. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. Barnstable. . 16 1,423 20 1,786 | 483] 50,909 Boston ..... 2,717 | 780,769 | 2,652 | 659,102} 8831 274,941 Jou shakonaihs | seeeulll duoode Scie | sie See 16 1,135 Fall River .. 16 1,956 4 575 | 147} 27,291 Gloucester..| 121 | 22,710 95) 14,777) 491| 23,663 Marblehead..| 33 8,011 39 4,284 62 2,636 Mantueketac teas se i te eeveiee aha Hit acto aae 7 118 NewBedford| 53 | 12,572 aT 7,818) 233] 47,871 Newburyp’t. 19 2,530 Bt 7,887 67} 12,865 Plymouth .. 1 102 1 102 89 8,940 Salem and Beverly... 84 8,468) 100 11,767 85 7,844 Total...| 3,066 | 783,541 | 2,952 | 708,048 | 2,563 | 458,378 Those that entered and cleared as well as those registered were mostly sailing vessels. The number of vessels engaged in the coastwise trade was as follows: COASTWISE TRADE. PORTS OF ENTRY. ENTERED. CLEARED. No. Tons. No. Tons. Barnstable.2 2... ccs sos. 2 2,9 8 405 OSTOM ei trenren ee uslece 1,271 | 1,150,169 | 1,741 | 1,286,866 Bidmartownets.cceees cee 2¢ 2, 11 rary TAM TATS Rh bi) Os Sak cee aye 486} 886,647 880] 813,006 Gilducesterses seen: 70 5,957 86 8,886 Marbiehead 5 fac ease 10 1,123 X 1718 IMANCUCKCL. cee oacie cease 392 8 147 New Bedford .......... 135 47,360 86 8,735 Newburyport..3.....5.. 523 59,728 491 65,756 iblyinOuths accreted. 3 516 1 122 Salem and Beverly ..... 98 10,448 41 5,461 OCHS: pecerregs oe dst 2,655 | 2,167,886 | 2,700 | 2,191,829 Besides the above, 105 vessels of 3,677 tons engaged in the general fisheries entered at Newburyport, and 116 of 3,922 tons cleared. For more than a century the fisheries of Mas- sachusetts have constituted one of its leading industries. (See Fisuertes.) The most im- portant centres of this industry are Gloucester, which far surpasses any other port of the coun- try in the magnitude of its cod and mackerel fisheries, and New Bedford, which is the lead- ing market in the United States for the pro- MASSACHUSETTS duce of the whale. The entire products of the American whale fisheries for the year end- ing June 80, 1874, amounted to $2,291,896, in- cluding sperm oil valued at $1,250,987, other whale oil $775,919, and whalebone $264,990. Nearly all of these were from Massachusetts, where were employed in the whale fisheries about 170 vessels belonging to Barnstable, Ed- gartown, New Bedford, and Salem and Bever- ly. Of the 2,099 vessels employed in the cod and mackerel fisheries in the United States, 1,026 of 49,578 tons belonged to Massachusetts. According to the census of 1870, more than half of the products of fisheries in the United States, exclusive of the whale fisheries, were the result of Massachusetts industry. The capital invested in this business was $4,287,871, and the number of persons employed was 8,993. Among the products, which were val- ued at $6,215,325, were ‘451,125 quintals of cod, 1,651 tons of halibut, 188,567 barrels of mackerel, $486,596 worth of miscellaneous fish, and 805,049 gallons of oil, valued at $302,- 790. Ship building is carried on in most of the customs districts; in 1874 there were 77 vessels built, of 31,499 tons, including 5 steam- ers, of 689 tons. About two thirds of these were built in Boston, Charlestown, and New- buryport.—The first railroad in Massachusetts was opened for use in 1885, since which time an average of about 50 m. has been annually constructed. On Sept. 80, 1874, the entire mileage belonging to Massachusetts companies was 2,418, exclusive of 657 m. of sidings and 626 m. of double track; the length of main track and branches within the commonwealth was 1,782 m., and of double track and sidings 917m. About 29 per cent. of the main lines are laid with steel rails. Nominally there are 60 corporations, but the railroads of the state are controlled by 31 distinct boards of direction. The average cost of roads has been $56,883 62 a mile, in addition to the cost of equipment, $7,701 a mile. The entire amount directly in- vested in the railroads reporting to the state is $165,624,186, including $117,066,798 of stock and $48,557,338 of debt. The total earnings returned for the year amounted to $34,632,483, of which about 49 per cent. were from passen- gers and 46 per cent. from freight. The num- ber of passengers carried was 42,480,494. The whole number of accidents was 279, of which 127 resulted in death; nearly one third were caused by walking on the tracks. The aver- age of casualties for a series of years from causes not attributable to the carelessness of the person injured has been 1 to each 1,400,000 passengers carried; but in 1874 it was only 1 to each 5,300,000. The railroads are under the general supervision of a board of three commis- sioners, who are appointed by the governor, and are required to report annually upon the condition of the roads and corporations, the causes of accidents, &c. The lines completed at the beginning of 1875 are represented in the fol- lowing table, omitting those less than 5 m. long: MASSACHUSETTS 251 TERMINI. LENGTH. Capi‘al | Cost of road, CORPORATIONS. stock &c., propor- From To. Total. |In Mass.| paidin. tion for Mass, Berkshirevs, occ anese ts ot gs ela «cls 2'2"s Sheiiieldvne se aes W. Stockbridge...... 22 29 $600,000 $C06,000 Boston and Atanvereecren cats ass ce. ‘BOStON cee. wastes UDarys Ne ene cle orsee Po 2OL 162 |19,864,100 | 22,254,889 Hranshes Grand Junction....... Cottage Farm........ East Boston ......... 9 Oecd siasan'|hewee omen 3 PE MIUGREE Teka Dace cok sy South Framingham...| Milford.............. 12 19: vher ee he ee Boston, Barre, and Gardner.......... Wioreester. aan neces Winchendon ........ 86 8 863,001 1,257,688 Boston, Clinton, and Fitchburg....... Hitehburpss saeco. South Framingham...) 41 41 872,600 | 2,855,564 Boston, Hartford, and Erie.......... Bostonys. scence seer « Willimantic, Conn....| €5 51 |20,000,000 8,275,861 Woonsocket division.............. IBtOOkIINGt. 2 ap eae Woonsocket, R.I..... 8 Dobe | Casale on, eee Southbridge division .............. EK. Thompson, Conn..| Southbridge ......... 17 LORE reonciset waters eee Boston and Lowell...........0.eee0. Bostonwites. ease. PSO Welle, Be Soe ck ots 26 26 | 3,200,000 5,554,765 Lexington and Arlington.......... Modford ic. 313 24% Lextuctonas. ot casa 9 2 fe Mie kw pe sue Boston and Maine................++. BOSON. ap sar cae. Portland, Me......... 116 86 | 6,921,274 | 8,815,604 Boston and Providence.............. BOSCOMMC. see eee Providence, R.I...... 44 83 | 4,000,000 | 4,534,060 Wiest ROXDUIy eos des. «is secnie emia Forest Hills Station..| Dedham ............ 5 15th AN ed era SA) bie Lee 5 India Polntarine oategeaa sy esse ace. Seekonk. 3s. 6 an cack Providence, R.I...... a See likin cated luke tance eee Oheshira tar ce: eet tdee tonto iac eset South Ashburnham..| Bellows Falls, Vt..... 53 | ° 11 } 2,153,800 574,432 Connecticut Riveriics: «tick vc os aids Springfield........... South Vernon, Vt....} 50 £0 | 2,100,000 | 2,684,220 Dan Vere Mey acute aes aes «hiss 4 heehee Wakefield Junction ..| Danvers....,........ 3 Oras ieee kok ee eee Duxbury and Cohasset.............. COMASSCttematee ee ACU SCOUMY ereerersperersinns « 20 20 850,000 452,878 WUSLOIIS. Gare eee e aisles since casltiele « BOBStODAC fae St brete he, = cate lineesacse are. 41 41 | 4,997,600 | 14,192,658 PORUPUS een soe a yaa ctaiste ete re aic'e 6 Rever6sss tee eninns LVR g taste ee eee eine 9 OES err rcres ei pete. oe WM Ar blgh CR) s. etetsia:-oysg ae, A force is impulsive when it acts for a moment only, like the stroke of a hammer. When such a force alone acts against a movable body, it necessarily causes uniform motion, a fact which may be shown experimentally by using 77 of 56 in., or 2°6 in. When any body is rotated it has a tendency to revolve on its shortest axis, in consequence of the greater momentum in the par- ticles furthest from the centre of motion. When a body having the form shown in fig. 20 is turned on its longer axis by means of a string suspended from ¢, if the body is perfectly regular and the geomet- rical axis perfectly coincides with . the axis of motion, it will not change its posi- tion; but as such coincidence never exists, the body will on being rotated begin to change its axis of rotation, and when sufficient speed is attained, the increased momentum resulting Fia. 20. MECHANICS from the change of position will cause the body to assume a position at right angles to its first position, and revolve about its shorter axis. The oblate spheroidal figure of the earth and other heavenly bodies is due to the action of centrifugal force. (See HypRroMEoHANIcs.) IV. Tue Penputum. A simple pendulum may be defined as a body whose weight is con- fined to a point, and which, suspended from a fixed point, vibrates in an arc. A simple pendulum can only exist in theory. A sin- gle vibration of a pendulum is the distance through which it oscillates from the point at which it begins to descend on one side of the vertical, as at a, fig. 21, to the point on the opposite side of the ver- tical, as at b, where its mo- tion is arrested by the ac- tion of gravity. Its passage from a to b and back to a is called a double vibration. All pendulums are com- pound because, having ex- tension, their different par- ticles are at different dis- tances from the centre of motion, and therefore tend to vibrate in different times, 2 because the time of vibra- tion is increased by increas- ing the length of the pendu- lum. For small arcs the times of vibrations are the same; beyond certain limits increasing the arc increases the time. These facts were first ascertained by Galileo about 1585, when making use of the pendulum for counting time in astro- nomical observations. It has been demonstra- ted by mathematicians that if a pendulum vi- brates in a small circular are, the ratio of the time of one vibration to the time in which a body would fall half the length of the pen- dulum is equal to the ratio of the circumfer- ence of a circle to its diameter. Therefore, according to equation (1), substituting 7 for s, and letting ¢ denote the time of one vibra- tion, we have dig saris or t= m4/o, From this equation it will be observed that the time of vibration of a pendulum varies as the square root of its length. Squaring both mem- bers of the equation, ? = " OP tl i A half-seconds pendulum is therefore found as (4)2x82°16 ft. 96°48 in. a ee siaie? ~ — oer OTT in. A seconds pendulum is 39-1 in., and a two-sec- onds pendulum 156°4 in. When the arc of vibration is 1° on each side of the vertical, the daily retardation compared to the vibration in an are which causes no retardation is 13 second. When the arc is 2°, the loss is 6% seconds; when 3°, it is 15 seconds; the formula for esti- mating the retardation being $D?, where D represents the number of degrees the pendu- lum describes on each side of the vertical. The c iP Fig. 21, follows: 7 = MECHANICS 395 inequalities in the times of vibration were ob- viated by Huygens by causing the pendulum to vibrate in a cycloidal arc, which he was the first to demonstrate is the curve of quickest descent from one point to another. To pro- duce this cycloidal vibration, it is only neces- sary to cause the string by which the pendulum is suspended to wind around a_ semi- cycloid placed at each side, and to “Pe me unwind from it ee when it falls from d rest, as shown in Fig. 22, fig. 22. The prac- tical difficulties in the use of cycloidal arcs for pendulums are however greater than the advantage gained ; therefore the pendulums of astronomical clocks are made to vibrate in small circular arcs. It has been said that in a compound pendulum there is a tendency in the different parts which are at different distances from the point of suspension to vibrate in different times. This will appear from M a consideration of fig. 28. Suppose several balls, A, B, ©, D, E, sus- pended by sepa- rate strings of un- equal lengths from a horizontal bar at M. If they are all let fall at the same time from the line M E, the ball A on the shortest string will descend more rap- idly than B, B more rapidly than C, &c., so that af- ter a time they will have the positions A’, B’, &c. If they are all attached to the same wire and kept in the same line while vibrating, the balls moving in the smaller arcs will tend to accelerate the motion of those further from the centre of motion, and those vibrating in the larger arcs will tend to retard the motion of those nearer the centre of motion. Therefore there is a certain point where there is neither a tendency to retard nor to accelerate; this point is called the centre of oscillation of the system. The distance between this point and the point of suspension measures the length of a compound pendulum. If a homogeneous cylindrical bar is suspended at one end and made to vibrate, the centre of oscillation is two thirds the distance from the point of suspension. The discovery of the centre of oscillation, as we have seen, also marked an era in the science of mechanics, be- ing one of its most important principles, and having a wide application. The centre of os- cillation and the point of suspension of a pen- dulum are convertible points; that is, if the centre of oscillation is made the point of sus- pension, the time of vibration will not be changed; a principle which allows of the ex- perimental determination of the centre of os- cillation, and therefore of the length of the pendulum. The centre of oscillation may be entirely beyond the pendulum, as in the me- tronome, an instrument used to measure time in music. (See Merronome.) Its principle is shown in fig. 24, where a horizontal axis sup- ports a rod, upon which there are two balls whose distance from the centre of motion may be varied at pleasure. If the balls are of equal weight and at equal distances from the centre of motion, they will not oscil- late; but at unequal distances they will, and slowly in propor- tion as the difference of distance is small. The pendulum affords a correct means of finding the value of g, and therefore the height through which a body will fall from rest in one second of time. Taking the equation / = ee and trans- 7 2d posing, we have g=-. Therefore, if the length of the seconds pendulum is 39:1 in., the equation becomes in numbers g = 3714159? x 39°1 = 32°16 ft., which is twice the space through which a body will fall in one sec- ond of time.—The principal use of the pen- dulum is to measure time. To do this accu- rately, it is necessary to keep the point of sus- pension and the centre of oscillation at the same distance from each other, or in other words, to preserve a constant length. In- crease of temperature causes a pendulum made of one piece to lengthen by expansion. If, however, two ma- terials are so combined that while the expan- sion of one tends to lengthen the system, that of the other tends to raise the centre of os- cillation, and the com- bination is such that the expansion of one shall exactly counteract that of the other, the desired end is attained. Such pendulums are called compensation pen- dulums. Two forms are shown in figs. 25 and 26. The bob of fig. 25 consists of a steel frame holding a hollow glass cylinder contain- ing mercury. It is evident that if this mer- cury by its expansion causes the centre of 326 oscillation to rise just as much as the expan- sion of the rod causes it to descend, the length of the pendulum will remain unchanged. Now, as mercury expands about 14 times as much as steel, if the rod and frame are of steel, the column of mercury should be a little less than 6 in. for a seconds pendulum. Fig. 26 is the gridiron pendulum. It is made of brass and steel, whose rates of expansion are about 10 to 6. The bars are so arranged that the expansion of the brass shall exactly compen- sate that of the steel both in the gridiron and in the rod above it. The pendulum is used as a standard of measures of length. The length of a seconds pendulum at London was in 1824 declared by parliament to be 39°1393 in., and our government has adopted that standard. The French government in 1790 adopted as its standard the gg,ao4.n09 part of the quad- rant of a great circle of the earth, which they called a métre, equal to 39°37079 English inches. V. MerouanrcaL Powers.— Theory of Machines. A machine is an instrument or contrivance by which force may be trans- mitted from one point to another. The force employed in working a machine is called the power; the resistance which the body acted on offers to the force is called resistance, weight, or load, and is expressed in terms of weight whose unit is usually the pound avoir- dupois; the point at which the power is ap- plied is called the point of application ; the line of direction of the force is the line in which the force is applied, and in which it tends to make the body move, although it usually moves in the direction of a resultant. That part of a machine which is immediately applied to the resistance is called its working point. The power, like the resistance, is expressed in units of pounds avoirdupois. It is usual, in explain- ing the theory of machines, to neglect many conditions for the purpose of perspicuity and convenience, which are. afterward taken into account. Thus the parts of a machine are primarily supposed to have no weight, to move without friction, and to encounter no resis- tance from the air. After the theoretical effects have been calculated, these accidental effects receive attention. Machines are divided into simple and compound. The definition of a simple machine is not so obvious as is often thought. It is sometimes defined as consisting of one part; but as the pulley and wheel and axle are called simple machines, this definition is not exact, because each of these consists of several parts. If we conclude, however, that the only simple machines are the lever, the inclined plane, and the cord, this definition may be accepted; but simple machines, or, as they are often called, the simple mechanical powers, have generally been divided into six classes, viz.: 1, the lever; 2, the wheel and axle; 3, the pulley; 4, the inclined plane; 5, the wedge; 6, the screw.—l. The Lever. This power may be defined as an inflexible bar rest- ing on a fixed point or edge, called the fulcrum MECHANICS or prop. Levers are of three kinds, called the first, second, and third. ‘The first kind is shown in fig. 27, where the fulcrum is between the power and the weight, and separates the two arms of the lever. These two arms are usually of unequal length, the weight having Fic. 27. Fie. 28. the same ratio to the long arm as the power has to the short arm. The second kind of lever, fig. 28, has the weight between the ful- crum and the power. The third kind, fig. 29, has the power between the weight and the fulcrum. In the first kind of lever it is evi- dent that to produce equilibrium the pow- ef i \)_ er may be either less “~~ p or greater than the ve weight, according as Fie. 29. it is placed further from or nearer to the fulcrum. The propor- tion of power to resistance, in any kind of lever, to produce equilibrium is reckoned in the inverse proportion of the distance of these forces from the fulcrum; the weight multiplied into the distance from the fulcrum being equal to the power multiplied into its distance from the same point. It cannot therefore be said that the second and third kinds of lever have two distinct arms. In the second kind, the weight, being always near the fulcrum, must always be greater than the power; in the third, the power, being always between the weight and the fulcrum, must always be greater than the weight. As the distances through which the power and weight move are in proportion to their respective dis- tances from the fulcrum, it follows also that equilibrium is maintained when the product of their weights into the distances they respec- tively travel, or in other words, into their ve- locities, are equal, and furthermore that when a weight is moved by means of a lever, what is gained in power is lost in velocity. The com- mon steelyard is an example of a lever of the first kind, nut crackers of the second, and fire tongs of the third. All these three kinds of lever are found in various parts of the mech- anism of the human body and in that of many of the lower animals. An example of the first kind is seen in the movement of the oc- cipital bone upon the atlas or upper bone of the spinal column. The raising of the body upon the toes by the action of the muscles of the calf of the leg, if the ankle joint is con- sidered as a fulcrum, is an example of a lever of the second kind. The action of the biceps muscle upon the forearm, where the elbow joint is a fulcrum and the weight is held in the hand, is an example of a lever of the third kind, The power or the weight may act upon MECHANICS the lever in an oblique direction ; but in making calculations the perpendicular distance of the lines of direction from the fulerum must be regarded instead of the actual distances on the lever, as will be we readily understood jdt a: by observing fig. 30, : where the power is applied in the direc- tion dp, the long arm of the lever, ca, being practical- nee side cd of the right- angled triangle eda. When two or more levers, of one or more kinds, are combined, the system is called a compound lever. Plat- form weighing scales, such as are shown in fig. 31, are combinations of this kind, where the beam is a lever of the first kind, and ed, ad, and gf levers of the second kind, if we consider the weights on the beam km the power; but if we consider the load as a force acting on the Fig. 81. platform and raising the weights at p, then a, cb, and fg become levers of the third kind. —2. The Wheel and Azle. This power is a modification of the lever, and consists of a wheel and cylinder, or of two cylinders of unequal radii, revolving about a common axis, the larger cylinder being called the wheel and the smaller the axle. The wheel and axle may have the action of either kind of lever, but usually has that of the first, as shown in fig. 32, where the power is applied at a, the ful- crum is the axis ¢, while the weight is sus- pended from the short end of the lever, which is equal to the radius of the axle, the long end being equal to the radius of the wheel. If, how- ever, the weight is suspended upon the same side with the power, and the latter is applied in an upward direction, as is often the case, the machine acts upon the principle of a lever of the second kind; and by applying the power to the axle the machine may: be made to act as a lever of the third kind. Indeed, prac- tically, levers are constant- ly changing in their action from one kind into another; thus a shovel or hay fork held in the two hands may at one. moment be a lever of the first kind and at the next one of the third kind, as the one or the ly reduced to the } 327 other hand becomes fixed or movable. In the simple wheel and axle the mechanical advan- tage is in proportion to the ratio of the radius of the wheel to that of the axle; if the former is 5 ft. while the latter is 5 in., the ratio of power to weight is as 1 to 12. This mode of increasing the efficiency of the machine is often inconvenient, and may be obviated by employing a differential axle, consisting of two parts of different diameters, as represent- ed in fig. 83, the cord winding upon one part and off the other, and the weight being sup- ihiveh, Sy, Fie. 84. ported by a pulley. The most common plan in machinery is to employ a system of cog wheels, as shown in fig. 84. An equilibrium of forces will obtain where the product of the power multiplied into the radii of all the wheels is equal to that of the weight multi- plied into the radii of all the pinions. Cog wheels are of three kinds, spur, crown, and bevelled. A spur wheel is shown at a, fig. 35, a crown wheel at 6, and bevelled wheels at ce. They are used to change the direction of force or axis of mo- tion. The wheel and axle when applied to carriages serves a dif- ferent purpose from that in ordinary ma- chinery, and acts in a different way. The action of the carriage wheel when ascending an inclination is like that modification of the inclined plane called the toggle joint (fig. 44). When the road is a rigid and level plane, the wheel merely serves to afford successive supporting points to the load, the only resistance to be over- come being the sliding friction of the axle and the rolling fric- tion between the wheel and the road. (See Friotion.)—3. Zhe Pulley. The pulley is common- ly said to act upon the princi- ple of a lever of the first kind with equal arms, but this does not explain its principle. In fig. 36 we have indeed a lever of the first kind, with equal arms ac and cb; and fig. 87 shows another such lever in the Fre. 36. 328 stationary pulley, and also a lever of the second kind in the movable pulley, where the power is applied at f the weight sus- pended at 6, while the fulcrum, which is changeable as the pulley ascends, is at a. This would seem to account for the mechan- ical advantage, which is in the ratio of 2 to 1; but in place of the pulleys there may be substituted smooth cylinders which shall not revolve, and if they are well lubricated a similar mechanical advantage is obtained as when revolving pulleys are used. In this case there is evidently no use of a lever, so that it must be concluded that the mechani- cal advantage which is obtained is derived from the use of the cord. The system of pul- leys shown in fig. 88 may include any number, the mechanical advantage being doubled with every additional movable pulley; for it is evident that the cord a sustains half of the weight W, and the cord ¢ half of this, or one fourth of the whole; and further, that the cord e or f sustains one eighth of the whole. Several pulleys may be placed in one block. In- stead of having one fixed pulley and the others movable, they may be placed in two frames or blocks, as shown in fig. 39, one block being fixed and the other movable. In this case one cord goes round all the pul- leys, and therefore the weight is divided equally between the parts of the cord in the lower block, which parts are equal to twice the number of pulleys in the block. In this arrangement, where there are three pulleys in each block, the power will there- fore be to the weight in the ratio of 1 to 6. The pulley is a very portable and efficient power, the cord allowing great freedom in changing the direction in which the power is applied, by the employment of fixed single pulleys, which may be fastened to the ground, allowing of the application of horse or steam | following man- MECHANICS power, or of any desired number of men. The rigging of ships is almost entirely managed by means of the pulley, and the hoisting of build- ing material is to a great extent effected by the same machine.—4. Zhe Inclined Plane. This power depends for its efficiency in the elevation of great weights upon the nearness with which the plane approaches to a hori- zontal surface. The power re- quired to pro- duce*the equi- librium of forces on an inclined plane may be deter- mined in the ner: We will suppose two cases, the first in which the power is ap- plied in a direction parallel to the plane, and the second in which it is applied in a hori- zontal direction, or parallel to the base. Let m, fig. 40, be the centre of gravity of a freely moving body resting on a plane whose length is a 6, and whose height is bc. Let the per- pendicular me fall from the centre of grav- ity upon the plane; also draw md perpen- dicular to the plane. Let me represent the force of gravity, then will md represent the pressure perpendicular to the plane, and de or mt will represent the force in quantity and direction with which the body tends to move downward along the plane. An equal force acting in the opposite direction will therefore produce equilibrium. Since the triangle med is similar to abe, ed: em:: be: ab. Con- sequently, when the power is applied in a di- rection parallel to the plane, equilibrium will exist where » : w:: height of plane: length of plane, or p:w::sin a: rad. In the sec- ond case, where the power is applied in a di- rection parallel with the base, produce md to h, and draw ef parallel to the base; then will ehormk of the parallelogram meh k repre- sent the force necessary to produce equilib- rium, and m hf will represent the pressure per- pendicular to the plane. But in this case eh : em::b6ce:ac. Therefore, power: weight :: height of plane : length of base of plane, or p : wi: sin @: cos a.— 5. The Wedge, fig. 41, is a double inclined plane. Itis used for forcing asunder bod- , ies which offer great resistance, such as fibres of wood and the seams of rocks. It is usually propelled by percussion, which is applied to the head in the direction of its length, from a to 6. The forces will be in equilibrium where the proportion of power to resistance is the same as that of thickness of Fie. 40. Fig. 41. MECHANICS head to length of wedge. It is, however, difficult to estimate the power of percus- sion. To make the instrument effectual, con- siderable friction is required to prevent the resistance from forcing the wedge out of the crevice into which it has been driven.—6. The Screw. This machine is another form of the inclined plane. If a triangular piece of paper is wound around a cylinder, as shown in fig. 42, it will illustrate the formation and princi- ple of action of the screw. In passing once around the cylinder, the height be- tween two adjacent layers of the edge which forms the hypothenuse will rep- resent the height of a plane which has the circumfer- ence of the cylinder for its base. The power is applied by means of a lever, and in a direction at right angles to the axis of the screw, or in a direc- tion parallel with the base of the plane. There- fore the forces are in equilibrium where the proportion of power to resistance equals that of the distance between the threads to the cir- cumference of a circle described by the revolu- tion of that point in the lever to which the power is applied. The distance between the threads is measured in the direction of the axis of the cylinder. The power of the screw is increased by increasing the length of the lever by which it is turned, or by diminishing the distance between the threads. It may also be increased by letting a screw with compara- tively fine threads pass within another having coarser threads, thus causing the height of the plane to be practically diminished to the dif- ference in distance between the threads. This form is called Hunter’s differential screw. An endless screw is often combined with spur or crown wheels in the manner shown in fig. 43. It is often employed to measure minute spaces, as in the dividing en- gine for graduating mathematical instru- ments. (See Grapva- T10N.)— Toggle Joint. The toggle joint, or elbow joint, which is used in various kinds of presses, con- Fig. 42. arms joined together by a hinge, as shown in fig. 44. The power may be applied at the hinge or joint a, usually in the direction a m, forcing the ends 6 and ¢ further apart, and with great power as the arms approach a right line. It may also be applied at } and c, drawing the ends together, and forcing the point @ outward in a trans- verse direction; a form used in hay and cotton presses. That this machine acts upon the principle of the inclined plane may be demon- strated as follows: Consider the end 6} of the Fieg. 48. sists of two radii or 329 radius a 6 to be stationary. The power being applied in the direction a m, the point a will describe the arc of a circlead. €5 53 Cigar beh as Aires ae Le eA 62 51 TA TISSUE L seve suchas orsleacoeiera cia. ale 58 49 September... c.cess ccs sce «5 5T 51 Octoberrs IO cies Pa hte weie's 65 68 NOVEM DEL aks emotional 10 76 (Decemperans ses ein cites. 74 74 As regards the geographical distribution of cloudiness, it may be remarked briefly that the annual averages show a minimum cloudiness in the regions of the trade winds and in the interior of continents, and a maximum in moun- tainous districts, the polar regions, and on the western coasts of the continents. The relation between the direction of the wind and the ay- erage degree of cloudiness is known to all, and is rendered apparent by the following table: Percentage of Cloudiness for each Wind Direction. CARLSRUHE. VIENNA. WINDS. Winter. Summer. Winter. Summer, INR ete eee 63 46 15 45 De Des Se Ane 56 82 74 26 SSN aO oa 56 29 63 25 Ba livece cece ae 69 48 71 25 att c nai ae 80 59 70 8T Bee Wists sews sis 82 62 69 43 Salaries #0, 65/3 80 58 65 56 ON eer 17 55 72 55 dyed Glan ess 63 46 443 The connection between the lunar phases and the cloudiness has been already spoken of. The influence of cloudiness in protecting the earth’s surface against the direct rays of the sun, and against nightly radiation from the earth, has been investigated for a few stations only. According to Weilenmann (1874), the atmosphere, when the sky is clear, protects the earth against radiation by an amount equal to one third of the protection afforded by a cloudy sky, whence the latter may be concluded to allow on the average scarcely 15 per cent. of the solar heat to reach the earth’s surface. The connection between cloudiness and baro- metric pressure has not yet been studied with the care it deserves; but it is certain that a low barometer corresponds to an increased cloudiness, and an important ,portion of the daily variation in the barometric pressure de- pends upon the formation of dew or fog at night and of cumulus clouds by day. ‘The rain- fall may be considered as the completion of the process of the formation of clouds, although probably the majority of clouds are dissipated without producing rain. The larger part of the rainfall is probably deposited by uprising currents of air, and therefore it has its daily and annual periods. The formation of snow is apparently more directly dependent upon noc- turnal radiation of heat. The measurement of rainfall by means of the simple rain gauge needs to be made under circumstances of great uni- formity, if for different stations we would at- tain results comparable with each other. The most minute investigations of the laws govern- ing rainfall have been made by Symons, and published since 1866, in his annual volumes of ‘ British Rainfall.” According to these results, which are abundantly confirmed by other mea- sures taken throughout the world, the quanti- ty of rain received by a gauge diminishes in an irregular manner with the height of the gauge above the earth’s surface. The diminution is apparently to be attributed principally to the greater velocity of the wind at the higher sta- tion, and amounts to 10 per cent. of the whole rainfail for an elevation of 20 ft., and in one exceptional case, at the height of 50 ft., to 40 per cent. of the rainfall at the surface. The study of the diurnal period of the precipitation (including rain and snow) has as yet led to only an imperfect result; but it is believed that as a general rule, in the temperate zones, a maxi- mum occurs in the afternoon in the summer, but before sunrise in the winter months. The annual variation in rainfall depends almost ex- clusively upon the relation between the winds and the geographical position and topographi- cal details of the country. On the W. coast ot North America and of Europe the greater part of the annual rainfall occurs in winter, but in the interior of Europe and on the E. coast of the United States in summer. The geographi- cal distribution of the snow and rainfall over the world can be properly presented only by means of a very large and detailed chart; its 444 general distribution over the United States is shown by the accompanying map (XII.), com- piled by Lieut. H. C. Dunwoody from data af- forded by the signal service observations of the United States from the establishment of the bureau in 1870 to January, 1881. The re- gion of heaviest precipitation appears from it to be a narrow strip along the coast of Wash- ington territory, where alone more than 80 inches of rain fall during the year. The regions of the next heaviest rainfall, between 70 and 80 inches annually, are a narrow strip back of this one, a small section on the eastern coast of Florida, and another small district south of Cape Hatteras. The most extensive district of the next heaviest annual precipitation, from 60 to 70 inches, is around the northeastern bor- ders of the Gulf of Mexico, in southeastern Louisiana, southern Mississippi and Alabama, and western Florida; while narrower regions of equal precipitation are found in western Washington and Oregon and northwestern California, eastern Florida, and eastern North and South Carolina. In the mass of the south- ern states south of North Carolina and Ken- tucky and east of the Indian territory and Texas, the mean annual rainfall is between 50 and 60 inches. This region is surrounded on the north and west by two belts, the more re- mote and more arid one of which is the wider, which together include the bulk of the states north of 86° 80’, and east of the Mississippi river, most of Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas, and eastern Kansas, Indian territory, and Tex- as, in which the amounts of annual precipita- tion are respectively from 40 to 50 inches and from 80 to 40 inches. West of the western edge of the latter zone is a comparatively nar- row region in which the rainfall is between 20 and 30 inches annually; while west of this isa broad region, reaching over the Rocky moun- tains, and to the Columbia river in the north- west, in which the mean annual precipitation is between 10 and 20 inches. The rainfall be- gins at Columbia river again to increase, in nar- row belts, toward the west, till it reaches its culmination in the region of greatest precipita- tion, already mentioned, on the Pacific coast. The most arid regions in the United States are in Nevada and Arizona, and a district in south- eastern New Mexico, where the mean annual precipitation does not amount to ten inches. The heaviest rainfall occurs in those countries in which warm, moist monsoon winds blow from the seacoast up over rapidly rising hills. Thas the annual rainfall on the Cossyah hills, facing the bay of Bengal, is 600 inches, but 20 m. further inland it is reduced to 200 inches, and at 30 m.to 100. The connection between rainfall and the direction of the wind presents therefore an apparent discrepancy in various parts of the world, even for sta- tions on the same parallel of latitude, accord- ing as the winds ascend in their course from the ocean level to hill-tops, or descend from the mountains and plateaus to the lowlands. METEOROLOGY —6. Barometric Pressure. It is only when we come to study the pressure of the atmos- phere, as shown by the barometer, that we arrive at a connected intelligible view of the peculiarities of weather and climate. In fact it is evident that no portion of the atmos-. phere can be moved from one region to an- other, except under the influence of a pressure applied in’ the direction of its motion; such movement is simply an effort to reéstablish a disturbed statical equilibrium. The laws of mechanics show that relatively to the earth’s surface the air would remain quiescent if the sun were absent; but the density of the at- mosphere is disturbed by the solar heat, by the variable quantity of aqueous vapor rising from the oceans and continents, and by the local condensation of this vapor into cloud and rain. In this way temporary abnormal inequalities in the distribution of barometric pressure are pro- duced, which give rise to the winds, and afford the meteorologist that connecting link which enables him to unite the whole circle of atmos- pheric phenomena into a harmonious system. (See Barometer.) The height of the baromet- ric column is found to vary at the same station in regular diurnal and annual changes, and also in a non-periodic manner; on moving the in- strument to other places, its height is found to vary with the geographical position, and in an especially remarkable degree with every change of altitude. The latter class of changes have been the subject of numerous profound inves- tigations, having for their ultimate object both the utilization of the barometer for hypsomet- ric purposes, and the solution of the inverse problem, the reduction of actual barometric readings to the sea level. The solutions of both these problems can as yet be satisfactorily effected only in respect to annual means; but within allowable limits of error approximate methods may be applied to monthly means and Ome eee ee ORS aee Ca ae ee fe) The dotted line is for Nertchinsk, Asia continental station; the full line, for Plymouth, Eng., maritime station. Diagram XIII.—Diurnal Variations in the Barometer. to individual observations, when the altitude of the station does not exceed 2,000 ft. The ov 1 08 +1 08 » Od, » OD » OG » OF » OF 09 0G 29: ‘ur or 07 O[_] sapoug fo ajpoy 18 TOIMUdI.TY) UlOdy 3¢ + & suBa[IE OL 9pnztsuo0 5 S= YJAOMCU SATAY : = pay Oo awa) eee) St attra ~— 78m aaxOBATENE S=0S80.15-05E oya010,.L waesn8S 10484 mL., “ny quntos FoNDABTA — hy men Rae Migua= aw Mg i {q-uog- “GE NG SHB Fadl BCS Pras ‘ : eters t —— TIVANIVY IVONNY FOVYAAV "USUM = OL:s«s WHOA GT SOM «08 «“BUOT Gg 0s ent - (1) See SAUCE ai jae ve , * ne a eval: any : ane oT) Aye ‘ Seater eameel = aera os bis at yet haat hai adh ie AP hid gb a Mone i arte Aci b METEOROLOGY systematic variations in the barometric pressure can be best shown graphically, and it will suf- fice to present only a few typical cases. The existence of a perceptible lunar tide in the atmosphere is now no longer considered prob- able, and the important periodic changes all depend upon the sun. The diurnal changes, as shown in diagram XIII. for Nertchinsk, Siberia, and Plymouth, England, illustrate respectively the continental and maritime stations. The ef- fect of elevation above the surrounding country (not merely above sea level) is seen in the con- trasts between the diurnal changes at Geneva (altitude 1,335 ft.) and at the summit of Mt. St. Bernard (8,114 ft.), as shown in diagram XIV., both for January and July. At the sea level, two maxima and two minima of pressure occur during each 24 hours; the maxima be- y of oo ng ° fe Orel ow Ase F pee a January. | SPT July. \ \ he The full lines are for St. Bernard; dotted lines for Geneva. Diagram XIY.—Diurnal Variations in the Barometer. tween 9 and 11 A. M. and between 9 and 11 P. M., the minima between 3 and 5 P. M. and between 2 and 5 A. M., respectively. The an- nual barometric changes are shown in diagram XY. as given by Lorenz and Rothe (1874) for typical stations, whence the great influence of geographical position is easily seen. A clear- er perception of the important part played by aqueous vapor will be obtained if from the whole atmospheric pressure shown in diagrams XIII., XIV., and XV. we subtract that portion due to aqueous vapor, as shown in diagrams IX. and X.; the remainder is technically known as the pressure of the dry air, or the gaseous atmosphere. It is found that the gaseous and the vaporous components have each a single diurnal and annual fluctuation, and that it is 445 the combination of these that produces the irregular and even double fluctuations in the total pressure shown in the preceding dia- grams. A general view of the annual baromet- ric changes, and a more complete insight into the relation between pressure, wind, and weath- Brocken, St. Bernard, Vienna. Buda. Moscow. Trkutek, Madras. Reykiavik. Cambridge, Eng. Toronto, St. Louis. Diagram XV.—Annual Variations in Atmospheric Pressure. er, are obtained by the comparison of a series of charts, such as VII. and VIII., which show for the respective months the average distribu- tion of the pressure of the atmosphere over the surface of the globe. The variations of baro- metric pressure with the latitude were first defi- 446 METEOROLOGY nitely established by Schouw (1882), although | irregular barometric variations coincide in asserted by Clark (1776) and Humboldt (1807). The variations which occur on the same paral- lel of latitude, and especially the seasonal dif- ferences between the pressures over the land and the ocean, were first elaborated by Buchan (1868). The charts VII. and VIII. are com- piled from the latest results published by Bu- chan and by the admiralty office in London, and must be considered as representing very nearly the actual distribution of barometric pressure over the globe, as reduced to a uni- form sea level. The irregular or non-periodic variations of the pressure are intimately con- nected with the disturbances or storms which sweep over the earth. (See Hurrioanez, and general with the regions of most decided alter- nations between clear, cold, dry weather, and cloudy, warm, moist, or rainy weather. In an- alyzing this connection between pressure and weather, we will only mention the relation be- tween the barometer and the winds and rain. The general connection between the changes of pressure at any place and the winds is shown in the following table, which gives the aver- age reading of the barometer during the prey- alence of the respective winds for a few typi- cal stations in the northern hemisphere; in these cases, as for the entire globe, the pres- sure is greatest for cold or dry winds, and least for warm or moist winds, which law obtains Storms.) The regions of greatest average | in both the winter and summer seasons: Relation between the Wind Direction and the Barometric Pressure. WIND 8T. PETERSBURG. LONDON, CARLSRUHE. VIENNA. DIRECTION. Winter. Summer. Winter. Summer, Winter, Summer. Winter. Summer, inches. inches, inches. inches. inches. inches. inches, inches, ENGR eters ssiae ete 98-111 23°023 29°97T4 29°997 29-781 29-732 29°483 29°366 IRE Dees ae 28°138 28°0856 29°972 80° 040 29° 786 29°"%31 29-455 29°861 Demeter eerie: 28°290 28°065 29°S885 30° 057 29-721 29° 695 29°466 29°259 fry J Di Gea Meee 28°311 28°028 29-746 29°982 29° 693 29° 626 29°412 29-259 Baie eae ices 28°189 27° 982 29° 724 29° 852 29° 644 29° 626 29 °381 29 °238 PER tocanss cn: 28°129 28°0038 29°849 29°799 29° 637 29-622 29°171 99°242 Wie crccaiccats 28°055 28° 039 29-962 29° 862 29° 651 29° 642 29-272 29°284 INV Green ec, 27°944 28° 036 29°97% 29°946 29-708 29° 703 29-362 29-296 IN Reiser alee oe es 28°111 28° 023 29-974 29°997 29°781 29° 732 29-483 29°366 The relation between atmospheric pressure and | gations.—DrpuctivE Mrreorotoey. Of me- rainfall depends upon the direction of the ac- companying wind; but if, as in the following table, each wind direction be treated by itself, it will be seen that during rain and snow the pressure is usually below the average for that wind, and is falling still lower for southerly winds and increasing rain, but is rising for northerly winds and clearing weather : Barometric Variations preceding and following Rain. Depression of barometer below the general aver- iseetie a a anne * age for the respective its aber tidy Pierhi dg WIND. winds at Berlin. ces eee During rain.| Duringsnow. | Preceding rain.| During rain. inch. inch. inch. inch. 1s buseecser 0°148 0°242 +0°087 +0°053 UN Gy este ec 0°144 0° 263 +0°005 +0°039 BE vaielatcore c's 0°118 0°226 —0°001 —0°036 Bi. Wess 0°109 0° 203 —0°044 —0°058 Brac jecat ines 0°109 0°202 —0°0386 —0°054 3) Wikrsccieys « 0° 087 0° 174 —0° 068 —0° 023 WWittstes:s 0°069 0°139 +0°012 +0°020 INS W... 0°109 0°169 +0°027 +-0°094 IN Sarthe ervtepels 0° 143 0°242 +0°087 +0°015 The connection between the temperature, pres- sure, wind, and weather may be briefly indi- cated in the so-called weather rose, examples of which are presented for central Europe and for a portion of the United States in diagrams XVI. and XVII.—We here terminate our presenta- tion of some of the more interesting relations between those meteorological phenomena which admit of exact observation, and which form a safe basis for further philosophical investi- teorology as an inductive science, the preceding pages and the various articles referred to there- in may serve to give us some faint idea; of it as a deductive science it would seem premature as yet to speak, were it not that the foundations i Meet aes RN) o oem Om om i: 4% Se: pore Tae) sh 42 Ns a Ln @ 4 ~— cil CON a he ‘ & f ee Soot GG \ ms > erollng.. Sarna ni Sete nee SOE rs 3) Stes a int A Stn re ee SES a ae eat ‘ees eae 4 Soe hie ‘ ‘ 3 Oe 1 | ' iy ihie-neain * ae! i Ya Me i " 9S \ B . S7 > %, “Neri eS, sy, hy wee wey RRR CS y FN eee or %r Dito Sr YG Uy nee n. » rg Diagram XVI.—Weather Rose for Central Europe. of this new meteorology are now apparently well laid, although it must be confessed that the passage from crude observations back to the unknown laws of the invisible forces which guide these most complex operations of nature is not yet completely open to the student. The METEOROLOGY attempts to predict the weather, and especially storms, which are now daily made by the mete- orological offices of numerous civilized nations would of themselves seem to imply the exis- tence of a deductive science more or less de- veloped. This however is not necessarily the N ae io Sty «' ” ° %4 DracramM XVII.—Weather Rose for Eastern and Middle United States. case, for it has been found practicable, on the one hand, by means of the telegraph, to collect in a few hours material for compiling a dai- ly weather map for the whole of Europe or the United States, and, on the other hand, to apply to such maps the numerous generalizations that have been found to hold good for the respec- tive portions of the world; a process which, repeated from day to day, reminds one of the methods adopted in astronomy for computing special perturbations. There seems to be no good reason for speaking disparagingly of me- teorology as a science, since, whether we study the stars, the atmosphere, atoms, or organic na- ture, we find ourselves everywhere confronted by an overwhelming mass of phenomena which are subject as yet only to an inductive philoso- phy. Owing to the infinite number of com- binations among the meteorological elements, no empirical rules can invariably lead to cor- rect predictions; but the calculus of probabili- ties shows that over 50, and often 75 per cent. of our predictions should be well verified, a conclusion in harmony with actual experience throughout the world. But this percentage of verifications, we have reason to believe, is sensibly greater when the predictions are based not merely upon empirical rules, but equally upon a consideration of such general principles as must form the groundwork of the true de- ductive science. The foundations of the new meteorology are necessarily found in the sim- ple laws of mechanics. They have been con- sidered by several authors, but by none with so much completeness as in the work of Ferrel 550 VOL, XI.—29 447 “On the Motions of Fluids and Solids, relative to the Earth’s Surface” (Nashville, 1854, and New York, 1860). In this treatise the motions and figure of the atmosphere are first treated of, on the hypothesis that no resistance is offered by obstacles or by friction upon the earth’s surface; in a subsequent section the influence of such resistance is considered, on the hypothesis that a uniform coefficient of friction obtains over the whole earth’s surface. Mr. Ferrel thus deduces the necessary existence of two belts of high barometric pressure, ex- tending entirely around the globe between the tropics and the parallels of 30° N. and S. re- spectively, and of a belt of low pressure at the equator, as well as regions of low barometer within the arctic and antarctic circles; belts of calms near the equator, the tropics, and the polar circles are also deduced. The continents and oceans offer very unequal frictional resis- tances, which causes the equatorial belt of calms to lie on the average a little north of the true equator in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, but nearly on the equator in the Pacific ocean. Similarly, it can be shown that to the irregular distribution of the friction of the continents is partially due the breaking up of all these belts into segments lying respectively over the ocean and the continents. In general the motion of the earth’s atmosphere is a consequence of the unequal heating by the sun of the equatorial and polar regions; the subsequent effort of nature to establish statical equilibrium relative ° to the earth’s surface is that which gives rise to the phenomena of the winds. The unequal heating of the continents and oceans, due to their unequal specific heats and radiating pow- er, and to the annual vibration of the sun be- tween the tropics, is the principal cause of the breaking up of the belts of temperature, pres- sure, and winds into continental and oceanic areas. But whatever induces a local or general change in the density of the air disturbs its equilibrium and necessitates its motion; and the disturbing power next in importance to the solar heat is the diffusion of aqueous vapor, the density of which is only six tenths of that of dry air at the same pressure and tempera- ture. It thus happens that the combined effect of friction, temperature, and moisture gives rise to the variable distribution of barometric pressure exhibited in the charts VII. and VIIL., which show areas of high barometer existing in winter over the continents, but in summer over the oceans, and over the eastern half of each ocean, rather than over its central por- tions. The general distribution of barometric pressure having been thus deduced by Mr. Ferrel, he then considers the local disturbances known as cyclones, tornadoes, &c., all the phe- ‘nomena of which are deducible from his ini- tial mechanical formulas (see ‘‘ Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington,” June, 1874, and the “‘ American Journal of Science,” November, 1874), if we supplement these by the researches of Hirn, Peslin, and Reye. 448 METER These latter have applied to the phenomena of the atmosphere, and especially to its vertical motions, those laws of thermodynamics which were first fully insisted on by Espy in ‘ The Philosophy of Storms” (1841), but which re- quired the accurate experiments of Regnault and the analysis of Clausius, Thomson, and others, to make them available quantitative- ly, as well as qualitatively, for meteorological purposes. The above mentioned authors have shown the connection that must exist between the expansion of uprising moist air (whether it be pushed by winds up over elevated regions, or ascend on a hot day in consequence of local rarefaction), and the formation of clouds and rain, deducing thereby, with great minuteness, many of the details of the origin, growth, path, and decay of storms. Finally, the phenomena of radiation and absorption of heat, though as yet only partially deducible from correct physi- cal theories of the constitution of gases, may still be looked upon as well determined experi- mentally by the observations of Tyndall and others, as far as regards the constituents of the atmosphere, and form the basis of the reasoning by which we are able to deduce the general laws of the periodic and non-periodic changes of temperature and moisture. We are thus in a position to reduce all meteorological pheno- mena, to the three principles involved in gene- ral mechanics, thermodynamics, and molecular physics; and it may be confidently expected that the increasing powers of mathematical analysis will ere long enable us to rear upon these a superstructure of deductive meteor- ology, limited in its application to the explana- tion and prediction of the weather only by the extent and accuracy of our observations. METER. See Gas, vol. vii., p. 638, and Water METER. METEYARD, Eliza. See supplement. METHODISM, a form of church life and pol- ity which originated in England during the 18th century. JI. Earty History anp Prin- orpLes. The moral and religious condition of England at the beginning of the 18th century was most deplorable. The court was dissolute; the standard of taste was low; the prevalence of skepticism was alarming; the church, both established and dissenting, had lapsed into a state of lifeless formalism; the masses of the people had sunk into incredible vice and bru- tality. In the year 1729 John Wesley, a fel- low of Lincoln college, Oxford, became con- vinced of the necessity of a deeper spiritual life. With his brother Charles, likewise a student of Oxford, and a few other associates, he or- ganized a meeting for their mutual moral im- provement. The band soon began to manifest increased religious zeal by visiting almshouses and prisons, by instructing the children of the’ poor, and by a strict and conscientious ob- servance of all the ordinances of the church. They were soon joined by others, among them Mr. Hervey and Mr. George Whitefield of Pem- broke college, till at the end of six years they METHODISM numbered 14 or 15 persons. The rigid exact- ness of their lives attracted general attention among their fellows; they were objects of ridicule and contempt, and received various designations, but the term ‘‘ Methodists” was applied to them by a student of Christchurch college, on account of their methodical mode of life and work. On the departure of the brothers Wesley to Georgia in 1735, the band was dissolved, but the new religious life that had there been enkindled manifested itself in the more zealous ministrations of the members of the ‘Godly Club.” After his return, Wes- ley began to preach in London and elsewhere with great fervor. His sole object was to bring back the church to a pure and holy life, and to save the degraded and neglected. For the same object Whitefield and others had already labored earnestly during the absence of the Wesleys in Georgia. These reformers were at first received with coldness by the public, and their labors were regarded with suspicion or ‘hostility. Wesley was at length debarred ad- mission to the pulpits. In the early part of 1739 Whitefield had set the first example of open-air preaching at Kingswood, near Bristol, where he had addressed an immense crowd of colliers. Though at first disapproving of Whitefield’s attempt, after a brief hesitation John Wesley as well as his brother Charles fol- lowed this example. Being denied admission to the churches by the clergy, they were com- pelled to continue their preaching in private houses, barns, market places, and the open fields, as opportunity was given. Thousands flocked to their ministry, and multitudes were converted. Wesley and his coadjutors were stubbornly opposed by the dignitaries of the establishment, who were strong in condem- nation of this violation of ecclesiastical order. Sometimes the mob was stirred up to revile and assault them; sometimes the power of the law was invoked against them as disturbers of the peace. The converts made by their preach- ing were either despised or utterly neglected by the church, and hence Wesley, at their own request, formed them into societies for mu- tual edification and improvement, called ‘the United Societies.” Wesley’s own account of their origin is as follows: ‘In the latter end of the year 1739 eight or ten persons came to me in London, who appeared to be deeply con- vinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for re- demption. They desired (as did some two or three more the next day) that I would spend some time with them in prayer, and advise them how to flee from the wrath to come, which they saw continually hanging over their heads. That we might have more time for this great work, I appointed a day when they might all come together; which from thence- forward they did every week, viz., on Thurs- day in the evening. To these, and as many as desired to join with them (for their number in- creased daily), I gave those advices from time to time as I judged most needful for them; —_— METHODISM 449 and we always concluded our meetings with prayer suitable to their several necessities. This was the rise of the united society, first in London, and then in other places. Such a society is no other than a company of men having the form and seeking the power of godliness, united in order to pray together, to receive the word of exhortation, and to watch over one another in love, that they may help each other to work out their salvation.” The mass of those who had been converted were from the poor and uneducated classes. For the government of these societies a few simple rules were proposed by the Wesleys, which, with slight exceptions, are still recognized as the ‘General Rules” by all branches of the Meth- odist church. The sole condition of member- ship in these societies was ‘‘ a desire to flee from the wrath to come and to be saved from sin.” But this desire will be shown by its fruits, leading the man to avoid evil and to do good. Hence these rules forbade in the members of these societies the evils then most generally practised, ‘‘such as profane swearing, Sabbath breaking, drunkenness, buying or selling spirit- uous liquors, or drinking them except in cases of extreme necessity; fighting, quarrelling, broth- er going to law with brother, returning evil for evil or railing for railing; the using of many words in buying and selling; the buying or selling of uncustomed goods; the giving or ta- king things on usury, 7. ¢., unlawful interest; uncharitable or unprofitable conversation, par- ticularly speaking evil of magistrates or of min- isters; doing to others as we would not they should do unto us; doing what we know is not for the glory of God, as the putting on of gold and costly apparel; the taking of such diversions as cannot be used in the name of the Lord Jesus; the singing those songs or reading those books which do not tend to the knowledge or love of God; softness, and needless self-indul- gence; laying up treasures upon earth; borrow- ing without probability of paying, or taking up goods without probability of paying for them.” But it was ‘expected that all continuing in these societies should continue to evidence their desire of salvation, secondly, by doing good; by being in every kind merciful after their power ; as they have opportunity, doing good of every possible sort, and as far as possible to all men; by feeding the hungry and clothing the naked; by helping or visiting them that are sick or in * prison; by instructing, reproving, and exhort- ing; by doing good especially to them that are of the household of faith, or groaning to be so; employing them preferably to others, buying one of another, helping each other in business, &c., and so much the more because the world will love its own, and them only; by diligence and frugality; by self-denial and by submission to bear the reproach of Christ; by attendance upon the ordinances of God, such as public worship, the ministry of the word, the supper of the Lord, family and private prayer, search- ing the Scriptures, and fasting and abstinence.” These rules were declared to be taught in God’s Word, and that they are written on every truly awakened heart. If any violate these rules, they are to be admonished and borne with for a season; but if they persist, then they are to be exscinded. For the accommo- dation of these societies chapels had been pro- vided at London and Bristol. During 1740-41 Wesley and his co-workers were preaching and founding societies in Yorkshire, Derby- shire, Leicestershire, and Wales, while White- field had made his second voyage to America, and by his wonderful eloquence had aroused the religious consciousness of the people from Maine to Georgia. On the return of White- field the differences between him and Wesley on doctrinal points caused their separation, and Whitefield organized the Calvinistic Meth- odists in 1741. By the labors of Whitefield, Methodism was introduced into Scotland and Wales, and, aided by the munificence of the countess of Huntingdon, chapels were provi- ded and a college for preachers was found- ed. Oalvinistic Methodism had many remark- able adherents, who were instrumental in the conversion of multitudes. Next to Whitefield in labors and success was Howell Harris, the apostle of Methodism in Wales; and not less in labors were Romaine, Madan, Venn, Ber- ridge, and others. In 1744 Whitefield made his third voyage to America, repeating the la- bors of former visits, and preaching with won- derful effect in the Bermudas in 1748. On his return to Europe in June, 1748, he visited Scotland, and also preached to immense con- gregations in England. In 1747 Thomas Wil- liams, a lay preacher from England, had formed a society in Dublin. In the same year the Wesleys visited Ireland, and great success at- tended their ministry, though bitter opposition was experienced from the Roman Catholic population. Among the converts from Cathol- icism in 1749 was Thomas Walch, who has been styled the apostle of Methodism to the Irish. In 1744 Wesley had invited several clergymen of the establishment and his lay assistants to meet him in London, to give ‘their advice respecting the best method of carrying on the work of God.” Thereafter these ‘‘ conferences” were held annually, and were occasions of re- vising the work, laying plans for the ensuing year, and discussing questions of doctrine and polity. In the midst of his severe labors Wes- ley wrote in defence of the system which he had inaugurated, and devised means for the education of his preachers and the improve- ment of his churches. In 1757 he was joined by John Fletcher, a Swiss by birth, who had been ordained a priest in the established church. In him Wesley found an earnest de- fender and a powerful apologist for his doctri- nal views. During the progress of this won- derful revival work, the strong opposition of the clergy of the establishment continued. Individual examples of sympathy and aid to the itinerants were found, but in many in- 450 stances the converts, and even Mr. Wesley and some of his clerical fellow workers, were re- pelled from the eucharist. Under these cir- cumstances it was felt by many that these so- cieties should receive the sacraments at the hands of their own preachers, and some had ventured to administer them. The conference of 1755 was greatly agitated with this question, and the kindred one of separation from the established church was openly discussed; but after a protracted debate, it was decided to be inexpedient to form a separate church. Since the first voyage of Wesley to America in 1735, the Moravians, whom he then met, had by the simplicity and purity of their lives exerted a powerful influence on the Methodist move-. ment. They had societies in London and else- where, but their numbers were limited, and they lacked that compact organization neces- sary for permanent success. Between 1750 and 1760 Ingham, assisted by Moravian helpers, founded more than 80 societies in Yorkshire and the neighboring counties. These were in close affiliation with the Arminian and Calvinistic societies, but had their separate conferences. In 1760 a small company of Irish, descendants of German Palatines, who had received Meth- odism, removed to New York, and in 1766, through the influence of Barbara Heck and Philip Embury, resumed the religious services to which they had been accustomed in Ireland. They were assisted by Capt. Webb, an officer in the British army, who had been licensed by Wesley asa local preacher. In 1769 two preach- ers were sent to America. These found that the country had been greatly awakened by the labors of Whitefield, and they were successful in establishing a church in New York. White- field had crossed the ocean 13 times, but in 1770 his work was terminated by his death at Newburyport, Mass. At this time the mem- bers in Wesley’s societies amounted to 29,- 179. The period between 1770 and 1780 wit- nessed no cessation of labor by either branch of Methodism. Although a controversy on the points of difference between Arminianism and Calvinism was carried on with great ability on either side, in which Wesley and Fletcher were opposed by Shirley, Toplady, Rowland Hill, and others, not only were the societies cared for and greatly increased, but also the foundations of those great moral enterprises, the Bible, tract, and missionary societies, were laid, and much attention was given to schemes of public philanthropy. In 1771 Francis As- bury and Richard Wright had been sent to America, where the work had greatly in- creased, and where the first conference was held in 1773. From 1784 the history of Meth- odism diverges into two main branches, viz. : Wesleyan Methodism and the Methodist Epis- copal church. The first assumed a distinct organic and legal status by the record in the high court of chancery of Mr. Wesley’s ‘‘ Deed of Declaration,” and the second became an independent church in America through the METHODISM ordination by Mr. Wesley and the Rev. James Creighton of Thomas Coke as superintendent and bishop of the Methodist societies in Amer- ica, and Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Va- sey as presbyters. Till his death in 1791, Wesley continued to preside at the annual conferences and to plan and direct the work. Methodism had already been introduced into England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, the British islands, France, the United States, Nova Sco- tia, Newfoundland, and the West Indies. “ In 1791 it numbered 233 circuits, 540 travelling preachers, and 134,599 members.— Confession. Methodism strove at first only to restore a purified and intensified spiritual life. The careful discussion by Wesley and his fellow laborers, in the conferences and through pub- lished works, of the religious needs of the people and of the obstacles to the progress of the work of evangelization, was the occasion of the development of the Wesleyan theology. Methodism has no such elaborate and authori- tative symbol as the Tridentine decrees, or the Heidelberg, the Augsburg, the Westminster, and other confessions. The substance of its doctrines is to be found in the writings of John Wesley, John Fletcher, Richard Watson, and others, and in the generally uniform teach- ings of the Methodist pulpit. The articles which Wesley prepared for the Methodist church in America were taken substantially from the thirty-nine articles of the church of England. Agreeing with the so-called orthodox churches in most cardinal doctrines of the Bible, the material principle of Methodism, like that of all other independent systems of theology, is to be found in its conception of the mutual relation of God and man with regard to the work of salvation through Christ. Methodism holds that the salvation or non-salvation of each human being depends solely on his own free action in respect to the enlightening, renewing, and sanctifying inworkings of the Holy Spirit. If, in respect to these inworkings, he holds himself receptively, he will be saved both here and hereafter; but if he closes his heart against these influences of the Spirit, he will continue in death both here and in eter- nity. With this fundamental view, all the other doctrinal peculiarities of Methodism, such as its dogma of freedom, its emphasis of the work of the Holy Spirit, its views of assurance, Christian perfection, &c., are inti- mately and harmoniously connected. In ac- cord with this general principle, Methodism is Arminian in distinction from Calvinistic. Teaching the total depravity of the race through the fall of the first pair, and man’s consequent absolute inability to recover a state of holiness and obedience, except as aided by divine grace, Methodism teaches that this grace of God in Christ is universal. First, as to the divine purpose: God wills the salvation of all, and Christ died for all. Secondly, as to the work of God for us, or the objective operation of grace: for as by the first Adam —" METHODISM 451 “judgment came upon all men unto condem- nation,” so by the second Adam ‘the free gift came upon all unto justification of life.” Thirdly, as to the work done in us, the sub- jective operation of grace: it enlighteneth every man, and convinceth every man, thus putting all men under probation; for “the grace of God which bringeth salvation to all men hath appeared.”” Methodism teaches that none of Adam’s descendants are held guilty of Adam’s sin until they reject the grace of Christ; 7. ¢., through the atoning work of Christ all men stand in a gracious relation to God, instead of a natural relation, and are subjects of the influence of the Holy Spirit; and they continue in this gracious relation until excluded by virtue of voluntary trans- gression. With this view harmonizes its teach- ing relative to infant baptism and salvation, and the responsibility of man for his own sal- vation or damnation. Methodism holds to two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s supper. As eligible to the former, it recognizes infant children and believing children and adults; to the latter, professing Christians and penitent seekers of salvation. It prescribes no exclu- sive mode of baptism, and dictates no exclusive posture in receiving the Lord’s supper. Yet its most usual mode of baptism is by sprink- ling, and that of receiving the bread and wine is in the kneeling posture. It emphasizes the doctrine of assurance, 7. ¢., that the Holy Spirit bears witness of pardon and acceptance to the justified sinner; but this is only taught as a privilege of believers, and is not made the test of Christian character. It also makes promi- nent the doctrine of Christian perfection, or perfect love, declaring the object of its organi- zation to be to spread Scriptural holiness over the land. In accordance with this view, its preachers, previous to being received into its conferences, declare that they are going on unto perfection and expect to be made perfect in love in this life—Polity. Methodist polity, like the Methodist confession, is to be under- stood only by regarding Methodism as a revi- val and missionary movement. Wesley thought as little of establishing a separate church pol- ity as of publishing a separate theology. The rapidly increasing work caused him and his coadjutors great anxiety.. It was their wish. and purpose to leave those who had been con- verted through their ministrations to the pas- toral care of the clergy of the establishment. But the neglect and frequent ridicule of the converts by the clergy caused many to turn back and plunge again into sin. . Hence Wes- ley on his departure from London appointed Mr. Maxfield, a young layman, to meet and encourage the members during his absence. Maxfield, through unusual zeal, was led to take a passage of Scripture to expound. Much good followed this attempt. Wesley, however, has- tened to put an end to what he regarded a disorderly procedure; but on listening to the earnest and persuasive preaching of Maxfield, he was convinced that this was God’s provi- dential way of providing for the wants of the growing societies. About the same time John Nelson, a mason of Bristol, began to explain to his neighbors the way of salvation which he had found, and to compare and explain the Scriptures. This was the origin of lay preach- ing, which afterward became so important an element in the economy of Methodism. i! I a ca ATT Ht — ——— h Ww == in : oN (Oe Tm oa ee al fl Ban en “Ss = i i ay ll in mu — | I a —- Ml = =, == = Qa — eS i Za => Fic. 4.—Rutherfurd’s tenses pose. The great advantages of this method are that all the careful micrometer work can be done by an assistant who is not a professional astronomer; that it can be done during day or MICRONESIA AND MELANESIA night, and repeated at will, the photographs being imperishable; and that when done it is most accurate. An instrument of this kind, which has undergone several stages of improve- ment, was designed and constructed by Lewis M. Rutherfurd of New York several years ago. A sketch of the instrument as now in use at his private observatory is given in fig. 4, It stands upon a tripod, which may be accurately levelled by the milled head screws attached to the feet. The photographic plate, , to be mea- sured (five inches square), is clamped upon the circular glass stage 4, which is supported by and revolves with the graduated position circle g, the verniers being read by the reading glasses h.h. The compound microscope a is directed perpendicularly to the plate, and can be moved in two directions at right angles to each other and parallel to the plate, on the slides e and d. The quantity of such movement is read by the microscopes ¢ and 6 upon glass scales of equal parts, m. (The scale read by 6d is not seen in the figure.) The fractions of a division are read by the filar micrometer seen at the eye piece of c. The eye piece of the microscope a contains a cross of spider lines by which it is centred upon the image of any star to be measured.—Microscope Micrometers. Most telescope micrometers may be used for mi- croscopes when the eye glass has considerable focal length. Objects of known diameter are used, as lycopodium seed, or wire whose diam- eter has been measured by winding it many times around a cylinder, and dividing the length of the cylinder by the number of turns. A convenient micrometer was constructed by Dr. Fic. 6. Wollaston, consisting of a scale, fig. 5, made of wires ;, in. diameter, which po the place of the object, and a lens of about +, in. focal length in the cap of the instrument. The ob- ject, placed beneath this between two glass slides, is moved laterally across the field by means of the milled head a. (See Mroroscopr.) MICRONESIA AND MELANESIA (Gr. pcxpéc, small, péAac, black, and viooc, island), terms derived from the size and complexion of the inhabitants, and applied by some geographers to arbitrary divisions of the islands of the Pacific ocean. These divisions are both com- prehended in the better defined, more conve- nient, and better understood terms Australasia MICROPHONE and Polynesia. westernmost island of the Hawaiian group to near Japan and the Philippines, and reaches S. of the equator, comprehending the Marshall and Gilbert groups, the Ladrones, and the Carolines. Melanesia embraces the Feejee islands, the New Hebrides, Solomon’s islands, New Caledonia, New Britain, New Ireland, and Papua. MICROPHONE. See supplement. MICROSCOPE (Gr. pxpdc, small, and oxoreiy, to see), an optical instrument for the examina- tion of minute objects. Microscopes are of two kinds, simple and compound. With the former, the object is viewed directly, either by means of a single lens or a set of lenses em- ployed in the same manner as a single lens. With the latter, an enlarged image of the ob- ject is formed by a single lens or a set of lenses, termed the object glass or objective; this image is viewed and further amplified by means of an eye piece or “ocular.” Each form is valuable in its place, but as a general instrument of research the compound form, with all the modern improvements, is greatly superior. The invention of the simple micro- scope is not claimed by any one, but that of the compound has been warmly disputed; it is claimed by the Italians and the Dutch. The compound microscope of the present day, however, is a very different instrument from the disputed invention, and to this last and best form we purpose to devote the most of our attention.—The earliest magnifying lens known, if indeed it was used for this purpose, is the rude one found by Mr. Layard in the palace of Nimrud; it is made of rock crystal, and is far from perfect. Seneca (Questiones Naturales, lib. i., cap. vi.) alludes to the magni- fying power of a glass globe filled with water; he ascribes the effect to the water, and appears to refer to objects immersed in the water; this was about the middle of the Ist century. ‘‘ Burning spheres,” as they are termed by Aris- tophanes, were sold in the shops of Athens in his day, about 400 B.C. There is no evidence that lenses were employed at this early date for magnifying, at least otherwise than as read- ing glasses. It is not until the 17th century that we find powerful magnifiers of glass actually employed for scientific investigation. The names of Malpighi, Lieberkiithn, Hooke, Leeu- wenhoek, Swammerdam, Lyonnet, and Ellis are closely connected with the history of the simple microscope; and their important dis- coveries attest the value of even this form of the instrument. Most of the magnifiers em- ployed by the early observers were minute sin- gle lenses of glass; often small spheres formed. by melting threads of glass in the flame of a spirit lamp. The small single lenses of high power are usually plano-convex, the plane side toward the object; when carefully made, hay- ing a focal length of from +; to 45 of an inch, and well set in shallow blackened cells, with the proper aperture, they perform on ordinary Micronesia extends from the MICROSCOPE 513 objects tolerably well; much better than the minute glass spheres, as the latter are difficult to obtain free from bubbles. The writer has succeeded better by melting a fragment of plate glass in a small hole in a German silver cup, by means of the blowpipe, and has formed lenses in this way, ready mounted for use, quite equal to those ground and polished by hand. The German silver is blackened by the heat. In order to diminish the spherical ab- erration in the high magnifier of a single re- fracting substance, Sir David Brewster suggest- ed the employment of gems; and Mr. Pritch- ard of London, under the patronage of Dr. Goring, ground lenses of garnet, sapphire, and diamond, all of which proved superior to glass lenses of equivalent focus. The diamond lens- es upon the whole were inferior to the sap- phire; the latter, though not as highly refrac- tive, were free from the veins which rendered several of the diamond lenses useless, though still affected, in common with the diamond, by double refraction. The garnet lenses are free from this latter defect, and when very minute are much superior to glass; the color is not objectionable when the lenses are very smal]. All the magnifiers composed of single lenses, glass or gems, are surpassed by the doublets and triplets. The invention of the doublet in its best form is due to Dr. | Wollaston; it appears, however, to have been a chance discovery. It consists of two plano- convex lenses, having their plane sides to- ward the object; the posterior lens (that near- est the eye) is three times the focal length of the anterior, and the distance between them is twice the focal length of the shorter. It is evident that the front lens of the doublet must be approached much nearer to the object than if it had been used alone, and the amplification is also less than that of the front lens alone; hence the working distance is much less than that of an equivalent single lens. The great ‘and surpassing advantage of the doublet is the enlarged angle of aperture and diminution of spherical aberration. By ‘‘angle of aperture” is meant the angular breadth of the cone of rays proceeding from the object, and refracted through the lens or set of lenses. Evidently, with a single lens, having an aperture equal to its focal length, the angle will be about 55° ; in other words, the lines drawn in the same plane from a point to the margin of the lens, this point being in the axis of the lens, and at a distance from its convex surface equal to the diameter of the lens, will be 55°; no single lens, however, will admit anything like this aperture. In the doublet the front lens is approximated much closer to the object than it possibly could be if employed alone, and hence it admits a wider angle; the reduction of mag- nifying power, at the same time, diminish- es spherical aberration, which is still further reduced by the peculiar relations of the cur- vatures. The doublet thus becomes a very superior instrument, and, when well made and 514 carefully used, surpasses all but the most im- proved forms of the compound instrument. Doublets of gems are far superior to those of glass. Triplets are superior to the doublets; and for a simple microscope the achromatic triplets now furnished by the French and Ger- man opticians, as objectives for the compound microscope, will be found very effective. Es- sentially, the English and American achromatic objectives are triplets, but the peculiar mount- ing of these instruments prevents their use as simple microscopes. So great has been the improvement, that the best modern objectives will transmit angular pencils of 170° to 178°. We may notice here the so-called ‘‘ Codding- ton lens,” or grooved sphere. It is an inven- tion of Sir David Brewster, and when proper- ly made is almost free from spherical aberra- tion, and the chromatic aberration is almost insensible. ‘It consists of a spherical lens, or sphere with a deep concave groove cut round it, so as to cut off the marginal pencils, and thus give a wider field and more perfect image.”’ The lenses usually sold under this name are simply cylinders of glass having spherical ends, and of course have none of the advantages of large field and freedom from spherical aberration proposed by Dr. Brewster. When the curvatures of this cylindrical lens are unequal, and such that, the most convex * being turned toward the eye, an object placed on the other convex surface is in the proper focus of the lens, it is called a ‘Stanhope lens ;” its use is limited to such objects as can be directly applied to the surface. When of considerable power it may be advantageously employed in searching for diatomacee; the drop of water supposed to contain them may be examined by applying it to the less convex surface.—All the simple microscopes, and es- pecially the higher powers, require some kind of a stand or carrier. The lower powers and single lenses are usually attached to the end of a jointed rod, which can be moved up and down a stem inserted into a solid base. The most convenient mounting for. an inch or half- inch lens, for preliminary examinations or bo- tanical dissections, is that of Messrs. Powell and Lealand of London, and is employed as the mounting of the small condenser for their com- pound instrument. The movements are com- plete, and one can place the lens, whatever may be the position of the object, in such a relation to it as will insure the best view. For the higher powers, }to 4, of an inch, a steady well made stand will be required, and some means of adjusting the focus delicately, either by rackwork or screw. Various forms have been devised; perhaps, upon the whole, that known as the “ Raspail” is most simple, and at the same time of great excellence. It con- sists of a brass pillar, up and down which a large circular stage is moved by rackwork; a large mirror, one side plane, the other concave, swings freely below, and serves to direct the light upon the object; at the top of the brass MICROSCOPE pillar is placed the lens holder, movable for- ward by means of a screw, and laterally by swinging round a pin inserted in the top of a pillar; into the opening of the stage is fitted a glass plate, or it may be made to hold dissect- ing troughs with glass bottoms. It is often convenient, or absolutely necessary, for the examination and dissection of opaque objects, to have the lens inserted in a silver cup or Lieberktthn, which, receiving the light from the mirror below, reflects it back, condensed, upon the object. These Lieberkihns are usu- ally made of silver. The very simple micro- scope employed by Ellis in his researches on coralline, in which all the adjustments were effected by sliding by the hand, was fitted with these silver cups. Although the Lieberktthn is very commonly applied to the low power achromatic objectives, it is now seldom to be obtained with any form of simple instrument, unless by special order; it will be found of the greatest service in minute dissection.—In using lenses of moderate focus, three fourths to one eighth inch, the most extended distinct field is obtained when the convex side is presented to the object; but the sharpest vision of a mi- nute point or small object, in the centre of the field, is when the flat side is presented to the object. In estimating the magnifying power of single lenses, an arbitrary standard of the nearest distance at which the healthy unassist- ed eye can view distinctly minute objects is assumed ; this distance has been placed at from 5 to 10 in. The latter is the standard adopt- ed by most opticians and authors; Sir David Brewster alone adopts 5 in. The magnifying power is obtained by dividing 10 in. by the solar focal length of the lens, and is usually expressed lineally, or as ‘‘so many diameters.” Thus, when the magnifying power is stated to be 40, it is meant that the diameter is in- creased 40 times, but of course the area would be increased 1,600 times. The following ta- ble exhibits the linear and superficial magni- fying power, adopting the standard of 10 in.: Linear magnifying Focal lengths in Superficial magnifying inches. power. power. 2 5 25 14g 6°6 43°5 jt 10 100 % 13°3 176°8 ig 20 400 (A 40 1,600 Vy 80 6,400 1s 100 10,000 - | 200 40,000 As it is difficult to measure exactly the solar focal length of small lenses, a sufficient approxi- mation may be had by the method proposed by Mr. Ross, which answers admirably for doub- lets and triplets. It consists in ‘“‘ viewing the image of some distant object formed by the lens in question, through another lens of one inch solar focal length, keeping both eyes open, and comparing the image presented through the two lenses with that of the naked eye. MICROSCOPE The proportion between the two images so seen will be the focal length required. The panes of glass in a window, or courses of bricks in a wall, are convenient objects for this pur- pose.” The comparative focal lengths of two lenses, or sets of lenses, may be determined by holding them at the same distance from the eye and estimating the size of the image formed by each of the same object; thus, if one lens forms the image half the size of the other, lineal measure, its focal length is half that of the other. The same method applies to eye pieces.—For a history of the earlier forms of the compound microscope, the reader may consult the elaborate works of Quekett and Harting and the older works of Adams and Baker. Essentially it consists of two parts, the object glass and the eye piece. The for- mer is now made by a combination, usual- ly, of three sets of achromatic doublets, arranged to give the greatest freedom from spherical and chro- matic aberration; the latter, of two plano- convex lenses, with the plane sides to the eye, the lens nearest to the object, or ‘‘ field lens,” being almost exactly double the fo- cal length of the eye lens, and the distance between them a little more than the focal length of the field lens; the ratio is va- ried somewhat by dif- ferent makers. In fig. 1, the object placed at P, on the stage T, is illuminated by con- verging rays, 0, 0, b, b, reflected from the mirror 8. At L is the compound achro- matic object glass. © is the field lens, and A the eye lens of the eye piece. With the eye lens one views the image of the object, P’, formed by the object glass. The eye piece thus formed is termed a “ negative eye piece,” or the “‘Huygenean.” The eye piece of Kell- ner is a decided improvement; it is termed “ orthoscopic,” and the eye lens is achromatic or nearly so; these eye pieces are supplied by the Messrs. Grunow of New York, with their best instruments; the field of view is large, free from distortion, and well defined through- out the whole extent. The orthoscopic eye piece supplied by Mr. Charles A. Spencer of Canastota, N. Y., and more recently as im- proved by R. B. Tolles of Boston, has both eye and field lens achromatic, and is exceedingly perfect; it is, however, more expensive than 515 the Kellner eye piece. Mr. Tolles has intro- duced a solid, orthoscopic, negative eye piece, of remarkable clearness and definition through- out, especially fitted for micrometric use, the engraved scale being cemented in the body of the solid eye piece, and perfectly protected from all dust or interference with definition, so noticeable in the use of the eye-piece micro- meter in the ordinary way. Mr. Tolles has. also introduced what is termed an amplifier, being an achromatic concave of peculiar con- struction, which is introduced within the body of the microscope by means of an adapter. The corrections of the objective are not in the least disturbed by this arrangement, but the power is doubled. A low eye piece thus gives ag much amplification as a higher one, and with the very great advantage of almost perfect flat- ness of field. The object glasses, or ‘ objec- tives” as they are now very commonly termed, derive their denominations, 1 inch, 4 inch, 4 inch, &., from the fact that the combined sets of lenses give a magnifying power the same as a single lens of the same name. Thus, a+ object glass should give the same amplifi- cation as though a single lens of + inch was used in its place. This term does not refer at all to the working distance, for, as is the case with doublets, the working distance with all powers higher than the 2 inch is considerably less than that of the equivalent single lens; it will be apparent that for any given focus the working distance will, in general, be diminished by an increased angle of aperture; a i of 90° will have in this respect a very great advan- tage over ai of 140°. sqs)m:: pop. in 1872, 1,009,794. The surface in the north is hilly, falling away grad- ually to the plains of the south. The river Adda bounds the province part- ly on the E., and the Ticino on the W.; along these streams the land is low and marshy, but on the whole the soil of the prov- ince is remarkably fertile. It is divided into the dis- tricts of Abbiategrasso, Gallarate, Lodi, Milan, and Monza. II. A city (anc. Mediolanum), capital of the province, in lat. 45° yeaNesloni9> 11! E.2155 m. W. of Venice, and 78 m. N. E. of Turin; pop. in 1872, 199,009. It lies in a fertile plain 8. of the Alps, between the small streams Lambro and Olona, which connect by the Naviglio Grande canal with the Ticino and by the Mortesana canal with the Adda, establishing a communication with the Lago Maggiore, the lake of Como, and the Po. By railway it is connected with the principal cities of Italy. Unlike other celebrated Italian cities, Milan combines remarkable natural and architectural attractions with appearances of comfort and material prosperity; and it is justly regarded as one of the pleasantest cities _ of Europe. It is nearly circular. The length of the canal which forms the circumference of the most densely populated part is 5 m.; the whole circuit of the modern city is 8 m., and Cathedral of Milan. Many streets parallel to and in the immediate vicinity of the canal retain the name of terrazzi or terraces. The piazza Borromeo is adorned with a statue of that saint. The piazza di Castello or esplanade was much embellished by Eugéne de Beauharnais during his viceroy- alty. The castle is now used as a barrack, and on the N. E. side is the piazza d’Armi. The arco della pace, opening into it, is second only to the are de Vétoile in Paris; it is a magnifi- cent white marble triumphal arch, principally the work of Cagnola, begun in 1807 and com- pleted in 1888. Close by the piazza d’Armi is the Arena, used for shows and races, and capa- ble of accommodating 30,000 spectators. The most fashionable promenades are the streets called corsi, which lead to the principal gates. 532 The corso Vittorio Emanuele, beyond the por- ta Venezia, is the most beautiful and the most frequented. Near by is the new public garden, beautifully laid out, and adorned with a bronze statue of Cavour. A magnificent equestrian statue of Napoleon III. was erected in one of the public squares in 1875.—The houses of Milan are generally from three to five stories high. There are not as many sumptuous mansions as in Genoa, Rome, and Florence, but the Vis- conti, Belgiojoso, Annone, and Belloni palaces are fine architectural monuments, containing many works of art. The archiepiscopal pal- ace, the palazzo della Corte (the residence of the king when he visits Milan), the palazzo Marini or of the treasury, the palace of justice, that of the government, the palace of science and art (Brera), the mint, and the famous monte di stato or public loan bank, are among the most remarkable public buildings. But they are all eclipsed by the duomo or cathe- -dral, next to St. Peter’s the largest church in Italy. It is almost in the centre of the city, in the piazza del Duomo. It was begun by Gio- vanni Galeazzo Visconti in 1387, but is not yet finished, although Napoleon I. gave a powerful impulse to its completion. Though the main design has been carried out, the details present inconsistencies and anachronisms. The inte- rior is crowded with monuments of prelates and princes and relics of saints. In fretwork, carving, and statuary, it is said to eclipse all other churches in the world; and the orna- mentation is so profuse that much of the val- ue of the details is lost in the mass. (For its dimensions and general description see CaTHE- DRAL, Vol. iv., p. 118.) One of the most re- markable churches is that of St. Ambrose, re- nowned for its antiquity and as the scene of ecclesiastical councils, political conflicts, and the coronation of sovereigns. In the refec- tory of the ancient Dominican convent, the present church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, is the celebrated fresco of the “ Last Supper” by Leonardo da Vinci. The church of Santa Maria, near that of San Celso, in the Borgo San Celso, is noted for its beauty. The church of San Carlo Borromeo, begun in 1838 and opened in 1847, built after a design of Amati, is surmounted by a dome only second in size to that of the Pantheon, and contains a marble group of the dead Saviour and the Vir- gin by Marchesi; but the interior is unfinished. Among other notable churches containing cel- ebrated pictures and monuments are San Fi- dele, San Lorenzo, San Marco, and San Vittore al Corpo, formerly the Basilica Porziana, which vies in dignity with the duomo. Milan abounds with charitable institutions, which possess prop- erty to the amount of $40,000,000. The prin- cipal of them is the great hospital, 880 ft. long by 360 ft. in depth, founded by Francesco Sforza in the 15th century, open to all appli- cants, and containing a free dispensary ; among other endowments, it has received two legacies, respectively of $600,000 and $1,800,000, from MILAN private individuals. Among the other hospi- tals are the large foundling hospital; the Tri- vulzi hospital, for the relief of the aged, found- ed in 1771 by Antonio Trivulzi, who devoted his palace to the purpose; and the lazaretto, the most extensive of them all, situated out- side of the walls, founded in 1461 and com- pleted at the end of the century, for the plague-stricken, and consisting of four ranges of buildings, each nearly 1,200 ft. long, which enclose an area of more than 30 acres.— Education is represented in Milan by the archiepiscopal seminary, two lyceums, three gymnasiums, and a number of colleges and schools, including one for deaf mutes, one for veterinary surgeons, and one for the techno- logical sciences. There are an institute of sci- ence, a geographical military institute noted for issuing excellent maps, a collection of zodlo- gy and paleontology in the museo municipale di storia naturale, and other establishments and societies for the promotion of science, lit- erature, and art. The intellectual activity of the city has been rapidly increasing since the overthrow of the Austrian rule in 1859, and is particularly evident in the great number of newspapers and periodicals published there. Probably more books are issued in Milan than in any other city of Italy. The Milanese school of engravers has acquired a high repu- tation within the last 40 years. The acade- my of fine arts is one of the most celebrated institutions of its kind in Europe, and the palazzo delle scienze e delle arti, in which it is situated (commonly called the Brera from having originally been a Jesuit college called Santa Maria in Brera), is one of the chief ornaments of the city. It contains an exten- sive gallery of paintings, rich in works by Lombard and Bolognese artists; the public library of nearly 190,000 volumes, including the works bequeathed to it by Haller; a num- ber of medals and an archeological library ; a collection of casts; a botanic garden, and an observatory, one of the best in Italy. The new Victor Emanuel gallery was opened by the king, Sept. 15, 1867. Besides several other special libraries in the Brera, Milan is the seat of the world-renowned Ambrosian library, founded by Cardinal Borromeo, and carefully explored by Cardinal Mai, who made there important discoveries of palimpsests. (See AmBrostan Liprary.) The most exten- sive private library in Milan is in the palazzo Trivulzi, which contains also a valuable collec- tion of coins, and of Greek, Roman, and me- disval antiquities. The theatres and theatri- cal entertainments at Milan are numerous and excellent. La Scala can accommodate between 3,000 and 4,000 persons. Attached to it is an academy of dancing, and it also contains a sala di ridotto for concerts and balls. Among the other principal theatres are the Canobiano, the Carcano, the Teatro Re, and the Filodramatico, conducted exclusively by amateurs. The city contains fine coffee houses, club houses, hotels, MILAN elegant shops, and a magnificent bazaar (gal- leria di Cristofero). Milan has been the seat of an archbishop since the time of the last Ro- man emperors. The fortifications, consisting of a bastioned wall and other works, form an irregular polygon, and are not strong enough to withstand a siege. In the inland trade, the commercial activity is greater than that of any other city in Italy. The principal articles of commerce are silk, grain, rice, and cheese. The manufactures of silk goods, ribbons, felt and silk hats, turners’ work, cutlery, and por- celain are important.—Ancient Milan (Medio- Janum) was the chief place of the Insubres in Cisalpine Gaul, and for a long time the capital of that province. It fell into the hands of the Romans about 222 B.C. Under the empire it advanced rapidly in prosperity and in polit- ical and intellectual importance. It became the central point from which the high roads of northern Italy radiated ; its admirable position midway between the Alps and the Po made it the natural capital, and it was the imperial residence of Maximian and some of his suc- cessors for the greater part of the 4th century. By his edict issued at Milan in 313 Constantine granted tolerance to the Christians. St. Am- brose was bishop of Milan more than 22 years, till his death in 397, and his personal influence made his metropolitan see paramount in Chris- tendom. Several councils were held there in the 4th century, and several others in later times. In 452 the city was plundered by At- tila. It next became the capital of the Gothic kings, and was recovered by Belisarius in 537, but retaken by the Goths in 539, and almost entirely destroyed and nearly depopulated. In 569 it was occupied by the Lombards, and in 774 it came into the possession of Charlemagne. Several of his successors assumed either at Mi- lan or at Pavia the iron crown. After the coro- nation of Otho I. in 961 Milan formed part of the German empire, and its governors were appointed by the emperors. The city was be- sieged by Conrad II. in the early part of the 1ith century, on account of the attempt of Archbishop Heribert and others against the im- perial authority. In the 12th century, wher Milan was the most wealthy, populous, and in- fluential city in Lombardy, it became the princi- pal opponent of the German emperors, and was twice besieged by Frederick Barbarossa (in Au- gust and September, 1158, and again from May, 1161, to March, 1162); and after the second siege it was almost entirely destroyed. Recovering from the effects of this calamity, it was declared a free city after the victory of the Lombard league at Legnano in 1176; and although pledg- ing itself by the treaty of Constance (1183) to recognize the German emperors as chief feu- datories and magistrates, it was permitted to withhold from them the revenues of the im- mense municipal domains. The efforts of the citizens to liberalize their institutions were thwarted by the conflict between the Guelphs 533 divided between the family Della Torre, the representatives of the former, and the Viscon- ti, of the latter party. The Della Torre were successful in monopolizing the office of po- desta or chief magistrate from 1237 to 1811, when a revolt against the emperor Henry VII. brought the Visconti into power. Matteo Visconti and his successors extended the pow- er of Milan over almost all parts of Lom- bardy, and in 1395 it became the capital of the duchy of Milan, the first duke being Gio- vanni Galeazzo Visconti. After the extinction of the male line of the Visconti family (1447), Francesco Sforza, the husband of an illegiti- mate daughter of the last of the Visconti, se- cured the duchy for himself and his descen- dants. The claim of France upon Milan, de- rived from intermarriage with the Visconti, was taken up by Louis XII. (1499), and more strongly by Francis I., who was opposed by the emperor Charles V.; and the duchy was alternately in the hands of the French and of Sforza until Francis was obliged to relinquish his pretensions by the treaty of Madrid (1526). Francesco Sforza II. having received Milan in fief from Charles V., it reverted to that em- peror after the extinction of the male line of the Sforzas (1535); he gave it to his son Phil- ip II., and it remained in the power of Spain for nearly two centuries. From the end of the 14th to that of the 16th century Milan was celebrated for its manufactures of arms and armor. The city was equally renowned for the elegance and tastefulness of its finery, and became so noted as a leader of fashions in Europe that the English word milliner origi- nated from Milaner, an importer of fashion- able articles from Milan. In 1576 the city was desolated by the plague. At the close of the war of Spanish snecession the duchy was allotted to Austria (1714), and constituted to- gether with Mantua the Austrian portion of Lombardy. After the invasion of the French in 1796 it became part successively of the Cis- alpine republic (1797), of the Italian republic (1802), and of the kingdom of Italy (1805). In 1814 it became a province of Austria and part of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. : Soon after the French revolution of 1848 Milan be- came the scene of disturbances; and after the departure of the viceroy, Archduke Regnier, a violent insurrection broke out, in conse- quence of which Gen. Radetzky, commander of the citadel, was compelled to evacuate the city, which was occupied by the Piedmontese, who established a provisional government. After the defeat of Charles Albert at Custozza (July 25) the republicans of Milan overthrew the provisional government; but on Aug. 5 the city was compelled to submit to Radetzky, who entered it with 50,000 men, and kept it in a state of siege till December. The dis- turbances of March, 1849, and the rising of Feb. 6, 1858, were speedily suppressed. The rule of Austria was brought to a close in 1859 by and Ghibellines, the political influence being | the French and Sardinian armies; and tho 534 MILAZZO Austrian troops evacuated Milan June 5, the day after the battle of Magenta. Napoleon III. and Victor Emanuel made their entry into the city June 8, and by the peace of Villa- franca (July 11) Milan and the rest of Lombar- dy were ceded by Austria to France, to be transferred by the latter to Sardinia. The city was the scene of some disturbances by Neapolitan soldiery, April 29 and 30, 1861, but these were soon suppressed. MILAZZO, or Melazzo (anc. dfyle), a seaport town of Sicily, on the N. coast, in the province and 18m. W. of the city of Messina; pop. about 7,000. Itis built on a promontory which forms a spacious bay, the Basilicus Sinus of the an- cients, affording excellent anchorage, and is divided into two parts, one on the promontory strongly fortified, and the other at the harbor near the bottom of the bay. The exports are fish, wine, oil, olives, and fruits of every kind. The tunny fishery is considerable. The plain of Milazzo, bounded by the mountains of Pe- Jorum, is noted for its beautiful scenery. The promontory of Myle was the scene of a vic- tory of the Roman fleet over that of the Car- thaginians in the first Punic war, 260 B. C., gained by means of the grappling implements called corvi, then used for the first time. In 36 Agrippa, the commander of Octavius’s fleet, defeated there that of Sextus Pompey. In 1719 Milazzo was unsuccessfully besieged by the Spanish army. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi here defeated the Neapolitans, a victory which resulted in giving him possession of Messina. MILBURN, William Henry, an American cler- gyman, born in Philadelphia, Sept. 26, 1823. In early childhood he lost the sight of one eye wholly and of the other partially, and in later life consulted the most eminent oculists in Eu- rope and America, but without avail. At the age of 20 he became a Methodist Episcopal _ clergyman, and during several years of itiner- acy travelled more than 200,000 miles in the United States. In 1856 he was chaplain of the house of representatives at Washington. In 1859 he visited England in company with Bishop Simpson and the Rev. Dr. McClintock, and delivered lectures in the principal cities. Subsequently he was ordained in the Protestant Episcopal church, but in 1872 he returned to Methodism. He has published “ Rifle, Axe, and Saddle Bags” (1857); ‘Ten Years of Preacher Life” (1859); and ‘“ Pioneers, Preachers, and People of the Mississippi Valley” (1860). MILDEW (Ang.-Sax. mildedw ; Ger. Wehl- thau, meal dew), a name applied to various minute fungi, especially by agriculturists and horticulturists to those which are found upon and are injurious to their crops. The name was originally applied to the white moulds; in common use it is not restricted to these, but designates also dark-colored fungi, and those of different genera and sub-orders. (See Foner.) One of the most widely disseminated mildews is that which attacks the grape vine, uppearing as grayish spots upon the under sur- thority in cryptogam- MILDEW face of the leaves, the young shoots, and the stems of the fruit; it often destroys the foliage, and consequently the fruit fails to ripen. It has produced incalculable damage to the vine- yards of Europe as well as of this country, and though some varieties are more susceptible to its attacks than others, almost all in certain seasons are affected. An English gardener, Mr. Tucker, gave special attention to the sub- ject, and the fungus, in acknowledgment of his services, was called otdiwm Tuckeri, a name by which it is generally known in horticultu- ral works; but Dr. Berkeley, a high au- ic botany, considers it’ not an vidiwm, but a form of an erysiphe, a very polymorphous genus, in which there are five different == kinds of fructifica- J tion. Whether this Grape-vine Mildew. view be correct or not, the plant is now quite well understood, as are the means of combating it. With grapes grown under glass, where the cultivator can control the humidity of the atmosphere, mildew is easily managed; but in the open vineyard it demands constant vigilance, and the vineyardist should daily examine the vines most liable to its attacks, and at the first indi- cation of its presence apply sulphur. In some of the wine-growing districts of Europe sul- phuring is practised systematically, whether mildew appears or not. With a view to de- stroy the spores, the vines before the buds swell and the trellises are sprinkled with a solution of 84 oz. common salt and 4 oz. salt- petre in 86 oz. of water, and 10 drops each of oil of rosemary and lavender are added; one part of this is mixed with 100 parts of water and thoroughly applied by means of a syringe. As soon as the leaves expand they are well dusted with flowers of sulphur, for the application of which a bellows has been especially contrived which blows the sulphur as a cloud of dust, and when the bellows is properly handled every part of the vine will be powdered with it. A similar application is made when the vines are in blossom, another when the grapes are as large as a pea, and a fourth when they begin to color. In this country the grape growers generally content themselves with using sulphur at the first ap- pearance of the trouble. Its efficacy is well established, provided it be applied in time. Mildew usually appears upon the grape in pro- longed warm and damp weather, and it often follows a sudden change of temperature.— Rose growers are sometimes great losers by mildew; the leaves become parched and blis- tered, and the young stems and unexpanded buds are misshapen and covered with a gray mould; this is attributed to a different plant MILDEW from that upon the grape, spherotheca pannosa. A similar blight comes upon hop vines, often seriously affecting the crop. Cucumbers, let- tuce, and other succulent vegetables are injured in a similar manner in unfavorable seasons; and in this country a late crop of peas is al- most impossible by reason of an erysiphe which covers the foliage in such abundance that the plants appear as if dusted with a white pow- der; the European pea mildew or blight is Z. Marti, but we are not aware that our species has been identified as the same. The pea is also attacked by another fungus, peronospora Pea Mildew (Leaflet natural size, Fungus magnified). vici@. Near large cities immense quantities of lettuce are forced under glass, to supply the demand during winter; were there no difficul- ties to contend with, this would be an exceed- ingly profitable culture, but often the grower finds his crop, just as it is nearly ready for mar- ket, rendered almost worthless by the. advent of amildew or mould. Peronospora ganglifor- mis is one of the destructive lettuce fungi, but it is probably not the only one. As with other plants under glass, lettuce is usually attacked by mildew after a sudden change of tempera- ture, and all the grower can do is to preserve the proper conditions of heat and moisture as preventives, for when it is established there is no remedy.—The most important of these mi- ‘nute fungi is the wheat mildew, or rust as it is more generally called in this country, puc- cinia graminis, of which figures are given in the article Funer. This obstacle to successful wheat growing has been known from very early times, but its real nature was only dis- covered early in the present century. Witha view to destroy any spores that may be with the grain, it is common to treat the seed wheat with a solution of sulphate of copper.—There is scarcely a cultivated or wild plant which is not in some seasons the host of these fun- gi, which are so minute that their structure can only be seen by the aid of strong magni- fiers; in one sense they are among the most important plants to the cultivator, and often determine his success or failure; the minute mildew of the grape in the wine regions of Europe has brought ruin to whole neighbor- hoods and driven families to emigration.— Another set of fungi attacks dead vegetable matter. When linen or cotton fabrics are kept in a damp place or laid away before they are perfectly dry, they become covered with dark spots which the housekeeper knows as mil- MILETUS 535 dew; this is a species of cladosporium, which in some of its forms attacks the leaves of the apple and pear, and also produces the dark Paper Mildew (magnified). blotches sometimes found on otherwise fair specimens of the fruit. Paper, whether upon damp walls or stored in a damp place, is at- tacked by a chetomium, an ascotricha, or some other form of mildew, and similar fungi appear upon damp plastered walls. (See Funai.) MILE (Lat. mille passuum, 1,000 paces of 5 ft. each), a measure of length or distance. According to the estimates of the length of the Roman foot, the ancient mile must have been 1,614 or 1,618 English yards, while the English statute mile amounts to 1,760 yards or 5,280 ft. There are 69°16 statute miles to a degree of the equator, and the English geo- graphical mile is », of a degree, or 11527 statute mile. The distance expressed by the term mile varies; the following are its values in some countries: COUNTRIES. Yards Statate miles. Modern Roman: mile;s4. ce. eon ace 3 1,628 0-925 PIB MUONS cece ectcatedee oe eee ciclo ie eee 2,240 1°273 German) Short miles —-. 22 7e5 cae. oes en 6.£59 8°897 German geographical mile............. 8,23T 4°611 SWiss; M16, se.) haa c a alee aecieteonet oe 9,153 5:201 German) long millones ie oastietee aeere 2 ote 10,126 5-753 Swedish mile.,.......... Waa aisie viatale pete 3 11,700 6° 648 MILETUS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, sit- uated in the northern part of Caria, but politi- cally belonging to the Ionian confederacy. It stood at the northern extremity of a promon- tory formed by the Grium range, opposite Priene and the headland of Mycale, and commanding the entrance of the Latmic bay, into which the Meander flowed. Miletus had four harbors, protected by a group of islands, the principal of which was Lade. It is difficult to determine the precise position of the now ruined city, owing to the continued changes produced in the bay and its surroundings by the action of the Mean- der, which, bringing down immense masses of soil, has filled up the northern portion of the water basin, and changed Lade and the other islands into parts of the continent. The terri- tory of Miletus extended round the bay as far as the promontory of Mycale on the north and Cape Posidium on the south. The earliest in- habitants were Carians, Leleges, and Cretans, and it derived its historical name from Mile- tus, a leader of the latter, being also called 536 MILFORD Pityusa and Anactoria. It was subsequently settled by Ionians from Greece under the lead of Neleus, the younger son of the last Athenian king, Codrus. It was celebrated as an indus- trial and commercial city, and in the early por- tion of Grecian history it was the foremost maritime power, extending its commerce and colonies all over the shores of the Mediterra- nean, the Propontis, and the Euxine. Among its colonies were Naucratis in the delta of Egypt, Sinope in Paphlagonia, Panticapeum in the Taurian peninsula (Crimea), and Odessus, Olbia, Tomi, and Istropolis, on the W. shores of the Euxine. At the same period it also occupied a dignified place among the most en- lightened cities of Ionia, being the birthplace of the philosophers Thales and Anaximander, and of the historians Cadmus and Hecatzus. It successfully defended its independence against Sadyattes and Alyattes of Lydia, but succumbed to the last monarch of that kingdom, Creesus; and after his fall it was subdued by the army of the Persian conqueror under Harpagus. Under Aristagoras, the brother-in-law of its governor Histisus, it revolted with the other Ionian cities against Darius Hystaspis, receiv- ing aid from the Athenians, but was finally subdued and destroyed by the Persians (494 B. C.), the great revolt leading to the first in- vasion of Greece. Recovering under the later MILFORD HAVEN Persian kings, it vainly defended the cause of the last of them against Alexander (834), and suffered a new ruin. Having belonged for about a century to the Seleucide, it was annexed to the territories of Rome after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, and shared the fate of the other cities of the province of Asia, dwin- dling away under the Byzantine rule, until it was totally destroyed by the Turks. For some years excavations have been conducted at the cost of the Rothschilds, who in 1873 presented to the administration of the fine arts in Paris several columns and sculptures from the temple of Apollo Didymus. Remains of an aqueduct and of several temples have been found. MILFORD, a town of Worcester co., Massa- chusetts, on the Milford branch of the Boston and Albany, and on the Milford and Woon- socket and the Hopkinton railroads, 30 m. 8. W. of Boston; pop. in 1870, 9,890. It is one of the largest boot manufacturing towns in New England, and contains machine shops and other manufactories, a national and a savings bank, a weekly newspaper, and six churches. MILFORD HAVEN, a harbor of Pembroke- shire, Wales, the deepest, safest, and most com- modious in Great Britain, formed by an inlet of St. George’s channel, N. W. of the entrance to Bristol channel. Its opening is toward the south, but after penetrating a short distance Milford Haven. inland it changes its direction and runs east, branching off into numerous bays, creeks, and roads. It is about 10 m. long and from 1 to 2 m. wide, and is defended by two batteries. The tides rise from 28 to 30 ft., and at low water it contains as great an area of deep an- chorage as the aggregate of Plymouth, Port- land, and Holyhead. It has substantial docks and piers, and is a great resort for shipping. A royal dockyard was established here in 1790, but it was removed to Pembroke in 1814. The number of entrances at the port in 1871 was 31, tonnage 8,190; clearances 5, tonnage 2,183, The imports from the United States in 1871 were valued at £2,051, from other countries £24,355. Milford (pop. in 1871, 2,836) is a MILFORT modern place, and is engaged chiefly in ship building. It is connected by rail with the South Wales line. ; MILFORT, Le Clere, a French adventurer, born in Méziéres about 1750, died there in 1817. He came to America, travelled through the British colonies, and about 1776 visited the Creek na- tion. Here he attached himself to the Creek chieftain, Alexander McGillivray, whose sister he married. He was made a war chief by the Indians, and performed active service against the whigs of Georgia during the American revolution. He remained with the Creeks for 20 years. In 1796, having lost his wife and his friend and brother-in-law McGillivray, he returned to France, and was made a general of brigade by Bonaparte. He married again in France, distinguished himself in 1814 by a gal- lant defence of his own house in Vouziers, whither he had removed from Méziéres, against a party of Russians, and soon afterward re- turned to Méziéres. He published Mémoires, ou coup Weil rapide sur mes voyages dans la Louisiane, et mon séjour dans la nation creeke (8vo, Paris, 1802). MILHAU. See Mirrav. . MILITARY FRONTIER (Ger. Militdrgrenze ; Hung. Hataror-vidék), a region, and formerly a political division, of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, between lat. 44° and 47° N., and lon. 14° and 238° E., bounded N. by Carniola, Croatia, Slavonia, and Hungary, E. by Tran- sylvania and Roumania, 8. by Servia, Bosnia, and Dalmatia, and W. by the Adriatic; area, about 13,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 1,041,123. Its breadth is greatest in the W. part, which is traversed by continuations of the Julian Alps, branches of which are the Great and Little Capella ranges, and by the Dinaric Alps, while the easternmost division is crossed by offshoots of the 8. E. Carpathians. The middle parts are mostly level and exceedingly fertile. The highest elevations are Mounts Gugu (7,700 ft. high) and Sarka (7,300 ft.), near the Tran- sylvanian boundary, and Mount Klek or Ogulin Head (Ger. Oguliner Kopf), near Zengg on the Adriatic (6,900 ft.). The principal rivers are the Danube, which traverses the country in a S. E. direction between Peterwardein and Sem- lin, continuing its course E. on the southern frontier as far as Orsova, and receiving the waters of the Theiss, the Bega, and the Temes; the Save, which separates the Military Frontier from Bosnia and Servia, and falls into the Dan- ube between Semlin and Belgrade in Servia; and the Kulpa and the Unna, affluents of the Save, flowing respectively on the confines of Croatia and Bosnia. There are some mountain lakes in the W. part. Of mineral waters, the sulphur springs of Mehadia, near the confines of Wal- lachia, are most celebrated, the place being also famous for picturesque scenery. The climate is very mild in the level country, but severe in the mountains. The principal productions are the various kinds of grain, maize, tobacco, flax, hemp, fruits, and wine; and of minerals, silver, MILITARY SCHOOLS 537 iron, copper, lead, and some gold. The inhab- itants are mostly of Slavic race, Croats, Slavo- nians, Serbs, &c.; but there are also Wallachs, Magyars, Germans, Greeks, Jews, Clementines (Albanians), and gypsies. The predominant religions are the Greek and the Roman Catho- lic, the former having its centre at Carlovitz on the Danube, the seat of a patriarch or arch- bishop. There are few towns, but some of them, as Peterwardein, Carlovitz, Semlin, Pan- esova, and Old Orsova, all on the Danube, Zengg, Carlopago, and Brod, in the western division, and others, are important on account of their situation.—The country was originally formed into a military organization by Ferdinand I. (died in 1564) as a barrier against the Turks, and it was reconstituted in 1807 and again in 1850. Under the military organization almost the entire male population above 20 years old was formed into 14 regiments of infantry, 1 of hussars, and 2 battalions of boatmen. All agricultural estates were the common property of the Frontier communities, the rural build- ings being partly inalienable and partly indi- ‘vidual property. Arms, accoutrements, and ammunition, and all necessaries during military service, were supplied by the government, and in all military respects the frontiersmen were subject to the rules of the Austrian army. Before the reorganization of Austria in 1867 the Military Frontier was a separate crown land of the empire. By that reorganization its reunion with the crown of Hungary was vir- tually established; and at the meeting of the delegations of Cisleithan Austria and Hungary in 1869, it was resolved to abolish gradually the peculiar institutions of the Military Fron- tier, and to incorporate one of the two mili- tary commanderies with Hungary proper, and the other with Croatia. The transformation was nearly completed in 1874. MILITARY LAW. See Court Martiat, and Martiat Law. MILITARY SCHOOLS, institutions in which soldiers are instructed or youths educated for the army. Of the former class, the “soldier schools” of Prussia, established in every regi- ment or battalion, in which the privates are taught the common rudimentary branches, and sometimes singing also, are the most remark- able. There are similar schools in the Austrian, British, and other European armies. Academies of the second class, intended to educate officers, were not unknown in antiquity, and are now an indispensable part of the military system of all great nations. The first military school in France was established by Louis XV. at Vin- cennes in 1751; it had 500 pupils, all of whom were young noblemen. Soon after its estab- lishment it was removed to the edifice built for it in the Champ de Mars, Paris, and it is still the principal military school of France. The fa- mous school of St. Cyr, near Versailles, was ori- ginally founded by Bonaparte at Fontainebleau in 1802, but was a few years later removed to its present location, and still retains the prin- 538 MILITARY SCHOOLS cipal features of its first organization. It has 350 pupils between 18 and 20 years of age, who after a course of two years are sent, some to the école d@état-major, others to the cavalry school at Saumur, and the rest to the army as sub-lieutenants of infantry. There is also an important military school at La Fléche, founded by Louis XV. in 1764. Even before the seven years’ war the French had an artillery school in every town where a regiment of that arm was garrisoned, and their example has been followed by Germany and Austria. In Prussia the education of officers is provided for by high schools for each arm in every army division, and by the royal military school at Berlin, founded by Frederick the Great, to which the most deserving young officers are admitted from the line. In Great Britain the royal military college at Sandhurst, which comprises a cadets’ college and a staff college, and the royal mili- tary academy at Woolwich, designed as an ar- tillery and engineer school, enjoy a high repu- tation. The United States military academy at West Point, founded in 1802, ranks second to no institution of the kind in the world. Cadets are admitted on the recommendation of members of congress and the president of the United States, and the act of congress of Feb. 2, 1872, increasing the congressional representa- tion of the several states, enlarged the corps of cadets from 293 to 342, the present legal num- ber. The education and subsistence are gratu- itous, which is not the case at Sandhurst, Wool- wich, St. Cyr, &c. The course of study, under a superintendent and 40 professors and instruc- tors, 82 of whom are army officers, covers a period of four years. Since 1866 the standard of qualifications has been raised, and appoint- ments to cadetships must now be made one year previous to admission. To the end of 1873 about 2,500 had graduated at West Point, and the total cost of the school since its establish- ment was less than $9,000,000. Apart from West Point, military instruction in the United States is provided for as follows: The act of July 28, 1866, authorized the president, ‘for the purpose of promoting knowledge of mili- tary science among the young men of the Uni- ted States,” to detail officers of experience to act as professors in institutions of learning hay- ing upward of 150 male students; and several institutions have availed themselves of such in- struction. By the same act provision is made for the instruction of enlisted men in the com- mon English branches of education, and espe- cially in the history of the United States, at every post, garrison, or permanent camp. In 1867 an artillery school was organized at For- tress Monroe, to which one battery from each of the five regiments of artillery is ordered every year, for theoretical and practical in- struction in that branch of military tactics. In nearly every military department there are now schools of instruction in military signalling and telegraphy, and for this service there is special recruiting. The Virginia military institute, at MILITIA Lexington, was organized in 1839; in 1878 it had 19 instructors and 260 students; it owns property valued at $300,000, and received an annual appropriation of $15,000 from the state, which appoints a certain number of the cadets. Its course of instruction is similar to that of West Point. The Kentucky military institute at Frankfort, was organized in 1846; in 1878 it had 6 instructors and 78 students; it owns prop- erty valued at $75,000, and is controlled by a board of visitors appointed by the governor of the state. Two or three American colleges, like the university at Norwich, Vt., are under a partial military organization, and in several of the private schools throughout the country the pupils wear a uniform and are drilled in the manual of arms. MILITIA (Lat. miles, a soldier), a body of armed citizens trained to military duty, who may be called out in certain cases, but may not be kept on service, like standing armies, in time of peace. It differs from the levée en masse in having a regular organization at all times. Something equivalent to a militia seems to have existed in England in the time of the Saxons. The ceorles or peasants held their lands on condition of military service, every five hides of ground in most counties being charged with the equipment of one man, and were banded in bodies or companies, the command of which was given to the ealdormen elected by the people in the folkmotes. The peasants were enrolled under the banners of their immediate lords, but in case of rebellion or invasion the state had a paramount claim upon their ser- vices, and the lords had no further authority over them than the privilege of leading them in battle. The organization of this species of militia has been attributed to Alfred, but it seems eertain that a national force called the Jyrd, regulated probably by similar principles, existed before his time. Under the Normans the fyrd continued to be maintained simulta- neously with the feudal armies, and ultimately it became the source both of the modern Brit- ish militia and of the sheriff’s posse comitatus. It was not till the reign of Edward III. that a statute was passed providing that no militia- man should be sent out of his own county ex- cept in case of invasion or other grave danger to the realm, nor out of the kingdom in any case. In the fifth year of Henry IV. a law was enacted empowering the king’s ‘‘ commis- sioners of array’’ to array and train all men- at-arms, to cause all able-bodied men to arm themselves according to their substance, to amerce those unable to bear arms, and to re- quire the services of persons so armed at the seashore or elsewhere in season of danger. The command of the militia was often given to the persons charged with these commissions of array, but more frequently it rested with the sheriffs or high constables, each in his own county. Such was the organization of the militia when the parliament of Charles I. in 1642 passed a bill vesting the control of this MILITIA force, as well as the command of all the forts, castles, and garrisons, in certain commissioners in whom they could confide. The king refused his assent to the bill; and when the parliament thereupon declared the kingdom in danger and issued orders to muster the militia, he issued commissions of array to some of the nobility for the same purpose. Thus began the civil war. After the restoration, the peculiar state of things which had sprung from feudal tenures no longer existed, and the militia was reorgan- ized mainly on its present basis. The king was acknowledged as its sole supreme commander, and no other army was recognized by the law. Lords lieutenant of counties were charged with raising the force, as they had been indeed since the time of Queen Mary; every man who pos- sessed a landed estate of £500 a year, or person- al property to the amount of £6,000, was bound to provide, equip, and pay one horseman; every man whose property was one tenth of either of those amounts was charged with one pikeman or musketeer; and smaller proprietors united to furnish a soldier, each contributing accord- ing to his means. But it was not until 1757, when a bill to reconstruct the militia was passed, that the force acquired much vitality. The act then passed, though amended several times, is in its main features stillinforce. The able-bodied men of each parish between the ages of 18 and 35 are enrolled annually, and by ballot a certain required number are to be selected for service. Certain classes are ex- empted: peers, yeomanry, resident members of universities, clergymen, parish schoolmas- ters, articled clerks, apprentices, seafaring men, crownemployees, free watermen of the Thames; in England any poor man with more than one child born in wedlock; in Scotland any man with more than two lawful children and not possessed of property to the value of £50; in Ireland any man with more than three lawful children, who pays less than £5 a year rent, or has less than £10 of property. Substitutes may be accepted for the men chosen by ballot, and for many years it has been customary to suspend the ballot, and make up the requisite number by volunteering. The time of service is five years. The command is in the lord lieutenant of the county and his deputies un- der commission by the crown. The militia are required to assemble for 27 days’ training each year, but in time of peace the require- ment is not strictly enforced. The mutiny law is applicable while they are under arms. The militia cannot be compelled to march out of their respective counties except in case of in- vasion or actual rebellion, nor in any case to march out of the kingdom. Their pay while in service is the same as that in the regular army: In 1873-4 the militia force of the king- dom consisted of 133,952 men and 5,066 com- missioned and non-commissioned officers, of whom only about one half appeared on the day of inspection. There are also volunteer organ- izations consisting of: 1, yeomanry cavalry, 539 numbering about 15,000; 2, infantry, artillery, &c., including enrolled pensioners, numbering 195,750. These are only liable to be called out in case of actual or apprehended invasion, for service within the kingdom.—In France all able-bodied males are liable to military duty from the age of 20 to that of 40; the first five years in the active army, then four years in the reserve, then five years in the ter- ritorial or district army, and then six years in the territorial army of the reserve. Exemp- tions are made as follows: the eldest of or- phans having neither father nor mother; the only or oldest son or grandson of a widow or wife separated from her husband, or of a father more than 70 years old; the elder of two brothers liable to service at the same time; the younger of two brothers when the elder brother is actually in service in the army; the younger son of a family, whose elder brother has died in the service, or been discharged for wounds or illness contracted in the field. There are also partial or condi- tional exemptions of pupils, teachers, ecclesi- astics, &c.; and the local authorities may grant further exemptions, subject to the revi- sion of the military councils, of young men who contribute to the support of their fam- ilies, and who are engaged in studies or ayoca- tions which would suffer from the interrup- tion. (See Guarp, Nationat.)—In Switzer- land a standing army is forbidden by the con- stitution. Military instruction is given in the schools, though not made compulsory. The military forces are divided into: 1, the Bundes- auszug, or federal army, consisting of all able- bodied males between the ages of 20 and 30; 2, the army of the reserve, consisting of all be- tween the ages of 31 and 40 who have served in the first class; 3, the landwehr, or militia, embracing all the men from 41 to 45. Their numbers in 1872 were: of the first class, 84,- 369; of the second, 50,069; of the third, 65,- 981; total, with the staff added, 201,257. The federal army and the army of the reserve are drilled once a year in their respective cantons, and they also meet once or twice a year in general muster. In Belgium the militia in- cludes all males able to bear arms between-the ages of 21 and 40, and they number about 125,000 regular militia and 275,000 reserves. The regular army is supplied by conscription, to which citizens become liable at 419. In the Netherlands the regular army is kept up by conscription of those who have reached the age of 20. The militia consists of those be- tween 25 and 55, who for the first ten years are called active, and afterward the “ resting” militia. In Denmark all able-bodied males who have reached 21 are liable to serve eight years in the regular army and afterward eight years in the army of the reserve. The na- tional militia of Sweden is raised and paid by the landowners, assisted to some extent by the income of state domains. The infantry prac- tise a month annually, and the cavalry 45 days. 540 —The militia system of the German empire is the most complete and effective in the world. Every subject becomes liable to military duty on reaching the age of 20, and he must serve three years in the regular army, and afterward four years in the army of the reserve. After this, at 27, he enters the landwehr or militia, where he remains for five years, liable to be called upon for regular drill, and in case of war to be incorporated in the regular army. Finally, at the age of 32, he is enrolled in the Jandsturm, where heis subject to military duty within the realm in case of invasion. The re- serve, when necessary, are capable of being mobilized for service in two weeks’ time. On a war footing the army, according to the latest returns, falls a little short of 1,300,000.—In the Austro-Hungarian monarchy the standing army is formed by conscription of those who have reached the age of 20, and those drawn serve three years in the regular army and sev- en years in the army of the reserve. The obligation to serve in the landwehr is general, and the period of service is 12 years, but is limited to the respective divisions of the em- pire from which the body is drawn. There is also the landsturm, corresponding to that of Germany, but enrollment in it is not compul- sory except in Tyrol and on the exposed frontier. The army in 1873 numbered on a peace footing 278,470, and on a war foot- ing 838,700.—In Russia all who have reached the age of 21 are liable to conscription for seven years’ service in the regular army, and eight years in the reserve. The regular ar- my in 1872 consisted of 765,872 on a peace footing, and 1,213,259 on a war footing. In peace only so many are kept embodied as are necessary to keep the army on the proper peace footing, and the remainder are on fur- lough. Besides these, the militia is organized whenever emergencies render it necessary. The Cossacks perform military service in lieu of the payment of taxes, and in case of neces- sity every man from 15 to 60 is liable to serve. —In Italy the regular army is kept up by con- scription of those of the age of 21, and those not drawn pass into the army of the reserve, where they practise annually for 40 days, and then are on furlough, subject to be called upon in the event of war. Thestrength of the army is about 200,000 on a peace footing and 450,- 000 on a war footing.—In Turkey every man is liable to serve four years in the regular army, and then for two years longer to remain subject to summons for like service; after- ward he enters the first reserve for three years, and then the second reserve for three years, after which he passes into the sedenta- ry army, liable to be called out only in time of war. The total available force in time of war is estimated at 700,000.—The militia system of the United States, like that of Great Britain, had its origin in jealousy of standing armies, and the purpose of its estab- lishment was to provide a military force that MILITIA should be ready and effective for all sudden emergencies, but only required to serve when the emergency should arise. The constitution of the United States confers upon congress authority to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, sup- press insurrection, and repel invasion, and also to provide for organizing, arming, and dis- ciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia ac- cording to the discipline prescribed by con- gress. It also makes the president command- er-in-chief of the militia of the several states when called into the service of the United States. Acting under the provisions of the constitution, the congress of 1792 passed an act for the enrollment in the militia of all able- bodied white male citizens of the age of 18 and under 45, excepting the judicial and executive officers of the federal government, members and officers of congress, custom-house officers and clerks, persons employed in the postal service, inspectors of exports, pilots and mari- ners, and such persons as should be exempted by state laws. Each person was to be provided with suitable arms and accoutrements, which were made exempt from taxation, and from all process for the collection of debts. The or- ganization was to be effected within one year, under state laws and under officers of state appointment. The act provided that in the or- ganization there should be infantry, cavalry, and artillery in suitable proportions, and desig- nated the number and grade of officers for each division, brigade, regiment, battalion, and com- pany. Another act, passed Feb. 28, 1795, empowered the president, in case of invasion or imminent danger thereof, to call forth the militia of the state or states most convenient to the place of danger or scene of action, as he might judge necessary, and in case of in- surrection in any state against the government thereof, on the application of its legislature or of its executive when the legislature could not be convened, to call forth such militia of any other state or states as he might deem neces- sary to suppress such insurrection. The presi- dent was also empowered by the same act, whenever the laws of the United States should be opposed or the execution thereof obstruct- ed in any state by combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or by the marshals, to call forth the militia of such state, or of any other state or states, as might be necessary, to sup- press such combinations and cause the laws to be duly executed; and while in service the militia were to be subject to the rules and articles of war, as in case of regular troops. These provisions still remain in force, except that in providing who shall be_enrolled the word “white” was stricken out by act of March 2, 1867. The act of 1795 limited the MILITIA period of service which the militia might be compelled to perform under such call to three months, but by act of July 29, 1861, when called out to suppress insurrection or assist in enforcement of the laws, it was provided that their continuance in service should not extend beyond 60 days after the commencement of the next regular session of congress, unless con- gress should expressly by law provide there- for. And the act of July 17, 1862, provided that: whenever the president should call forth the militia he might himself fix the period of service, not exceeding nine months. All these acts contemplate that the officering and dis- ciplining of the militia shall be by state au- thority, and the states have assumed this duty, and made provisions for its discharge. The exemptions from military service under state laws are few, and are confined in the main to members of the executive and legislative de- partments of the government, judges and clerks of courts, clergymen, teachers, regular physi- cians and surgeons, superintendents of hospi- tals, &c., justices of the peace, and active fire- men. The state constitutions will be found in general to recognize the value of a well regula- ted militia in a free government, and to require the passage of laws for organizing, arming, equipping, and disciplining the freemen of the state who are subject to military duty. Every state has laws for that purpose. The governor is the commander-in-chief, and under him are the usual officers, chosen by different modes in different states; in some by the governor alone, in some by the governor with consent of the senate, in some by the legislature, and in some by the persons liable to military duty. For many years it was customary to have annual drill or training days for the whole body of the militia in the several states, and they were called out for the purpose and compelled to at- tend under penalty; but for 30 years or more the conviction has been spreading that these annual trainings were of little value, and that they accomplished almost nothing in fitting men for active military duty. The conse- quence has been that the laws providing for them have generally been either repealed or allowed to fall into disuse, and in their place have been substituted provisions under which voluntary organizations are formed, which select their own uniforms and the branch of service to which they will attach themselves, and which are encouraged by small state bounties to perfect their drill and keep them- selves in readiness at all times for prompt and effective action. These organizations compose but a small part of the whole body of the militia, but they are ample for all the needs of government in ordinary times, and in extra- ordinary emergencies they serve as the nucleus of an army until the unorganized militia, or such portion thereof as may be called for, can be put into the field. The militia of the United States at the present time therefore consists of these voluntary organizations, fully officered, MILK 541 armed, equipped, and drilled, and also all other able-bodied male citizens of the age of 18 and under 45, with the exceptions provided by na- tional and state laws, all of whom are subject to be summoned to perform military duty according to the laws of congress or of their respective states.—The militia has sometimes performed a conspicuous part in the military history of the country, though not always to the satisfaction of those who are disposed to rely upon it as the chief protection of the government. During the revolution the militia of the several states was often called out, but the want of discipline, which could not be adequately supplied during the short periods of their service, rendered them an unsatisfac- tory reliance. The ‘“ whiskey insurrection,” as it was called, of 1794, was put down by a levy of militia from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia. During the war with Great Britain of 1812—15, the inefficiency of the militia was increased by disputes between the national and state authorities regarding the right of the president to determine finally whether an emergency had arisen which au- thorized his calling them out, the right to place them under officers of the president’s appoint- ment, and the right to march them beyond the limits of the state. The militia of Massachu- setts and Connecticut, when called out, were refused payment by the general government because they had not been placed under the orders of the federal officer, and the militia of Vermont were at one time summoned home by the governor because in his opinion no cause existed which justified the president in de- manding their services. The judicial decisions were in favor of the right of the president to decide finally and conclusively whether the militia should be summoned (Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheaton, 19); and his right to place them under the command of a federal officer rank- ing their own officers is now undisputed. On the breaking out of the civil war in 1861, the militia organizations of some of the states proved of the very highest importance, as they enabled a formidable force to be placed in the field much earlier than would otherwise have been possible. The first call of the pres- ident for 75,000 men was mainly filled from this source. Afterward volunteers were re- lied upon in the main, and when the supply from this source proved insufficient, conscrip- tion was ordered. As the laws now are, the great majority of all the persons liable to per- form military duty in the United States are unlikely to be summoned for discipline, or even to organize for the purpose, unless the military needs shall require a heavy force in the field, in which case, if summoned at all, it will be by conscription. MILK, the liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals. Its color is gen- erally yellowish white, but sometimes bluish white, and it is quite opaque. Its specific grav- ity, according to Scherer, varies from 1°018 to D42 MILK — 1:045. According to Simon, the average spe- | of all mammals; and it contains all the ele- cific gravity of human milk is 1°032. There is a difference of opinion among chemists as to whether normal milk has an acid or an alkaline reaction. According to Berzelius, Peligot, and Lassaigne, it is acid; Simon and others regard it as alkaline, and attribute the acid reaction found by others to its having ac- quired acidity by standing, or to disease. Nu- merous examinations, however, seem to indi- cate that healthy milk may be alkaline, neutral, or acid, according to the food of the animal. D’Arat and Petit say that the milk of stall- fed animals is always acid, and becomes alka- line only when they are turned out to grass. Hermbstiidt found milk that had remained long in the udder acid. Fraas had a cow milked six times a day, and found the milk at each time feebly alkaline. After an interval of 24 hours she was again milked, when the first portion of the milk was found alkaline and the last portion acid. The opacity of milk de- pends upon numerous yellow microscopic glob- ules of a fatty substance from zsh 55 tO spay of an inch in diameter,.shown in fig. 1. eS ZO — oe z; i Baca ini ree ee =| a Nel SS = SS eS SS ; ES (SX os SUMMA B 7 AR oye : + SCO | ; i Z Fat Ko ee \/ \) Y f Z "Fn Y i Re » XN y i ge (ia Fe SS KS, = GY Zi KT Ye \y Lp HIN “YR < vy v g ( ‘KX ) Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica). leaflets; the flowers are in small rose-purple heads, and are succeeded by short bristly pods containing the seeds; these retain their germi- nating power for a long time, in illustration of which it is mentioned that the jardin des plantes has been continuously supplied with sensitive plants by seeds from a bag that was brought there more than 75 years ago. It is sparingly naturalized in Florida. The sensi- tiveness of the foliage of this plant, manifested by a peculiar shrinking when touched, is one of the most striking phenomena of plant life ; when undisturbed and in a bright light, the leaves stand nearly at right angles to the stem, but a slight touch causes them to fold and droop as if dead. This change in the position of the leaf is completed in three successive move- ments: first the leaflets close in pairs, bring their faces together, and incline forward; then the secondary petioles or branches of the leaf approach each other; and finally the main leaf 568 MINA BIRD stalk turns directly downward, bending at its union with the stem; left to itself, the col- lapsed leaf gradually resumes its former posi- tion. The sensitiveness of the leaves is affected by the temperature, being greatest on warm days; if the plants are exposed to the action of the wind, their irritability is notably dimin- ished. No explanation is given of this phe- nomenon, but it is regarded as an unusual development of the power of motion which is possessed in a less manifest degree by a large number of other plants.—MW. strigillosa, of Florida and the far south, along the banks of rivers, is a prostrate sensitive species with large leaves. Another of the genus, J. sensi- tiva, not rare in greenhouses, has only one pair of leaflets to each pinna; these are many times larger than those of the sensitive plant, and droop when touched, but much less promptly than the other. Several other mimosas are cultivated as ornamental greenhouse plants, but none of them have any economical im- portance.—The sensitive plant of the southern states (more properly sensitive brier), which is found from Virginia to Texas, formerly regarded as a single species of mimosa, is now found to be sufficiently distinct to be placed in a separate genus, Schrankia, and two species are distinguished, S. uncinata and S. angustata, differing mainly in the form and reticulation of their leaflets; they are nearly prostrate herbs, with stems 3 or 4 ft. long and armed with hooked prickles; the leaves are bipinnate, and the flowers in small, globular, rose-purple heads; the foliage is sensitive, but only under much rougher handling than is. required to affect the sensitive plant. On the prairies of the far south this plant often covers the ground for wide stretches, and by the closing of its leaves shows for a while the trail of the travel- ler very distinctly. MINA BIRD. See Mrvo Birp. MINAS GERAES, an inland province of Brazil, bounded N. by Bahia, E. by Bahia, Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro, 8. by Rio de Janei- ro and Sao Paulo, and W. by Goyaz; area, about 230,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 1,450,000. The face of the country is extremely irregular. Several mountain chains traverse it, especially in the south and west, sending out spurs and minor ridges which cross the province in every direction, and are separated by extensive and fertile valleys, watered by large rivers. The highest summits are Itacolumé (about 5,700 ft.) and Itambé (6,000). The principal river is the Sao Francisco, which divides the province into two almost equal portions. Other large rivers are the Belmonte, Mucury, Doce, Paranahyba, Grande, and Verde Grande. Many of these, as well as the Sao Francisco, have large trib- utaries, such as the Jequitinhonha and the Rio das Velhas; but none of them are navi- gable throughout. Minas Geraes was for- merly famous for its mines (whence its name), at once the richest and most numerous in Brazil, especially the gold mines of Ouro Preto, the -erally mild and healthy climate. MINATITLAN capital, Morro Velho, and Minas Novas; but most of them have been abandoned, and even the washings, though known to be profitable, are for the most part unworked, agriculture or diamond washing on the Jequitinhonha being preferred. Upon the discovery of diamonds in 1746, the government, to encourage the search for these gems, prohibited the extrac- tion of gold. Rubies have occasionally been found; grisolitas (chrysoberyls), pingoas d’a- gua (white topazes), and other precious stones abound in the Mucury, the Rio das Americanas, &c. Although Minas Geraes is entirely within the tropics, it has, owing to its mean eleva- tion of about 2,000 ft. above the sea, a gen- Vegetation is everywhere luxuriant; the forests contain vast quantities of timber and valuable cabinet woods; dyes of various kinds and several spe- cies of medicinal plants abound; and whole districts, covered with brilliant flowers, pre- senting the aspect of continuous gardens, are not uncommon. The soil is fertile, and yields plentiful crops of the various cereals; maize, millet, manioc, and cotton are the staple pro- ductions; tobacco thrives well; and the coffee is only inferior to that of Cear4. Great num- bers of cattle pasture on the plains under the care of vaqgueiros, and the rearing of cattle and hogs is one of the principal occupations. There is a great variety of wild animals, birds, ser- pents, and insects. A prosperous trade is car- ried on with Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo; the articles exported are cattle, hogs, bacon, cheese, cotton fabrics, tobacco, coffee, skins, precious stones, drugs, &c. Manufac- tures, wine, flour, wheat, and salt are imported. With the exception of the great Union and Industry road, the facilities for transport are meagre, and goods are mainly carried on mule- back, which greatly enhances the price of all articles imported. There are forges, founderies, and cotton and woollen weaving establishments in many of the towns; wool hats, rum, sugar, and tobacco are manufactured on a large scale. Besides the colleges in the principal towns, there are upward of 250 primary and grammar schools in the province.—Minas Geraes was made a province in 18338. It is divided into 14 comarcas or districts. The capital is Ouro Preto, formerly Villa Rica; and other impor- tant towns are Marianna, Minas Novas, Janua- ria, Diamantina, and Sao Joao d’El Rey. MINATITLAN, a small town of Mexico, isth- mus of Tehuantepec, on the W. bank of the Coatzacoalcos, 20 m. from its mouth and 125 m. S. E. of Vera Cruz; pop. about 2,500. It has obtained some notoriety and importance from being the Atlantic point of departure in the various attempts to establish an interoceanic, communication by way of the isthmus of Te- huantepec. It is also the proposed terminus of the projected railway across that isthmus on the north. The country immediately around the town is low and subje¢t to periodical inun- dations. Cattle constitute the chief wealth of MINCIO the people. Mahogany and other valuable woods are produced in the vicinity, and ship- ped at Vera Cruz. MINCIO (anc. Mincius), a river of N. Italy, which runs, under the name of Sarca, from the §. extremity of Tyrol into the lake of Garda, at Riva, issues from it at Peschiera, where it takes the name of Mincio, and flow- ing southward forms the boundary between the provinces of Verona and Mantua; then, past Goito, turning 8. E. it expands into a lake, near the E. end of which is the fortress of Mantua; below this it discharges itself into the Po, near Governolo, after a course of more than 40 m. from the lake. It is navigable for barges throughout the greater part of its length. A battle was fought on the banks of the Mincio in 197 B. C., in which the Insu- bres and Cenomani were defeated by the Ro- mans. Bonaparte crossed the Mincio in May, 1796; and the Austrians under Bellegarde were defeated there by Brune, Dec. 25 and 26, 1800, and upward of 4,000 of them taken prison- ers. Another victory over the Austrians was achieved there by the French under Eugéne Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 1814, after a bloody con- flict. In 1859 the Mincio became again the theatre of war between the allied Sardinians -and French and the Austrians, the latter en- deavoring to concentrate their resistance on the line of the river. After the battle of Sol- ferino (June 24), the allied armies crossed the Mincio into Venetia, and the war was brought to a close by the peace of Villafranca (July 11), by which Lombardy was transferred from Austria to Sardinia, and the upper Mincio became a part of the boundary between the two states. This boundary ceased to exist in 1866, when Venetia was united with Italy. MIND, Gottfried, a Swiss painter, better known under the name of Berner Friedli, born in Bern in 1768, died there, Nov. 7, 1814. He was educated in the charity school of Pesta- lozzi, devoting himself to the study of design. Ignorant in other education, and deformed, he shunned society, and spent his life among cats, of which he executed such excellent pictures that he was called the Raphael of cats. He also excelled in pictures of bears, children, and beggars. Hedied in poverty. Since his death his pictures have commanded extravagant pri- ces, and several of them have been engraved. MINDANAO. Sce Purtrerrine Istanps. MINDEN, a fortified town of Westphalia, Prussia, capital of a district of the same name, on the left bank of the Weser, 60 m. E. N. E. of Minster; pop. in 1871, 16,598. It is one of the oldest towns of Germany, is surrounded by walls with six gates, and has a garrison of 4.000 men. It contains a Roman Catholic ca- thedral of the 11th century, and was once the capital of the see of Minden, which was found- ed by Charlemagne, but was suppressed in 1648. It has a gymnasium, a normal school, manufactures of woollens, linens, leather, sugar, and tobacco, and an important trade chiefly MINE 569 in grain, linen, yarn, and brandy. It was the residence of some of the German emperors, and several diets were held there. Within 2 m. of Minden the railway traverses the pass called Porta Westphalica. In a ruined chapel near it Wittekind, according to tradition, was baptized by Charlemagne. The French were defeated in the vicinity of Minden, Aug. 1, 1759, by an Anglo-Hanoverian army under Ferdinand of Brunswick. MINDORO. See Purrprine Isianps. MINE, an excavation made in the earth for the extraction of minerals. When the material to be extracted is a rock of any kind, the ex- cavation is known asa quarry. We find very little in classic literature that gives any real in- formation about the mines of antiquity or the manner in which they were worked. It is cer- tain, however, that the Phenicians and Egyp- tians at the earliest periods of history had an abundance of metals. The Phcenicians obtained from Sardinia and from other islands of the Mediterranean gold and iron, as well as other metals; they are known to have mined in Spain, probably for lead and silver, and to have traded with the Britons for the tin ore of Cornwall and Devon. Of even greater an- tiquity was the mining of the Egyptians, who had mines of copper, silver, and gold in pro- ductive operation, both on the Ethiopian and the Arabian border. The Sinaitic desert con- tains the ruins of mining works, probably exe- cuted by the Egyptians. Abraham found gold and silver in use among them. In the time of Alexander gold, silver, copper, and iron were obtained in Ethiopia, and iron, at least, in Libya. India and Caramania (modern Kerman) pro- duced gold, and the latter country also silver andcopper. In Asia Minor the gold mines for- merly owned by Croesus were worked down to the time of Xenophon, but Strabo says that in his day they were exhausted. There were iron mines.and skilled workmen in Palestine. Ancient writers speak of rich gold and silver mines in Arabia Felix, no traces of which re- main. The Athenians worked rich silver mines in Attica and gold mines in Thrace and Thasos. Thessaly produced gold, Bceotia iron, and Epi- rus silver. Before the time of the Romans mining was carried on in many parts of west- ern Europe. The Etruscans and the Sabines in Italy were acquainted with copper, and the former discovered iron in Elba. The northern tribes of Italy obtained gold by washing; the tribes of Gaul are known to have mined for gold, silver, copper, and iron; and in Spain and Sardinia extensive and productive mines were established by the Carthaginians. Brit- ain produced gold, silver, iron, lead, and tin. After the conquest of Czsar, the tin of Corn- wall was shipped first to the Isle of Wight, and thence to the coast of Gaul, where it was loaded upon horses and transported to Mar- seilles, a journey of 80 days. The early Ro- mans did not work the mines of their native land. The first two Punic wars delivered into 570 the power of Rome the important mines of Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain. Subsequent con- quests added those of Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece, and still later the remaining mines of western Asia and those of Egypt were ac- quired by the armies of Pompey and Augustus. Those of Gaul yielded to Cesar. The tin mines of Britain were their latest conquests of this sort, and Rome was then mistress of all the important mines of the ancient world. Under the republic the mines were worked by lessees, who employed numbers of slaves, and subjected the mineral deposits of the prov- inces to rapid and reckless robbery. During the period from the first Punic war to the empire there was an immense production of metals, and many of the mines were exhausted. The emperors established governmental super- vision, and worked the mines through regularly appointed officials, Mining in the countries belonging to the West Roman empire declined rapidly from the 3d century, and after the 5th it ceased entirely. The Byzantines gradually surrendered their mines to the Arabs; those of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece were the last which the eastern empire retained.—Mining is known to have been carried on at Andreas- berg in the Hartz since the year 968.. The famous Rammelsberg mines were discovered in 972 by the pawing of a steed named Ram- mel, tied to a tree in the forest. The Freiberg district was discovered about 1165, and has been steadily worked since 1547. Traces of ancient mining in the United States are con- fined to the copper region of Lake Superior, and to certain districts in New Mexico. In both cases the implements seem to have been rude hammers of stone. In New Mexico there is a large excavation known as the Turquoise mine, from which a trachytic rock, carrying turquoise in seams, has been laboriously ex- tracted by a race of whom not even a tradi- tion now exists. In ancient times muscular force, assisted only by applications of fire and occasionally by the power of water, was the miners’ resource. A most suggestive picture of rude mining operations is given in the book of Job, xxviii. 1-11, of which Conant’s trans- lation brings out the beauties very strikingly : ‘For there is a vein for the silver, and a place for the gold, which they refine. Iron is taken out of the dust, and stone is fused into cop- per. He puts an end to the darkness; and he searches out, to the very end, stones of thick darkness and of death-shade. He drives a shaft, away from man’s abode; forgotten of the foot, they swing suspended, far from men! The earth, out of it goes forth bread; and under it is destroyed as with fire. A place of sapphires, are its stones; and it has clods of gold. The path, no bird of prey has known it, nor the falcon’s eye glanced on it; nor proud beasts trodden it, nor roaring lion passed over it. Against the flinty rock he puts forth a hand; he overturns mountains from the ase. MINE his eye sees every precious thing. He binds up streams that they drip not; and the hidden he brings out to light.” Pliny (‘‘ Natural History,” xxxili., 4) gives a similar descrip- tion of shaft-sinking operations: ‘‘ Elsewhere pathless rocks are cut away, and are hollowed out to furnish a rest for beams. He who cuts is suspended with ropes. ... For the most part they swing suspended, and fasten up lines for a pathway. They go where there is no place for the footprints of man.” The re- moval of surface material by sluicing was also practised in ancient times in Spain.—The op- erations of mining may be comprised under four heads: 1, the discovery of mineral de- posits and the testing of their value; 2, the establishment of access to such deposits; 3, the extraction of the mineral; 4, the protec- tion of the works and workmen. I. Discoy- ERY AND TesTiNG oF Mrnerat Deposits. For a description of the modes of occurrence of the rocks and minerals which are objects of mining, see Minerat Deposits. The presence of such deposits is indicated by various signs. Sometimes the veins themselves, if harder than the enclosing rocks, crop out at the surface unaltered. More frequently the outcrop is indicated by decomposed rock, which when ferruginous is called ‘‘gossan.” Loose pieces - of gangue and ore, known to western miners as “float quartz,” and found upon the surface - and in the soil, frequently lead to the discov- ery of veins. The lead miner of the limestone districts of the Mississippi valley is guided by depressed lines upon the surface, indicating the existence of fissures. The magnetic needle is employed in the discovery of certain ores of iron, and the ancient superstition of the di- vining rod for the discovery of hidden springs and mineral veins is not yet extinct even in this country. (See Drvryine Rov.) When the neighborhood of a mineral deposit is sus- pected and no certain indication of its exact locality appears, it is sought by prospecting pits, cuts, drifts, or borings. Prospecting pits are commonly dug upon the supposed outcrop of a deposit, to test its dimensions and quality. Open cuts are usually run on the surface at right angles to the prevailing course of the veins of the district, and are excavated down to the solid rock for the purpose of eens the veins which they may cross. This is calle ‘‘costeening.” Boring is employed for deter- mining the character of rock strata, and the position of mineral deposits in them. It has been usually applied to coal beds or to strata containing salt or petroleum deposits. In the latter cases the bore-holes subsequently serve for the extraction of brine or oil. The inven- tion of the diamond drill (see Borne), by means of which holes can be driven in advance horizontally for hundreds of feet, has greatly enlarged the applications of boring as a means of exploration. Horizontal adits, or vrosscuts, driven into the sides of hills at right angles In the rocks, he cleaves out rivers; and | with the veins known to exist in them, are the MINE surest but most expensive method of explora- tion. It may be resorted to when the exist- ence and value of the deposits are well known, and the topography is such that the entry may subsequently be valuable for drainage and transportation. . Finally, new deposits may be discovered under ground by driving experimen- tal openings from mines already in operation. —The value of deposits is tested by shafts and drifts, usually excavated within the deposit itself. The construction of such works in the barren rock is seldom undertaken until the vein is found to be worthy of the expenditure. In the case of coal, building stone, iron ore, and, in general, all materials which occur in extensive and tolerably uniform deposits, and the value of which is small in comparison with their bulk, the test of quality is not difficult. But minerals of more concentrated value usual- ly occur mixed with such variable proportions of “‘gangue” or barren matter, and when in fissure veins are subject to such variations in width and course, as to render it necessary to expose considerable bodies of vein matter, and to make tests either by thorough sampling or by actual reduction of large quantities, before the economical value of the deposits can be ascertained. By connecting with the shafts or inclines sunk upon the dip of the vein lon- gitudinal drifts run upon its course, this object can be measurably secured. Alluvial deposits, such as those of gold and stream tin, are tested by actual working with pan, sluice, &c. When large operations, like those of hydraulic mi- ning, are contemplated, the body of earthy gravel, cement, &c., if its value is not already known, is tested by shafts sunk to the bed rock ata sufficient number of points to give an indication of its average contents. II. APPROACHES TO Mines. Access to mineral deposits for permanent exploration is estab- lished, first by suitable wagon or tram roads on the surface, and secondly by either strip- ping the overlying soil and rock from the de- posit itself, as is done in quarries, clay banks, and some iron mines, or by sinking a shaft or running a drift or crosscut from the surface into the deposit. In the case of beds or veins which dip at a convenient and uniform angle, the shaft may be carried down upon the de- posit itself, and is then usually called a slope or an incline. For less regular deposits, and for those in which the angle of inclination is inconvenient or variable, or the vein matter is too valuable to permit the leaving of it in pillars to protect the shaft, it is better to drive a vertical shaft at some distance from the out- crop, in the hanging wall, so as to strike the vein at a considerable depth. A gallery run from the surface in a nearly horizontal line, to effect access and drainage, is called an adit or entry, and in some situations, as at the base of steep hills, this may be made the principal feature at the mine, the main workings being carried on through it until the vein is ex- hausted above its level. Sometimes the nature 571 of the shafts permits the opening of mines at different levels, by means of adits. This sys- tem was most highly esteemed before the im- provements in machinery and the introduction of steam favored the economy of mining in deep shafts. When adits must be driven for Jong distances through hard and barren rocks, it is sometimes difficult to decide whether the cost of their construction will be repaid by the saving in hoisting, drainage, and mechani- cal ventilation. Adits are usually called tun- nels by miners of the Pacific states and territo- ries, but this is a misnomer, as a tunnel proper extends entirely through a hill. Mining shafts are generally rectangular in section, and range in size from 3 or 4 ft. to 6 ft. on the shorter sides, and from 6 ft. to 20 ft., or even more, on the longer sides. This form facilitates timbering, and at the same time permits the best utilization of space, through the division of the shaft by partitions into separate com- partments for pumps, hoisting, ladder ways, &c. Adits are placed itl Wekcbance to se- curing the greatest depth below the surface by running as short a distance as possible, par- ticularly in barren rock; with reference to the presence of a good place for a ‘“‘dump ” at the adit mouth; and also with reference to easy escape of waters, freedom from flooding by freshets, and facility of natural ventilation when the adit is to be connected with a shaft. For the latter purpose it is well that the adit mouth should not be in a narrow ravine or in the corner of a valley. Dimensions of adits depend upon the amount of water expected to run in them and the other purposes to which they are to be put. When in barren rock, it is an object to make them as small as prac- ticable; 7 ft. high and 5 to 6 ft. wide is a con- venient size. But when transportation is to be carried on and double tracks are to be laid, the dimensions must be increased. The height of the adit available for passage is diminished by the water channel, which usually runs under the floor or in a ditch at one side. The grade of adits is determined with reference to the amount and character of the water flowing in them and the speed which it is desirable te give to the current. The ancient mining regu- lations of Prussia required of deep adits a grade of from 1 in 800 to 1 in 400. Some of the adits at the coal mines of Saarbriick rise at the rate of 1 in 1,600; others at the rate of 89 in 64,000. According to the Saxon law, the grade may vary between 38 in 10,000 and 1 in 1,000. Thelong Ernst August adit in the Hartz has, for a length of nine miles, an average grade of 0°67 in 1,000. Here the water in the adit.is itself used for transportation, and the current is intentionally kept slow. Access is further obtained to the different parts of the mineral deposit by subordinate shafts and galleries ex- cavated in the deposit. These interior shafts not extending to the surface are known as win- zes, and usually serve to connect the galleries on different levels. The galleries are known 572 as levels or drifts in vein mining, and gang- ways in coal mining. When a mine is opened by a vertical shaft, the vein is sometimes cut by a crosscut level run from the shaft through barren rock, at a point higher than the inter- section of the shaft and the vein. From the point where the crosscut enters the vein, levels are then run in both directions horizontally on the vein. After the main shaft has reached the vein and has been carried through it, the distance between vein and shaft of course grows larger with increasing depth, and the vein must be again opened by crosscuts from the shaft at different levels. The levels opened in the vein are so many parallel roads on the vein, succeeding each other every 60 to 100 ft. in depth. The winzes connecting them serve both in ventilation and in extraction, besides affording convenient access to different parts of the mine. The running of drifts to make connection with old and abandoned workings is sometimes dangerous, when the old work- ings are full of water and their exact position is not known by surveys. In such a case the approach is made cautiously, and a bore-hole is kept in advance, to tap the accumulated waters in such a way as to avoid an excessive flow or give the workmen time to escape. An accident of this kind at the Gouley mine, near Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1835, which caused the drowning of 63 miners, gave rise to the publi- cation by the government of the Rhenish province of exact regulations, which constitute an excellent guide to the mining engineer. III. Extraction or Minerats. To perform the work of regular extraction with due economy and safety, the following circumstances must be considered: the shape of the deposit, as a tabular or sheet deposit, a mass or stockwork, regular or irregular, &c., and if a tabular de- posit, like a fissure vein or a bed, then its course and dip, its folds, basins, faults, and breaks; the thickness and inner structure of the deposit, or, in ore veins, the nature and distribution of the ore bodies, the amount of barren gangue, and in coal beds and other deposits the pro- portion of marketable to waste material; the character of the “country” or wall rock, as making a solid or a precarious roof, and re- quiring more or less support; the number, relation, and distance apart of several deposits which it may be desirable to work at once or successively, as for instance seams of coal, lying one under the other; the conditions of ventila- tion, particularly where explosive gases are to be feared; the conditions of drainage; the character, abundance, and price of materials for underground supports (timber, masonry, iron pillars, loose rock, or earth); the size and shape of the pieces of material to be extracted (commercially important in coal and quar- ried stone); the method of excavation to be employed (picking, shovelling, fire setting, hydraulic sluicing, leaking, blasting, &c.); and finally, in a subordinate degree, the nature of the mineral itself, as for instance very rich and MINE brittle silver ore, which is liable to be lost in fine particles among the piles of waste, or some kinds of coal which deteriorate by standing too long in the mine after they have been exposed and drained, or clays which become like quick- sands in contact with water. Any one of the foregoing conditions may, under certain cir- cumstances, be decisive as to the choice of a method of extraction.—Hydraulic mining is an application of the power of water, under high pressure and at great velocity, to move great masses of material, separate the heavier and more valuable portions, and convey away the lighter waste. (See Gotrp Minina.) In its modern form it was invented in California _about 1852, and is mainly employed in that state. It has been introduced at Iron mountain, Missouri, for the purpose of removing and con- centrating the surface ore of that locality. For hydraulic mining, it is necessary to have, be- sides a deposit suitable to operate upon, a supply of water at a proper altitude, and an escape for the turbid stream, at a level below all the workings. The waste material is thus removed by the current at small cost, while the gold is precipitated to the bottom and caught in crevices, ‘‘ riffles,” &c. As most ‘ hydrau- lic-gravel” deposits have been accumulated in basins of ancient river channels, they are sur- rounded by hard rock, called ‘‘ bed rock” be- low, and “rim rock” where it comes to the surface at the edge of the deposit. For hy- draulic exploitation, the bottom of the deposit must be underrun by a tunnel through the bed rock, and a short shaft from the overlying » deposit must be connected with this tunnel. Then the bank may be “ hydraulicked” down, and everything except the large bowlders sluiced into the shaft and tunnel, and so away to lower grounds. The method of extraction by leach- ing is peculiar to certain rock-salt mines, in which the mineral is too much mixed with earthy and stony matter to be quarried. Cham- bers are excavated in the mass, and filled with water, which is allowed to stand until it has extracted from walls and roof sufficient salt to render it a concentrated brine. It is then drawn off, and conveyed in pipes to the boil- ing works. A layer from the roof of the chamber, disintegrated to a certain distance by this leaching, falls, covering the floor with ma- terial from which the salt has been extracted, and leaving a new roof exposed for a repeti- tion of the process. Thus the chambers slowly rise through the mountain. This method is in use at Berchtesgaden in 8. E. Bavaria, and Hal- lein in Salzburg.—Other modes of extraction are divided into two classes: those in which the space excavated is refilled wholly or partially with waste material, and those in which no such “ packing” or ‘‘gobbing up” is employed. The former class is subdivided, according to the direction in which the work proceeds, into overhand stoping, underhand stoping, cross stoping, and long-wall working. (The latter method and its modifications, used chiefly in MINE coal mining, where the seams are not too thick, steep, or variable, may be employed either with or without gobbing up.) The word stope is probably a corruption of step, and refers to the stair-like appearance presented by the face of the excavation. Overhand stoping is con- ducted as follows: From the level below the ground to be exploited, a ‘‘raise” or upward shaft is driven up into the ground, and from this the different ‘‘ breasts’ are driven horizontally on the vein, in one or in both directions. The extraction begins at the bottom, by the exca- vation of a block having the width of the vein, a height of 44 to 9 ft., and a length of not less than 7 nor more than 30 ft. In this work two sides of the rock are always free: the up- right face, toward the central shaft, and the lower horizontal side, over the level. When the breast has been driven far enough, a new workman or set of workmen may begin with. a second breast, while the former still contin- ues to advance. Fig. 1, representing the pro- file of a double stope, shows the order in which the work proceeds. The space behind and be- low the workmen is filled up with the waste rock, broken from the vein in order to get at the ore, or with rock brought from else- where for this special purpose. Openings or “chutes” are left in this, through which the Fie. 1.—Double Overhand Stope. _ ore can be allowed to fall to the level below, where it is received in cars. This level is usually protected by a roof of stulls and lag- ging, on which the waste rock is piled, as is shown in fig. 2; or a portion of. the vein is left standing over the level, as a protection. | The workmen stand on the waste rock, and stoping goes on in the manner indicated, until the whole of the valuable mineral between the bottom level and the one next above (say 60 to 100 ft., measured on the dip of the vein) has been extracted. Of course, by starting stopes at different points on the lower level, within the limits of the mining claim, or the body of valuable ore, more men can be set at work. But the regular productiveness of a mine is not susceptible of indefinite increase in this way. The maximum rate of exploita- tion which can be maintained until the mine is entirely exhausted, depends upon the rate at which the shaft or shafts can be sunk and new levels opened at greater depths. The too rapid exhaustion of one level would necessitate a suspension of active extraction while the next 573 level below was in course of preparation; and in this work of sinking shafts and running drifts (sometimes called the ‘‘dead work” of the mine) it is not possible to multiply the whe ha ™ f% (le Ad — = Aly yw Mb, eer QS LS Se, ASS S| MY Fic 2,—Single Overhand Stope, packed with waste rock. number of men, so as to secure more rapid progress. Only so many men can be accom- modated at the bottom of a shaft or the end of a drift; and when their effectiveness has been raised to the highest point by selecting good workmen, dividing them into three “shifts” or gangs, working eight hours each in turn, employing the most suitable tools and explosives, and, if circumstances are favor- able, drills operated by steam or compressed air, the limit of practicable progress has been reached; and this determines the normal pro- ductiveness of the mine. Driving the stopes faster than the dead work is ‘‘robbing” the mine. Underhand stoping is the reverse of i Ble Dy; nee i M 00) af j ii Ses == v — Hh i e Hlatanid = mS, Sse Vv (@) .” SS ase ws=s SSS PS oO VU ome Fie. 8.—Underhand Stope. the method just described. Here the stopes begin from the level above, and may be com- menced (if the presence of water is not too troublesome) before any lower level has been Kk 574 opened. The ore has to be hoisted, and the waste rock has to be lifted by hand and packed on stulls behind the miner, as shown in fig. 3. This system permits an earlier beginning of extraction, and gives the workman a firm foot- ing on the solid vein and an easier and safer direction of working (viz., downward instead of upward). Moreover, there is less chance of losing small pieces of rich ore, which in over- hand stoping get into the waste rock under foot and cannot be recovered. But overhand stoping has two great advantages: first, the con- venience of rolling and dropping rock and ore, instead of hoisting them; and second, the saving of timber, which in most mining districts soon becomes expensive. ber used in an underhand stope is not merely lost; it may give rise by its decay to slides in the packing, or the necessity of expensive repairs to prevent them. Both overhand and under- hand stoping are variously modified, as for in- stance in their application to any thick vein in which cross stoping is not desirable. In such cases, the vein is worked in successive layers or zones, parallel with the walls, each layer be- ginning with that on the foot wall, being stoped out by itself, as a separate vein; 12 ft. is usu- ally as great a thickness as can be stoped at one time with safety or convenience. Oross stoping is common in working thick veins. In this method, the vein material is removed in layers, not parallel with the walls, but ex- tending from the foot to the hanging wall; and in each layer the exploitation takes place by driving breasts across the vein, leaving pillars between them; supporting the roof of the breast, 6 to 12 ft. wide, with timbers until NN AY ee \N [gf fhe Fp ui OL la rei, Fig. 4.—Cross Stoping, it has reached the hanging wall; then with- drawing the timbers and packing the exca- vation with waste rock; and then extract- ing the pillars and replacing them also with The great amount of tim-. MINE waste rock. A cross layer of the vein, 6 or 7 ft. in vertical height, having been thus re- moved and the space packed, the operation is repeated with the layer next above. Fig. 4 shows this method by a vertical cross section. It is employed at the quicksilver mine of Idria, Carniola, and in various modifications at the zinc mines near Aix, the coal mines of Le Creuzot and St. Etienne, in France, the mines of roofing slate near the Rhine, and the lignite mines in Lower Styria. Long-wall working is employed on nearly horizontal deposits, usu- ally coal beds. It may be classed as retreating or advancing, according to whether the extrac- tion begins at the borders of the field or section of the bed to be worked, and retreats toward the main shaft, or begins at the shaft and advances toward the limits. In the latter case roadways are kept through the ground al- ready worked out. Varieties of this method are employed in the copper schist beds of Mansfeld, and at many foreign coal mines, —The methods of extraction without packing are: those in which the roof or hanging wall is supported by timbering, masonry, or pillars of the original material, left standing until the workings are to be abandoned; and those in which the roof is allowed to come down imme- diately after extraction. In the mines of the Comstock vein in Nevada, the spaces are kept open with elaborate timbering, framed as for immense houses. This is a great expense, be- sides being a source of loss and danger in case of fire. A conflagration in the Yellow Jack- et, Kentuck, and Crown Point mines on that lode, which began April 7, 1869, not only cost many lives, but continued to burn, from 600 to 900 ft. underground, for many months, being sustained by the great quantity of dry timber in the stopes.—The system of extraction by breasts or chambers and pillars is practised chiefly in coal mining. It is wasteful of coal, since the pillars of that material left standing . are but partially recovered by ‘‘robbing,” when the breasts are worked out. It is esti- mated that from 380 to 40 per cent. of the coal in the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania is thus lost.—To the department of extraction belong also the various methods of transporting work- men and material. Where an adit or a slope of gentle inclination leads to the underground workings, the ore and rock are brought out in cars or wagons. For horizontal transpor- tation men or boys, horses, mules, stationary engines, and locomotives are employed. Hoist- ing through shafts is performed by windlass, horse whim, or water or steam power. When the material extracted has to be lowered, as for instance to deliver it from breasts or stopes’ to the main roads of transportation under- ground, or from the shaft or adit mouth to a loading place at a lower level, gravity tram- , ways may be employed, on which the loaded cars, descending, pull up the empty ones. The entrance and exit of workmen through shafts is effected by ladders or stairs, or by lowering MINE and hoisting them in cars, buckets, or cages, or by means of an ingenious arrangement called the man machine or Fahrkunst. What- ever method is adopted, every mine should be provided with ladders in good repair, since other means may fail at a critical moment. In its simplest form, the fahrkunst is a con- tinuous piece of wood, iron, or wire rope, ex- tending from the top to the bottom of the shaft, and provided at regular intervals (8 to 24 ft.) with small platforms, upon which a miner can stand. This frame is so placed in the shaft, and supported by counter weights (and, in inclined shafts, friction rollers), that a regular reciprocating motion, like that of the pumping rods, can be imparted to it. The machinery is so arranged that the stroke is exactly half as long as the distance between the platforms on the fahrkunst, and at the end of the stroke in each direction there is an in- stant’s pause. During this instant the miner can step from the machine upon a fixed plat- form in the side of the shaft. As the fahr- kunst is kept constantly running, a miner wishing to ascend by means of it has only to step upon it as it begins an upward stroke, step off at the end of that stroke, wait until the down stroke brings opposite to him the platform next above, then step upon that, and be carried another lift higher. At the same time, another miner may descend upon the same machine, by stepping on for the down stroke, and waiting during the up stroke. The double fahrkunst has two such frames or rods, running reciprocally side by side; and here the miner steps across from one to the other, always finding opposite to him, as the plat- form on which he stands pauses in its move- ment up or down, a platform on the other frame, just about to commence its movement in the same direction. The moving platforms are usually small, holding but one person con- veniently. When two miners pass each other, one steps upon a ladder placed between the two frames. In Belgium the moving plat- forms are so large as to fill the whole shaft, and take several workmen at atime. The rate of working may be seen from the following statement, calculated for a shaft of 800 ft. : Double ian wee FAHRKUNST. Stroke, | strokes per Boecaren 500 men in minute. 4 Ordinary double..| 10 ft. 5 8m, |1h.47m Swift AS 10" 10 4m. 54 m Large Belgian....| 10 “ 5 8m. 27 m The Belgian machine is here assumed to be carrying four men on each platform. On lad- ders one man usually descends 800 ft. in about 30 m., and ascends in an hour. The time allowed for 500 men is about 24 hours to descend and 5 hours to ascend. The waste of strength involved is also to be considered. When miners are hoisted in the cages, the avy- erage velocity being about 15 ft. per second, 558 VOL, xXI1.—3T 575 and the average load four men, about 84 hours are required to lower or raise 500 men in a double vertical shaft of 800 ft.; or when the load is six men, 24 hours. At the Comstock mines, Nevada, 12 men descend at once, at a rate varying from 400 to 800 ft. per minute. Some of these mines are more than 1,600 ft. deep. IV. ProrEcTIon oF THE WoRKS AND WORKMEN. Arrangements for the protection of the miners and works include timber or other supports, ventilation, and drainage. Shafts and perma- nent ways are carefully protected, if neces- sary, with stout timbering, masonry, or even cast-iron linings. Pillars of rock left stand- ing, piles of waste material packed in the empty spaces, and posts, stulls, lagging, d&c., suffice for stopes. In some mines the tempo- rary supports are iron columns, or even screw- jacks, which can be removed without damage and used again. Ventilation is necessary to remove explosive and inflammable gases (car- buretted and sulphuretted hydrogen and car- bonic oxide, which are also poisonous), and simply poisonous gases, such as sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, and quicksilver or arsenic vapors. Natural ventilation is secured by having two openings to the mine, at one of which (called the intake or downcast) fresh air enters, while the foul air escapes at the other (upcast). The difference in altitude be- tween these openings, and the difference in temperature between the entering and the es- caping air, determine the strength of the natu- ral ventilation. It is likely in temperate cli- mates that the air in the mine will be warmer in winter and cooler in summer than that out- side. Hence the draft will be in winter out through the highest opening, and in summer the reverse, while periods of stagnation will occur in spring and autumn. The natural draft may be assisted by wise choice of the localities for the openings, or by use of weather caps and chimneys over the upcast; but these aids are not effective except where the intake is an adit. Artificial ventilation is effected by in- creasing the difference of temperature between. the entering and the escaping air, so as to render the currents comparatively independent: of the weather, or by increasing mechanically the difference in density. In the first class of instances, either the escaping air is warmed, or the entering air is cooled; in the second class, either the escaping air is rarefied by suction, or the entering air is condensed by blowing. The escaping current may be warmed by connect- ing the upcast with the chimney of a steam boiler above ground, or with a special furnace above ground, or by means of a furnace in the shaft, or near the bottom of it, or by introdu- ' cing steam jets into the shaft. The jets have a mechanical as well as a thermal effect; but the total effect per pound of coal consumed is less than that of the furnace.. The cooling of an entering current of air is sometimes effected by allowing water to fall into the downcast, and is also an incidental effect of the water 576 MINE blast or hydraulic bellows, a simple contri- vance by which a falling stream carries 4 draft of air with it into a receiver, where the air is disengaged from the water, and forced, under a pressure due to the water column, into the mine. Ventilating machines (exhausting or blowing machines) are used almost exclusive- ly in coal mines, where a great excess of air, to dilute injurious gases, is a vital necessity. These ventilators are either reciprocal (pumps) or rotary (fans). The latter are generally employed, and for extensive ventilation the exhausting fans are usually preferred to the blowers. One of the most effective fans, Guibal’s, gives, with a diameter of 14°34 ft. and 8 arms revolving 134 times pér minute, a. current of 929 cubic feet of air per second. The distribution of the air currents through the mine, so as to bring fresh air to the work- men, and remove all foul gases to the upcast, is very important, and requires a system of air courses, doors, &c. Portable lights in mi- ning are torches, candles, and oil safety lamps. (See Lamp.) Stationary lights are also em- ployed (lanterns with oil or petroleum, gas light, and various electric lights) for illumina- ting permanent roadways, landings, &c. The drainage of mines is effected by natural means (through adits) or by means of pumps or buckets. These are sometimes operated by hand or horse power or wind, more frequently by hydraulic engines, and most frequently by steam. V. Mintina Laws anp Sonoois. The inalienable right of the sovereign to the met- als in the soil is an ancient doctrine, par- ticularly with regard to the precious metals, but is gradually passing away in civilized coun- tries, the governments of which are selling the “mineral rights” which they have hitherto farmed out or operated directly for the reve- nues of the state. A police supervision, in the interest of public safety and of political econ- omy, is usually maintained. The laws of Eu- ropean states regulate minutely the privileges granted to miners, and their relations to the government and to the proprietors of the soil. In England and the United States, the title to the minerals beneath the surface usually goes with the ownership of the land, but may be disposed of by sale or lease separately. Gold and silver mines were excepted in Great Britain up to the time of William and Mary, being obliged to pay a royalty to the crown. On the public lands of: the United States, citi- zens are allowed to mine without royalty, ac- cording to the local regulations established by state and territorial legislation and by the citi- zens in each district, subject to the general mining laws passed by congress, which fix as the conditions of the possessory title or license a suitably recorded claim, and the performance of a certain amount of work annually. A com- plete title, covering a surface tract, and the right to the mineral veins having their out- crops or apexes within the vertical planes bounding the said tract, together with the right MINER to follow such veins in depth, though they may extend under the surface of adjoining tracts, may be obtained after survey and advertise- ment, by purchase from the United States, at the rate of $5 per acre of surface patented. The mining law is administered, like the agri- cultural land laws, by the commissioner of the general land office at Washington. In most civilized countries statistics are compiled an- nually by the government, showing the pro- duction of mines and metallurgical works, In the United States this is done imperfectly in the decennial census, and has been done since 1866 for the states and territories west of the Rocky mountains, with particular reference to the gold and silver product, by a special com- missioner of the treasury department. (For statistics, see the articles on the different metals and countries.) Regulations to secure safety of miners, and to determine the rights of mining operators toward each other and to- ward land owners, are made by the individual states and territories.—In European countries schools have long existed for training engi- neers and metallurgists for this industry. Among the most celebrated are the mining academies of Freiberg in Saxony, Clausthal in the Hartz, Schemnitz in Hungary, Leoben in Styria, the academy at Berlin, the école des mines at Paris, and the royal school of mines in London. Much attention has of late been given to this subject in the United States, and the following institutions give special instruc- tion in these branches: the school of mines of Columbia college, New York; the Rensselaer polytechnic institute, Troy, N. Y.; the Par- dee scientific department of Lafayette college, Easton, Pa.; the Sheffield scientific school of Yale college, New Haven, Conn.; the Massa- chusetts institute of technology, Boston, Mass. ; the school of mining and practical geology of Harvard university, Cambridge, Mass.; the Stevens institute of technology, Hoboken, N. J.; the school of mining and metallurgy of . Lehigh university, Bethlehem, Pa.; the scien- tific department of the university of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia; the school of mines at Rolla, Mo.; the polytechnic department of Washington university, St. Louis, Mo.; the school of mines at Golden City, Colorado; and the university of California, Berkeley, Cal. MINER, a 8S. E. county of Dakota, recently formed, and not included in the census of 1870; area, 432 sq.m. It is intersected in the W. part by the Dakotariver. The surface consists of gently undulating prairies. . MINER, Alonzo Ames, an American clergyman, born in Lempster, N. H., Aug. 17, 1814. He was principal of the scientific and military academy of Unity, N. H., from 1835 to 1839, when he was ordained a minister of the Uni- versalist church, was settled at Methuen, Mass., and in 1842 took charge of the second Univer- salist church in Lowell. In 1848 he was asso- ciate pastor, and in 1852 pastor of the second Universalist church in Boston. He was presi- MINER dent of Tufts college, Medford, Mass., from Ju- ly, 1862, to November, 1874, when he resigned to return to his former charge in Boston. He has edited ‘The Star of Bethlehem,” has con- tributed to periodicals, and has been prominent as an anti-slavery and temperance lecturer. MINER, Thomas, an American physician, born in Middletown, Conn., Oct. 15, 1777, died in Worcester, Mass., April 23, 1841. He grad- uated at Yale college in 1796. The next six years he passed in teaching, and in the study. of law, which in 1803 he abandoned for med- icine, and in 1807 he commenced practice at Middletown. About 1809 a malignant epi- demic fever, called spotted fever, prevailed in the Connecticut valley, for which he pursued anew mode of treatment, making careful notes of his cases. In 1823 he published, with Dr. William Tully, ‘‘ Essays on Fevers and other Subjects,” and in 1825 a treatise on ‘‘Typhus Syncopalis.” His autobiography appeared in the ‘‘ New Englander,” vol. ii., p. 19. MINERAL, a N. E. county of West Virginia, separated from Maryland by the North branch of the Potomac river, and intersected by Pat- terson creek and other streams; area, about 550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 6,832, of whom 378 were colored. Itis crossed by several mountain ridges, between which lie picturesque and fer- tile valleys. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad runs along the N. and W. border. The chief productions in 1870 were 50,915 bushels of wheat, 138,257 of rye, 71,895 of Indian corn, ' 29,331 of oats, 8,891 of potatoes, 23,406 lbs. of wool, 52,078 of butter, and 5,104 tons of hay. There were 1,333 horses, 5,172 cattle, 6,429 sheep, and 2,563 swine. Capital, New Creek. MINERAL DEPOSITS. The useful minerals occur in a variety of forms and conditions, and the deposits which are composed of or include them may be classified into superficial, stratified, and unstratified deposits. I. Suprr- F1crAL Deposits. In these, the materials are yet unconsolidated, and have been washed down from cliffs and mountain slopes com- posed of rocks that contain metals, ores, and gems, either in veins or irregularly dissemina- ted. This category includes the gold of the surface deposits associated with the gold-bear- ing rocks of California, Colorado, Australia, the Ural mountains, &c. ; the platinum of Ore- gon and Siberia; the ‘stream tin” of Corn- wall, Banca, Australia, and Durango; the dia- monds of Golconda, Brazil, and South Africa; and the rubies and sapphires of Ceylon. From such deposits all the platinum, all the diamonds, and probably nine tenths of all the gold in use have been procured. The working of these deposits constitutes the simplest form of mi- ning, viz., washing with water. The minerals obtained from them are usually distributed very sparsely through the rocks in which they primarily occur; and as in the course of ages, by frost, sun, rain, and ice, these rocks have been comminuted and washed away, the met- als and precious stones they contain have been MINERAL DEPOSITS 577 sorted and concentrated by the action of water, so that in many instances they are gathered with little labor. By the Spaniards, the su- perficial deposits containing gold are called placers, and the working of these deposits has come to be generally termed placer mining. II. Stratiriep Deposits. The useful miner- als sometimes form entire strata, such as beds of coal and iron ore; and they are sometimes disseminated through sedimentary rocks of which they form a larger or smaller part. In this latter category are included the clay-iron- stone of the coal measures, which forms no- dules thickly set in beds of shale, and the cop- per in the copper schists of Mansfeld, in the triassic sandstones of New Mexico, and in the sandstones and conglomerates of Lake Supe- rior. III. Unsrratirirep Deposits.—1. Hrup- tive Masses. Formerly most of the deposits of crystallized iron ore (magnetite and specu- lar iron) were supposed to be eruptive. We have learned now that they are for the most part only stratified deposits very much dis- turbed and metamorphosed. Such is certainly the character of the iron ores of Missouri, Lake Superior, and the Alleghany belt, all of which may be shown to be simply changed and disturbed beds of iron ore, once deposited in nearly horizontal sheets. The famous de- posits of iron ore of the island of Elba and of Nizhni Tagilsk in Russia are still believed to be eruptive, but it is probable that they will hereafter be shown to belong to the same cate- gory with our American crystalline iron ores. Iron is a common ingredient of volcanic rocks, and in some instances the quantity contained in them is so great that they may be termed low-grade iron ores; but such cases are ex- tremely rare, and it is very doubtful whether there are any deposits of metals or ores of economic value which can properly be regard- ed as eruptive masses. It is scarcely necessary to say that the great deposits of metallic cop- per found on Lake Superior, and supposed at one time to be the result of subterranean fu- sion, are now clearly shown to be the products of chemical precipitation, and to have been de- posited much as copper is precipitated in the electrotype process.—2. Minerals dissemina- ted through Eruptive Rocks. .Of this class of deposits, magnetic iron contained in volcanic rocks and the copper in the amgydaloids of Lake Superior may be taken as examples. In Japan the iron derived from decomposing vol- canic rocks is collected and used, and large quantities of copper are obtained from the so- called melaphyres of the Portage Lake district on Lake Superior; but as a general rule igne- ous rocks are very barren in useful minerals, —3. Contact Deposits. The plane of junction between two rocks of different kinds, such as igneous and sedimentary rocks, is frequently the place where metals or ores have accumu- lated and form concretions, strings, or sheets. Examples of this may be seen in the deposits of copper at the junction of the trap and ash 578 MINERAL bed and of the trap and sandstone in the Lake Superior series.—4. Impregnations. In certain cases metalliferous minerals are found diffused irregularly through rocky masses, the deposits of ore having no definite boundaries or any regularity of structure, and appearing as though the rock had soaked up or absorbed the min- erals, as water saturates a sponge. Such ac- cumulations of ore are called impregnations. The deposits of mercury exhibit this character in a marked degree.—5. Fahlbands. Thisname has been given to a peculiar kind of deposit where the ore is sparingly diffused through certain layers, which are prone to disintegrate and are more fahl (7. ¢., foul or rotten) than the associated strata. this kind of deposit may be seen in the silver mines of Kongsberg, Norway, but they are not common elsewhere. Usually the fahlbands are only rich enough for working where cut by veins.—6. Stockwork. Where the masses of metalliferous rock are penetrated in every direction by threads or strings of ore, so that the whole must be taken out together, it is called a stockwork. Such deposits occur locally in many mines, but rarely to such a degree as to give character to the mining operations. The copper mines of Lake Superior, and the silver mines of Norway, Freiberg (Saxony), and Nevada, all furnish examples of stockwork.— 7. Mineral Veins. These are usually sheets of mineral matter, of greater or less lateral and vertical extent. They have been divided into three principal varieties, which are generally well marked, but which sometimes blend in such a way as not to be easily separated, These varieties of mineral veins are known as gash veins, segregated veins, and fissure veins. a. Gash Veins. These are such as are confined to a single stratum or formation, and hence Fie. 1.—Gash Veins filled with Lead Ore in Galena Lime- stone. a, Crevice opening. 0, c. Crevices with pocket openings, are of limited extent both laterally and verti- cally. The best examples of gash veins are seen in the lead mines of the upper Missis- Typical examples of. DEPOSITS sippi. Here the ore is found in a single for- mation, the Galena limestone, a member of the Trenton group of the lower Silurian. It usually occurs in vertical fissures at no great depth, sometimes very narrow, sometimes Fig. 2.—Horizontal Gash Veins or Floors of Lead in Galena Limestone. a. Crevice with pocket opening. 6. Crevice openings. opening into caves or chambers lined with ‘‘mineral.” These gash veins have apparently been formed by the shrinkage of the Galena limestone after its deposition. Subsequently the shrinkage cracks were enlarged by the dissolving away of their walls, and were lined with galena, deposited from a solution which exuded from the adjacent rocks. Similar veins also containing galena occur in Missouri, but in a formation somewhat more ancient, the magnesian limestone, supposed to be the equiv- alent of the calciferous sand rock of New York. The fact that these gash veins are limited to a single formation has been amply proved by numerous shafts sunk in the hope of finding the ore at a greater depth, all of which have been failures. b. Segregated Veins. These are usually lenticular sheets of ore-bear- ing mineral, which are conformable to the bedding of the associated rocks, that is, are interposed between the layers of such rocks. Segregated veins always occur in metamorphic rocks, and are usually inclined at a high angle with the horizon. They are called segregated veins because they are supposed to have been formed in the process of metamorphism by the separation or withdrawal of the materials which compose them from the adjacent strata, and their concentration along certain lines. Segregated veins are limited both laterally and vertically. They rarely exhibit anything of the banded structure which characterizes fis- sure veins, are chiefly composed of quartz, and form the great repositories of gold. All the quartz veins, which are so common in the MINERAL granitoid rocks of the Alleghanies, belong to this class and carry more or less gold. Iron pyrites is an almost constant associate of gold in segregated veins, sometimes being present in great quantities. Copper is also frequently contained in them, and in less quantity nickel. Though segregated veins have generally no great lateral or vertical extent, they sometimes attain a thickness of 20 or 30 ft., and have a length on the surface of a mile or more. The Pine Tree and Josephine lodes on the Mariposa estate in California have a thickness of 4 to 12 ft., and are said to be traceable for some miles. These are reported to be segregated veins lying in sheets of slate rock of Jurassic age. Segre- gated veins are generally of much more mod- est dimensions, and are seen to lie alternately or en échelon along the outcrops of the con- taining rocks. In Australia the gold-bearing segregated veins are commonly termed ‘ quartz reefs,” having doubtless derived their name from the fact that, being harder than the as- sociated rocks and yielding less readily to at- mospheric erosion, they are left in relief, some- times projecting in ridges above the surface. c. Fissure Veins. These are of indefinite ex- tent, laterally and vertically. They have been formed by volcanic or earthquake action, by which the rocks have been fractured and dis- placed. In all cases where an important crack or fissure is made by subterranean upheaval, either by the slipping in of wedges of rock or by the shifting of the sides of the fissure so that their irregularities fail to match, the walls are prevented from returning to their original positions, and an irregular open crevice is pro- duced. When subsequently filled by foreign matter containing metals or ores, such a fissure becomes a fissure vein. In some instances the fracture of the rocks has considerable regu- larity, and the fissure may be of uniform width for several hundred feet in either direction. More generally, and especially where a fracture |] ow a l i en il | | s . - - Ly ae = . . . . Zi Fie. 4.—Section of a Fissure Vein, showing banded struc- ture. aa. Country rock. 60. Cale spar. cc. Galena. d d. Heavy spar—sulphate of baryta. e e. Comby quartz. is attended with displacement, the fissure is of very unequal width.; the vein matter has in places a thickness of many feet, while at other points, where the projecting walls approach or DEPOSITS 579 come in contact, the vein becomes very thin and may be quite pinched out. From their mode of formation fissure veins are without definite limits horizontally or vertically. They may frequently be traced for miles upon the surface, and their limits in depth are rarely reached. Hence they hold more extensive and continuous deposits of ore than any other kind of mineral veins, and constitute the most trust- worthy bases for mining operations. Fissure veins frequently exhibit a banded structure in the materials which compose them, and this forms one of their most striking characteris- tics. This feature is produced by the deposi- tion on their walls of successive layers of dif- ferent minerals, such as quartz, fluor spar, calc spar, copper or iron pyrites, blende, galena, and baryta. These layers often correspond on either side of the central line, showing that the deposition of the different sheets took place simultaneously on both walls. Some- times a fissure vein exhibits a double or triple ad rey .\ ZZ Fig. 5.—Double Fissure Vein. @a. Country rock. 0b. Cale spar. cc,ee. Comby quartz. d. Heavy spar. A B. First and second fissures. : series of bands, showing that after being filled with ores it was again opened and a new fis- sure formed, and then this was filled in the same way as the first. The quartz which con- stitutes a large part of the material composing fissure veins frequently shows a. ‘‘comby” structure, due to the formation of crystals which shoot out from the walls and interlock where they meet. Another common feature in fissure veins is the “ fluccan.” or ‘‘ selvege,” a sheet of clay which lines either wall and causes the vein matter to cleave off readily. This fluccan seems to be due partly to the attrition of the sides when moved with im- mense force upon each other, and partly to the action on the walls of chemical solutions filling the fissure. The sides and sometimes the in- terior of fissure veins generally show polished and vertically striated surfaces (‘‘ slickensides”). These are undoubtedly produced by the fric- tion of the walls on each other or on the ma- terial composing the vein. As will be inferred from what has been said of their mode of formation, fissure veins cut indiscriminately through all kinds of rock. They frequently traverse stratified rocks across their lines of 580 MINERAL deposition and outcrop, and are then called ‘‘ cross-cut” veins, to distinguish them from those that are more or less accordant with the stratification. The materials composing fissure Fig. 6.---Fissure Vein with Cavity or “Vug” at Centre. a a, Country rock. 6 b. Heavy spar. cc. Calespar. dd. lende. ee. Comby quartz. f. Vug. veins are very varied; indeed, it may be said that nearly all the minerals known are found in them. Quartz is a conspicuous ingredient in fissure veins, but sulphate of baryta, calc spar, and fluor spar sometimes form almost the entire mass of the veinstone.—The ores which are contained in fissure veins, like the earthy minerals, are widely varied. Silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc, antimony, iron, and more rarely many other metals are found inthem. Gold is less common in fissure than in segregated veins, and it is almost never the sole object of search in their exploitation; but it is a recog- nized constituent in the veins worked in Corn- wall, and in the silver ores obtained from some of the mines in Idaho, Nevada, Mexico, and South America. Silver may be regarded as the most valuable constituent of fissure veins, and all the great silver mines of the world are worked in veins of this character. The Comstock lode, near Virginia City in Nevada, is a true fissure vein, and perhaps the largest and richest known. It has been traced on the surface for several miles, and has been worked to the depth of 1,600 ft. Its normal width is perhaps 200 ft., but in places it expands to 800 ft., though here divided into several veins by great wedges or ‘ horses,” split off from the walls. It cuts through syenite and propylite, and evidently marks the line of a great fissure opened by volcanic action. All the silver mines of Nevada belong to the same class with the Comstock, though the other veins are generally of much more moderate dimensions. They are worked in fis- gure veins which traverse all the varieties of rock found in that region, such as granite, por- phyry, trachyte, slate, and limestone. The num- ber of these veins, the disturbed and broken condition of the strata, and the abundance of volcanic rocks in the district, all prove that it has been long the theatre of intense volcanic and earthquake action. In Nevada and Utah DEPOSITS some very rich mines have been worked in deposits of ore, of which the true character has been imperfectly understood and very much misjudged. These are the chambers or pockets of ore so characteristic of the White Pine district, Nevada, and that of Little Cot- tonwood cafion in Utah, the latter including the famous Emma mine. These districts have been the centre of intense mining excitement and scenes of the wildest speculation; of the most unparalleled successes and sudden and complete failures. A large part of this history has been consequent on the peculiar nature of these mineral deposits. In both these districts the ore occurs in limestone, and often in cham- bers frequently of considerable size. These when first opened were supposed to hold in- calculable wealth, but they proved to be of limited extent and were soon worked out. The relations of the ore chambers of White Pine and Little Cottonwood to the silver- bearing fissure veins of Nevada and Utah are not at first sight apparent, and yet they are unquestionably products of the same general cause. The true theory of their deposit is probably this. The ‘country rock,” 7. ¢., the rock enclosing the deposits of ore, unlike that of most of the mining districts of the west, is limestone. Many limestones are soluble in atmospheric water which holds carbonic acid in solution. In some limestone countries the underlying rock is honeycombed by caves and subterranean galleries, forming a system of underground drainage. The table land of Ken- tucky affords a typical example of such a re- gion, and the Mammoth cave is only one of an immense system of natural sewers, by which the drainage of the surface is effected. If now the Kentucky table land were much dis- turbed by an earthquake and fissures were opened through the limestone, and these fis- sures were filled to form mineral veins, then, wherever these fissures communicated with the subterranean chambers and galleries, these would also be filled with vein matter and ore, and a condition of things would be produced similar to what we now find in Utah and Nevada, though on a much grander scale. With this explanation the western pockets and chambers of silver ore are seen to be natural offshoots and appendages of the fissure veins so common in the region where they occur.— The Filling of Mineral Veins. The manner in which the materials composing mineral veins have been deposited has been a matter of much discussion among geologists,: and one about which there has been and still is considerable diversity of opinion. The theories which have been advanced to account for the phenomena are briefly as follows. a. The Theory of In- jection. This was proposed by the Plutonists, who were prone to ascribe all the great changes on the earth’s surface to the action of heat. There are few mineral veins, however, com- posed of materials which can be regarded as even the possible product of fusion, and most MINERAL of them contain minerals which could never have been formed in the presence of great heat. The veins containing great masses of copper on the south shore of Lake Superior, when first described, were considered as shining ex- amples of the truth of the igneous theory; but the frequent occurrence of masses of native silver in the copper, both metals being distinct and almost chemically pure, prove that these metallic masses could never have been fused to- gether, as in that case they would have formed an alloy. Other evidence has been cited by Prof. Pumpelly which demonstrates that none of the copper veins have been filled by igne- ous action, but that the materials they contain have been deposited from solution. Trap dikes, which are fissures filled by injected volcanic material, have doubtless suggested the igne- ous theory of mineral veins; but when they are carefully examined the materials which compose them are found to be quite different in their nature and arrangement from those which form mineral veins. veins have only this in common, that they fill similar fissures produced by subterranean violence. 06. The Theory of Aqueous Deposi- tion. This theory apparently emanated from the Wernerian school, who regarded water as the great, if not the sole cause of geological phenomena. The advocates of this theory have suggested that fissures have been opened up into seas or other water basins, and that the vein material has been deposited from water, as limestone and other sedimentary rocks are laid down. A fatal objection to this theory is that we never find the materials composing true fissure veins horizontally strati- fied as aqueous sediments are, but on the con- trary these materials are often deposited ver- tically against the walls of the fissures. Again, if the vein materials were deposited from res- ervoirs into which they opened, the bottoms of these reservoirs ought to show similar sheets of matter, whereas nothing of the kind has ever been found. c. Lateral Secretion. Ac- cording to this theory, the materials of mine- ral veins have been derived from the adjacent rocks by percolation through the vein walls. If this were true, we should find the contents of veins changing with every stratum through which they pass, whereas in fact the composi- tion of a mineral vein is often nearly identical in all parts of its course, notwithstanding it may pass through a variety of strata. Again, where two systems of veins cut through the same stratum, according to this theory, in that stratum their contents should be similar, where- as we often find them totally diverse. Where two veins cross each other, they are often seen to be of different ages, and to be composed of materials so different that they must have been derived from different sources. The banded structure of fissure veins seems also quite incompatible with this theory, for it is scarcely possible to conceive of the formation of the different layers which compose these In fact, dikes and | DEPOSITS 581 veins on the supposition that they have been deposited by exudation from the walls of the fissure, and that the totally distinct minerals composing the inner and newer layers have been transmitted through those first formed. As has been mentioned, in gash veins the cavities are filled or lined with materials de- rived from the adjacent rocks, but these cases afford us no satisfactory explanation of the filling of fissure veins, the only ones about which there is any question. d. Sublimation. Most of the minerals, and perhaps all of the metals, can be sublimed at a very high tem- perature; and some of them, as zinc, arsenic, and mercury, are vaporized at a comparatively low temperature. The fissures about a vol- canic crater are frequently lined, sometimes filled, with minerals, some of them ores, which have plainly been driven out from the volcano in a state of vapor. Such cases have led some theorists to suppose that sublimation played an important part in the filling of mineral veins. As has been said, the deposits of mercury have often the character of impregnations, and in some instances at least we have gocd evidence that mercury is diffused in the form of vapor; but these deposits have certainly very little in common with the distinctly limited, often banded and crystallized matter filling mineral veins, properly so called. Hence this theory is in the main rejected by modern mineral- ogists. e. Chemical Precipitation. This the- ory attributes the deposition.of mineral matter in veins mainly to precipitation from solution, and this is the view now generally taken by those best informed on the subject. According to this theory, fissures destined to become fis- sure veins are first filled with water, usually © flowing from sources deep in the earth, where, highly heated and under great pressure, it be- comes charged with mineral substances. As it approaches the surface and the temperature and pressure are reduced, its powers of solu- tion are diminished, and a large part of the materials it has carried are precipitated on the sides of the channel through which it flows. The abundant and varied deposits made by thermal springs illustrate the sufficiency of this cause. In this view, the banded structure which is exhibited by mineral veins is attrib- uted to changes during the lapse of ages in the nature of the solution, dependent upon some deep-seated cause, such as successive convul- sions opening new sources for the supply of material. Sulphur we know is one of the most common constituents of volcanic emana- tions, and the normal condition of most ores found in veins is that of the sulphide; and we have reason to believe that they are mainly de- posited from a hot solution in which sulphur was the most conspicuous ingredient. Highly heated water or steam, containing sulphur, fluorine, and chlorine, would be capable of dis- solving most of the minerals with which it came in contact. It would certainly be charged with silica, and if flowing or driven through 582 MINERAL rocks containing even minute quantities of sil- ver, gold, lead, iron, copper, or other metal, would gather these materials, and coming to- ward the surface would precipitate them in the form of sulphides. The replacement of animal and vegetable tissues by mineral mat- ter, which often occurs in their fossilization, affords proof that chemical solution is entirely adequate to produce all the phenomena exhib- ited in the filling of mineral veins. In petri- fied wood the vegetable tissue is replaced, par- ‘ticle by particle, by silica, evidently deposited from solution. The sulphides of copper and iron often replace wood in the same way, and this could only take place on a great scale, as it often does, when the rocks were saturated with a solution containing these metals. The formation of geodes, the filling of the cavities of amygdaloids with agate, chalcedony, and zeolites, the sheets and stalactites of iron and lead in the Galena mines, and the stalactites of lime in caves, prove that such solutions are constantly flowing through the rocks beneath us. In some formations and localities mollus- cous fossils are found completely replaced by galena, pyrites, and blende, the lime of their shells having been carried away and the differ- ent ores deposited in its place. In the cavities left by some shells, successive layers of sul- phides of lead, iron, and zine are deposited, showing in miniature almost precisely the phenomena observed in mineral veins.—A few general features in mineral veins remain to be noticed. Oftener than otherwise, the mineral veins of any district are seen to belong to one or more systems in which the individual veins have nearly a common bearing and a general similarity of composition. In the mining dis- trict of Cornwall, England, there are two principal systems of veins, one running nearly north and south, the other approximately east and west. The latter carry copper and tin, the former chiefly lead and iron. In the lead region of the upper Mississippi there are also two principal systems of veins, which vary somewhat in their bearing, but are generally known as the north and south and east and west courses. In the mining district of Frei- berg, Saxony, nine systems of veins are said to have been identified; and in the silver belt extending parallel with the Pacific coast, from Idaho and Nevada to Chili, which has been almost constantly shaken and shattered by earthquakes, the systems of veins are almost innumerable. In less disturbed regions, like the Mississippi lead district, the courses of the veins coincide with the jointing of the rocks, and thus in many instances exhibit a kind of polarity; that is, one set of joints coincides with or approaches in direction the meridian, while the other is nearly at right angles to this. There is little doubt that the system in the jointing of rocks, and hence in the bearings of mineral veins, often determined by the joint- ing, has been considerably affected by terres- trial magnetism. It is also probable that this DEPOSITS cause has operated to control or influence the ° deposition of mineral matter in veins. Mr. Fox of England found that the water in the copper mines was a weak solution of salts of copper, and that the galleries filled with this solution were in fact cells of galvanic bat- teries, from which well marked currents were produced. Solutions similar to these found in old copper mines, but hotter and stronger, have undoubtedly filled most of the fissures now occupied by metalliferous veins. It is easy to see that such cells might generate pow- erful magneto-electric currents, by which the metals, especially silver and copper, might be precipitated in great quantity, just as they are now precipitated in the electro-plating process. —Gossans. Nearly all mineral veins are found to be,very much weathered and decomposed along their line of outcrop. The decomposi- tion generally extends down to the permanent water level, below which the ore is in its nor- mal state, and this for the most part is sul- phide. When exposed to the action of atmos- pheric water and air, the sulphides are oxi- dized, and the whole mass of the veinstone is frequently rendered soft and spongy, and high- ly colored in various ways. When the vein contains much iron pyrites, this is converted into the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, coloring all the decomposed mass brownish red. From this fact the changed portion of the vein is called in Germany the Hisenhut, iron hat. In Corn- wall the decomposed portion of a mineral vein is called a gossan ; and this term has been uni- versally adopted in all mining districts where English is spoken. In the gossans of veins we usually find the sulphides of silver converted into chloride, bromide, iodide, &c., with many sprigs and masses of native silver. Copper ore, generally the sulphide of copper and iron in its normal state, is converted first into red or black oxide, and then into malachite, azu- rite, and chrysocolla, the carbonates and sili- cate of copper. Locally, when effected by saline solutions, as in South America, ataca- mite, the chloride, is produced. All these secondary forms of ores are more easily treated than the sulphide, and the gossan which con- tains them is usually loose and easily excavated. This portion of a mineral vein is therefore much more easily and cheaply worked than that which lies below the permanent water level. Hence the first workings of mineral veins are frequently highly remunerative, while the cost of deeper excavations in harder rock, and the expense of treating the more intractable sul- phides, cause subsequent operations below the water level to result in disappointment. In many mining districts, like those of the south- ern Alleghanies in the United States and of Sonora in Mexico, the first comers, by work- ing the gossans, were able practically to skim the cream of the mineral veins, carrying off great profits, and leaving to the second gener- ation an inheritance of which the value is often worse than doubtful. MINERALOGY MINERALOGY, the science which treats of the composition, structure, formation, and classi- fication of minerals. The term therefore cov- ers both descriptive mineralogy and mineral- ology, which is the study of the laws in accord- ance with which minerals are formed. All objects in nature consist of certain substances recognized as elementary bodies, which exist either as individual wholes, when they are called native elements, or combined with one another. All the native elements belong to the mineral kingdom, and also all combinations of elements which do not pass through the cy- cle of change called growth. The combina- tions of the elements which man produces all belong to the mineral kingdom, since he is not able to impart the principle of growth. When his products are homogeneous in composition and structure, they are, strictly speaking, arti- ficial minerals; and chemists are able to repro- duce a great number of the combinations found in nature. The study of minerals presents three general classes of characteristics: chemical com- position, crystalline form, and physical proper- ties. J. Onemistry or Minerats. In combi- ning, the elements exhibit a strict subjection to certain fixed modes of union, and these modes are the laws of chemical combination, which are still very imperfectly understood. Chem- ists recognize two kinds of units.. The small- est possible particle of an elementary substance is called an atom. These atoms seem to exist in a state of polarity, and to possess electrical attraction and repulsion, by means of which they effect union with each other and with the atoms of other elements. They are not always able to exist by themselves, but the atoms of some elements act in pairs or triplets, or in some other degree of union. This combina- tion of atoms, whether composed of the atoms of more than one element, or of one only, is called a molecule. Molecules have the power of cohesion, and by their aggregation masses of matter are formed. Both of these units are used in mineralogy. Every true mineral is formed of innumerable molecules cohering to- gether, and each of these molecules is com- posed of one or more atoms of each element contained in the mineral, according to the pro- portion in which it is present. While there is unending diversity in the composition of min- erals, it is found that the elements always unite in some simple proportion or ratio. Three kinds of ratios are used in mineralogy. The percentage ratio is the one in which analy- ses are always published. It assumes the weight of each molecule to be 100, and ex- presses the proportionate quantity of each ele- ment in the molecule in parts of 100. Lime, for instance, contains 71°43 per cent. of calci- um and 28°57 per cent. of oxygen. The atomic ratio is the ratio between the number of atoms of each element in the molecule, and is ob- tained by simply dividing the percentage ratio of each element by its atomic weight. When _ the symbol of a mineral is given, the atomic 583 ratio may be ascertained by simple inspection of the symbol. In lime, the symbol of which is CaO, the molecule is composed of 1 calcium and 1 oxygen, and the atomic ratio is there- fore 1:1. In andalusite, which is composed of Al.OsSi, the atomic ratio of the aluminum, oxygen, and silicon is 2: 5:1; while if the oxygen is divided between the aluminum and silicon, the compound will be considered as formed of two radicals, alumina and silica, and the atomic ratio of these will be 1: 1, there being one of each. The third method of com- parison is the oxygen ratio; it consists in a comparison of the number of oxygen atoms contained in the different oxygen compounds present. In andalusite, for instance, the alt- mina has three oxygen atoms and the silica two. The O ratio is therefore 8:2. The ex- planations so far given relate to the old method of writing chemical symbols. The new chem- istry reaches the same results by a different mode of reasoning. Every binary compound consists of one positive and one negative ele- ment. Every ternary compound consists of one positive element, a second which is nega- tive to the first but positive to the third, and finally a third which is negative to both the others. The number of negative atoms in a binary compound is found to vary with the different elements, each element having the power to fix a certain number of atoms of a more negative element; this power is called its atomicity or quantivalence. All of the sta- ble binary compounds of hydrogen are found to contain one atom of hydrogen and one of the other element, whatever it is; and hydro- gen is therefore taken as the standard. By comparing the other elements with it, it is found that 23 of them have a combining pow- er equal either to 1, 3, or 5 hydrogen atoms; and these are therefore called univalent, triva- lent, or quinquivalent. These never form sta- ble saturated compounds with any even num- ber of negative univalent atoms, and they are therefore called perissads, from the Greek word for odd numbers. The remaining 40 ele- ments have a combining power which is 2, 4, or 6 times that of hydrogen, and they are therefore bivalent, quadrivalent, and sextiva- lent. These form the general class of artiads, and are never saturated when combined with an odd number of negative univalent atoms, The highest possible combining power of an element is called its atomicity, but this is not always the most common form of its occur- rence, which is often one of the lower de- grees; this prevalent form is its quantiva- lence. The oxygen ratio, although it was used with the best results in mineralogy long before the new chemical theories were established, is nothing more than the expression of the rela- tive quantivalences of the different elements contained in a mineral. Oxygen is in all cases a negative element, and the number of its atoms which are combined with one atom of any other element, taken in connection with 584 MINERALOGY the doubled atomic weights of the new chem- istry, indicates the relative quantivalences of the combined elements. The change of ideas in regard to the modes of combination has necessarily produced a new mode of writing the symbols of minerals. Under the dualistic theory, when every ternary oxygen compound was supposed to consist of one oxide acting the part of a base and another oxide acting the part of an acid, the formula was constructed by writing the two compounds one after the other, as RO,SiO2, or R203,38i0Os, in which R stands for any basic element. The new system endeavors to make its formulas rational, that is, to construct them in such a way as to em- body the present views in regard to chemical combination. The elements are divided into three classes: 1, the basic, which are positive to those following; 2, the acidic, which are negative to the foregoing, but positive to the third classs 38, the acidific, which are negative to both the first and second. In a ternary compound which consists of one element from each of these classes, the acidific element is supposed to act as a bond between the other two, and for that reason it is placed in the middle, the basic being written first, the acid- ific next, and the acidic last; as Mge || Ou || Si. It has been explained that one atom of each element has the power of uniting to itself a certain number of atoms (from one to six) of hydrogen or other univalent element; and just as the ancients provided the elements with hooks by which they caught hold of each other, so modern chemists express the quanti- valence of an element by saying that it has a. certain number of bonds of attraction. Mag- nesium has a quantivalence of 2, and as there are two molecules of it in the above symbol, the total number of its bonds in the formula just given is four. Silicon has a quantivalence of 4, so that the oxygen has four bonds to sat- isfy on each side, or eight in all, As its quan- tivalence is 2, the four molecules present in the compound have a total uniting power of eight. But the whole of the oxygen does not always play the part of a uniting element only. The number of molecules of uniting oxygen (or other acidific element) is equal to the number of bonds of attraction in the basic or acidic element, according as the former or the latter has the smaller number. In the sym- bol given above, the number of oxygen bonds is just sufficient to satisfy those of the other elements, but in the symbol MgO,Si there are two bonds on one side of the oxygen and four on the other. In this case part of the oxygen is considered to be combined with that element which has the greater number of bonds -to be satisfied. When this is the acidic ele- ment, as in the present case, the symbol is written with the acidic element at the left side; as SiO || O2 || Mg. If the basic element had possessed the greater quantivalence, that element would have been written at the left; as in the symbol for chondrodite, Mg,Oz| (O,F):2 || Sis. Thus the symbols are made to express the mineralogist’s views of the consti- tution of minerals.—Replacement. Minerals in their chemical composition are elementary, binary, ternary, quaternary, &c., according as the number of molecules of which they are composed is one, two, three, or four, &c. This, however, does not indicate the possible number of elements present, since each molecule may contain several elements. Enstatite, which is composed of magnesium, oxygen, and silicon, is a ternary; and diaclasite, which has magne- sium, iron, calcium, oxgygen, and silicon in its composition, is also only a ternary, since the first three elements form only one basic mole- cule. In this case each element in the basic molecule is a dyad (that is, it has a quantiva- lence of 2), and it may not seem strange that, with equal powers of combination, they should be able to replace each other. But other min- erals are found which contain elements of the most diverse degrees of quantivalence, and therefore in the most diverse states of combi- nation. Zircon sometimes contains a protoxide, a sesquioxide, and a deutoxide. The law under which these diverse combinations are brought harmoniously together is that “the replacing power of the elements is in proportion to their combining power.” Thus one molecule of an element which has four bonds of attraction, like tin, is able to replace two molecules of an ele- ment which has only two bonds of attraction, like calcium. Instannite, which is a sulphide of copper, tin, and iron, the proportions of these elements are 2:1:1. Copper, which is biva- lent, requires two atoms to occupy toward sulphur the same relation which one atom of tin and iron has. The proportion in which any element in any state of combination must replace other elements in a different state may be ascertained from the following table, in which the line A contains the several oxides that are known, the line B contains the same oxides reduced to a common oxygen stand- ard (O=1), and the line C represents the proportions in which the bases are inter- changeable. The different states are repre- sented by Greek letters in order to avoid con- fusing fractions. Thus the beta state is ses- quioxide and the gamma state is the deutoxide. R is used to represent any basic element, and it is to be remembered that, though only oxides are represented here, the rule holds good for all negative elements.. A. ROW RO? 7D ROt Oe ay B. RO, R#0, R40, R2O0,. REO, R20, RO O.. oR” Gi sey tn mae eee ey re Ck, Lt Any element in the tritoxide state (eR) there- fore requires but one basic atom to replace three basic atoms of an element in the pro- toxide or alpha state. The method of writing the symbol of a mineral which has suffered such substitution may be seen from the sym- bols of magnetite and franklinite. The former contains iron in the alpha and in the beta state 7? MINERALOGY % of combination with oxygen. Its symbol is (JaFe+$6Fe),O., and it is therefore a binary compound. In franklinite the aFe is partially replaced by zinc and manganese in the alpha state, and the BFe is partially replaced by man- ganese in the beta state. The symbol then be- comes [4(Zn,Fe,Mn)+$$Fe,BMn)],0O.,. The a is not written, the protoxide state being under- stood when no other is mentioned. The effect of the law of replacement is, that whatever kinds of binaries may be united in the mineral, the oxygen ratio is unchanged, and the use of this ratio is therefore continued in mineralo- gies, though the oxygen is no longer considered to be divided between the basic and acidic elements. It expresses the quantivalence of these elements, and this is held to be one of the most essential characteristics of a mineral species. While the power of replacement has 585 greatly increased the number of mineral spe- cies by presenting us with compounds which vary too much to be described under one name, it has lessened the number of groups in an equally marked degree, since the substitution often takes place without materially altering the other characters. Thus tourmaline, which is a ternary, sometimes contains 12 elements, and the basic molecule always contains ele- ments in the alpha, beta, and gamma states. Their proportions vary so much that five classes have been made in which the O ratio of these three kinds of bases varies between 4: 12:4 and 4:56:12; and yet tourmaline is usually very plainly recognizable and possesses very persistent crystallographic habits.— Olassifica- tion of the Elements. With the foregoing ex- planations the following table in which the elements are classified will be understood : OLASSIFIOATION OF THE ELEMENTS. Serizs I. A. Perissads. Potassium, sodium, cesium, rubidium, lithium, thallium, hydrogen, | Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, anti- silver, gold. B. Artiads. 1. Iron-aluminum group. a. Iron sub-group: platinum, palladium, iridium, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium, copper, lead, mercury, iron, zinc, indium, cadmium, co- balt, nickel, manganese, chromium, uranium, tungsten, cerium, erbium, yttrium, glucinum, lanthanum, didymium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium; also H,, K., Na 6. Aluminum sub-group: aluminum (84Al); al Bp B, &e. 2. Tin group. Tin, titanium, zirconium, thorium; also yH,, yFe, yMun, yCo, yPb, yCu, &e. The three kinds, basic, acidic, and acidific, are arranged in three series. Each series begins with a section of perissads, or elements with a quantivalence which is 1, 3, or 5, and ends with a section of artiads, or elements which have a quantivalence of 2, 4, or 6, thus bring- ing together allied elements. The basic artiads comprise two groups, one of protoxides and sesquioxides, and the other of deutoxides. The acidic artiads form a tritoxide and a deutoxide group. It is therefore plain that each group is made up of elements which occur in the same state of combination, or have the same quantivalence, and the groups might with per- fect propriety be called the alpha, beta, &c., groups. Each group therefore includes not only its own leading elements, but also the a, 8, or y, &e., states of other elements; and there- fore each group comprises a series of homeo- morphous (or mutually replaceable) elements. II. CrystattinE Form. Atoms are supposed to have definite shapes, for the greater number of the mineral species have exact geometrical forms which have been classified in six sys- tems. (See CrysrattograpHy.) The atomic form seems to be different for the different elements; and since the same element is some- times found crystallized in more than one sys- tem, it is supposed that the number of atoms , &e. so BFe, BMn, BCr, Sertes IT. Srrizs III. A. Perissads. A. Perissads. Chlorine. mony, bismuth, columbium, tan-| Bromine. talum in the 6R state, boron (7). | Iodine. B, Artiads, B. Perissad 1. Sulphur group. (or Artiad). Sulphur, selenium, tellurium, mo- | Fluorine. lybdenum; also eFe, «Cr, «Mn, eV,«W. C. Artiad. , Oxygen. 2. Carbon-silicon group. Carbon, silicon; also y8, ySe, yTe, &e. in the molecule influences its shape. Thus the mineral species palladium is the native element of the same name, and crystallizes in the iso- metric system; while allopalladium, which is also the native element in a pure state, is hex- agonal. The theory is that, while the molecule of palladium contains one atom, the molecule of allopalladium contains three atoms of the same substance. The diamond (isometric) and graphite (hexagonal) are both carbon, and form another example of this phenomenon, which is called isomerism. A great many of the compounds are identical in composition, but differ in form. Andalusite, fibrolite, and eyanite have the same composition, but crys- tallize in different systems, and have a different hardness and specific gravity ; and these differ- ences are ascribed to a more or less condensed molecule, but what the numerical relation of the atoms in these molecules is, has not been established. It has, however, been suggested that the forms assumed may be due to the number of negative atoms in the molecule. Thus protoxides may assume isometric forms, deutoxides may be tetragonal, and tritoxides hexagonal. While this theory is not entirely borne out by the facts, it would probably be more eminently plausible if other portions of our system were more perfect. Thus, though 586 protoxides, like water and zincic oxide, take the hexagonal instead of the isometric form, this fact leads mineralogists to look upon these minerals as being composed of condensed mole- cules containing three atoms of each element, and to write their symbols, HeO; and Zn3Os, rather than reject the theory. This theory does not account for all the examples of poly- morphism, nor can they be accounted for with- out greater knowledge of the crystalline sys- tems. Certain forms in some of the systems, when placed in a particular position, are iden- tical, both in position and angle of the faces, with others in entirely different systems. Nevertheless, none of the efforts to reduce the crystallographic systems below six have been successful. Itis, however, established that min- erals may be isomorphous with others crystal- lizing in a different system, when their angles are nearly similar. The variations in the six systems depend upon the relative length of their axes; and when the axial dimensions of two minerals in different systems are nearly the same, they may enter into chemical or physical combination without violence to their individual laws of formation. of such replacement is increased by the fact that the crystallographic forms of minerals, though precise in general, are not perfectly uniform in angle. Even the most important and distinctive angular measurements vary de- cidedly, and since a certain flexibility thus ex- ists, the entrance of a different though similar mineral may take place without altering the angles beyond their ordinary limits. The ex- treme variation of axial dimensions which may take place is shown by the common and very well marked mineral calcite, the forms of which include 48 different rhombohedrons and 88 scalenohedrons, besides pyramids and prisms. If the extreme positive rhombohedrons were represented graphically on the same scale, one would be 112 times as long as the other. Yet these extremes are so intimately connected by gradually progressive steps as to forbid any classification of them.—Many theories have been proposed to account for the exact forms assumed by minerals, but two of them will be sufficient to indicate the tendency of spec- ulation. One is chemical. It supposes that the elementary atoms and molecules have defi- nite forms, and that when two elements com- bine, their molecules take a form which is dependent on the forces that produce the combination. The introduction of a third ele- ment may produce a complete rearrangement of the molecules and an entirely new form. The other theory is based on physical laws. It has been suggested that minerals crystal- lizing in the isometric system may be com- posed of spherical molecules, that being the form which any body free to move must take when acted on equally in all directions. Min- erals crystallizing in the other systems are made up of ellipsoidal molecules, and the form is tetragonal or rhombic, according ag the lateral south poles. MINERALOGY axes are conjugate axes or conjugate diame- ters of an ellipsoid. These axes and diame- ters are equal in all the systems except the triclinic, where they are unequal, and the ver- tical axis is at right angles to the other two in all but the monoclinic and triclinic systems. The hexagonal form may be produced by an ellipsoidal molecule in which three conjugate diameters form the axes on which the faces are laid. These axes are called crystallogenic, to distinguish them from the ordinary crystallo- graphic axes, which are entirely distinct. Mol- ecules are supposed to be governed by the laws of polarity, the opposite ends of the conjugate axes or diameters representing the north and By grouping them according to the known electrical laws, many of the remark- able compound forms can be imitated, and an interesting insight gained into the probable constitution of minerals. Local circumstances will sometimes alter the intensity of attraction between the molecules in favor of some one of the crystallogenic axes, and a distorted form will result. A more general modification of molecular relations produces secondary planes. The likelihood | What these local circumstances are is not known, but the character of the mother liquor, or of the solid matrix in which the mineral is formed, is certainly one of them. Laboratory experiments prove this, and in nature we find aragonite assuming different modifications ac- cording as it is found in iron mines or in gyp- sum clays; minerals collected from one locality often present a general likeness, and may differ from the same species found in another region. —Since a crystal increases by successive addi- tions to a minute molecular nucleus, any vari- ations in the intensity of the uniting force must produce alternate zones of strong and weak attraction. These pulsations of the formative force are the cause of cleavage, which is due to the lessened tenacity of the mineral along those lines which represent the period of weak action during the pulsation. III. Paysroan CHARACTERISTICS. Fracture, taste, odor, po- larization, electrical properties, and transpa- rency are among the least decisive peculiarities of minerals. Streak is a very important char- acter in all classes. Lustre is of great impor- tance in distinguishing the two kinds, metallic and non-metallic minerals. The value of the other physical characters depends upon the kind of mineral under examination. Among those possessing metallic lustre, the hardness, specific gravity, color, and state of aggregation are far more serviceable than with those of non-metallic lustre. The origin of physical properties is unknown, but it is certain that some of them, as transparency, polarization, and refraction, depend upon the relations of the molecules toward light; lustre, color, and streak may have a similar origin, varied by the operation of the forces which formed the min- eral. To these forces, tenacity, ductility, and state of aggregation may also probably be as- cribed. Some of the above mentioned charao- MINERALOGY ters, and also hardness and specific gravity, may be due partly or entirely to the state of chemical combination. It has been shown that the superior hardness and specific gravity of the epidote group of minerals, as compared with the scapolite group, may be explained by supposing that the molecule of the former is, more condensed than that of the latter.— Classification of Minerals, The explanations above given embody the leading principles upon which the numerous minerals found in nature are distinguished from each other and arranged in related groups, The unit in min- eralogy is the species. A mineral species must have a definite composition and individual characteristics of form, sufficient to establish its difference from all others. The mode of occurrence may be gaseous, fluid, or solid; the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere, water, and mercury are all native minerals, as well as the solid substances. But definiteness of composition is a necessary characteristic, and marks the difference between minerals and rocks. While the latter are composed of min- eral substances, the indefiniteness of their con- stitution prevents their classification and de- scription by the accurate methods known in mineralogy. Even in the latter science a cer- tain latitude in composition is necessarily al- lowed, as minerals are seldom perfectly pure. Elements foreign to those which properly com- pose the mineral are nearly always present, and when their amount is large in proportion to the whole, it may be a question whether a new species should be made. The tendency of the best authorities is to restrict the number of species as much as possible, and to describe the modifications, where the usual characteris- tics of the mineral are not much altered, as varieties. Thus under pyroxene Prof. Dana describes 21 varieties, and under amphibole 20. Tourmaline has already been cited as a case of extreme variation in chemical composition, and calcite in crystalline form, the variation in both cases being in remarkably well characterized species. In the fifth edition of Dana’s ‘‘ Min- eralogy ” (1868), 838 species are described, and the number of varieties is probably two or three times as great. The classification of these spe- cies is based upon chemical composition; com- pounds of one kind, as silicates or sulphides, being placed together and subdivided into groups having the same general symbol, or the same crystalline form, or some common physi- cal character. The arrangement according to composition will be understood by referring to the table of elements given above. Six general divisions are made: 1. Native elements, including any element in the pure state, and any compound of two elements in the same series and group. There are 20 elements known, forming 25 mineral species. Gold, silver, platinum, iridium, palladium, mercury, copper, lead, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tel- lurium, sulphur, selenium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are certainly found native; while 587 iron, zinc, and tin, though reported, are some- what doubtful, if meteoric iron is excluded as not having been subjected to terrestrial con- ditions. When elements from two or more groups are united in a mineral, we are brought to the study of compounds, which forms all the remaining part of mineralogy, including five divisions. 2. All compounds in which the negative element is taken from the arsenic or sulphur group (series II. in the table). This di- vision therefore includes phosphides, arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides, sulphides, selenides, tellurides, and double compounds, as sulph-an- timonides, sulpho-bismuthides, &c.; in all, 110 species. 8. Compounds in which the negative element is taken from group A, series III., and therefore this division comprises all chlorides, bromides, and iodides, numbering 28 species. 4, Compounds containing the negative element of group B, series III., or fluorides, 18 in num- ber. 5. Oxygen compounds, the negative ele- ment being taken from group OC, series III. This division exceeds all others in the number of its species (587) and in the abundance of its minerals, which form probably more than nine tenths of the globe. 6. Those compounds of hydrogen and carbon which are called “or- ganic,” of which 73 species are recognized. In addition to the above, more than 100 new species have been reported since 1868, and though some of these may not be sustained, the interest taken in mineralogy as a speculative science is rapidly extending our knowledge of minerals and the discovery of new species.—A general classification of species having been made according to chemical composition, as above explained, groups are formed, each of which contains minerals of one type. A min- eral type includes species which closely resem- ble each other in crystalline form, and have a related elementary composition. Thus eight similar compounds of protoxides and deutoxides are found to crystallize in the isometric system, and are all of the “spinel type.” Crystallized minerals containing ferric anhydride assume either inclined or hemihedral forms, and there- fore constitute a well marked type. Amor- phous. minerals are necessarily classed with those crystalline species which they resemble ‘in composition, as their lack of definite form is looked upon not as a characteristic, but as the lack of one. This mode of ranking them does no violence to the theory held by some that they are formed from matter in the colloidal state. No uniform system of comparison has yet been discovered which will suit the re- quirements of all classes of minerals. Each element appears to have a definite form, which it tends to assume under all circumstances ; and if the strength of this tendency varies with each one, the form of any given species will either be that of some dominant element, or a compound one resulting from the inter- action of all the substances contained in it. But nothing is known of such a scale of crys- tallographic forces except that, in the some- 588 what casual juxtapositions brought about by the present system of arrangement, we find different compounds, such as sulphates and carbonates, crystallized in different forms; while a species which is a compound of both these, a sulphato-carbonate, has the general form of the sulphates. From this fact it is concluded that sulphur has a more energetic formative power than carbon. An excellent and simple example of the principles on which mineral types and groups are arranged will be found in Dana’s ‘“ Mineralogy,” fifth edition, p. 34, under the head of ‘‘ Sulphides.”—Women- clature. Mineralogists have chosen the ter- mination ite to characterize the names of their species. Jtis or ites was used by the Greeks and Romans for this purpose, and it was ap- pended to some word signifying a quality, lo- cality, or some other fact relating to the min- eral. Hematites, for instance, referred to the red color of the powder, and syenites took its name from Syene in Egypt. Werner, in the last century, introduced the custom of naming minerals after persons, and, though much op- posed for years, especially by French mineral- ogists, this is now the common usage. Its popularity does not spring so much from the desire to do honor to discoverers and distin- guished men, as from the liability to error when an attempt is made to name a mineral from some supposed quality while the infor- mation about it is still imperfect. Many other terminations are in use, as ine, ane, ene, ase, age, ome, ote, &c.; but these have come down to us from former years. At present the rule is to use the termination ite, or if another is employed the latter must be applied to all minerals of the same class. A great advance in uniformity has been made by Dana, who undertook a thorough collation of the litera- ture of the science, and applied the law of priority wherever it could be done without injury, thus restoring many oldnames. While ite is used for minerals, yte is used for rock masses, which, to deserve the application of the word, should consist principally or entire- ly of the compact mineral. Thus doleryte and pyroxenyte are massive deposits of the minerals dolerite and pyroxene.—Mineralology is the name given to the study of the laws which govern the formation of minerals. While the chemist constantly endeavors to work with pure materials and to have but few elements present in the artificial production of mineral compounds, nature has undoubtedly formed many or all of the mineral species from sources in which a great number of elements were mixed. The circumstances under which these elements were brought together, their proportion, and the influences to which they were individually or collectively subjected af- terward, must have varied within very wide limits; and the fact that definite and unvarying species have been produced from heterogene- ous compounds is proof of the operation of fixed and probably simple laws. On the other MINERALOGY hand, the slight differences which are notice- able in the characteristic marks of a great many species are probably the traces of the different conditions under which the individu- als of the species were formed. The develop- ment of these laws, and of the forces which have modified them, forms the speculative part of mineralogical science, and makes the science itself an important factor both in the history of the earth and in the development of chemical knowledge. The present state of this knowledge will not permit a trustworthy state- ment of mineralological facts within the limits of this article. It is sufficient to point out some of the modes in which compounds may be formed. These are: 1, union of two gase- ous elements; 2, union of one gaseous and one fluid or solid element; 3, union of two fluids; 4, union of one fluid and one solid; 5, combi- nations at a high temperature (igneous fluidity forming a matrix from which species separate on cooling); 6, combinations at a low tempera- ture.—Artisicial Minerals. By imitating these and other processes, many of the characteristic species may be reproduced, and the combina- tions always show themselves to be governed by the same laws that are discernible in the formation of true minerals. These artificial minerals mostly result from three sources: the study of chemical laws by experimental pro- cesses, the desire to produce gems by artificial means, and the casual formation of definite min- eral compounds in metallurgical work. Of the salts which result from chemical reactions, a great number have been found in nature. Of minerals used as gems, the ruby, aquamarine, garnet, topaz, spinel, chrysoberyl, apatite, and others have been produced, but not of a size large enough to make them useful as orna-. ments or their manufacture profitable. Met- allurgical processes, where high temperatures and the action of gaseous substances are long continued, and where compounds of all degrees of fusibility are melted and chemically com- bined, are a fruitful source of artificial and very perfect minerals. A few furnace products have never been found in nature. While arti- ficial minerals are apt tobe less perfectly crys- tallized than the native specimens, they are also apt to be of simpler forms, and have sometimes served to determine the primitive angle when it could not be decided by natural specimens. — Historical. While the ancients were acquainted with a great number of min- erals, and observed the existence of crystals and the importance of physical characters, their complete ignorance of all our modes of investigation prevented their obtaining any real knowledge of the distinctive species. Stones of the most diverse composition, some minerals and some rocks, were grouped under one name, and it is frequently impossible to recognize from their description the minerals they knew. Theophrastus (315 B. C.) was the earliest writer on the subject, though other authors frequently referred to minerals as rem- MINERALOGY edies, usually of the miraculous kind. Pass- ing to the Christian era, we find Pliny writing on this subject in the 1st century, and Dios- corides in the same or the following; after which there is a blank until the 11th cen- tury, when Avicenna divided minerals into four classes, stones, salts, sulphurous oa in- flammable bodies, and earths. The “stones” were chiefly silicates, and rude as this classifi- cation is, it was not until long after chemical science had made its mark that anything very much superior was advanced, the principal im- provement made in more than six centuries being the substitution of metals for ‘ stones.” Agricola (1548-’50) wrote several works, stud- ied the external characters of minerals, and based his arrangement upon those which are apparent to the senses. The alchemical stud- ies of the succeeding centuries bore some fruit, both in the discovery of new species and in the addition of heating and fusion as modes of investigation. Passing over Lin- nus (1735) and Wallerius (1747), who was the first to write a systematic descriptive work on this subject, we come to Cronstedt of Sweden, who in 1758 first pointed out the distinction between rocks and minerals which now enters into the fundamental definition of the latter. He based his system upon chemical proper- ties. Romé de Lisle, in 1772-83, made the first systematic effort to apply the principles of crystallography to the science, though Nicho- las Steno had in the preceding century pointed out the fundamental fact that, with all their variations of form, the faces of crystals pre- served the same angular relations; and later Gulielmini discovered that cleavage gave con- stant forms. Werner of Freiberg published in 1774 a work on the “External Characters of Minerals,” in which he gave a much needed precision to the descriptive part of mineralogy, and retained the “natural affinity,” or chemi- cal composition, as the grand basis of classi- fication, though the mode of carrying out the idea recalls Avicenna’s work, seven centuries before. Werner also made four classes, earths, salts, inflammables, and metals, the first named being further divided into silicious, argilla- ceous, calcareous, and talcose; but the silicious division was made to include nearly all the hard minerals, without regard to composition. It was under this form that mineralogy was introduced to English students by Kirwan in’ 1784. The science now began to receive con- stant and important additions, the three modes of determination which still remain criteria (crystalline form, chemical composition, and physical characters) being each in turn ele- vated to a position of dominant importance. In 1783 De Lisle published a second edi- tion, in which crystallography received in- creased attention; and in 1801 Haiiy’s 77aité de minéralogie appeared, in which crystallog- raphy was made the principal agent in the de- termination of mineral species. He rediscov- ered the importance of cleavage, and afforded 589 a mathematical explanation of the phenome- non, referred the numerous secondary forms to a fundamental molecule of invariable shape, and reduced all crystal forms to six systems, based upon the following forms: 1, the regular octahedron; 2, the rhombohedron; 3, octahe- dron with a square base; 4, the octahedron with a rectangular base; 5, the prism with a symmetrical oblique base; and 6, the prism with an unsymmetrical oblique base. By ref- erence to the article CrysraLLocrapny it will be seen that, though the details of his system have been changed, the axial differences recog- nized by him remain. In his system chemical composition and physical characters were en- tirely subordinate to crystallographic habits. He made four classes: 1, free acids; 2, sub- stances which are metallic but do not present a metallic appearance, in which were included the eight genera, lime, barytes, strontites, magnesia, alumina, potash, soda, and ammonia, together with the silicates; 8, metallic sub- stances; 4, unmetallic combustible substances. In 1804 Mohs of Vienna published a descrip- tion of a collection of minerals, in which the external characteristics alone were used to describe them. In 1820 he expanded his ideas into a ‘‘ Natural History” system, the object of which was to group together all minerals which presented similar characters in regard to taste, lustre, gravity, streak, hardness, &c. No tests were used which destroyed the mine- ral, such as acids and fusion. Each group was gradually reduced by a process of comparison and exclusion to its individual members. This method was borrowed from other fields of science, and its nomenclature repeated the classes, orders, and genera of zodlogy and botany. The system, though it has proved to be entirely unfitted to this science, did much good by requiring greater precision in descrip- tion, bringing out many true relationships be- tween species, and discarding unimportant dis- tinctions which were flooding the science with false species. It is still used, with modifica- tions, in mineralogical keys which are con- structed for the use of young students, and persons little versed in the study. Mohs’s. classification included three classes: class 1 contained four orders, gas,.water, acid, and salt, and included bodies which have taste, give no bituminous odor, and have a gravity below 38°8; class 2, bodies which have no taste, but are of specific gravity above 1°8; class 3, fluid bodies with bituminous odor, and taste- less bodies of specific gravity below 1°8. This system was received with great favor, and not only held sway in Germany for 40 years, but extended into England and America. Two of the modes of determining minerals, crystalline form and physical characters, had now received the attention of able advocates, and were in rapid process of development by mineralogists throughout the world. The third, that which stands at the head in the present system, is chemical composition, which received from 590 Berzelius some time before 1816 (French edi- tion, 1819) its first decisive impetus. That chemist looked upon mineralogy as properly a mere branch of his own favorite science. He explained mineral as he explained other com- pounds on the dualistic theory, according to which they were made up of an electro-posi- tive and an electro-negative element or radical. His classification included two great groups, the first composed of native metals and bina- ries, not containing oxygen; and the second of electro-positive and electro-negative oxides, hydrates, silicates, alumina-silicates, tungstates, borates, carbonates, &c.; each acid, or each electro-negative element, having its own divi- sion as now. He introduced into the science the exact methods of chemistry, and urged the necessity of constant analysis, so that the ex- isting mode of mineralogical study is known as the Berzelian, improved by the addition of crystallography and the special study of ex- ternal marks.— While the science was thus re- ceiving constant accessions in Germany and Sweden, the French mineralogists were also working out various schemes of classification. Unable to produce a harmonious arrangement on any simple plan, they adopted a mixed system. Brongniart, in his Zraité élémen- taire (1807) and Tableau des espéces miné- rales (1833), classified the earthy minerals ac- cording to the negative element, and the me- tallic ones according to the positive element. He had two grand divisions, the inorganic and organic. In the first were included 20 ‘ min- eralizers,” such as oxygen, hydrogen, and sul- phur; the second class, métaux autopsides, con- tains true metals and their compounds; while the third class, métaux hétéropsides, contains other bases and forms two orders, one of com- pounds without, and one of those with an acid. Beudant, in his Traité de minéralogie (1824), endeavored to restrict the classification of min- erals to their chemical reactions. He formed three grand genera, based upon the character- istic negative element. Gazolytes contained a negative element capable of forming stable gaseous compounds with oxygen, hydrogen, or fluoric acid, and included carbon, silicon, chlo- rine, &c. Leucolytes contained a negative ele- ment which does not form such stable gaseous compounds, but gives colorless solutions with acids, Chroicolytes, on the other hand, give colored solutions with acids. Though this ar- rangement supplanted that of Haiiy, the group- ings of minerals formed under it were of the most heterogeneous character. Dufrénoy in 1844 published the first edition of a treatise in which a mixed system was again presented. He recognized natural groups in some of which the bases bore the important part, and in others the acids. In these mixed systems the bases are the real ground of classification, but the importance and number of the silicates, and the fact that the base plays a secondary part in most of them, compel an exception to be made in their favor in any scheme where the MINERALOGY bases are made the characteristic elements. The French school has always been distinguished for eminence in crystallographic and physical researches, the latest development of which is to be seen in Descloizeaux’s admirable investiga- tions into the optical properties of minerals, by which the recognition of many obscure species has been greatly aided. The mixed classifica- tion of the French, however, has been rejected, partly for its incongruity and partly because the new chemical methods have been altogeth- er in favor of the Berzelian mode.—In 1840 Gustav Rose of Berlin published a work on crystallography, in which the six crystalline systems formed the general divisions, in each of which the minerals were arranged in genera and species, according to their chemical com- position. In 1852 he published his A7rystallo- chemisches Mineralsystem, in which the chem- ical composition is used both to determine the general arrangement and to fix the individ- ual species, which are grouped into genera by their crystallographic characters. His method of arrangement was: 1, simple bodies; 2, com- pounds of sulphur, selenium, tellurium, arse- nic, and antimony; 3, compounds of chlorine, fluorine, iodine, and bromine; 4, oxygen com- pounds. Rammelsberg, in several works, and especially in his Handbuch der Mineralchemie, has paid great attention to the constitution of minerals, their relationships, the laws regula- ting their formation, and similar questions. K. G. Bischof, in his Lehrbuch der chemischen und physikalischen Geologie, entered into the genesis of minerals, and, though his views have been frequently rebutted, he exerted a marked influence upon the progress of the science. Germany continues to be one of the most ac- tive fields for the advancement of this science. Tschermach, Leonhardt, Hessenberg, and oth- ers issue periodical reviews of progress, miner- alogical magazines are published, and a great number of works on the science in all its branches are constantly issued. The German school now probably includes a greater num- ber of distinguished names than any other, though the science is rapidly advancing in all countries.—In the United States mineralogy had been but little cultivated before the begin- ning of the present century. A few collections of minerals had been brought from Europe, but the treatises of Kirwan and Jameson were almost the only works that could be consulted with reference to them, and very few were acquainted with these. In 1816 Prof. Parker Cleaveland of Bowdoin college published ‘* An Elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geol- ogy,’’ which was well received both in Ameri- ca and in Europe as a work of scientific impor- tance, and particularly useful for the informa- tion it afforded respecting American miner- als. The author, following the general plan of Brongniart at that time, sought to unite with the precise descriptive language of the system of Werner the chemical classification of the French mineralogists. His work was MINERALOGY for many years highly popular, and indeed al- most the only one in use by American mineral- ogists. A second edition appeared in 1822. Ten years afterward Prof. Charles U. Shepard |. of New Haven published the first part of his ‘‘ Treatise on Mineralogy,” and in 1835 the sec- ond part. He adopted the arrangement of Mohs with little variation, making the natural history or external characters as far as possi- ble the means of determining the species. He however appended a table in which the miner- als were also arranged according to their chem- ical affinities. Francis Alger of Boston repub- lished the then recent ‘‘ Treatise on Mineral- ogy” prepared by Robert Allan from Phillips’s ‘‘ Mineralogy,” enlarging it by numerous no- tices of American minerals and of recent dis- coveries. Like the last named work, it was particularly interesting for presenting many new facts in the development of the mineralo- gy of the United States. Prof. James D. Dana of New Haven commenced in 1887 the publi- cation of his treatises upon mineralogy by the issue of the first edition of ‘‘ A System of Min- eralogy, including an extended Treatise upon Crystallography.” Five editions of this-work have been published. In those of 1837 and 1844 the natural history system of Mohs was extended and solidified, but in the third edition this was abandoned, and the author presented his work with a classification that claimed no inherent virtue but convenience. He how- ever suggested a combination of the chemical and crystallographic methods, which in 1854 was embodied with alterations in a fourth edi- tion. During the 17 years covered by this work the views of the English school of chem- ists were steadily gaining ground, and when the fifth edition appeared in 1868 the ‘new chemistry ” with its rational symbols and its new tenets had been established, and was used by the side of the old method in this work. The system employed is explained in the fore- going part of this article. No attempt is made to afford students a tabular arrangement by which the name of given specimens can be as- certained. The book bears to minerals a rela- tion similar to that which a dictionary bears to words; it gives accurate definitions of them on a systematic plan. Great care has been taken with these definitions, and in fact Prof. Dana’s method does not commence with the system, but with the species. When all the facts of composition, crystal form, and phys- ical characters of a species are known, it can readily be placed with those of a similar kind, and minerals which resemble each other in these things necessarily form a group. Partial differences give rise to sub-groups, and resem- blances between entire groups cause the for- mation of divisions. The system is therefore strictly rational. In other respects Dana’s fifth edition is a great advance upon any previous publication in this branch of science. He has adopted fixed rules for nomenclature and or- thography, collated almost every work for sy- 559 VOL, xI.—38 MINERAL SPRINGS 591 nonymes, which are arranged in chronologicas order, and performed much similar work in a way that seems to leave nothing to be desired. MINERAL POINT, a city and the capital of Iowa co., Wisconsin, on a branch of the Peca- tonica river, 47 m. W. S. W. of Madison, and at the terminus of the Mineral Point rail- road (83 m. long), connecting it with thé IIli- nois Central railroad at Warren, Ill.; pop. in 1870, 3,275. It is in the midst of a rich min- eral region, yielding lead, copper, and zinc, and contains several hotels, numerous stores, foun- deries, smelting works for lead and zinc, and breweries. There are eight public schools, in- cluding a high school, three private schools, two weekly newspapers, and five churches. MINERAL SPRINGS, those which are impreg- nated with minerals to such a degree as to pos- sess medicinal properties. They differ from ordinary springs by the larger volume of gases, especially carbonic acid gas, the mineral ingre- dients held in solution in their waters, and the peculiar smell, taste, and sometimes color im- parted by the solution; many of them also by a higher temperature, called thermal springs (‘75° to 212° F.). Some issue from the earth like fountains, foaming and steaming; others with a continuous or intermitting noise, gurgling and hissing. Like ordinary springs, they are found at every altitude and in all climates. Some break at boiling heat through a crust of ice and snow, and some issue with almost icy cold- ness from among luxuriant vegetation. Many sulphur springs destroy all vegetation around them; others (calcareous) cover organic struc- tures with incrustations. The waters of min- eral springs are used both for drinking and bath- ing; their vapors for baths; and their spray, with the evolved gases, for inhaling. The an- cients ascribed supernatural properties to min- eral springs, and their priests, especially those of Asculapius, placed their sanctuaries near them, as at the alkaline springs of Nauplia and the gas springs of Dodona. Such places were pro- vided not only with baths, hospitals, and med- ical schools, but also with theatres and other resorts for amusement, and were designed both for worship and for the cure of the sick. Ac- cording to Strabo, the springs of Hierapolis imparted a red color to the roots of trees and shrubs, and the juices of the latter mixed with the water produced a purple dye. Philostra- tus says that the Greek soldiers wounded in ~ the battle on the Caicus were healed by the waters of Agamemnon’s spring near Smyrna. The pythoness was thought to be inspired by bathing in the Castalian spring and inhaling the vapors of the steaming cave at Delphi. Josephus relates that Herod sought relief from his terrible disease in the thermal springs of Callirrhoé. The springs of Tiberias, which have a temperature of from 86° to 130° F., were used by the Romans, and are still fre- quented by patients from all parts of Asia Minor. The most celebrated bathing place of the Roman empire was the hot sulphur springs. 592 MINERAL (190° F.) of Bais on the gulf of Naples, Is- chia, once covered with the villas and palaces -of the Romans, still maintains the reputation of its thermal waters and vapor baths. The Romans discovered many of the most impor- tant thermal springs of Europe, and used them as army stations; among them are Baden- Baden, Wiesbaden, Bath, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Spa. Carlsbad was named after Charles IV., who is said to have discovered the Sprudel in 1347 or 1358, while hunting.—Many theories, both natural and supernatural, have been pro- pounded by philosophers in all ages to ac- count for the origin and properties of mineral springs; but modern analytical chemistry has dissolved the demons of the ancients and the wild spirits of Paracelsus (De Aquis Minerali- bus, 1562) into our familiar carbonic acid gas. Van Helmont’s discovery of the alkalies and fixed air in the early part of the 17th century was the first step in this direction. Arago proved that the temperature of the springs corresponds with the depth from which they rise. Bergman, Berzelius, Bischof, and Struve showed that their composition depends on the amount of carbonic acid and other gases which are dissolved in them, consequent on their vol- canic origin and on the nature of the rocks which they permeate; and Faraday, Liebig, and other chemists established the principles of a thorough analysis. During the past 50 years ‘Many mineral springs have been discovered, ‘and all of note have repeatedly been analyzed. ‘These analyses vary in their results with the changes to which the various springs are from time to time subject. The waters of the Kis- singen Rakoczy spring lost 224 per cent. of mineral ingredients from 1830 to 1855, and underwent a change also in their relative pro- portions. At the time of the great earth- quake of Lisbon (1755) the Carlsbad springs ceased flowing for three days.—Of the mine- ral springs of Europe, France contains about 900; Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, about 2,500; England, over 100; Spain, 1,200; Por- tugal, 200; and Italy, 800, two thirds of which are in Tuscany. The most important constitu- ent of the waters of all spas, as mineral springs are frequently called, is carbonic acid gas, with which the muriated and muriated-alkaline springs are impregnated most, the saline, alka- line, and bitter waters least. According to _ Liebig, Kissingen Rakoczy contains in 16 oz. 41°77 cubic inches of carbonic acid, Carls- bad 14, and Kissingen bitter water only 5-9. Nitrogen gas occurs especially in hot sulphur springs, with carburetted hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphuretted hydrogen as lesser gaseous ingredients. Mineral springs are classified as follows, according to the salts from which they derive their specific importance. 1. Cha- lybeate or Ferruginous Springs. The distin- guishing characteristic of these is the presence of iron dissolved as a bicarbonate, or in the in- ferior ones as a sulphate. Their other ingre- dients are bicarbonates of manganese, soda, SPRINGS lime, and magnesia, chloride of sodium, sul- phate of soda and of potash, &c. Their water, which has an inky taste, is most effective as u remedy for anzwmia and chlorosis, by aug- menting the number of blood globules and their hematine, and by diminishing the phos- phoric acid in the urine. The strongest cha- lybeate spring, Schwalbach in Germany, con- tains much carbonic acid gas, and, with the exception of iron, only a small amount of sa- line ingredients. Other chalybeates of note are Pyrmont, Altwasser, Reinerz, Brickenau, Steben, Driburg, Wildungen, Cudowa, and Franzensbad, in Germany and Cisleithan Aus- tria; Buzids, in Hungary; St. Maurice, in the Engadine, Switzerland; Spa, in Belgium; Pas- sy, Forges, Bussang, Plombiéres, Bagnéres- d’Adour, and Dinant, in France; Cheltenham, Tunbridge, Scarborough, and Wells, in Eng- land; Bibiana, Catarina, Staro, and La Croix, in Italy; and Loka, in Sweden. In the Uni- ted States the most noted chalybeate springs are: Schooley’s Mountain springs, Morris co., N.J.; Fry’s soda spring, near Mt. Shasta, Cal. ; Stafford springs, Tolland co., Conn. ; Greencas- tle springs, Putnam co., Ind. ; Catoosa springs, Catoosa co., Ga. ; Schuyler county springs, IIL. ; Owasso springs, Shiawassee co., Mich.; Coo- per’s well, Hinds co., Miss.; Beersheba springs, Grundy co., Tenn.; Rawley springs, Rocking- ham co., Va.; and Bayley springs (alkaline- chalybeate), Lauderdale co., Ala. Dr. Walton includes also in this class the so-called alum waters of Virginia, viz.: the Rockbridge, Pu- laski, and Bath alum springs; Stribling springs in Augusta co.; Church Hill alum springs, near Richmond; Bedford alum springs, near New London; and Variety springs in Augusta co. ; also the Oak Orchard acid springs, Genesee co., N. Y., and the Tuscarora sour springs, Wentworth, co., Canada. He also names, as calcic-chalybeate waters, the sweet chalybeate springs, Alleghany co., Va.; Montvale spring, Blount co., Tenn.; and Hot Red springs (103° F.), Utah. Many iron waters are strongly im- pregnated with saline or alkaline chalybeates, and will be mentioned in speaking of saline and alkaline springs. 2. Muriated Springs. In these there is an excess of chloride of sodium and of carbonic acid gas, and they are mainly diuretic, or, according to Hanbury Smith, tonic and aperient, and effective in scrofulous and abdominal diseases, chronic rheumatism, and cutaneous complaints. According to Liebig, 16 oz. of Kissingen Rakoczy, the representa- tive water of this class, contains chloride of sodium 44°7 grains, chloride of potassium 2°2, chloride of lithium 0°15, magnesium 2°33, bro- mide of sodium 0-064, nitrate of soda 0°07, sul- phate of magnesia 4°5, sulphate of lime 2°99, carbonate of magnesia 0°13, carbonate of lime 8:1, protoxide of iron 0°24, phosphate of lime 0-048, silica 0°99, ammonia 0°007, and traces of iodide of sodium, borate of soda, &c. Springs allied to it are Rodna in Transylvania, Hom- burg (muriated-chalybeate), the tepid waters of MINERAL SPRINGS Soden, and the thermals of Baden-Baden and Wiesbaden, in Germany. Diseases of the skin and scrofula are cured by the muriated saline or brine springs, of which the principal are: Rehme, Nauheim, Salzungen, and Creuznach, in Prussia; Ischl and Hall, in Austria; Rei- chenhall, in Bavaria; and Bourbonne-les-Bains, Bourbon-Lancy, Bagnolles, St. Honoré, Cler- mont-Ferrand, St. Laurent-les-Bains, and oth- ers, in-France. The most celebrated muriated saline springs in the United States are those of Saratoga (49° to 51° F.), Congress water having about the strength of Kissingen Rakoczy, but a milder taste, while the Hathorn spring con- tains more chloride of sodium. Some of the springs are chalybeate, others sulphurous or iodincus, and all are highly charged with car- bonic acid gas. The Saratoga Seltzer resembles the celebrated Seltzer (properly Selters) in Germany; and the Geyser, bored in 1870, is so highly charged with carbonic acid gas that it foams like soda water when drawn from a faucet. The following analysis of one pint each of the water of four of the principal springs at Saratoga is from Dr. Walton: CONSTITUENTS. Lhe, Congress. | Hathorn. | Geyser, grains grains. grains. grains. Carbonate of soda...... 8°024 | 0°984 | 0°372 | 6°17 ce magnesia,.| 4°069 9°019 | 18°072 | 10°322 < irons. 7 .ck 0°185 | 0°081 0-101 0-089 o limes... 11°448 | 12°449 | 14°815 | 14-793 “ lithia..*® Ob WA OEBIAT te 0°549 ae strontia...| trace. trace. trace, 0°041 ae baryta.....| 0°050 0°095 0°178 0°206 Chloride of potassium..| 1°122 | 1°006 | 1°199 | 8-079 Chloride of sodium..... 48°766 | 50°055 | 63°746 | 70°260 Sulphate of potassa..... 0°201 | O°111 | trace. | trace Phosphate of soda...... trace. | 0°002 | 0°001 | trace Iodide of sodium....... 0-011 | 0-017 | 0°025 | v°031 Bromide of sodium,.... 0°091 | 1°069 | 01°192 | 0°276 Aluioing: 2 cn ae 0°153 | trace. | 0°016 | trace ANCR TSC SASL oe on 0°283 | 0°105 | O°157 | 0°018 Pataler cease rite: 69°502 | 75°267 | 98-874 |105°804 Carbonic acid gas, cu. in. 51 49 | 47 5T There were also traces of fluoride of calcium, biborate of soda, and orgaric matter. Saratoga waters possess tonic and cathartic properties, and are therefore especially adapted to cases of dyspepsia, jaundice, calculus, and engorgement of the liver. (See Saratroea Sprines.) Allied springs are: Congress spring, Santa Olara co., Cal.; Rockbridge baths, Rockbridge co., Va. (74° F.); Capon springs and bath, Hampshire co., W. Va.; Artesian well, St. Louis, Mo. (2,199 ft. deep); Spring Lake well and Fruit Port well, Ottawa co., Mich., which much re- semble the celebrated waters of Creuznach, Prussia; and St. Catharine’s wells, Ontario, Oanada, also similar to Creuznach, but stronger. Plantagenet or Caratraca and Caledonia springs, in the same province of Canada, are fine types of iodo-bromated saline waters. 3. Sulphur Springs. These are impregnated with nitrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Cold sulphur springs are indicated as effective in catarrhal affections of the lungs and throat, and in hem- ‘brier co., W. 593 orrhoids. Such are Weilbach, Nenndorf, Eilsen, Langenbriicken, in Germany; Stachelberg in Glarus, Switzerland; Montmorency, La Roche, ' and St. Amand, in France; Harrowgate, Tyne- mouth, and Butterby, in England; and many in Italy. Thermal sulphur springs are recommend- ed in rheumatism and gout. Among these are Aix-la-Chapelle and Burtscheid (Kochbrunnen, 156° F.), in Prussia; Baden, near Vienna; Baréges, Bagnéres-de-Luchon, Eaux-Chaudes, Arles, St. Sauveur, Ax, Digne, and Aix-les- Bains, in France; Abano, Ponti, Sessame, Vol- terra, Viterbo, Pozzuoli, Oastellamare, &c., in Italy; Baden and Schinznach, in Switzerland ; Mehadia and Trencsény-Teplitz, in Hungary; the Caldas of Rainha and Gerez in Portugal, and of Orense and Lugo, in Spain; and Ram- lésa, in Sweden. The principal cold sulphur springs in the United States are: Alpena well, Mich.; Cold White Sulphur springs, Rock- bridge co., Montgomery White Sulphur springs and the Seven Fountains or Burner’s springs, Shenandoah co., Red Sulphur springs, Monroe co., and Greenbrier White Sulphur springs and Greenbrier Blue Sulphur springs, Green- Va.; Sharon springs, Schoharie co., Richfield and Cherry Valley springs, Otsego co., Avon springs, Livingston co., and Columbia springs, Columbia co., N. Y.; Bedford springs, Trimble co., Esculapia springs, Lewis co., Fox springs, Fleming co., and White Sulphur and Tar springs, Breckenridge co., Ky.; De Soto springs, La.; Green Cove springs, Clay co., Fla.; Red Sulphur springs, Walker co., Ga.; and French Lick springs, Orange co., Ind. The Sandwich springs, Ontario, Canada, are also of this class. Of saline sulphur waters, appli- cable especially to the treatment of dartrous or herpetic diseases of the skin, the most noted are: West Baden springs, Orange co., Indian springs, Martin co., Lodi Artesian well, Wabash co., and Lafayette well (55° F.), Tippecanoe co., Ind.; the upper and lower Blue Lick springs, Nicholas co., Big Bone springs, Boone co., Paroquet springs, Bullitt co., and Olympian springs, Bath co., Ky.; Blount springs, Ala. ; Massena springs, St. Lawrence co., N. Y., which resemble those of Eilsen, Germany; and Salt Sulphur springs, Monroe co., W. Va. Of calcic sulphur waters, prescribed in cases which other- wise would require sulphur waters, but which are complicated by disease of the bladder, the principal springs are: Chittenango springs, Madison co., and Clifton springs, Ontario co., N. Y.; and Yellow Sulphur springs, Montgom- ery co., Va. The principal thermal .sulphur springs in the United States are: Calistoga hot springs, Napa co. (about 60 springs, ‘varying from lukewarm to boiling hot), the Geysers, Sonoma co. (about 100 springs, varying from 97° to 195° I*.), Paso Robles hot springs, San Luis Obispo co. (112° to 122°, and allied to the waters of Aix-la-Chapelle), Santa Bar- bara hot sulphur springs (60° to 180°), and Agua Oaliente or Dr. Warner’s ranch spring (186° to 142°), San Diego co., Cal.; Louisville 594 MINERAL artesian well (763°), Ky.; Middle Park hot sulphur springs (111° to 116°), Summit co., Col.; Salt Lake hot springs (110° to 128°), Salt Lake City, Utah; Warm springs (90°), Merri- wether co., Ga.; Warm springs (96° to 98°), Bath co., Va.; and the Geysers or Warm Sul-. phur springs (96° to 104°), about 20 m. from Sitka, Alaska. 4. Alkaline Springs. The wa- ters of alkaline springs increase, by their ex- cess of carbonate of soda, the alkalinity and fluidity of the blood. Their action is diuretic, and they are efficacious in all affections of the kidneys, in catarrhs, in affections of the stom- ach, bladder, and abdomen, and in indigestion, jaundice, gout, and diabetes. According to Bauer, 16 oz. of the water of the Grande Grille (107°) of Vichy contains carbonate of soda 29°19 grains, carbonate of lime 1°92, ammonia 0:036, strontia 0°0178, magnesia 0°27, sulphate of potash 1°567, soda 0°9, phosphate of soda 0:032, and chloride of sodium 4°445. The Josephsquelle of Bilin, Bohemia, contains about * 23 grains of carbonate of soda in the same quan- tity of water. Other noted alkaline springs are Buda, in Hungary; Vals, Aix, Chaudes-Aigues, Néris-les-Bains, and Luxeuil, in France; Gies- hibel near Carlsbad, Fachingen, Geilnau, and the muriated alkaline or acidulous springs of Selters, Ems, and Salzbrunn, in Germany; Bris- tol, Buxton, and Dunblane, in Great Britain; Camarés, in France; Ischia, Asciano, and No- cera, in Italy. The principal constituents of the famous Selters and allied waters, used in acute catarrh and pulmonary affections, are chloride of sodium, carbonate of soda, and carbonic acid gas. The principal alkaline springs of the Uni- ted States are: Bladon springs, Choctaw co., Ala.; California Seltzer springs, Mendocino co.; Perry springs, Pike co., and Versailles springs, Brown co., Ill.; St. Louis springs, Gratiot co., Mich.; Sheldon springs (including the Missisquoi. spring), Franklin co., and Wel- don springs, St.. Albans, Vt.; and the newly discovered Des Chutes hot springs (148° to 145°), Wasco co., Oregon. 5. Alkaline Saline Springs. The waters. of these springs are most efficient in diseases of the liver and ab- dominai* plethora, obesity, gout, and calculus. Their representatives are the thermal springs (1174° to 165°) of Carlsbad in Bohemia, nine of which are in use. The famous Sprudel, which used to spout 18 to 20 times a minute, rising from 4 to 8 ft., contains, according to Berzelius and Bauer, in 16 0z., sulphate of soda 19°28 grains, chloride of sodium 7°97, carbonate of soda:10:13, carbonate of lime 2°37, carbonate of magnesia..1°369, carbonate of lithia 0°02, and. fluoride of calcium 0:024. To this class belong the curative-cold waters of Marienbad in Bohe- mia, Rohitsch in Styria, and the thermal Ber- | trich in Rhineland; - Dax, Bagnéres-d’ Adour, and Ussat, in France;.and Bath and Matlock, in England. In the United* States the- chief springs of this class are: Lansing well, Ingham co., Mich.; Ballston Spa, Saratoga co., and the Albany artesian well (500 ft. deep), N. Y.; Mil- SPRINGS hoit’s soda springs, Clackamas co., Oregon; and the thermals, Idaho hot springs (85° to 115°), Clear Creek co., Col., and Charleston artesian well (87°, 1,250 ft. deep), Charleston, 8. C. 6. Purgative or Bitter Waters. These waters de- rive their latter name from the taste of their chief ingredients, sulphate of soda (Glauber’s salts) and sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts). When taken in moderate doses they act as gentle purgatives and strong diuretics, and are useful therefore in all cases requiring active saline purgation. They are especially applica- ble to persons of robust constitution, with a tendency to abdominal plethora. The Kissin- gen bitter water contains, in 16 oz., sulphate of soda 46°51 grains, sulphate of magnesia 39°55, chloride of sodium 61:10, chloride of magne- sium 80:25, chloride of ammonium 0:02, and chloride of lithium 0°09. Friederichshall in Saxe-Meiningen, Pillna, Seidschitz, and Seid- litz in Bohemia, Epsom in England, Campagne- sur-Aude in France, and Ivanda in Hunga- ry, are famous bitter waters. Of springs of this class in the United States, Crab Orchard springs, Lincoln co., Ky., produce the Crab Orchard salts, which are made by boiling down the water. Estill or Irvine springs, Estill co., Ky., are strongly impregnated with sulphate of magnesia. Harrodsburg springs, Mercer co., Ky., aremodiftied in their laxative effect by equal amounts of sulphate of lime and of carbonate of iron. Bedford springs, Bedford co., Pa., are purgative-chalybeate. Allied waters are: Beer springs, Oregon; Midland well, Midland co., Mich.; and Elgin spring, Addison co., Vt. 7. Calcic Springs. These are rich in carbonate of lime (limestone), or sulphate of lime (gyp- sum), mixed with iron, and with saline, alka- line, and other ingredients. Bathing in these waters cures exanthema, indigestion, and rheu- matic and gouty affections. Drinking them, especially those rich in carbonate of lime and carbonic acid, such as the Wildungen water, proves beneficial in catarrh of the bladder, gravel and calculus, and in gastralgic dys- pepsia. The following calcic thermal waters are regarded as of great therapeutical value: Leuk (123°), canton of Valais, and Weissen- burg (tepid), in Bern, Switzerland; Lucca and Montione, in Italy; and in the United States, San Bernardino hot springs (100° to 172°), Cal.; Agua Caliente (130°), Mesilla co., N. M.; Sweet springs (74°), Monroe co., W. Va.; Berkeley springs (74°), in Bath, Morgan co., W. Va.; Warm springs (97° to 102°), Madison co., N. C.; and Bethesda springs (60°), Wau- kesha, Wis. (calcic-alkaline, efficient in urinary diseases). The principal cold calcic springs are: Wildungen, Waldeck, Germany; Contrex- éville, Vosges, France; in the United States, Butterworth springs, Kent co., Leslie well, Ing- ham co., Eaton Rapids wells, Eaton co., and Hubbardston well, Ionia co., Mich.; Yellow springs, Greene co., Ohio; and Gettysburg springs, Adams co., Pa. 8. Indifferent Ther- mal Springs. This class contains but small MINERAL SPRINGS amounts of salts and alkalines, the beneficial effect of bathing in their waters resulting main- ly from their increased temperature (75° to 160°). These baths are efficacious especially in paralysis, articular and muscular rheumatism, old wounds, enervation, and decrepitude. The most noted are: Gastein, in Salzburg, Austria (eight springs, from 87° to 160°); Wildbad, in Wirtemberg; Pfifers and Ragatz, in Switzer- land; Teplitz and Johannesbad, in Bohemia; Warmbrunn and Landeck, in Prussian Silesia; Schlangenbad, in Hesse-Nassau, applicable es- pecially to hysteria and skin diseases; Plom- biéres, Vosges, France, efficacious in gastral- gia, rheumatism, and dartrous diseases of the skin; Bains, in Alsace; Alhama de Granada, in Spain; and San Martino, in Lombardy. In the United States the most noted of this class are: Hot springs (57 springs, from 93° to 150°), Hot Springs co., Ark., which re- semble those of Gastein and Pfafers; Healing springs, Bath co., Va., applicable to all ulcera- ted conditions; Hot springs (102° to 108°), Bath co., Va.; Tuscan springs (76°), Shasta co., Cal.; Holston springs (664°), Scott co., Va.; and Lebanon springs, Columbia co., N. Y.—No complete analysis has yet been made of some valuable cold springs, such as the 16 Birchdale springs, near Concord, N. H., the waters of which are alterative, diuretic, and aperient; Parkersburg mineral wells, Wood co., W. Va., the principal constituents of which are sulphate of magnesia and sulphate of soda; Clarendon springs, Rutland co., Vt., used as a remedy in gravel, dyspepsia, and engorgement of the liver; Alleghany springs, Montgomery co., Va., and Shannondale springs, Jefferson co., W. Va., calcic waters. In F. V. Hayden’s “‘ Preliminary Report of the United States Geological Survey of Montana,” &e. (Washington, 1872), Dr. A. C. Peale, the min- eralogist of the expedition, gives a catalogue of the thermal springs met with, among which he enumerates 10 chalybeates, averaging 129°, near Ogden and the Great Salt lake, Utah; of calcareous springs, 5 in Lincoln valley, near Fort Hall, Idaho (75°), 6 in Madison co., Mon- tana, 16 on Gardiner’s river, Wyoming, and 1 on the east fork of the Yellowstone (111° to 142°); 15 sulphurous and acidulous springs (151° to 171°) in the same tract; 6 sulphur and chalybeate springs (181°) on Yellowstone lake; 60 salses or mud volcanoes and sulphu- rous springs (173° to 184°) near Mt. Washburn and Turbid lake, Yellowstone valley; 17 salses (175° to 178°) on Crater hills and Steamy point, Yellowstone valley; 49 silicious (155° to 166°) on Yellowstone lake and Madison river; a great number of carbonated or soda springs (50°) on Bear river, Utah; and 400 geysers and silicious springs (157° to 184°) in the geyser basin of the National park.— Uses. Mineral waters are considered applicable to the treatment of chronic diseases only, as a rule, and are to be used during the inactivity of the disease. Medical advice is indispensable MINERAL WATERS 595 in their selection and use, as change of air, diet, &c., are important coagents. Excesses of the table should be rigidly avoided during the treatment. The waters are usually taken before breakfast, the dose being gradually increased from one to four tumblers; but iron and alka- line waters may be taken several times a day, the latter with great advantage at bedtime. In some parts of France and Switzerland it is customary to drink while sitting in the bath, the usual time being two hours after breakfast. The stomach should be empty when the bath is taken. The regular temperature of the cold bath is 70° F. and below; of the warm bath, 92° to 98°; and of the hot bath, 102° to 110°. In the vapor and Russian bath the temperature is raised to 160°, and in the hot-air and the Turk- ish bath to 176°. The temperature of the body is so increased in these baths that the sudden transition to the cool shower bath and douche is soothing, and is followed under favorable conditions by copious perspiration. The min- eral mud bath (85° to 100°) consists of mud taken from the marshy ground about the source of mineral springs. It is used chiefly in dis- eases of the skin, chronic rheumatism, and af- fections of the joints. When the symptoms of the ‘bathing crisis’? appear, the use of mineral waters should be discontinued for a few days. A ‘‘small” or short cure requires three or four weeks, a “great” one five or six weeks. Mineral waters can be taken with benefit at any time of the year, but the season generally begins in May or June, and ends, ac- cording to the local climate, in September or October. After a season at the springs, the vineyards of Bingen, Diirkheim, Vevay, Mon- treux, and Meran are resorted to by many patients for an additional grape cure, the effect of which is generally cathartic.—For accounts of the mineral springs of Europe, see Durand- Fardel and E. Le Bost, Dictionnaire des eaux minérales (Paris, 1860); Althaus, ‘ The Spas of Europe” (London, 1862); and in German, the works of Garless (1848), Posner (18538), Lersch (1855-’60), Weller (1860, who also publishes a yearly guide, Wegweiser), H. Helft (1862), Braun (1869), T. Hirsfeld (Der Cur-Salon, 1866- 72), and R. Rentwig (Badezettung, 1869-72). For the springs of the United States, see Bell, ‘Mineral and Thermal Springs of the United States and Canada” (1855), and Walton, ‘‘ The Mineral Springs of the United States and Can- ada, with Analyses and Notes of the prominent Spas of Europe” (1878). MINERAL WATERS, Artificial, imitations of mineral spring waters, made by dissolving the salts which constitute the basis of the natural mineral waters in ordinary water impregnated with gases, especially carbonic acid gas. Ex- periments in their manufacture were made as early as the 16th century, but they have been produced in perfection only within the past 50 years, since chemical analysis has become an operation of minute exactness. The merit of the discovery of their principles belongs to 596 Berzelius and the German physician Struve; but the latter, who proved the practical value of the invention, and founded, as Berzelius did in Stockholm, the first manufactories or spas in Dresden (1818-’20), Leipsic, Hamburg, Ber- lin, St. Petersburg, and Brighton, is deservedly called the father of artificial mineral waters. By powdering the clinkstone of Bilin and sub- jecting it to the action of carbonic acid water, under a slight hydrostatic pressure, he pro- duced a mineral water identical with that of the natural spring of Bilin. Faraday and Lie- big pronounced his artificial Carlsbad and Friedrichshall bitter waters to be identical in chemical composition and physiological action with the natural waters which they represented. Artificial mineral waters have some advantages over natural waters. The supply of the latter exported from the springs of continental Eu- rope is inadequate for the demand, and most natural waters lose materially by bottling. The springs too are subject to many changes, and frequently vary in the quantity or the relative proportion of their mineral ingredients. Arti- ficial waters, on the contrary, are prepared according to analyses which represent the natural mineral waters when in their best con- dition. They are always the same in compo- sition, in consequence of the technical perfec- tion of their manufacture, and they produce the same general effect as the natural waters. They are more highly charged with carbonic acid gas than the latter, which insures their keeping in any climate and renders them more pleasant to the taste. The manufacture of mineral waters also embraces composition waters, devised for special medical purposes, and the beverages soda water, seltzer water, &c. The most important constituent of all these waters is carbonic acid gas, which is pre- pared by decomposing carbonates of lime and bicarbonates of soda with acids, especially sul- phuric acid, in a vessel called the generator. Carbonates of lime contain from 41 to 52 per cent. of carbonic acid; bicarbonates of soda, 47°62 of soda and 52°38 of carbonic acid. Dis- tilled water is used in making mineral waters, pure well or spring water for soda water, &c. Water absorbs nearly its own volume of car- bonic acid gas at 60° F., and the absorption is increased by reduction of temperature, increase of pressure, or both. The principal substances or salts used in the manufacture of mineral waters are comprised in the following groups: 1, chlorides of magnesium, calcium, strontium, and lithium, carbonate of lime and of magne- sia, and sulphate of magnesia; 2, the alkaline salts; 3, the salts of iron and of manganese. Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen gas can never be perfectly imitated, because the for- mation of this gas is a continual process of decomposition, originating from the reaction of organic matter upon the sulphates. In the construction of the manufacturing apparatus two different systems are followed: 1. The Geneva system, an improvement of Struve’s MINERAL WATERS original apparatus. In this the carbonic acid gas passes from the generator through purify- ing vessels or bottles containing partly water,. partly certain solutions of salts, and thence into the gasometer, out of which it is pressed by a pump into the mixing cylinder, where the water is impregnated with it. Between the pump and the cylinder is placed the repurgator, a cylindrical tube of strong sheet copper con- taining fine charcoal, in which the gas under- goes a final purification. The water is then impregnated with the gas by revolving a pad- dling shaft which passes through the middle of the mixing cylinder. The latter is provi- ded with a manometer which indicates the pres- sure of the gas, tubes through which the wa- ter enters, a safety valve, and a water gauge. Bramah’s apparatus is of similar construction, but has some improvements. In it the water to be aérated and the expanded carbonic acid gas are pumped in the proper proportions into the receiving vessel, where they are mixed and the aération completed. This system is more generally in use in England and France than in Germany. 2. The self-generator system, after which the apparatus of Ozouf, Gappard, and Savaresse are constructed. It dispenses with the pump and gasometer, the water being impregnated by the pressure of the gas itself. The generator which contains the carbonates is filled with hot water to a certain height, and a square cooling apparatus is therefore applied between the washing vessels and the cylinder. This apparatus is not so expensive as the for- mer, but is less recommended on account of the imperfect purification of the gas and its liabil- ity to explosion. The apparatus of Mr. John Matthews of New York, which is now widely introduced in Europe, is a combination of the Bramah and the self-generator systems, the mechanical devices of the former being greatly simplified, and the lia- bility to explosion of the latter being obvi- ated by a safety cap. This cap consists of a duplex disk, a, a nut, 6, screwed firmly against it, alead wash- er, c, to close joint on the generator bung, and an aperture, d, through which the gas escapes when the disk is ruptured by undue pressure.—Af- ter the mineral water is made, it is drawn from the apparatus into fountains (portable cylinders), siphons, or bottles, the faucets and filling and corking apparatus being so con- structed as to prevent the loss of carbonic acid. For use, the fountains, which resemble the mixing cylinder in construction, are placed as reservoirs under or behind the marble case on the counter. The case contains ice in a cooling chamber, through which the connecting pipes Matthews’s Apparatus. MINERAL WATERS from the fountains pass to the faucets in front. The business of furnishing aérated waters in portable fountains has greatly increased since the improvements made by Matthews in the apparatus. The fountains previously in use were superficially coated with a wash of tin, and the contents were sooner or later con- taminated by poisonous metallic salts. The Matthews fountains are composed of an inner container of pure sheet tin secured in a shell of fine cast steel. Although much lighter than the old style of fountains, the 15-gallon foun- tain weighing but 40 lbs., they will resist a pressure of 500 lbs. to the square inch; and the connections being made of solid tin encased in sustaining sheets, the water cannot be con- taminated. There are now 10,000 of these fountains in use, furnishing 4,000 places for dispensing aérated waters. The most perfect and elegant dispensing apparatus, in which the sirups are contained in portable glass tanks where they do not come into contact with any metal, are now made in the United States and extensively exported to Etrope. An impor- tant and novel improvement in bottling uérated beverages, an American invention, in which the bottle is closed from the inside by a glass stopper, has recently come into extensive use both in the United States and in Europe.— Soda water proper is a solution of carbonate of soda in water, impregnated with carbonic acid gas. Webb’s English soda water contains 15 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda in one pint of water. Chloride of sodium is fre- quently added. Bicarbonate of soda is some- times used for generating carbonic acid gas, and from this has arisen the popular use of the name soda water for carbonic acid water, or water charged with an excess of carbonic acid. German and American soda water, or what is called in France eaw de seltz, contains no soda. Priestley first produced it by pouring dilute sulphuric acid over carbonate of lime, and impregnating the water with the gas; a method which is still generally followed. Under the name of soda, carbonic acid water is mixed with sirups, and it forms a constituent of many of the American compound drinks. In Paris it is taken as eaw gazeuse with hock and clarets. Carbonic acid water improves the taste and increases the sanitary effect of drinks, is the best antidote for alcohol, and lessens the desire for spirituous liquors. It has a generally exhilarating and invigorating effect upon the system, essentially promotes digestion, checks too great acidity in the stomach, and is a much esteemed remedy in febrile diseases. Native wines are now extensively aérated in the Uni- ted States, and American sparkling wines pro- duced which will compare favorably with the best imported brands. This has been done only since the introduction of Matthews’s ap- paratus, in which the receivers and all the parts that come into contact with the wine are lined with pure silver, a metal which does not affect it unfavorably. Mineral waters have MINERVA 597 recently been brought from the most celebrated natural springs to New York in casks lined with pure tin sheets and aérated. Large quan- tities thus prepared are bottled or dispensed from fountains, and this trade is supplanting to a certain extent the manufacture of arti- ficial mineral waters.—The great therapeutical value of baths in carbonic acid water (cham- pagne baths) is now established. They pro- duce a pleasant burning sensation in the skin, give elasticity to the limbs, and are generally invigorating if used moderately. They are pro- duced by adding to 10 or 15 gallons of water at 110° F. an equal quantity of very strong carbonic acid water from a highly charged fountain, the escaping gas being finely divided by means of an apparatus constructed for that purpose. Chloride of sodium and of magne- sium are added for brine baths.—See Carl Schultz, ‘‘Review of the History of Mineral Waters” (New York, 1865). MINERSVILLE, a borough of Schuylkill co., Pennsylvania, on the W. branch of the Schuyl- kill river and on the Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven railroad, 4 m. W. of Pottsville, and 46 m. N. E. of Harrisburg; pop. in 1870, 3,699. It is surrounded by hills containing rich mines of anthracite, and has a national bank, a flour mill, saw mill, iron foundery, car factory, nine public schools, with a high school, a weekly newspaper, and four churches. MINERVA, called by the Greeks ArnEna, Pat- LAS, or Patras ATHENE, in mythology, one of the principal Olympian divinities. She was one of the most ancient religious conceptions of the Greeks. Jupiter, after a victory over the Titans, chose for his first spouse the goddess Metis; but an oracle having declared that the son of Metis would snatch the supremacy away from his father, Jupiter swallowed both Metis and her unborn ¢hild. When the time of birth arrived, Jupiter felt a violent pain in his head, and in his agony requested Vulcan to cleave the head open with an axe; whereupon Minerva sprang forth, according to the later accounts, in full armor, and with a mighty war shout. She first took part in the-discussions of the gods as an opponent of the savage Mars. She gave counsel to her father against the giants, and herself slew Pallas and Ence- ladus, the latter of: whom she buried under Mt. Etna. She was the patron of heroism among men, and aided the Greeks in the Tro- jan war. As a protectress of the arts of peace, she appears as a maiden, in many re- spects resembling a princely daughter of the early heroic period. She bears in her hand the spool, the spindle, and the needle, and is said to have invented and excelled in every kind of work proper to women. The agricul- turist and the mechanic were also under her care, and the philosopher, the orator, and the poet delighted in her protection. In all these employments she is the symbol of thought, the goddess of wisdom; and as such she was worshipped throughout Greece, and under the 598 MINGHETTI name of Minerva she was adopted by the Ro- mans. She was especially the national divin- ity of the Athenians, having in the reign of Cecrops contended with Neptune for the land, which she planted with the olive. On the Acropolis of Athens stood the magnificent temple of the Parthenon, dedicated to her, and containing her statue by Phidias; and the sa- cred festival of the Panathenswa was celebrated with great splendor in her honor. In the rep- resentations of art, as in the events of her life, she remains the goddess of pure reason, raised above every feminine weakness, and disdain- inglove. The helmet, buckler, lance, and egis were her attributes; and the olive branch, ser- pent, and owl were sacred to her. In the an- cient traditions she was represented as clothed usually in a sleeveless tunic, over which she threw a cloak, or folding peplus. MINGHETTI, Marzo, an Italian statesman, born in Bologna, Sept. 8, 1818. He early became known as a lecturer on political economy and advocate of free trade, and as a journalist. In 1848 he was for a short time minister of pub- lic works at Rome, but he left the service of Pius IX. to enlist in the Sardinian army, in which he rose to be major. He assisted Ca- vour at the congress of Paris in 1856, and pub- lished in 1859 Della economia pubblica e delle sue attinenze con la morale e col diritto. He was next secretary general in the ministry of foreign affairs, and subsequently, as a member and president of the assembly of the Romagnas, he was active in the annexation of those prov- inces to the dominions of Victor Emanuel. Afterward he represented Bologna in the na- tional parliament. Shortly before Cavour’s death he became minister of the interior, and retained that office for a short time under Ricasoli. From 1863 to 1868 he was premier and minister of finance; and after being min- ister to England he accepted in 1869 the port- folio of agriculture, and in 1873 succeeded Lanza as prime minister. In the elections of November, 1874, he was once more returned to parliament. He has been long engaged upon @ work on Europe before the reformation. MINGRELIA, a district of Asiatic Russia, in the lieutenancy of the Caucasus, forming part of the government of Kutais, bordering on the Circassian districts, Imerethia, Guria, the Black sea, and Abkhasia; area, about 2,600 sq.m.; pop. about 240,000, or, including Sua- nethi and Samurzakan (together 1,500 sq. m.), which are embraced in the same government, 280,000. The surface is generally mountainous, but slopes gradually to the south, particular- ly toward the Rion, its principal river. The climate is warm and damp, and fevers are prevalent. The soil is exceedingly fertile and vegetation rapid. The mountains are covered with magnificent forests, and much good land lies waste. The principal products are maize, wood, wax, and wool. Tobacco, rice, and mil- let are raised, and a good deal of silk, honey, and wine produced. There is an iron mine MINIATURE PAINTING and a smelting furnace, and in 1865 gold was discovered in the valley of the Ingur. The district is without internal improvement, and has a savage and deserted appearance. The in- habitants belong mainly to the Georgian race, but are generally inferior in appearance to the mountaineers of the Caucasus. The dominant religion is that of the Greek church.—Mingre- lia nearly corresponds with the ancient Col- chis. It was long a part of the kingdom of Georgia, was afterward independent under a line of native princes, and became subject to Russia in 1804; but its prince remained nom- inally sovereign till Jan. 17, 1867, when he ceded all his rights to the emperor of Russia in consideration of 1,000,000 rubles. On the W. coast the Russians have established the forts of Redut-Kaleh and Anaklia. MINH9 (Sp. A/ivo; anc. Minius), a river of Spain and Portugal, which rises in the Sierra de Mondofiedo, in the province of Lugo, Gali- cia, a short distance 8. of Mondofiedo, flows first S. and then 8. W., crosses the province of Orense, forms the boundary between the Span- ish province of Pontevedra and the Portuguese province of Minho, and falls into the Atlantic near Caminha, about 30 m. 5S. of Vigo. It is about 150 m. long, and is navigable for only a short distance from its mouth, being obstruct- ed by sand banks. It abounds in salmon and lampreys. Its principal tributaries are the Sil, which joins it on the left about 70 m. from its mouth, and the Avia on the right. The largest towns onits banks are Lugo and Orense in Spain. MINHO, or Entre Douro e Minho, the north- ernmost province of Portugal, bounded N. by the Spanish province of Pontevedra, from which it is separated by the Minho, N. E. by that of Orense, E. by the Portuguese prov- ince of Tras os Montes, 8. by Beira, from which it is separated by the Douro, and W. by the Atlantic; area, 2,807 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 971,000. It is a high table land inter- sected by several mountain ridges, running in a N. E. and S. W. direction, one of which rises to the height of nearly 8,000 feet. The prin- cipal rivers are the Lima, Cavado, and Ave, which flow into the sea, and the Tamega, an affluent of the Douro; there are also numer- ous smaller rivers and streams, and the valleys are exceedingly fertile and well cultivated. The principal productions are wine, millet, oil, flax, cork, oranges, lemons, maize, wheat, bar- ley, and oats. The well known wine called port from Oporto, whence it is shipped, is almost wholly made in this province. Numer- ous herds graze the pastures, and the province is famous for its pork. The sea and rivers abound with fish, the capture of which affords employment to many of the inhabitants. The principal manufactures are linen, hats, and cutlery. The population of this province is the most intelligent and prosperous portion of the Portuguese people. Capital, Braga. MINIATURE PAINTING, a species of painting on a small scale, executed with water colors MINIATURE PAINTING on vellum, prepared paper, or ivory, or in enamel, The word originated from the an- cient practice of writing the initial letters of manuscripts in miniwm or red lead, for the purpose of distinguishing the commencement of chapters or paragraphs. These rubrics, as they were called, gradually received many fan- ciful adornments at the hands of the illustra- tors, who added rich arabesque borders, and finally delicately executed little pictures illus- trating the text, to which the general name of miniature was applied. The taste for this spe- cies of ornamentation existed at a period con- siderably anterior to the Christian era. The ancient Egyptians illuminated their papyri with colored hieroglyphics; and from passages in Pliny, Seneca, and other classical authors, the art seems to have been familiar to the Greeks and Romans. The middle ages, how- ever, and especially the period extending from the 8th to the 14th century inclusive, witnessed its most perfect development; and the medie- val monks in the solitude of their convents found at once an amusement and a pious occu- pation in embellishing their missals, breviaries, and other sacred volumes. The illumination of missals was consequently for many ages the chief form in which miniature painting was - practised, although, as in the case of fresco and oil paintings, subjects other than Scriptu- ral or sacred were from the outset occasionally selected. The art seems from an early period to have been divided into two branches, the professors of the first being called méniatori or miniature painters, or illuminators of books; and those of the second miniatori calligrafi, or calligraphers. ‘‘To the first class,” says Mrs. Merrifield, ‘‘ belonged the task of paint- ing Scripture stories, the borders, and the ara- besques, and of laying on the gold and orna- ments of the manuscripts. The second wrote the whole of the work, and those initial let- ters, generally drawn with blue or red, full of flourishes and fanciful ornaments, in which the patience of the writer is frequently more to be admired than his genius.” Sometimes, however, the two branches were practised by the same person, and about the middle of the 14th century the execution of large illumina- ted initials adorned with various fanciful ob- jects and figures, such as men, animals, birds, and flowers, became a distinct occupation, the ornamentation usually extending in scrolls along the upper and lower margins of the page. The pigments employed were of the purest quality, and were applied with an admix- ture of white in the shape of body colors, the vehicle being some glutinous substance suffi- ciently diluted in water to leave the surface of the vellum dull and lustreless. The Vatican collection of manuscripts contains one of the most ancient specimens of classical calligraphy extant, a Virgil of the 4th or 5th century with 50 miniatures, besides many others of a some- what later date; and fragments of an illumi- nated Homer, which may also be ascribed to 599 the 4th or 5th century, are preserved in the Ambrosian library at Milan. The Byzantine artists particularly excelled as illuminators, and their manuscripts exhibit intricate arabesques of mixed foliage and animals, and the richest architectural fancies in the margins, although many of these are said to be repetitions of Romano-Christian works of the 5th and 6th centuries. The most elaborate exemplar of the school is the Menologium, or calendar exe- cuted about A. D. 1000 for the emperor Basil II., and which, notwithstanding one half of it is wanting, contains 480 miniatures on a gold ground, illustrating scenes from the lives of Christ and the saints, the history of the church, &c. The period extending from the middle of the 11th to the commencement of the 13th century was the richest in the history of the Byzantine school. Afterward the art rapidly deteriorated among them. Under the early Carlovingian kings of France, the transcription and embellishment of manuscripts were great- ly encouraged; and the Bibles of Charles the Bald, preserved in the imperial library at Paris, and in the Benedictine monastery of St. Calix- tus in Rome, are admirably illustrated. The English manuscripts are not inferior to the continental, and the benedictional of St. Eth- elwolf, executed in 963-7 by Godeman, a monk of Hyde abbey, is considered one of the purest specimens of early English art. The celebrated Bedford missal, executed in France for John, duke of Bedford, regent of France under Henry VI., and now in the British mu- seum, is one of the latest and richest specimens of the art of manuscript illumination. Among the most celebrated of the miniatori, who were also equally if not more celebrated in other branches of art, may be mentioned Si- mone Memmi, Giotto, Fra Angelico da Fiesole, Jan van Eyck, Squarcione, Girolamo dai Libri, Hans Memling, and Giulio Clovio. Memling was perhaps the best of all the illuminators; and of the industry of Giulio Clovio a memo- rable example is extant in his ‘‘ Office of the Virgin,” now in the royal library of Naples, the 28 miniatures of which are said to have occupied him nine years. With the invention of printing the occupation of the illuminator and calligrapher gradually ceased, although of late years the practice of embellishing books with illuminated borders and fanciful initials has again come into vogue. But modern in- vention has substituted for the toilsome efforts of the miniatori of the middle ages various rapid processes for printing designs in colors, of which Owen Jones’s publications afford some happy illustrations.—The term miniature painting is now applied almost exclusively to small portraits executed on thin sheets of ivory, which, on account of the semi-transparency of its texture, is preferred to any other material. This property of the ivory renders it necessary for the back to be protected by something per- fectly white, as the effect of the painting might be injured by any dark substance showing 600 MINIE through. Miniatures on ivory seldom exceed a few square inches in size. In England the art has been cultivated by an eminent line of artists from Holbein downward, embracing such names as Nicholas Hilliard, Isaac and Peter Oliver, Samuel Cooper, Hoskins, Flat- man, Gibson, Cosway, Ross, Newton, Thor- burn, &c., whose works are invaluable for the likenesses they afford of distinguished public characters. According to Dr. Waagen, ‘in no department have the English artists at- tained so high a state of perfection as in this.” Under the first empire the French had many excellent miniaturists, including Isabey, who not only painted on ivory portrait pieces con- taining many figures, but attempted with suc- cess historical subjects; Augustin, Guérin, Saint, Mme. de Mirbel, &c. The most emi- nent American miniature painter was Malbone, whose works are executed with great delicacy, and after the lapse of many years retain much of their original freshness. Of late years the introduction of colored or retouched photo- graphic likenesses has somewhat interfered with the profession of the miniature painter; but these, owing to their perishable nature, can never wholly supplant portraits onivory. Pho- tography, regarded simply as an auxiliary to the miniature painter, rather aids than injures him by the data it affords for greater accuracy of drawing and proportions. (See ENAMEL- LInG.)—See ‘‘ Original Treatises on the Arts of Painting in Oil, Miniature, Mosaic,” &c., edit- ed by Mrs. Merrifield (2 vols., London, 1849). MINIE, Claude Etienne, a French inventor, born in Paris about 1805. At an early age he en- tered the army as a private soldier, and, after serving several campaigns in Algeria, reached the rank of captain. He now began to study improvements in firearms and projectiles; and on the supposition that he was from this cause losing his efficiency as a military officer, his dismissal was determined upon. Through the influence of the duke de Montpensier he was retained in the service, and gradually several of his improvements in rifle balls, cartridges, and gun barrels were adopted. In 1849 he was decorated with the cross of the legion of honor; in 1852 he was promoted to the rank of major on the retired list, and soon after was appointed chef du tir, or instructor in the use of firearms, at Vincennes. In 1858 he re- signed this post, and was appointed by the Egyptian government to superintend a manu- factory of arms and a school of gunnery at Cairo. The rifle bullet named after him is said to have been the invention of his friend and instructor, Capt. Delvigne. It consists of an elongated cylinder, conical in front and hollow behind, and fitted with a cap of thin iron, which, by filling the grooves of the barrel as the ball is forced through, gives to the latter a precision and range of flight previously un- known to gunnery. This was the first effectual introduction of the principle of expansion into the manufacture of firearms. | | MINK MINIUM. See Leap, vol. x., p. 245. MINK, a small, fur-bearing, carnivorous mam- mal, found in the northern parts of America, Europe, and Asia, belonging to the genus puto- rius (Cuv.), in which are included the ermine and common weasels, and to the sub-genus lutreola (Wagner). The minks have one molar less on each side above and below than the martens (mustela), and are therefore more car- nivorous; the size is smaller, and the form more slender; the color is nearly uniform; the feet much webbed, and their pads large and naked, with the intervals not occupied by hairs. The common American mink (P. vison, Rich.) varies in length (from nose to base of tail) from 138 to 18 in., the tail being 8 to 10 in. additional; the general color is dark brownish, the tail nearly black, the chin white, but not the edge of the upper jaw; some specimens are lighter, even to yellowish brown; the head is broad and depressed, with truncated snout, short round ears, eyes small and far forward, long and rigid whiskers in four hori- zontal series; body long and vermiform, with long neck; short and stout limbs, with five- toed feet, armed with sharp claws; tail long and cylindrical, having on each side of the under surface a glandular cavity secreting a strong musky fluid, whence the generic name; The under fur is soft and downy, with larger and coarser hairs inter- mingled; the more southern the locality, the mamme six, ventral. coarser and stiffer is the fur. The mink is an active, destructive depredator in the farm yard, sometimes killing several chickens in a single night, though less sanguinary than the weasel; it now and then catches a fish on its own account, and frequently steals those left by the angler; it feeds also on small rodents, marsh birds, frogs, and crawfish. It takes up its residence on the borders of ponds and small streams, especially near rapids and waterfalls; it is an excellent swimmer and diver, and a good runner; it rarely climbs trees, like the martens, unless hotly pursued; when killed in the water, it almost always sinks. It is read- ily caught in box or steel traps, or in dead- falls, baited with the head of a bird; it is very tenacious of life, and most active at night. In northern New York the breeding season be- gins toward the Ist of March, while the snow is on the ground; the young, five or six in number, are born about the end of April; when taken young, it is easily domesticated. The fur of the mink was formerly considered hardly worth collecting, a skin selling for MINNEAPOLIS 601 about 50 cents; but change of fashion after- | trade of Minneapolis is important and con- ward brought it into vogue and made it very valuable; itis fine, but shorter and less lustrous than that of the pine marten or American sable. (See Fur.) The animal is very generally dis- tributed in North America, from lat. 70° N. to Florida, and from ocean to ocean. Some spe- cimens from the west are larger than the aver- age. In the northern states there is a smaller and blacker variety; the fur is dark and re- markably soft, and considerably more valuable than that of the common mink.—The Euro- pean mink (P. lutreola, Cuv.) is of smaller size, darker colored, with less bushy tail, and the edges of the upper lip white; it is a rare animal, with the same habits as the American species, and its fur is more highly esteemed; indeed it is often sold to the inexperienced for sable, and that of the American mink is gen- erally called by furriers American sable, though the latter belongs to the genus mustela and is properly a marten. MINNEAPOLIS, a city and the county seat of Hennepin co., Minnesota, on both sides of the Mississippi river, here spanned by four bridges, at the falls of St. Anthony, 14 m. above St. Paul by the course of the stream, and 8 m. in a direct line W. N. W. of that city; pop. (with- in its present limits) in 1860, 5,822; in 1870, 18,079, of whom 6,013 were foreigners; in 1874, estimated by local authorities at 32,000. It is built on a broad natural esplanade over- looking the falls and the river, which is bor- dered at various points by picturesque bluffs. The surrounding country is remarkable for its beauty. Numerous lakes, particularly to the west, dot the landscape. The chief of these are Cedar, Calhoun, and Harriet, 8. W. of the city. The celebrated Minnehaha falls, 3 m. below, attract large numbers of visitors. A cemetery association which was organized in 1871 has selected 128 acres between Lakes Cal- houn and Harriet as the site for a cemetery. These grounds are covered with groves of young trees, and command fine views of the lakes. The city is regularly laid out, with avenues running E. and W. and streets cross- ing them N. and §. They are generally 80 ft. wide, with 20 ft. sidewalks, and two rows of trees on each side. There are many substan- tial business blocks and elegant residences. The court house, city hall, two principal ho- tels, academy of music, opera house, and Athe- neum are noticeable structures. The city is _ supplied with water by powerful works, the streets are lighted with gas, and asystem of sewerage is in process of construction? The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul railroad has its terminus here. The St. Paul and Pacific, and the Lake Superior and Mississippi railroads, with the Minneapolis and St. Louis line, con- nect the city with the Northern Pacific rail- road, with Duluth, and with St. Paul and the diverging lines. A line of steamers in sum- mer runs from above the falls to St. Cloud on the upper Mississippi.—The wholesale stantly increasing. There are four large gro- ceries, doing a business of from $4,000,000 to $5,000,000 a year, several hardware and iron houses, and three large dry-goods stores. The total commercial business in 1873 amounted to $14,301,700; in 1871 it was $10,530,000. There were five national banks and six private and savings banks in 1878, with an aggregate capital of $1,025,000, and loans, discounts, and exchange to the amount of $14,682,400. The amount of freight forwarded by rail in 18738 was 392,480,329 Ibs.; received, 208,942,760 Ibs. ; being an increase over 1872 in receipts and shipments of 80,062,550 lbs. The falls of St. Anthony, having a perpendicular descent of 18 ft. and a total descent of 50 ft. within the space of a mile, afford abundant water power for manufacturing. The two principal items of manufacture are lumber and flour. There are 18 lumber mills, with an aggre- gate capital of $1,110,000; hands employed in 1878, 2,062; feet of lumber manufactured, 189,909,782; shingles, 114,554,250; lath, 32,- 843,150; pickets, 546,373; total value of pro- ducts, $3,850,000. At the close of 18738 there were 18 flouring mills, with 150 run of stone and a daily capacity of 7,370 barrels, and oth- ers in course of erection which would in- crease the stone to 184 run and the capa- city to 9,200 barrels a day. One of the mills, with 40 run of stone, is the largest in the country. The number of bushels of grain ground in 1873 was 3,545,000; barrels of flour produced, 646,000; pounds of feed, 57,050,- 000; total value of products, $4,842,920. At the two grain elevators 1,687,423 bushels of wheat were handled in 1878. 4s “fl | ii ify i she Pater wn eee “ys C il i mii LETT ATMA State Seal of Minnesota. ae yy boundary. The state is divided into 76 coun- ties, viz.: Aitken, Anoka, Becker, Beltrami, Benton, Big Stone, Blue Earth, Brown, Carl- ton, Carver, Cass, Chippewa, Chisago, Clay, Cook, Cottonwood, Crow Wing, Dakota, Dodge, Douglas, Faribault, Fillmore, Free- born, Goodhue, Grant, Hennepin, Houston, Isanti, Itasca, Jackson, Kanabec, Kandiyohi, Lac qui Parle, Lake, Le Sueur, Lincoln, Lyon, McLeod, Martin, Meeker, Mille Lacs, Morrison, Mower, Murray, Nicollet, Nobles, Olmsted, Otter Tail, Pembina, Pine, Polk, Pope, Ram- sey, Redwood, Renville, Rice, Rock, St. Louis, Scott, Sherburne, Sibley, Stearns, Steele, Ste- vens, Swift, Todd, Traverse, Wabashaw, Wa- dena, Waseca, Washington, Watonwan, Wil- kin, Winona, Wright, Yellow Medicine. St. Paul, the capital, near the E. border of the state, 400 m. N. W. of Chicago, had 20,030 in- habitants in 1870. The other cities, accord- ing to the census of 1870, were: Duluth, 3,131 inhabitants; Hastings, 3,458; Mankato, 3,482; Minneapolis, 13,066; Owatonna, 2,070; Red Wing, 4,260; Rochester, 3,953; St. Anthony, 5,018; St. Cloud, 2,161; and Winona, 7,192. Since the census St. Anthony has been annexed to Minneapolis.—The population of Minnesota was 6,077 in 1850, 172,023 in 1860, 250,099 (state census) in 1865, and 439,706 in 1870, in~ cluding 488,257 white, 759 colored, and 690 Indians. The calculated population on June 1, 1878, was 552,459. Of the total population in 1870, 285,299 were males and 204,407 females, and 279,009 were of native and 160,697 of foreign birth. Of the natives, 125,491 were born in the state, 10,979 in Illinois, 9,939 in Maine, 39,507 in New York, 12,651 in Ohio, 11,966 in Pennsylvania, and 24,048 in Wiscon- sin. The foreign population comprised 16,698 born in British America, 1,910 in Denmark, 1,748 in France, 41,864 in Germany, 5,670 in England, 21,748 in Ireland, 2,194 in Scotland, - -.— - - MINNESOTA 93 A NA a Saganaka . Lake \ DP ef ed) . bof . GrandMaraigas = teed goas = = ran ay incent ., Fork orth or, THE ay 2a, p> NORTHEASTERN PART = Lake(R IN OL = Same Scale 4 2, SS Ft.Frances = = 92 om a & iS RN i OL ¢ f ao Namekan R. ‘ He a SR inet ayes ape: Coy py " 22, ‘ - ‘ _ RESERVATION “ f-/ SS: : A ea OR S 2 : . 2. Why, all Mili: = Ne Z De nrg is Sas No) a ver XS Railroads——~ This type indicates a (ae on of 2,000 or over, ENG: ye 4 ( a rf \ - ~ . : fi P z (i ‘- = ——— X' OK A 4 SS ae (ep) On ao qh ‘. “! G — Bers Cage s ov, ] aN q ys w Ke Eu kat Sisé i 5 ap Edens ¢ %_ ps County Towns © S Weg R Wat 3 F PSE ay y \Y H i J AG)! 2 Moltk ‘ _— 6 me Qi e MN OBernadotte | +6 : lastatk B A VE SW ay 2 Winueaee Poet Sys r) i Al MINNESOTA 1,855 in Holland, 35,940 in Norway, 20,987 in Sweden, and 2,162 in Switzerland. The den- sity of population was 5°26 to a square mile. There were 82,471 families with an average of 5°83 persons to each, and 81,140 dwellings with an average of 5:42 persons to each. The increase of population from 1860 to 1870 was 155°61 per cent., being a greater percentage of increase than that of any other state except Kansas. The number of male citizens 21 years old and upward was 75,274; of persons from 5 to 18 years of age, 142,665; attending school, 96,793. There were 12,747 persons 10 years of age and upward unable to read, and 24,413 unable to write; of the latter, 5,558 were of native and 18,855 of foreign birth; illiterates, 7°99 per cent. of the population 10 years old and over; number of illiterates 21 years of age and upward, 18,484, of whom 8,195 were males and 10,289 females. The number of paupers supported during the year ending June 1, 1870, was 684, at a cost of $66,167. Of the total number (392) receiving support June 1, 1870, 126 were natives and 266 foreigners, The number of persons convicted of crime during the year was 214; in prison at the end of the year, 129, including 73 natives and 56 foreign- ers. The state contained 103 blind, 166 deaf and dumb, 302 insane, and 134 idiotic. Of the total population 10 years old and over (805,568), there were engaged in all occupations 132,657 ; in agriculture, 75,157, including 20,277 laborers and 54,623 farmers and planters; in profes- sional and personal services, 28,330, of whom 620 were clergymen, 8,556 domestic servants, 13,037 laborers not specified, 449 lawyers, 402 physicians and surgeons, and 1,754 teachers not specified; in trade and transportation, 10,582; and in manufactures and mechanical and mining industries, 18,588. The total num- ber of deaths from all causes was 3,526, being 0802 per cent. of the population. There were 459 deaths from consumption, being 7-7 deaths from all causes to 1 from that disease; 177. from pneumonia, 19°9 from all causes to 1 from that disease; 112 from diarrhcea, 108 from cholera infantum, and 103 from whooping cough. The number of deaths reported by the state authorities in 1872 was 5,228, or 1°035 per cent. of the population. Of the whole number of deaths, 36-07 per cent. were from zymotic diseases, 13°50 constitutional, 18°61 lo- cal, 10°04 developmental, 4°72 violent deaths, and 17:04 unknown. The excess of births over deaths was 9,734. At the beginning of 1875 there were 5,973 Indians reported in Minnesota, who were settled on reservations in the central and northern parts of the state. They consisted of seven bands of Chippewas, with three agencies at White Earth, Leech lake, and Red lake. These Indians have schools and are for the most part occupied in agriculture.—Lying nearly at the centre of the continent and occupying the most ele- vated plateau between the gulf of Mexico and Hudson bay, Minnesota forms the water- 603 shed of the three great river systems of North America: that of the Mississippi, which flows S. to the gulf of Mexico’; that of the St. Law- rence, which, connected with the chain of northern lakes, has an easterly direction to the Atlantic ocean; and that of the Red river of the North, flowing N. to Winnepeg lake, which has its outlet in Hudson bay. & Sod ° be Sai Ebaas) eeeee| S88 =F 8 BSS/o7s sm = Chicago, Dubuque, and Minnesota.... | Dubuque, Ia., to La Crescent......... 24 118 BA26 OLDE limuscceies< Chicago, Milwaukeo sand Stee alee tailpiece ace nciiciste nec clas cslelsisai «seus aye ayeie:cispe Bbae ate Seb O00 air enacts « V2 Lee CLOSSC sath aiaiw.ccusiclen sida eiete's Milwaukee, Wis., to St. Paul......... 130 O24 ee eet ey it mere micas Prairie du Chien... ccc. -~. a we i : Sa Macht. soy: ‘a SOD A Saale eka stds (Nl nteite cts endota to Minneapolis......-...... mists ll Mik ais ore tolooe Man Msi ata) ecais Branches. .......+.++sseseeeeess Mason City, Ia., to Ansthh Meee meraiel ee 10 40%. | Gateerenn [Neestet ccs Leased (Hastings and Dakota)..... Hastines to Glencoe)... :..sscc ee. s 75 an. 750,000 500,000 Lake Superior and Mississippi....... SOME aU tO LI ULUTN sees cere tora seis 156 it 5,125,000 430,854 Stillwater and St, Paul....| White Bear to Stillwater............. 18 aie A00;000 |) Bocce es Leased Minneapolis and Duluth, .| White Bear to Minneapolis........... 14 ae 200:000" eae mee Minneapolis and St. Louis.| Minneapolis to Sioux City Junction... 28 airs 92,0000) Venema ee Northern Pacific...... Arana ate Duluth to Puget Sound.............. 254 1,800 18,239,300 2,918,400 St Paul and Pacitiou. 0.5 ss se nese St. Paul to Breckenridge............. 217 oe 500,000 1,248,638 IBPANCHIAS Whe pied ses ee ae Sie cice hehe St. Anthony to Brainerd............. 75 125 1,468,600 940,000 BivwVineent extension....5- scaacss ss a St, Cloud tot. Vincents. 246. 0. os 85 GISs ide tees es 2,000,000 Bt. aul and Sioux City..2.-......:.-- BSE baul CO tre MINES yess isis ce cele. 122 nae 1,851,500 850,000 St. Paul, Stillwater, and Taylor’s Falls| Near St. Paul to Stiilwater..:........ al — 2 OU OIE lee atelerreests Rioux Oityvand St.Paul s 2222 cer ee: Sioux City, Ia., to St. James.......:. 66 148 OLD: (SOI we entaeen crete DOUNEerN: MiINNesOta..dcecescie sce ce =e Grand Crossing to Winnebago....... 168 as 8,825,000 450,000 WHERE NV ISCONSING tn eee eres ens eae e St. Paul to Elroy, Wis............... 4 LO Tog ely dere cto taca a. | Peers Winona and St. Peter.......1....... Winona to Lake Kampeska, Dak.... 288 826 400,000 710,000 1,888 —There were 32 national banks in operation in Minnesota, Nov. 1, 1874, with a paid-in capital of $4,448,700; total amount of circulation is- sued, $4,455,000; amount outstanding at that date, $3,393,501, the latter being $7 71 per capita. The ratio of circulation to the wealth of the state was 1°5 per cent.; to bank capital, 76°3 per cent. There were five savings banks, with deposits aggregating $843,498. The total number of fire and marine insurance com- panies transacting business in the state in 1873 was 45, including 2 Minnesota and 36 other American and 7 foreign companies. The number of life insurance companies was 35, of which only one was organized under the laws of the state—The present constitution of Minnesota was adopted Oct. 18, 1857, and the government organized May 22, 1858. The qualifications for voters are, that they be males, 21 years of age, who are or have de- clared their intention of becoming citizens of 560 VOL, XI.—39 the United States, and who have resided in the United States one year, and in the state four months next preceding. Indians and persons of mixed white and Indian blood, who have adopted the language, customs, and habits of civilization, are also allowed to vote in any district in which they have resided for the ten days next preceding. The legislature consists of 41 senators elected for two years, and 106 representatives elected for one year. They must be qualified voters and residents in the state one year, and in their respective districts six months next before the election. The election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November of each year, and the legislature meets on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January. Its sessions are lim- ited to 60 days. The executive department consists of a governor (salary $3,000), lieuten- ant governor, secretary of state ($1,800), trea- surer ($8,500), attorney general ($1,000), ali 608 elected for two years, and an auditor ($2,500), elected for three years. The judiciary com- prises a supreme court consisting of a chief and two associate justices (salary $3,000), nine district courts, and a probate court in each county, besides justices of the peace, who have jurisdiction where the amount in dispute does not exceed $100, and where the title to real estate is not involved. All judges are elected by the people, those of the supreme and district courts for seven years and the others for two years. The supreme court has power to issue all remedial writs, and appel- late jurisdiction of judgments and orders of the district courts. The latter have original jurisdiction of all civil actions within their | respective districts when the sum in contro- versy exceeds $100, all civil actions not within the jurisdiction of justices of the peace, and in equity; also appellate jurisdiction from courts of ‘probate and justices of the peace. Besides the above named state officers, there is a commissioner of railroads and a commis- sioner of insurance. In 1872 a state board of health was established, consisting of seven physicians appointed by the governor from different sections of the state, who are re- quired to make sanitary investigations, and collect and disseminate information concerning the causes of disease and the effects of locali- ties, occupations, &c., on the general health. The public institutions are also made subject to their sanitary inspection, and they are re- quired to report annually to the legislature. The state commissioner of statistics makes an annual report to the legislature, embodying the vital statistics of the state, agriculture, property, taxation, &c. The constitution pro- vides for the taking of a state census in 1865 and every ten years thereafter. The property, real or personal, owned by a married woman at the time of her marriage, continues to be her separate property. During marriage she may use and enjoy property and the earnings of her industry free from the husband’s con- trol and from liability for his debts. She may contract, and sue and be sued, as if she were single, the husband not being liable for her debts or contracts either before or during cov- erture, except for necessaries furnished to the wife after marriage. In sales of real estate by a married woman, however, the husband must jo in in the conveyance, unless he has deserted er for one year or she has cause of divorce against him. The causes of divorce are adul- tery, impotence, cruel and inhuman treatment, sentence to imprisonment in the state prison, wilful desertion for three years, habitual drunk- enness for a year, and cruelty. A married woman may make a will without the consent of her husband. A homestead comprising not more than 80 acres of land in the country with the buildings, or one lot with the build- ing thereon in any town, city, or village, is exempt from execution. The legal rate of in- terest is 7 per cent. in the absence of agree- MINNESOTA ment; but any rate not exceeding 12 per cent., if agreed upon, will be valid. Registry of births and deaths is required to be made by the clerk of every city and town. Minnesota is represented in congress by three represen- tatives and two senators, and has therefore five votes in the electoral college.—The ac- knowledged bonded debt of the state on Jan. 1, 1875, amounted to $480,000, which has been contracted since 1867 for the erection of build- ings for state institutions. (For an account of the disputed indebtedness of the state see p. 611.) During the year ending Dee. 1, 1874, the entire revenue of the state amounted to $1,112,812, and the expenditures to $1,148,150. The chief items of the receipts and disburse- ments are represented in the following state- ment: RECEIPTS. State. taxesicollectedn men senerateme nerkcieesieaie nits $575,164 Tax on gross receipts of railroad companies........ 129,907 st of insurance companies...... 23,505 Fees of insurance companies...................005 4,345 Taxes of telegraph companies..............200..-- 673 Statecsprison labor. 6. cmc he teres coke cie cee 9,634 Board of United States convicts...............-+. 6,772 Naleof state bonds 22 een otras emer eo nee 20,000 ts) sOL BCROOLIANGS some.eer, chien ensine aiut oe eee eee 63,196 Vor timberonischool lands a7. eee cee ee 23,428 “of university lands and timber............... 11,070 Interest on permanent schoolaund). ss suen eee eer 188,031 University funds )..aeeees 10,555 st © State deposits, aaucdeais ooo seve near ent ees 9,270 cc “ bonus railroad bouds,.. .-.eeecmenint 10,925 Internal improvement fund............5......00+s 17,413 DISBURSEMENTS. Legislative ci iierces oct aise letseratne nah sede eee eRee $69,310 FUR OCULLV. O03. casa dceaes eld Steers eae cate aie te anette 48,564 J UGICIAL...c 72, tote «nie relue nah tir mice esos 45,694 Public’ printing: spci\stacc)eesticice os aerate h cee abe ite 49,366 Support Of tate PrisOMs,. icc se odie eee este RENE se SOT of reform schooly 7... oa cies ene eee 80,000 cs Of soldiersi orphans)... ..ne< coer tencned 20,017 te OLdeat dumb and blind! ce nee eee 26,000 ee of hospital:for insanes). 2)... ly. cn anes see 84,500 “a of normal schoolsia).. sccm see ee ere 6, st OL Slate UNIVELPSI ty... mses aes sien ae 80,000 Erection of public. buildings ee. ee ene eee 188,099 Interestomstate bonGss,..cse cma cm esc cine vate meio 31,255 School ding apportioned... seme anseleedee ae ait 194,654 Purchase of bonds for invested funds.............. Appropriations from internalimprovement fund... 14,518 Hrontior rélietsimesristren silacsies jones +e sate netics 1,970 Interest coupons, bonus railroad bonds............ 10,562 Support of agricuitural societies................... 8,000 Geological survey?e.c.c}. Acetic ccc s ee cee eeeene 2,000 Teachers’ institutes and training schools........ .. 2,710 State: historicalasocieiye. cc ade esse einer cheer heres 2,980 The total equalized valuation of taxable prop- erty was $39,264,740 in 1861, $45,184,063 in 1865, $87,133,673 in 1870, $112,035,561 in 1873, and $217,427,211 in 1874. The great increase of the last year is due largely to anew tax law requiring property to be assessed at its cash value. The total for 1874 includes 13,- 741,404 acres of land, exclusive of town and city lots, valued with buildings at $113,410,- 620; town and city real estate, $58,994,798 ; personal property, $45,021,798. Besides this, 90,533 persons had each $100 of property ex- empt, or $9,053,300. The total taxes levied on this equalized valuation amounted to $4,102,- 835, including $507,369 for state purposes, $1,331,772 for common schools (a two-mill tax yielding $433,193 and a special tax of $898,- MINNESOTA 579), and $1,085,967 for county and $1,177,727 for town and city purposes. The rate of the state tax was 2°33 mills. Of the amount raised, $329,790 was for general revenue, $101,474 for state institutions, $50,737 for interest on the state debt, and $25,368 for the sinking fund. In 1873 a state tax of five mills was levied, producing $561,459. All lands belonging to railroads are subject to. taxation whenever sold or their sale is agreed upon. The number of acres of public lands surveyed up to Aug. 1, 1878, was 34,659,751, of which 10,990,795 had not yet been disposed of. The land not yet surveyed is in the northern part of the state.— The hospital for the insane at St. Peter will accommodate when completed 450 patients. The whole number under treatment in 1874 was 497, of whom 219 were women; number at the close of the year, 381; daily average, 341. Of those discharged during the year, 56 were recovered, 32 improved, and 4 unim- proved; there were 24 deaths. The current expenses amounted to $83,017. The institu- tion for the education of the deaf and dumb and the blind, opened in 1863, is beautifully situated at Faribault, and is free to all deaf and dumb and blind persons in the state be- tween the ages of 10 and 25 years. In 1874 104 deaf and dumb and 22 blind students were in attendance, and there were reported in the state 71 persons of the former and 18 of the latter class who were not in any institution. Seven teachers are employed in the deaf-mute and three in the blind department. The com- plete course of study embraces seven years, and comprises, besides the usual subjects, in- struction in industrial branches. Articulation and lip reading are taught to about 10 per cent. of the deaf mutes. The expenses for 1874 amounted to $30,818. The soldiers’ orphans’ home, at Winona, at the close of 1873 had 85 pupils, of whom 88 were girls. The total ex- penditures in that year amounted to $17,481. Unlike institutions of this class in other states, except that in Pennsylvania, the home is a pri- vate incorporated association, having an agree- ment with the state for the support upon spe- cified conditions of soldiers’ orphans who are destitute. Only those between the ages of 4 and 16 years are admitted, and they are dis- charged at the age of 18 or younger. There is no school connected with the institution, but the inmates receive instruction in the state normal school. The state prison is at Still- water, and will have when completed a capa- city for 300 convicts. United States military and civil convicts are confined here. In 1874 the average number of prisoners was 112, and the number remaining at the close of the year 134. The entire earnings of the prison amount- ed to $19,261, including $11,723 for convict labor and $6,499 for boarding United States military convicts. The cost of the prison after deducting the earnings was $17,618, or $158 27 for each convict. The labor of the prisoners is let out by contract.: The reform school at 609 St. Paul, opened in 1868, is intended for incor- rigible and criminal boys and girls under the age of 16 years. At the beginning of 1874 there were in the institution 107 boys and 13 girls, all of whom were receiving instruction in the ordinary branches and industrial pur- suits. Provision has been made for the estab- lishment of an asylum for inebriates.—The per- manent school fund is derived from the pro- ceeds of the school lands, which comprise every 16th and 36th section, constituting one eigh- teenth of the entire public domain. It is esti- mated that these lands will amount to 2,900,- 000 acres. At the beginning of 1875, 450,857 acres had been sold, from which and the sales of timber a productive fund of $3,030,127 had been realized. The income of this fund amounted to $189,826 in 1874, which was dis- tributed among the counties in proportion to the school population. The total distribution ($192,264) was based on the school population of 1873, 196,065, making the per capita appor- tionment 98 cents. The principal of this fund is protected by the constitution against diminu- tion; and it is estimated that when the remain- der of the school lands are sold the permanent school fund will exceed $15,000,000. The state superintendent of education is appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, for two years, and receives an annual salary of $2,500. County superintendents are appoint- ed by the county commissioners. The most important statistics for the year ending Sept. 80, 1874, are given in the following statement: Number of persons between 5 and 21 yearsold.... 210,194 is e < TG WO) CA GA seat 57,650 oe a attending school.............. 128,902 SEOlsChoOOliGIstrictareiac ecm siaeiea ae ek aca 8,266 He v SE TEDOLUNE se. es SOOO 8,114 Number of: winter schoolssnaceissaiceeiste saleiieeers 2,769 Average length in months,.............ccecees 8°55 ‘Dotalattendan cesta mess aciisicis sets cisrte ca cess 99,842 ASVOLAren els. Sas cic crs sia aetrtaralvelsiong sia'stea cea ere 71,362 Number of summer schools...........0...0220+20 2,718 Ayerageilengthiin: monthss <0 240. s)csleess ce « 8°11 Potallattendance sc. tye sus etaeet ssiners «+ sore arate) ae 81,781 PA VOVAE Ope come Mortars eielatncinley viacersisre ase ae ore! Eoatersaps 55,248 Number of teachers in all schools (male 1,884, fe- WALES. G45 Oy ee cy cps ase eras Gut ateee chevata aia « 5,582 Average monthly wages of teachers, male........ $41 46 af He ce He femisleceee $28 91 Numbetiotischoolshousegivmcsrtaa aucssiae ceteinecde 2,75 Value se | BY, rere bei baa. lena chee Apel os $2,288,700 Amount received from school fund, including DeMill tax, AMES, AoCh. oe ass -elped cist obits « eles cinists $362,708 Amount apportioned from permanent school fund $192,264 ~ “ received from taxes voted by districts.... $889,890 “ expended for school purposes, total...... $1,155,542 i oO for teacher's’ wageS............ $678,606 1 oo fOr SCHOO! NOUSES. 1) / /} s\\ ) If h Wz wn I) \ My) i} Y HUH / lh. \\\ Nyy, Un) Fig. 7.—Milling Machine. joint. The planchets being fed by hand into a tube or hopper in front of the machine, the lower piece in the tube is seized by steel feed- ers and carried forward and lodged in the col- lar between the upper and lower dies. At the same moment the lever is descending, and by the time the planchet is in position the toggle joint, brought into a vertical position, imparts to the piece a pressure which within the nar- row limits of its motion is almost incalculable. The immediate relaxation of the joint causes the upper die to be lifted, when the feeders, coming up with a second planchet, push away the one already coined. The planchet before being struck is slightly less in diameter than 620 the steel ring or collar into which it drops; but the pressure upon the dies causes the piece to expand into the collar and take from it the reeding or fluting of its edge. The coins, after hin ee, a I Fic. 8.—Coining Press. being carefully inspected by the coiner to elim- inate defective pieces, are counted and put up in bags, and delivered to the superintendent, by whom the coiner is held to the same ac- countability as the melter and refiner. The counting is performed with great accuracy and despatch by a counting board of very ingenious construction. The dies used in all the mints of the United States are made under the su- pervision of the engraver of the Philadelphia mint. The production of original dies cut by the engraver’s hand in steel is a work of great labor, and it would be impossible in this man- ner to supply the dies necessary for the coinage of the country. The original dies, being care- fully finished and hardened, are used simply to strike copies in softened steel, which is done by repeated blows under a powerful screw press. As the devices upon the original dies were sunk, these copies will be in relief. To prepare dies for coinage, therefore, this harden- ing and copying process must be repeated. A rigid system of registration and accountability is necessary to keep the old dies from falling into improper hands.—In the various opera- tions of the mint, particularly in those of the melter and refiner’s department, a large amount of precious metals will be temporarily lost by becoming absorbed in the melting pots and fluxes and mixed with the ashes and débris of the furnaces. These materials are carefully gathered up, and the gold and silver extracted MINT by various methods, The chlorination process of Prof. Miller of the Australian mint, for refining and parting the precious metals, has lately been introduced at the Philadelphia mint. Under the coinage act of 1873, pro- vision is made for the purchase of silver bul- lion, and the gain arising from its conversion into coin of a nominal value exceeding the cost thereof is credited to a special fund called the silver profit fund. In adjusting the weights of gold coins the following deviations cannot by law be exceeded in any single piece: in the double eagle and the eagle, one half of a grain; in the half eagle, the three-dollar piece, the quarter eagle, and the one-dollar piece, one fourth of a grain; and in weighing a number of pieces together when delivered by the coiner, the deviation from the standard must not ex- ceed 4, of an ounce in $5,000 in double eagles, eagles, half eagles, or quarter eagles, in 1,000 three-dollar pieces, and in 1,000 one-dollar pieces. In the silver coins the following de- viations must not be exceeded: in the dollar, the half dollar, the quarter dollar, and the dime, one and a half grain; and in weighing large numbers of pieces together when delivered by the coiner, the deviations from the standard must not exceed +2, of an ounce in 1,000 dol- lars, half dollars, or quarter dollars, and z}> of an ounce in 1,000 dimes. In the minor coins no greater deviation is allowed than three grains for the five-cent piece and two grains for the three-cent and one-cent pieces.—Du- ring the year ending June 30, 1874, the amount of gold deposits at the mints and assay offices of the United States was $68,861,595; silver deposits and purchases, $15,122,151. Deduct- ing the redeposits of bars made and issued by one institution and deposited at another, the deposits were: gold, $49,142,511; silver, $11,- 485,678. The amount in bars transmitted from the New York assay office to the mint at Phil- adelphia for coinage during the fiscal year was: gold, $18,704,101; silver, $2,613,636; total, $21,317,737. The distribution of the gold and silver bullion deposited and purchased, inclu- ding receipts, was as follows: ESTABLISHMENTS. Gold. Silver. Total. $3,060,829 | $27,947,282 2,868,608 | 24,934,789 Philadelphia mint....| $24,886,453 San Francisco mint...| 22,066,181 Carson mint.......... 2,213,042 | 2,875,117 5,088,159 Denver mint......... 962,804 26.969 989,773 New York assay office} 18,611,959 | 6,288,762 | 24,900,721 Charlotte assay office 8,68 74 8,763 Boise City assay office 112,466 1,792 114,258 —The directors of the mint since its organiza- tion have been as follows: David Rittenhouse of Pennsylvania, July, 1792, to July, 1795; Henry De Saussure of South Carolina, July 11 to Oct. 28, 1795; Elias Boudinot of New Jer- sey, October, 1795, to July, 1805; Robert Patterson of Pennsylvania, July, 1805, to July, 1824; Samuel Moore of Pennsylvania, July, 1824, to July, 1835; Rebert M. Patterson of Pennsylvania, July, 1835, to July, 1851; George MINTO N. Eckert, of Pennsylvania, July, 1851, to April, 1853; Thomas M. Pettit of Pennsy!- vania, April to June, 1853; James Ross Snow- den of Pennsylvania, June, 1853, to April, 1861; James Pollock of Pennsylvania, April, 1861, to October, 1866; William Milward of Pennsylvania, October, 1866 (not confirmed by the senate); Henry R. Linderman of Penn- sylvania, April, 1867, to May, 1869; James Pollock of Pennsylvania, May, 1869, to April, 1873 (date of reorganization, since superinten- dent at Philadelphia); Henry R. Linderman, April, 1873.—The present mint of France, a very complete and magnificent establishment, where probably the finest work of the kind in the world is done, was built in 1771 and the following years, and commenced work in 1775. In this mint, besides the operations connected with the public coinage and making of medals, the assaying of gold and silver is done for jew- ellers, who are obliged by law to have every article stamped before it can be sold. The coinage of gold from 1850 to 1872 was of the value of 6,517,507,385 francs, and of silver during the same period 848,821,208 francs. MINTO, Gilbert Elliot, first earl of, an English statesman, born April 23, 1751, died June 21, 1814. He was the elder son of the third bar- onet, Sir Gilbert Elliot of Roxburghshire, Scot- land, and entered the house of commons in 1774 as a liberal whig. He was ambassador at Copenhagen from 1788 to 1794, and was sent as viceroy to Corsica during the English occu- pation of that island in the earlier years of the war with the French republic. On his return to England he was raised to the peerage (Oct. 10, 1797) as Baron Minto. In 1799 he was appointed ambassador at Vienna. Onresuming his seat in the house of lords, he urged the union of Ireland with England, and subse- quently opposed the emancipation of the Irish Catholics. In 1806-7 he was president of the board of control for Indian affairs, and he was governor general of Bengal from 1807 to 1818, when he was made Viscount Melgund and earl of Minto (Feb. 24).—See ‘‘ Life and Letters of Sir Gilbert Elliot, first Earl of Minto,” by his grandniece the countess of Minto (London, 1874).—His son Girpert Evziot-Morray-Ky- NYNMOUND, second earl, born Nov. 16, 1782, was minister to Berlin in 1832, first lord of the admiralty 1885-41, lord privy seal in the administration of Lord John Russell (his son- in-law) 184652, and in 1847 was sent on a special mission to the Italian courts for the purpose of promoting liberal reforms. He died July 31, 1859. MINUCIUS FELIX, Marens, a Latin Christian writer, belonging, according to St. Jerome, to the first half of the 8d century. He was a native of Africa, but removed to Rome, and became distinguished as an advocate before his conversion to Christianity. He wrote an apol- ogy for Christianity entitled Octavius. It is a dialogue defending the Christians from the calumnies then in circulation against them, and | MINUIT 621 giving much information concerning the man- ners and customs of the times. It was at one time supposed that Octavius formed part of Arnobius’s treatise Adversus Gentes. Baldwin first published it in an independent form, and assigned it to its real author (Heidelberg, 1560). Editions of the dialogue were pub- lished at Leyden in 1709, and at Cambridge, Eng., in 1712; and it has been translated into German by Kusswurm (Hamburg, 1824) and Liibkert (Leipsic, 1836), and into English by Richard James (Oxford, 1836), MINUET (Fr. menviet), a graceful and stately dance, which had a celebrity in the last cen- tury equal to that at present enjoyed by the quadrille, the waltz, and the polka, but which is now rarely practised except on the stage. It is supposed to have originated in the French province of Poitou, and to have made its ap- pearance in the latter half of the 17th century. The first minuet, said to have been composed by Sully the elder, was danced by Louis XIV. at Versailles in 1653. The name has been de- rived from menu, ‘‘little,” the steps of the dance being short. The time regulating the movements of the minuet consists of two strains or parts, of eight bars each, in three-crotchet time, both of which from being repeated are called reprises.—The minuet or minuetto has also been effectively employed by composers as an exclusively musical movement in sym- phonies, quartets, &c. In this use the two strains consist of 16 bars each, and after being repeated are succeeded by a trio, after which the minuet is again played through somewhat more quickly. The time of this movement, which is of German origin, is an allegro, and in the second performance of the minuet it is accelerated to presto. MINUIT, or Minuits (properly Mrynewir), Pe- ter, an American colonial governor, born in Wesel, Germany, in the latter part of the 16th century, died near Fort Christiana, Delaware, in 1641. He was a Protestant deacon in his native town, and on Dec. 19, 1625, was ap- pointed by the Dutch West India company its director general in New Netherland, and land- ed on Manhattan island May 4, 1626. His first measure was to purchase the island from the aborigines for 60 guilders. He built Fort Am- sterdam, and maintained the right of the Dutch against the claims of English supremacy over New Netherland. The colony prospered under his administration, but the West India company held him responsible for abuses which had led to the accumulation of landed property in the hands of the patroons, and he was recalled in August, 1631. He sailed in’ March, 1682. Stress of weather drove his ship into Ply- mouth, England, where it was attached at the suit of the council of New England, on a charge of illegally trading within the English domin- ions. The Dutch ambassador in London pro- tested, but the ship was not released till May 27. Minuit, failing to regain his position under the West India company, offered his 622 MINUTE services to the Swedish government in 1687, and toward the close of that year sailed from Gothenburg under the auspices of Oxenstiern, and with a commission from the queen of Swe- den authorizing him to plant a new colony on the W. coast of Delaware bay. He anchored in Chesapeake bay in March, 1638, and soon began to build Fort Christiana, 2 m. from the confluence of Minqua’s Kill with the South river, near the present site of Wilmington, and despite the opposition of the Dutch he increased the settlement, which he called New Sweden. It was the first permanent European settlement of Delaware, and was annexed to the Dutch possessions in 1655. MINUTE (Lat. minutum), the 60th part of an. hour; also used to denote a portion of the arc of a circle, and as a measure of angles. When the circumference of the circle is divided into 24 hours, the minute is =;45 part of the circle. When the circle is divided into 360°, the min- ute is the 60th part of a degree, consequently equal to 57,455 of the circumference. . To dis- tinguish these two measures, the former is called a minute of time, the latter a minute of are; 15 minutes of are of a parallel of latitude being equal to one minute of time, and 4 min- utes of time to a degree.—The term is used in architecture to indicate the 60th part of the diameter of the shaft of a column, measured at the base, and serves as a measure to deter- mine the proportions of the order. MINUTOLI. I. Heinrich Menu von, baron, a German archeologist, born in Geneva, May 12, 1772, died near Lausanne, Sept. 16, 1846. He entered the Prussian army at an early age, was wounded during the campaign on the Rhine in 1793, and made professor in the mil- itary school in Berlin. In 1820 he led a scien- tific expedition to Egypt under the patronage of the Prussian government, and visited Cairo, Thebes, and Asswan, whence he returned to Alexandria, reaching Berlin in August, 1822. The architect Liman, the naturalist Hemprich, and seven of his other companions had died on the journey, and a great portion of his col- lection was lost by shipwreck. The remainder of it was purchased by the king of Prussia. Minutoli passed his last years in Switzerland. He published Betrachtungen iiber die Kriegs- kunst (3d ed., Berlin, 1816); a narrative of his travels under the title of Reise zum Tempel des ' Jupiter Ammon und nach Oberiigypten (1824— 7); Beitrage zu einer kiinftigen Biographie Friedrich Withelms ITI. (1848); Militdrische Hrinnerungen (1845); and various historical and archeological works.—While in Italy he married in 1820 WoLrrapINnE, countess von der Schulenburg, the widow of a Saxon offi- cer, who accompanied him in his travels, and wrote in French an admirable work on Egypt (Sowenirs d’ Hgypte, 2 vols., Paris, 1826; Ger- man translation by Gersdorf, Leipsic, 1829). II. Julius von, baron, son of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1805, died near Shiraz, Persia, Noy. 5, 1860. He became well known in 1846 MIOLAN-CARVALHO by his discovery of the Polish conspiracy while he was director of police at Posen. Im 1851 he was appointed Prussian consul general for Spain and Portugal, and in 1860 ambassador to Persia. He wrote on jurisprudence and Prussian history, and most extensively on Spain and Portugal and the Canary islands. The principal of the latter works are Altes und Neues aus Spanien (2 vols., Berlin, 1854), and Portugal und seine Colonien im Jahre 1854 (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1855). MIOCENE, in geology, the intermediate of the three epochs of the tertiary or mammalian age, having the eocene below and the pliocene above. The term is derived from Gr. peioy, less, and xacvéc, recent, from less than half its species being of living forms. Some geolo- gists make a fourth division, called oligocene, by separating an upper portion of the eocene and uniting it with the lower section of the miocene. The beds of the miocene epoch are of either marine or fresh-water formation. The marine beds cover a large part of the Atlantic border of the United States, belong- ing to what is known in American geology as the Yorktown period. They are full of fos- sils, and occur at Gay Head on Martha’s Vine- yard, in‘ Cumberland co., N. J., on both sides of the Chesapeake in Maryland, and in Vir- ginia at Yorktown, Suffolk, Smithfield, and other places. Fresh-water beds of miocene occur in the upper Missouri region, along the White river, called mauvaises terres or ‘‘ bad lands.” They constitute the ‘“‘ White river” group of Hayden, and have a thickness of 1,000 ft. and upward. In these beds are found the remains of the titanotherium, which also occurs in the eocene. There are also in the Wind river valley and on the west side of the Wind River mountains other fresh-water de- posits from 1,500 to 2,000 ft. thick, called the Wind river group. In California and Oregon the miocene formation consists of sandstone and shale, in some places attaining a thick- ness of 4,000 or 5,000 ft. They occur near Astoria on the Columbia river, and also in the coast ranges both north and south of San Francisco, in the Santa Inez mountains, and at various other places. MIOLAN - CARVALHO, Caroline Marie Félix, a French singer, born in Marseilles, Dec. 31, 1831. She studied under Delsarte and subse- quently under Duprez at the Paris conserva- tory, where she obtained the first prize after having appeared in the first act of Lucia di Lammermoor and the second act of La Juive. In 1850 she won great applause in L’ Ambassa- drice at the Opéra Comique. In 1853 she married M. Léon Carvalho (Carvaille), who be- came manager of the Théatre Lyrique, with his wife as the leading prima donna. She per- formed with brilliant success in London in 1859, as successor of Mme. Bosio. Her chief réles are Margaret in ‘‘ Faust,” Dinorah, Juliet in ‘Romeo and Juliet,” Zerline in “Don Juan,” and Rosine in ‘‘ The Barber of Seville.” — MIOT MIOT, André Fran¢ois, count de Melito, a French author, born in Versailles, about 1762, died in Paris, Jan. 5, 1841. He was connected with the ministries of war and foreign affairs and the diplomatic service, and was councillor of state under the empire, minister of war and the interior under Joseph Bonaparte in Na- ples, and intendant of his court in Madrid. In 1835 he was admitted to the French academy. His principal works are: a translation of He- rodotus with a life of Homer attached (8 vols., Paris, 1822); Bibliotheque historique de Dio- dore de Sicile, a translation containing all new fragments of the works of Diodorus (¥ vols., 1835-8); and his posthumous Mémoires sur le consulat, Vempire et le roi Joseph (8 vols., 1858). MIQUELON. See.Sarnt-Pierre. MIRABEAD, Gabriel Honoré Riquetti, count de, a French author and statesman, born on his father’s estate of Bignon, near Nemours, March 9, 1749, died in Paris, April 2, 1791. A huge- headed infant, who had come into the world with a pair of grinders, one foot twisted, and tongue-tied, disfigured when three years old by confluent smallpox, he grew up ‘‘as ugly as the nephew of Satan,” but giving signs of bod- ily strength, passionate temper, and intellectual power. His father was a philanthropist and the author of a work entitled LZ’ Ami des hom- mes, but was a tyrant at home, and tried to subdue his son by severity and contempt. The boy was educated at first by private tutors, and then was entered at a military school in Paris, under the assumed name of Pierre Buffiére, because his family were ashamed of him. On July 19, 1767, his father placed him as a vol- unteer in the Berry regiment of cavalry, under a colonel notorious for his severity. He con- tracted a few debts, lost 40 louis at the gaming table, and surpassed his colonel in the affec- tions of a young girl at Saintes. These of- fences brought upon him the wrath of his father, who in the autumn of 1768 banished him by a lettre de cachet to the fortress on the isle of Ré. Here he made a friend of his jail- er, who reported favorably concerning him, and his father procured him a commission as second lieutenant in the regiment of Lorraine, which was sent to Corsica in 1769. During a year of hard service he evinced such alacrity, courage, and fidelity as to command the esteem of his officers and the affections of his com- rades. On his return he was sent to his uncle, the bailli of -Mirabeau in Provence, who under- took to conciliate his father. At last Mirabeau was allowed to assume his true title, and was presented at court. By his father’s advice he married, June 22, 1772, Marie Emilie de Covet, the only daughter of the marquis of Mari- gnane. She had no portion, and he soon be- came involved in pecuniary difficulties. His father not only declined to help him, but pre- vented the marquis of Marignane from doing so, and on Aug. 23, 1774, imprisoned him in the castle of If at Marseilles; and when his MIRABEAU 623 him removed, May 25, 1775, to the fort of Joux, in the Jura mountains, Being allowed occasionally to visit the neighboring town of Pontarlier, Mirabeau fell in love with Sophie, marchioness de Monnier, the young and gifted wife of an old magistrate. In August, 1776, he eloped with her to Verriéres, Switzerland. A few weeks later they were in Amsterdam, where Mirabeau, under the fictitious name of Saint-Mathieu, tried to make a living by wri- ting for Dutch publishers. He made some translations from the English, and wrote his Avis aux Hessois, a pamphlet against the Hes- sian sale of soldiers to England for service in the American war. On May 10, 1777, he and his paramour were condemned by the tribunal of Pontarlier, he being sentenced to be be- headed for “‘ forcible abduction and seduction,” while she was condemned to imprisonment for life. On May 14 they were arrested and taken to Paris; he was imprisoned at Vincennes, and she was sent to a convent at Gien. His father had resolved to keep him a prisoner for life. In his dungeon he constantly wrote love letters to Sophie (a favor which had been granted to him by the chief of police, as the only means of pre- venting his suicide), and accomplished a good deal of literary work, the most important part of which was his Lettres de cachet et prisons d@état. In spite of the fact that he was at- tacked by several serious diseases, and was los- ing his eyesight, his father was deaf to all ap- peals, until the death of his little grandson sug- gested the ‘necessity of perpetuating the fam- ily,” and Mirabeau regained his liberty Dee; 13, 1780, after an imprisonment of three years and a half. He at once set to work to settle a warfare that had been going on between his pa- rents for many years; but here he failed. His mother was for ever alienated from him; but the success which she obtained in her lawsuit against her husband was followed by a recon- ciliation between father and son, May 20, 1781. Meanwhile Mirabeau had had an interview with Sophie; but jealousy had sprung up be- tween them, they parted in anger, and in 1789 she committed suicide. An attempt at recon- ciliation with his wife was unsuccessful, and he resorted to legal proceedings for her recov- ery. These he conducted himself, with marked ability and eloquence. His pleadings before the parliament of Aix created deep emotion among the people of that city, the majority of whom sided with him; but one half of the judges were relatives of Marignane, and the court de- creed, July 5, 1783, that the wife should re- main separated from her husband. Though defeated, Mirabeau became a popular idol. After a futile attempt to appeal the suit, he went to England, where he published his Con- sidérations sur Vordre de Cincinnatus, and his Doutes sur la liberté de V Escaut, a defence of the Dutch monopoly against the designs of the emperor Joseph II. He returned to Paris in April, 1785, and wrote several able pamphlets wife and family prayed for his release, he had | on financial subjects. At the close of this year 561 VOL, x1.—40 624 he visited Berlin, where he published a pam- phlet upon Cagliostro and Lavater, and doses Mendelssohn, ou la Réforme politique des Juifs. After paying a short visit to Paris, he re- turned with a secret mission from the French ministry. For six months he held a semi-ofli- cial correspondence, and accumulated materi- als for a great work upon the Prussian mon- archy. In 1787 he returned to France, and wrote a pamphlet, Dénonciation de Vagiotage, directed against Calonne, and followed some time after by a similar attack on Necker’s policy. Being threatened with another lettre de cachet, he went to Brunswick, where he completed his work De la monarchie prus- sienne, which was published the next year (8. vols. 8vo and 4 vols. 4to). With the exception of the few months of his mission to Prussia, he had recently been greatly embarrassed by pe- cuniary difficulties; but now he found himself in the most wretched situation, and it was prob- ably under the pressure of sheer penury that he published, under the title of Histoire secréte de la cour de Berlin, his confidential letters to the French ministry. This publication was or- dered to be burned by the executioner. The convocation of the states general being now announced, he went to Provence in the begin- ning of 1789, and presented himself for elec- tion to the nobility of this province; but he soon drew upon himself their implacable hos- tility by his boldness in the discussions as to the mode of election. He was finally expelled from their assembly, as having no fief of his own, and threw himself into the arms of the third estate. Several times he was called upon by the authorities to exhort the people during riotous disturbances. He waselected to the states general for both Marseilles and Aix, and decided to sit for Aix. In the assembly he never had a party; but by logic and elo- quence he swayed it at will on almost every important occasion. He encouraged the third estate to maintain their rights against the pre- tensions of the other orders, and at the end of the royal sitting of June 23 he sent the grand master of ceremonies back to the king with this bold answer: ‘Go and tell your master we are here by the power of the people, and that we are only to be driven out by that of the bayonet.” But, detesting mob license no less than tyranny, he advocated the royal pre- rogative of the veto, and, while “utterly op- posed to a counter revolution,” declared himself ready to make an effort for ‘‘the restoration of the king’s legitimate authority as the only means of saving France.” In consequence of this, part of his debts, about 80,000 francs, were secretly paid by order of the king, and he received a monthly pension of 6,000 francs. He also received four notes of 250,000 francs each; but these were given back to the king at Mirabeau’s death. This has been cited as evidence of his venality, though he pursued a line of policy dictated by his convictions. On May 20, 1790, in an elaborate oration, he sup- MIRABEAU ported the king’s right to declare peace or war, in opposition to several celebrated orators, and especially Barnave, whose popularity was now more than equal to his own. Barnave was borne in triumph, while Mirabeau was charged with treason and corruption. ‘Three days la- ter he ascended the tribune, defended himself with fervid and convincing eloquence, and came out triumphant. The mass of business which Mirabeau now carried on simultaneously was prodigious. In addition to his duties as a deputy, he published a journal, which, first un- der the title of Journal des Etats Généraua, then Lettres &@ mes Constituants, and finally Courrier de Provence, gave a report of the sit- tings, and freely discussed all the questions of the day. In these labors he called around him coadjutors, such as Dumont, Duroveray, Rei- baz, and others, who not only wrote for his pe- riodical, but assisted him in the preparation of documents, and even of his speeches. But his strength became exhausted by his herculean labors, rendered still more dangerous by high living and licentiousness. On March 27, 1791, though very ill, he occupied his seat in the as- sembly and spoke five times. When he went home, his friend and physician Cabanis saw that his end was approaching. The news of his ill- ness spread over Paris like a public calamity ; the chaussée d’Antin, the street in which he lived, was thronged by the multitude; bulletins were printed and distributed every hour; twice a day the king sent to his house for tidings. After a night of terrific suffering, at the dawn of day he addressed Cabanis: ‘‘ My friend, I shall die to-day. When one has come to sucha juncture, there remains only one thing to be done; that is, to be perfumed, crowned with flowers, and surrounded with music, in order to enter sweetly into that slumber from which there is no awaking.” He ordered his bed to be brought near the window, and looked with rapture at the brightness of the sun and the freshness of his garden. His death was mourn- ed by the whole nation; every one felt that the ruling spirit of the revolution had passed away. His body was carried in pomp by the assembly and the people to the church of Ste. Geneviéve; but three years later, by order of the convention, it was removed to the church- yard of St. Catherine, the burial place of crim- inals.—Editions of Mirabeau’s works have been published by Barthe (8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1819- 20), and by Mérilhou (9 vols. 8vo, 1825-7) ; but neither of these collections is complete, while their biographical notices are far from correct. Many of his productions have had but one edition, and are now difficult to find. The Mémotres biographiques, littéraires et poli- tiqgues de Mirabeau, by Lucas Montigny, his adopted son (9 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1834~’5), are as yet, in spite of serious defects, the most valu- able source of information on the subject. See also Correspondance entre le comte de Mirabeau et le comte de La Marck pendant les années 1789, 1790 et 1791 (8 vols., Paris, 1851); Dumont’s MIRACLE posthumous Souvenirs (1831); Schneidewind’s Mirabeau und seine Zeit (Leipsic, 1831); ‘“ Mi- rabeau, a Life History ” (London, 1848); Ver- morel, Mirabeau, sa vie, ses opinions et ses dis- cours (5 vols., Paris, 1864~’6); Reynald, M/i- rabeau et la constituante (Paris, 1872); and Loménie, Mirabeau et son pére (Paris, 1874). MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder), in the stricter usage of the word, a work of divine power, interrupting (or viola- ting) the ordmary course of nature, and directly designed to attest the divine commission of him who works the miracle. In fhe Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, both the répac, or prodigium, and the onueiov, or sign of divine power, are included in the general idea of miracle, but not dissociated. In the New Testament these words (répac, dtvapuc, onpeiov) are used to express the supernatural acts and occurrences by which the character and mis- sion of Christ and his apostles were declared and attested. The first is the most general and indefinite, properly an extraordinary and portending phenomenon, something monstrous and out of the course of nature. The second is more specific, implying the possession of supernatural power, through which such acts were performed. The third is still more spe- cific, expressing the object of such acts, namely, as signs or indications by which something is made known. Christ says: ‘‘The works that I do bear witness of me, that the Father hath sent me.” Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 21, 8, argues that a miracle is not against nature in its highest aspect: ‘‘ How is that against nature which comes from the will of God, since the will of such a great Creator is what makes the nature of everything?” Abélard maintained that, in relation to the divine omnipotence, nought is miraculous. Aquinas sharpens the contrast between the miraculous and the natural. The schoolmen set up two criteria of miracles: that they are, 1, above the ordinary course of nature; 2, by the power of God. After the reformation, in connection with the progress of modern philosophy, both physical and metaphysical, the necessity of yet further distinctions and limitations became man- ifest. Bacon in his ‘‘ Advancement of Learn- ing’’ asserts: ‘There never was a miracle wrought by God to convert an atheist, because the light of nature might have led him to con- fess a God; but miracles are designed to con- vert idolaters and the superstitious, who have acknowledged a deity but erred in his adora- tion; because no light of nature extends to de- clare the will and worship of God.” Spinoza in his Tractatus Theologico-politicus led the way in the historical criticism of the Biblical narra- tives, on the basis of the definition: ‘‘ A mira- cle signifies any work the natural cause of which we cannot explain after the example of any- thing else to which we are accustomed ; or, at least, he who writes about or relates the mira- cle cannot explain it.” German rationalism, in 625 the gospel miracles by material and spiritual causes. Some alleged that Jesus had unusual knowledge of the powers of nature, or effected his cures by his spiritual influence over men’s souls. Others, as Paulus, explained them by the supposition that the disciples confounded natural events with supernatural; ¢. g., the two angels in the tomb, clad in white, were an illusion caused by linen garments hanging there; or by such violent interpretations as that the walking upon the sea meant walk- ing on the border of the sea. Some, again, found in them only a symbolical or allegori- cal sense, and interpreted them as images of spiritual truths. In the mythical theory of Strauss they are denied as facts, and explained, not as wilful deceptions, but as a spontaneous expression of popular religious feeling, ascri- bing to Christ what is false in fact, but true in some very general philosophical idea. As to the position of miracles in the evidences, some divines, in the reaction against rationalism, have laid the chief stress upon these external signs of divine power, making the miracle to be the main source of an undoubting belief, while others put the truth of the doctrine in the front rank, and made the doctrine the test of the miracle, rather than the miracle the proof of the doctrine. Thus Dr. Wardlaw would test the doctrine by the miracle, while Dean Trench advocates the converse order. But it seems difficult, and even illogical, to construct on this point an absolute dilemma; for, on the one hand, the mind receives spiritual and divine truth on its own evidence, and for its own sake; while, on the other hand, all who are enlisted in this debate allow that miracles have an important position in the external evidences for the Christian faith.—For a full discussion of miracles, see Douglas, ‘‘ Criterion, or Mira- cles Examined” (London, 1754); Campbell, ‘Dissertation on Miracles” (Edinburgh, 1768) ; Farmer, “‘ Dissertation on the Miracles ” (1771); Leland, “‘ View of Deistical Writers ” (1798) ; Schleiermacher, Der Christliche Glaube (Ber- lin, 1821-’2); Strauss, Das Leben Jesu (Tiibin- gen, 1835; abridged ed., 1864; English transla- tion, 1865); Tholuck, Glaubenswiirdigkeit der evangelischen Geschichte (Hamburg, 1837), and on the miracles of Mohammed and those in the Catholic church, in his Vermischte Schriften (1839); Leslie, ‘‘ Truth of Christignity ” (1848) ; Wardlaw, ‘‘On Miracles” (1858); W. L. Alex- ander, ‘‘ Christ and Christianity’ (New York, 1854); N. W. Taylor, ‘‘ Lectures on Moral Government” (1859); McCosh, ‘‘The Super- natural in relation to the Natural” (New York, 1862); Mozley, ‘‘Bampton Lectures on Miracles ” (London, 1865); G. P. Fisher, ‘‘ Es- says on the Supernatural Origin of Christian- ity” (New York, 1865); the duke of Argyle, “The Reign of Law” (London, 1866); and “Christianity and Skepticism,” the Boston lectures for 1870 (Boston, 1870). On the con- tinuance of miracles in the church, besides the its earlier form, attempted the explanation of | works of Blunt and Bishop Kaye, see Middle- 626 ton, ‘Miraculous Powers” (London, 1749; new ed., 1844); J. H. Newman (in reply to Taylor’s ‘‘ Ancient Christianity”), ‘‘ Essay on Miracles,” prefixed to his translation of Fleury’s Histoire ecclésiastique, and also published sepa- rately (1843 and 1873); H. Bushnell, ‘‘ Nature and the Supernatural” (New York, 1858) ; and Mountford, ‘‘ Miracles Past and Present” (Boston, 1870). MIRACLES AND MORALITIES, religious and allegorical plays, which constituted the drama of the middle ages. They were often called miracle plays and moral plays, and in later times have more frequently been indiscrim- inately styled mysteries. The subjects of the miracles were either the narratives of the Bible | or the legends chiefly of the lives of the saints; and the’moralities, which appeared later, inter- mingled allegory with sacred history, or were represented exclusively by allegorical person- ages. In the first ages of Christianity bap- tism was refused to any one concerned with the theatre, and both the Greek and Latin fa- thers anathematized the dramatic art. In the 4th century the church succeeded in extin- guishing the theatre everywhere except in Constantinople, where the genius and the arts of antiquity lingered in decay. This triumph had hardly been accomplished when from the bosom of the church sprang a new drama and spectacle. The emperor Julian ridiculed the asceticism of the church by a law forbidding any Christian to be taught in heathen learn- ing. Apollinaris, presbyter of Laodicea, and his more celebrated son of the same name, bishop of that see (died about 390), were fine classical scholars. The former versified the Pentateuch and the history of Israel, and the latter paraphrased the gospels after the man- ner of the dialogues of Plato. Soon the sacred ceremonies and commemorations of the Chris- tian faith, in the name of which profane games had been proscribed, were transformed into dramatic representations. Gregory Nazian- zen, patriarch of Constantinople, is the reputed author of a play on Christ’s passion, and of others of the same kind, written to supersede those of Sophocles and Euripides. The pro- gress of this Christian drama cannot be traced till about the 11th century, when Theophylact of Constantinople introduced the feast of fools, the feast of asses, and other religious pastimes, which were celebrated in churches. To these sports the clergy added the acting of miracle plays, which originally were not only com- posed by ecclesiastics, but were performed by them in churches and the chapels of monaste- ries. They were afterward exhibited by com- panies of tradesmen, each guild sharing the expense and undertaking a portion of the per- formance; and they served the purpose of amusing the people on public occasions and festivals, while the clergy were at length for- bidden by popes and councils to take any part inthem. Jugglers and minstrels attended the travelling companies. - The stages, either tem- MIRACLES AND MORALITIES porary or portable on wheels, usually consisted of three platforms, one above another. On the uppermost sat the Pater Celestis, surround- ed by his angels; on the second appeared the saints and glorified men; while living men oc- cupied the lowest. On one side of the stage was a dark, pitchy, flaming cavern, from which issued hideous howlings, as of souls tormented by demons; its occupants were the greatest jesters and buffoons of the company, who fre- quently ascended upon the stage to act the comic parts. It is probable that miracles were introduced, perhaps by returning pilgrims, from Constantinople into Italy, and thence into France and England. The oldest known are in Latin, but in the 12th and 138th centuries they became common in the modern langua- ges; and with some exceptious there is a gen- eral resemblance in subjects, characters, and theatrical machinery between those of differ- ent countries. They probably had a common origin, and were introduced about the same date, being communicated from one religious | body to another. Three Latin miracles written | early in the 12th century by Hilarius, a disciple | of Abélard, are extant; the subjects are the raising of Lazarus, the life of St. Nicholas, and the history of Daniel. The miracle of St. Cath- arine, by Geoffrey, abbot of St. Albans, was performed in Dunstable, England, and in Paris about the same time, and it was then no nov- - elty. Other Latin plays are preserved which seem to have been very popular, both as scho- lastic exercises among the younger monks, and as popular exhibitions, the greater part of the story being told by pantomime. The mystery of the wise and foolish virgins, in which Latin and Provencal are used alternately, indicates the period of transition to the vernacular lan- guages, and may stand at the beginning of Eu- ropean dramatic literature—The miracle of the passion was one of the earliest and most wide-spread, and from it the first theatrical company of Paris, established in 1402, was called the brethren of the passion. It em- braced the principal events in the life of Christ, was exhibited with splendid pomp, and its representation occupied several days. Among its characters were the three members of the Trinity, angels or archangels, the apostles, dev- ils, and Herod with all his court. The Virgin Mary is a favorite character in French myste- ries, and several of them bear the title of mi- racles de Notre Dame. Others are entitled mysteries of the conception, of the nativity, of the resurrection, and of divers events in the legends of the saints and in the narratives of the Old and New Testaments. The splendor of the theatrical decorations and appliances for inspiring terror increased during the 15th century. In one of the Parisian. mysteries St. Barbara was hung up by the heels on the stage, and, after uttering her remonstrances, was torn with pincers and scorched with lamps before the audience. In a mystery exhibited at Mentz in 1437, an immense dragon sprang MIRACLES AND MORALITIES out of hell, and threw the spectators into con- sternation by spreading his wings close by them. The mystery of the “ Acts of the Apos- tles”” was acted for many successive days in 1541 before the nobility, the clergy, and a large popular assemblage in Paris. The dramatis persone are God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, the Virgin and Joseph, archangels, an- gels, the apostles and disciples, Jewish priests, emperors, philosophers, magicians, Lucifer, Satan, Beelzebub, Belial the attorney general of hell,-Cerberus the porter, and a multitude of other personages, amounting altogether to 485. A large number of French miracles exist in manuscript, and many have been printed or reprinted during the present century.—The Germans have numerous miracle plays, two of which cannot be traced in the contemporary productions of other European nations. The subject of the first of these is Dr. Faustus, which represents the life, death, and damna- tion of a daring libertine. The subject of the second is the canonization of Pope Joan, which was written in 1480 and attained general pop- ularity. It has 25 characters, among which are the devil and his mother Lilis, three good angels, the Virgin Mary, her Son, Pope Basil, four cardinals, a Roman senator, and Death. The scene shifts between earth, hell, purga- tory, and heaven. It begins with a council of ‘devils, who agree to tempt Jutta, the heroine, to profane the papacy. She assumes boy’s clothes, accompanies a young clerk to the uni- versity of Paris, acquires a doctor’s degree, goes to Rome, and is made successively car- dinal and pope. The Virgin Mary sends an angel to ask Jutta whether she prefers perdi- tion or penance and final pardon, She resolves to repent, but death suddenly seizes upon her soul while she is lying-in, and carries it to the devils in hell. The Virgin again intercedes, and sends an angel from the throne of grace to release her from torment. The play ter- minates with the magnificent spectacle of her ascension into heaven. Germany was celebra- ted for its Fastnachtsspiele, or carnival plays, in which religious subjects were treated with unbounded license. In one of them, which is extant, Virgil accompanies the shepherds to adore the new-born Christ.—The records of English miracle plays are at least as ancient as those of France or Germany. Their early popularity is attested by Langlande and Chau- cer, and subsequently immense crowds assem- bled with the greatest enthusiasm to witness their performance. They may be traced from the beginning of the 12th century, but whether they were originally in Latin or in Norman French is not certain. Higden, who wrote, translated, or compiled the Chester plays in 1828, is said to have been obliged to visit Rome three times before he could obtain leave to have them acted in the English tongue. The Chester, Coventry, and Towneley mysteries form three great series. As early as 1268 re- ligious dramas were exhibited by the incorpo- 627 rated trades in Chester, where they continued with some interruptions till 1577. They con- sist of 24 dramas, which were annually repre- sented from Whit Monday to the following Wednesday. Among the subjects are the fall of Lucifer, performed by the tanners; the crea- tion, by the drapers ; the deluge, by the dyers; Abraham, Melchizedek, and Lot, by the bar- bers and wax chandlers; Moses, Balak, and Balaam, by the hatters and linen drapers; the killing of the innocents, by the goldsmiths; the descent into hell, by the cooks; the ascen- sion, by the tailors; Antichrist, by the dyers; and the day of judgment, by the websters. The sacred dramas of Coventry drew immense multitudes to that city, as well from its cen- tral position as from the patronage of royalty. They were performed by the trade companies of Coventry on Corpus Christi day, from 1416 to 1591. The subjects are nearly identical with those of the two other series, but more numer- ous, the plays being 42 in number. The friars encouraged them as a means of stigmatizing the labors of Wycliffe, branding his Testament as false, anathematizing Scriptural inquiry as heresy, and enlivening the attachment of the people to the ‘good old customs” of the church. The Towneley mysteries, so named from the family having possession of the manuscripts, belonged according to tradition to the abbey of Widkirk, and are supposed to be the plays written and performed by the Augustinian friars of Woodkirk. Fairs were held there annually on the feast of the Assumption and on the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Mary, and internal evidence indicates that these were the occasions of their exhibition. The series consists of 32 plays, bearing a near re- semblance to those of the Chester and Coven- try collections. The artificers and tradesmen of York also annually celebrated a Corpus Christi play, and the same day was similarly observed by the incorporated trades at New- castle-on-Tyne and several other large towns, and by the parish clerks and gray friars of London. Christmas also was observed in this way in connection with the festivities of the abbot of misrule. At York every trade was obliged to furnish out a pageant to adorn the occasion, and these pageants were 54 in num- ber in 1415. The first part of the miracle of that year, in which God the Father appears creating the heavens, the angels, archangels, Lucifer, and the angels that fell with him, was performed by the tanners. The second part, in which God the Father creates the earth and all which is therein in the space of five days, was represented by the plasterers. The third part, in which God the Father creates Adam and Eve and breathes into them the spirit of life, was played by the card makers. The 54th part, which includes Jesus, Mary, the apostles, four angels with trumpets, four angels with lances and scourges, four good and four bad spirits, and six devils, was performed by the mercers. There are in the Bodleian 628 MIRACLES AND MORALITIES" library three miracle plays in the Digby manu- scripts relating to the conversion of St. Paul, and two manuscripts containing the Cornish plays of the deluge, the passion, and the resur- rection. Only a single example of the New- castle mysteries remains, entitled ‘‘ Noah’s Ark, or the Shipwrights’ Ancient Play,” in which God, an angel, Noah and his wife, and the devil are the characters. According to Malone, the last mystery performed in England was that of Christ’s passion in the reign of James I., but other authorities say they were acted in churches, and even on Sunday, as late as the reign of Charles I. They had, however, gen- erally ceased to be written from the time of John Bale (1538). cle plays have been published, and no other portion of medizval literature is so strikingly marked by mingled drollery and solemnity.— From the reign of Henry VI. miracles had been encroached upon and superseded by moral plays or moralities, in which abstract allegori- cal personages took the place of Scripture characters. The change was gradual. In one of the Coventry miracles the representatives of ‘Veritas, Justitia, Pax, and Misericordia ap- pear in the parliament of heaven. Death and the mother of Death were successively add- ed; and as these characters increased, Bibli- cal history fell into the background and was at length eliminated. Moralities reached their highest perfection in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII, though they subsequently exhibited greater complication and ingenuity. They contained two standing characters, the Devil and the Vice. The former, the leader of the Seven Deadly Sins, was made as hideous as possible, shaggy, bottle-nosed, and with a tail. He entered upon the stage crying “ Ho, ho, ho!” and his part consisted largely in roar- ing when castigated by the Vice. The latter, though represented as ‘‘ most wicked by design and never good by accident,” was chiefly em- ployed in belaboring the Devil. He was gen- erally dressed in a fool’s habit, and the char- acter was gradually blended with that of the domestic fool. Moralities were abundant in France and England in the 15th and 16th cen- turies. The interludes of John Heywood mark the transition in England from them to legiti- mate tragedy and comedy. In Paris the devout buffoonery of the brethren of the passion gave offence and caused their suppression in 1547, and the company which purchased the Hotel de Bourgogne was enjoined to abstain from ‘‘all mysteries of the passion, or other sacred mysteries.” In French the Moralité tressingu- liere et tresbonne des blasphemateurs du nom de Dieu is one of the most celebrated; and in English Skelton’s ‘‘ Magnyfycence,” designed to show the vanity of worldly grandeur, in which the characters are Felicity, Liberty, Measure, Adversity, Poverty, Despair, Mischief, Good- hope, Redress, Circumspection, Perseverance, Fancy, Folly, and Orafty-conveyance.—Mys- teries are still occasionally performed at sev- The principal English mira-. MIRAGE eral places in Europe, the most celebrated be- ing that of Ober-Ammergau, in southern Ba- varia, which is represented every tenth year. (See Oper-AMMERGAU.)—See Onésime Le Roy, Ktudes sur les mystéres (Paris, 1837); Achille Jubinal, Mystéres inédits du quinziéme siécle (2 vols., Paris, 1837); Heinrich Hoffmann, /und- gruben fiir Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur (Breslau, 1830-37); ‘‘The Chester Mysteries” (London, 1818); William Hone, ‘‘ Ancient Mysteries Described” (1823); Tho- mas Sharp, ‘‘A Dissertation on the Pageants or Dramatic Mysteries anciently Performed at Coventry” (Coventry, 1825); Collier, ‘‘ History of English Dramatic Poetry” (3 vols., London, 1831); ‘‘ Ancient Mysteries from the Digby MSS.” (Edinburgh, 1835); ‘‘The Towneley Mysteries,” published for the Surtees society (London, 1836); William Marriott, ‘‘ A Collec- tion of English Miracle Plays” (Basel, 1838) ; Thomas Wright, ‘‘ Early Mysteries, and other Latin Poems of the 12th and 13th Centuries” (London, 1838); Edwin Norris, ‘‘ The Ancient Cornish Drama” (Oxford, 1859); and H. N. Oxenham, ‘‘Ober-Ammergau in 1871” (Lon- don, 1871). A large number of the French miracles and moralities have been published separately, among which are Les blasphéma- teurs (1831) and La vendition de Joseph (1835), both exact reproductions in form and type of the manuscripts in the national library. MIRAFLORES, Mannel de Pando, marquis of, a Spanish statesman, born in Madrid, Dec. 24, 1792, died there, March 17, 1872. He was Spanish ambassador at London (1834), at Paris (1838-40), and at Vienna (1861), was presi- dent of the council of ministers in 1846 and 1863, and was seven times president of the senate, resigning in 1868. He wrote several works relating to the political history of his own times, the most important of which is Memorias para servir d la historia contempo- rdnea de los siete primeros afios del reinado de Isabel IT. (2 vols. 8vo, Madrid, 1843-’4). MIRAGE (Fr., from Lat. mirari, to wonder), an appearance of distant objects in the air, as if standing in the sky, or reflected from the surface of water. It is produced by refraction in strata of different densities, decreasing or increasing rapidly, and sometimes by refrac- tion and reflection combined. The appear- ances are those which have received the gen- eral name of unusual refraction. The phe- nomena of mirage are said to have been first explained by Monge, while accompanying Bo- naparte’s Egyptian expedition. There are sev- eral cases, of which the four following are the most common: 1, the mirage of the desert, which has the appearance of inverted objects, or reflections from the surface of water; 2, that which has the appearance of objects in- verted in the air, and which is seen over the surface of water; 3, simple looming, when ob- jects appear to be elevated above their real level, but are not inverted, the appearance usually taking place over the surface of water; MIRAGE 4, a combination of the two preeeding, in which there are appearances of objects both erect and inverted. The causes, in many in- stances, are not easy to assign definitely. The mirage of the desert and the appearance of an inverted image of an object over the surface of water are usually explained as follows. In the first case the aérial strata decrease in density from above downward, in consequence of the cooling of the upper strata from radiation, and the warming of the lower by the hot sand. Let fig. 1, in which the curves are exaggerated, serve for explanation. By referring to the ar- ticle Lieut it will be seen that in refraction there is a certain angle at which a ray of light, having passed through one medium, on coming to the surface will mot pass out of the medium into the next and suffer refraction, but will be totally reflected back into the first medium. This angle is called the critical angle, or angle of total reflection, and varies with different media. Now an effect analogous to this may take place when a ray of light is passing through different strata of air at a very small angle, which at last becomes reduced to a de- | gree or part of a degree which may be called the critical angle. Suppose the aérial strata in fig. 1 to decrease in density from a to d; aray Fig. 1.—Mirage of the Desert. of light coming from the object will be refract- ed from the perpendicular in passing down- ward through the stratum a, still more in pass- ing through 8, and so on until it penetrates a stratum, which we will suppose is d, where the critical angle is reached, and the ray becomes totally reflected. The direction of the ray will then be upward, but will be refracted toward the perpendicular as it passes through succes- sive strata of increasing density, so that when the ray reaches the eye the object will appear in the direction of e. In the second case, which takes place over the surface of water, and where the lower strata of air are cooled by the water so as to be denser than the upper, the course of the rays is shown in the exag- gerated drawing in fig. 2. A vessel which may be so distant as to be partly or entirely hidden by the curvature of the earth, will appear in- verted above the horizon when the rays of light are at first refracted from the perpendic- ular until the critical angle is reached at the stratum d, when total reflection takes place, by which the ray is given an inclination down- MIRAMICHI 629 ward, so that the object appears in the direc- tion of ¢. Simple looming, in which the object is seen in an erect position, will take place when the rays of light from it reach the eye Fie. 2.—Mirage over Water. before total reflection takes place, or before the critical angle is reached. When the object is seen both in an inverted and erect position, the case is, as has been remarked, a mixed one, and explainable by the examples already given. When the strata are regular, the inverted will be above the erect image; but inequalities sometimes exist which cause, it is said, a con- trary appearance, and lateral mirage may some- times be produced in consequence of strata of different densities lying in a vertical position, as when a stratum of air is heated by a wall which is exposed to the rays of the sun. It is said that on the lake of Geneva boats have been seen doubled from the unequal density of two contiguous columns of air, more or less satu- rated with moisture, one being on the point of forming a fog. Many remarkable cases of mirage and looming have been recorded. In 1822, in the arctic regions, Captain Scoresby recognized by its inverted image in the air the ship Fame, which afterward proved to be at the moment 17 m. beyond the visible horizon of the observer. Dr. Vince, on Aug. 6, 1806, at 7 P. M., saw from Ramsgate, at which place usually only the tops of its towers are visible, the whole of Dover castle, appearing as if lift- ed and placed bodily on the near side of the intervening hill. So perfect was the illusion, that the hill itself could not be seen through the figure. The phenomenon called fata Mor- gana is a complicated case of mirage. (See Fata MorGana.) MIRAMICHI, a bay and river of New Bruns- wick. The bay is about 21 m. long and 20 m. wide at its mouth, Blackland point being on the north and Esquiminac point on the south. It contains Fox and Portage and a number of smaller islands. The river is formed by the junction of two branches about 50 m. from the sea. At its mouth, which is obstructed by a sand bar, are landing places for cargoes, but the chief business places are Newcastle and Chatham, 20m. up the stream. It is navigable for a distance of 40 m. from its mouth. Great forests of pine cover the banks of the river and the surrounding country. In 1825 a conflagra- tion destroyed the forests on the N. bank and all the towns and villages within an extent of 85 m. long, and in some parts as much as 25 m. broad. The smoke and cinders were seen at Quebec, more than 250 m. distant, and as 630 MIRAMON far S. as Bermuda. The pines in the burned district have been succeeded principally by poplar, white birch, and maple. MIRAMON, Miguel, a Mexican soldier, born in the city of Mexico, Sept. 29, 1832, shot at Querétaro, June 19, 1867. He was of French descent. In 1846 he entered the military acad- emy at Chapultepec, and in September, 1847, participated with his classmates in the defence of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec against the Americans. He was wounded and taken pris- oner, but after the treaty of peace returned to the academy and completed his studies. En- tering the army in 1852, he was often engaged in suppressing local insurrections in the states of Jalisco and Mexico, until in October, 1854, he was sent with the rank of captain in the expedition against Alvarez, who had_pro- nounced for the plan of Ayutla. He distin- guished himself in several actions, especially in that of Temajalco, for which he was pro- moted (July, 1855) to a colonelcy. A few weeks later, on the accession of Alvarez to the presidency, the regular army was placed under the control of its late enemies. This was so irksome to Miramon that in December, being sent as second in command of an ex- pedition against the rebels of Zacapoaxatla, he imprisoned his superior, and with the entire force joined the pronunciados, leading them soon after to Puebla, which city submitted without resistance. In the memorable siege of Puebla, March, 1856, Miramon was the soul of the defence; and six months later he again pronounced at Puebla against Comonfort, de- fending that city a second time for 43 days against 10,000 besiegers. Escaping just before the capitulation, he engaged in a guerilla war- fare, capturing Toluca in January, 1857. He was soon after wounded and made prisoner, but escaped in September, rejoined the revolution- ists of the south as second in command, seized the town of Cuernavaca, and held it until the outbreak of the final movement against Co- monfort headed by Zuloaga. During the fight- ing in the streets of Mexico in January, 1858, Miramon hastened thither with Osollo, and took by storm the Hospicio and the Acordada, thus deciding the withdrawal of Comonfort and the accession of Zuloaga to the presidency. Miramon was now, at the age of 25, made a brigadier general. Already the idol of the re- actionary or church party, he was its most con- spicuous leader in the three years’ ‘war of reform” which commenced at this time. In March he gained the battle of Salamanca, which led to the flight of Juarez from the country and the surrender to the conservatives of the chief cities of the interior. He defeated the liberal coalition in the important battles of Ahualulco (September) and Atequiza (Decem- ber), besides scores of minor engagements. The news of the battle of Atequiza having reached Mexico at a moment when a junta was engaged in the election of a president to suc- ceed Zuloaga, overthrown by the plan of Navyi- MIRANDA dad a few days before, Miramon was chosen, Jan. 2, 1859. He came at once to the capital, but declined the presidency and reinstated Zuloaga. The latter voluntarily retired from office a few days later, appointing Miramon president ad interim. Taking possession of the government on Feb. 2, Miramon soon placed himself again at the head of the army, with which he laid siege to Vera Cruz, then the capital of the liberal government of Juarez. Obliged to raise the siege in April, he returned to Mexico in time to witness the battle of Ta- cubaya, in which Gen. Marquez defeated the forces of Degollado. The execution of the prisoners of Tacubaya, including many non- combants and several medical students (April ‘11, 1859), is the chief blot upon the character of Miramon. With alternate successes and re- verses, the war of reform was prolonged until the close of 1860, when the decisive battle of Calpulalpam (Dec. 22) opened the gates of Mexico to the liberal army under Gonzalez Or- tega, and Miramon was forced to seek safety in flight from the country. In 1862 he attempted to return under cover of the intervention, but was not permitted by the allies to land at Vera Cruz. The succeeding» years he passed in Eu- rope. He approved the choice of Maximilian as emperor, but was requested to remain abroad in the nominal discharge of diplomatic func- tions, in order that his popularity might not embarrass the imperial administration. At the close of 1866, when it was believed that Maxi- milian was about to resign, Miramon returned to Mexico along with Marquez. As the result of conferences at Orizaba, Maximilian aban- doned the intention of abdicating, returned to Mexico, placed Miramon and Marquez at the head of his diminished army, and with them and Mejia undertook the desperate campaign of Querétaro. Captured on May 15, 1867, Miramon was tried and condemned by a mili- tary commission, and was shot on the Cerro de las Campanas, along with Maximilian and Mejia. He left a widow and several children, who reside in Austria. : MIRANDA, Francisco, a Venezuelan revolution- ist, born in Caradcas about 1754, died in prison in Cadiz, Spain, July 14,1816. He entered the Spanish army at an early age, and at 17 was captain in the Guatemala troops. He was in the French service in the American revolution- ary war from 1779 to 1781, and conceived the idea of freeing the South American colonies from Spain. He went to South America in 1783, but his plans were discovered and he fled to Europe. After extensive travels, part- ly on foot, he then entered the French ser- vice as general of division, took part in the campaign of 1792, and in 1793 accompanied Dumouriez to Belgium, where he commanded a division of the army at Neerwinden. He was held responsible for the loss of that battle, and was accused of being implicated in the treason of Dumouriez, and brought before the revolutionary tribunal, but acquitted. He soon MIRANDOLA again gave umbrage to the revolutionists, and was compelled to seek refuge in England. In 1803 he returned to France, but was again expelled from the country by the first consul. In 1806 he fitted out an expedition in the United States, enlisting many Americans, and returned to South America, with the view of establishing a republic at Caracas, but was not successful. Toward the close of 1810 he again went to South America, during the disorder of the Spanish government, and maintained him- self at the head of an army of insurgents; but he was delivered by Bolivar (July 81, 1812) into the hands of the Spaniards, and carried to Cadiz, where he died after four years’ im- prisonment.—See ‘History of Miranda’s At- tempt to effect a Revolution in South Amer- ica” (New York, 1808). MIRANDOLA, Giovanni Pico della, count and prince of Concordia, an Italian scholar, born at Mirandola, Modena, Feb. 24, 1463, died in Flor- ence, Nov. 17, 1494. Almost from childhood he displayed an extraordinary memory. At the age of 14 he was sent to Bologna to study canon law; but he soon went to Ferrara and applied himself to philosophy, theology, and languages, acquiring a knowledge of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, and the different systems of philosophy. After master- ing all the learning of the time, he went to Rome in 1486, and propounded there 900 theses as subjects of controversy. His challenge was not accepted, but some of his theses were de- nounced to Pope Innocent VIII. as heretical ; and though he ultimately proved their ortho- doxy, hesuffered much persecution. These trials induced him to give up the study of profane literature and to devote his attention to reli- gion and philosophy. Resigning his principal- ity in favor of his nephew, he lived at Florence until his death, a year before which Pope Alexander VI. absolved him of all heresy. 787 | %76 | 208,203 854,475 Presbyterian, regular.....; 181 | 180 | 51,700 876,200 Us other ...... 81 78 | 19,400 94,000 Roman Catholic......... 27 27 8,250 165,850 Universalist...........4- 1 1 400 800 ION a xd tee ected 12 14 8,750 19,800 WOU yee bes viene e 1,829 | 1,800 | 485,898 $2,860,800 657 —De Soto and his companions were the first Europeans who traversed this region. They made no settlements, and the death of the leader in 1542 put an end to the expedition. In 1682 La Salle descended the Mississippi, took formal possession of the adjacent coun- try for the king of France, and called it Loui- siana. In 1698 Iberville was authorized by the French king to colonize the regions of the lower Mississippi. He landed on Ship island, and in 1699 erected a fort at the bay of Biloxi, about 80 m. E. of the site of New Orleans. In 1716 Fort Rosalie was erected on the site of Natchez. The colonies grew slowly, and New Orleans, being founded soon after, attracted many of the settlers. In 1728, 1783, and 1752 the settlements suffered much from Indian hos- tilities. After the cession of the E. part of Louisiana (including what is now Mississippi) to Great Britain in 1768, and until the revolu- tionary war, immigration into the territory pro- ceeded slowly. The territory of Mississippi was formed by the act of congress of April 7, 1798, being bounded N. by a line drawn due E. from the mouth of the Yazoo river to the Chatta- hoochee, E. by the Chattahooche, 8S. by the 31st parallel, and W. by the Mississippi river. By the act of March 27, 1804, the region N. of these limits and S. of Tennessee, which had been ceded to the United States by Georgia in 1802, was added, and Mississippi territory thus comprised the whole of the present states of Alabama and Mississippi N. of the 31st parallel. The region 8. of that parallel, between the Pearl and Perdido rivers, was added by the act of May 14, 1812, having been taken possession of by the United States in 1811 as a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803, though claimed by Spain. Alabama territory was formed from the E. portion by the act of March 3, 1817, and by a joint resolution of Dec. 10 of the same year Mississippi was admitted into the Union as a state. In 1832 a new constitution was adopted. At the presidential election in November, 1860, 3,283 votes were cast for Douglas, 40,797 for Breckenridge, and 25,040 for Bell. Immediately after the election of Lincoln became known, the governor called an extra session of the legislature, which met on Noy. 26, and provided for an election on Dec. 10 of delegates to a convention to assemble on Jan. 7, 1861. On Jan. 9 this convention passed an ordinance of secession by a vote of 84 to 15, and on March 30 ratified the constitution of the Confederate States by a vote of 78 to 7, a resolution to submit it to a vote of the people having been rejected. The first move- ment of the federal troops inthe state was the capture of Biloxi and the removal of a battery of two guns by a force from Ship island, on Dec. 81, 1861. During 1862 the N. portion of the state was the theatre of opera- tions. After the battle of Shiloh the confed- erates retired to Corinth. The federal troops subsequently advanced in force under Gen. Halleck, the town was evacuated, and the fed- 658 MISSISSIPPI erals took possession on May 80. On Sept. 19 a sharp engagement took place near Iuka be- tween the confederates under Gen. Price and the federals under Gen. Rosecrans, which re- sulted in the evacuation of that place by the confederates during the following night. Price, joined by other forces, made an attack on Cor- inth on Oct. 38 and 4, but was repulsed with heavy loss. (See CorintH.) The most impor- tant operations in 1863 were those resulting in the surrender of Vicksburg on July 4. (See VioxsBurG.) Subsequent military movements were of minor importance. On May 18, 1865, the legislature assembled under a call of the governor, and ordered an election on June 19 of delegates to a convention to meet on July 3. - But on June 13 President Johnson appointed William L. Sharkey provisional governor, who immediately entered upon the duties of his office, and on July 1 ordered an election, to be held on Aug. 7, of delegates to a convention, those being entitled to vote who were qualified electors under the laws in force prior to seces- sion, and who had taken the amnesty oath pre- scribed by the proclamation of the president of May 29. The convention met Aug. 14. On the 21st the constitution was amended by abolishing slavery, and on the following day the ordinance of secession was repealed. On Oct. 2 an election of state officers and con- gressmen was held, which resulted in the choice of Benjamin G. Humphreys as gov- ernor. The legislature elected at this time as- sembled on the 16th, and subsequently chose United States senators. But the congressmen and senators were not admitted to their seats. By the congressional reconstruction acts of 1867, Mississippi with Arkansas was consti- tuted the fourth military district, under com- mand of Maj. Gen. E. O. C. Ord. A registra- tion was ordered, and on Nov. 5 an election was held to determine the question of calling a convention and for the choice of delegates to the same, which resulted in 69,789 votes for and 6,277 against a convention. On Dec. 28 Gen. Ord was directed to turn over his com- mand to Gen. A. ©. Gillem. The convention assembled on Jan. 7, 1868, and remained in session till May 18, when it adjourned after adopting a constitution. On June 4 Gen. Ir- win McDowell assumed command of the fourth district, and on the 16th appointed Maj. Gen. Adelbert Ames provisional governor of Mis- sissippi, in place of Gov. Humphreys. At an election held on June 22 the constitution was rejected by a vote of 56,231 to 68,860. In July Gen..Gillem relieved Gen. McDowell. Soon after the inauguration of President Grant (March 4, 1869) Gen. Ames was appointed to the command of the district. On April 10 an act of congress was passed authorizing the president to submit the constitution again to a vote of the people, with such clauses separate as he might deem proper. A proclamation of July 13 appointed Nov. 30 as the day of election, MISSISSIPPI RIVER vote, the most important of which were those disfranchising and disqualifying from _hold- ing office persons who had taken part against the Union in the civil war. The constitu- tion was ratified almost unanimously, and the . objectionable clauses were rejected. At the same time James L. Alcorn, republican, was elected governor over Louis Dent, conserva- tive, by a vote of 76,186 against 38,097. The legislature met on Jan. 11, 1870, and shortly after ratified the 14th and 15th amendments to the constitution of the United States. On Feb. 23 an act was passed by congress for the readmission of the state into the Union, and on March 10 Goy. Alcorn was inaugurated and the civil authorities assumed control.—See ‘* Report on the Geology and Agriculture of the State of Mississippi,” by Eugene W. Hil- gard (Jackson, 1860). (See supplement.) MISSISSIPPI. I, A N. E. county of Arkan- sas, bordering on Missouri, separated on the E. from Tennessee by the Mississippi river, bounded W. by the St. Francis river and Lake St. Fran- cis, and intersected by Little river; area, 1,080 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 3,633, of whom 971 were colored. The surface is low and level, and in the drier portions very fertile, and there are several lakes, the largest of which is Big lake. The chief productions in 1870 were 120,700 bushels of Indian corn, 11,196 of po- tatoes, and 3,587 bales of cotton. There were 695 horses, 465 mules and asses, 1,347 milch cows, 2,941 other cattle, 583 sheep, and 6,263 swine. Capital, Osceola. If. A S. E. county of Missouri, bounded N. E. and S. by the Mis- sissippi river, which separates it from Illinois and Kentucky, and drained by James and Oy- press bayous; area, 380 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,982, of whom 919 were colored. The sur- face is level and the soil very fertile. The St. Louis and Iron Mountain railroad passes through it. The chief productions in 1870 were 5,225 bushels of wheat, 491,990 of In- dian corn, 4,593 of oats, and 57 bales of cot- ton. There were 853 horses, 692 mules and asses, 1,172 milch cows, 2,814 other cattle, 659 sheep, and 14,588 swine. Capital, Charleston. MISSISSIPPI RIVER (Indian, Miche Sepe, as spelled by some old writers, and translated the ‘“‘Great River” and “the Great Father of Waters”’), the principal river of North Amer- ica, and, in connection with its largest tributary the Missouri, the longest river in the world, except perhaps the Nile. It drains the greater part of the territory of the United States lying between the Alleghany and Rocky mountains, a region nearly half as large as Europe. The true Mississippi river begins at the confluence of the Missouri and the Upper Mississippi. It has eight principal tributaries, which, in the order of the extent of the regions drained by them, are the Missouri, Ohio, Upper Missis- sippi, Arkansas, Red, White, Yazoo, and St. Francis. The source of the Mississippi, accord- ing to Schoolcraft, who visited it in 1832, is a and designated certain clauses for a separate | lake called by him Itasca, by the Chippewa MISSISSIPPI RIVER Indians Omoshkos Sagaigon, and by the French traders Lac la Biche. It is a beautiful sheet of water, clear and deep, about 7 m. long and 1 m. to 38 m. wide, in lat. 47° 14’ N., lon. 95° 2’ W., about 1,575 ft. above the sea. Five creeks fall into Lake Itasca, the principal one of which has its origin about 6 m. distant, in a pond formed by water oozing from the bases of the hills known as Hauteurs de Terre, which are about 100 ft. high. ‘The Mississippi at the out- let of the lake is 10 or 12 ft. wide and 18 in. deep, and flows N. E. over petty falls and rapids through a series of small lakes and marshes till it reaches Lac Travers, its most northern point. This is a beautiful sheet of water from 10 to 12 m. long and from 4 to 5 m. wide, surrounded by wooded hills sloping to a beach of pure white sand. From Lac Travers the river flows S. E. and S., and in the first 25 m. is broken into a series of small rapids, from the foot of which it flows with an even current 40 or 50 yards wide and from 2 to 6 ft. deep to Cass lake, which has an area of about 120 sq. m.; thence S. through a series of savannas, separated by several’ lakes, to the falls of Peckagama, where it is compressed into a channel 80 ft. wide. Here the river rushes down a rugged bed of sandstone 20 ft. in 800 yards. Below these falls the river is very crooked, and averages about 40 yards in width. It is broken by six rapids between Swan and Sandy Lake rivers. Savanna river enters the Sandy lake, and is the main canoe route between the Mississippi and Lake Superior. From the outlet of Sandy lake to Pine river, 100 m., the river presents several rapids and islands, and receives a number of small tribu- taries. Crow Wing river, the largest tributary above the falls of St. Anthony, is nearly equal to the Mississippi itself. The Elk river, the Little falls, Big falls, Prairie rapids, and St. Francis river follow in the order named; and finally the falls of St. Anthony are reached, where the river pitches over a perpendicular face of sandstone 18 ft. high. An island at the brink of the falls divides the current into. two channels, the largest of which flows by the west side, and affords a great water power. Including the rapids above and below the falls, the entire descent of the river is about 65 ft. within three quarters of amile. These falls are about 2,200 m. from the gulf of Mexico, and constitute the natural head of steamboat navi- gation; but small vessels ply regularly above the falls for several hundred miles, according to the stage of water. The next natural obstruction to navigation below the falls of St. Anthony are the Rock Island rapids, extending from Le- claire to the cities of Rock Island and Daven- port, a distance of 14m. The descent is 24 ft. at extreme low water. The bed of the river throughout the rapids is stratified limestone, more or less folded, and forming chains or barriers which extend entirely across the chan- nel at six or seven points. In 1866 congress directed the removal of these chains, and also 659 the improvement of the lower or Des Moines rapid, 130 m. below the upper rapid, and be- tween Montrose and Keokuk. The length of the latter is 12 m., and the descent 28 ft. at low water. Before the improvements were under- taken, there was about 11 m. of deep water and good navigation on the upper rapids, and only 3} m. on the lower rapids. The duty of devising plans for the improvement of the rap- ids was assigned to Gen. J. H. Wilson, U.S. A., who recommended that the obstruction at the upper rapids should be removed mainly by the use of coffer dams (see Dam, vol. v., p. 650), and that the lower rapids should be improved by similar means, supplemented by a lateral canal 7m. long, 300 ft. wide, and having three locks each 80 ft. wide and 850 ft. long. A board of engineers approved these plans, and congress ordered them to be carried into effect. The improvements, under the supervision of Gen. Wilson and his successor Col. Macomb, have been pushed forward as fast as the appropria- tions would permit, and are now (November, 1874) almost completed at the upper rapids, while four fifths of the work has been done at the lower rapids, The improvements will cost about $5,000,000, and when completed will enable the largest boats to pass the rapids, whenever they can reach them either from above or below. But the navigation of the entire Upper Mississippi is rendered very difii- cult during the dry season by the frequent re- currence of sand bars; and although the gov- ernment has done something by the use of dredge boats and wing dams to deepen the water on the worst of these, no systematic plan of improvement has yet been devised or can be carried out till a much denser and richer population shall inhabit the regions to be bene- fited. But it is safe to say that between the falls of St. Anthony and the mouth of the Ohio there is water enough at the driest sea- son, if properly regulated and controlled, to give a navigable depth of 6 ft. and ample width for all uses to which it can be put.—The Mis- sissippi river, from the mouth of the Missouri to the gulf, is 1,286 m. long; from the source of the Upper Mississippi, 2,616 m. . The dis- tance from the Madison fork source of the Missouri to the gulf is 4,194 m., and from the head of the Ohio river at Gloudersport, Pa., to the gulf, 2,551 m. The numerous branches of the navigable waters connected with the Mississippi penetrate all the states and terri- tories between the Rocky and Alleghany mountains. The capacity of these branches for navigation has been as yet only partially developed, but a careful compilation shows that they constitute a natural system of wa- ter communication having an aggregate ex- tent of about 15,000 m.—The following table, taken from Humphreys and Abbot’s ‘‘ Report upon the Hydraulics of the Mississippi River ” (4to, Philadelphia, 1861), shows the area of the basins, downfall of rain, and annual drainage of the Mississippi and its principal tributaries: 660 BASIN. aL square miles. Ohio wivers [ss sl sk teclerd infers Salale + aleld ake AYN eerste 214,000 Missouri river. «cis csure's stays) stouelain aioe elaine 518,000 Uppers Mississippi cscs aicitet> scutye eee errat 169,000 Small tributaries ss. wicce « vss wiseice sol aee eee aeiette 82 400 Arkansas and White rivers ..........22.-seceee. 189,000 ROC TIVOr Donncha. fe ah tase sluts ele Eee Eee 97,000 VAZ00' TIVE SS. cate cles vies qs sles ole eee eteleietnnre nie’ 13,850 Stbrancis Wiveri stk ek weee icles ee eaa eye 10,500 Entire Mississippi exclusive of Red river........ 1,147,000 Below the mouth of Red river, the Mississippi is divided into numerous arms or passes, each of which pursues an independent course to the gulf. The highest of these is the Atchafalaya on the W. side of the river. Below its point of separation from the Mississippi the region of swampy lands, of bayous and creeks,, is known as the delta. Above this the alluvial plain of the river extends to the Chains, 30 m. above the mouth of the Ohio, and to Cape Gi- rardeau in Missouri, where precipitous rocky banks are first met with. These are the lower secondary limestone strata lying in nearly hori- zontal beds. The total length of the plain from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf is esti- mated at 500 m. Its breadth at the upper extremity varies from 30 to 50 m.; at Mem- phis it is about 30 m., and at the mouth of White river 80 m. The extreme width of the delta is rated at 150 m., its average width is probably 90 m., and its area 12,300 sq. m. The elevation of the bottom lands at Cairo above the sea level is about 310 ft., while the slope of the high-water surface from that place to the gulf is from 322 to 0. These bottom lands are subject to inundation, and conse- quent annual enrichment. Under the system of slave labor large plantations were opened in the dense forests which cover them, but vast tracts of unsurpassed fertility are yet cov- ered with canebrakes and cypress. The allu- vial plain, extending from above Cairo to the gulf, is terminated on the east and the west by a line of bluffs of irregular height and direc- tion, composed of strata of the eocene and later tertiary formations. Down this plain the river flows in a serpentine course, fre- quently washing the base of the hills on the E. side, as at Columbus, Randolph, Memphis, Vicksburg, Grand Gulf, Natchez, and Baton Rouge, and once passing to the opposite side at Helena. The actual length of the river from the mouth of the Ohio to the gulf is 1,097 m., increasing the distance in a straight line by about 600 m., and by its flexures also reducing the rate of its descent to less than half the inclination of the plain down which it flows. The range between high and low water at Cairo, near the head of the plain, is 51 ft., and at New Orleans it is 14-4 ft. The river flows in a trough about 4,470 ft. wide at the head, and 3,000 ft. at the foot. The immense curves of the stream in its course’ through the alluvial plain sweep around in half circles, and the river sometimes, after MISSISSIPPI RIVER Annual downfall, Annual drainage, in cubic feet. in cubic feet. Ratio 20,700,000,000,000 5,000,000,000,000 0°24 25,200,000,000,000 3,780,000,000,000 0-15 13,800,000,000,000 3,300,000,000,000 0-24 3,600, 000,000,000 3,240,000,000,000 0-90 13,000,000,000,000 2,000,000,000,000 0°15 8,800,000,000,000 1,800,000,000,000 0°20 1,500,000,000,000 1'350,000,000,000 0-90 1,100,000,000,000 9,990,000,000,000 0°90 73/900,000,000,000 18'900,000;000,000 0°25 traversing 25 or 80 m., is brought within a mile or less of the place it had before passed. In heavy floods the water occasionally bursts through the tongue of land, and form what is called a ‘‘ cut-off,” which may become a new and permanent channel. The height of the banks and the great depth of the river bed check the frequent formation of these cut-offs, and attempts to produce them artificially have often failed, especially when the soil is a tough blue clay, which is not readily worn away by flowing water. This was the case at Bayou Sara, where in 1845 an excavation intended to turn the river was made, by which a circuit of 25 m. would have been reduced to a cut of one mile; and also at Vicksburg in 1862~’3, where the Union army endeavored to make a cut-off out of range of the confederate guns. Semicircular lakes, which are deserted river bends, are scattered over the alluvial tract. These are inhabited by alligators, wild fowl, and gar fish, which the steamboats have nearly driven away from the main river. At high water the river overflows into these lakes. The low country around is then entirely sub- merged, and extensive seas spread out on either side, the river itself being marked by the clear broad band of water in the midst of the forests that appear above it. The great freshets usually occur in the spring, and are often attended with very serious consequences. Crevasses are formed in the banks and increase with the flow, which becomes so violent that boats are occasionally carried with their crews into the intricacies of the bayous which lead the waters to the streams at the foot of the bluffs.—The lower portion of the alluvial plain, called the delta, rises from a few inches to 10 ft. only above the level of the sea, and is formed of sands and clays in horizontal layers. The delta protrudes into the gulf of Mexico far beyond the general coast line, and is slow- ly but imperceptibly advancing into the gulf by the shoaling caused by the deposition of the sediment brought down the river. This is mostly dispersed by the waves and currents, and distributed over the bottom of the gulf. Although the banks of the passes are some- times observed to have advanced in the course of afew years sensibly into the gulf, these are but narrow strips of land, which may be swept away by the rush of the gulf waters driven up by storms, leaving the long coast of the delta but slightly changed. The old French maps of the early part of the last century still very cor- es ——-v MISSISSIPPI RIVER rectly represent many of the mud banks and 661 very variable, sometimes reaching 150 ft., but channels or bayous around the Balize, which | the maximum is more commonly from 120 to is the station of the pilots at the mouth of the river. Here only, for a distance of 100 m. from the gulf, is the river seriously obstructed by bars. Over these the depth of water is some- times only 15 ft.; but this is very changeable, as the channels are shifted by the floods in the river and the gulf storms. These bars are com- posed of blue clay mud, through which vessels drawing 2 or 3 ft. more water than the actual depth can be taken by steam tugs. Great ef- forts have been made by the government to re- move these obstructions by dredging, and the depth of water has been increased thereby to 21 ft.; but owing to the difficulty of maintain- ing such a great depth with dredges, congress has appointed a board of engineers to investi- gate the subject and report a plan.—The sedi- ment of the lower Mississippi is chiefly a fine clayey matter, so universally suspended in the water as to give it a thick muddy appearance. The Upper Mississippi is clear, but the Missouri pours into it a vast amount of whitish muddy matter, which renders the water so turbid that at St. Louis one cannot see through a tumbler filled with it. This, however, does not prevent its being generally used for drinking, and for culinary purposes. The Ohio adds to it a green- ish current, and the Arkansas and Red rivers pour in the red ochreous sediment already re- ferred to; while the Mississippi itself excavates its alluvial plain and sweeps down, intermingled with the rest, vast quantities of vegetable soil that falls in the banks of the river. The coarser pebbles and sands accumulate in the bends and eddies, forming bars, and the lighter materials are deposited in the gulf of Mexico. Accord- ing to the report of Capt. (mow Gen.) Hum- phreys and Lieut. (now Gen.) Abbot, a com- parison of the results of many observations during a long period leads to the belief that the weight of the sediment of the Mississippi is z57 that of the water, and its bulk 5,5; and if the mean annual discharge of the river be assumed to be 19,500,000,000,000 cubic feet, it follows that 812,500,000,000 pounds of sedi- mentary matter, constituting one square mile of deposit 241 ft. in depth, are yearly trans- ported to the gulf. In addition to the amount held in suspension, the Mississippi pushes along large quantities of earthy matter. No exact measurement of this can be made, but from the yearly rate of progress of the bars into the gulf, it appears to be about 750,000,000 cubic feet, which would cover a square mile about 27 ft. deep. The total yearly contributions from the river to the gulf amount then to a prism 268 ft. high, with a base of one square mile.— The uniformity of width of the Mississippi is very remarkable. At New Orleans it is about 3,000 ft. wide, and from this it varies little for a distance of nearly 2,000 m., except that in the bends it swells out to 1 or even 14 m. The junction of its principal branches pro- duces no increase in the width. The depth is 130 ft. The mean depth at high-water mark is about the same at Carrollton and at Natchez, 300 m. further up. A section of the river at Carrollton, made at high-water mark in 1858, comprises 184,000 square feet, and at Natchez 221,000. The mean rate of descent varies at low water from ‘005 of a foot per mile at the head of the passes, to ‘578 of a foot at Cairo, and in high-water from ‘115 of a foot to -497 of a foot per mile. The velocity varies at Carrollton from 1:45 to 2°61 m. per hour, ac- cording to the stage of the water and the di- rection of the wind.—The Mississippi, like the other great rivers of the west, is continually gathering into its current numbers of trees, as the banks upon which they grew are under- mined. They are frequently left in the main channels, their roots fixed to the bottom, and their tops pointing down stream. In this con- dition they are known as snags and sawyers, and present to boats ascending the river, espe- cially at night, a most dangerous obstruction. But continual care is now given to the removal of these obstructions. The accumulations of the drift materials in the arms of the river have sometimes been so great as to bridge these over and extend for miles up the current. The obstruction is then known by the name of raft. From about the year 1778 such an accu- mulation had been gathering in the Atchafalaya, until in 1816 it had extended to full 10 m. in length, over 600 ft. in width and about 8 ft. in depth. Though rising and falling with the water, it afforded a soil for the growth of bushes and of trees, some of which reached the height of 60 ft. In 1885 the state of Louisiana took measures to have it removed, and this was finally accomplished at a heavy cost in the course of four years. The Red river raft is still more famous for the large sums which have been appropriated by congress to effect its removal, the work upon which has been carried on with great success of late years, and is now almost completed. The appropriations made from time to time by congress for the Mississippi river comprise the following items: Mouth of Mississippi river, from 1836 to 1856.,... $690,000 . me ae - MPV LESG to 1870... : 1,224,850 Mississippi river. between Illinois and Ohio rivers. — 665,000 WesPNlOines APCS cect. aeielalss ota stereic apejsiieeusiee.s)- ,028,200 FRG CRAIS TANG Va PICS. os a cuvteystsrstoveve ornerore sterstny 573) < oe « 1,039,650 Upper Mississippi river, including falls of St. An- CROMY vectra tates spe - red ae TAL wo Eat eeiawlalsie.s 677,640 Mississippi river, including rapids (1836 to 1856)... 465,000 ph otal cosieaterc starts tite Sis scares a Sate siels » aavelicnls $7,789,840 —For a full statement of measurements, all the phenomena, physical. elements, and laws relating to this great river, see the ‘‘ Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mis- sissippi River,” prepared by Capt. A. A. Humphreys and Lieut. H. L. Abbot, U. 8. army (4to, Philadelphia, 1861), and also the official reports of the chief of engineers to the war department.—The first European explorer 663 MISSOLONGHI of the Mississippi valley was De Soto, who with his party reached the river in June, 1541, as is supposed not far below the site of He- lena in Arkansas. (See Dr Soro.) In 1673 Marquette and Joliet descended the river to within three days’ journey of its mouth. La Salle in 1682 descended the river to the gulf of Mexico, and took possession of the country in the name of the king. of France. About the year 1699 Iberville built a fort upon the banks of the river, and in 1703 the settle- ment of St. Peter’s was made upon the Yazoo branch. New Orleans was laid out in 1718, and levees were immediately commenced, which were completed in front of the city ten years afterward. At that time the levee system of lower Louisiana was fully established. MISSOLONGHI, or Mesolonghi, a town of Greece, capital of the united nomarchy of Acarnania and /Etolia, 24 m. W. of Lepanto, on the N. side of the gulf of Patras; pop. about 6,000. It stands in a level plain 18 m. long and 4 m. broad, watered by the Achelous and Evenus, and extending from the base of Mt. Aracyn- thus to the gulf. The walls are washed by the sea, but the water is so shallow that nothing larger than a small fishing boat can approach nearer than 4 or5 m. Missolonghi is the most important strategical point of western Greece, and is famous for the sieges it has sustained. In 1804 it fell under the dominion of Ali Pasha. In 1821 it joined in the revolt against the Turks, and on Noy. 5 Mavrocordato and Mar- co Bozzaris threw themselves with 400 men into the place, which was almost deserted and scarcely defensible, the fortifications consisting only of alow and ruinous wall, without bas- tions, and a small ditch in many places filled with rubbish. With only 14 old guns and scanty ammunition, Mavrocordato made a bril- liant defence for more than two months against a Turkish army of 14,000. On Nov. 23 the Greeks succeeded in throwing in reénforce- ments by sea, and the Turks were compelled to raise the siege, Jan. 6, 1823. The town was then fortified under the direction of Eng- lish officers, at the expense of an Englishman named Murray, and became one of the strong- est places in Greece. From September to De- cember, 1823, Missolonghi was blockaded for 59 days by the Turks, who besieged the neigh- boring Anatolico, and was defended by Con- stantine Bozzaris, until relieved by Mavrocor- dato. Lord Byron reached Missolonghi Jan. 5, 1824, and died there April 19. The last and greatest siege of Missolonghi began in April, 1825, when Reshid Pasha invested it with a large army, which was reénforced in July by the arrival of a powerful fleet, and in January, 1826, by Ibrahim Pasha with an army of 20,000 Egyptians. The garrison of 5,000 Greeks, commanded by Noto Bozzaris, made a desperate defence, repulsing repeated assaults, and, though suffering terribly from want of provisions, refused to capitulate, notwithstand- img repeated offers of the most favorable terms. MISSOURI When continual bombardment had reduced the town to a heap of ruins and the last of their food had been consumed, at midnight of April 22, 1826, the garrison, placing the women in the centre, sallied forth in a body, and cutting their way through the Turkish camp gained the mountains, to the number of about 2,000. Those who were too feeble to join in the sortie assembled in a large mill which was used as a powder magazine, and when the Turks entered the town blew themselves up together with a large number of the enemy. The town has been rebuilt of late years, but the fortifications are decayed. Marco Bozzaris is buried here, and a statuein white marble, presented in 1835 by the French sculptor David, has been erect- ed over his grave. Near this monument is a mound of earth with an inscription com- memorative of other victims of the war. By- ron’s remains were conveyed to England, but his heart, which was deposited in a silver box in a mausoleum erected to his honor, was lost in the confusion of the sortie of 1826. MISSOULA, the N. W. county of Montana, bounded N. by British America and W. and S. by Idaho; area, 20,400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 2,554. It lies mostly between the Bitter Root and Rocky mountains, contains the head waters of Clarke’s fork of the Columbia, and is in- tersected in the N. W. by the Kootenay river. Flathead lake, 10 m. wide and 25 m. long, is the only important lake in the territory. Gold is found, and the census of 1870 returns 68 placer mines as in operation. The chief pro- ductions were 32,436 bushels of wheat, 15,836 of oats, 1,534 of barley, 12,152 of potatoes, 12,925 Ibs. of butter, and 956 tons of hay. There were 1,045 horses, 1,134 milch cows, 1,378 other cattle, and 874swine; 3 flour mills, and 4 saw mills. Capital, Missoula. MISSOURI, a central state of the American Union, and the 11th admitted under the federal constitution, situated between lat. 36° and 40° 30’ N., and lon. 89° 2’ and 95° 42’ W.; length N. and 8. 277 m.; average breadth about 244 m., varying from 208 m. in the north to 312 m. in the south; area, 65,350 sq. m., including a narrow strip between the St. Francois and Mississippi rivers, extending beyond the general body of the state 4° southward between Arkan- sas and Tennessee. Missouri is bounded N. by Iowa; E. by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, from which the Mississippi river divides it; S. by Arkansas; and W. by Indian territory, Kan- sas, and Nebraska, from which it is divided by a N. and §. line on the meridian of the mouth of Kansas river, and thence N. by the main chan- nel of the Missouri river. The state is divided into 114 counties, viz.: Adair, Andrew, Atch- ison, Audrain, Barry, Barton, Bates, Benton, Bollinger, Boone, Buchanan, Butler, Caldwell, Callaway, Camden, Cape Girardeau, Carroll, Carter, Cass, Cedar, Chariton, Christian, Clarke, Clay, Clinton, Cole, Cooper, Crawford, Dade, Dallas, Daviess, De Kalb, Dent, Douglas, Dunk- lin, Franklin, Gasconade, Gentry, Greene, Grun- a oAlta Vista | G: +,@ ‘ te gaat 3 86 k, te oe ate ee ey : ~Avaldéns Cunniy} 9 bt a SOM agislioty’ | t. ‘Marshall “ack Leong ache ord od % o Finney. ®©Burlingame os a oes i X ne ie rs spy a = « ; 22 SChi AS g lore a q eX >t baa y E Zi x ai Spr 9,000 Northwestern lunatic asylum..............0506 200,000 WMUVOEBILY ice tee ete ci se ec ccc cece ssl ce nada 201,000 S. W. branch Pacific railroad (guaranteed)....... 1,589,000 Refunding state bank stock...............-ee00+ 04,000 DRESS DOMOR ce uiiek sa basa sc cc suc evese sen 400,000 Certificate to'school Tandy. os. . ve ccc ese cece vee 900,000 EE ig NG Raa ehh 95 oa coe sp wkeds $20,839,000 The total receipts into the treasury during the 669 year ending Jan. 1, 1875, were $3,307,419, while the disbursements on warrants amounted to $3,434,782. The balance in the treasury was $566,215. The constitution provides that an annual tax of 15 per cent. shall be levied upon the gross:receipts of the Pacific, North Missouri, and St. Louis and Iron Mountain rail- roads for the payment of the principal and interest of the state bonds received by those companies; also a tax of one quarter of one per cent. on all real and personal taxable prop- erty for the payment of the state debt. Accord- ing to the federal census of 1870, the assessed value of real estate was $418,527,535; person- al, $187,602,434. The total taxable wealth in 1874 (two counties not reported) was $589,- 174,215, on which there was levied a revenue tax (4 of 1 per cent.) of $1,178,496, interest tax (4 of 1 per cent.) of $1,473,188, and county tax amounting to $5,179,241.—The state asy- lum for the insane is in Fulton, and was opened in 1851. Of the total number (668) treated during the two years ending Dec. 1, 1874, 136 were discharged recovered, 47 improved, 65 stationary, and 82 died. In1875 there were 338 in the asylum. The insane asylum in St. Louis is a county institution, but the state ap- propriated $30,000 toward its support during 1873 and 1874. An additional asylum for the insane was established at St. Joseph in 1874. Deaf and dumb persons between the ages of 7 and 30 years are received free of charge for board and tuition at the state asylum in Fulton. This was opened in 1851, and at the beginning of 1873 had 146 pupils and 8 instructors. The annual appropriation by the state for current expenses is $7,000, besides $2,500 to the indi- gentfund. St. Bridget’s institute (Roman Cath- olic) in St. Louis, for the education of the deaf and dumb, was founded in 1860. The institu- tion for the blind in St. Louis, opened in 1851, receives from the state an annual appropria- tion of $15,000, besides the salaries of officers and teachers, amounting to about $6,000. There were 100 pupils in attendance in 1874. The state penitentiary at Jefferson City has a capacity for 1,200 convicts; the number in- confinement in 1874 was 1,000, including 42 females. Punishment is by the dungeon, and in some cases the lash. The prisoners are em- ployed in the manufacture of shoes, furniture, saddletrees, and barrels, and in the foundery and machine shop; about 500 convicts were thus employed in 1874. The penitentiary is leased to a company, and is just becoming self- sustaining.—The constitution requires the gen- eral assembly to maintain free schools open to all persons between the ages of 5 and 21 years. Separate schools may be established for colored children, but all funds provided for the sup- port of public schools must be appropriated in proportion to the number of children with- out regard to color. Certain lands and other sources of income are set apart for a perma- nent school fund, and in case the income of such fund be insufficient to sustain a free school 670 at least four months in every year in each school district, the general assembly may raise the necessary amount bya local tax. The per- manent school fund on Jan. 1, 1875, amounted to $2,624,354, the income of which, with 25 per cent. of the state revenue, is distributed annually according to the number of pupils enumerated. The amount thus distributed March 81, 1874, was $410,269. The legal school age is from 5 to 21. The general assembly is empowered to provide for compulsory educa- tion. The supervision of public instruction is vested by the constitution in a board of educa- tion, consisting of a superintendent of public schools, elected by the people for four years, and the secretary of state and attorney general. A state university, ‘“‘with departments for instruction in teaching, in agriculture, and in natural science,” is made a part of the free public school system of the state. Appropria- tions of any public fund for sectarian education by the state, county, or any municipal corpora- tion, are prohibited by the constitution. The most important statistics of the public schools of the state for 1873 are thus reported by the state superintendent: 705,817 843,540 Number of persons between 5 and 21 years of age. DALE EUBION toh acscominins Siebicisleldo's video s/t stein eM -foIMales acces ert oe meee: Mee tec Sete ts 824,034 Coloredimalesis.2™s. .2) 8h. di. eae en ae 20,591 mi peal OM AGS. se tarstecs ever kee eile inde ences 17,652 Number between the ages of 5 and 16 years....... 485,249 Nimbex, of publichschoolsac. tena scts oti seine 829 Kor} white persOnaiatios taster shit a leeicigee bowie ele 7,547 HOT COLreGsPOrsOUBs emits smtdesto ey ice ente 282 Number of school districts: .....22.05). dociee cscs 4,483 Shot; SCHOOLHOUSES, Jo. eh es bela ehh eee ete 7,224 eeyeOl Ptivate Schoolsecscck scr eeeste accion: 661 eS WOLsmorm aleschools-ses. dese ene ere tet 5 Number enrolled in public schools............... 871,440 a oy San) Private SChOOIS. peta. oh eres nies cree te oo aes ee TE Ene ce $252,461 From county fund 7292). oan eee oe $181,546 rom township fundss st. .ck ta seleeeie the ts tee $187,222 AUTOM GbAXGLIOTL Len eee Bie Lp eee eo ees $1,496,483 WOpalexpendituresancnsacre te oem tenet oe ee $1,638,353 A me Tenchersu/wagescs. . Si. P eee. ene ee $1,125,605 Buildings and grounds 4 . jc. .¢ «dee eee ehceaee $295,026 Ent OLTOOMS/ANG Tepalrs. ss, 5 cee oe eee $84,518 Fuel and contingencies.................e0s00e- $67,387 Hurnitureandiapparatus.. ..'..ieieetmceenaes $65,822 Balance of moneys unaccounted for............ $479.309 Total valuation of school property............... $6,774,506 Cost of education per scholar, based on enumera- DENT ey aa sha ucts cota s Bis’ okies ac, tim acaecas hale $3 00 Cost of education per scholar, based on attendance OPGOHTOMMEN Gs shire visi Fiesta e ore chide aoe em $5 70 There are six normal schools, supported at public expense and without charge for tuition, with an aggregate capacity for upward of 2,300 pupils, viz.: the normal college connected with the state university, with accommodations for 150 students; the city normal school in St. Louis, 150; the North Missouri school, at Kirksville, 700; the South Missouri, at War- rensburg, 600; the Southeast Missouri, at Cape Girardeau, 500; and the normal department of Lincoln institute, at Jefferson City, 200. The MISSOURI condition of these institutions in 1873-’4 is shown in the following statement: Annual Organ No. of in-| No. of INSTITUTIONS. at; state APPrO- | i tors. | pupils. priation. Normal department state university....)] 1868 | ...... 13 83 North Missouri nor- mal school-:.2..:-. 1871 $10,000 9 668 South Missouri nor- mal school).c.5 ccm 1871 10,000 11 898 Southeast Missouri normal school...... 1873 5,000 5 113 St. Louis normal SCHOO on < dey eceree SO Uy Weaaetsnats sie 11 123 Normal department Lincoln institute...| 1866 5,000 6 40 | The normal schools are established upon a broad and liberal basis. The North Missouri and South Missouri schools have been erected at a cost of about $150,000 and $200,000 respectively. The complete course embraces four years. The normal department of Lincoln institute is for the training of colored teachers, while that in St. Louis is a city institution, though open to applicants from all parts of the state. The law requires two teachers’ institutes to be held in each county every year.—The state univer- sity, organized in 1840, is at Columbia, near the centre of the state. It has received Mis- souri’s portion of the national grant of land made by congress in 1862 for the establish- ment of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Its government is vested in a board of 24 curators, who are appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, and who ap- point the president and instructors. There is also a board of five visitors, who are required to examine into the condition of the university at least once a year. The plan of the institu- tion embraces the college proper; the normal school, opened in 1868; agricultural and me- chanical college, 1870; school of mines and metallurgy at Rolla, 1871; college of law, 1872; medical college, 1873; and department of analytica] and applied chemistry, 1873. It is expected that other departments relating to the mechanic arts, the fine arts, engineering, and architecture and construction will be or- ganized. The total number of students in attendance during the year 1873-’4 was 553, including 5 resident graduates, 176 in the col- lege proper, 216 in the preparatory department, 107 in the school of mines, 34 in the law, and 15 in the medical school. The whole number of instructors was 29. The university is open to women on the same terms as to men. The scientific department of Washington university in St. Louis was opened in 1857, and the col- lege in 1859. It now embraces: 1, the acad- emy, a preparatory department; 2, Mary insti- tute, a seminary for girls; 8, the college; 4, the polytechnic department; 5, the law school. In 1873-4 the number of instructors in all depart- ments was 22, and of pupils 908. The colleges and professional schools of the state are repre- sented in the following statement for 1873-4: MISSOURI 671 D. No. of | No, of ate o NAME OF INSTITUTION. Where situated, Denomination. organi- No. of | pupils, | pupils, sition. teachers. | prepar-| colle- atory. | giate Central college............0... uae sacar se te tate Fayette .| M. E. church, South..| 1871 6 80 | 100 Obristian untvarsitiycg nie wo. eeeae ok vid esetas ots aan oe Canton ........ Christian...... Nb aoDE 1856 8 160 St. Louis ...... Roman Catholic .....| 1859 ae oan Springfield ....| Congregational. ...... 1873 8 92 23 Hannibal oollegeyoct ads tosh elec oe cv Hannibal ..... . E. church, South.| 1868 5 90 | 145 Lewis college ..... Ficinid Pocene COC TCO AO OO, Glasgow....... Methodist Episcopal..| 1865 4 ay, 65 Greenwood....| United Presbyterian..| 1870 4 ADS ilitiels McGee college..... Angina codtioouyerede Sopdemeaddnaeder College Mound.| Cumb. Presbyterian..| 1853 10 .. | 184* St. Joseph..... Roman Catholic...... 1867 9 100 92 St. Louis ...... Roman Catholic..... .| 1832 23 oo | Bt4t Palmyra....... Protestant Episcopal.| 1844 SS iweste Cape Girardeau| Roman Catholic...... 1844 15 IS ee Washington mniversiig rae his fristit's as sek eB s Shes SELGUIS cscs cl) sci so AOC ACROSS sobonel) Hey 22 883 34 Westminster college......... atalelfe eS (ata ale sions ieinverenats Waltons: ves Presbyterian.......... 1852 5 ae v5) William Jowell college oe oii ade ici is les MADE. si teen OADUIBSt Wee see eos 1858 9 Ae ty ne FG Wondland colleges. icine 25s iss ae bwoars cde cea Independence .| Christian............. 1869 4 80 yous THEOLOGIOAL SCHOOLS, German Evangelical Lutheran college, Concordia....| St. Louis....... Evangelical Lutheran,| 1839 6 = ell Ok St VECCR NG tial Ck nce sls Shoe ig erodis wid Dolaresinarack pie Cape Girardeau.! Roman Catholic...... 1844 16 é 19 Theological school of Westminster college........... Halonen iastecters Presbyterian’, <.1..¢.c1610 aisle ate : ik Vandeman school of theology............seeseeeees EMBO Vesna «5 suc] DADUBt «cece esects.s 0 1869 5 : 49 LAW SCHOOLS. Law college of state university...... Sec etiO.cMRO ABCD Columbiaeeee..cbosvesueose tee ae tere oe 1872 7 84 Law department of Washington university.......... Sind OMICS Gna AIRS stan kitid a AGogare rhc 1867 10 40 MEDICAL SCHOOLS. Kansas City college of physicians and surgeons...... Kansas! Cityonaniltctetsssteeses sells ae ee 1869 10 15 Medical college of state university.................. Columbia: satiation oes taee ate erator eles 1873 5 15 Missouri medicals Coles ote serie ace sreisie 0-0 s/s eter scl BESO S se ecriatotcprsciis cits ciataiotelars at's 1840 18 61 At.lonis, medicalicolléves eo. Sie... cher dl iles erat Ry ee ee DEENA Sete iteacte iolehere 1841 10 . 164 Homeopathic medical college of Missouri........... Bae” Oe be SS EISELE Orc Lied to 1858 13 389 Missouri dentalicolleze. ooo. 2c). 5 saa sjsic.ca cecle ds aneeves Ce Pe IE Opie Gaetan Gc 1865 13 8 Stwouisicollege oF pharmacy ..0-s-0cc0 ccccet cece te oe PE Amal otras ctcieiere’s ctiere ere ate ete 1864 3 42 SCIENTIFIO SCHOOLS. Agricultural and mechanical college (state university)| Columbia ......|........+s.eeeeeeeeeee 1870 10 183 Missouri school of mines and metallurgy (state uni-| face ee ec ec ese ceeeeeecs VErBity) so scau tess sees baileee Soleo dace ROC Satie FROUBIR= 54404 a cio aeite weeieuelv os eels cote 1871 6 sae [ekOe Polytechnic department of Washington university...| St. Louis.......)...0.e.sccececeseecees 1857 16 ac 389 The leading institutions for the advanced in- struction of women are the Ursuline academy, Mary institute, and academy of the Visitation, in St. Louis; Christian college and Stephen’s female college, Columbia; Howard female col- lege, Fayette; Independence female college, Independence; St. Teresa’s academy, Kansas City; Liberty female college, Liberty; Ingle- side female college, Palmyra; and Lindenwood college for young ladies, St. Charles. The old- est of these are the academy of the Visita- tion, organized in 1833, and Ursuline academy, opened in 1848, both Roman Catholic. Nine of these institutions report an aggregate of 1,136 pupils, of whom 807 were in the colle- giate and 829 in preparatory studies, and 97 instructors, including 11 males. St. Louis has four commercial and business colleges, and there is one in St. Joseph and one in Kansas City.—According to the census of 1870, the total number of educational institutions in Missouri was 6,750, having 9,028 teachers, of whom 3,871 were females, and 370,337 pupils. The total income of the whole was $4,340,805, of which $57,567 was from endowment, $3,- 067,449 from taxation and public funds, and $1,215,789 from tuition and other sources. Besides the 5,996 public schools, having 7,862 teachers, there were 87 colleges with 261 * In all departments. + In collegiate commercial courses. 564 VOL. x1.—43 teachers and 6,067 students, 45 academies with 338 teachers and 5,031 pupils, and 586 private schools with 770 teachers and 26,816 pupils. The total number of libraries in the state was 5,645, having 1,065,638 volumes; 3,903 with 566,642 volumes were private, and 1,742 with 498,996 volumes other than private. Of the latter there was 1 state library, with 12,000 volumes; 11 town, city, &c., 8,097; 125 court and law, 35,104; 50 school, college, &c., 44,825; 1,283 Sabbath school, 188,493; 248 church, 96,845; and 28 circulating, 112,450. The largest libraries in the state are the St. Louis mercantile, 45,000 volumes; St. Louis university, 25,000; public school library of St. Louis, 36,000; and college ‘of the Christian Brothers, 10,000. The total number of news- papers and periodicals was 279, having an ageregate circulation of 522,866, and issuing annually 47,980,422 copies. There were 21 daily, with a circulation of 86,655; 5 tri-weekly, 18,800; 225 weekly, 342,361; 8semi-monthly, 22,000; 23 monthly, 53,650; and 1 annual, 1,500. In 1874 there were reported 24 daily, 5 tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly, 284 weekly, 6 semi-monthly, 80 monthly, 1 bi-monthly, and 1 quarterly ; total, 352.—In 1870 the state con- tained 38,229 religious organizations, having 2,082 edifices with 691,520 sittings, and prop- erty valued at $9,709,358. The different de- nominations were represented as follows: 672 DENOMINATIONS, i, rae Edifices. | Sittings. | Property. Raptist, regular........ 792 | 513 144,210 |$1,090,708 A, NE ORROP ES sicten he 13 5 1,150 5,000 Christian’ ten sms 5 894 | 229 68,545 | 514,700 Congregational......... 37 27 12,295 235,700 Episcopal, Protestant...| 83 51 20,950 485,650 Evangelical Association. 5 5 1,800 15,000 Wriends,, dedcsictes at tie 2 500 2,000 JOWISH SE. -hecusenetiens 4 4 2,100 217,100 Lutheran vers cee cess. 94 86 89,550 768,600 Methodist.s.75..ccsa0:5 1,066 | 626 185,420 | 1,645,300 New Jerusalem (Swe- denborgian),.......-. 4 8 1,000 22,500 Presbyterian, regular...| 8382 | 2382 %4,500 | 1,210,750 Cy other..... 144 87 28,850 175,000 Reformed church in the United States (late German Reformed)...| 11 9 1,900 16,900 Roman Catholic........ 184 | 166 97,550 | 3,119,450 Unitarianw. oes eee i 9 3,200 142,200 United Breth’nin Christ} 388 20 5,800 82,000 Universalist...........- 2 900 2,500 Unknown (Union)...... 5 6 1,800 8,300 —By the grant of Louis XIV. to Crozat dated Sept. 14, 1712, ‘‘all the country drained by the waters emptying directly or indirectly into the Mississippi is included in the boundaries of Lou- isiana.” (See Lovistana.) The states of Ar- kansas, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska were parts of the same grand division. The northern por- tion was called Upper Louisiana. The settle- ment and progress of Missouri were later and less rapid than those of the lower districts; but as early as 1720 its lead mines had attracted attention. In 1755 Ste. Genevieve, its oldest town, was founded. In 1762 France ceded to Spain the territory W. of the Mississippi, and the portion E. of that river to England. France had been despoiled of all her North American possessions. During the contest numbers of Canadian French settled in both Upper and Lower Louisiana, and a flourishing river trade sprang up between the two sections. Lands were granted liberally to the colonists, and numerous emigrants from Spain flocked into the country. In 1775 St. Louis, originally a depot for the fur trade, contained 800 inhab- itants, and Ste. Genevieve about 460. At this time Spain, siding with the colonists, entered into hostilities against England. In Lower Louisiana and Florida the arms of Spain were successful; but in 1780 St. Louis was attacked by a body of English and Indians from Michili- mackinac, and was only relieved by the time- ly arrival of Gen. Clarke from Kaskaskia. The general peace of 1783 put an end to hostilities. In the division of the Louisiana purchase in 1803, Missouri was included in the district of Louisiana, which in 1805 was erected into the territory of Louisiana, with St. Louis as the seat of its government. In 1812, on the admission of the present state of Louisiana into the Union, the name of the territory was changed to Missouri, and its government was made representative. The limits on the west were gradually extended by treaties with the indians. In 1810 the population num- bered 20,845, of whom all but about 1,500 belonging to Arkansas were settled within the MISSOURI present limits of Missouri. Immigration now came in rapidly from the east. In 1817 the total population had increased to 60,000, and St. Louis contained 5,000 inhabitants. In this year the assembly applied to congress for per- mission to frame a state constitution. The struggle to prevent the extension of slavery into the new states led to the celebrated compromise of 1820, whereby it was deter- mined that Missouri should come into the Union as a slaveholding state, but that sla- very should never be established in any states formed in the future from the lands lying N. of lat. 36° 30’. The state constitution was framed by a convention of 40 delegates con- vened in St. Louis, July 19, 1820; and the state was admitted by proclamation of the president, Aug. 10, 1821. From this time un- til the present the progress of the state in ma- terial prosperity has been rapid; immigration has been constant, and agriculture, mining, commerce, and manufactures have been ex- panded into vast interests. The first move- ment in Missouri toward secession was made on Jan. 16, 1861, when a bill was passed by the senate providing for the assembling of a state convention. This body was organized at Jefferson City on Feb. 28, and reassembled in St. Louis March 4. Popular feeling was opposed to secession, and the action of the convention, which adjourned without passing any measures of great importance, as well as of the legislature, was strongly in favor of the Union. Soon afterward United States troops began to assemble under command of Gen. Harney in St.’ Louis, which was regarded as an important military point for operations against the insurgent states. Some minor con- flicts having arisen between the federal troops and the state militia, and negotiations for the maintenance of peace having failed, a procla- mation was issued on June 12 by Goy. Jack- son, calling into active service 50,000 of the state militia “‘for the purpose of repelling in- vasion, and for the protection of the lives, liberty, and property of the citizens.” On the following day 1,500 United States troops under command of Gen. Lyon were moved from St. Louis to Jefferson City, where they arrived on the 15th. About the same time other troops were sent to Rolla. Gov. Jackson, however, with other officers of the state government, had fled from Jefferson City on the 13th and gone to Booneville, where he summoned the state troops to his support. Gen. Lyon immediately advanced upon this point, and on June 17 defeated the state troops, who subsequently retreated to Syracuse. The greater portion of the state at this time was under federal control, but hostile state troops were organized in the southwest under Gen. Price. The state convention, having been re- assembled, on July 30 declared vacant the offices of governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary of state, and filled them by appoint- ment. The seats of the members of the legis- MISSOURI lature were also declared vacant. On Aug. 1 Gov. Gamble, appointed by the convention, was inaugurated. On the 5th Gov. Jackson, at New Madrid, issued a proclamation declar- ing the separation of the state from the Union. Confederate forces were now assembling in large numbers in S. W. Missouri under Gens. Pillow, Hardee, McCulloch, Price, and Thomp- son. From Booneville Gen. Lyon’s force moved to Springfield, and on Aug. 10 encoun- tered a force of state troops and confederate soldiers from Arkansas under Gens. Price and McCulloch at Wilson’s creek, near Springfield, where Gen. Lyon was killed. After the battle, the federal forces, under command of Col. Si- gel, retired to Rolla. On Aug. 31 Gen. Fre- mont, commanding the department of the West, declared martial law throughout the state. A large federal force was now gathered at St. Louis for operation against the confed- erates in the S. W. part of the state. On Sept. 20 Lexington, defended by about 3,000 federal soldiers under Col. Mulligan, was sur- rendered after a severe conflict with a much larger army under Gen. Price. This caused Gen. Fremont, Sept. 27, to hasten from St. Louis to Jefferson City. The confederates, however, numbering about 20,000, soon re- tired from Lexington to Springfield and fur- ther south. The advance of Fremont in the southwest, which was attended with numerous skirmishes, was made in five divisions under Gens. Hunter, Pope, Sigel, Asbéth, and Mc- Kinstry. On Nov. 2 Fremont was succeed- ed by Gen. Hunter. The federal forces soon after began to recede, and the confederates to advance in the same direction. On Nov. 18 Gen. Halleck arrived at St. Louis to as- sume command of the western department. Certain members of the legislature, friendly to the confederate cause, having obtained a quorum of that body at Neosho, on Nov. 2 passed an act ratifying an arrangement be- tween commissioners of the state and the con- federate government, by which Missouri was to become a member of the confederacy. At the beginning of 1862 nearly half of the state was held by the confederate troops; but in February a strong federal force under Gen. Curtis drove Price into Arkansas. Through- out the year the state was much disturbed by guerilla warfare. In the summer of 1863 the state convention which had been originally assembled to consider the subject of secession, and had been kept in existence by adjourn- ments, passed an ordinance providing for the , emancipation of all slaves in the state in 1870. In the autumn of 1864 Gen. Price, having again invaded Missouri, threatened St. Louis, and traversed a large part of the state, but was finally forced to retreat into Arkansas. The first election for state officers after the begin- ning of the war was held in November, 1864, the state having been governed during this period by officers appointed by the state con- vention. On Jan. 6, 1865, a convention as- MISSOURI RIVER 673 sembled in St. Louis and framed a new con- stitution, which was ratified by the people in June following by a vote of 43,670 to 41,808. During the war Missouri furnished to the federal army 108,773 troops, equivalent to 86,192 for three years. The 15th amendment to the federal constitution was ratified by the legislature in 1869. (See supplement.) MISSOURI RIVER (7. e., Mud river), the prin- cipal tributary of the Mississippi. It prop- erly forms one stream with that river, being much greater in length and volume than the other branch which bears that name above the mouth of the Missouri. It rises near the boundary between Montana and Idaho, among the Rocky mountains, in several small streams, the principal of which are Jefferson and Wis- dom rivers (the latter rising within a mile of the head springs of Clarke’s fork of the Colum- bia), whose sources lie between lat. 44° 20’ and 45° 35’ N., and lon. 112° and 114° W., uniting about lat. 45° 15’, lon. 110° 80’. According to some geographers, the Missouri properly be- gins about 80 m. further E., where the stream formed by the Jefferson and Wisdom, which on this hypothesis retains thus far the former name, is joined by the Madison and Gallatin. The Madison, the middle and largest fork, by some considered the true source, rises in the National Park in N. W. Wyoming, near the sources of the Snake and Yellowstone. After a devious course N. from the junction of the three forks to about lat. 48°, the Missouri runs E. through Montana into Dakota, where it is joined by (lesser) White Earth river. Its gen- eral direction is 8S. E. thence to the Mississippi, which it joins in lat. 88° 50’ 50” N., lon. 90° 14’ 45” W., after separating Nebraska from Iowa, forming a small part of the dividing line between Missouri and Kansas and Nebraska, and flowing across the whole state of Missouri. Its length to the Madison fork source is 2,908 m., which added to 1,286 m., the length of the lower Mississippi, makes its whole course to the gulf 4,194 m. It has commonly been navi- gated as far as the mouth of the Yellowstone, on the border of Dakota and Montana, but it may be ascended by steamboats much further, to the Great falls almost at the very base of the mountains, and about 2,500 m. from the Mississippi. ‘There is no serious obstruction to navigation below this point, though at certain seasons the water is shallow, owing to its pass- ing through a dry and open country in its up- per course, and being subject to extensive evap- oration. It is generally turbid and rapid. In its lower course it is bordered by a narrow alluvial valley of great fertility, back of which lie generally extensive prairies. At its mouth it is over half a mile wide, and in many places it is much wider. Its principal tributaries are the Yellowstone, Little Missouri, Big Cheyenne, (greater) White Earth, Niobrarah, Platte or Nebraska, Kansas, and Osage on the right, and the Milk, Dakota, Big Sioux, Little Sioux, and Grand on the left. It will thus be seen that 674 MISSOURIS the Missouri receives all the great rivers which rise on the eastern declivity of the Rocky mountains, with the single exception of the Arkansas, and a large share of the waters which lie between its own bed and that of the Upper Mississippi. The area which it drains is esti- mated at 518,000 sq.m. The most important places on its banks are Fort Benton in Mon- tana, Yankton in Dakota, Sioux City and Council Bluffs in Iowa, Omaha in Nebraska, Atchison and Leavenworth in Kansas, and St. Joseph, Kansas City, Lexington, Booneville, Jefferson City, and St. Charles in Missouri. About 400 m. from its source the river passes through a narrow gorge denominated the ‘Gates of the Rocky mountains.” It is 52 m. long, and the perpendicular walls of rock, which rise directly from the water to the height of 1,200 ft., are only 450 ft. apart. For the first 8 m. there is but one spot where a foot- hold could be obtained between the water and the rock. The Great falls are 145 m. below this point. They are among the grandest on the continent, and consist of four cataracts, re- spectively of 26, 47, 19, and 87 ft. perpendicu- lar descent, separated by rapids. The whole fall in 164 m. is 357 ft. MISSOURIS, or Missourias, a tribe of Indians belonging to the Dakota family, and calling themselves Nudarcha, Missouri being the name given them by the Illinois. Marquette in 1673 first heard of them as the first tribe up the river which bears their name. As allies of the Illinois they soon established friendly re- lations with the French, and were among the tribes who in 1712 marched to the relief of Detroit. In. 1719 they entrapped and cut to pieces a Spanish expedition sent against them from Mexico. In 1720 the French under De Bourgmont established a fort on an island near. the Missouris, and the great chief aided him to reach and make peace with the Comanches. He took some of the chiefs to France in 1725, and Dubois, a sergeant who had married a girl of the tribe, returned with them as command- er of the post; but the French were soon after massacred to a man. Friendly relations were afterward restored, and Missouris served in the French. operations against’ the. Chick- asaws. They were opposed’ to: the English ascendancy. Lewis and Clarke found them in 1805 reduced to a band of 800 souls, with 80 warriors, on the south side of the Platte, at war with the Omahas, Poncas, Osages, Sioux, and Kansas. Great numbers had been carried off by smallpox, and, abandoning their ancient village in a fertile plain on the Missouri below the Grand, they had sought refuge with the Ottoes, with whom they have ever since been connected. After various sales of lands by them to the government, the combined tribes were removed to the Big Blue. In 1862 they numbered 708, and in 1872 had decreased to 464. They now receive $9,000 a year, but when ten payments have been made the annu- ity is to be reduced to $5,000. Missions at- MISTAKE tempted by the Presbyterians, as well as all attempts at education, have proved unavailing. MISTAKE. It is a fundamental principle of law that no man shall avail himself, either to establish or resist a claim, of his mistake or ignorance of law. So also in criminal law it is an ancient maxim: Jgnorantia legis nemi- nem excusat. The reason sometimes assigned, that the law supposes every one to be acquaint- ed with it, is nothing more than a repetition of the rule in other words. The true reason is, the extreme danger of permitting any per- son to shelter himself under his ignorance of the law, or to found a right upon it. For this would be, in the words of the king’s bench in England, “to hold out a premium for igno- rance,”’ and ignorance of that which it is of the utmost importance that all men should know. Hence the law distinguishes most care- fully between a mistake of law and a mistake of fact; for the latter, as a general rule, -is rectified, and all mischievous consequences pre- vented, as far as possible; and a mistake as to the law of a foreign state or country is regard- ed only as a mistake of fact, because no one is under any obligation to become acquainted with a foreign law.—To this general rule there are some important qualifications; the princi- pal one being, that no mere acknowledgment, or waiver of defence or right, made under a mistake of law, is binding. Thus, if one has a good legal defence against a promissory note, but, through ignorance or mistake of the law, supposes himself bound to pay it, and on this supposition gives a promise to pay it, the promise will not, in general, be binding upon him. In many cases also much relief is to be obtained by the construction of a contract ; but this is always governed and limited by cer- tain definite rules. It is often said by ethical writers, that a party to a contract is bound to execute the contract in the sense which he knew the other party to put upon it. This may be true always in a moral sense; but it certainly is not true in a legal sense, although courts have sometimes seemed to think it was a good rule of law. The true rule and the reason of it are easily seen. If A contracts with B in writing to sell him 100 mules, and receives the money, and B at the time, being a foreigner perhaps or for some other reason, understood that he was buying horses, all which A knew, nevertheless B could not claim horses under the contract. He could, by proy- ing his mistake and A’s knowledge of it, make out acase of fraud, and this would annul the contract, and then he could recover his money. , But the reason why he could do no more is, that the law will not, under pretence of con- struing a contract, make a new contract for the parties. Hence, it is another way of ex- pressing the same rule, that the actual inten- tion of the parties to a contract shall be car- ried into effect, so far as it is possible to arrive at that intention by a rational construction of the words they have actually used, but no fur- MISTLETOE ther ; for it is one of the most reasonable, safe, and well established rules, that no evidence from without a written contract shall be per- mitted to control or vary it. While parties are negotiating they may change their minds and vary their demands and concessions, and gen- erally do this to some extent. But when they have finally put their terms in writing, the law supposes that these are what they have con- cluded upon, and that they have chosen and used the very words which express their mean- ing; and that whatever is not therein stated, although it may have previously passed be- tween them, has been purposely omitted be- cause it was not finally agreed to. It would therefore be manifestly unjust to permit evi- dence of any of these things to come forward and vary the written contract; and hence the rule, which is concisely expressed in the Scotch law thus: “ Writing cannot be cut down or taken away by the testimony of witnesses.” But while evidence must not vary, it may ex- plain, the contract. Thus, in the most solemn deed, it may be necessary to explain the terms of the instrument, in order to show who the _ parties are, what the boundaries of land mean, or where it is situated. But it is a very differ- ent thing when one of the parties says that the deed contains a mistake; that the house or the field it conveys is not the house or field which it was intended to convey; and on this ground demands to hold the house or field which, as he alleges, should have been given to him. And it may be regarded as the estab- lished rule concerning mistakes, that any mis- take in an instrument may be corrected by construction, if the instrument itself affords the means of correction; but not, if it can be done only by going outside of the instrument. Courts of equity, however, have large powers to reform conveyances and contracts where by mistake in drafting them they are made to express a different intent from the one agreed upon. (See CHancery, and Equity.) MISTLETOE (Anglo-Saxon mistiltan, from mistl, different, and tan, twig, as the plant is unlike the tree upon which it grows), a parasi- tic evergreen shrub of the family loranthacea. The true European mistletoe is viscum album, the generic name being the Latin word for the plant as well as for bird lime. The family comprises about 30 genera of mostly tropical evergreen shrubs, all of which are parasitic, and some of which have showy flowers; a de- scription of the less conspicuous mistletoe will give the general characters of the whole fam- ily. The genus viscwm, besides the common European one, comprises a few Asiatic species. The mistletoe is succulent when young, but becomes woody when old; its branches are repeatedly forked, and form together dense tufts 1 to 2 ft. in diameter, and attached to the branches of the trees by the thickened base of its main stem; the branches break readily at the distinct joints, at each of which is borne a pair of opposite, sessile, thickish leaves, which 675 vary from narrowly oblong to obovate, but are always entire and obtuse; the flowers are dicecious, nearly sessile in the forks of the branches; those in the male plant three to five together in a somewhat cup-shaped involucre, with short, thick, triangular petals, and the Mistletoe (Viscum album), same number of stamens, which are sessile in the centre of the petals, their anthers opening by several pores; the female or pistillate plant has its flowers solitary, rarely two or three together, and consisting of four minute petals at the top of the ovary, which is one-celled, with a simple style, and in ripening forms a white, semi-transparent berry with a single seed, surrounded by an exceedingly viscid or glutinous pulp. The mistletoe extends from Sweden to the Mediterranean, and is very common in the southern and western coun- ties of England, where it grows upon a great variety of trees; it especially affects the apple, and in the cider districts is very destructive to the trees, as when once established it continues to grow as long as there is any life in its host. It is supposed to be disseminated by birds which feed upon the berries, and that in their attempts to wipe the viscid pulp from their bills they attach the seeds to the bark of the branches. To establish the plant artificially, a small slit of the bark is raised with a knife and the seeds are placed beneath it; this is done upon the under side of a branch to hide the seed from birds. Many experiments have been made upon the germination of this plant, and it is found that, in whatever position the seed may be placed, the radicle, which in ordinary plants tends directly downward, will be di- rected toward the surface to which the seeds are attached, without reference to gravitation, light, or any other influence. The radicle is frequently obliged to arch itself over to reach the bark, and when it comes in contact with this its end expands to form adisk which gives it a firm hold; from this proceed roots which 676 MISTLETOE penetrate the bark, and thus place the young plant in contact with that portion of the tree where nutriment is most abundant. An in- stance is recorded of the growth of one speci- men upon another mistletoe. The plant does not grow in the north of England or in Scot- land and Ireland, and nurserymen there plant the seeds upon the bark of young. apple trees, and sell the trees with the mistletoe already established upon them. The superstitions and legends connected with the mistletoe are nu- merous; it was held in high veneration by the ancient Britons, and its collection by the druids was accompanied with great solemnity; the plant is found more rarely upon the oak than upon any other tree, hence that which grew. on the oak was regarded with peculiar honor; it was cut on the sixth day after the first new moon of each year, the priest using a golden sickle; the plant was received upon a white cloth and divided among the people, who pre- served the fragments as a charm to protect them from disease and every other evil. In England it is used among Christmas decora- tions, and during the festivities, if a gentleman discovers a lady beneath the ‘‘ mistletoe bough” he has a right to a kiss; this is a very old cus- tom which has descended from feudal times, but its real origin and significance are lost. Within recent times the mistletoe has been re- garded as a valuable remedy in epilepsy and other diseases, but at present it is not employed. The chief use of the plant is for holiday dec- orations, for which purpose it is occasionally brought to this country; its berries were for- merly used to prepare bird lime, and the leaves have been fed to sheep in times of scarcity of other forage.—The American mistletoe, which was first described as a viscwm, is so different from the European that Nuttall made a new genus for it, phoradendron (Gr. ¢ép, a thief, and dévdpov, a tree); it differs from viscwm in having both kinds of flowers in short catkin- like, jointed spikes, and sunk in the joints; there is also a difference in the structure of the anthers. The plant has the same manner of growth, and is similar in general appearance to the European, but the leaves and stems are of a more yellowish green; the berries are white. There are several species of phoraden- dron, the most common being P. jlavescens, which grows from New Jersey and Illinois to Texas and Mexico; there are several varieties, differing in the shape and smoothness of their leaves; it grows upon various deciduous trees, and in Texas is especially abundant on the mezquite, upon which it often grows in such quantities as to hide the proper foliage of the tree. There are half a dozen other species, all belonging to the far south and west.—Another related genus is arceuthobium, the species of which are small, much branched, leafless, and like the others parasitic. A. orycedri is found on various coniferous trees from California to New Mexico, and further north it extends east- ward to Hudson bay. In 1871 Mrs. Millington MITCHEL discovered in Warren co., N. Y., a minute species of arceuthobium growing upon the branches of the black spruce (abies nigra), and about the same time it was discovered by Prof. Peck of Albany. The plant is scarcely more than an inch long, but occurs in such quantities as to seriously injure the trees; it is probably aform of A. campylopodium. MISTRAL, Fréderie, a French poet, born at Maillane, near St. Remy, Provence, Sept. 8, 1830. He studied at Lyons and Avignon, where he graduated in jurisprudence, but de- voted himself to poetry in his native village. His principal work is the pastoral Provengal epic Miréio (Mireille), with a French text (Avi- gnon, 1859; enlarged ed., 1862; English trans- lation by H. Crichton, London, 1868, and by Harriet W. Preston, Boston, 1872), for which he received in 1861 an academical prize of 2,000 francs, and which has been set to music by Gounod as acomic opera. He published Calen- dan, a poem, in 1867. In September, 1868, great literary and social entertainments were given at St. Remy in honor of Proveneal poetry, in which he took the most prominent part. MITAU, or Mittan (Russ. Mitavo; Lettish, Yelgava), a town of Russia, capital of Cour- Jand, situated in a low marshy district on the Aa, 25 m. 8. W. of Riga; pop. in 1867, 23,- 100, chiefly Germans, and including upward of 5,000 Jews. It is well built, and contains one Reformed, one Greek, one Roman Cath- olic, and three Lutheran churches, three syna- gogues, a gymnasium with a museum of phys- ical science and natural history, a library, and various educational and charitable institutions, besides the buildings of the local authorities. Near Mitau is a palace built by Biron on the site of the original castle, after the model of the czar’s Winter palace, where Louis XVIII. resided for a long time under the name of the count de Lille. There is an extensive trade in grain, flax, and linseed, which are sent hither from the interior of Courland and Lithuania for shipment on the Aa to Riga. The nobility of Courland reside here in winter, but Mitau is especially lively about St. John’s day, when transactions are closed both by the nobles and the traders. MITCHEL, John, an Irish revolutionist, born at Dungiven, county Derry, Nov. 3, 1815, died March 20, 1875. His father was a Unitarian clergyman. He graduated at Trinity college, Dublin, in 1836, studied law, and practised for six years in Newry and Banbridge. In 1845 he was called to Dublin to succeed Thomas Davis as editor of the Nation.” His articles were revolutionary, and for one which ap- peared in 1846 showing how the people could contend with the army, the “ Nation” was prosecuted by government. In consequence of differences in policy he quarrelled with his part- ner Gavin Duffy toward the end of 1847, and soon after founded the ‘‘ United Irishman,” which brought him in direct collision with the government. After an existence of three MITCHEL months the journal was suppressed, and its editor sentenced to expatriation for 14 years. On May 27, 1848, after two weeks’ incarcera- tion at Newgate, Mitchel was taken in irons from Dublin to Spike island (Cork harbor), where a government order was received to treat him ‘‘as a person of education and a gen- tleman.”” Taken thence in a day or two, he passed 10 months in the island of Bermuda, whence he was again deported to Australia. Here he met Smith O’Brien, Meagher, and other political associates. On July 19, 1854, Mitchel resigned his parole and escaped from the col- ony, landing in New York on Nov. 29. There he founded the ‘‘ Citizen,” a weekly journal, which he conducted until failing eyesight con- strained him to seek a more congenial climate. He removed to Tennessee, where he established the *‘ Southern Citizen,” in which he advocated the reopening of the slave trade. He edited the Richmond “‘ Examiner” during the civil war, after which he settled in New York. In July, 1874, he made a visit to Ireland, returning in October. In February, 1875, he was elected to parliament for Tipperary, though disquali- fied for a seat, and again went to Ireland, where he died. He published ‘* Hugh O'Neill,” his own ‘Jail Journal” (New York, 1854), “The Last Conquest of Ireland (perhaps) ” (Dublin, 1861), and a continuation of Mac- Geoghegan’s ‘‘ History of Ireland.” He also edited the poems of Thomas Davis and James Clarence Mangan, with biographies. MITCHEL, Ormsby Macknight, an American astronomer, born in Union co., Ky., Aug. 28, 1810, died at Beaufort, S. C., Oct. 80, 1862. At 12 years of age, with a good knowledge of Latin and Greek and the elements of mathe- matics, he became clerk in a store in Miami, O., and afterward removed to Lebanon, Warren co., where he had been educated. Being ap- pointed a cadet, he earned the money that took him to West Point, which place he reached almost penniless in June, 1825. After gradu- ating in 1829, he was acting assistant professor of mathematics for two years. From 1832 to 1834 he was a counsellor at law in Cincinnati; from 1834 to 1844 professor of mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy in Cincinnati col- lege; in 18386 and 1887 chief engineer of the Little Miami railroad. An observatory having been erected at Cincinnati chiefly through his exertions, he became its director; and in 1859 he took the direction of the Dudley observa- tory at Albany, retaining his connection with that at Cincinnati. In August, 1861, he was commissioned brigadier general of volunteers, and assigned to the department of the Ohio. After the occupation of Bowling Green and Nashville, he made a forced march into Ala- bama, fought a battle near Bridgeport at the close of April, 1862, and seized the railroad between Corinth and Chattanooga, for which he was promoted to the rank of major gen- eral. In July he was relieved of his com- mand in the west, and in September was MITCHELL 677 placed in command of the department of the South, where he was preparing for an ac- tive campaign when he died of yellow fever. He was a popular lecturer on astronomy, and scarcely less distinguished for his mechanical skill, by which he perfected a variety of astro- nomical apparatus, among the most important of which was that for recording right ascen- sions and declinations to within 35,5 of a sec- ond of time. Among his discoveries are the exact period of rotation of Mars, and the com- panion of Antares or Cor Scorpii. He also remeasured W. Struve’s double stars S. of the equator, which resulted in several interesting discoveries. He published “ Planetary and Stel- lar Worlds,” a collection of lectures, .a treatise on algebra, and a “‘ Popular Astronomy.” In 1846-’8 he published ‘‘The Sidereal Messen- ger,” a periodical. MITCHELL. I. A N. W. county of North Carolina, bordering on Tennessee, bounded 8. W. by the Nolichucky river; area, about 530 Sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 4,705, of whom 213 were colored. It lies between the Blue Ridge and Iron mountains. In 1867 five valuable mica mines were discovered in this county, which have since been extensively worked, and the trade has enabled the inhabitants to pay off the entire debt of the county. The chief pro- ductions in 1870 were 12,530 bushels of wheat, 6,065 of rye, 72,860 of Indian corn, 21,311 of oats, 8,483 of potatoes, 8,725 lbs. of wool, and 35,760 of butter. There were 665 horses, 1,416 milch cows, 2,207 other cattle, 5,142 sheep, and 6,889 swine. Capital, Bakersville. If. AS. W. county of Georgia, bounded N. E. by Flint river; area, about 500 sq.m.; pop. in 1870, 6,633, of whom 2,950 were colored. The sur- face is level and the soil fertile. It is traversed by the Albany division of the Atlantic and Gulf railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 150,526 bushels of Indian corn, 26,240 of oats, 21,382 of sweet potatoes, 39,860 Ibs. of butter, 4,708 bales of cotton, and 21,412 gal- lons of sorghum molasses. There were 2,133 milch cows, 4,121 other cattle, 2,092 sheep, and 7,186 swine. Capital, Camilla. II. A N. county of Iowa, bordering on Minnesota and intersected by the Red Cedar river and its E. fork; area, 431 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 9,582. It is intersected by the Burlington, Cedar Rap- ids, and Minnesota railroad. The chief produc- tions in 1870 were 564,894 bushels of wheat, 150,847 of Indian corn, 358,105 of oats, 33,804 of barley, 36,141 of potatoes, 8,906 lbs. of wool, 194,060 of butter, and 15,415 tons of hay. There were 2,600 horses, 2,986 milch cows, 5,685 other cattle, 2,440 sheep, and 2,603 swine; 2 manufactories of agricultural imple- ments, 6 of carriages and wagons, | of iron castings, 1 of patent medicines, 1 woollen mill, 3 saw mills, and 1 flour mill. Capital, Mitchell. Iv. AN. central county of Kansas, intersected by Solomon river; area, 720 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 485. The surface is undulating, and con- sists mostly of fertile prairies. The chief pro- 678 duction in 1870 was 6,250 bushels of Indian corn. The value of live stock was $56,377. Capital, Beloit. MITCHELL, Donald Grant, an American author, born in Norwich, Conn., in April, 1822. He graduated at Yale college in 1841, travelled in Europe, studied law in New York, and in 1847 published, under the pseudonyme of ‘‘ Ik Mar- vel,” “Fresh Gleanings, or a New Sheaf from the Old Fields of Continental Europe.” He was in Europe in 1848, and wrote ‘‘ The Bat- tle Summer” (New York, 1849). This was succeeded by a satirical work entitled ‘The Lorgnette,” which appeared anonymously (2 vols., 1850). Inthe same year appeared ‘“‘ The Reveries of a Bachelor,” and in 1851 his ‘*Dream Life.” In 1853 he became United States consul at Venice, in 1855 returned, and has since resided on his farm of ‘‘ Edgewood,” near New Haven. He was for some time as- sociate editor of the ‘‘ Hearth and Home,” New York, and has frequently appeared as a lecturer. His later publications are: ‘‘ Fudge Doings ” (2 vols., 1854); ‘“‘My Farm of Edge- wood” (1863); ‘‘Wet Days at Edgewood” (1864); ‘Seven Stories, with Basement and Attic” (1864); “Doctor Johns” (2 vols., 1866); ‘‘ Rural Studies’? (1867); and ‘“ Pic- tures of Edgewood” (fol., 1869). MITCHELL, Elisha, an American chemist, born at Washington, Litchfield co., Conn., Aug. 19, 1793, died on the Black mountains in North Carolina, June 27,1857. He graduated at Yale college in 1813, and in 1818 became professor of mathematics in the university of North Car- olina, and in 1825 of chemistry. In 1821 he was ordained a Presbyterian minister. He was for some time state surveyor. He first ascertained that the mountains of North Caro- lina are the highest east of the Rocky moun- tains. (See Brack Mountains.) To settle some disputed points in regard to these heights, he reascended them in 1857, lost his way at night, fell down a precipice, and was killed. MITCHELL. I. John Kearsley,an American phy- sician, born at Shepherdstown, Jefferson co., Va., May 12, 1798, died in Philadelphia, April 4, 1858. He was educated in Scotland. grad- uated M.D. at the university of Pennsylvania in 1819, made three voyages to China as ship’s surgeon, and in 1822 began to practise medi- cine and teach physiology in Philadelphia. In 1826 he became professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia medical institute, in 1838 in the Franklin institute, and in 1841 of the theory and practice of medicine in the Jefferson med- ical college. He published ‘Indecision, and other Poems” (Philadelphia, 1839), ‘On the Cryptogamous Origin of Malarious and Epi- demical Fevers” (1849), and several popular scientific lectures. After his death appeared a selection from his papers entitled “Five Es- says,” d&c. (1858). II. S. Weir, an American physician, son of the preceding, born in Phila- delphia, Feb. 15, 1829. He graduated at Jef- ferson medical college in 1850. His earlier MITCHELL researches were chiefly in toxicology, and are especially authoritative on the venom of ser- pents. His later writings have been almost entirely devoted to diseases of the nervous system. He has published, with G. R. More- house, M. D., and W. W. Keen, M. D., ‘ Gun- shot Wounds and other Injuries of the Nerves” (Philadelphia, 1864), and ‘‘Injuries to Nerves, and their Consequences ” (1871); and he has also made numerous contributions to scientific journals, including ‘‘ Experimental Researches relative to Corroval and Vao, American Ar- row Poisons,” with W. A. Hammond, M. D. (‘‘ American Journal of Medical Sciences,” 1859); ‘Toxicological Study of Ordeal Poi- sons, Sassy Bark” (‘‘ Charleston Medical and Surgical Journal,” 1859); ‘‘ Researches on the Venom of the Rattlesnake” (‘‘ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” 1860); ‘‘ Treat- ment of Rattlesnake Bites” (‘‘ North Ameri- can Medical and Chirurgical Review,” 1861); ‘On the Circulation in Chelonura Serpentina”’ (‘‘ Memoirs of the American Philosophical So- ciety,” 1862); ‘‘Arsenical Albuminuria” (‘‘ New York Medical Journal,” 1865); ‘‘ Antagonism of Atropia and Morphia,” with Drs. Morehouse and Keen (‘‘ American Journal of the Medical Sciences,” 1865); ‘‘ Palsy from Peripheral Irri- tations ” (“‘ New York Medical Journal,” 1866) ; ‘‘ Production of Spasms from Cold to the Skin” (‘American Journal of the Medical Sciences,” two papers, 1867—’8); and ‘‘ Exper- imental Contributions to the Toxicology of Rattlesnake Venom” (‘‘New York Medical Journal,” 1868). MITCHELL, Maria, an American astronomer, born in Nantucket, Aug. 1,1818. She derived from her father, who taught a school in Nan- tucket, a fondness for astronomy, and by her intelligence in the use of instruments and her mathematical attainments soon became an en- thusiastic coéperator in his labors. Subse- quently she made many careful observations by herself, and devoted much time to the ex- amination of nebule and the search for comets. On Oct. 1, 1847, she discovered a telescopic comet, for which she received a gold medal from the king of Denmark. She has been employed in observations connected with the coast survey and in compiling the nautical almanac. She is a member of the American association for the advancement of science, and was the first female member of the Amer- ican academy of arts and sciences. In 1865 she was appointed to the chair of astronomy in Vassar college, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. MITCHELL, Sir Thomas Livingstone, a British engineer, born in Stirlingshire, Scotland, in 1792, died near Sydney, Australia, Oct. 5, 1855. He joined the British army in the peninsula in 1808, attained the rank of major, and made mil- itary maps of the peninsular battle fields. In 1827 he was appointed deputy surveyor general of eastern Australia, and ultimately surveyor general, which office he held till his death. He conducted four expeditions into the interior of MITCHELL’S PEAK Australia; the first, in 1831-2, resulted in the discovery of the Peel and Nammoy rivers; and during the second and third, in 1835-6, the Darling and Glenelg rivers were explored, and Australia Felix discovered. The fourth (1845-’6) was undertaken to trace out a route from Sydney to the gulf of Carpentaria; the loss of cattle and horses prevented the com- pletion of the expedition, but it led to the dis- covery of the Victoria river. During a visit to England Major Mitchell published ‘‘ Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Aus- tralia, with Descriptions of the recently ex- plored Region of Australia Felix,” &. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1838); and his ‘‘ Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Aus- tralia” appeared in 1848. In 1853 he published a lecture on the boomerang propeller, which he had invented for steam vessels. He was knighted in 1839, and made a colonel in 1854. MITCHELL’S PEAK. See Biaox Movunrarns. MITCHILL, Samuel Latham, an American phy- sician, born in North Hempstead, Long Island, Aug. 20, 1764, died in New York, Sept. 7, 1831. He graduated as M. D. at the university of Edinburgh in 1786, returned to America in the following year, and studied law. In 1792 he was appointed professor of chemistry, natural history, and philosophy in Columbia college, where his dissent from some of Lavoi- sier’s principles involved him in a controver- sy with Dr. Priestley, which led to a lasting friendship between the two disputants. In 1796 he made a geological and mineralogical tour along the Hudson. In conjunction with Dr. Edward Miller and Elihu H. Smith he founded the quarterly ‘‘ Medical Repository,” of which he continued to be editor for 16 years, It was the first scientific periodical published in the United States. Twice he was a member of the legislature, and in 1801 he became a representative in congress, and in 1804 United States senator. At the expiration of his term of office he was again elected to the house of representatives. In 1808 he became professor of natural history in the college of physicians and surgeons, and in 1820 of botany and mate- ria medica. In 1826 the institution gave place to the Rutgers medical school, of which Dr. Mitchill became vice president. The poems of ‘““Croaker and co.” contain records of some of Dr. Mitchill’s eccentricities. He proposed to change the name of this country to Fredonia, and wrote in 1804 ‘‘ An Address to the Fredes, or People of the United States.” He was the author of ‘Observations on the Absorbent Tubes of Animal Bodies”? (12mo, New York, 1787); ‘‘ Nomenclature of the New Chemis- try ” (1794); “Life, Exploits, and Precepts of Tammany, the famous Indian Chief,” a half his- torical, half fanciful address before the Tam- many society of New York (1795); and ‘‘ Syn- opsis of Chemical Nomenclature and Arrange- ment ” (1801).—See “‘ Reminiscences of Sam- uel Latham Mitchill, M. D., LL. D.,” by John W. Francis, M. D. (New York, 1859). MITFORD 679 MITE, a name applied to many very small articulated animals, of the arachnoid order and suborder acarina, including the ticks, itch in- sects, and other parasites, and the minute acari. The abdomen is unarticulated, and fused with the cephalothorax ; the external envelope is of chitine, solid and indestructible; four pairs of feet on the cephalothorax, armed with nails, and in some provided with long pedunculated disks by which the animal is attached; some, when young, have six feet; eyes usually ab- sent; mandibles wanting, the antennw being changed into prehensile and masticatory or- gans, moving vertically, piercing or cutting as may be necessary, and sometimes enclosed in a sheath in the form of a sucker. The stomach has several ceecal appendages, and the short and straight intestine opens near the middle of the abdomen; salivary glands well developed; no apparent heart nor blood vessels, the color- less nutritive fluid filling all the interstices of the body, and being irregularly circulated by the muscular movements and the contractions of the intestinal canal; respiration aérial, per- formed chiefly by the skin, and in some by trachess. The sexes are separate; many have an ovipositor, by which they insert their eggs under the epidermis of plants and animals, in the latter case often causing great irritation; some surround their eggs by a tough substance which glues them to various objects. Their extreme minuteness in some cases may be judged of by the fact that they infest flies and very small insects; they are exceedingly pro- lific. Some live under stones, others on plants, on animals, or among decaying organic sub- stances, and a few are aquatic; the parasitic ones, sucking the blood of animals and man, are sometimes very annoying. The itch insect has been described under Iron, and the ticks and other mites under Erizoa. Among the mites, the acarus domes- ticus is found especially in old cheese (the pow- der of which, so agree- able to epicures, is made up of these little ani- mals with their eggs and excrement), in flour, sugar, and on figs and sugared fruits; the A. destructor feeds on the specimens of the ento- mologist and zodlogist; the garden mites (trom- bidtide) live on fruits, flowers, and leaves; the spider mites (gamaside) include the minute red spider of hothouses; and the wood mites (oribatide) creep among stones and moss. MITFORD, Mary Russell, an English authoress, born at Alresford, Hampshire, Dec. 16, 1786, died near Reading, Jan. 10,1855. She was the daughter of a physician whose pecuniary spec- ulations early involved his family in ruin. Her education was chiefly acquired at a school in Chelsea. At 20 years of age she published three volumes of poems, some of them long narratives in the style of Scott; and about 1812 she adopted literature as a profession, Mite (Acarus domesticus). 680 MITFORD and for several years contributed tales and sketches to the magazines and annuals. Ir- ving’s ‘Sketch Book” first suggested to her the idea of writing sketches of the daily life of the rural population, and her most popular work is “Our Village,” the scene of which is the little hamlet of Three Mile Cross, near Reading. These sketches, after being declined by the ‘‘New Monthly Magazine,” edited by Thomas Campbell, were first published in the ‘‘ Lady’s Magazine” about 1820, and were extended to five volumes or series (1824-82). Among her other prose works are ‘‘ Country Stories ” and several of the ‘Edinburgh Tales” published by Mrs. Johnstone in 1845. She also edited three volumes of ‘Stories of American Life by American Authors,” and four of the annual volumes of Finden’s ‘‘ Tableaux.’”? Her dramas, ‘“‘ Julian” (1823), ‘‘ Foscari” (1826), ‘‘ Rienzi” (1828), and ‘‘Charles the First,” were per- formed with success, ‘‘ Rienzi” being the most popular. Her ‘‘ Charles the First” was pro- hibited by George Colman, the licenser, for its supposed revolutionary sentiments, but was finally produced at the Coburg theatre in Lon- don. She also wrote several dramas which were never acted, and an opera, ‘‘Sadak and Kalasrade,” the music of which was written by Packer. In 1838 she received a pension. In 1852 appeared her ‘ Recollections of a Lit- erary Life” (3 vols. 12mo), and in 1854 ‘‘ Ath- erton and other Tales,” and a collected edi- tion of her dramatic works in two volumes. For upward of 40 years she lived in a little cottage in Berkshire. About three years be- fore her death she was injured by the over- turning of her chaise, and the remainder of her life was passed in much physical suffer- ing.—See ‘‘ Life of Mary Russell Mitford,” ed- ited by the Rev. A. G. L’Estrange (3 vols., London, 1870). MITFORD, William, an English historian, born in London, Feb. 10, 1744, died in Hampshire, Feb. 8, 1827. He entered Queen’s college, Ox- ford, left it without a degree, studied law at the Middle Temple, but soon retired to his an- cestral estate in Hampshire, married, and de- voted himself to literature. By the advice of Gibbon, he wrote a history of Greece (5 vols., 1784-1818), bringing the narrative down to the death of Alexander the Great. He was prevented by age and failing eyesight from. carrying on the work, as he had intended, to the period of the Roman conquest. An edition of it by his brother Lord Redesdale, with an introduction, appeared in 1829 (8 vols. 8vo). He also published a treatise on the religions of ancient Greece and Rome, as a supplement to his history; ‘‘An Inquiry into the Principles of Harmony in Languages and of tle Mecha- nism of Verse, Modern and Ancient” (1774); and ‘‘A Treatise on the Military Force, and particularly the Militia, of this Kingdom.” He was a member of parliament for 21 years, held several public offices, and was professor of ancient history in the royal academy. MITHRIDATES MITHRIDATES, or Mithradates, a king of Pon- tus, the sixth of the name, surnamed Eupator and the Great, born about 132 B. C., died in 638. He ascended the throne in 120. He subdued the barbarians between the Euxine and the Caspian, extended his conquests among the tribes beyond the Caucasus, rendered the Tau- ric Chersonese tributary, and on the death of Parysades, king of Bosporus, annexed that country to his dominions. He next expelled the kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia, depen- dent allies of Rome, from their dominions, but the Romans promptly restored them. Ni- comedes the Bithynian was not content with recovering his kingdom, but invaded the do- minions of Mithridates, who, failing to obtain redress from Rome, immediately commenced hostilities against her generals and allies. In 88 he again expelled the Cappadocian and Bithynian sovereigns, defeated the Roman ar- mies that attempted to support them, made himself master of Phrygia and Galatia, over- ran the whole Roman province of Asia, and ordered its Roman citizens to be massacred to the number, it is said, of 80,000. When these things were known at Rome, Sulla was ap- pointed to command the armies sent against Mithridates, who transferred the seat of war to Greece, where his general Archelaus suf- fered two great defeats at Cheronea and Or- chomenus in 86, while the king was himself defeated in Asia by Fimbria, and was com- pelled to abandon his conquests there, to pay an indemnity of 2,000 talents, and to surrender all his ships to the Romans (84). The events of what is called the second Mithridatic war are not of much interest; the death of Nico- medes IIJ., king of Bithynia, in 74, was the signal for the outbreak of the third. That monarch had bequeathed his dominions to the Roman people, and Bithynia was pronounced by the senate a Roman province. Mithridates attempted to place a pretended son of the de- ceased king on the throne. Entering Bithynia at the head of an army of over 120,000 foot and 16,000 horse, he vanquished the consul Cotta at Chalcedon, and then proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus; but he was compelled by Lucullus to retreat with great loss into Pon- tus. After completely defeating another vast army, Lucullus drove Mithridates from his kingdom. A mutiny of the Roman legions, however, enabled him to recover Pontus. In 66 Lucullus was superseded by Pompey, and the war was resumed. Mithridates was surprised and totally defeated, and with a handful of troops retreated north to Panticapeum (now Kertch, in the Crimea), the capital of Bosporus, Here he was safe from the Romans; but while he was planning schemes of aggression against Rome, his son Pharnaces rebelled, and was proclaimed king by the soldiers and citizens. Mithridates, on learning this, took refuge in a strong tower, where he sought to end his life by poison; but this proving ineffectual, he ordered one of .his Gallic mercenaries to de- MITRAILLEUSE spatch him with his sword. It is said that to avoid being poisoned, which he was apprehen- sive of, he had accustomed himself to the use of antidotes to such a degree that the most baneful drugs had little effect on him. His son sent his body to Amisus as a peace offer- ing to Pompey; but the Roman general caused it to be interred with regal honors in the sep- ulchre of the Pontic kings at Sinope. Mithri- dates had a powerful memory, was well ac- quainted with Greek literature, and under- stood more than 20 languages which were spoken in his dominions. MITRAILLEUSE. See ArtitiERy, vol.i., p. 792. MITRE (Gr. yitpa), an ornament worn upon the head by certain ecclesiastics of the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, consisting of a Persian Mitra, from a Pompeiian Greek Mitra, from a Bust Mosaic, at Dresden. stiff cap rising in two points, one before and the other behind, and having two ribbon-like pendants which fall on the shoulders. In the strict generic sense, the ancient mitra was a scarf which was sometimes bound around the thyrsus of Bacchus and his votaries in the cele- bration of his rites. In a secondary sense, it was a scarf worn like a turban by the Persians and Arabians, and by the women of Greece. The mitra worn by the Phrygians and Amazons was a point- ed cloth cap tied by strings or lappets un- der the chin. Bac- chus was often rep- resented with a mi- tra, from which the Greeks gave him the name ptpogépoc. The Persian deity Mithra and the Egyptian god Osiris appear with a similar head covering, and it has also been traced in India. The Jewish high priests wore the mitznepheth, which was copied from the mitre made for Aaron (Exod. xxviii.), on the front of which, over a blue lace, was a plate of pure gold, having engraven on it, “like the engravings of a signet, Holiness to the Lord.” When the mitre was first adopted by Christian ecclesiastics is uncertain, but it is supposed that its first form was a circlet of silver gilt or of gold, set sometimes with pre- cious stones, and called oré¢avocg or corona, and nidapic¢ or diadema. In the 6th century John of Cappadocia, bishop of Constantinople, added Phrygian Mitra, from a Pom- peiian Painting. MITSCHERLICH 681 to this band embroidered fringes and sacred images. In the western churches a white linen kerchief was worn, tied behind by a bandage, the ends of which fell on the shoulders. In the beginning of the 8th century it was cus- tomary to wear both the kerchief and the corona. In the latter part of the 10th century the mitre was a close-fitting cap with a round top; in the 11th the horns began to show them- selves in two short points on the sides above each ear; and in the 12th century these had grown into low round protuberances. Toward the beginning of the 18th century the mitre took a different shape, the two horns being more elevated and worn in front and behind, as at present. At the period of the renaissance it assumed its present bulging shape and un- due height. Three kinds of mitres are now used in the Ro- man church: the pre- cious mitre, often made of gold or sil- ver and adorned with gems; the gold-em- broidered mitre, made of cloth of gold or white silk embroi- dered with gold; and the plain mitre, of white damask or linen, with red edging or fringe on the lappets. The use of the mitre is not restricted to bishops; cardinals, abbots of great houses by special papal privilege, and canons of highly favored cathedrals or royal collegiate churches, are allowed to wear it. In the English church the mitre has not been worn since the coronation of Queen Elizabeth. MITSCHERLICH, Eilhard, a German chemist, born at Neuende, near Jever, grand duchy of Oldenburg, Jan. 7, 1794, died in Berlin, Aug. 28, 1863. He was the son of a clergyman, and studied at the gymnasium of Jever, where Schlosser instructed him in oriental history and philology. He pursued his studies espe- cially in this department at Paris, Heidelberg, and Géttingen, where he published Mirchondi Historia Thaheridarum (1815); and in 1818 he went to Berlin to study chemistry. He discovered the law of isomorphism, for which he received the medal of the royal society of London. At the invitation of Berzelius he accompanied him to Stockholm in 1819, and passed two years in his laboratory. On his return to Berlin, he succeeded Klaproth in the academy of sciences and in the chair of chem- istry. His first results in the discovery of isomorphism were presented to the Berlin academy in 1819, and next year they were generally accepted. Its doctrine was devel- oped by him in a long series of observations. In 1823 he completed the theory by the dis- covery that some substances, as sulphur and carbon, under different circumstances, crys- tallize in two dissimilar forms. Such bodies are termed dimorphous. The reports of his zishop’s Mitre. 682 MITTERMAIER investigations and discoveries are chiefly con- tained in a large number of papers in the jour- nals of the Berlin academy and in the Annalen of Poggendorff. He also published Lehr- buch der Chemie (Berlin, 1829-40; 5th ed., 1853 et seg.). He perfected the instruments for measuring the angles of crystals, and ex- tended his researches to the influence of heat on crystallization. Many instruments of his invention have been adopted in Germany and other countries. He was one of the few for- eign associates of the French institute. His posthumous work Ueber die vulkanischen Er- scheinungen in der Hifel und iiber die Meta- morphie der Gesteine durch erhéhte Tempera- tur, edited by J. Roth, was published in Berlin . in 1865. See Rose’s Geddchtnissrede (Berlin, 1864).—His brother, Kart Gustav (born Nov. 9, 1805, died March 16, 1871), was professor of medicine at the university of Berlin. His principal work is Lehrbuch der Arzeneimittel- lehre (8 vols., Berlin, 1847-’61). MITTERMAIER, Karl Joseph Anton, a German jurist, born in Munich, Aug. 5, 1787, died in Heidelberg, Aug. 28, 1867. He studied at Landshut and Heidelberg, was for many years professor in the former university, and in 1819 removed to Bonn. In 1821 he accepted the chair of jurisprudence at Heidelberg, which he retained until his death. He defended trial by jury in Germany, and sustained (theoretically) the codification of the French civil law against the attacks of Hugo, Savigny, and others. His Lehrbuch des deutschen Privatrechts (Lands- hut, 1821) was subsequently merged in his Grundsdtee des gemeinen deutschen Privat- rechts, mit Hinschluss des Handel-, Wechsel- und Seerechts (2 vols., Ratisbon, 1887-’8). His first work on criminal law, Handbuch des pein- lichen Prozesses (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1810-12), was republished, enlarged and modified, under the title of Das deutsche Strafverfahren in der Fortbildung durch Gerichtsgebrauch und Par- ticulargesetegebung (2 vols., 1832), and has passed through many editions. The princi- ples relating to the examination of witnesses in criminal law are expounded in his Theorie des Beweises im peinlichen Prozesse (2 vols., Darmstadt, 1821), in Die Lehre vom Beweise im deutschen Strafprozesse (1834; French trans- lation, 1848; Spanish, 1851), and in his Anlei- tung zur Vertheidigungskunst im Criminal- prozesse (translated into Italian by Garba, 1858). His manual of criminal law (Lehrbuch des Criminalprozesses) has passed through nu- merous editions. A comprehensive exposition of the principles upon which civil trials should be conducted is contained in his Der gemeine deutsche biirgerliche Prozess (182026). His Die Mindlichkeit, das Anklageprincip, die Oeffentlichkeit und das Geschworenengericht (Stuttgart, 1845), brings the investigation and the enactments relating to trial by jury down to the period of its publication; and his Das englische, schottische und nordamerikanische Strafverfahren (Erlangen, 1851), treats of the MITTOO administration of justice in England, Scot- land, and the United States. His subsequent works include Die Gefangnissverbesserung (1858); Der gegenwartige Zustand der Gefang- nissfrage (1860); Die Todesstrafe, &c. (Heidel. berg, 1862); and Lrfahrungen iiber die Wirk- samkeit der Schwurgerichte in Huropa und Amerika (1865). Mittermaier was a member of the Baden legislature for nearly 20 years previous to 1841, when his grief at the death - of his son caused him to withdraw; during that time he had been three times president of the legislature; and having resumed his seat in 1846, he was again president during the session of 1847-’8. In 1848 he was first called upon to preside over the provisional parlia- ment at Frankfort; and he was a member of the German parliament, where he advocated confederation, but opposed all extreme mea- sures. He frequently visited Italy, and embod- ied the result of his observations in Jtalie- nische Zustinde (Heidelberg, 1844). MITTIMUS, in law, the precept which is ad- dressed by competent judicial authority to a sheriff, constable, or other officer, and to a jailer or keeper of a prison, commanding the one to take and deliver, and the other to re- ceive into custody, a person charged with the offence therein described, and safely keep him as therein commanded. The command to keep varies with the nature of the case. A mitti- mus may be issued by an examining magistrate who, having inquired into a charge of crime, has decided that there is probable cause to be- lieve it true; and then, if the offence is bail- able and. sureties be not offered, a mittimus will issue commanding the jailer safely to keep the person charged for want of sureties, or until he be discharged by due course of law. But a mittimus may also issue for confinement in punishment of crime, and then the command will be safely to keep the prisoner for a time specified. A mittimus should be under the hand and seal of the magistrate; it should plainly specify the offence charged, and con- tain sufficient to show on its face that the magistrate had authority to act in the case; but it need not recite the evidence. MITTOO, a country of central Africa, be tween the Roah and Rohl rivers, and between lat. 5° and 6° N., bounded N. by the territory of the Dinka and S. by that of the Nyam- nyam. The most northerly group of tribes is that of the Mittoo proper; the other tribes are the Madi, the Madi-Kaya, Abbakah, and Loobah. Tattooing is practised only among the men. Both sexes wear iron and copper ornaments and trinkets of every sort; they have a great partiality for chains, for fasten- ing objects to their bodies, and their inven- tive skill in armlets and rings for the ankles is remarkable. Thick chains of iron on the neck are signs of fashion and wealth, and the ambitious often wear four at a time. The country is fertile, especially between lat. 5° and 5° 30’ N., on the upper Roah and Wohko, MITYLENE and various cereals, tuberous plants, and oily and leguminous fruits are produced with little labor. They eat the flesh of dogs, and possess goats and poultry, but have no cattle, and are hence contemptuously called Dyoor or savages. They use the bow and arrow and spears, but not shields. They have been lately subjected to the authorities at Khartoom, and attempts have been made to employ them as “ bearers,” in military and trading expeditions, but with little success, owing to their debility.—See Schweinfurth’s “Heart of Africa’’ (2 vols., 1874). MITYLENE. See MytTmLenr. MIVART, St. George. See supplement. MIXTECAS, a nation of Indians in Mexico, who emigrated at an early period from the north, under chiefs who were said to have sprung from two trees. They displaced the Chuchones or Chochos, and occupied most of the present states of Oajaca, Guerrero, and Puebla. They were industrious and progres- sive, and were not governed by one ruler, but by independent chiefs. Some of the bands were reduced by the Aztecs, and paid them tribute in feathers, chalchihuitl, cotton robes, maize, and firewood; but those of Oajaca re- mained independent. Remains of their cities, temples, and fortresses show that they pos- sessed considerable civilization. They had sa- cred caves in their mountains, and believed in a heaven called Sosola. They have held their ground in part of the territory, but in Puebla have been displaced by Mexicans, and some bands were forced down into Guatemala. Their language is allied to the Zapoteca, but is more melodious and less difficult. It has several dialects, 11 according to recent authorities, of which the Tepuzculano is the principal. The language has no b, 7, p, or vr. It has no proper plural, cahite, equivalent to many, being added to the singular; it abounds in personal pro- nouns, and the negative particle varies accord- ing to the tense of the verb. A full diction- ary was compiled by F. Diego Rio; an Arte or grammar was published at Mexico in 1593 by Fray Antonio de los Reyes; and several reli- gious treatises were printed in Mixtecan in the 16th and 17th centuries. At present they are peaceable and intelligent Mexican citizens. Protected by mountain fastnesses, they take little part in revolutions occurring beyond their limits. Their chief cities are Huajuapan, Yan- huistlan, Tlaxiaco, and Tepascoluta. MNEMONICS (Gr. prvfun, memory), the art of rendering artificial aid to the memory by asso- ciating in the mind things difficult to remem- ber with those which are easy of recollection, so that the former may be retained and brought to mind by association with the latter. The art is supposed by some writers to have origi- nated with the Egyptians, but the first person who reduced it to a system was, according to Cicero, the poet Simonides of Cos (about 500 B. ©.). Having been called from a banquet just before the roof of the house fell and crushed all the rest of the company, he found MNEMONICS 683 on returning that the bodies were so mutilated that no individual could be recognized ; but by remembering the places which they had sev- erally occupied at table he was able to distin- guish them. He was thus led to remark that the order of places may by association suggest the order of things. The principles of the art were introduced at Rome and developed by Metrodorus, and Cicero and Quintilian both ad- vocated the plan of associating thoughts and words with particular places, images, or signs which might be recalled at pleasure. One of the earliest modern works on the subject is the Fenia (1491) of Petrus Ravennas, professor of canon law in Padua. One of his artifices was to make beautiful maidens the letters of an al- phabet. John Romberch de Krypse, in his Congestorium Artificiose Memoria (1588), rec- © ommended the division of the walls of a series of rooms into separate spaces, each of which was to be marked with numerical, literal, and symbolical alphabets. The distinct rooms were to be devoted, like the alcoves of a library, to distinct classes of subjects; and the nomen- clature having once been mastered, the sugges- tions of local relation would enable a man to repeat hundreds of words or ideas that had no real connection with one another. The same method is developed further in the ‘‘ Castel of Memorie” of Guilielmo Grataroli of Bergamo, published in English in 1562. The Ars Memo- rie of Marafortius (1602) grouped all necessa- ry reminiscences around 44 images contained in the palms of the hands. Giambattista della Porta, in his Ars Reminiscendi (1602), seems to have first employed the mode of writing now common in rebuses. About 1609 Lam- bert Schenkel astonished all classes in France, Germany, and the Netherlands by his mnemonic performances. His system, which was similar to that of Simonides, was obscurely explained in his Gazophylacium Artis Memoria (1610). He was succeeded at the university of Paris, where he taught for many years, by his pupil Martin Sommer, who became equally celebrated. More elaborate than any preceding scheme was the repository for ideas suggested by John Wallis in his Mnemoniaca (1618). This repository was to be a series of imaginary theatre-shaped edifices with their interior walls variously di- vided and colored. Every person was to have his repository constantly present before his mind, within which all his ideas were to be arranged according to their qualities, quanti- ties, positions, and colors. The plan only be- came more complicated as improved by Henry Herdson (1651). The Memoria Technica of Richard Grey (1780; new ed., 1851) contains a system which many have found useful in remembering dates and numbers. Letters are substituted for figures and combined into words; certain consonants are selected for this purpose, the vowels serving only to con- nect them. Grey’s letters, which were adopt- ed without reference to any similarity to the figuree they stand for, are as follows: MNEMOSYNE Words formed from these letters by combi- nation with any of the vowels are more easily numbered than the figures they repre- sent. The most complicated system of mne- monics is that of Fainaigle, who began to lec- ture in Paris in 1807 and in England in 1811. He divides the walls, ceiling, and floor of a room into 50 imaginary equal compartments. To each compartment is assigned a particular hieroglyphic, with which it is indelibly asso- ciated. These elements having been thorough- ly mastered, some association, no matter how ridiculous, is formed between the object to be remembered and one of the hieroglyphs. substitution of letters for figures also belongs to his system. His table is as follows: to eR ee we eT Gurerg, nO ton om ord) dd. ckgegq by we pi. 6xz He selected these letters on account of some similarity to or association with the figure rep- resented; as, for example, t resembles the fig- ure 1, n with two strokes suggests 2, m with three strokes suggests 3, r occurs in the word denoting four in the European languages, &c. Fainaigle published a work in English illus- trative of his system, entitled ‘“‘The New Art of Memory” (London, 1812). His system was improved by Aimée Paris (Principes et appli- cations diverses de la mnémotechnie, 7th ed., Paris, 1833), who applied his method to chro- nology, geography, jurisprudence, mathematical formulas, and the nomenclature of all the sci- ences. Further modifications were made by F. Fauvel-Gouraud, who taught in the United States and published ‘‘ Phreno-Mnemotechnic Dictionary” (part i., New York, 1844), and ‘“‘Phreno-Mnemotechny, or the Art of Memo- ry” (1845). Among other late writers on mne- monics are Gen. Bem, Exposé général de la méthode mnémonique polonaise, &c. (Paris and Leipsic, 1839), an enlargement of Jazwinski’s system; Hermann Kothe, System der Mnemo- nik (Cassel, 1853); and Karl Otto-Reventlow, Mnemotechnischer Commentar zur allgemeinen Weltgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1861). MNEMOSYNE (Gr.), in classical mythology, the goddess of memory, one of the Titanides, daughter of Uranus, who became by Jupiter the mother of the Muses. MOA. See Dinornis. MOAB, the ancient name of a region on the E. shore of the Dead sea and the E. bank of the Jordan, about 50 m. long by 20 broad. It is designated in Scripture as the land of Moab. The plains are well watered and very productive. The uplands consist of a rolling plateau about 3,200 ft. above the sea, which descends at angles of 45° and 50° into the Dead sea. The great chasm of Wady Mojeb, the Arnon of Scripture, divides them into two districts, of which the northern is called by the modern Arabs El-Belka, and extends as The MOAB far N. as the mountain of Gilead; while the southern is known as El-Kerak, and reaches southward to the wady of that name. The village of Kerak is supposed to stand upon the site of one of the ancient capitals of Moab, called in the Old Testament Kir-Haraseth (2 Kings iii. 25), Kir-Hareseth (Isa. xvi. 7), Kir- Haresh (Isa. xvi. 11), Kir-Heres (Jer. xlviii. 31, 86), or Kir-Moab, an earlier one having been Ar, or Rabbath-Moab. It is built on the top of asteep hill surrounded by a deep and narrow valley. The land is now inhabited by a few scattered Arab tribes, but is covered with ruined villages and towns. According to the Biblical account, Moab was a child of Lot, and his descendants conquered before the time of the exodus a gigantic tribe called Emim, and took possession of their land; but they lost a portion of it to the Amorites, from whom it was taken by Moses. Balak, king of Moab, formed an alliance with the Midianites to resist the invading Hebrews, and sought to persuade Balaam the seer to curse them; but Balaam by divine direction blessed them. Subsequently Balaam seduced the Hebrews to join in the worship of Baal-peor. The Midianites were thereupon attacked by command of the Lord, and suffered great losses, but the Moabites were spared. Moses died and was buried in the land of Moab, in a ravine facing Beth-peor, the house of Baal-peor. During the time of the judges Eglon, king of Moab, united with the Ammonites and Amalekites and subjugated the Israelites; but after ruling and receiving trib- ute in Jericho for 18 years, he was killed ‘by Ehud the Benjamite, and the Moabites were driven back to their own territory. Moab was conquered by Saul, and David made it a tribu- tary state. After the division of the Hebrew state, the Moabites revolted against Ahab, king of Israel, whose son Jehoram tried in vain to reconquer their territory. They subsequent- ly made various incursions into the Hebrew possessions, and appear in later times to have reoccupied the land between the Jabbok and Arnon, probably after the exile of the ten tribes, and they also assisted the Babylonians in their invasion of Palestine. But they, too, were subdued by the conquerors. Their name, like those of Ammon and Edom, was finally lost under that of the Arabians. Their licentious and bloody idolatry of Baal-peor and Chemosh made them an object of national detestation to the Hebrews, no less than their frequent hos- tilities, and they are often contemptuously spo- ken of in the prophets.—The discovery in 1868, at Dhiban in Moab, of a monument of black basaltic granite, with an inscription of 34 lines in Hebrew-Pheenician characters, attracted re- newed attention to this country. The only Eu- ropean who saw the Moabite stone in a com- plete state was the Rey. Mr. Klein, of the Je- rusalem mission society. The negotiations set on foot to obtain possession of it unfortunate- ly resulted in quarrels among the Arab tribes, and led them to believe that the Turks would MOAWIYAH make the stone a pretext for interfering in the government of the country; they there- fore lighted a tire on it, and when it was hot threw water upon it, which broke it into three large and several small fragments. The three large pieces were obtained by Clermont- Ganneau, dragoman of the French embassy at Constantinople, who had also procured an imperfect paper impression of the text before the stone was broken. Some of the smaller fragments, obtained by Capt. Warren, came into the possession of the Palestine exploration society. Ganneau published a partially restored text, with a translation, in the Revue archéolo- gique for March and June, 1870. The alpha- bet of the inscription is Hebreo-Pheenician, the oldest known form of Semitic. The language closely resembles Hebrew, and it is believed that the inscription dates from about 920 B. C. Owing chiefly to the fragmentary condition of the inscription, the decipherment cannot be re- garded as finally established ; but the labors of Ganneau, Neubauer, Néldeke, Hitzig, Kampf, Derenbourg, Haug, Schlottmann, Deutsch, Gins- burg, Levy, Harkavy, Wright, Lenormant, and others have doubtless determined its general contents. It appears that the stone was set up by Mesha or Mesa, king of Moab, son of Chemosh-Gad, who, speaking in the first per- son, records his wars with Omri, king of Is- rael, and his successors. Mesha fortified Baal- meon, made a successful attack on Kiriathaim, took Ashtaroth, and put all the inhabitants to death. He then assaulted Nebo, slew 7,000 men, and devoted the women to Ashtar-Che- - mosh, and the vessels of Jehovah to the same god. The king of Israel fortified Jahaz and attacked Mesha, but was defeated and lost the city, which was thereupon occupied by Moab- ites. Subsequently Mesha restored Korhah, rebuilt Aroer, Beth-bamoth, Bezer, Beth-ga- mul, Beth-diblathaim, and Beth-Baal-meon. In continuation Mesha narrates his successful wars against the Edomites. The fragments of the stone were purchased by the French goy- ernment for 32,000 francs, and were trans- ported to the Louvre in Paris. Recent trav- ellers in Moab report that the Arabs are now afflicted with a mania for “written stones,” and offer many for sale which are only cov- ered with tribe marks, or at best fragmentary Nabathzan inscriptions.—See Clermont-Gan- neau, La stéle de Mesa (Paris, 1870); Ward, in the “‘ Bibliotheca Sacra” (Andover, October, 1870); Ginsburg, ‘‘ The Moabite Stone” (Lon- don, 1870; 2d ed., revised and enlarged, 1871) ; Palmer, “The Desert of the Exodus” (Lon- don, 1872); and Tristram, ‘‘The Land of Mo- ab” (London, 1878). MOAWIYAH. I. The founder of the dynasty of the Ommiyade caliphs, born in Mecca about 610, died in Damascus in the spring of 680. He was the son of Abu Sofian, one of the chiefs at Mecca, and the great-grandson of Om- miya, a cousin of the grandfather of Moham- _med. In 641 Omar appointed him governor of MOBILE 685 Syria; and although he permitted the island of Cyprus, which fell into Saracen power about 048, to be recaptured by its people in 651, he subjugated and retained the island of Rhodes. On the assassination of the caliph Othman in 655, he refused to recognize Ali, his legiti- mate successor, but proclaimed himself ca- liph. After a long struggle, in which he often displayed tyranny and revolting cruelty, he succeeded in subjugating the whole Saracen empire, and placing its provinces under the control of governors friendly to him. His armies made large additions to his territory, conquering Bokhara and Samarcand on the north, and meeting with no important check until they attacked Constantinople, which was repeatedly besieged until in 678 Moawiyah was compelled to make terms of peace. He made the caliphate hereditary, though the measure excited great opposition, and com- pelled the recognition of Yezid, his son, as his future successor. If, Grandson of the prece- ding, born in Damascus in 660, died there in 686. He succeeded Yezid as caliph in the au- tumn of 688, but abdicated a few months later, declaring that the act of his grandfather in making the caliphate hereditary had been one of usurpation, in the results of which he would not share. He refused even to appoint a suc- cessor, but retired to a life of complete pri- vacy. According to some historians, he died of the plague; according to others, he was poi- soned. (See OMMIYADES.) MOBERLY, George, an English bishop, born in 1803. He graduated at Oxford in 1825, and became successively fellow and tutor of Balliol college, public examiner, and select preacher before the university. In 1885 he was ap- pointed head master of Winchester school. In 1868 he was the Bampton lecturer, and in 1869 he was made bishop of Salisbury. His nu- merous publications include ‘‘ Introduction to Logic” (1838); ‘‘Sermons preached at Win- chester College” (2 vols., 1844~-’8) ; ‘‘Sayings of the Great Forty Days, with an Examination of Mr. Newman’s Theory of Development” (1846; 4th ed., 1871); ‘“‘Studies and Discipline of Public Schools ” (1861); ‘‘ The Administra- tion of the Holy Spirit in the Body of Christ” (Bampton lectures, 1868); and ‘ Brightstone Sermons” (1869). MOBILE, the name of a river and bay in the southern part of Alabama, derived from that of a tribe of Indians (the Mauvilians or Mo- bilians) who inhabited the adjacent country at the time of its first settlement by Europeans. The river Mobile is formed by the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee. A few miles below this point it divides into two branches, the eastern one of which takes the name of Tensas, the western retaining that of Mobile. Before reuniting, both these streams separate into several other subdivisions, all of which meet in one common embouchure at the head of Mobile bay. The length of the Mobile river is about 50 m., and its general direction 686 is south. In the lower part of its course the banks are marshy and alluvial—The bay of Mobile is about 30 m. in length from N. to S.,’ with a general width of 10 or 12 m., except where it expands on the southeast into the subsidiary bay of Bon Secours, which extends some 8 or 10 m. further to the eastward. The entrance from the gulf of Mexico, between Mobile point on the east and Dauphine isl- and on the west, is about 3 m. wide, and is commanded by Fort Morgan on Mobile point, and Fort Gaines on Dauphine island. The bay has another outlet on the southwest through Grant’s pass, N. of Dauphine island, which communicates with Mississippisound. Through this channel steamers and other vessels of light draught generally pass when plying between Mobile and New Orleans. The bar in front of the main entrance of the bay admits of the passage of vessels drawing 21 or 22 ft. The ordinary anchorage for shipsis 4 or 5 m. with- in the entrance of the bay. The whole of the upper portion of the bay is shallow, and is supposed to be gradually filling up with sedi- mentary deposits from the rivers that flow into it. There is a lighthouse on Mobile point; another on Sand island, 3 m. 8., immediately in front of the entrance; and one at the head of the bay, a little below the city of Mobile. MOBILE, aS. W. county of Alabama, bounded E. by Mobile river and bay, S. by the gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi; area, nearly 1,400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 49,311, of whom 21,107 were colored. The surface is generally uneven, except in that portion bordering on the bay and gulf, and the soil is sandy and poor, mainly covered with forests of pine. It has many streams of pure water, and, except on the low borders of the river, is very health- ful. The county is traversed by the Mobile and Ohio, the New Orleans, Mobile, and Texas, and other railroads terminating at Mobile. A few miles S. of the mainland, in the gulf of Mexico, immediately W. of the entrance of Mobile bay, and forming a part of the county, is Dauphine island, the seat of a French set- tlement established by Bienville in 1702. It was originally called Massacre island, from the number of human bones found upon it. For several years it was at intervals the seat of government of the colony of Louisiana. The chief productions in 1870 were 61,350 bushels of Indian corn, 10,394 of Irish and 67,116 of sweet potatoes, 90,100 lbs. of rice, 7,532 of wool, 1,450 of honey, and 317 bales of cotton. There were on farms 451 horses, 492 mules and asses, 3,214 milch cows, 518 working oxen, 4,377 other cattle, 3,013 sheep, and 5,567 swine. There were 5 flour mills, 12 saw mills, 11 manufactories of tin, copper, &c., 14 of ci- gars, 2 of engines and boilers, and 5 of tar and turpentine. Capital, Mobile. MOBILE, a port of entry and the capital of Mobile co., Alabama, the largest city and only seaport of the state, on the W. side of Mo- bile river, immediately above its entrance into MOBILE the bay of the same name, 30 m. from the gulf of Mexico, in lat. 30° 42’ N.,-lon. 88° W., 180 m. 8. W. of Montgomery, and 140 m. by rail E. by N. of New Orleans; pop. in 1820, 2,672; in 1880, 3,194; in 1840, 12,672; in 1850, 20,515; in 1860, 29,258; in 1870, 32,0384; of whom 13,919 were colored and 4,239 for- eigners. The number of families was 6,301 ; of dwellings, 5,738. The corporate limits ex- tend 6 m. N. and §., and 2 or 3 m. W. from the river. The thickly inhabited part of the city extends for about a mile along the river, and nearly the same distance back to the west- ward. Its site is a sandy plain, rising as it re- cedes from the water. Thestreets are general- ly regular, well paved, and shaded. There are several fine public buildings, among which is a handsome market house with rooms for the municipal offices in the upper story. The custom house has also accommodations for the post office and United States courts. Among the other noticeable buildings are the thea- tre, Odd Fellows’ and temperance halls, guard house and tower, medical college, and the Bar- ton academy. Mobile is lighted with gas, and supplied with water of unusual purity and ex- cellence, which is brought a little more than 5 m., from the foot of Spring hill. Six lines of street railroad traverse the city. The climate is generally healthful, except for occasional visitations of epidemic yellow fever. High and healthful hills within afew miles N. W. and S. W. afford permanent or summer resi- dences. Four lines of railroad furnish com- munication with various points in the south, viz.: the Mobile and Ohio; Mobile and Mont- gomery ; New Orleans, Mobile, and Texas; and Alabama Grand Trunk. The trade of Mobile is much hindered by the shallowness of its har- bor. Vessels drawing more than 8 or 10 ft. -are obliged to anchor in the bay, 25 m. or more from the city. In 1873 congress appropriated $100,000 for the completion of improvements in the harbor, which it is hoped will enable vessels of 13 ft. draught to reach the wharves. The chief business is the receipt and shipment of cotton. The following table exhibits the num- ber of bales received and shipped for six years: SHIPMENTS. XHARS, set et Patel (65 foreign | To domestic Total. ports. ports. 1868-"69..... Aa 230,621 163,154 84,194 247,348 1869-°70........ 806.061 200,838 97,685 298,523 ISOS Th ones ens 404,673 287,074 130,429 417,508 ASUIAN (2p serts 288,012 187,977 157,652 295,629 18(2T3..500065 832,457 132,130 197,131 829,261 1878-"74........ 299,578 182,867 172,222 804,589 The trade in naval stores and lumber pro- duced in the vicinity is increasing. In 1878 the shipments consisted of 15,000 to 20,000 barrels of spirits of turpentine, 75,000 to 100,000 of rosin, and 1,000 of tar, together valued at $750,000, and 2,627,549 ft. of lumber. The importation of coffee is also increasing, and in 1872-’8 amounted to 58,956 bags. The MOBILE trade with foreign ports since 1867 (years end- ing June 30) is shown in the following table: YEARS. Exports, Imports. 1BBT ood Sy caw ene ae ag's $22,101,601 $385,530 ot SOS siciascseietsets eatsteriee enters 22,611,973 566,225 USOO as saa sgre settee terete 20,541,450 511,297 ISTO okt epee 22,429, 631 1,447,516 yp Ba eer, 21,874,708 1,811,614 ASB a vinu saa ius aes etme c 18,954,660 1,761,657 STEIN Ei ed beeaeniies 12,249,866 1,097,164 TSE, oss os Seas pete ane 10,282,784 886,411 ~ Of the exports in 1874, $9,884,820 consisted of cotton. The entrances from foreign ports during the year ending June 80, 1874, num- bered 58, with an aggregate tonnage of 83,- 667; clearances to foreign ports 41, tonnage 32,509. The coastwise entrances were 185, tonnage 48,373; coastwise clearances, 128, ton- nage 45,115. In 1873 80 sailing vessels of 7,586 tons, 30 steamers of 7,316 tons, and 22 barges of 1,475 tons, belonged to the port. Steamers run regularly to Montgomery and other points on the Alabama, Tombigbee, and Black Warrior rivers. The principal manu- factories are two of sash, doors, and blinds, one of paper, several of carriages and cabinet ware, two cooperages, a brewery, three saw mills, and four founderieg and machine shops. There are two national banks, with a joint capital of $800,000; two state banks, with $1,000,000 capital; two savings banks, and nine insurance companies.—Mobile is divided into eight wards, and is governed by a mayor, with a board of councilmen of one member and a board of aldermen of three members from each ward. It has a municipal court and an efficient fire department and police force. The United States courts for the southern dis- trict of Alabama are held here. The principal charitable institutions are four orphan asylums, the city hospital, the United States marine hos- pital, and the Providence infirmary. The med- ical college of Alabama was established here in 1859, and in 1873-4 had 9 professors and 85 students. The number of public schools in the entire county in 1873-4 was 71 (42 white and 29 colored), with an attendance of about 4,500. The boys’ and girls’ high schools and a number of the lower grades are held in the Barton academy in the city. There are seven Roman Catholic schools and academies, a He- brew school, and a number of private schools and academies. Two daily newspapers are published. There are 80 churches, viz.: 5 Baptist (2 colored), 4 Episcopal, 1 German Lu- theran, 1 Jewish, 10 Methodist (6 colored), 3 Presbyterian, and 6 Roman Catholic. In the immediate vicinity of Mobile are the college of St. Joseph at Spring Hill, under direction of the Jesuits, and the academy of the Visita- tion, Summerville, conducted by the sisters of the Visitation.—Mobile was the original seat of French colonization in the southwest, and for many years the capital of the colony of Louisi- ana. In 1702 Le Moyne de Bienville trans- 565 VOL, x1.—44 687 ferred the principal seat of the colony from Biloxi to a point on the river Mobile supposed to be about 20 m. above the present city, where he established a fort which he called St. Louis de la Mobile. At the same time he built a fort and warehouse on Isle Dauphine, at the en- trance of Mobile bay. Many of the first set- tlers were Canadians. In 1705 an epidemic, supposed to be the first recorded visitation of yellow fever, carried off 85 persons. The year 1706 was noted for the “petticoat insurrec- tion,” a threatened rebellion of the women, in consequence of dissatisfaction with the diet of Indian corn. The colony frequently suffered from famine, as well as from the attacks of Indians, although relieved by occasional sup- plies from the mother country. In 1711 the settlement was nearly destroyed by a hurricane and flood, in consequence of which it was re- moved to its present situation. In 1728 the seat of the colonial government was transferred to New Orleans. In 1763, by the treaty of Paris, Mobile, with all that portion of Louisi- ana lying E. of the Mississippi and N. of Bayou Iberville, Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, passed into the possession of Great Britain. In 1780 the fort, the name of which had been changed to Fort Condé, and subsequently by the British to Fort Charlotte, was captured by the Spanish general Don Galvez, and in 1788 its occupancy was confirmed to Spain by the cession to that power of all the British posses- sions on the gulf of Mexico. On April 18, 1818, the Spanish commandant, Cayetano Perez, sur- rendered the fort and town to Gen. Wilkinson. At that period the population, which in 1785 had amounted to 746, was estimated at only 500 (exclusive of the garrison), half of whom were blacks. In December, 1819, Mobile was incorporated as a city. On Jan. 4, 1861, the state authorities of Alabama took possession of the United States arsenal at Mount Vernon, 35 m. from Mobile, and soon afterward garrisoned Forts Morgan and Gaines at the entrance.of the bay, though the state did not secede until the lith. Mobile was not seriously attacked until the summer of 1864, when the city had been en- compassed with three lines of defensive works, while ten batteries commanded the channel below the city, which was also, obstructed with rows of piles, and a small confederate fleet, car- rying 22 guns and 470 men, was anchored under the guns of Fort Morgan. On Aug. 5 Admiral Farragut, with 18 vessels, carrying 199 guns and 2,700 men, entered the bay under the fire of the two forts, which he returned while passing, but without stopping. He was assisted by 1,500 soldiers, under Gen. Gordon Granger, who were intrenched on Dauphine island, within half a mile of Fort Gaines. Farragut’s leading vessel, the Tecumseh, struck a torpedo and in- stantly sank, carrying down her captain and 112 men. The flag ship Hartford, with the admiral in the rigging, then took the lead, and after an engagement lasting an hour passed the forts and steamed into the bay, followed by 688 MOBILE POINT the remainder of the fleet. They at once en- countered the confederate fleet, which after a sharp conflict was destroyed or captured; the most formidable vessel, the ram Tennessee, did not surrender until a 15-inch shot had pene- trated her armor, her steering apparatus had been disabled, and the commander of the fleet, Admiral Buchanan, seriously wounded. The Union loss in this engagement was 52 killed, 170 wounded, and 113 drowned. The confed- erate loss in the fleet was 10 killed and 19 wounded; in the two forts, 8 killed and 21 wounded. Fort Gaines, with 800 men, sur- rendered on the 8th. Fort Morgan was at once besieged; it was bombarded and almost entirely destroyed on the 22d, and surrendered on the morning of the 23d. Late in March, 1865, Spanish Fort and Blakely, fortified places on the eastern shore of the bay and Tensas river, were invested by a force of 45,000 men, under Gens. Granger, Steele, and A. J. Smith. These forts were carried by assault on the 8th and 9th of April, 4,000 prisoners being cap- tured, while heavy losses were sustained by the besiegers. Mobile being thus exposed to at- tack from the river, it was evacuated by the confederates on the 11th, and occupied by the Union troops next day. MOBILE POINT, the apex of a long, low, narrow, sandy peninsula between the gulf of Mexico on the south and Bon Secours bay and Navy cove on the north. The point is the eastern limit of the entrance into Mobile bay. It is the site of Fort Morgan, built in the place of Fort Bowyer, famous for the repulse of an attack by the British, Sept. 14, 1814. The fort, which was very imperfectly constructed, was commanded by Major Lawrence, with a garrison of only 130, including men and offi- cers, and 20 pieces of artillery. It was at- tacked by a squadron of two sloops of war and two brigs, assisted by 600 Indians on land, with whom were associated 130 marines from the ships. The attack continued for three hours, when the enemy were repulsed, with the loss of the Hermes, Commodore Percy’s flag ship, which ran aground and was burned, and 232 men killed and wounded. Eight of the garrison were killed. After the battle of New Orleans, Fort Bowyer was again invested by the whole British force, and Lawrence sur- rendered, Feb. 12, 1815. (See Mosire.) MOBIUS. I. August Ferdinand, a German mathe- matician, born at Schulpforta, near Naumburg, Nov. 17, 1790, died in Leipsic, Sept. 26, 1868. He graduated at the university of Leipsic in 1815, and was a professor there for 50 years. He remodelled the observatory, and in his Der barycentrische Calcul, ein neues Hiilfsmittel eur analytischen Behandlung der Geometrie (Leipsic, 1827), established the new principle of the affinities of figures. His Lehrbuch der Statik (2 vols., 1837) gives a comprehensive accotmt of the intimate connection between statics and geometry. His most celebrated astronomical works are Die Hlemente der MOCKING BIRD Mechanik des Himmels (1848), and Die Haupt- satze der Astronomie (4th ed., 1860). IL. Theodor, a German philologist, son of the pre- ceding, born in Leipsic, June 22, 1821. He graduated at Leipsic in 1852, and in 1859 be- came professor of Scandinavian languages and literature there. In 1865 he accepted a sim- ilar position at Kiel. He has edited many old Norse works. III. Paul Heinrich August, a Ger- man author, brother of the preceding, born in Leipsic, May 31, 1825. He studied theology and philosophy, and became a teacher in Leip- sic and a preacher at the church of the univer- sity. From 1853 to 1865 he was director of an educational institution for booksellers, and subsequently of one of the principal schools in Leipsic. His miscellaneous writings include stories, poetry, and a tragedy, and Katechis- mus der deutschen Literaturgeschichte (Leip- sic, 1857; 4th ed., 1871). MOCANNA, or Mokanna. HAxKEM. MOCHA, or Mokha, a seaport of Arabia, for- merly the capital of the province of Yemen, on the Red sea, at the head of a little bay near the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, 130 m. N. W. of Aden; pop. about 7,000. The roadstead is protected only by two narrow spits of sand, on one of which is a castellated fort and on the other an insignificant battery. Vessels draw- ing 12 ft. of water can enter it. The houses are generally of coral rock or sun-baked brick whitewashed, but in the suburbs they are circu- lar huts built of date-tree matting, with conical roofs. There are three suburbs, one occupied by Abyssinian mariners and Mohammedan tra- ders, one by Arab laborers, and one by Jews. The chief public edifices are the mosques, one of which is very large. Mochais celebrated for its coffee, the annual export of which, though much less than in former times, was recently still about 10,000 tons. Other articles of trade are dates, gums, balm, ivory, and senna. The growth of Hodeida and Aden has injured the prosperity of Mocha, and its commerce has de- creased greatly in late years. MOCHUANA. See Brouuana. MOCKING BIRD, an American passerine bird, of the subfamily miming, and genus mimus (Boie). The subfamily includes the catbird, brown thrush, and nearly 20 other mockers, arranged by Gray under the single genus mi- mus, but subdivided by Cabanis and others into nearly as many genera as species. The re- stricted genus mémus has the bill shorter than the head, slightly curved from the base, and notched at the tip; the gape furnished with bristles; lower jaw with no longitudinal ridges; wings moderate and rounded, with the first quill very short, the second longer, and from the third to the seventh nearly equal and long- est; tail long and graduated; tarsi longer than the middle toe, robust, and covered in front with broad scales; toes long, with sharp curved claws. The size is large, and the general ap- pearance thrush-like. The species of this genus See ATHA BEN i Sn i MOCKING BIRD are found in North and South America, the West Indies, and the Galapagos islands; they are shy, active, and migratory, feeding on insects, ber- ries, and worms; the song is highly pleasing, and the powers of imitation are very great. Mocking Bird (Mimus polyglottus). The common mocking bird (. polyglottus, Boie) is about 94 in. long, with an extent of wings of 134; the bill and legs are black; the general color above is ashy brown, a little the darkest in the centre; the under parts white, with a brownish tinge except on the chin, and a shade of ash across the breast; a pale super- ciliary stripe; wings and tail nearly black; lesser wing coverts like the back, the middle and greater tipped with white, forming two bands; outer tail feather white, the second mostly so, the third with a white spot on the end, and the rest, except the middle, slightly tipped with white. It is found in the southern United States, from the Atlantic to the high central plains, replaced by the M. montanus (Bonap.) to the westward. The song of the mocking bird, in its mellowness, modulations and gradations, compass, and brilliancy of exe- cution, is unrivalled; it can adapt its tongue to any note; it deceives the sportsman, cheats and terrifies birds, whistles to the dog, and imitates almost every sound, animate or in- animate; it sings charmingly at night, com- mencing as soon as the moon rises; its finest song is during the breeding season. It delights to build in gardens near houses; the eggs are usually five, light green with brown spots and blotches. They begin to pair toward the end of March, and three broods are generally raised between that and the last of September. They remain in the gulf states all the year; some go to the north in the spring, returning in Octo- ber; they are most plentiful near the seashore, in sandy districts scantily furnished with trees; in winter they live principally about the farm houses and plantations. Their motions on the ground are light and elegant, accompanied by MODENA 689 frequent openings of the wings and tail; the flight is short and jerking. The call note is very mournful, like that of the /. rufus (Boie), the French mocking bird so called. Its cour- age is sufficient to defend it against most birds of prey. It is easily reared by hand from the nest, and becomes very familiar and affection- ate in confinement; its vocal powers, though great in captivity, are very much greater in its native haunts; it is long-lived, and a good singer always commands a high price. The female differs little from the male, but the plu- mage is somewhat duller. The I. Carolinen- sis (Gray) has been described under Carsirp. Other species are described in South America, and on the Pacific coast of North America, all possessing remarkable powers of song. MODENA. ¥. A former duchy of northern Italy, bordering on Mantua, Ferrara, Bologna, Lucca, Genoa, Parma, and the Mediterranean ; area, about 2,300 sq.m. It comprised Modena proper, Reggio, Guastalla, Frignana, Garfa- gnana, Massa-Carrara, and Lunigiana. The last three divisions Jie 8. of the Apennines, the main ridge of which crosses the southern portion of the territory, sending off extensive spurs. The highest summit is Monte Cimone, 7,000 ft. The territory of Modena extended from the Po to the Mediterranean, the coast being small and destitute of harbors. About one third of it, watered by the Panaro, forms part of the great and fertile plain of Lombar- dy. The principal river is the Secchia, which after a winding course of 100 m. joins the Po opposite the mouth of the Mincio. The prin- cipal productions are wheat, maize, hemp, flax, rice, pulse, olives, wine, and silk. Agri- culture is backward, but improving. Few of the farms exceed 60 acres; dairy pasture pre- vails to some extent in the valley of Garfa- gnana; a few families own the large flocks of Apennine sheep. The vine is most extensive- ly cultivated near Reggio and the city of Mo- dena. The mountains abound with oak, pine, and chestnut. Iron and other minerals are found, and the marble of Carrara is a lucrative article of export. The territory now forms three provinces of the kingdom of Italy: Mo- dena, Reggio, and Massa e Carrara. Its his- tory is given in connection with that of the city. Ii. A province of the kingdom of Italy, embracing of the former duchy of Modena the provinces of Modena and Frignana; area, 966 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 278,231. IM A city (anc. dMutina), capital of the province, beautifully situated in a plain between the Pa- naro and the Secchia, 23 m. N. W. of Bologna; pop. in 1872, 56,690. It has a citadel, is sur- rounded with ramparts, and is divided into the new and old city, a part of the Amilian way intersecting it. The Gothic duomo or cathedral contains interesting tombs, one of which, designed by Giulio Romano, is celebra- ted on account of its square marble tower, one of the highest in Italy. Famous among the numerous churches, on account of their colos- 690 MODENA sal marbles, are those of San Vincenzo, Sant’ Agostino, and San Francesco. The former ducal (now royal) palace in the great square is a fine edifice, and contains a large collection of paintings by Guido Reni, the Carracci, An- drea del Sarto, Carlo Dolce, and Guercino, Po- maranzio’s “‘ Crucifixion,” and other remark- able works. It has a recumbent Cleopatra by Canova, and the ceiling of the gallery is paint- ed in fresco by Francesconi. The library, brought from Ferrara by Cesare d’Este, and hence known as the biblioteca Estense, has about 100,000 volumes, and is rich in manu- scripts, coins, and medals. The other public buildings of Modena are the university, one of the most famous in Italy, the museo Lapidario, the theatre, the post office, and the archiepis- copal palace. There are many educational in- stitutions and an academy of sciences and fine arts. Modena is the seat of an archbishop. The university in 1873 had 42 professors and 315 students.—The ancient Mutina is supposed to have been of Etruscan origin. According to Livy, the territory in which it was situated had been taken from the Boians, and after the final defeat of the latter it was made a Roman colony (183 B.C.). It was a strong place in the time of Sulla, and subsequently became celebrated by the siege which it sustained and the battles fought between Decimus Brutus and Mark Antony, a campaign known as the bellum Mutinense (43). Afterward it suffered much from the general calamities of the em- pire, and toward the end of the 4th century, according to St. Ambrose, it was in a deplo- rable condition. In the middle of the 5th cen- tury it endured the still more terrible ravages of Attila. Under the Lombard kings Mutina Modena. became the frontier city of their dominions toward the exarchate. At the close of the 6th century it was taken by the Greek emperor Mauricius. Subsequently it was restored to the Lombard kingdom, but according to Mu- ratori nearly the whole city was reduced for several centuries to a morass, chiefly owing to inundations. It was governed by Frankish counts for some time after the 9th century, in the 11th by its bishops, and at its close by the countess Matilda of Tuscany. Subsequently it formed part of the Lombard league; and after suffering from the feuds which distracted for a long period the cities of northern Italy, it passed along with Ferrara into the posses- sion of the Torrelli family, and at the end of the 13th century the house of Este became the rulers of the city and its territory. The titles of duke of Modena and Reggio and count of Rovigo were conferred upon Borso of Este in 1452 by the emperor Frederick III. of Ger- many, and that of duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. in 1471. (See Estz.) The duchies of Modena and Reggio remained in the Este fam- ily till 1797, when Napoleon took them from Ercole III. (who died in 1808), and annexed them to the Cisalpine republic. His daughter Maria Beatrice married the Austrian archduke Ferdinand, and their son Francis IV., who in- herited Massa-Carrara, was reinstated as duke of Modena in 1814, and was succeeded in 1846 by his son Francis V., whose elder sister is the wife of the count de Chambord, and his young- er sister of the younger son of Don Carlos, the first Spanish pretender of that name, and mother of the present pretender. (See Car- Los.) Even more autocratic than his predeces- sors, he was obliged to invoke the assistance of Austria at the end of 1847 to maintain his authority, and he fled in March, 1848, while MODICA the Modenese established a provisional gov- ernment. After the defeat of the Sardinian army by Radetzky he returned to his capital, Aug. 10, fled again March 14, 1849, returned in May, and feigned to be bent on liberal re- forms. But he soon relapsed into absolutism and reinstated the Jesuits (June, 1850). In 1859, after the battle of Magenta, he finally left Modena, though the Franco-Austrian treaty of Villafranca confirmed him in his posses- sions.. His dynasty was deposed by the Mo- denese national assembly, Aug. 19; and’ by a decree of March 18, 1860, Modena became part of the department of Emilia, in the dominions of Victor Emanuel. MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province and 30 m. S. W. of the city of Syracuse, in a narrow valley surrounded by high rocks; pop. in 1872, 33,169. It has a castle, a technical school, a gymnasium, a beautiful cathedral, and several other notable churches, The in- habitants are mostly engaged in agriculture and in the breeding of horses and mules. A brisk trade is carried on in grain, oil, wine, cheese, and other products. About 4 m. from Modica, in a stony desert, is the valley of Ipsica, famous for its excavated rock dwellings, sup- posed to be the work of the aboriginal Sicilians. MODJESKA, Helena Benda. See supplement. MODLIN. See NovoagrorGievsk. MODOCS, a tribe of American Indians, origi- nally part of the Klamath nation, but in recent times hostile to them. The name Modoc was given to them by the Shasteecas, and means enemies. Their original territory was a dis- trict about 100 by 40 m. on the S. shore of Klamath lake, California. They were dark- colored, with a heavy drowsy face and dull yellowish eye. Their houses were pits roofed with a conical structure of wooden slabs, cov- ered with earth. Both sexes were decently clothed in skins. They contended with the Shasteecas and the Klamaths, and traded in the slaves they captured in war. They recog- nized a deity called Komoose. As early as 1847 and 1849 they are charged with having cut off more than 50 whites. The Indians on Clear lake chastised by Capt. Nathaniel Lyon in 1850 were apparently of this tribe. After another massacre of whites in 1852 Ben Wright invited the Modocs to a peaceful feast in 1855, and killed 41 out of 46 who came. This act the Modocs never forgave. A campaign against them in 1856 under Gen. Crosby cut off many, but the war was kept up till 1864, when a treaty was made, by which they ceded their lands and agreed to go on areservation. This treaty was not ratified by the President’s proc- lamation till Feb. 17, 1870, or the reservation officially set apart till March 14, 1871. Mean- while the Modocs had been induced to go upon the Klamath reservation, but it was a part of the country where they could not live; their own provisions were destroyed, they were cheated out of government allowances, and the Klamaths harassed them. Some were then MRIS 691 moved to Yainax reservation, but Klamaths were put with them, and the trouble continued. Two Modoc bands left the reservation. The turbulent band of Captain Jack (Krentpoos), who had set himself up against Schonchin, the hereditary chief, after suffering greatly in the winter, returned in February, 1868, to their old home on Lost river, while the quiet and inoffensive band settled on Hot creek near the whites. Loud complaints were made against Captain Jack’s band, and the commissioner of Indian affairs, on April 11, 1872, ordered Super- intendent Odeneal to remove them from Lost river to the reservation. On their refusal to go, troops from Fort Klamath moved on Cap- tain Jack’s camp, Nov. 29, 1872, and some Ore- gon citizens on another camp on the opposite side of the river. Fighting ensued at both camps. The whites withdrew with loss, and the Modocs, retreating united, massacred some peaceful settlers on the way, and reached the Lava Beds, a volcanic region which served asa natural fortification. Maj. Gen. Wheaton en- tered this tract, Jan. 17, 1878, but could not penetrate within three miles of the Modoe stronghold, and after losing 11 killed and 21 wounded drew off. Gen. Gillem then took command, but with no greater success. Mean- while the government appointed commission- ers to inquire into the causes of discontent. A conference, April 11, 1878, was broken up by the Modocs attacking the commissioners, kill- ing Gen. Canby and Dr. Thomas, and wound- ing Mr. Meacham, another of the commission- ers. Active operations were resumed, and the Modocs, after a long and stubborn resistance, finally surrendered to Gen. J. C. Davis, about June 1. Captain Jack, Schonchin, jr., and two other Modocs were tried by a military commis- sion and executed at Fort Klamath, Oct. 8. The rest of those captured were, by order of the secretary of war and the Indian commis- sioner (Nov. 4), placed on the Quapaw reser- vation, in the Indian territory. This band numbered 148; the number of those left at the Klamath agency who took no part in the war was about 100. MRIS, a Jake of Egypt, near the ancient Crocodilopolis, now Medinet-el-Fayoom. He- rodotus says: '‘ Wonderful as is the labyrinth, the work called the lake of Mceris, which is close by the labyrinth, is yet more astonishing. The measure of its circumference is 3,600 fur- longs, which is equal to the entire length of Egypt along the seacoast. -The lake stretches in its longest direction from north to south, and in its deepest parts is of the depth of 50 fathoms. It is manifestly an artificial excava- tion, for nearly in the centre stand two pyra- mids, rising to the height of 800 ft. above the surface of the water, and extending as far be- neath, each crowned with a colossal statue sit- ting uponathrone. The water of the lake does not come out of the ground, which is here ex- cessively dry, but is introduced by a canal from the Nile. The current sets for six months into 692 MESIA the lake from the river, and for the next six months into the river from the lake.” The same historian ascribes the formation of this lake to a king Meeris who lived about 1350 B. C., and who is identified by modern Egyptolo- gists with Amen-hotep (Amenophis) III., the Memnon of the later Greeks and Romans. But he confounds the natural lake Birket-el-Keroon with the artificial lake Mceris. (See Birxer- rL-Krroon.) During the annual inundation of the Nile the two lakes would appear as one. Meeris in reality was an extensive reservoir secured by dams and communicating by canals with all parts of Fayoom, to supply which with water was the object of its construction. MOESIA (in Greek, Mysia), an ancient coun- try of eastern Europe, bounded N. by the Savus (Save) and Ister (Danube), E. by the Euxine, S. by the Hemus (Balkan) and Scardus ranges, and W. by the Drinus river (Drin). It was di- vided by the Romans, who conquered it in the early period of the empire, into Meesia Inferior or E. Meesia, the present Bulgaria, and Mesia Superior or W. Meesia, the present Servia, di- vided by the little river Ciabrus (Tzibritza). The original inhabitants were chiefly Thracians, among them the Triballi. Under Aurelian the Dacian colonies were removed there, when the middle part of the province also received the name of Dacia Aureliani. It was occupied by the Goths in the 4th century, who were called Mceso-Goths, and who surrendered the territo- ry to the emperor Theodosius I. Slavs settled here in the 6th and 7th centuries. MOFFAT, Robert, a Scottish missionary, born at Inverkeithing, Fifeshire, in 1795. He was reared in the Secession church, but his religious associations from 1811 till 1816 were largely with the Methodists of England, where he then MOGADORE lived. He was a gardener, but devoted his lei- sure hours to study, and in 1815 offered him- self as a missionary. He was originally des- tined to accompany Williams to the South sea, but was finally sent to South Africa. He sailed in 1817, and immediately on his arrival at Cape Town went to Namaqualand, where he entered upon his labors at the kraal of Africaner, a chief whose name had long been a terror to the neighboring districts, but who had lately become an enthusiastic convert to Christianity. Here Moffat labored for three or four years with great success. But the situation being unsuitable for a principal mission station, he set out in search of a better locality, and labor- ed successively with much promise in the coun- tries to the north and northeast of Cape Colony, and in every place guided the people in the arts of civilized life. He often made tours among barbarous warlike tribes. His remark- able adventures in these journeys are described in his ‘‘ Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa” (8vo, London, 1842), which he wrote and published during a visit of sev- eral years to Britain, rendered necessary by the state of his health. During his stay there, he also carried through the press a version of the New Testament and the Psalms in the Bechuana language. He returned to Africa in 1842, and continued there until recently, when he went back to London. He has compiled a “Seeuana Hymn Book” (London, 1848), and his ‘ Farewell Services’? were edited by Dr. Campbell, and published in 1848. Dr. Liv- ingstone was Moffat’s son-in-law. MOGADORE, or Snirah, a fortified seaport town of Morocco, on the Atlantic, 130 m. W. by 8. of the city of Morocco; pop. about 20,000, many of whom are Jews. The town stands Mogadore. on an eminence, opposite an island of the same name, and is surrounded by a low sandy flat, which at high water is overflowed by the sea, It consists of two parts, one called the cita- del, inhabited by Moors, and the other called Mellah, by Jews. The town is well supplied with water by an aqueduct. The houses are generally large and flat-roofed. ‘Some of the MOGHILEV mosques are fine. The chief exports are wool, gum, wax, hides, almonds, honey, ostrich feath- ers, ivory, and gold dust. The harbor is form- ed by an island 8. of the town, and is the best on the W. coast of Morocco. Mogadore was founded in 1760 by the emperor Sidi Moham- med, on the site of an old Portuguese fort. It was bombarded by the French under the prince de Joinville, Aug. 15, 1844. It suffered also during the war with Spain (1859-’60). MOGHILEYV, or Mogiley. See Mouttey. MOGILA, or Mogilas, Peter, a Russian author, born in Moldavia about 1597, died Dec. 31, 1646. He studied at several of the European high schools, but stayed longest at the univer- sity of Paris. He served in the Polish army with distinction, and in 1625 entered a monas- tery at Kiev. In 1629 he became archiman- drite, and in 1633 metropolitan of Kiev, Gali- cia, and Little Russia. He was the first to in- troduce in the study of theology at Kiev the developments which it had acquired in the Eu- ropean universities. He improved the courses of study in every particular, obtained permis- sion to erect a printing press, invited many learned men to the academy, settled upon them sources of revenue which had formerly gone to the metropolitan, and gave them his own valuable collection of books. To confirm the views and feelings of the oriental church in opposition to the encroachments of Roman and Protestant elements, Mogila wrote a ‘‘ Confes- sion of Faith,’ which was examined and ap- proved by two councils, and, being indorsed by the four cecumenical patriarchs, and by the Russian patriarchs Joachim and Adrian, be- came the first symbolic book of the eastern church, and has continued to be the standard book in theology. Mogila published also a “Catechism” (Kiev, 1645), and some pam- phlets.- Many of his dramas were acted by his pupils at Kiev, and that on the nativity of Christ was for a long time very popular. MOGULS, a corruption of the term Mongols, used in Hindostan to designate the Tartars who repeatedly invaded that country in the middle ages, and who made themselves masters of Delhi in 1526, and placed their leader Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, on the throne. His successors are known as the Mogul emperors, of whom the most eminent were Akbar (1556- 1605), Jehangheer (1605-’27), and Aurungzebe (1658-1707). During these reigns the Mogul empire comprised nearly the whole of Hindo- stan, and in Europe the emperor was called the Great Mogul. His authority gradually dwin- dled till it became merely nominal; the Eng- lish supremacy was formally established in 1803, and in 1827 the Great Mogul became a titled pensioner of the British crown. The last of the Mogul dynasty, Mohammed Baha- door, being implicated in the sepoy mutiny, was deprived of his title and transported in December, 1858. ’ MOHACS, a town of S. Hungary, in the coun- ty of Baranya, on the W. arm of the Danube, MOHAMMED 693 110 m.8. by W. of Pesth; pop. in 1870, 12,140. It is an episcopal see, and contains the bishop’s palace, a Roman Catholic, a Greek, and a Prot- estant church, a monastery, an ancient castle, a gymnasium, and the county buildings. It is a station of the Danube steamers, and the depot of considerable commerce in coal, wood, wine, and agricultural produce, most of which goes to Vienna. Five annual fairs are held here, the principal one being a cattle fair. A great battle was fought here, Aug. 29, 1526, between an army of 200,000 Turks under Soly- man the Magnificent and one of 80,000 under the Hungarian king Louis II., which resulted in the defeat of the latter, 22,000 of whom, including seven prelates and 28 chief magnates, were slain, and the king perished on the re- treat. A second battle of Mohdcs, Aug. 12, 1687, resulted in an almost equally decisive de- feat of the Turks by the Austro-Hungarian army under Oharles of Lorraine; the Turks lost 20,000 men, the Christians 600. MOHAMMED, or Mahomet (Arab., the Praised, or, according to E. Deutsch and Sprenger, the Desired or Promised, in allusion to Haggai ii. 7), the founder of the Mussulman religion, born in Mecca, according to some, Nov. 10, 570, according to others April 20, 571, died in Medina, June 8, 632. His Mohammedan biographers say that his birth was accompa- nied by miracles; the sacred fires of the Par- sees were extinguished, the palace of the Per- sian king was shaken by an earthquake, the lake Sawa dried up, and many other prodigies took place. His family (Hashem) belonged to the distinguished tribe of Koreish, were hered- itary guardians of the Caaba, and were said to be directly descended from Abraham by his son Ishmael; nevertheless his parents were poor. His father Abdallah, a merchant, died two months after his birth. The orphan was confided for a little more than two years to the care of a Bedouin nurse, Halima, who returned him to his mother in consequence of spasmodic fits which she attributed to evil spirits. At the age of six years he lost his mother, and was carried by a female slave to his grandfather Abd-el-Mottalib. Two years later he lost also his grandfather, and was then adopted by his uncle Abu Taleb, who held the key of the Caa- ba. With him young Mohammed (in his 9th or 12th year) made journeys through Syria and other countries, and became acquainted with a Christian (probably Nestorian) monk, called by some Bahira, by others Serjis, who predicted his future greatness. Another un- cle, Zobair, he accompanied on a mercantile trip to southern Arabia, and four years after- ward was with him in a campaign against the Beni Kinana. In his 25th year he was a shepherd near Mecca, and then joined for a short time the business of a linen trader named Saib, commerce being at that time almost the sole occupation of the higher classes in Mec- ca. At Hajasha, a market six days’ journey 8. of Mecca, Mohammed, compelled by poverty,. - 694 entered the service of a rich widow named Khadijah. Several business journeys which he made for her through Syria and Arabia so pleased her that she determined to marry him. According to the common tradition Khadijah was then 40, and Mohammed a little over 25 years old. After his marriage Mohammed gave up business, and for ten years was chiefly occupied with his family, having by Khadijah four daughters and two sons; both sons died young. From his 35th to his 40th year Mo- hammed frequently resorted to a solitary cave of Mt. Hara, to give himself up entirely to re- ligious contemplation. There, amid spasmodic convulsions, he had his first vision, in which the angel Gabriel appeared and commanded him to recite what he (the angel) said. Mo- hammed was troubled as to the nature of, his mission, whether it came from an angel or from an evil spirit. His wife consulted her cousin Waraka, ‘‘who was old and blind” and knew the scriptures of the ‘‘ Jews and Christians,” and he assured her, and afterward Mohammed himself, that ‘‘God had chosen him to be the prophet of this people.” The revelations con- tinued henceforth without interruption to the end of his life, and were dictated by Mohammed to several secretaries, committed by his adhe- rents to memory, and after his death collected and written down. (See Koran.) His wife was his first convert. During the first three years of his mission only the relatives and friends of Mohammed acknowledged him as a prophet, and the whole number of believers (A/oslemin or Moslems) amounted scarcely to 40, among whom were Abubekr and Ali. Inthe fourth or fifth year of his mission he came forward publicly in compliance with a special message, and pro- claimed himself a prophet, but met only with imprecations and ill treatment. To protect him from attempts on his life, he was removed by his uncle Abu Taleb to a fortified castle outside of Mecca, where he remained three years. disciples. When the interdict, after the expi- ration of three years, was removed, Moham- med returned to Mecca; and soon after, in the tenth year of his mission, he lost his uncle and protector Abu Taleb, who never acknowledged the mission of his nephew. Three days later he lost his wife Khadijah, during whose lifetime he had not taken other wives; after her death he soon married several, nine of whom survived him. Mohammed was again expelled from Mec- ca, and also from Tayef; but soon he reéntered Mecca, greatly strengthened by his celebrated journey to heaven. His relation of the jour- ney, which he called a dream, increased the wrath of his enemies, and caused the defection of some of his adherents. Some pilgrims from Yathreb, belonging to the tribe of Khazraj, were converted in 621, and on their return propagated his doctrines at home. In 622, 78 Moslems from Yathreb appeared at Mecca, and concluded with Mohammed a treaty offensive and defensive. In September of the same year, The Koreishites outlawed him and his MOHAMMED in consequence of a new plot against his life, he fled to Yathreb, whither the Meccan believers, 45 in number, had partly preceded him, and partly soon followed him. On his way he also converted the tribe Beni Sahm. At Yathreb the new faith was established on a firm: basis, and not without reason therefore the era of the Moslems begins with the flight of the prophet, the Hegira. (See Huaira.) Moreover, the name of Yathreb was changed into Medinet en-Nebi, ‘the city of the prophet” (Medina). Moham- med at first endeavored to convert the numer- ous Jews in Arabia, and made them important concessions; but these he rescinded on their de- clining to adopt his religion, and became their irreconcilable enemy. During the first year of the Hegira he built a mosque at Medina, institu- ted religious rites, and proclaimed war against the unbelievers. He commenced this sacred war with attacks on the caravans of pilgrims, which led in 623 to an engagement at Bedr between 314 Moslems and 600 Meccans under Abu Sofian, the chief of Mecca, in which the Moslems were victors. In the following years Mohammed suffered many reverses; he was defeated by the Koreishites in the battle of Mt. Ohod (625), and besieged in Medina (627); and even among his followers a party was stirred up against him. To restore his reputation and influence, he determined to organize a large pilgrimage to Mecca, but was impelled by a dream to start with only 700 men. The Mec- cans prevented him from entering the city, but at last concluded a truce for ten years, with the promise that the following year he would be admitted to the city as a pilgrim. To divert the discontent of his fellow pil- grims, he led them against several Jewish tribes, and on the whole was successful; yet a Jewess, Zainab, to avenge the death of her relatives, prepared for him a poisoned lamb, which, as he believed, destroyed his health. At this time the plans of Mohammed for the spreading of his religion assumed a wider scope. Hesent written demands to the Persian king Chosroes II., the Abyssinian king, the emperor Heraclius, the governor of Egypt, and the chiefs of several Arab tribes. Some re- ceived his ambassadors courteously, but Chos- roes tore up Mohammed’s letter, while the people of Muta killed his envoy. In a war undertaken to avenge this murder the troops of Mohammed fought a desperate battle at Muta, in which Khaled, a new convert, highly distinguished himself, and was consequently termed by Mohammed ‘‘the Sword of God.” He punished the Meccans, who had broken faith with him, and compelled them to ac- knowledge him as a sovereign and a prophet. The possession of Mecca decided the victory of the new religion in Arabia, and notwith- standing temporary reverses, the subjection of a majority of the inhabitants of Arabia to Mohammed’s rule and religion became com- plete. He returned to Medina, where in the ninth year of the Hegira he received deputa- MOHAMMED tions from various tribes who announced their submission. He proclaimed aholy war against the Byzantine empire, which proved a com- plete failure, and he was obliged to return to Medina amid the reproaches of the soldiers. In the following year Mohammed made his last pilgrimage to Mecca at the head of at least 40,- 000 pilgrims. The rites of this pilgrimage have ever since been regarded as the standard rule for pilgrimages. Three months after his re- turn.to Medina he was taken seriously ill. He called his wives together, and requested that he might be allowed to remain in the house of Ayesha, his favorite, which adjoined the mosque. He himself announced in the mosque the approach of his death. During the last days of his life he liberated his slaves, caused seven denars to be distributed among the poor, and prayed: ‘‘ God support me in the agony of death.” He expired in the arms of Ayesha. After a long dispute respecting the place of his interment, he was buried in the house in which he died. This spot lies now within the en- larged mosque. His only surviving child was Fatima, the wife of Ali, and the ancestress of all the sherifs or nobles of the Mohammedan world.—Mohammed is said to have been of middle stature, and to have had a strong beard and thick hair, a noble mien, a brown and lively complexion, brilliant eyes, white teeth, and a modest bearing. He possessed natural eloquence, a keen intellect, an overwhelming fluency, and great courage. Conjugal love he regarded as one of the great incentives to de- votion. The wish to have a son to succeed him has been alleged as the reason why he took so many wives. In his infancy as well as in after life he was afflicted with epilep- tic attacks, which at first were considered by himself and by his enemies to be the effect of demoniacal possession. The same spas- modic convulsions accompanied him while he received his revelations. Mohammed was ac- quainted with the doctrines of both Jews and Christians, but charged them with having cor- rupted their Scriptures. He attributed to both of them opinions which they do not hold, but most of these statements may rest on the au- thority of the apocryphal books of the ancient Christian church. Before the 12th century it was hardly understood in the West that Ma- homet was a man, and not a pretended divin- ity, and still earlier he was known as Mapho- met, Baphomet, or Bafum, and believed to be a false god to whom human sacrifices were offered. Later it was common among Christian writers to represent him as a conscious im- postor. This opinion has now but few rep- resentatives.—Among the Mohammedan biog- raphies of the prophet, those of Wakidi, Ibn Ishak, and Tabari are the most important, and some of them have been translated into French, German, and other languages. Among the best European and American biographies of Mohammed are those of Marracci (Padua, 1698), Gagnier (Amsterdam, 1732), Hammer- MOHAMMED II. 695 Purgstall (Leipsic, 1887), Weil (Stuttgart, 1848), George Bush (New York, 1832), Washington Irving (1850), A. Sprenger (Allahabad, 1852; German, Berlin, 1861-’5; 2d ed., 1869 et seq.), Muir (London, 1858), Arnold (‘‘Ishmael, or a Natural History of Islamism,” 1859), and Nél- deke (Hanover, 1868). See also Hssai sur V'his- toire des Arabes avant UIslamisme pendant Vépoque de Mahomet, et jusqu’a la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane, by Caus- sin de Perceval (8 vols., Paris, 1847-8); Ma- homet et les origines de U’ Islamisme, by Ernest Renan, included in his Ltudes @histoire reli- gieuse (Paris, 1857; 7th revised ed., 1864); an English biography of Mohammed with critical commentaries by Moulvi Syed Ameer Ali, an oriental lawyer residing in London (1878); the essay ‘‘Islam” in ‘Literary Remainsof Emanuel Deutsch” (1874); and ‘‘ Mohammed and Mo- hammedanism,” by R. Bosworth Smith (1874). MOHAMMED II., a Turkish sultan, surnamed the Great and the Victorious, born in Adri- anople in 1480, died near Scutari in Asia Minor in May, 1481. He was the eldest son of Amurath II by a Christian princess of Servia, and succeeded him in 1451. He began his reign by murdering his two brothers, call- ing his father’s treasurers to a strict account, and repelling a Caramanian invasion. He next invested Constantinople, April 6, 1458, with a large fleet and an army of more than 250,000 men. The city was taken by storm, May 29, and for three days given up to pillage and massacre. Having determined, however, to make Constantinople his capital, he proclaimed religious toleration and various privileges and immunities to the inhabitants. He completed the conquest of Servia in 1454, but in 1456 was baffled by Hunyady in the siege of Bel- grade, where the Turks were repulsed with the loss of 25,000 men, while the sultan himself was severely wounded and compelled to raise the siege. He next turned his arms against the Morea, which was still held by two Greek princes, Demetrius and Thomas, the latter of whom made a gallant though unsuccessful re- sistance. The conquest of the Morea was completed in 1460, with the exception of a few fortified seaports held by the Venetians. In 1461 he conquered. Trebizond, and had its emperor David Comnenus put to death. He also seized Wallachia and most of the islands of the Archipelago. The prince of Mytilene defended his island for a month, when he sur- rendered on condition of receiving an indem- nity; but Mohammed soon put him to death. Several Christian powers now agreed in a con- ference held at Mantua to enter on a new cru- sade against the Turks; but owing to the in- ternal difficulties of the European kingdoms this scheme fellthrough. Scanderbeg gave the first serious check to Mohammed by defeat- ing several Turkish armies sent against him. The sultan at length (1465) invaded Albania in person with about 200,000 men, and laid siege to Croia, Scanderbeg’s capital; but after 696 MOHAMMED IV. heavy losses he was forced to retreat. In the following spring he renewed the attempt, but was again obliged to withdraw. After the death of Scanderbeg, in January, 1467, Albania soon became a Turkish province. During the war with Scanderbeg the sultan was also engaged in hostilities with the Hun- garians and the Venetians. From the latter he conquered Negropont in 1470, after a siege of Chalcis, the capital, in which he lost 40,- 000 men; and though the governor of the city surrendered on condition of personal safety, he was put to death, as were all the rest of the captives. The Venetians now entered into an alliance against the Turks with Pope Six- tus IV., the kings of Naples and Cyprus, the grand master of Rhodes, and the shah of Per- sia. The fleets of the European allies attacked the coasts of the sultan’s dominions and burned Smyrna and other places, while the Persians invaded the eastern districts of Turkey in great force, and defeated Mohammed’s eldest son Mustapha in a pitched battle near the Eu- phrates. Mohammed himself, with 300,000 men, encountered the Persians in Armenia, and was at first defeated. In a second bat- tle he was victorious, and the Persians suffer- ed such severe loss that they withdrew from the alliance and concluded a peace with the sultan in 1474. In 1475 Mohammed wrested Kaffa and other Crimean ports from the Gen- oese, and made the khan of the Crim Tartars tributary. But at the siege of Rhodes (1480) he was repulsed by the knights of St. John again and again for three months, suffered im- mense losses, and had to abandon the under- taking. Meanwhile he captured the Ionian islands and the city of Otranto. The latter was recovered in 1481 by the Italian states, aided by Spain, Portugal, and Hungary. The sultan was preparing to renew the attack on Rhodes when he died, not without suspicion of poison, after an illness of three days. Moham- med IJ. was one of the ablest of the Turkish sultans, and is glorified as the conqueror of two empires, 12 kingdoms, and 200 cities. He is thus described by Richard Knolles in his “ His- tory of the Turks” (1610): ‘‘ He was of stat- ure low, square set and strong limbed. His complexion was sallow, his countenance stern, and eyes piercing, though a little sunk. His nose was so high and crooked that it almost touched his upper lip.” Collections of his letters translated into Latin have been pub- lished at Lyons (1520), Basel (1554), Mar- burg (1604), and Leipsic (1690). MOHAMMED IY., a Turkish sultan, born in 1642, died about the close of 1692. In 1648 he succeeded his father Ibrahim I., who had been deposed and strangled by the janizaries. Mo- hammed Kuprili or Kuperli, an Albanian, was made grand vizier. To him, and to his son who succeeded him, the reign of Mohammed IV. owes all-its celebrity. The sultan had neither talent nor energy, and cared little for anything but hunting, in which he spent most MOHAMMEDANISM of his time, and lavished vast sums. The em- pire at his accession was in the utmost confu- sion, but Kuprili restored order by promptly putting to death the leaders of sedition. Ibra- him, at war with Venice, had conquered the greater part of Candia in 1645, and the war continued after Mohammed’s accession. The Venetians defeated the Turkish fleet in the Archipelago in July, 1651, and destroyed a sec- ond fleet, July 6, 1656, and shortly afterward captured the islands of Lemnos and Tenedos, which the Turks regained in the following year. The contest continued with various fortune till 1667, when Ahmed Kuprili, one of the great- est of Turkish generals, who had succeeded his father as grand vizier in 1661, undertook the siege of the city of Candia, which he pros- ecuted with vigor for two years and four months, when the Venetian commander Moro- sini was compelled to capitulate, Sept. 16, 1669, while at the same time peace was concluded between Venice and Turkey. In 1660 war had broken out with Austria, and for some time the Turks had been highly successful in Hun- gary. Germany, France, and Italy combined to check their progress, and Montecuculi, gen- eral of the allies, gained a brilliant and deci- sive victory over them, Aug. 1, 1664, at St. Gothard on the Raab, which, followed by the treaty of Temesvar, put an end to the war. In 1672 the sultan invaded Poland in person, and took Kamenetz; but John Sobieski, then grand marshal of the kingdom, in 1678 gave the Turks a total defeat at Khotin, and in 1676 obtained an honorable peace. An in- surrection of the Hungarians under Tékélyi tempted the sultan in 1682 to make war again upon the emperor ; and in July, 1683, an army of 300,000, commanded by Kara Mustapha, invested Vienna. The emperor fled with his family to Linz. The city was in the last ex- tremity when Sobieski and Charles of Lorraine came to its relief, and on Sept. 12 totally routed the Turks, who suffered immense losses. After this the Turks met with nothing but disaster. Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice combined against them; and on Aug. 12, 1687, Charles of Lorraine gave them a terrible defeat at Mohacs, which was followed by the loss of Transylvania and other provinces. The Turk- ish army at length mutinied at Belgrade, marched to Constantinople in the latter part of 1687, dethroned the sultan, and raised his brother Solyman III. to the throne. Moham- med was kept in prison till his death. MOHAMMED ALI. See Mrnemer Att. MOHAMMEDANISM, the name commonly given in Christian countries to the religion established by Mohammed. The Mohammedans do not themselves acknowledge the name. They call their religion Islam, which means ‘full sub- mission to God,” and themselves Moslems, or ‘the people of the Islam.” Mohammed desig- nated himself as the restorer of the pure reli- gion revealed by God to Abraham, As the messenger of God he required his pagan coun- MOHAMMEDANISM trymen to leave their idols and adopt the worship of the one true God; the Jews, to ex- change the law of Moses for the new and final revelations given to him; the Christians, to cease worshipping Christ as God, as inconsis- tent with monotheism and with the true doc- trine of Christ himself. The doctrines of Mo- hammedanism may in large measure be traced to the national religion of the Arabs before Mohammed, to those forms of Judaism and Christianity which existed in Arabia in his time, and to those traditions and usages-which were the common heritage of all branches of the Semitic race. To what extent Mohammed borrowed from these three sources the pro- found researches instituted during the last half century have begun to reveal.—The sayings of Mohammed relative to his religion were col- lected in the Koran, which is recognized by all Mohammedan sects as their rule of faith and morals. (See Koran.) But the great major- ity of the Moslems recognize, in addition to the Koran, the Sunna, or traditions, embody- ing the expressions, occasional remarks, and acts of Mohammed, which are traced to his companions, his wives, and the first caliphs. Not only do they regulate, conjointly with the Koran, the doctrines, rites, and ceremonies of the Mohammedans, but the interpretation of the Koran is in a great measure determined by them. There is much uncertainty among the Moslems regarding them; the rationalistic Montasals and the extremists among the Shi- ahs reject the Sunna altogether; the moder- ate Shiahs acknowledge a tradition, but differ with the Sunnis respecting its extent. (See Suraus, and Sunna.) Among the Sunnis four orthodox schools were distinguished, all estab- lished between 740 and 840. They were called, after their founders, Hanifites, Malekites, Shafe- ites, and Hanbalites. The first and fourth were of little influence; the second prevailed in northern Africa and Spain, and the third in the eastern countries. Their differences were only in discipline. The two largest and most influ- ential collections were made by Bokhari (died about 870) and Abu Moslim his pupil. An ex- tract from these two and some later collections was made by Hosein ibn Masud (died about 1120), under the title Masabih. It was trans- lated into English, together with a commentar (Mishcat) by Wadi ed-Din Abu Abdallah Mah- moud, who lived about 1170, by A. N. Mathews (‘‘ Misheat ul-Masabih, or a Collection of the most Authentic Traditions,” 2 vols., Calcutta, 180911). Most of the traditions received by the Shiahs are contained in the books Hayat ul-Kulub, Hag ul-Yaquin, and Ain ul-Hayat, written by Mollah Mohammed Bakir Majjlisi, a famous Persian divine, who lived about 1650, which were printed in Teheran in 4 vols. fol. In the 8th and 9th centuries the rationalistic school, called by their opponents Montasals or Separatists, gained great strength and influence. Their chief seat was at Bassorah, where they formed an association of rationalistic scholars. 697 They maintained the absolute self-determina- tion of man, denied the eternity of the Koran, and rejected the reality of the divine attri- butes so far as to divest God of all those char- acteristics which are the expression of a per- sonal existence. In the 10th century an ortho- dox school of scholasticism regained the as- cendancy, and from this time the doctrines and the ethics of the prevailing denomination un- derwent no other considerable change. The gradual development of Mohammedan doctrines and their relation to the Koran are still subjects of controversy. We give an outline of the system of doctrines and ethics which generally prevails. —The fundamental doctrine of Islamism, and the only one which it is absolutely necessary to profess in order to be considered a Moslem, is: ‘There is but one God, and Mohammed is his apostle.” The idea of God held by Moham- medans does not differ essentially from the Christian, except that they reject entirely the doctrine of the Trinity. They believe that a great number of prophets have been divinely commissioned at various times, among whom six were sent to proclaim new laws and dis- pensations, viz., Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed. To the prophets were revealed certain scriptures inspired by God. All of these have perished except four, the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, and the Koran. The first three, they maintain, have been faisified and mutilated, and the Koran supersedes them all. Mohammed is the last prophet, and the Koran the final revelation. The Mohammedans regard Christ with a rev- erence second only to that which they pay to Mohammed, and blasphemy of his nameis pun- ishable with death. But they deny that he is God or the son of God, though they consider his birth miraculous. They also deny that he was crucified, believing that some other person suffered in his place, while he was taken up to God. He will come again upon the earth to destroy Antichrist, and his coming will be one of the signs of the approach of the last judgment. The Moslems believe in the existence of angels with pure and subtile bodies created of fire, who -have no distinction of sex, neither eat nor drink, and are employed in adoring and praising God, interceding for mankind, keeping a record of human actions, and performing various other services. Four are held by God in peculiar favor: Gabriel, who is employed in writing down the divine decrees, and by whom the Koran was revealed at various times to Moham- med; Michael, the especial guardian of the Jews; Azrael, the “angel of death,” who sep- arates the souls of men from their bodies; and Israfil, who will sound the trumpet at the resur- rection. There is also a class of beings lower than the angels, like them made of fire, but of a coarser nature, called jinns (generally ren- dered genii), who eat and drink and are subject to death. Some of these are good, some evil. The chief of the latter is Eblis or “despair,” who was once an angel named Azazel, but 698 MOHAMMEDANISM who, having refused to pay homage to Adam, was rejected by God, and wanders over the earth until the resurrection. These genii have various names, as peri, fairies; div, giants, fates, &c. In regard to the state of man during the time between death and the resurrection, many different opinions prevail. There are also different views as to the last judgment, but the essential point agreed upon by all is that men will have awarded to them that con- dition of happiness or misery to which God shall judge them entitled by their conduct and belief during this life. The time of the resur- rection is known only to God; its approach will be indicated by certain signs, among which will be the decay of faith among men, wars, seditions, tumults, the advancement of the meanest men to the highest dignities, an eclipse, the rising of the sun in the west, and numerous other portents. After the judgment all must pass over the bridge Al-Sirat, which is finer than a hair, sharper than a sword, and beset. on either side with thorns. The good will pass over easily and speedily; the wicked will fall headlong into hell. The delights of heaven are for the most part sensual, made up of plea- sures especially suited to each of the senses, while the torments of hell consist chiefly in the extremes of heat and cold. For those who wish more of detail as to their views of the future state, the preliminary discourse to Sale’s translation of the Koran is the most accessible work. The Moslems hold that all who believe in the unity of God will finally be released from punishment and enter paradise. Those who deny the absolute unity of God, idolaters, and hypocrites will suffer eternally. To hypo- crites they assign the lowest place in hell. They believe in the absolute foreknowledge and predestination of all things by God, and at the same time in the responsibility of man for his conduct and belief.—Their practical religion, which they call din, chiefly insists upon four things: 1, purification and prayer, which they regard as together making one rite; 2, almsgiving; 3, fasting; 4, the pilgrimage to Mecca. Prayer must be preceded by ablu- tion ; cleanliness is regarded as a religious duty, without which prayer would be ineffectual. The Moslems pray five times each day, soon after sunset (not exactly at sunset, for fear they should be considered sun worshippers), at nightfall (generally about an hour and a quar- ter after sunset), at daybreak, near noon, and in the afternoon. The times of prayer are announced by the muezzins (mueddzins) from the minarets of the mosques. In praying, the believer must turn his face toward Mecca, and the wall of the mosque nearest that city is marked by a niche. Twice during the night the muezzins also call to prayer, for those who wish to perform extra devotions. Prayers may be said in any clean place, but on Friday they must be said in the mosque. The regu- larity and devotion with which the Moslems perform this duty are testified to by all who have visited the East. Women are not forbid- den to enter the mosque, but they never do so when the men are at their devotions. Before prayer all costly and sumptuous apparel must be laid aside. Almsgiving was formerly of two kinds: legal, called tzekah, and voluntary, called sadakah. The former was in reality a tax paid to the sovereign, and by him distrib- uted as he saw fit; it has long since fallen into disuse. The sadakah consists of cattle, money, corn, fruits, and wares sold. Itis given once a year, and generally amounts to about 24 per cent. of the stock on hand; but no alms are due unless the stock amounts to a certain quantity, nor unless the articles have been in the owner’s possession for eleven months. At the end of the fast of Ramadan every Moslem is expected to give alms if he is able, for him- self and each member of his family—a mea- sure of wheat, rice, or other provisions. The Moslems also lay great stress upon fasting. During the whole of the month Ramadan they fast from the rising to the setting of the sun; they neither eat nor drink nor indulge in any other physical gratification. They observe this fast with great rigor, but certain classes of persons to whom the fast would be physi- cally injurious are excused from its observance. There are other days during which fasting is regarded as specially meritorious though not obligatory, and fasting at any time is regarded as peculiarly acceptable to God. The pilgrim- age to Mecca, called hadj, is a relic of the ancient idolatrous religion which Mohammed desired to do away with, but which was too deeply rooted in the habits and interests of the people to be abolished. Hence he sanc- tioned it and made it obligatory, having first destroyed the idols in the temple and intro- duced new regulations. All Moslems, men or women, should at least once during their lives, provided they are able, make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The duty may be performed by a substitute, in which case the whole merit re- dounds to the principal. He who has performed this pilgrimage is entitled to prefix to his name the word hadji. Of late years the number of pilgrims has greatly fallen off.—The Moslems regard the Koran not only as the rule of their religious but also of their civil and social life. Before the time of Mohammed it was not un- common among the Arabs to put to death their female children. This practice was forbidden by him. The following things are also forbid- den in the Koran: eating of blood, or the flesh of swine, or of any animal that dies of itself, or has been strangled or killed by accident or by another beast, or has been slain as a sacrifice to an idol; playing games of chance, whether with or without a wager; the drinking of wine or of any inebriating liquor, but some construe this prohibition as only applicable to their excessive use, while a few of the very strict construe it as applying to opium, bang, and even coffee and tobacco; the taking of in- terest upon money lent, even when the loan is i MOHAMMEDANISM made to a person of a different religion, divina- tion, and various other superstitious practices. Murder seems to be regarded by the Koran as a crime against individuals rather than against society; hence it was punishable with death or a pecuniary fine, at the option of the family of the murdered man. But at present in the Turkish empire murder is punished with death, and commutation by fine is not permit- ted. If a believer kill another accidentally, the slayer must pay a fine and redeem a beliey- er from slavery. The punishment for theft is cutting off the hand, but in modern times this has generally fallen into disuse, and the bastinado or imprisonment has been substitu- ted. Polygamy existed among all the Semitic nations previous to the time of Mohammed, and he restricted rather than extended it. While claiming for himself special privileges in regard to his domestic relations, asserting that they were allowed him by the direct per- mission of God, he limited the number of wives which a true believer might take to four. Di- vorce is very easy in theory, but very rare in practice. The husband has merely to say to his wife, ‘Thou art divorced.” He may re- ceive her back, and again divorce her; but if he divorce her a third time, he cannot take her back until after she has been married to some other man and been divorced by him, or has become a widow. ‘Aside from the domes- tic relations, the ethics of the Mohammedan religion are of the highest order. Pride, cal- umny, revengefulness, avarice, prodigality, and debauchery are condemned throughout the Koran; while trust in God and submission to his will, patience, modesty, forbearance, love of peace, sincerity, truthfulness, frugality, be- nevolence, liberality—indeed, aside from the differences of opinion in regard to theological subjects, all those qualities which the Anglo- Saxon race have idealized under the term “Christian gentleman,” are everywhere in- sisted upon. Mysticism and asceticism were early cultivated by the Moslems, and called forth Sufism, the monachism of the Islam, a phenomenon of the greatest importance for a right understanding of the true character and the bearing of their doctrinal system.—On their first promulgation the doctrines of Mohammed spread with amazing rapidity. In 12 years the whole of Arabia had embraced the Islam. Abubekr, the first caliph, declared war against all nations, especially against the emperor of Constantinople and ‘‘the great king of Persia,” at that time the two most powerful monarchs ‘of the world. The battle of Bostra opened Syria to the Arabs; and one of the first feats of Omar, the successor of Abubekr, was the conquest of Damascus. Soon afterward a bat- tle near the lake of Gennesaret decided the fate of Syria. Jerusalem capitulated on easy terms, and with brief interruptions has re- mained subject to the Mohammedans, and is one of their three holy cities. Amru, a gene- ral of Omar, completed the conquest of Egypt, 699 and fairly commenced that of northern Africa. On the 8. shore of the Mediterranean the Arabs met with little resistance. Soon after the death of Omar, Persia was entered by Kha- led, Irak or Assyria was subdued and plun- dered, the Euphrates together with the gulf of Persia fell into the hands of the Arabs, and Ctesiphon and Farsistan, whither the king of Persia had fled, came under Moslem domination. On the appointment of Ali to the caliphate those great internal struggles commenced which have ever since rent the Mohammedan world, without however arresting its external growth. Moawiyah, the rival of Ali, took possession of most of the Persian provinces, and established the Islam in Europe by getting a foothold in Sicily. He was still more fortunate in Africa, and from 697 the whole of northern Africa may be considered as the home of Islamism. At the beginning of the 8th century the Moham- medans, under Tarik, crossed to Spain; one province after -another was speedily subdued, and for 800 years the Saracens retained: a do- minion in that country.