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 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINole 
 HANDWRITING, No. 1 Published by the Copyright 1926 
 DIAGNOSIS " PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING CO. by the 
 @ Bloomington, Illinois Public School Publishing Co. 
 R dial and Follow-Up Work 
 emediaian OLLOW-UDP or 
 HANDWRITING 
 
 ELEMENTS OF DIAGNOSIS AND JUDGMENT 
 OF HANDWRITING 
 
 By PAUL V. WEST, Ph.D. 
 School of Education, New York University 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 Basic Principles of the Plan of Diagnosis 
 
 Much time is wasted in handwriting instruction through the com- 
 mon method of teaching the subject, instead of teaching the special 
 activities through which skill in writing is developed. | 
 
 In a typical classroom, the pupils exhibit a wide range of ability in 
 penmanship. More than this, some are very good, if not perfect, in 
 one or more skills going to make the total of handwriting ability, 
 though poor in certain other skills. The question naturally arises: 
 Why should we instruct the child, day after day, in general penman- 
 ship, without recognizing and providing for the overcoming of in- 
 dividual faults? 
 
 Many teachers do give attention to individual pupils, and more 
 would do so if they knew what to look for in the way of defects, or 
 how to provide the remedial treatment. There is a growing use of 
 diagnostic materials, such as the Leamer Diagnostic Practice Sentences 
 in Handwriting, for the training of both teacher and pupil. It is essen- 
 tial that the teacher or supervisor of penmanship should know the 
 symptoms of defective work, and be able to prescribe a remedy along 
 sane, helpful, scientific lines. 
 
 The plan here presented can be made to fit into any schedule of 
 instruction that is in use, adding to but in no way interfering with 
 the values of that system. Standards of judging samples and pre- 
 scribing treatment, which are often artificial, personal and pseudo- 
 scientific, can be placed on a sound scientific basis. 
 
 The teacher may inspect the samples of writing of pupils, either 
 of formal tests or daily work in penmanship or other subjects, during 
 
 444-24p 
 
2 
 
 free time outside of class. Such inspection will reveal, in as much 
 detail as desired, the class and individual needs. The short period 
 reserved for handwriting drill can then be devoted to intensive drill. 
 The general weakness of the whole group in any specific skill can be 
 discovered, and the whole class be ‘subjected to a very useful type of 
 drill, for such a time as is desirable or necessary to raise the standard 
 performance of the class in this feature. The members of the class 
 or school: can be grouped in several sections for drill, each group re- 
 ceiving the specific type of practice that it needs. 
 
 It is not only a waste of time but also quite unnecessary to give 
 a long course of instruction in skills that pupils have already mastered. 
 The plan here presented makes it possible for the instructor to under- 
 stand the pupil’s difficulties, to intelligently grade him on his pro- 
 gress, and to place him always within such a group of his fellows 
 that he can readily compete with them. When the pupil attains such 
 a standard of excellence as to no longer necessitate drill, he may be 
 excused from the penmanship class, so long as he maintains that 
 standard. The pupil-motivation which this plan provides is a very 
 significant feature. 
 
 There is a widespread conviction that much more time is com- 
 monly spent on handwriting than the results justify, and that much 
 of the teaching energy put forth is relatively fruitless. The saving 
 of time which is insured by the proper use of a diagnostic plan will 
 be welcomed by administrators and instructors. The plan is not spun 
 out of pure theory. It has been applied in practical school situations — 
 under rigid experimental conditions, and has been proved remarkably 
 effective.} 
 
 II. ELEMENTS OF DIAGNOSIS 
 
 Specific lines of training which are essential to secure speed and 
 legibility of penmanship are here listed. Each of these is described — 
 in detail, with the expectation that the reader will thereby learn to 
 differentiate the faults associated with training in the various skills. 
 The artificial samples clearly isolate and illustrate the faults, and the 
 samples of actual writing show how they appear in a natural setting. 
 
 1West P. V., An Experimental Application of a Diagnostic Plan in Hand- 
 writing, Journal of Educational Research, Oct. 1926. 
 
 ee 
 
 Spleen ey 
 tease 
 
t- 2 
 
 4 rae 
 
 = ®. YY. 2 
 
 et 
 
 A. - Las 
 
 Ay 
 
 a en 4 VWtasn 34 Row'd P. Y Leb 
 
 1. Speed of Writing 
 
 Speed and quality should progress together. Extreme retardation 
 in the speed of a good writer is to be deplored as a continuous prac- 
 tice. Habits of slow writing are thus developed and the forms are 
 drawn rather than freely written. On the other hand, undue em- 
 phasis on speed, as in the following of a very rapid rhythmic count, 
 ean result only in a neglect of satisfactory quality. 
 
 The question as to what is the standard speed desirable for any 
 grade cannot be easily answered. <A variety of standards are still in 
 use, as might be expected from diverse groups of pupils, with different 
 written matter, and different modes of procedure and emphasis. When 
 testing to discover the progress of the class great precaution should 
 be taken to see that all directions for giving the test are carefully 
 followed in all details. If, in giving a test, undue emphasis is placed 
 on speed, as is often done, even unconsciously, by saying, “I want you 
 to write as fast as you can,’’ or by giving the directions with extreme 
 vivacity and rapidity, the results can hardly be considered typical or 
 eustomary behavior. A test given during a period of excitement, as 
 in the rush days near the close of school, is almost certain to result in 
 an exaggeration of the speed element. In the same way care should 
 be taken not to give the test under conditions which would tend to 
 decrease the speed to an unusual degree, as for example by an extra 
 stress on quality, failure to have the content thoroughly in the memory 
 of the pupil (in case the test so requires) or testing when the child 
 is fatigued. 
 
 The length of time taken for the test must be carefully consid- 
 ered. A two-minute test for older pupils gives a more accurate test 
 of writing rate than a one minute test, in view of the amount of 
 error caused by starting and stopping. A four-minute test may intro- 
 duce the element of fatigue to such an extent as to give no fair measure 
 of the rate of writing, unless the factor of endurance is the object of 
 the test. The manner of giving the test directions is very important. 
 At the start a drawling ‘‘Go!’’ will result in great variation among 
 the pupils in time of starting. A listless request to ‘‘Stop!’’ will give 
 no decisive moment of stopping. A watch, giving the time exactly in 
 seconds, is essential to accuracy. 
 
 In view of the demand for efficiency and haste in all aspects of 
 social and commercial life, it is doubtful if enough emphasis has been 
 placed upon speed of writing among more advanced pupils, It has 
 
4 
 
 been noted repeatedly that penmanship quality breaks down under 
 the strain of demands in high-schools and colleges where rapid writ- 
 ing is required. The only way to prevent this would be to make habits 
 of rapid writing more automatic. 
 
 2. General Quality of Writing 
 
 This is a term used to cover the general appearance of the written 
 form, measured by comparison with a standardized scale. While giv- 
 ing in itself no adequate diagnosis, this measure is very valuable in a 
 general survey, or even in a local survey of a room or a school where 
 one wishes to know the relative progress of the group or individual 
 pupil. One should consider the quality maintained in the daily work 
 of the pupil in spelling, composition, and so on, as well as in the pen- 
 manship drill. This is the best test of habituation, for the pupil is 
 then unaware that his writing is to be judged for quality. 
 
 3. Habituation in Letter Form 
 
 Because of the different forms which are required by various sys- 
 tems of penmanship, there is disagreement as to what is a defective 
 form of specific letters. 
 
 To make an accurate analysis of a pupil’s difficulty in maintaining 
 good letter-form it is necessary to study his habits of imagery. 
 
 (a) No Fixed Image 
 
 Does the sample of a child’s writing show that he Hig no clear idea 
 of the definite form which certain letters should take? For example, 
 
 LETTER-F ORI 
 
 No FixEo Haar 
 
 WRONG HABIT 
 
 1 fom alae 
 
 FIGURE 1. DEFECTS IN HABITUATION OF IMAGES OF LETTER-FORMS. 
 
5 
 
 in Figure 1, Part (a) the child evidences no clear habitation. No two 
 ‘*f’s’’? agree as to form, although there are four of them in the sample. 
 The same fact is true of the ‘‘a’’ and ‘‘o’’ as well as the ‘‘r’’. Legi- 
 bility depends to a great reine on dsidetey of performance. The 
 child who has no definite habit of making any letter is apt to introduce 
 the most unexpected and unusual forms. . 
 
 (b) Definitely Wrong Image 
 
 A second question is: Docs the written product reveal the fact 
 that the writer has formed a wrong image of the letter? In Part (b) 
 an illustration of writing is given in which defective forms are con- 
 sistently repeated. This shows that the child is becoming habituated 
 in wrong forms. Cases are noted where the child has the habit of 
 making only one letter form wrongly, yet this one defect makes his 
 writing very illegible. 
 
 4. Slant 
 
 From the standpoint of appearance especially, and speed and legi- 
 bility to a great degree, slant is of great importance. The observer 
 reacts unpleasantly to any uncertainty of slant, or to the confusion of 
 different slants. Apart from considerations of economy of time, and 
 ease of production, as well as legibility, this is important in the selec- 
 tion of ideals for slant. The matter of slant is not as simple as it is 
 commonly regarded, since several different errors of slant are prev- 
 alent, 
 
 (a) Definitely Wrong Slant 
 
 This defect will show itself in a consistently wrong slant through- 
 out the entire sample of writing, indicating habituation. There is a 
 general agreement among scientific investigators that the medium 
 forward slant is best for ease and quickness of movement. When the 
 writing page is placed at 60° angle, with the child facing the desk, 
 as is generally recommended, the letters which are thus slanted are in 
 direct line with the eye of the writer. Each letter can be seen as it is 
 written and the visual strain is less. Whether a vertical, or slightly 
 backhand slant will be called defective or not, depends on local em- 
 phasis. Extreme slants, either forward or backward, such as those 
 shown in Part (a) of Figure 2, doubtless interfere with legibility, 
 
m Goop 
 
 FIGURE 2. DEFECTS IN SLANT AS COMPARED WITH GOOD SLANT. 
 
 and should be remedied if possible. Left-handed children often offer 
 a problem in this respect. ; 
 ‘ 
 
 (b) Mixed Slant 
 
 In this case no one slant is used throughout, but there is instead 
 a consistent tendency to vary the slant from letter to letter, so that 
 some are backward, some slanting, and some vertical (Figure 2, Part 
 (b)). To analyze a sample of writing with this type of defect, draw 
 straight lines through the letters, so as to follow the trend of each 
 letter on the down-stroke. 
 
 (c) Changing Slant 
 This third type of deficiency in slant (Figure 2, Part (c)), is where 
 the writer passes from one slant to another by a gradual change as he 
 progresses along the line of writing. Changing slant can be readily 
 distinguished from wrong slant by the fact that no one slant prevails. 
 
7 
 
 The writer may start a line with a vertical slant, or a correct forward 
 slant, but by the time the end of the line, or section of the line is 
 reached the slant will have become very extreme. It can also be dis- 
 tinguished from mixed slant by the fact that the slants are not mixed 
 within the words. 
 
 Cases frequently occur where two or more of these defects of slant 
 are present in the same sample of writing. Each defect requires spe- 
 cial attention and diagnosis. Pupils will seldom discover their specific 
 fault if left to themselves. The majority of pupils in a classroom have 
 been found making the same error in slant, while the teacher remained 
 altogether unaware of the fact. In Figure 2, Part (d) a desirable 
 slant is shown for comparative purposes. 
 
 5. Codrdination 
 Lack of coordination is the failure of muscles to work together so 
 as to produce a good quality of line. It shows itself in two main types 
 of writing. 
 (a) Wavering Stroke 
 In Figure 3, Part (a) the drawing type is shown, here called 
 
 COORDINATION 
 
 . dodicatids tr Hs 
 
 FIGURE 3. TYPES OF INCOORDINATION AS COMPARED WITH GOOD COORDINATION. 
 
 ‘‘wavering.’’ In this case there is a hesitating progress, showing un- 
 certainty of movement. A child may exhibit very good letter form, 
 
8 
 
 yet show this type of movement. In the case of the nervous children, 
 or adults who have little muscle control, this defect may develop to 
 such an extent that it cannot be remedied. It should never appear in 
 writing beyond the primary stage. 
 
 (b) Angular Stroke 
 
 The second type of incodrdination, the one most commonly met 
 with in the elementary school, above the Fourth Grade at least, is 
 shown in Part (b) of Figure 3. This is an angular type. Instead of 
 rounding curves smoothly, the writer moves along his line of writing 
 by a tendency to short straight lines and angles. This fault is not due 
 to a slow movement, but to the inability of the writer to round a curve © 
 evenly, because of the lack of proper coordination of finger, wrist, 
 and arm muscles. The results are a loss of economy because of the 
 break in speed in the middle of a stroke, and almost always an in- 
 ferior form, though this may not be prominent. 
 
 A sample of writing showing good codrdination is given in Part 
 (ec) for purpose of comparison. A combination of the two defects is 
 commonly encountered. 
 
 6. Motor Control 
 Lack of control of the muscles used results in breaks in the speed 
 of the letter strokes and in irregular alignment of the letters. This 
 
 Moror C ONTROL : 
 
 LOOSE .° 
 a 
 
 ,. RESTRAINED | 
 
 ee Abily Wd 
 
 FicuRE 4. DEFECTS IN Motor CONTROL. 
 
9 
 
 failure to control the movement so that the maximum speed within a 
 stroke is properly placed at, or near, the middle of the stroke, is evi- 
 denced in various ways, as shown in Figure 4. 
 
 (a) Loose Control 
 
 If the movement gains too large a speed the stroke will be carried 
 past its required length. Asa result alignment is thrown out of place, 
 letters are misshapen, the slant is apt to be mixed, lines are irregular, 
 and the writing tends to be enlarged in whole or in part. In Figure 4, 
 Part (a) these results are evident. Also a curve is often rounded at 
 too rapid a speed, with the result that the pen is carried too far, as in 
 the first stroke of the ‘‘n.’’ 
 
 (b) Restrained or Cramped Control 
 In this type not enough speed is ordinarily placed on the stroke to 
 carry it far enough. Sharp endings to strokes are common as in the 
 up-stroke of the ‘‘n’’ (Figure 4, Part (b). The writing is thrown out 
 of alignment and the whole appearance of the writing is cramped. 
 The quality of line is also apt to be uneven as to width, because of the 
 
 Unirv STROKE 
 
 Figure 5. DeEFEcT IN UNIT STROKE COMPARED WITH GooD STRUCTURE. 
 
 irregularity in pressure. This defect is usually coupled with lack of 
 coordination, though not necessarily so. It may be the prime factor 
 in poor letter form. 
 (ec) Mixed Control 
 Cases frequently occur where the lack of control is of the mixed 
 type, shown in Figure 4, Part (c), in which some strokes evidence 
 loose movement, and others a marked restraint. 
 
10 
 
 7. Umt Stroke ; 
 Failure to recognize the value of stroke control is common, and is 
 evidenced by a misunderstanding of the elements of good structure 
 for each letter. In the sample here given (Figure 5, Part (a)), the 
 down-strokes especially do not receive their full emphasis, and are 
 united with the stroke just preceding or following, so as to not clearly 
 define the separate strokes. The comparison of the good example in 
 Part (b) with the preceding one, shows clearly the defects in the 
 former, stroke by stroke. ‘The numbering of the strokes is carried out 
 to assist in the analysis. It is at once evident that the proper control 
 of movement to define the stroke is an essential of legibility. Defec- 
 tive slant may owe its origin to this fault, especially the mixed slant. 
 
 8. Spacing of Words and Letters 
 
 Standards of spacing are somewhat arbitrary. Penmanship sys- 
 tems differ in their ideals, as evidenced by the models. It is probable 
 that effective diagnosis can be made only in rather extreme types of 
 defect, unless one has a very rigid ideal of spacing. 
 
 (a) Too Wide Spacing 
 Habitual wide spacing of letters and words (Figure 6, Part (a)), 
 
 SPACING 
 
 WIDE 
 woros —LCOtLE tic Laven 
 
 LEITERS Ufd-—-C_ OO EES De Me Mae Al tL LE ee 
 
 NARROW 
 
 Lerrers DOOCE Aon didtr yldk, GY PRe 
 
 IMIXED 
 
 wees CCOtkL aendedevenw niin << 
 Lerrens Ao-tl daa bre m Emin 290 
 
 Goo 
 aoa CAL | 
 
 FIGuRE 6. TYPES OF INCORRECT SPACING AS COMPARED WITH GOOD SPACING. 
 
11 
 
 causes a waste of space in writing, and of time in reading. The 
 sprawling effect is distressing to the aesthetic sense as well. 
 
 (b) Too Narrow Spacing , 
 One of the most aggravating and sometimes the only cause of illegi- 
 bility is that of extremely narrow spacing between words or letters. 
 In Figure 6, Part (b) are shown samples in which this defect is illus- 
 trated, the former as to letters, the latter as to words. It is note- 
 worthy that in both cases the eye has difficulty in recognizing and 
 separating the various parts of the written line. 
 
 (ce) Mixed Spacing 
 
 Many eases occur where the child has good habits of letter spacing, 
 but has little notion of the proper spacing between words, or vice 
 versa. In the same way that letter spaces may be too wide, and others 
 too narrow, so spaces between words may vary greatly. One who has 
 no ideal of correct spacing is apt to show a variety of spaces between 
 letters and words. Cases of Mixed Spacing are shown in Figure 6, 
 Part (c). 
 
 For comparison, a sample of good spacing is given in Part (d). 
 
 9. Passing from Word to Word 
 
 Almost no attention is commonly given to the way in which the 
 learner passes from one word to the next. This is a very important 
 factor, however, both in speed and in quality. It has been shown that 
 a large part of the time taken in writing a passage may be consumed 
 in this way. In Figure 7, Part (a) is an illustration of a poor passage 
 
 PASSAGE BETWEEN WoRDS 
 
 qa. Poor 
 
 » 
 * 
 
 > 
 »* 
 4 ‘ 
 
 ? 
 a 
 4 ‘ 
 
 ~~ 
 ae 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 = 
 
 _ Figure 7. COMPARISON OF Poor AND GooD PAassAGES BETWEEN WORDS. 
 
 - 
 = = -_ ‘= a 
 —y eee w we eee | & 
 
 - 
 ° 
 -~—27 
 
 cd 
 od 
 q 
 =< 
 a 
 e 
 
12 
 
 between words. The pathway of the penpoint is shown by means of — 
 dotted lines. The observer may not be able to follow the movement of — 
 the writer between words in detail, as only a photographie method 
 
 will completely reveal it. The written form gives evidence of it, how- 
 ever, in the unfortunate types of final and beginning strokes. These 
 indicate reversals of direction, and hooks which show no direct con- 
 nection in the movement from one word to the next. In the sarfiple 
 here given, the movement is in the form of flourishes, resulting from 
 an emphasis on freedom of movement. In other cases, the writer lifts 
 his arm abruptly at the end of a word, and shifts it to a new position. 
 The crossing and dotting of letters if done between syllables introduce 
 wasteful backward movements. Part (b) illustrates how a direct pas- 
 sage may be accomplished, in such a way as to secure economy, and . 
 also good closing and beginning strokes. 
 
 Ill. TRAINING IN DIAGNOSING SAMPLES OF HANDWRITING 
 
 It is one thing to be able to recognize these defects when they are 
 pointed out, as in the preceding pages, but it is quite a different thing 
 
 ate nla2n- ff Ze 
 
 scat Mert MT a tO oe! SS, 
 
 FIGURE 8. SAMPLES OF WRITING SHOWING DEFECTS IN HABITUATION OF 
 LETTER FORMS. 
 
13 
 
 to discover them in a sample of handwriting. The preceding samples 
 of handwriting (Figures 1-7) are artificial. All were drawn so as to 
 isolate and accentuate the fault being considered. .In actual practice 
 
 SLANT 
 
 FIGURE 9. SAMPLES OF WRITING SHOWING TYPES OF DEFECTIVE SLANT. 
 
 the handwriting of pupils very seldom portrays just one defect. The 
 instructor will learn to isolate one particular defect from many faults 
 which may be present. This ability comes through practice. 
 
 With a view to making the method of diagnosis more real, typi- 
 cal samples of children’s writing have been traced and reproduced in 
 the following figures. (Figures 8-14). These figures explain them- 
 selves. It is not claimed that each of these samples contains only the 
 
14 
 dudeicuaheiels 
 
 evan Dacadeter 
 
 cde) Coen 
 
 AEE 
 
 FIGURE 10. SAMPLES OF WRITING SHOWING TYPES OF INCOORDINATION. 
 
 Figure 11. 
 
 SAMPLES OF WRITING SHOWING DEFECTS OF Motor CONTROL. 
 
 FIGURE 12. SAMPLES OF WRITING SHOWING DEFECTS IN UNIT STROKE. 
 
15 
 
 Berweéeén Woros 
 
 WIDE - Brawn ge ist ‘nck: ARASH ree Og, Cu 
 
 frthear. Arvught farther thes crLinot oH 
 
 NARROW ~rurdcorpancfaerner Our 
 
 PUxED - Yr rare ASG eA eo, hs ent 
 DD wet toc KH re 
 BETWEEN LETTERS 
 
 W/DE — SORA A SEONG Re CON al EAI 
 
 GLEAN AG > _ 01412 1 fo AANL 
 
 NARROW- SAS be i a Cas SANs 
 
 | near git eee 
 
 FIGURE 13. SAMPLES OF WRITING SHOWING DEFECTS OF SPACING. 
 
 one defect noted in connection with it. This defect merely character- 
 izes the sample to a marked degree, and therefore makes it a good 
 
 A-_Fittt~_nnttay, Pie te SAD 
 / 2 3 a sg 6 7 £ 
 
 FIGURE 14. SAMPLE OF WRITING SHOWING DEFECTIVE PASSAGE BETWEEN 
 WORDS. 
 
16 
 
 illustration of the defect. The reader should analyze each of these 
 figures in detail, and practice the process of distinguishing the various 
 types of defect. It is a marked advantage to have two or more co- 
 Operate in the study. Combined observation and mutual comment and 
 criticism are very effective. 
 
 With the assistance of the preceding samples, one should now be 
 able to analyze samples of penmanship with some degree of certainty. 
 In order to provide opportunity for further practice in actual diag- 
 nosis, four samples of Fifth Grade writing are here reproduced and 
 analyzed. A study of these analyses will aid the instructor in gain- 
 ing independent ability in analysis. : 
 
 It is taken for granted that the instructor is able to use a standard 
 handwriting scale in the marking of samples. This is a prime essen- 
 tial. Mastery in the use of such a scale is basic to a valid estimate of 
 the general quality of the product.! ; 
 
 In Figure 15 is given a sample of poor writing which should yield 
 readily to remedial treatment when attention is centered on specific 
 faults. What are these faults? 
 
 SOE eT ER UMMM So MONE Mi MS pea tw ego 
 a eee, el i re a ee fir02 gto feo tk om tH 
 cer te ama tiHhecatd x AtRa fiw 
 
 FIcuRE 15. SAMPLE OF HANDWRITING OF FIFTH GRADE PUPIL. 
 
 Rate: The pupil was given two minutes to write the sample. He 
 wrote 114 letters, or 57 per minute. This is below the Fifth Grade 
 norm with the Ayres scale (64). Record the score of 57 in Col- 
 umn 1 of Table I. 
 
 Quality: This is poor, being about 40 on the Ayres Seale, compared 
 with the grade norm of 50. This grade is recorded also in Table I. 
 
 *Some of the most used Handwriting Scales are: 
 Ayres Handwriting Scale, Gettysburg Edition, Public School Publishing Company. 
 Freeman, F. N., Analytical Handwriting Scale, Houghton Mifflin Company. 
 Leamer, Scale for Grade Standards in Quality for Practice Sentences in Hand- 
 writing, Publie School Publishing Company. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L., Handwriting Scale. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 
 Columbia University. 
 
FIGuRE 17. THIRD SAMPLE. 
 
 cre Meh ae bo ear agence 
 
 FIGURE 18. FourtTH SAMPLE. 
 
 Letier-form: There is a good deal of evidence of definitely wrong 
 habits. Note especially the ‘‘r’s’’ wherever they occur, and also — 
 the ‘‘t’s,’’ ‘‘h’s,’’ and ‘‘f’s.’’ It is possible that the defects in 
 letter forms may be due to the presence of other defects, and may 
 disappear when these are remedied. They are, however, prominent 
 enough to deserve attention. It is suggested that when no defect 
 is discovered a ‘‘0’’ be recorded in the Table opposite this element, 
 and that the figure ‘‘1’’ be used to indicate the presence of a defect 
 but to no serious degree. The symbol ‘‘2’’ may be used to call 
 attention to a serious defect that demands treatment. Using this 
 plan, the figure ‘‘0’’ is placed opposite ‘‘No Fixed Habit’’ and 
 ‘*2’’ opposite ‘‘ Wrong Habit.”’ 
 
 Slant: Not bad. There is some evidence of mixed slant, but this is 
 not serious, and may not be evident when other defects are cor- 
 rected. Record a ‘‘1’’ opposite this characteristic. There is also 
 a slight indication of changing slant. Record as ‘‘1.’’ 
 
18 
 
 Coordination: There is no evidence of a tendency to a wavering line, 
 but there is a good deal of angular incodrdination and this should 
 be recorded as ‘‘2.’’ 
 
 Motor Control: The movement is restrained, and free control is lack- 
 ing to a very marked degree. In fact, this is the writer’s chief 
 fault. Stroke after stroke is not carried far enough, with the re- 
 sult that the letters are too short, and the alignment is poor. The 
 pupil is in need of immediate treatment in this phase. Indicate 
 the defect with a ‘‘2’’ in the table and place a parenthesis or circle 
 around the symbol to indicate the fault as of major significance. 
 
 Unit Stroke: There is some evidence of slighting of the stroke, as 
 
 _ shown in the last down stroke in “‘e,’’ ‘‘h,’’ ‘‘n,’’ and other letters, 
 
 but this is not very serious. Record as ‘‘1.’’ This defect may not 
 
 be evident when motor control and slant are remedied, or it may 
 show up more plainly, in which case, treatment may be given. 
 
 Spacing: Between words the space tends to be too narrow in some 
 eases, although all right in others. Record as ‘‘1.’’ 
 
 Between letters, the space is too wide for the size of the letters 
 used, but this is not prominent, and may not be evident when 
 proper motor control is secyred. There is a slight tendency to a 
 mixing of spaces. Record both of these as ‘‘1.’’ 
 
 Passage Between Words: Inspection of the terminal strokes shows 
 that the writer has little notion of direct transition from one word 
 to the next. This is not a matter of great immediate concern, how- 
 ever, at least until other defects are treated. Record as ‘‘1.’’ 
 
 In summary, this writer needs emphasis on rate of writing as soon 
 as the quality will permit. His primary drill should be directed with 
 a view to gaining motor control, with freedom of movement, and the 
 overcoming of angularity of curves. Special attention should be given 
 to the form of certain letters, and habituation in making them prop- 
 erly. 
 
 In Table I, columns 2, 3, and 4 are placed the diagnoses of the 
 samples of handwriting given in Figures 16, 17 and 18 respectively. 
 
19 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 DIAGNOSIS OF DEFECTS IN THE SAMPLES OF HANDWRITING 
 REPRODUCED IN FIGURES 15-18. 
 
 0=no defect, 1—slight defect, 2—serious defect 
 (2) = writer’s chief defect. 
 
 Characteristic Sample Grade 
 Diagnosed Defect 1 2 3 4 Norm. 
 
 lip Bate: (letters per minute)... 6... cscesecsence 57 59 70 73 64 
 
 BAILEY LUIRVEOR PSCGLO) pieavevessins cesses cusce 40 35 25 60 50 
 3. -Letter-form (a) No Fixed Habit..... 0 0 1 0 
 (b) Wrong Habit ....... 2 2 2 1 
 4, Slant (a) Wrong or Extreme... 0 0 1 0 
 Ry) MU ROM Se wae atte y fee's 1 1 (2) 0 
 (ey PU an iret a's ie iid ois ete’ 1 (2) 0 1 
 5. Codrdination CRD WOWGTIDE. ir sly ot caus hens 0 0 2 0 
 Ey AD OUIAY i) wel aiee sia ute 2 1 (2) 1 
 6. Motor Control CYT Le teats ta ee aha ss Arps 8 0 (2) 0 0 
 (by "Restrained yi) A). sek iis (2) 0 0 1 
 VEE foe ds Re, SR era 0 i 0 
 7. Unit Stroke HOU FOCOLNIZEG \o s\cigs's in sp 1 0 2 0 
 CAMEO WEE cis ieee ole) wa x 0 0 0 0 
 Words (b) Too narrow ......... a 2 2 (2) 
 8. Spacing CRATE Lae sates eae ek alte 0 2 2 us 
 F Favs OO Wide cic cic watdiae ap 1 2 2 0 
 Letters (b) Too marrow ......... 0 0 0 0 
 (eds MEEBO yy. Ve ote eal visi 1 2 2 2 
 2 2 1 
 
 9.) Passage, Between Words.:......ese+sese0e 1 
 
 —The reader who wishes to acquire skill in diagnosing should analyze 
 these remaining samples (Figures 16, 17 and 18), and compare his 
 analyses with those given in Table I. The diagnosis may be reviewed, 
 and revised until one is certain of the method and its use. 
 
 One should not expect perfect agreement of his results with those 
 of another observer. A difference of one step will be frequently found, 
 and this will not affect the data greatly. There should be no wide 
 difference between observers. The defect marked ‘‘0’’ by one should 
 not receive a ‘‘2’’ by another, or vice versa. The most evident defect, 
 or defects, of any writer should be easily recognized. 
 
 At this stage the instructor should attempt a thorough diagnosis 
 of several samples of penmanship. After this is completed the sam- 
 ples and results should be put to one side for some days. There 
 should then be another diagnosis made without reference to previous 
 findings. The two sets of diagnoses are now to be compared, and the 
 
20 
 
 amount of agreement noted. In the case of wide disagreement on any 
 characteristics, special study of the samples and results should be 
 made, together with a review of Part I of this pamphlet, until a defi- 
 nite decision is reached. One’s consistency should increase with prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Codperative grading of samples by the members of a group is help- 
 ful. If each one will grade the samples independently of the others, 
 and then all compare their diagnoses with each other, with free dis- 
 eussion and study on points of disagreement, rapid progress will be 
 made in the ability to give reliable diagnoses. 
 
 Some further rules and suggestions are here given, which should 
 assist in the use of the diagnostic plan. : 
 
 One should become thoroughly acquainted with the list of charac- 
 teristics and defects by number and letter for the sake of ready ref- 
 erence and ease of handling data. One who has occasion to make 
 many diagnoses, as a supervisor of penmanship, should early memorize 
 the list in order. 
 
 There is nothing rigid about the marking system used. Instead 
 of the symbols here presented one may use quite other symbols, such 
 as plus and minus signs. Instead of four classifications as here given, 
 one may find it to advantage to use only three, or even two. Sim- 
 plicity is desirable so long as effective diagnosis results. It is well 
 to record a symbol for ‘‘no defect’’ rather than to leave the space 
 blank, to indicate that a Judgment has been made, and to prevent the 
 skipping of spaces by accident. 
 
 The frequency of the defects is not always in agreement with the 
 poor quality of handwriting. The writer may have a very poor pro- 
 duct because of the presence of only one defect to a marked degree. 
 Another writer may have a very fine quality but be very slow, with 
 very poor passage between words, and a wavering type of incoodrdina- 
 tion present to a marked degree. The quality may be up to standard, 
 yet may be improved by drill in a number of elements, none of which 
 may be serious. In Table I, adding the numbers indicating the degree 
 of defect for each column, the sums are found to be 18, 18, 23 and 10. 
 When these figures are compared with the scores for quality of each: 
 40, 35, 25, and 60 respectively, it is apparent that there is a relation 
 between the degree of defect and the general quality of the writing, 
 
4 
 
 21 
 
 since the smaller the numbers are which give the sum of the defects 
 the higher is the score for quality. 
 
 Some of the defects need very close inspection to be properly de- 
 tected. Practice will make one expert in the matter of detecting types 
 of incodrdination, habits of wrong letter-form or other faults. 
 
 The diagnosis should be made as objective as possible. One is apt 
 to discover in the sample the defect for which one looks, whether it 
 is present or not. Constant reference should be made to the descrip- 
 tions and illustrations given in the preceding pages as a means of 
 refreshing the memory and of maintaining a certain standard. 
 
 The daily written work of pupils in the spelling, language and 
 other class subjects calling for writing should be taken into considera- 
 tion. Only in this way can an adequate idea of pupil habits be had. 
 These samples of spontaneous writing cannot be measured as to rate, 
 but all other characteristics may be analyzed. It has been noted that 
 possibly the greatest hindrance to good handwriting instruction lies 
 in the poor supervision of writing in phases of school work other than 
 the formal penmanship drill. 
 
 A NEW EXPERIENCE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Publishers Statement 
 
 When I was a boy Hans Christian Andersen made me a convert 
 to the power that interest (I mean interest of that purposeful kind 
 which quickens thought and requires attainment) gives to study or 
 drill. A youthful character in one of his stories had difficulty in 
 learning his geography lessons until this interest fairy suggested put- 
 ting the geography lesson under his pillow at night so that together 
 they might, in his dreams, visit the places and the people. Each 
 night they entered into the work and play of the real folks in their 
 real homes in the land of the lesson with that feeling of actual ex- 
 perience which dreams give. 
 
 It was a new experience for me and, perhaps, it will be for you, 
 to start such an interest in attaining skill in handwriting. <A pupil 
 actually dreamed of writing as well or better than the standard shown 
 on the handwriting scale for his grade and ran to school the next 
 morning to find his dream realized. 
 
 Interest in perfecting skill is the power aroused in pupils by the 
 use of the Leamer Diagnostic Sentences in Handwriting when guided 
 
22 
 
 by the detailed instruction outlined in these remedial bulletins by 
 Dr. Paul V. West. Just as in the modern school pupils begin to read 
 directions and sentences before they memorize the alphabet so now 
 they write sentences first and practice on certain letters and combina- 
 tions as required. It is found that artificial exercises should follow 
 the writing of real words. In this relation the pupil feels the value 
 of practice and directs his exercises with the interest and the pur- 
 pose of attaining the quality and speed he knows he ean reach since 
 it is the standard for his grade. Each pupil makes progress as rap- 
 idly as he is able to acquire the necessary quality and speed. 
 
 Every success of a pupil becomes a stimulating incentive to work 
 for the next goal. For the teacher each goal sets a very definite unit 
 of individual instruction and guidance of the pupils’ practice. 
 
 The details of this work of correcting faults and directing im- 
 provement are taken up in Dr. West’s second bulletin on Remedial 
 Instruction. Methods of grouping classes according to needs and prac- 
 tical suggestions for removing each of the defects, and for preventing 
 them, are then given. 
 
 Note: A form page has been devised for the teacher’s convenience | 
 in diagnosing the members of a class according to this plan. A copy 
 of this form is enclosed. Copies may be purchased from the Public 
 School Publishing Co. at the following rates: Single copies by mail 
 8 cts. In quantity 2 cts. each. 
 
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GOODBYE, “PUSH AND PULL”! 
 
 Diagnostic Practice Sentences in Handwriting 
 Designed by Emery W. Leamer 
 
 This plan for learning to write one’s very best is based on the sound psycho- 
 logical principles worked out by Professor Frank N. Freeman of the University of 
 Chicago. In fact, Professor Leamer recommends Professor Freeman’s ‘‘Course in 
 Handwriting’’ as a very excellent outline to follow in Grade I. The use of the 
 Leamer ‘‘Diagnostic Practice Sentences in Handwriting’? is recommended for 
 Grades II to VIII. 
 
 By following Professor Leamer’s plan, children begin by practicing the writing 
 of sentences which contain the words and letters they will write most frequently in 
 adult life. The words from the Ayres list have been used as a basis for the exercises. 
 
 This plan of learning to write well is not dependent upon any arm exercises. 
 To quote Professor Leamer, ‘‘Beginning the learning of writing with exercises of the 
 ‘push and pull’ type is like beginning reading by memorizing the alphabet instead 
 of with the recognition of whole words.’’ Artificial exercises should follow the writ- 
 ing of real words, when the child can see the use of them. Arm movement exercises 
 are logical, adult methods of attacking the complex processes of writing, but they 
 are not the natural, childish way of learning. The exercises given in the Leamer 
 “Diagnostic Practice Sentences in Handwriting’’ require the child to write real sen- 
 tences from the first; to be sure, he practices on certain letters and combinations of 
 letters separately at times, but only after he has tried to put those letters into words 
 and has found that he does not make them correctly. 
 
 The sentences to be practiced are presented on cards. The plates from which 
 the sentences are printed were made from samples of actual writing of children in 
 his own grade, so that the child has a real mark at which to shoot. Someone wrote 
 the sentence before he did; he feels that he can learn to do it himself. 
 
 The handwriting period should not be longer than 10 minutes of actual work. 
 The first eight minutes should be given to practice on the one sentence that the child 
 is working on for that day. The last two minutes should be given to the daily test, 
 for which the pupil writes over and over again the sentence on which he has been 
 practicing. The pupil’s performance in this test decides whether or not he is to be 
 passed to the next sentence for practice the coming day. With the exception of the 
 first two sentences all the sentences contain 20 letters so that the measurement of 
 rate is very easy. Quality is judged by comparison with a scale showing the stand- 
 ard for the grade. 
 
 In the development of motor skill the interest of the child is absolutely essen- 
 tial. By doing away with any preliminary movement drills, push-and-pull exercises, 
 and oval drills, seldom finding fault with the writing of children, by always encourag- 
 ing them—many times the statement that they are doing better stimulates them 
 enough to actually improve—teachers will find that handwriting can be taught in 
 a much more satisfactory manner. 
 
 The general idea of this practice material is to allow each child to progress as 
 rapidly as he is able to acquire the necessary quality and speed. He begins with the 
 first sentence of the first series. As soon ashe can write it with the speed and quality 
 which is average for his grade he goes on to the next sentence; when he finishes one 
 series he goes on to another. 
 
 Price, 28 cents per set of 15 cards 
 
 Teacher’s manual and handwriting scale furnished free with orders for 25 sets 
 Sample set by mail, 40 cents 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 509-11-13 North East Street BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS 
 
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 Copyright 1926 
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 Grade ( ) Sec. ( 
 
 PUBLIC Ba HeBUT Haine 4 po 
 CHART FOR DIAGNOSING ELEMENTS OF HANDWRITING 
 By PAUL V. WEST 
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 Remedial Work 
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 Copies of this chart may be purchased from Public School Publishing Co. at following rates:—Per package of 25, 50 cts; single copies 3 cts. 
 
A SCALE NEEDED TO 
 MEASURE PUPILS’ WORK UNDER CLASS CONDITIONS 
 
 The following record is an example of a pupil’s percent score record 
 on eight tests on school subjects and his average score, all related to his 
 aptitude age from three tests. Note that each score is translated into a 
 common seale age; and study where his difficulties are found. This pupil 
 _ number 4, is above the class average in attainment but a year below their 
 average in learning aptitude. He has a chronological age of 14-1. His 
 aptitude age is 12-7, and his average attainment scale age is 14-11, or 
 two years and four months above his aptitude age. His record on the 
 tests is as follows: 
 
 Pupiu NUMBER 4 His scores on the four read- 
 % | Seale ing tests are near or above the 
 Scoring Record Score | Age scale age of 16.0. 
 1. Rate of Reading 
 2. Read. Comprehension 
 3. Vocabulary 
 4, Spelling 
 D 
 6 
 
 | 16-1 
 
 | 16-8 
 
 | 15-10 Gy Yeah ei 
 | 16-0 seale age 12-5, and in division, 
 | 14-11 | where his age also is 12.5. 
 
 . Subtraction Lode 8 iid His difficulty in arithmetic is 
 
 | His low scores are in sub- 
 | 
 | 
 | 
 | 
 7. Multiplication : 5 [14-6 anticipated from his low scores 
 | 
 | 
 | 
 
 traction, where he makes only 
 
 . Addition 
 
 8. Division | 12-5 tL 
 on the aptitude tests for prob- 
 1A alleged aNd, tae lem solving of age 11-0 and 
 
 . Arith, Problems Pree: Eh a a : ¢ 
 . Synonym-Antonym | 146 arithmetic ingenuity of age 
 
 . Arith. Ingenuity | 12-2 12-2. 
 
 . Mean Aptitude | ni How far is the school re- 
 ___ Score (lines 10 to 12) | 12-7 sponsible for this difficulty in 
 
 14. Chronological Age......... 14-1 arithmetic for a pupil very 
 15. Attainment Scale Age 14-11 | bright in other ways? A study 
 16, Aptitude Age (three tone) Ma OUT of his work on the test exercises 
 Test 11 (Synonym-Antonym).... 14-6 indicates that he is a faithful 
 student in each subject. He 
 evidently learned and tried to apply the rules for doing the arithmetic 
 processes. His failures seem to come from difficulty to haldsi in mind two 
 or three steps of a process for lack of an understanding experience of the 
 relation of each step as a definite part of the thought process. In fact, he 
 has not learned the language of numbers. 
 
 With an aptitude score of 12 years and 7 months, which is obtained 
 on a scale in which two out of the three tests are on the relations of 
 numbers, a type of instruction that would develop the needed thought 
 experiences has chances in favor of success. The school might save him 
 from the limitation of only a one-track brightness. His present language 
 aptitude age (test 11) is 14-6 scale age. 
 
 The above record of scores shows the simplicity of bringing together, 
 under the one chronological age seale, the correlated scores of attainment 
 and aptitude. 
 
THE MEASUREMENT PROBLEM 
 
 THE elementary school meets the minds of the pupils at a period of 
 erowth concerned, in a particular way, with the development of a grow- 
 ing brain. The equipment of the mind for the understanding of experi- 
 ences is quite largely accomplished by age fifteen. This is true not only 
 for immediate conduct but also for the acquisition of knowledge that 
 becomes a part of further experiencing ability. This is the basic equip- 
 ment for the guidance of judgment in the further self-development for 
 mature living. 
 
 The discovery of the growth of mind in relation to brain organization 
 was made possible through the measurement of mental age growth. While 
 the rate of mental age growth is uniform for each individual during the 
 years to age fifteen, or thereabout, it develops for some minds more slowly 
 and for others faster than the average growth. Mental age measurement 
 standards for each chronological age are determined by ‘‘intelligence 
 tests’’ as the average score made by many individuals having the same 
 chronological age. The mental age of any individual, however, is the 
 chronological age indicated by his score on the intelligence scale and 
 may vary much from his own chronological age. _ 
 
 School instruction and training are recognized as closely related to 
 mental age growth, but only rough adjustments are as yet determined 
 for this relation. Such adjustments are now arrived at by the general 
 experiences of the schools with courses of study material and with dif- 
 ferent methods of instruction. A common measuring seale with units 
 applicable to both mental age and possible school attainment ages, can © 
 be satisfactorily developed only by extensive codperation of the schools 
 together with studies of the details of instructional needs and with meth- 
 ods of adapting the course of study material to mental age abilities in a 
 way to secure the needed interest and effort of pupils. 
 
 TEST RELATIONS TO THE SCALE 
 
 The form for such a seale of reference provides for three relations of 
 the usual objective tests when they are validated, not only to the course 
 of study, but also to the instructional relations for each successive mental 
 age growth of the pupils. The first relation is that with the advance in 
 chronological age. There are evident reasons for beginning this advance 
 with age seven and extending it up to age seventeen. The second relation 
 is that for mental age (or for learning aptitude age as, perhaps, a better 
 term to use in this relation). The average learning aptitude advances 
 from that of grade two by one year intervals to grade eight or from age 
 seven for beginning second grade to age fourteen at the end of grade eight. 
 To measure the attainment of bright pupils the scale is extended through 
 grade eleven at the end of age sixteen. The third relation gives the 
 ‘percent reference scale’’ for tests that cover the selected range of ten 
 years, from age seven to age seventeen. At the present rate of the average 
 pupil, the seven years from age seven up to age fourteen enables him to 
 master only about seventy percent of the course. This seventy percent, 
 however, is not to be taken as a standard for the attainment possible for 
 
the average pupil at age fourteen, although his learning aptitude (mental 
 age) will remain at this age for the end of age thirteen, or of the eighth 
 erade. 
 
 Aptitude age is a statistically determined ability to respond success- 
 fully to a definite testable complexity of mental experience which has 
 been determined as the average ability of minds of that chronological age. 
 The aptitude age is, therefore, a definitely determined chronological age. 
 The age of fourteen is fixed as the aptitude age of the average person 
 of that chronological age. 
 
 Attainment age for success in acquiring a usable knowledge of the 
 elementary course of study is at present statistically determined as that 
 suecess found to be acquired under the teacher of average ability, with 
 the average textbook and other school equipment, and the average number 
 of years of schooling; and under these averages the success of pupils is 
 determined by a particular organization of test questions, and by scores 
 called standards for school success at each grade. Since there are so many 
 different variables in this educational situation, any plan to measure the 
 effect of a change in any one, or in all of them, falls back upon the adjust- 
 ment which can be made of one or all to the actual relations of the learn- 
 ing aptitude (mental age) of the individual pupils to teaching success. 
 To measure this relation evidently requires some way of measuring the 
 two different situations, one for aptitude age and the other for attainment 
 scores, on the same common scale of reference. 
 
 THE SCALE MAKES COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENT DEFINITE 
 
 But such a common scale of reference does not by itself give an answer 
 to the eritical educational problem of the school. Such a measurement in 
 common units is only a tool to be used by administrators, teachers, and 
 students of school problems, by means of which records of the results of 
 directed instructional experiences and careful experiments can be made. 
 The large problem concerns the instructional purpose and technique by 
 which school training and pupil interest and effort can secure that fuller 
 use by each pupil of his own learning aptitude needed to master more of 
 the elementary course of study by the age of fourteen, although his apti- 
 tude age is perhaps only thirteen or even less. There is evidence now 
 that some good schools get educational results of a year or more beyond 
 what present standards prescribe for the pupil’s grade learning aptitude. 
 The grade aptitude age given on the common seale of reference marks 
 the chronological age at which the average pupil has the ability to gain 
 the present grade standard in school work without the help of expert 
 teaching and equipment. He can make this grade, and does, in classrooms 
 providing for very ordinary instruction, since the standards accepted are 
 determined by using many such classrooms. Much carefully directed ex- 
 perience and experiment under actual school conditions is needed before 
 the possibilities of advance in attainment through expert instruction 
 within the ability of each learning aptitude age, will be discovered. 
 
 The question then is: How ean school training make the best use of 
 ability? Attainment age is a matter of that experience including experi- 
 
mentation by which the full effect of instruction and of interest and effort 
 may become effective. It seems possible that at least ninety percent of the 
 elementary course can be accomplished by the average pupil at the end 
 of ninth grade at age fifteen, and he can then be ready to do good work 
 in the senior high school. 
 
 The following table of class scores gives the record of one teacher’s 
 SUCCESS : 
 
 INDIVIDUAL RECORD OF CORRELATED SCORES 
 
 iy : ss 
 is Ghuh) © | 4 o | € 1s |e g ae 
 Ss d a7 0.8 | 4 2 a re 8 Roe ie | d gj Seg at, : 
 ae) 8, | S3]e3l3e|3.| 218 12.188] £1831 Ce pee) fee 
 35 -d op PpSasi so] oo] on a re =i) Ee Be or Bus EO) os i) 
 AA Od Attan|mOl|rSs!| a | 4 |as|as| A aa] «8H J<a | oa] dh 
 1 13-5 84 59 89 87 75 83 96 88 83 89 70 92 
 2 13-6 83 | 84 | 100 86 93 88 79 63 79 84 88 70 93 84 
 3 12-11 824 77 70 74 Ol 88 67 83 92 81 87 85 2 
 sp 4 14-1 56% 91 97 1 881° 90 PFO 6415-75 yee eg 59 40 | 75 | 6&2 
 5 13-5 78 § 100 92 70 95 75 63 88 79 84 83 50 93 92 
 6 13-2 77 4 73 89 80 92 54 50 67 54 70 82 60 90 80 
 7 13-8 76 69 rare 78 92 63 63 92 63 75 81 70 90 68 
 8 13-7 73 65 68 84 89 83 71 88 67 ave 77 70 80 68 
 9 14-1 72 62 54 48 93 75 58 79 54 66 76 80 68 68 
 10 13-11 71 62] 62; 54] 81 71 79 | 58] 754% 68 75 80 | 60] 72 
 11 13-6 69F B80) o78 4 804 88" Ta 63 | 88] 794 73 73 70, GR Fe 
 12 14-0 68 } 57 95 74 86 67 63 71 58 72 72 70 78 56 
 13 14-1 67 4 75] 81 76}; 89 | 79 | 54] 67 | 757 75 71 70 | 701} 60 
 14 13-9 6B 654 BO FB OT Ba oo Bo Peg ae agg 70 60 | 75] 64 
 15 13-9 65 48 68 86 84 58 46 50 54 62 69 50 73 72 
 16 13-10 64 — 81 76 | 68| 79 | 67)| 54] 54] 294 64 68 50 | 73] 68 
 17 13-11 61 66 52 78 93 50 50 67 63 65 65 40 70 72 
 18 13-2 58 § 64 65 78 83 83 58 79 63 72 61 60 68 44 
 19 13-11 56} 97 | 68] 80| 76} 46] 25| 21] 25] 55 59 30 | 83] 56 
 20 14-1 53 79 43 54 Tf 67 33 54 58 58 56 60 55 a4 
 21 13-7 52 § 83 65 56 84 71 50 re 75 70 55 40 70 44 
 22 13-11 51 45 62 85 63 42 63 63 61 54 50 65 36 
 23 13-9 49 82 52 87 67 50 63 58 65 52 50 53 44 
 24 14-2 48 4 73 60 80 67 38 42 29 56 51 40 60 44 
 25 13-10 46 65 66 90 50 42 46 42 57 49 30 75 32 
 26 13-0 4} 88 74 80 46 25 54 33 58 43 30 60 32 
 Class ie @ Efficiency 
 Mean 13-8 {365 | £71 
 
 72 87 69 55 68 61 # < 69 | Quotient 
 : 1.06 
 
 This mid-year 8th grade class has an average chronological age of 
 13 years and 8 months; an average aptitude age of 13 years and 6 
 months; and an average attainment scale age of 13 years and 11 months. 
 
 The teaching has obtained an average of 5 months in attainment be- 
 yond the average aptitude age. This gives the class an efficiency quo- 
 tient of 1.06. 
 
 The record shows the teacher’s success with 26 pupils, each of whom 
 has a different aptitude age. This variation is from 15 years and 5 months 
 to 11 years and 1 month. The difference in attainment scale age is only 
 from 15 years and 4 months to 12 years and 6 months. The lowest is 
 1 year below grade in attainment. In aptitude age, the lowest is 2 years 
 and 5 months below the average for the class. 
 
 If interested, send for a complete sample set of the Public School 
 Correlated Attainment Scales. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS 
 
LIDIANE 
 OF THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOK 
 
 ® 
 
 HANDWRITING, No. 2 Published by the Copyright 1926 
 
 Remedial Instruction PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING CO. by the 
 
 Bloomington, Illinois Public School Publishing Co. 
 
 Remedial and Follow-Up Work 
 HANDWRITING 
 
 CORRECTING FAULTS REVEALED BY DIAGNOSIS 
 
 By PAUL V. WEST 
 School of Education, New York University 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
 
 It is the purpose of this pamphlet to show how instruction may be 
 organized and directed in the classroom so as to overcome the hand- 
 writing defects of pupils. The reader will find it advisable to study 
 the description of the elements of diagnosis in the first pamphlet of 
 this series as a basis for appreciation of the remedial treatment sug- 
 gested in the following pages. 
 
 The learning of skill in handwriting is as much a trial and error 
 process as any other type of learning. In each new phase, the child 
 will make errors which he is unable to recognize or criticize without 
 guidance. Each pupil will be found to be unique in respect to the 
 type of error, or combination of errors, that he makes. Many children 
 drill for years in general exercises in penmanship, but because they 
 have never adequately criticized their own product, or had their 
 attention called to their particular defects, they continue to develop 
 wrong habits. Penmanship ‘‘instruction’’? becomes an interference 
 to them, rather than an aid. ; 
 
 The Need for Individual Instruction 
 
 The first demand of remedial work is an organization which will 
 permit and encourage individual attention. Exclusively mass in- 
 struction in handwriting can no longer be regarded as advisable. The 
 acquiring of skill in handwriting demands individual direction such 
 as has not hitherto been given. 
 
 The plan of grouping the pupils according to needs, herein pro- 
 posed, is designed to provide better supervision in situations where 
 large classes do not permit much individual attention. It is probable 
 that the period devoted to handwriting must always be brief because 
 of the rich program of studies which is now included in the curriculum. 
 In view of this condition, it is very important that the methods of 
 instruction should be most effective. 
 
 445-16p 
 
2 
 
 The Need for Incentives 
 
 The first important element of instruction is the arousing or re- 
 newal of the interest of pupils in good penmanship. A certain amount 
 of time spent periodically in this way will be well rewarded. Various 
 types of incentives are used.1. Some of these are direct, in the sense 
 that the pupil is immediately interested in good penmanship itself as 
 the end. Among such are stories which emphasize the value of good, 
 legible writing. The use of the diagnostic plan with attention to indi- 
 vidual needs becomes a continuous incentive when improvement is evi- 
 denced daily. The interest which pupils naturally have in discovering 
 their own standing, and in overcoming their particular defects is a 
 remarkable stimulus to improvement. 
 
 Other incentives, involving the use of prizes, diplomas, and similar 
 appeals are indirect, since they are sometimes considered by the pupil 
 as the real end, with good writing as the means. - 
 
 ORGANIZATION FOR REMEDIAL WORK 
 
 General Class Drill 
 
 In view of the comparative ease of handling, it is best to treat the 
 class as a whole, as far as it is economical to do so. Practically _ 
 an entire class may be found by diagnosis to evidence the same fault 
 or faults. In this case, one or two periods per week at least should 
 be devoted to class drills. If there are a few children who do not need 
 this drill, they should not be required to take it. If these pupils rank 
 very high, and show no marked signs of defects in other character- 
 istics, they may be excused from drill altogether. If they do manifest 
 certain defects, they should be directed in an independent effort to 
 overcome them. In this way, the group treatment should be kept pliable. 
 
 Small Group Drills—Re-seating 
 
 The chief emphasis of remedial work must be found in specific | 
 practice and individual attention. When a pupil who needs particular 
 treatment is mixed with others having very different defects, it is 
 difficult indeed to keep him in mind and to identify his trouble. On 
 the other hand, if all of those who have a common fault are sitting in 
 one row, or near together, it is easy for the teacher to pass down the 
 aisle and survey the work to note if progress is being made. A small 
 group may be instructed and given directions with a minimum of 
 waste. A class of average size may be grouped into about three sec- 
 tions. Such regrouping calls for a definite seating plan. In this plan 
 the size of the pupils should be taken into account, relative to the 
 
 * West, P. V., Changing Practice in Handwriting Instruction—Journal of Edu- 
 
 tional Research Monograph No. 9. Public School Publishing Company. pp. 150. 
 All of the common incentives are here listed and the underlying principles discussed. 
 
3 
 
 height of desk. Those having the greatest amount of the defect may 
 be placed in the front seats so as to be more advantageously placed 
 for instruction and inspection. 
 
 The regrouping of pupils at the beginning of the drill period may 
 be effected with a minimum of confusion and loss of time. If the seats 
 are numbered, and each child instructed as to the number of the seat 
 he will occupy, there need be no lost motion. Care should be taken that 
 each one gathers together the requisite material and takes it with him. 
 After the child has occupied a seat once, the task will be simpler on 
 succeeding days, until reorganization is called for. Even though it 
 is impossible to eliminate all waste, the saving effected by the plan of 
 instruction will abundantly justify the grouping. 
 
 In this organization, as with the class as a whole, there may be 
 some children who do not fit into any of the groups. These should 
 be given such individual attention as they need. 
 
 SECURING PUPIL COOPERATION 
 
 In addition to being interested in the mastery of the skill, the 
 child must be led to take the initiative in directing his own efforts. 
 Without this, no real learning is possible. Such direction implies a 
 knowledge of his own progress in handwriting and of his defects as 
 well. He must also know the definite goal for which he is reaching, 
 and the methods be must use. The teacher can make all of this in- 
 formation available to the pupil through the use of the Leamer Diag- 
 nostic Handwriting Cards? and the daily record that is provided. 
 
 The pupil should know his relative standing in both rate and 
 quality of writing. Show the pupils that extremely rapid writing may 
 reduce the quality, and that extreme emphasis on quality will tend to 
 reduce the rate. Have pupils go to the board and write a passage as 
 fast as possible; then rewrite it with special attention to quality, 
 and compare the results. Perform an experiment with the class, 
 following the same plan at their desks. Grade the papers, and let 
 them see and compare the records they have made. Show them plainly 
 that a writer is able to improve his rate of writing gradually without 
 letting his quality suffer. 
 
 The child should know where he stands in both of these character- 
 istics with regard to the average of the class, and also the norm. Each 
 pupil should know whether he is tending to pull the class record down 
 or up. Those who are high in both rate and quality should have 
 clearly in mind that there is room for further improvement, and also 
 that they must exercise care not to fall below their own record. 
 
 * Published by the Public School Publishing Co. 
 
4 
 
 One of the best means of showing these relations to the teacher 
 and pupil is by the use of a diagram showing how the different pupils 
 are scattered when both rate and quality are recorded. In the ac- 
 companying diagram (Fig. 1) the results of a test in Fifth Grade 
 
 HWORTT- QUALITY 
 = aw a= em ae ae ae CES =a 2S an 
 
 NORM; RATE, 
 
 Feate - lellers per minvure 
 
 Quality - Ayres Scale 
 
 FIGuRE 1. ScAaTTER DIAGRAM SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS OF A CLASS IN 
 BotH RATE AND QUALITY OF HANDWRITING AS COMPARED WITH 
 CLASS-AVERAGES AND NORMS 
 
 Penmanship are shown. Pupil No. 1 writes at the rate of 61 letters 
 per minute, and with a quality score of 35. A dot is placed at the 
 
 junction of these two measures, and indicated with the number ‘‘1.’’ 
 
 Pupil No. 2 is slightly lower in rate (58), but higher in quality (45). 
 When all grades are recorded, and the lines indicating the class aver- 
 ages and the standard norms for the grade are drawn, each pupil 
 should be led to identify his record with the dot which represents it. 
 This class is found to be below the norm in quality and in rate. It is 
 possible and probable that quality can be improved and rate increased 
 by raising ideals in each individual. 
 
 eee 
 
5 
 
 List the pupils in at least the following groups, and let each pupil 
 know clearly in which group he is classed and why. 
 
 a. Those needing to retard the rate and emphasize quality. 
 
 b. Those who should hold the rate constant, and emphasize quality. 
 
 e. Those who should emphasize both rate and quality. 
 
 d. Those who need to emphasize rate while taking care not to lose 
 ' quality. 
 
 e. Those who are above in both rate and quality, but who need to 
 
 take care not to lose in either, even though excused from 
 drill. 
 
 The comparison of later with earlier diagrams will reveal to the 
 pupil the progress that is being made in his record, as well as the 
 record of the class as a whole. This graphic record proves very stimu- 
 lating to those who are old enough and bright enough to grasp its 
 meaning. 
 
 Let those children who have particular defects see clearly wherein 
 the defect lies. Do not try to teach concerning all of the defects at 
 once, but take up one at a time. Use the samples given in the first 
 pamphlet to get the idea before the individuals. When dealing with 
 a group, samples may be written on the board. Let those children 
 who have certain prominent defects write at their desks or on the 
 blackboard, and then have them, as well as others in the class, point 
 out the defect. 
 
 Care must be taken not to so emphasize the defect that it becomes 
 the center of attention. In every case where the fault is noted, empha- 
 size the correct form. Use every means to make the correct form a 
 clear and permanent picture in the mind of the pupil. 
 
 Explain to the pupils why each phase of the drill is undertaken. 
 Show exactly what changes should be expected as a result of the prac- 
 tice. Seek to arouse the curiosity of all children and an enthusiastic 
 attitude of expectation. Drills are often undertaken by the child, or 
 even endured by him, as a matter of routine, merely because they are 
 demanded by the teacher. An emphasis on meaning places the hand- 
 writing drill period on a more enjoyable basis for both teacher and 
 pupil. Children should understand clearly why they are grouped, 
 and also should anticipate the regrouping that will take place as soon 
 as they are ready. Such regrouping may be made something of a 
 ceremony, and appreciated as is the granting of a prize, or a 
 promotion. 
 
6 
 
 REMEDIAL TREATMENT OF PUPILS 
 
 Rate of Writing 
 
 Facility in the use of the pen is a major aim of handwriting in- 
 struction. Penmanship form will break down under the urgent de- 
 mands for haste that are made in high school, college, or correspondence 
 writing, unless good habits of rapid writing are formed. It is prob- 
 able that the existing grade standards for rate are too low, since they 
 represent actual, rather than ideal practice. 
 
 In many cases pupils write too rapidly at immature stages, with 
 the result that quality is interfered with. This is often due to a 
 wrong emphasis, and is readily corrected by a change of ideal. In 
 other instances the rapid movement is due to the inborn nervous or 
 temperamental characteristics of the writer, and can be reduced only 
 with the greatest difficulty. About all that can be done with some 
 pupils is to let them maintain their habitual rate while drilling in 
 methods of improving quality. 
 
 The mere knowledge that they are writing too slowly or too rapidly 
 for good quality, is sufficient to secure desired results in a codperative 
 class. This fact does not eliminate the need for careful supervision. 
 
 The pupil himself is not an accurate judge of the rate of his own 
 writing. Tests should be given periodically, using material so arranged 
 that the pupil can know the number of letters written during a minute 
 and note his changes in rate. Hach of these tests should be dated 
 and kept in order, and some systematic plan devised whereby the 
 speed record may be kept for the reference of both teacher and pupil. 
 Such a record is provided for with the Leamer ecards. 
 
 In the treatment of a speed defect common to a group, rhythm may 
 be used as an effective regulator, either to quicken or slow down the 
 rate of writing. In case there are only a few in the class needing such 
 treatment, it is evident that the rhythmic guide cannot be satisfactorily 
 used, since it would be audible to others in the room. In this emer- 
 gency, individual direction by the teacher is needed. There are pupils, 
 frequently encountered, who are totally unable to follow a rhythmic 
 beat. These offer a special problem requiring individual treatment. 
 
 Care should be taken not to reduce the rate of writing of a habitu- 
 ally good writer, for this will introduce defects into the written form, 
 especially in the way of incodrdination. Only the simpler written 
 forms in which there are repetitive up and down strokes are susceptible 
 to rhythmic treatment. Some examples of such words are: men, mit- 
 ten, elm, hen, hum, my. The letters ‘‘e, k, r, s, p,’? and others are 
 found to offer difficulties in following a rhythmic count. Hy 
 
Quality of Writing ; 
 
 Good writing consists, not in producing a perfect copy of a formal, 
 artificial, engraved model, but in the making of a clear, smooth, legible 
 product. The pupil should be allowed to keep his peculiar indi- 
 viduality of style. It is probable that the reason why so many children 
 deteriorate very quickly in penmanship ability, after having learned 
 a certain set of forms very well, is that they have taken on a thor- 
 oughly artificial style. When the opportunity presents itself, they 
 so back to the old forms. 
 
 Remember that the ultimate aim is to have the individual able to 
 write ramidly and legibly under all sorts of conditions and in all kinds 
 of positions. Seldom in after-school life, or in the note-taking of high 
 school and college classes, will the pupil have ideal conditions. After 
 the quality ideal has been clearly presented and fundamental habits 
 gained, the child should have a good deal of practice in maintaining 
 these habits under various conditions. 
 
 Periodic tests for quality are essential. The scores should be 
 made known to the pupils and a progressive record kept, as noted 
 in connection with the improvement of rate. The pupil should be 
 encouraged to note the improvement in his penmanship by comparing 
 early and later specimens of his writing with a writing scale. 
 
 Take for granted that habits have not been formed unless the child 
 exhibits in his daily work the same good form which he shows in the 
 formal writing period. Take occasion frequently to call the pupil’s 
 attention to the defects in his daily work in all subjects, and to com- 
 pare these papers with his formal drill samples, so that he will de- 
 velop a general ideal, and a ‘‘writing-sense.’’ 
 
 Habits of Letter-form 
 
 The child who has no fixed habit needs mainly careful attention to 
 the correct form. His attention should be called to the details, as neces- 
 sary, to show how the letters differ from each other as well as from the 
 model, or ideal form. Intense drill in observing correct forms and in 
 imitation of them, until they are mastered, is the best method. It is 
 very difficult to get a clear image before some children, who seem to 
 lack any sort of imagery, but such cases are extremely rare and 
 abnormal. 
 
 In the case of those showing habitual defect of form, more marked 
 emphasis must be placed on the location of the specific defect. Many 
 of those who have formed a defective image are problem cases indeed. 
 Habits must be broken by substitution. Each individual case must be 
 given the treatment needed, and attention should be centered on the 
 
8 
 
 correction of the specific defect in a certain letter until right habits 
 
 are formed. In some cages the same defect may characterize several 
 different letter forms. These may be taken up together. 
 
 It must be kept in mind that one must deal with the motor imagery 
 of the letter, as well as the clear visual image. The ‘‘feeling’’ for the 
 letter must be in the child’s muscles. This is probably assisted by 
 writing ‘‘in the air,’’ but this method provides no check on the aceu- 
 
 racy of the image. Large writing on the board is better. Actual prac- 
 
 tice at the seat, properly supervised, is still better. It is of no value 
 to guide the arm of the learner, as this does away with the possibility 
 of self-correction, which is essential to the formation of the motor 
 image. Tracing of letters by the pupil must be carefully done. This 
 tracing may be done so slowly as to give no play to the muscles actually 
 used in handwriting. In tracing and retracing the same letter, the 
 child may attempt to trace his own previous wrong tracings, and thus 
 lose all sense of the real letter form. 
 
 It is too often taken for granted that the child has already learned 
 to write his letters in the primary grades, and many teachers pay very 
 
 little attention to this matter in the upper grades. They fail to realize 
 
 the need for constant emphasis to keep the child from developing 
 wrong habits, as well as to make more perfect the images not well 
 learned in preceding years. 
 Slant 
 
 The extreme slant that is commonly met with, is due largely to the 
 position of the writer. Wrong ad- 
 justment of the body or the arm or 
 both of them, with regard to the 
 line of writing, is mainly responsi- 
 ble for this fault. The correct posi- 
 tion is described by Freeman. The 
 diagram which he uses to illustrate 
 this, is here reproduced. Fig. 2. 
 The body is placed directly facing 
 
 HoveutTon Mirruin Co. i 
 forward slant. The forearm is 
 
 placed perpendicular to the line of writing. It is evident that, as the 
 page is adjusted at a greater angle, the tendency of the eye and arm 
 
 will be to direct the slant toward the vertical. As the angle is de- — 
 
 the table. The paper is adjusted at 
 an angle of about 60 degrees with 
 | the edge of the table, so that the 
 Ficure 2, ADAPTED rrom Freeman. line of vision of the writer is coin- 
 THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING. ident with the desired medium ~ 
 
 o tan tart = ase : ase 
 
9 
 
 creased, the natural result will be an extreme forward slant. The 
 same relations are involved when the body is turned in either direc- 
 tion, and also when the paper is located too near or too far from 
 the writer or placed too far to the left or right. 
 
 A special problem is the case of the child who is left-handed. With 
 the paper placed as above noted, but turned in line with the left arm, 
 the natural slant would be backhand. There is no reasonable objec- 
 tion to this, in case it is not extreme. In order to secure a forward 
 slant, the writer must get along without the visual guide. He some- 
 times turns the paper at a different slant or performs various contor- 
 tions with forearm and wrist in an effort to find a position for easy 
 movement. ; 
 
 It is very important that the pupil shall clearly perceive the slant 
 desired, and also be able to see his own defects in slant. Use trans- 
 parent sheets having the correct slant upon them to help the pupils 
 discover their incorrect habits in slant. It is helpful to have the pupil 
 draw slanting pencil lines on the page in various places, each a space 
 in height, before he writes. After these lines are inspected by the 
 teacher and corrected, the child uses them as guide lines for practice 
 in writing. 
 
 It is evident that mixed slant does not find its chief cause in wrong 
 position, although the position may have much to do with the cramping 
 of muscles, which is often the direct cause. Wherever this defect 
 occurs, the teacher may infer that the learner has not actually per- 
 ceived what is meant by uniformity of slant. The first step is to help 
 the child to discover wherein his performance is in error. Lines drawn 
 through various letters will show this clearly. In many eases, this is 
 all that is needed to set the pupil on the right track. 
 
 With some children the fault is due to other factors than percep- 
 tion. Lack of good codrdination of wrist and finger muscles may be 
 chiefly responsible. In this case, the slant will improve as coérdination 
 improves. Lack of motor control is often closely related to the mixed 
 slant, because of the wrong distribution of speed within the stroke. 
 Excessive speed on a curved up-stroke carries the pen too far around 
 the curve to the left, with the result that the next down-stroke must 
 be taken at a wrong slant to bring the penpoint to the desired point on 
 the line. In an upstroke curved to the right the movement may be 
 carried too far, so that the next down-stroke has an extreme forward 
 slant. Correct slant is dependent in this case on improvement in 
 motor control. In the same way, restrained movement may be the 
 cause. 
 
10 
 
 A eareless attitude on the part of the pupil is perhaps nowhere 
 more clearly shown than in this type of slant defect. ‘‘Sloppy’’ writ- 
 ing nearly always evidences this fault. During the formative stages, 
 the achieving of uniformity imslant requires rigid attention. | 
 
 Changing slant is due almost altogether, if not entirely, to the 
 method of progress along the line and the failure to make proper 
 arm and wrist adjustments in the passage. The arm is pivoted at the 
 elbow and, being held rigid without movement of the wrist, the pen- 
 point tends to describe an are. It is evident that the slant will tend 
 to become more extreme as the hand progresses. Another case is where 
 the forearm is held rigid, with the hand flexing at the wrist and de- 
 seribing a comparatively short are. The change of slant may be here 
 made in a comparative small section of line. When the writer reaches 
 the extreme turn of the are, he lifts his arm, shifts to a new position, 
 and repeats the operation on another section. 
 
 Let the child clearly see the fault, and help him also to understand 
 the cause of it. The correction of the defect will usually be found in 
 the proper movement of the arm sideways on the muscle pad with the 
 elbow as the pivot and a flexible adjustment of the wrist so as to 
 secure the same angular relation of the hand to the line at every 
 point. Another plan, commonly used in free arm movement, is the 
 movement of the arm with the shoulder as the pivot, with the elbow 
 and wrist joints held rigid. 
 
 A special ease is noted with the child who has been corrected in the 
 use of an extreme forward slant. He starts out with the desirable 
 slant, but soon falls into his past habit from which he has not been 
 freed. He may correct himself periodically throughout the writing of 
 the line or page, but not for long. Unless carefully guided, the pupil 
 may fall into the new habit of changing slant, which is equally as 
 defective as the one from which he is trying to escape. 
 
 Coodrdination 
 
 The chief remedy for the wavering type of line is quickness of 
 movement with good, free, easy control. Irregularity in line, due to 
 hesitation, is impossible under these conditions. In gaining this facility, 
 a stimulus to increased rate is needed. A rhythmic beat is helpful. 
 The same principle applies here as in the recognition of words in 
 learning to read. The child should become thoroughly acquainted 
 with the forms, so that he can construct them readily, before he meets 
 them in written passages. In this way, habits of uncertainty and 
 hesitation are eliminated. ai 
 
 The angular line indicates that the various muscles do not work 
 together to produce evenly rounded curves. Some attack this defect 
 
i. aa r 
 
 11 
 
 through the exclusive use of arm movement. As a matter of fact, it 
 
 is impossible to eliminate finger movement entirely, especially in the 
 
 construction of the smaller curves and strokes. The chief remedial 
 work needed, after a clear percept of the defect is had by the child, 
 is practice in rounding all kinds of curves, and curve combinations, 
 rapidly and smoothly, with the proper adjustment of all the muscles 
 of finger, wrist, and arm that are naturally used in handwriting. 
 
 A child’s writing may become wavering or angular when he is 
 fatigued. Fatigue may result from ordinary movement carried on 
 through a long period or from a very restrained and cramped move- 
 ment carried on for even a short period. Free arm movement is often 
 recommended because of its lessening of fatigue. It is probably right 
 that the large muscles should assume the major part of the work, but 
 emphasis should not be placed on the elimination of finger movement. 
 Exclusive use of arm movement leads to rigidity and fatigue. The 
 natural, free interplay of muscles is the best assurance against fatigue. 
 
 Motor Control 
 
 The chief drill needed to remedy this type of defect is a careful 
 construction of repetitive strokes of a particular height. Push and 
 pull lines, or running ovals may be used in this connection, but it would 
 probably be better to use actual letters. The ideal is to teach the child 
 to make a stroke of a certain length and form with a certain degree of 
 speed, and with the greatest speed near the middle of the stroke. 
 Drill with ‘‘l’s’’ may well be followed with attention to ‘‘b’s’’ and 
 ‘*h’s’’, as well as combinations with other letters in words. The ‘‘f’’ is 
 a letter which offers a great deal of difficulty, and capital letters like- 
 wise are good indicators of lack of control. 
 
 The following of a rhythmic beat aids in securing the proper speed 
 and rhythmic movement. This will produce a flowing, regular stroke. 
 Differentiation in the treatment uf the loose and restrained type lies 
 not so much in different drills as in the emphasis. In general, the 
 former is often coupled with too free an arm movement, while the 
 latter is often found as a characteristic of finger-movement writers. 
 Care must be taken that the pupil, in the enthusiasm of correction, 
 does not swing to the other extreme. 
 
 Unit Stroke 
 
 The remedy for this defect lies chiefly in riveting the attention of 
 the learner on the individual stroke, and on the specific faults in letter 
 construction. A very useful aid to the gaining of better form is found 
 in the count on alternate up or down strokes. In the early grades, 
 
 * 
 
12 
 
 each stroke should receive the count as the letters are formed. Many 
 eases of this defect result from an attempt to speed up the writing, 
 and a consequent tendency to cut across the corners.so as to save time. 
 When a class group is found to be writing too fast for quality, a 
 decrease in rate is often followed by a marked improvement in the 
 unit stroke. 
 
 Spacing 
 
 One of the surest ways of developing good habits of spacing is 
 found in the copying of well-spaced sentences. If the models are 
 written along the bottom edge of a card and this is moved down the 
 page from line to line as the copying is done, the model will be kept 
 close to the line of writing. Attention of the child should be definitely 
 centered on the spacing so that he will be able to form a definite judg- — 
 ment of what ‘‘good spacing’’ is. Practice in the construction of 
 simple repetitive forms, and care in the daily work should aid in 
 improvement. 
 
 Passage between Words 
 
 Remedial work in this defect must ihe related to the type of letter 
 form used in the ending and beginning strokes of letters, as well as 
 to the erossing and dotting of letters. The flourish which goes so 
 naturally with free arm movement should be avoided. Practice in 
 writing groups of words continuously without lifting the pen from the 
 paper, will be effective in introducing the idea of such direct passage 
 to the child, and giving him skill in executing it. Such words should 
 not contain letters needing crossing or dotting. The crossing and dot- 
 ting of letters should be done at the end, not between syllables, of a 
 word. One backward movement is sufficient to accomplish this. The 
 type of arm adjustment recommended for the correction of changing 
 slant (p. 10) will prevent the lifting of the arm, and shifting to a new 
 position, which is often responsible for defective passage. 
 
 TYPICAL CASES OF IMPROVEMENT 
 
 The diagnostic analysis of faults and treatment above outlined 
 have been found to give very satisfactory results when applied in 
 actual schoolroom practice. Two instances are here given showing 
 individual improvement of Fifth Grade pupils after only one month 
 of actual remedial work. The diagnosis of the two children in their 
 first and second tests follow; and their samples of writing are repro- 
 duced in Figures 3 and 4. ‘ 
 
13 
 Furi. (7.8. Tesrs - Before Diagnos:s 
 Anreare, os rey COMCELLtALY 
 
 Test 2 ~ After Treatment for One ron ti 
 Awe Lemme Aret Jgtvmy 5 
 
 FIGURE 3 
 
 Puric FL. Jest 1 Before Diagnosis , 
 
 joe Jest 2 After Treatment for One Wfonth | 
 Barter“ and dtvcwes ar A Ctr” 
 a tte Gta cow a em oe ee ae 
 
 FIGURE 4 
 
 M.B. First Test: Rate 71, Quality 25. 
 Speed should be held constant. Movement shows loose 
 
 motor control. Slant is mixed and the spacing be- 
 tween letters is somewhat mixed. 
 Second Test: Rate 66, Quality 45. 
 Rate is satisfactory. Control is much better with better 
 aliznment and a more even line. The slant is 
 markedly more uniform and the spacing more regular. 
 
14 
 F.L. First Test: Rate 79, Quality 35. 
 
 Speed probably too great for good quality. Writer uses 
 the changing slant and gives evidence of restrained 
 
 motor control and poor letter forms due to lack of 
 fixed habits. | 
 Second Test: Rate 69, Quality 50. 
 
 Speed is satisfactorily reduced. Letter-forms show slight 
 
 improvement. Slant shows but little change for the 
 better. Control is much less restrained and align- 
 . Iment improved. Rate and quality now up to norm. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS AND CAUTIONS 
 
 Constantly keep the interest of the pupils in the subject. Never 
 let the penmanship period become a boresome drill. Time spent on 
 motivating the work will be repaid more richly than the same amount 
 of time spent on foreed drill. 
 
 Emphasize informality in the methods. Take the pupils into part- 
 nership and let them understand why they should undertake the 
 particular practice. 
 
 Use your own initiative in providing corrective exercises. Use 
 those materials in the penmanship drill books, and only those, that are 
 
 appropriate to the end in view. 
 
 Have much real, applied writing, rather than isolated exercises 
 alone. In general, avoid placing too much stress on formal drills. 
 Where possible correlate the work of the spelling class and the language 
 
 class as well as drawing, history and reading, with the handwriting 
 
 work. 
 
 Do not let the pupil or yourself get the impression that a perfect 
 
 score in any element signifies that he will never need training in that 
 element. The defect may later develop or may become evident as 
 other defects are remedied. 
 
 Constant care must be exercised in remedial treatment, lest the 
 
 curing of one fault lead to others, or the attempt to form one good 
 
 habit cause the formation of certain bad habits. Emphasis on speed 
 
 and freedom of movement, unless carefully supervised, may tempt 
 
 the pupil to slight the stroke. Emphasis on free movement, may — 
 cause a tendency to flourishing movements between words, or to loose © 
 _ muscle control. Extreme slant may be partly remedied, and become — 
 
 a mixed or a changing slant. Attention to the details of letter forms 
 
 may result in an uncertain, wavering line, due to the tendency to draw 
 
 the form. The wide space may become too narrow or mixed. The — 
 correction of loose movement may result in the opposite extreme. In a) 
 Fig. 5 are given early and later samples of writing of a pupil showing 
 
FIGure 5 
 
 how treatment has resulted in a change from a rather restrained con- 
 trol to a rather loose control. Letter spacings which were too narrow 
 are now mixed or generally too wide. 
 
 Fix the chief emphasis for each pupil on the one defect in which 
 he seems worst. Other defects can afford to wait. Some of the defects 
 may be inter-related, so that they improve together. 
 
 Do not excuse the pupil from all drill in the element for which 
 he is being treated until he shows signs of habitual mastery of the 
 fault. In Figure 6 are samples of writing showing a general improve- 
 
DS SEA ACY ROS | AL er ia ie ace ee OR NAPA 
 Roe A 
 
 16 
 
 ment in writing for the second test. Speed which was too slow has 
 been increased. The child has caught the idea of the correct slant, 
 and uses it once in a while, but he has in no sense developed the correct 
 habit in this respect. The program of drill may be changed to the 
 correction of other defects, to avoid monotony, but you should always 
 come back to the one in which habits have not been fully established. 
 
 In the treatment of a fault, the child may for a time appear lost 
 and his writing may be even worse, but this period will soon pass in 
 the majority of cases, and the value of the training will make itself 
 manifest. 
 
 Watch the pupil who has gained the mastery of a defect, to pre- 
 vent a relapse into old habits. The pupil who is not in need of drill 
 may be excused from it, or given other writing to do, but supervision 
 should not be neglected, so that he will fall away from his own high 
 standard. 
 
 Keep the samples of pupils’ writing from which the original 
 diagnoses were made, so that later efforts may be compared with them, 
 to show general improvement in quality as well as changes in regard 
 to particular faults. Also save later samples periodically to trace 
 progress. 
 
 Make a special note and study of the problem eases, those which 
 seem to defy all attempts made to improve their writing. Keep a spe- 
 cial record of their work for ready reference and for consultation with 
 the supervisor or other authorities. 
 
 Keep a notebook, or other form of record, showing what is done each 
 day, what was the aim in view, how the class is organized or reor- 
 ganized, what drills were used and what other activities were engaged 
 in, together with any questions that arise. Accumulate a list of storics, 
 poems, news items, etc., which may be used as incentives to good 
 writing by the pupils. 
 
 Remember that your classroom problem is unique. No schedule of 
 drills can be worked out by anyone else that will meet your peculiar 
 needs. The penmanship class must: be a live problem to you. As a 
 direct result, it will become a live problem to the pupils. 
 
 Do not hesitate to adopt the plan because of its apparent com- 
 plexity. It may be adopted gradually, and the elements mastered in 
 the same way. Do not be discouraged if you cannot make use of it in 
 its entirety at the beginning. The efforts you are able to make along 
 these lines will be well repaid, both by increased enjoyment of the 
 creative work involved, and the increase of efficiency in the accom- 
 plishment of your task. 
 
fan 
 Patt balay 
 
 BFA 
 
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