1" ites Sais HATA Secon MEM RO WOES n - 4 , a sua. : _) "*" Fe) dal ae f boy I eden ge ee uk ante ke Nae dre oy ne pe 4 * Sebel 1 i. ‘* 4 110TH rs “4 i yh QUA HN bh spapay, * sitet if : 974 POR Bib rch te * : s APES Tel T ' t ipi eage 1ttA lau J al 7 * He, sta" tie4 Mig et he ie ys | SEPA Tut? ih gh! sre ‘vr ny 1 os : Poke) Bi ay : ' a} ph ahi 10) 54 wtealas Piri vate eray) re 4 % Lie eee 4 PL trill Tadd UP La pl a8 Pl ad ve PP ial i ’ ‘ oP thes v* y 5 Hig) ean ls i Oe 4G S94. oe Teer Pan 4 iat 4 “ } ’ al Ce Ered! eaten : thane Hiei, i PP UCM AV Hive 8d toa se d\eedue ps / ; ° He | Mh bp ppesnbol at ic SP int +h A vs : ik Fe yi shite PHY Eby hg 5 silat tate : A be Heath 3 ; : ue SUE yaa SO ray z ; YS ¥ ete les isd higy Papier as é sata tae 4 ny 894 a tite Ae itt + Haye saat Natale fae rh artanesitate it ¥hy Hye: ’ a}af ute if Peed ysrht rf PE Stet eh i " T9788 aha Fie at ye : wy & iy buble epee H uss : 4 Siytee i* 7 ; Mie ce; a : r " ¥ "( ks; jt oN sl deteg. 7) i, dee © 46) ‘ } . z 3 4 yh aa TS ar depen aie : i" : Seis Named dpetane ete) Heat es Ly tee eee h leat satiny} 4 iia! by! 50) 48 a0 oll kate Hi bataWelchanvae Pain +H ait } i de Luk pe een j at tieniy sa} sate! phat soe PAbihed ah ee Ai bbas ant eee 4) eked, ae Wy sa ane: f 0 49) ySearboetariineta CPR S EEE eh 4 vay se a9 af 4 a tue Bhd he nt URES s Tah pihathaiten ane , {dM ay ested at gn is : #9 : } : bye Hi. # a ong Aicryeh wslotats at ot rhea taabat ; . hae dae), hk: nee * #tb ies ys eae “elgh 7 : * poh wh titg) SRS 2 todd ds i Ptstitest hy A484) Had Ona la# at pan acag VE) ola oi a0 Seite erey iar ites HAP ae et wele yy Tlf ately ya Ted OPP a? 50. 2 t. Na pteseniae Healt \ * Phy atan. bite So ca seed tab od TAIT rts b reba Ha retenasprnestontas He Hd relate iain : : . Hoe vE ey ae tee soa) inide b Plat slaneneyy, ays tore Hallas ee remy of ite THE UNIVERSITY | OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 4 * :- ae , le Se ied cis _— 4 ’ P v iy q A 7 . SF the- i henl? & AN Thy instantiate ’ ae Rad . ‘ise fry +f Stns we ae A A ee tamer ae Ray fa Ha iri THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYC Teo ainte i SUPPLEMENT VouuME [| NEW YORK “x DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY i 1925 i Copyright, 1924 Dopp, Mrap anp CoMPANY } i ! i All rights reserved ‘Coe University Press, CAmBringek, U.S.A. Boston Booxsrnpine Co., CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED BY Tre Vait-BatLou Press, Bixeramron, N, Y. = a feral | VW — % a ; { ‘ “if / aN f Iy TBR ay pf DAY Ae ‘ |PPLEMENT HE last complete revision of Toe NEw INTERNATIONS® ENCYCLOP@pIA, when the entire work was reset, began in 1914, and the present SupP1LEMENT Coyers the ten years following. The war had so dominated the decade that it was hard to majntain the proportions of a really ency; clopedic review; yet the historical perspective of the war had certainly changed and it was es- sential to a general work of reference that detailed acefounts of campaigns, battles, diplomatic struggles, revolutions and political and economic efforty at readjustment should no longer be al- lowed to prevent response to the diversity of public interests. Therefore the special aim has been to treat the war compactly and clearly and it is hop that a reasonable balance has been main- tained. The pages directly devoted to the war and /#ts consequences probably do not exceed in space an octavo volume of average length, althougly sof course the indirect effects of the war ram- ify incaleulably throughout all parts of the text. he war articles have been prepared in the same manner as the text of the EncycLopap1a itself, Yat is by the editorial staff and specialists and not by either alone. That method, ind¢ed, has bees ) followed throughout the present volumes, as it was in the ENCYCLOP2DIA. Space is lacking for a classification of work may be inferred from the follov largest departments are biography, jf by. staff writers and members of mercial and financial record of co narrative), written or revised by « the other departments may be mer jects, a large group of articles +o Applied Science; Archeology; Ar Municipal, and Sanitary Eng > * Manufactures; Medicine; Lah: Music; Painting and Sculptur ways; Social Economics; Zodlogy, In general the plan of the work he. 4% to supplement effectively the text of the ENcycLopapIA not by carrying forward its minor entrink but by so grouping subjects that they could receive well- pr for an outline of the plan, but the scope of the few of the larger groups of articles: The three n editorial staff and special contributors; history, Columbia University; and the industrial, com- economic movement described statistically and in e Department of Commerce at Washington. Among mriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, and allied sub- y a dozen specialists; Anthropology and Ethnology; ; Astronomy; Botany; Chemistry; Civil, Mechanical, ucation; Electricity; Finance; Geology; Industries and ijow; Literature; Mineralogy and Mineral Production; ogf/, Classical and Modern; Philosophy; Psychology; Rail- / rounded treatment. FRANK MOORE COLBY. October, 1924. ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I MAPS FACING PAGE AFRICA . 26 AUSTRIA . 124 BALKAN STATES _ 228 CHINESE REPUBLIC _ 288 EUROPE . e436 FRANCE NORTH _ 494 GERMANY . 536 ITALY . 698 BKNGRAVINGS Aéronautics—U. 8. Navy Aircraft 10 Abronautics—U. S. Army Aircraft 11 ARronNAvuTICS—Airplane Instruments me 20 AéERONAUTICS—U. S. Transcontinental Air Mail Route 22 AéRonAUTICS—Airplanes in Agriculture : 93 ArcH&0LoGy, EGypTiAN—Royal Cemetery at Luxor 80 ArcH Z0LOGY, Eayprt1A4N—Tomb of Tutankhamen BEA 81 ARCHITECTURE, AMERICAN—American Radiator Building, etc . eS Mey ea O4 ARCHITECTURE, AMERICAN—Kansas City War Memorial: Church of St. Vin- cent Ferrer, New York City eb Si he ee tae, 9 se Boker SD ARCHITECTURE, AMERICAN—“The Towers,” ete. 86 ARCHITECTURE, EUROPEAN ; 84 ARTILLERY—U. S. Army Artillery . 102 ARTILLERY—U. 8. Guns and Howitzers 103 Astronomy—Large Reflecting Telescopes . 110 Astronomy—Nebulae Photographs . 111 BreLcium—Restored Library of Louvain 162 BoucHarp—“The Blacksmith” 200 Dams—Wilson Dam 356 Dams—Gilboa Dam é 357 LECTRIC PowER StatTions—Turbine Generator el ge ae 410 LECTRIC PowrER STATIONS—Seven Radiator Type of Oil Transformer, etc. . 411 Evectric RartwAys—Heavy Tonnage Electric Locomotive 414 EvLEotric Rartways—Electric Freight Locomotive . 415 Focu, FERDINAND ee Re 482 Motor VrssELS—Marine Diesel or ; 680 : A a | pLinrethe: 1 CAS a hy ; ‘ rR ; aoe, 4 Pay ae ali n ei | i ? : bi . oe i ah ThA Y Hit ‘4 i" Q AS AMOWTE oy ae WD BY owe ; : OER oc? FO nist Aiea i ye ame vt tes BEEK Bo Sai: 7 ‘ bs i t ‘wo . ; ae yi Ae: | | | x, 7 4 ; ol vi. + api sill a: Cee aT as « a! 5a oy) a aR . Heyy uh. | - Loitor of the Supplement FRANK MOORE COLBY A Partial Dist of Contributors and Office Lditors EDWIN WEST ALLEN, Pu.D., United States Department of Agriculture. AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED TOPICS. JOHN B. ANDREWS, Secretary of American Association for Labor Legislation and Editor of Ameri- can Labor Legislation Review. LaBork LEGISLATION AND OTHER, LABOR TOPICS, MOSES NELSON BAKER, Pu.D., C.E. Associate Editor of the EHngineering News-Record. SANITARY ENGINEERING; MENT. W. H. BEAL, MunNICcIPAL GOVERN- MS S&S; FERTILIZERS, SOILS. MARCUS BENJAMIN, Pu.D., ScD., LL.D., Editor to the United States National Museum. RUDIGER BILDEN, ARTICLES IN SociaAL Economics ANpD HIsToRY. R. H. BLANCHARD, Associate Professor of Insurance, Co- lumbia University. INSURANCE AND WoORKMEN’S COMPENSATION. W. D. BROWN, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. Norway, SwEDEN, NETHERLANDS, AND AFRICAN CoLoNIEs. STELLA BRUNT, OFFICE EpiroR AND CONTRIBUTOR, DEPARTMENT oF SociaL Economics. SCOTT M. BUCHANAN, PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS. EMMETT A. CHAPMAN, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. §S. Department of Commerce. STATES OF AUSTRALIA; NEW GUINEA. F. A. CHRISTOPH, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. 8S. Department of Commerce. BRITISH DOMINIONS AND COLONIES. _ ALLEN LEON CHURCHILL, STATES OF THE UNITED STATES AND BIOGRAPHY. PHILIP M. COPP, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. FRANCE, BELGIUM, SPAIN, ITALY, SWITZERLAND AND PORTUGAL. WALTER H. EVANS, Pu.D., Botany, DIsEASES or PLANTS. LEON FERRARU, Instructor in Romahce Languages, lumbia University. RUMANIAN LITERATURE. COLONEL GUSTAVE JOSEPH FIEBEGER, as U. S. A. (Retired), Formerly Préfessor of Military and Civil Co- BIOGRAPHY. | Vii Engineering at West Point; author of a military history of the late war and other works. Wak IN Europe. JOHN DRISCOLL FITZ-GERALD, Pu.D., Member of the Hispanic Society of America; corresponding member of the Spanish Royal Academy of History of Madrid; Professor of Spanish, University of Illinois. SPANISH LITERATURE. JOHN LAWRENCE GERIG, Pu.D., Associate Professor of Celtic, Executive Officer, Department of Romance Lan- guages, Columbia University. MopERN PHILOLOGY. BENJAMIN GINZBURG, M.A., PSYCHOLOGY. WILLYSTINE GOODSELL, Assistant Professor of the History of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. DIVORCE. GENERAL A. W. GREELY, Pu.D., Major-General, United States Army; Commander Greely Polar Expedition. EXPLORATION; POLAR RESEARCH; ALASKA. IRWIN 8S. GUERNSEY, Professor of American History, De Witt Clinton High School. CONTRIBUTIONS TO WAR IN EvurRoPE, THE HisToRy OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OTHER HISTORICAL ARTICLES. L. M. HACKER, ASSISTANT EpIToR; CONTRIBUTOR TO AND EDITOR OF HISTORICAL AND GAZETTEER DEPART- MENTS. GEORGE HAINES, M. S., LivE Stock, DAIRYING. TALBOT F. HAMLIN, Member of ‘American Taabiiute of Archi- tects; writer on American Architecture. ARCHITECTURE. F. H. HANKINS, Professor of Sociology, Smith College. BirTH CONTROL. ANNE HENRY, OFFICE EpiITor, BIOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT. JOSEPH A. HILL, U. S. Bureau, of the Census. NEGRO MIGRATION. MILO B. HILLEGAS, Pu.D., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University; formerly Commis- sioner of Education of Vermont. EDUCATION; UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. JAMES F. HODGSON, Bureau of Féreign and Domestic Com- _merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. Vili RusstIA, PoLAND AND OTHER SLAVIC COUNTRIES. W. A. HOOKER, D. V. M., EcoNoMIC ENTOMOLOGY; VETERINARY WILLIAM E. HOOPER, Former Financial Editor of Railway Age. SCIENCE. RAILWAYS. HENRY D. HUBBARD, Secretary, United States Bureau of Standards. PHYSICS. M. JAMES, Author of A History cf the American Legion. AMERICAN LEGION. WALTER B. KENNEDY, Professor of Law, Law School. Fordham University Law. CHARLES KNAPP, Pu.D., Professor of Classical Philology, Barnard College, Columbia University. CLASSICAL PHILOLoeyY. GEORGE KRIEHN, Pu.D., Extension Lecturer in the History of Art, Columbia University; Lecturer, Woman’s Art School, Cooper Union. PAINTING AND SCULPTURE. HECTOR LAZO, ; Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. LATIN-AMERICAN COUNTRIES. LEONARD J. LEWERY, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. RussIA AND ASSOCIATED COUNTRIES; FINLAND; LATVIA; ESTHONIA. A. A. LIVINGSTON, Formerly of the Romance Department of Columbia University. ITALIAN LITERATURE. KATHERINE S. LOVELL, Editorial Proofreader. AMY LOVEMAN, Associate Editor of the Saturday Review. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. ROBERT H. LOWIE, Px.D., University of California. ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. COLONEL THATCHER T. P. LUQUER, Engineers, O.R.C., U. S. A. ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZATION; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. CLARENCE E. MANNING, Assistant Professor of Slavonic Lan- guages, Columbia University. RUSSIAN LITERATURE; SLAVONIC LITERATURE. M. J. MEEHAN, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. THOMAS F. MEEHAN, Editorial Staff, America. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. DOUGLAS MILLER, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. 8. Department of Commerce. GERMANY. JAMES R. MOOD, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. §. Department of Commerce. GREECE, TURKEY AND COUNTRIES oF THE NEAR East; Ecypt, Apysstnta, Morocco ANnpb OTHER ARTICLES PARKER THOMAS MOON, Assistant Professor of History, Columbia f { University; Editor Political Science Quarterly. ARTICLES IN EuROPEAN HIsTorY. DAVID HALE NEWLAND, Formerly Assistant State Geologist of New York. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. VICTOR W. PAGE, Automotive Editor Scientific American, New York City. Moror VeEnIcLES AND INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. HARRY Y. E.. PALMBLAD, A.M., Professor of Modern ‘Languages, Phillips University. SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. EDWARD PREBLE, M_D., MEDICAL SUBJECTS. ELIZABETH REID, BIOGRAPHICAL ARTICLES. ALFRED REMY, M.A., Extension Lecturer, Columbia University, and formerly Professor of Harmony and Counterpoint, International Conserva- tory, New York; Editor of Baker’s Bio- graphical Dictionary of Musicians. Music AND BIOGRAPHIES OF MUSICIANS. LINDSAY ROGERS, Associate Professor of Columbia University; editor, lems of Reconstruction. DIPLOMACY OF THE WAR; ARMAMENTS, ETC. OLIVER MARTIN SAYLER, M.A., Dramatic Critic; author of Our Amert- can Theatre. Government, The: Prob- LIMITATION OF THEATRE. ALBERT SCHINZ, Pu.D., Professor of French Literature, College. Smith FRENCH LITERATURE. J. I. SCHULTE, ARTICLES ON FIELD CROPS. HERBERT NEWHARD SHENTON, Department of Sociology, University. Columbia PROHIBITION. MARGARET SHERWOOD, Instructor, University Extension, Colum- bia University. BIOGRAPHICAL ARTICLES. ROBERT EMMET SHERWOOD, Motion Picture Editor of Life. MovVING- -PICTURES. WALTER IRVINE SLICHTER, Head of Department of Electrical Engi- neering, Columbia University. TELEPHONY, TELEGRAPHY, RADIO TELEPHONY AND OTHER ARTICLES IN ELECTRICITY. EDWARD M. SLOCUM, Consulting Chemist. CHEMISTRY. SYBIL JD. SMITH. M. 3s. Foop AND NUTRITION. FRANK M. SURFACE, Bureau of Foreign and Peiestts Com- merece,” U.. Ss Department of Commerce. FoREIGN COMMERCE AND OTHER STATISTICAL SECTIONS OF THE ARTICLE UNITED STATES. L. SZABO, Lecturer and Writer on eastern European subjects. HUNGARIAN LATERATURE. CHARLES A. TAYLOR, Sporting Editor, New York Herald. SPorTs. DOROTHY J. TEALL, ‘Editorial Proofreader. R. P. TEELE, M. S., RECLAMATION. OLIVER SAMUEL TONKS, Pu.D. Professor of Art, Vassar College. ARCH Z OLOGY. AARON L. TREADWELL, Pu.D., Professor of Biology, Vassar College. ZObLOGY. amc. TRUE, Pe.De AGRICULTURAL EpUCATION, AGRICULTURAL Ex- TENSION. R. W. TRULLINGER, C. E., FARM TRACTOR. CAPTAIN LEWIS SAYRE VAN DUZER, U. S. N. (Retired), Writer on naval and nautical subjects. ix NAVAL ARTICLES. . AMELIA VON ENDE, Critic and newspaper correspondent on German topics. GERMAN LITERATURE. HERBERT TREADWELL WADE, Late Captain, Ordnance Department, U. §S. Army; author of Scales and Weighing—Their Industrial Applications and Hveryday Electricity. AERONAUTICS, ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURES, AND ToPICS IN THE APPLIED SCIENCES. - COLONEL JAMES L. WALSH, O.R.C., U. S. A., Chief New York District Ordnance Office. ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, TRENCH WARFARE MATERIAL, EXPLOSIVES, ETC. WILLIAM E. WELD, Associate Professor of Economics, Colum- bia University. CoOPpERATION; TARIFF; TAXATION; TRUSTS. ELWOOD A. WELDEN, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. NETHERLANDS; Norway; SwepEN; AND AFrRI- CAN COLONIES. J. W. WELLINGTON, HORTICULTURE AND Forestry. JAMES O. WETTERAU, Instructor in History, New York Uni- versity. ARTICLES IN EvROPEAN History. H. PARKER WILLIS. Editor, Journal of Commerce. FINANCE; AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. THOMAS R. WILSON. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce, U. S. Department of Commerce. GREAT BRITAIN AND AFRICAN COLONIES. EMMA A. WINSLOW, Px#.D., Cost or Livine; PrickEs; WAGES. CLARK WISSLER, Pu.D., American Museum of Natural History. ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. EDGAR W. WOOLARD, United States Weather Bureau. ASTRONOMY; METEOROLOGY; EARTHQUAKES. MONROE NATHAN WORK, Professor of Pedagogy and History, Georgia State Industrial College. LYNCHINGS. JULIA C. WRIGHT, OFrFIcE Epiror, COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, SocIETIES, RELIGIOUS BODIES, ETc. T HE NEW INTERNATIONAL BN G2 ¥GoL: Ov Ps Athy TA BBE, Ropert (1851- ye An American surgeon, a prolific writ- er in nearly every field of opera- tive surgery. He was born in New York City and educated at the College of the City of New York (S8.B., 1871) and Columbia University (M.D., 1874). Beginning as a pioneer in 1904, he became an authority in the surgical uses of radium and a vigorous opponent of tobacco as a cause of cancer. He has reported over 100 per- sonal cases of smoker’s cancer. He has been con- mected with several of New York’s leading hos- pitals, including St. Luke’s, New York Cancer, and New York Post-Graduate, and has held the professorships of surgery in the New York Post- Graduate Medical School and Woman’s Medical College. ABBOT, CHARLES GREELEY (1872- ). An American astrophysicist (see Vou. I). Using a spectrobolometer, he succeeded in measuring the heat of the stars to within %o00,000,000°. The experiments began in 1922 and were carried on at the Mt. Wilson Observatory in California with the aid of the great 100-inch reflector. The results are regarded as of the highest interest to scientists. ABBOTT, Epvirte G. (1871- ). An American orthopedic surgeon born in Hancock, Me., and educated at Bowdoin College. He was well known through his mechanical so-called Abbott method of treatment of lateral curvature of the spine. In 1913 he demonstrated his meth- od in England and on the Continent. He was professor of orthopedics at Bowdoin College and has been connected with the Maine General Hos- pital, the Children’s Hospital, ete. ABBOTT, Epwin MILTon (1877- yo An American lawyer, born at Philadelphia and ed- ucated at the Central High School there and the University of Pennsylvania. He was ad- mitted to the bar in 1896 and subsequently dis- tinguished himself in criminal cases. He was ehief counsel in the fight of the Philadelphia commuters against the railroads, a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, 1911-12, chairman of the Commission on the Revision of Criminal Laws of the State of Penn- sylvania, 1912-15 and 1917-23, and in 1913 minority nominee for judge of the Court of Common Pleas. He was appointed secretary of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology in 1913. ABBOTT, ELEANOR HALLOWELL (Mrs. For- DYCE CoBuURN) (1872- ). An American writer of fiction. She was born at Cambridge, Mass., and was educated in private schools and at Radcliffe College, where she was a special stu- dent. She is a prolific and popular author of light, romantic stories. One of her best-known novels is Molly Make-Believe. Besides being a frequent contributor to magazines, especially The Ladies’ Home Journal, she is author of The Sick-a-Bed Lady (1911), The White Linen Nurse (1913); Little Eve Edgarton (1914), The In- discreet Letter (1915), Molly Make-Believe (1916), The Stingy Receiver (1917), Ne’er-do- much (1918), Old-Dad (1919), Peace on Earth (1920), Rainy Week (1921), and The — Fairy Prince, and Other Stories, a collection of stories published previously in magazines (1922). ABBOTT, Grace (1878- ). An Ameri- can social worker, born at Grand Island, Neb., and educated at the Grand Island College, the University of Nebraska, and the University of Chicago, from which she received the degree of Ph.M. in political science in 1909. Beginning in 1899, Miss Abbott taught for several years in the Grand Island High School and laid a sound foundation for her social work as director of the Immigrants’ Protective League (1908-17 ) and as a resident of Hull House, Chicago (1908- 15). She was an extremely efficient director of the Child Labor Division of the Children’s Bu- reau, Washington, D. C. (1917-19), secretary of the Illinois Immigrants’ Commission (1920- 21), chief of the United States Children’s Bu- reau (1921- ), unofficial representative of the United States on the advisory committee of the League of Nations on traffic in women and chil- dren (Geneva, 1923), and president of the Na- tional Conference of Social Work (1923), the fourth woman to hold this office. Miss Abbott is the author of The Immigrant and the Com- munity (1917) and a contributor to various periodicals. ABBOTT, LAwrENCE FRASER (1859- ). An American editor and writer, son of Lyman Abbott. He was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., and educated at Amherst College. In 1891 he be- came president of the Outlook Company. He was secretary to Theodore Roosevelt during the latter’s tour of Europe and Africa, and edited Roosevelt’s African and European Addresses ABBOTT (1910). He is the author of an article on Theo- dore Roosevelt in the Hncyclopedia Britannica (1911), and of Impressions of Theodore Roose- velt (1919). ABBOTT, LEoNARD DALTON (1878- ) ae Ie American publicist and radical leader, born in Liverpool, England. He came to the United States in 1897. He early plunged into the so- cialist movement and remained an active work- er up to 1905. His interests later turned to libertarian education, in which he at once as- sumed a commanding place. He was associated in the publication of The Commonwealth, The Free Comrade, and The Modern School, and aided in the founding of the Rand School of Social Science, the Intercollegiate Socialist So- ciety, and the Ferrer School at Stelton, N. J. He is the author of Ernest Howard Crosby (1907), and Francisco Ferrer, His Life, Work, and Martyrdom (1910), besides many tracts and pamphlets. From 1905 he was one of the editors of Ourrent Opinion. ABBOTT, LyMAn (1835-1922). An American Congregational clergyman and editor (see VoL. I). In 1913 he was expelled from the Ameri- can Peace Society because military prepared- ness was vigorously advocated in the Outlook which he edited and because he was a member of the Army and Navy League. During the War he was a strong supporter of the govern- ment’s war policies. His later writings includ- ed Reminiscences (1915); The Twentieth Cen- tury Crusade, (1918); What Christianity Means to Me (1921). ABBOTT, WILBuR CorRTEZ (1868- De American historian and educator (see Vou. I). In 1917 he wrote the Hapansion of Hurope, one of the most important modern American his- torical works, having as its theme the story of the Commercial Revolution which changed the character of European affairs and inaugurated the modern era. He also wrote Colonel John Scott of Long Island (1918). In 1920 Profes- sor Abbott went to Harvard University as pro- fessor of history. ABDERHALDEN, Emit (1877- yt Swiss chemist and physiologist, born in the Canton of St. Gallen. He was educated at the University of Basle and took his medical degree at Berlin in 1902. After doing research under Prof. Emil Fischer, the distinguished chemist of Berlin, he was made professor of physiology in the University of Halle (1908). Of much original research his discovery of the so-called defensive ferments is best known, together with “Abderhalden’s reaction” in connection with their demonstration. His literary activity has been almost without parallel among his contem- poraries. In addition to many articles, often in collaboration with others, he has published numerous books. His Lehrbuch der Physiolog- ische Chemie, which first appeared in 1906, has gone through many editions including English translations; the Handbuch der Biochemischen Arbeitsmethoden appeared in 1909. Other works of his are Physiologisches Practikum (1912) ; Abwehrfermente der Thierischen Organismen (1913; also an English translation) ; Synthese der Zellbausteine (1912; also an English trans- lation); and Handbuch der Biologischen Ar- beitsmethoden (1920). His crowning work is the immense Biochemisches Handlexikon, the publication of which began in 1910. Ten vol- umes of this encyclopedia had appeared up to 1923. ABORTION ABDUL HAMID II (1842-1918), Thirty- fourth sultan of the Ottoman Empire (see VoL. I). After his deposition in 1909 he was held a prisoner by the Young Turk army and was con- fined first in Saloniki, and later (1915) in Smyrna. He died in a secluded palace on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. ABDUL MEJID EFFENDI (1868- ). Former Caliph at Constantinople, born in 1868, the son of former Sultan Abdul Aziz. He was a learned man, a patron of the arts, a painter, and a composer of music. One of his paintings was hung in the Paris Salon of 1914, at the re- quest of Pierre Loti. After the Greek defeat in 1922, the Sultan-Caliph Mohammed VI fled, the office of sultan was abolished, and on Nov. 1, 1922, Abdul Mejid was made Caliph. Presi- dent Mustapha Kemal Pasha determined that religion should be separated from politics and persuaded the Assembly to accept his views. On Mar. 3, 1924, the caliphate was abolished, and Abdul Mejid and his family were obliged to leave immediately for Switzerland. See CALI- PHATE. ; . ABERCROMBIE, LAsceLttes (1861-, An English poet born at Ashton-up Mersey, Cheshire. He was educated at Malvern and Victoria University, Manchester, a tured in poetry at the University of Liverpool, contributing at the same time to various /maga- zines. His poetry has been characterize the Victorian tradition. ludes and Poems, appeared in 1908. Hi works include Mary and the Bramble The Sale of St. Thomas (1911), Hmblems of Love (1912), Deborah (1912), Speculat logues (1913), The Epic (1914), Theory of Art (1922), and Four Short Plays (1922), besides Thomas Hardy, a Critical Study (191: ABERNON, Epcar VINCENT D’, BARON OF EsHEerR (1857- ). A British diplomatist, born at Slinfold, Sussex, England, and educated at Eton. From 1877 to 1882, he wags in the Coldstream Guards, in which he became a lieu- tenant. In 1880 he began to serve in various capacities as British representative in the Near East. In 1883 he was president of the Council of the Ottoman Public Debt, and from 1883 to 1889, financial adviser to the Egyptian Govern- ment. Thereafter until 1897 he was governor of the Imperial Ottoman Bank in Cohstantino- ple. He became a member of Parliament in 1899. Sir Edgar Vincent was raistd to the peerage as Baron d’Abernon in 1914 gnd during the War was prominent as chair Central Liquor Control Board. He was appointed British Ambassador at Berlin in/ 1920. He wrote A Grammar of Modern Greek (1881) and collaborated in other publications. ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY. | See Psy- CHOLOGY, ABNORMAL and CONSCIOYSNESS AND THE UNCONSCIOUS. ABORTION. At one time justifiable or therapeutic abortion was practiced principally in the case of women with narrow/pelves. Ow- ing to the perfection of the aseptic Cesarean operation, which now has a very low mortality and can be performed successfully) by any good surgeon, interruption of pregnan¢cy for simple contraction of the pelvis is no longer considered as wholly justifiable. On the other hand, in the interest of reducing maternal mortality from childbirth and in the salvage of maternal health, many obstetricians advocate and prac- tice interruption of pregnancy im a series of ABRAMS pathological conditions, such as_ tuberculosis, heart disease, insanity, ete. This attitude re- ceives some support from the birth control and eugenie movements, but there is an energetic counter-propaganda from religious bodies and from advocates of higher birth rates which tends to reduce cases of artificial termination of pregnancy to a small minimum; in other words, in nearly every case in which abortion is held to be justifiable there are about as many good reasons for non-intervention. ABRAMS, ALBertT (1863-1924). An Ameri- can physician (see Vout. I). He died at San Francisco in 1924. He was_ internationally known as the inventor of spondylotherapy and as the inventor of an apparatus with which he claimed he could diagnose a disease by testing a drop of blood. His theories were investigated by the Scientific American, which found that no satisfactory conclusion could be reached, since numerous obstacles were placed in the way of the investigators by Dr. Abrams and his followers. ABRUZZI, Prince L. A. (1873- ). , An Italian vice-admiral and explorer (see VOL. I). He was commander-in-chief of the Italian naval forces in the War and showed exceptional ability in operations in the Adriatic. He re- signed in 1917 and afterward planned a coloni- zation scheme in Somaliland. ABYSSINIA. One of the two independent states of Africa on the east coast. The area is variously estimated from 350,000 to over 430,- 000 square miles. The population is about 11,- 500,000, a much higher figure than earlier estimates, which ranged from 3,500,000 to 8,- 000,000. The boundaries, on the side of the Sudan and of the Italian territory, were being delimited in 1924. The leading towns, with their estimated populations, were: Addis-Abeba, the capital (60,000), and Harrar, (40,000). Industry and Trade. In spite of the rich- ness of its resources, the economic development of the country was retarded by the instability of the social life and the absence of a strong ad- ministrative machinery. Agriculture remained primitive and intercourse was hindered by the ‘want of means of communication. Products en- tering into the export trade were coffee, hides, wax, ivory, civet, and native butter. Deposits of copper, iron, salt, lignite, and potash were known but were as yet little worked. After the War, Abyssinia began to receive the serious at- tention of foreign capital. A British company was formed in 1918 for the purpose of commer- cial exploitation; in 1923 were commenced the activities of an Anglo-American company financed largely by American money. A con- cession of some 60,000 square miles, the north- ern part of which was crossed by the French Ethiopian railway, was received, and prelimi- nary surveys showed the presence of oil in the Harrar mountains. Estimated figures, the lat- est available in 1924, showed that commerce was on the increase. Imports and exports for 1913 totaled 49,080,000 francs; for 1917, 56,- 665,000 franes. The principal trade route was the Ethiopian railway, connecting Jibuti, in French Somaliland, with Addis-Abeba, a dis- tance of 590 miles, which was completed in 1917. Trade was carried on by caravan in the interior and with the Sudan, British East Africa, British Somaliland, Italian Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland. Gambela, on the Baro River, leased to the Sudan government in ABYSSINIA 1907, was an important trade centre, and a steamer service was maintained between it and Khartum. History. At the beginning of the European war, Lij Yasu, the young grandson of the Em- peror Menelek, was on the throne. He had al- ready embraced Islam, and under Turco-German influence he embarked on a policy of Moslem solidarity, in codperation with his father, Ras Michael, whom he caused to be crowned king of the Moslem province of Wollo. In April, 1916, he openly acknowledged the overlordship of the Turkish Sultan as Caliph, and about the same time he gave it out that he would take the field against the Allies as soon as the ex- pected German victory was announced. The AIl- lies, particularly the British, offset the German Turkish influence by propaganda of their own, and the Emperor’s policy was opposed by most of the native chiefs and by the Christians. Finally the Abuna, or head of the Abyssinian church, publicly proclaimed the dethronement of the Emperor on the ground of his apostasy (Sept. 27, 1916), and his aunt, the princess Zauditu, was crowned empress at Addis-Abeba, Feb. 11, 1917. The direct control, however, was placed in the hands of her cousin, Ras (prince), Taffari, who was made regent and heir to the throne. A desultory civil war fol- lowed, lasting more than a year. Lij Yasu, after a slight attempt at resistance, left Harrar in secret for the Danakil country on October 8, but Ras Michael gathered a formidable force, estimated at 80,000, and on October 17 he destroyed the army of the new government aft- er a sharp battle in which 12,000 men were said to have been, killed. A few days sufficed the government, however, to rally in great num- bers and with superior artillery, and by Octo- ber 27 it succeeded in cutting off the rear of Michael’s army and nearly surrounding it. Forced to surrender or to fight at a disadvan- tage, he chose the latter. After a desperate encounter and heavy losses on both sides, his army was routed, all his artillery captured, and himself taken prisoner. In this three weeks’ campaign the loss of life was placed at 60,000. Of these, 20,000 were Shoan or govern- ment troops. No attempt was made to follow up the victory or to subdue Wollo, the disaf- fected province; and Lij Yasu, taking advan- tage of this neglect, gathered the remnants of his father’s forces and held out in the Wollo country till the latter part of 1917. In Decem- ber of that year the town of Magdaba, where he had taken refuge, was captured. Lij Yasu escaped, and after futile wanderings among neighboring tribes he returned toward the end of 1920 to the province of Tigré, where in January, 1921, he was captured by government troops. After the War the government of Ras Taffari and the Empress definitely sided with the Allies, and in the summer of 1919, Abys- sinian missions of congratulation were de- spatched to London, Paris, Washington, Rome, and Brussels. On this occasion they received various counsels in respect to measures of social and economic progress and were urged in particular to suppress slavery, which had been stimulated by Menelek’s conquests and continued to prevail. Great Britain, primar- ily, manifested an interest in Abyssinian af- fairs, and as a result of a British agitation against slavery, the League of Nations Assem- bly appointed an investigating committee in ACADEMIC FREEDOM September, 1922. This renewed concern over Abyssinia was regarded with suspicion; the agitation, Abyssinians feared, might be seized by interested powers as a pretext for interfer- ence in their internal affairs. The result was that to protect their independence, Abyssin- ja’s rulers sent a delegation to Geneva in Au- gust, 1923, to apply for League membership. The Regent, at that time, stated justly that Abyssinia’s problem was the suppression not of slavery, which was mild in character, but of slave-running, which was caused by the illicit trade in arms. As a result of the viola- tion of the British frontiers by marauding bands of Abyssinians-in search of slaves and ivory, Great Britain had gained, in 1919, the cessation of arms importations into Abyssinia, the prohibition applying even to. the needs of the central government. It was to supply the general dearth that slaves were being smug- gled out across the Red Sea in exchange for munitions and rifles. Abyssinia was admitted to membership in the League of Nations on Sept. 28, 1923. In the winter of 1923-4 an educational commission sent out by the Phelps- Stokes Fund of New York visited Abyssinia and on the conclusion of its investigations re- ported unofficially that while slavery still per- sisted, corruption flourished among officials, and commerce was hampered by harsh restric- tions, nevertheless there was bright promise of future development, thanks to the country’s rich natural resources and the latent abilities of the native population. ACADEMIC FREEDOM. See TIES AND COLLEGES. ACADEMY, Frencu (ACADEMIE FRANCAISE). Founded in 1635, this is the oldest and highest of the five academies which make up the Institute of France. Between 1914 and 1924 the following members died: Jules Lem- aitre; Albert, Comte de Mun; Charles Jean Melchior, Marquis de Vogiié; Henri Roujon (1914); Alfred Jean Frangois Méziéres; Paul UNIVERSI- Hervieu (1915); Emile Faguet; Marquis Pierre de Ségur; Francis Charmes (1916); Emile Rostand (1918); Etienne Lamy (1919) ; Emile Boutroux; Jean Aicard (1921); Alfred Capus; Ernest Lavisse; Paul Deschanel; Mgr. Duchesne (1922); de Freycinet; Pierre Loti (L. M. J. Viaud); Alexandre Ribot; Maurice Barrés; Frédéric Masson (1923). The follow- ing were elected: Maréchal Joffre (1917); Louis Barthou; Mer. Baudrillart; René Boylesve-Tardieu; Francois de Curel; Jules Cambon; Maréchal Foch; Georges Clemenceau (1918); Henri Bordeaux (1919); Robert de Flers; Joseph Bédier; André Chevrillon (1920); René Doumic, Georges Goyau; Pierre de Nolhac (1922); Georges de Porto-Riche; Edouard Estaunié; Maitre Henri Robert; Charles Jonnart; and Abbé Bremond (1923). Frédéric Masson, who became permanent’ secre- tary in 1919 on the death of Etienne Lamy, was succeeded in 1923 by René Doumic. The Academy was engaged throughout the period on the seventh edition of the great dictionary. The complete list of members at the beginning of 1924 stood as follows: Comte de Haus- sonville, Paul Bourget, Anatole France (Jac- ques Anatole Thibault), Gabriel Hanotaux, Henri Lavedan, René Bazin, Maurice Donnay, Jean Richepin, Raymond Poincaré, Eugéne Brieux, R. Doumic, Marcel Prévost, Henri de Régnier, H. R. D. Cochin, Maréchal Lyautey, ~from the Central Powers ACTION Pierre de la Gorce, Henri Bergson, Maréchal Joffre, Louis Barthou, Mgr. Baudrillart, René Bolyesve-Tardiveau, Francois de Curel, Jules Cambon, Georges Clemenceau, Maréchal Foch, H. Bordeaux, Robert de Flers, Joseph Bédier, André Chevrillon, Pierre de Nolhac, Georges Goyau, Georges de Porto-Riche, Edouard Estau- nié, Maitre Henri Robert, Charles Jonnart, and Abbé Bremond. ACADEMY OF ARTS AND LETTERS, AMERICAN. See ARTS AND LETTERS, AMERICAN ACADEMY OF. ACCIDENTS, InpustriAL. See Lasor LEGIS- LATION, also WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION. ACHESON, Epwarp CAMPIon (1858- ibe American bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, born at Woolwich, Kent, England, and educated at Wycliffe College in the University of Toronto and at New York University. After service in Canada (1888-9), New York City (1889-92), and Middletown, Conn. (1892- 1915), he became suffragan bishop of Connecti- eut in 1915. He was chaplain in the Canadian army during the rebellion in the Canadian Northwest in 1885 and was Red Cross chaplain and field worker with the American army in France (1918-19). ACIDOSIS. See DIET. . ACKERMAN, Cart WILLIAM (1890- Ve An American journalist, born at Richmond, Ind., and educated at the University of Chi- cago; Earlham College, Richmond, Ind.; and the School of Journalism, Columbia University. He has been correspondent of important news publications, especially of the United Press (1915-17), of the Saturday Evening Post in Mexico, Spain, France, and Switzerland (1917-18), and of the New York Times with the Allied armies in Si- beria (1918-19). Besides press and magazine articles, he is author of Germany, the Neat Republic? (1917), -Mewico’s Dilemma (1918), and Trailing the Bolsheviki (1919). ACOUSTICS. See AUDITION and PHYSICS. ACTION. While the psychological theories of action and their respective arguments have remained unchanged in the interval since 1914, there was a definite drift in the decade follow- ing that year to the explanation by means of reflexes. The school of psychology known as behaviorism (q.v.) has sought to orient psy- chological research from such mental data as sensations, perceptions, and ideas to the con- sideration of action responses. From a theo- retical point of view, this merely shifts the problem, for it is just as difficult to explain mental life if reflex action is taken as ele- mentary, as it is to pass from passive conscious representation to action. The emphasis upon action as the psychological simple has favored the various developments in applied psycholo- gy. It has led to the statistical tabulation of reaction times for different individuals placed either in the same situation or with the same task to do. (See Psycuotogy, APPLIED.) The intelligence tests and the learning and memory curves illustrate the successful empirical use of the concept of action. They measure the rapidity of response among different individ- uals but do not provide any theoretical insight as to the causes. During the War a section of American psychologists rashly undertook to treat the whole province of human action as -a branch of psychology. While this topic be- longs rather to moral and political philosophy, ADAM it is significant that the emphasis on action in psychology has accompanied the spread of pragmatism, a philosophy which champions ac- tion as against intellectualism. Consult Wat- son, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- haviorist (1919), and Woodworth, Psychology, a Study of Mental Life (1921). ADAM, PAUL. (1862-1920). A French writer (see Vout. I) and porte-parole of the symbolist movement. His most celebrated novel, La Ville Inconnue, passed through more than a dozen editions. He was an active writer until the year of his death. During the War he en- gaged in propagandist activity and shortly be- fore his death published Reims Devastée and Le Lion @ Arras, which portray the heroic ruins of Northern France. He died in Paris, Jan. 17, 1920, ADAMI, Joun GEorGE (1862- ). An Eng- lish pathologist born at Manchester (see VOL. I). During the War he was a colonel in the Canadian Army Medical Corps. He published War Story of the C.A.M.C. (1918) and Medical Contributions to the Study of Evolution (1919). He moved from Montreal to Liverpool in 1919 and was appointed vice-chancellor of the Uni- versity of Liverpool. ADAMS, ANNETTE ABBorT (1877— ). An American lawyer, born at Prattville, Cal. She was educated at the Chico State Normal School, Cal., and the University of California. In 1912 she was admitted to the California bar. She held the office of Assistant United States Attorney in the Northern District of Califor- nia, 1914-19, and in 1918-20 she was attorney in the same district. In 1920 she was ap- pointed Assistant Attorney General of the United States, an office which she resigned in 1921. She subsequently became chairman of the legislative ‘committee of the California State Federation of Women’s Clubs. ADAMS, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER (1873- Ve An American zodlogist born at Clinton, IIL, and educated at Illinois Wesleyan University, Harvard University, and the University of Chi- cago. He was assistant in biology at Illinois Wesleyan (1895-96), assistant entomologist at the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- tory (1896-98), Curator of the Museum of the University of Michigan (1903-06), director of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History and curator of the Museum of the University of Cincinnati (1906-07), associate in animal ecol- ogy at the University of Illinois (1906-14), as- sistant professor of forest zodlogy at Syracuse University (1914-16) and professor (1916- ), and director of the Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station (1919- ). Besides num- erous papers on animal ecology he published An Ecological Survey of Isle Royal, Lake Su- perior, in collaboration (1909); Guide to the Study of Animal Ecology (1915); An Ecologi- cal Study of Forest and Prairie Invertebrates (1915); and Variations and Ecological Distri- bution of the Snails of the Genus Io (1915). ADAMS, Comrort Avery (1868-— Pee rh American electrical engineer, born in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated in 1890 from the Case School of Applied Science, where from 1886 he also served as an assistant in physics, and for a year was an electrical engineer with the Brush Electric Company. In 1891 he was called to Harvard, where he remained. He be- came full professor of electrical engineering in 1906, later Lawrence professor of engineering, ADAMS and Dean of the Engineering School. During the War he was chairman of the division of engineering of the National Research Council and also served on the Council of National De- fense, besides acting as advisor to the Emer- gency Fleet Corporation. He has given much attention to the study of induction and syn- chronous motors, to commutations, and to dy- namo design schedules. Besides membership in many scientific societies he was president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1918 and of the American Welding Society in 1919. ADAMS, ELEANOR N. (?- ). An Ameri- can college president born in Lebanon, Ohio, and educated at the Universities of Cincinnati, Oxford, and Yale. She was a teacher in pri- vate schools in Cincinnati before 1911; instruc- tor in English in the University of Cincinnati (1911-12); professor of English (1915-18) at Oxford College for Women (Ohio), of which she was elected president in 1918. She is the itn of Old English Scholarship in England EP): ADAMS, FRANKLIN PIERCE (1881- Ts American poet and columnist (see Vou. I). As “Tr, P. A.” he was arbiter elegantiarum for an increasing circle during the decade 1914-24. His intellectual honesty and his scorn for all pretense and stupidity, whether in politics, lit- erature, or everyday affairs, were factors in his popularity, though his light verse, strongly reminiscent of C. S. Calverley, his parodies, and his translations from the Latin poets, were among the best of their sorts being written in America. In the New York Tribune and after 1922 in the New York World, his daily column, “The Conning Tower,” attracted contributors Whose prose and verse were often quite as witty and perspicacious as his own. From 1914 on, his published volumes were By and Large (1914), Weights and Measures (1917), Something Else Again (1920), and So There (1923). ADAMS, FrReperick UpnHAmM (1859-1921). American author and industrial engineer (see Vout. I). In the latter years of his life he be- ~ came a leading exponent of Frederick W. Tay- lor’s system of scientific management for in- dustry. His publications since 1914 have been The Romance of Big Business (1915), The Open Shop (1919). ADAMS, GeEorceE Burton’ (1851- ys American college professor and historian (see Vout. I). Continuing his work in the studies of the English constitution, he made contribu- tions which were acclaimed in both England and America. After 1914 he published Owtline Sketch of the English Constitution (1918), The British Empire (1919), and The Constitu- tional History of England (1921). The last named presented in epitome the fruits of the lifelong researches of the author, the purpose of which was to reject the Stubbs-Freeman ex- planation of the Teutonic origin of the English constitution and to establish his own theory of feudal or Norman antecedents. ADAMS, Harrier CHALMERS ( ?— ). An American explorer and lecturer born at Stock- ton, Cal. She made extensive journeys through ‘Mexico and into the heart of South America (1903), traveling 40,000 miles and exploring regions never before visited by a white woman. In 1916 she was a war correspondent at the French front. Mrs. Adams has lectured on her ADAMS travels and has written of them in the National Geographical Magazine, Travel, ete. ADAMS, Henry Carrer (1851-1921). An American economist and educator (see Vou. I). His later works included Description of Indus- try (1918) and American Railway Accounting (1918), ADAMS, HeErBert (1856- ). An Ameri- can sculptor (see Vou. I). He received a medal of honor from the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in 1915 and the Watrous Gold Med- al from the National Academy of Design (1916). During recent years he was twice president of the National Sculpture Society, and once (1917-20) of the National Academy of Design. His most important recent works are two seated bronze statues, John Marshall and Rufus Ranney, and two historical figures, Stephen Langton and Simon de Montfort, for the courthouse of Cleveland, Ohio, and the grace- ful group of the McMillan fountain, Washing- ton, Dix. ADAMS, James Trustow (1878- } American historian. He was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., educated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic In- stitute and Yale, and from 1900 to 1912 de- voted himself to business. During this period he was a partner in a New York Stock Ex- change firm and acted as director of several banking, manufacturing, and railroad corpora- tions. He ended his commercial activities in 1912 and from then on devoted himself to liter- ary and historical pursuits, publishing Memo- rials of Old Bridgehampton (1916) and History of the Town of Southampton (1918). His first considerable work was The Founding of New England (1921), which won immediate recog- nition not only for its scholarly worth and stylistic qualities, but also because of its very able and challenging analysis of the Puritan character. As a cultural study of American regionalism, a field too little regarded by the academic scholar, Mr. Adams’s work was of the first importance. It received the Pulitzer Prize for the best historical book of the year. In 1923 he continued his chronicle with the volume Revolutionary New England, 1691-1776. ADAMS, Jonn TaAytor (1862- petal ‘American manufacturer and ‘politician, born at Dubuque, Iowa, and educated at the Dubuque High School. He entered the sash and door manufacturing business in 1881 and later be- came president of the Carr, Ryder and Adams Company. He entered politics in 1908 as man- ager of the successful campaign of United States Senator Allison. In 1912 he was man- ager of the Taft campaign in the Iowa prima- ries. In the same year he was a member of the Republican National Committee for Iowa and was vice-chairman in 1917. From 1912 to 1916 he was a member of the executive and cam- paign committees, and in 1921 he became chair- man of the National Republican Committee. He was a member of the Iowa State Council of National Defense in 1917. ADAMS, JosepH Quincy (1881-— ). An American college professor, born at Greenville, S. C., and educated at Wake Forest College, 8. C., the University of Chicago, Cornell Uni- versity, London, and the University of Berlin. After holding various pedagogical positions, he was appointed professor of English in Cornell University in 1919. Besides contributing to American and European philological journals, he is author of several valuable studies, espe- ADDAMS cially in the field of the Elizabethan stage, which include: A Manual of American Liter- ature, in collaboration (Leipzig, 1909), Shake- spearean Playhouses (Boston, 1917); with Northup, A Bibliography of English Philology (1918); The Bones of Ben Jonson, with arti- cles by others (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1919); with Bradley, An Allusion-Book to Ben Jonson (1922); and A Life of William Shakespeare (1923). He edited Sheridan’s The Rivals (Boston, 1910) and The Turke by John Mason. He was associate editor of Materialen zur Kunde des Aelteren Englischen Dramas and joint editor of Cornell Studies in English. _ ADAMS, Samvurt Horpxrns (1871- ). An American author and publicist (see Vor. I). The work he had done so effectively in exposing the quack medicine industry Mr. Adams con- tinued in the field of dishonest newspaper ad- vertising. His column, “The Ad-Visor,” in the New York Tribune, succeeded remarkably in raising the standards of advertising in’ the daily press. He wrote The Clarion (1914) and Success (1921), both studies of modern jour- nalism, and several novels, including The Un- speakable Peck (1916), Our Square and the People in It (1917), and Siege (1924). ADAMS, Watter §. (1876— y Pepe 1 American astronomer (see Vou. I). In 1917 he received the gold medal of the Royal Astronom- ical Society of London and the Draper medal of the National Academy of Sciences in 1918. His many papers were originally contributed to the Astronomical Journal and to the Astrophys- ical Journal, but they later appeared under the general title of Contributions to the Mt. Wil- son Observatory. He is also the author of several memoirs, the most important of which Were a series of four papers published in 1916 as Investigations on Stellar Spectroscopy. ADAMSON EIGHT-HOUR LAW. See LABork ARBITRATION; UNITED STATES, History ; and STRIKES. ADAMSON, Witiiam (1863- ). British Labor politician, born at Halbeath, Fife. For many years before his public appearance he worked as a miner. In 1902 he became assis- tant secretary of the Fife and Kinross Miners’ Association and in 1908 its general secretary. He was elected to Parliament for West Fife in 1910, and when the Labor party was reorgan- ized in 1917, he became its chairman. In 1918 he was sworn in as a member of the Privy Council. As leader of the Labor party he was head of the official opposition in the House of Commons in 1919 and took a prominent part in the debates in the coal industry and the trade union discussions of 1919, 1920, and 1921. When on Jan. 22, 1924, Ramsay Mac- donald formed his Labor cabinet, Adamson was made Secretary for Scotland. ADAPTATION. The adjustment of a plant or animal to its environment or surroundings as shown in its structural form or habits. Adaptations are rarely or never perfect, and the elimination of the less well adapted in the struggle for existence has been supposed to be a factor in evolution. See Zodxocy, ADDAMS, Jane (1860- ). An American settlement worker (see Vou. I) and a regular contributor to the New Republic, Survey, Na- tion, etc. Her last work, published in 1916, was The Long Road of Women’s Memory. She was a delegate to the International Women’s ADE Congress at The Hague (1915) and was elected its president. She was also a delegate to sim- ilar congresses held at Zurich (1919) and Vien- na (1921). Though an avowed pacifist, Miss Addams illustrated her wealth of common sense in the practical rather than theoretical attitude she took toward the War. ADE, Gerorce (1866- ). An American author and humorist (see Vou. I). His popular Ade’s Fables and Nettie appeared in 1914. He was a member of the Indiana State Council of Defense (1917-18). ADELPHI COLLEGE. A nonsectarian col- lege of liberal arts. for women, in Brooklyn, N. Y., founded in 1896. In 1913 the students numbered 176 in regular college courses and 98 in extension courses, and the faculty com- prised 18 persons. In 1923-24 there were about 400 students and 28 faculty members, not including the extension courses and summer school. The library was increased from 15,000 to 19,000 volumes. A campaign for an addi- tion of $1,000,000 to the endowment was con- ducted during the academic year 1922-23. president of the institution is Frank D. Blod- gett, LL.D. ADEN. A peninsula and a British protec- torate on the southeastern Arabian coast. Area of the peninsula, 75 square miles; of the protectorate, 9000 square miles. The island of Perim, included in the settlement, has an area of 5000 square miles. Population of Aden and Perim in 1911, 46,165; in 1921, 54,923; of the protectorate in 1921, about 100,000. Aden con- tinued as an important entrepodt and trans- shipment station for the Red Sea country. Im- ports for 1911-12 were valued at £2,643,276, for 1919-20 at £6,517,000, and for 1922-23 at £7,761,505; exports for the same years were £2,318,595, £7,124,000, and £6,738,167. A rail- way was begun in 1915 to extend from Aden to Lahej (25 miles). In 1921 administration was transferred from the India Office to the Colonial Office. ADLER, Fetix (1851- ). A German- American educator born in Germany (see VOL. I). Among his later publications are The World Crisis and Its Meaning (1915); Divorce (1915); An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), and The Punishment of Children (1920). In 1923 Dr. Adler delivered the Hibbert Lectures at Oxford; in 1924 they were published in a volume entitled The Reconstruction of the Spiritual Ideal. ADLER, HERMAN Morris (1876— Veen American physician, psychiatrist, and crimi- nologist born in New York City. He graduated from Harvard in 1897 and received his degree of doctor of medicine from Columbia University in 1901. He was appointed State criminologist of Illinois in 1917. After 1917 he was director of the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute and after 1919 professor of criminology at the University of Illinois. He has made _psycho- pathic surveys of Cook County, under the au- spices of the Rockefeller Foundation, and of the military prisoners during the War. ADLER, Victor (1852-1918). An Austrian Socialist leader (see Vor. I). He played only a passive part in the War, but with its termi- nation, in 1918, he once more took a prominent place in Austrian politics. With other Social Democrats he advocated Austrian union with the German Reich. For a few days he served as Austrian Foreign Minister, but his collapse The. ADVENTISTS and death, on Nov. 12, 1918, lost for the young and helpless republic the counsel of one of its most astute politicians. ADLER, Wotrcane Friepricu (1879- ). Austrian politician, born at Vienna. He was educated at the Realgymnasium in Vienna and the University of Zurich and lectured in phys- ics in Zurich, 1907-11. From 1910 to 1911 Dr. Adler edited the Social Democratic daily Volksrecht, and for the next five years he was secretary of the Austrian Social Democratic party and editor of Kampf. His sympathy for the Socialists during the War and expectation of a rising of the proletariat led him at the breakup of the International (1916) to shoot the Austrian prime minister, Count Stiirgkh. He was condemned to death on May 19, 1917. This sentence was commuted to 18 years’ im- prisonment, and in the chaos of 1918 he was amnestied. In 1919 he was elected to the Na- tional Assembly. He was president of the Aus- trian National Workmen’s Council and_ secre- tary of the International Labor Association of Socialist Parties. It was due to his initiative that the last mentioned was founded in 1921. His later works include Die HErneuerung der Internationale (1918); Mach’s Ueberwindung des Mechanischen Materialismus (1918); Orts- zeit, Systemzeit, Zonenzeit und das Ausgezeich- nete Bezugssystem der Electrodynamik, eine Untersuchung iiber die Lorentzische und die Einstein’sche Kinematik (1920). ADOR, GUSTAVE (1845- ). A Swiss statesman, born at Geneva, where he studied law at the academy. He was twice mayor of Cologny and a member of the cantonal parlia- ment almost continuously from 1874 to 1915. After holding other important government of- fices he was elected president of the Swiss Na- tional Council in 1901. In June, 1917, he be- came federal councillor of the federal executive and head of the department of foreign affairs. He was elected by parliament as president for the year 1919. Later he was chairman of the International Committee of the Red Cross (1921). ADRENALIN. Whereas in 1914 this drug was considered merely as a strong astringent, by 1924 it had become known as one of the most useful in the pharmacopeia. It is a heart stimulant of great value. It has sometimes reanimated the apparently moribund patient when injected directly into the heart. Its power of constricting the blood vessels also makes it of value in hemorrhages. See SECRE- TIONS, INTERNAL. ADRIATIC SEA. TROVERSY. ADSORPTION. See PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, American ASSOCIATION FOR THE. See ScIENCE, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF. ADVENT CHRISTIANS. See ApDvENTISTS. ADVENTISTS. The “Advent Movement” originated about 1840 with William Miller, who became convinced that the coming of Christ in person must be premillennial. It em- braced the following- churches: The Advent Christian Church, the Seventh Day Adventists, Life and Advent Union, the Church of God, Adventist, and the Churches of God in Christ Jesus. The Seventh-Day Adventists, the larg- est body of the group, differed from the other branches in that it never set a definite date for the coming of the Lord. Its membership in- See FIUME-ADRIATIC CoN- ADVERTISING creased throughout the world from 125,844 in 1914 to 208,771 in 1922. In North America the number of members increased from 72,015 in 1914 to 102,797 in 1923, the number of churches rose from 2054 to 2226, and the num- ber of ordained and licensed ministers from 769 to 1069. During the ten years the denom- ination supported 152 mission fields, and 123 colleges, theological seminaries and intermedi- ate schools. Fifty-one publishing houses and branches issued 3904 separate volumes of lit- erature. ADVERTISING. As the most sensitive out- post of modern business, advertising underwent a remarkable development during the War and the years succeeding it. Not only did the stim- ulation of business activity during the six years of war inflation lead to an enormous in- crease of the expenditure for advertising, but the entry of governments and _ semi-official agencies into selling campaigns lent a new dig- nity to the profession. { The British government was the first to use advertising methods to sell its war bonds to the people of Great Britain and the United States. Early in 1915 it became evident that the size of the financial operations made it indispensa- ble to appeal beyond the regular investing class reached through the banks. An expenditure of £100,000 was decided upon for newspaper and poster advertising. It produced extraordinary results. The experiment was repeated on a larger scale in the United States when the Liberty Loans came to be floated in 1917 and 1918. By coérdinating publicity, propaganda and paid advertising, the number of investors in government bonds was increased fiftyfold. The Victory Loan was sold to more than 21,- 000,000 individual bondholders. The adoption of conscription by the belliger- ent countries made it ynnecessary to employ poster advertising for recruiting. This method was extensively used, however, for the main- tenance of civilian morale. The war poster at- tracted leading artists. In commercial advertising the perfection of the four-color press made it possible to illus- trate the text appeal with pictures of adver- tised goods in their natural colors. This de- velopment has been most prominent in Ameri- can periodicals. In one national magazine be- tween 50 and 75 pages of advertising are printed in colors. The annual expenditure for advertising in the United States is said to ap- proach $1,500,000,000, although exact figures are not available. This expenditure reflects a growth of more than 100 per cent since the War. Out of it advertising has built itself up as a professional activity, drawing some of the best brains of the land. The centre of the pro- fession is the advertising agency, which has grown from a mere brokerage office for the pur- chase of space to a technical bureau which plans campaigns and writes and executes the advertising copy. One of the most interesting developments in this connection is the use of publicity to supplement paid advertising. Free publicity before the War was used chiefly by theatrical press agents, who were successful in creating news “stunts” for their stars. During the War, all the relief and welfare agencies maintained publicity bureaus informing the newspapers of their activities, and this practice was speedily imitated by private industrial or- ganizations. In the latter case it was not al- AERONAUTICS ways easy to make out a legitimate news inter- est, and editors put themselves on guard against printing as news what was obviously private propaganda. Large amounts of such copy do get into the newspapers, however, in- asmuch as the line between private interest and public interest is not always easy to draw. Publicity cannot be used to sell merchandise, but it can create a favorable atmosphere, which big corporations regard as invaluable. With the growth of advertising as a profession, spe- cial steps have been taken to eliminate as far as possible improper methods. Prominent in this activity are the advertising clubs, which bring together the advertising writers of the United States and England in a common feder- ation. These clubs spread the slogan ‘Truth in Advertising” and endeavored in other ways to standardize practices. The attempt to apply the methods of experi- mental psychology to advertising have been for the most part abandoned. Whatever relation advertising has to psychology is seen to belong .rather to the empirical psychology of motives, the psychology that is practiced by interpreters of human nature whether they be historians, philosophers, or novelists. In advertising the recognized principle is to associate a strong sentiment with the prosaic announcement of the goods to sell. The use of this principle is open to many moral objections, and it may become more and more necessary for society to legis- late against its too enthusiastic application. But as things stand, it is part of the economic system and the necessary competition for pub- lic attention. A. E. F. See War in Europe, Western Front. AERONAUTICS. If one were to exclude the actual invention of the heavier-than-air ma- chine for mechanical flight and its early prac- tical development, it might be said without fear of contradiction that the period 1914-24 was the most momentous in the history of aérial navigation. In these years not only was me- chanical flight reduced to practice, but it was made a method of transportation which had to be seriously considered, and which, while it had not supplanted existing means of locomotion, showed great promise for the future. The War stimulated the use of aircraft and made possi- ble both experimental and service applications on a larger scale than would have been possible otherwise and led to abnormally rapid progress of the art. (See War IN Evropg, Aérial Oper- ations; also BOMBING OF VESSELS By AIR- CRAFT. ) Our consideration will take up first the spherical balloon or aérostat, where naturally there had been but little advance save in the use of better fabrics for the gas container, as the utility of this device was limited. Except for flights, rather of a sporting nature, or to test the air currents, spherical or freely flying balloons had a narrow field of usefulness. Secondly can be considered the dirigible, which had reached a point where it was able to cross the Atlantic Ocean, not to mention its use as a serious engine of war for purposes of demoli- tion when not opposed. Third in order will be discussed the various types of heavier-than- air craft, such as airplanes, seaplanes, and helicopters. Spherical Balloons. During the War, nat- urally there was little opportunity for the use of spherical balloons, by the belligerents, and AERONAUTICS in the neutral countries, also, little attention was paid to this field of aéronautics. For ob- servation the captive kite or sausage balloon was used, but freely flying balloons had no use on or even behind the battle line. Accordingly activity in this department was not resumed until in 1919, the annual balloon race in the United States again was held. On Oct. 2, 1919, this competition was resumed at St. Louis, with entries from 10 American cities. This competition ordinarily is held annually and serves to select the American competitor and alternates for the annual Gordon Bennett balloon trophy race which is held in the coun- try of the winner of the previous year’s compe- tition. This now became an annual event, and limited interest attached to the outcome of the competition, which was to determine the largest distance to be flown by any of the contestants. The national balloon race for 1924 was started April 23, at San Antonio, Tex., and while the winner’s distance, 1072 miles, did not break the earlier American record made in 1910, nevertheless it developed. interesting competi- tion and was in every way successful. Gordon Bennett Competition. In 1920 the annual international balloon race for the Gor- don Bennett trophy was resumed. The United States was then the trophy holder, so that the start was made from North Birmingham, Ala., on Oct. 23, 1920. Eight large spherical bal- loons participated, filled with by-product coke gas from the Sloss-Sheffield Steel and Iron Com- pany furnaces. From this time this annual in- ternational air competition was held regularly in different countries, but without improving on the record of 1887.6 kilometers, or 1172.9 miles, made by Augustus Post and A. R. Haw- ley, Oct. 17-19, 1910; this was also the Ameri- can record for distance for the spherical bal- loon up to 1924. The Gordon Bennett balloon competition took place annually without any specially significant incidents until 1923, when on September 23, the twelfth competition was started at Solbosch, outside of Brussels. The weather conditions, which included severe gales, heavy rains and electric storms, resulted in de- struction or damage to some six balloons and fatal casualties to three pilots and two aids, as well as serious injuries to three pilots and two aids. This competition developed considerable discussion, as the rules, which did not permit of postponement under dangerous weather condi- tions, were followed to the letter. It was be- lieved that some provision should be made whereby subsequent competitions should not be started when to do so would make the flights extra hazardous. On June 15, 1924, 17 balloons, representing 7 nations, started in the fourteenth compe- tition for the Gordon Bennett cup, taking off from the great Solbosch plain outside of Brus- sels, Belgium. Unlike the 1923 competition, the weather conditions were favorable, and aft- er the balloons had been filled they left the ground. The first to rise was the Belgica, pi- loted by Ernest de Muyter of Belgium, three times winner of the cup. There were three bal- loons from the United States, the Uncle Sam, piloted by Capt. H. E. Honeywell, the Good- year, piloted by Capt. W. T. Van Orman, and the 812, piloted by Major Peck and Lieutenant Grey of the United States Air Service. Condi- tions of wind and weather were not such as to develop fast traveling, and several of the bal- AERONAUTICS loons that were carried to the west were forced to land rather than be driven out over the At- lantic Ocean. The competition was won again by the Belgian balloon Belgica, piloted by Lieu- tenant de Muyter, which achieved a distance of 745 miles, landing in Scotland at Alhb’s Head, 45 miles east of Edinburgh. Lieutenant de Muyter thus became the permanent possessor of the trophy. Second place was taken by the I'rench balloon, Ville-de-Bordeauz, piloted by F. Laport, which crossed the English Channel and landed at Brighton, England, covering 198 miles. The United States balloon, Uncle Sam, H. E. Honeywell, pilot, was third, with 180 miles. Outside of the Gordon Bennett international trophy competition and the national balloon race, several important flights were made, some of which developed unusual experiences due to enforced landings in desolate regions. Thus in 1920 the United States naval splierical balloon A5598 left the naval air station at Rockaway Point, N. Y., and after a trip of 800 miles de- seended on December 14 in Ontario. None of the various flights exceeded the record for dura- tion made by H. Kaulen of Germany on Dec. 13-17, 1913, of 87 hours, or that for distance made by the German, Berliner, on Feb. 8-10, 1914, of 3052.7 kilometers (1896.9 miles), while for altitude Suring and Berson on June 30, 1901, reached a height of 10,800 meters (35,424 feet). The International Aéronautic Federation (fF. A. I.) makes a distinction of class for spherical balloons, grouping in the first cate- gory those up to 600 cubic meters capacity, in the second category those from 601 to 900 cubic meters, and in the third category from 901 to 1201 cubic meters. Up to 1924 the Internation- al Federation’s records for duration and dis- tance were, for balloons of the first category, as follows: duration, (France) Gaston Fleury and George Fleury, Aug. 15-16, 1923, 19 hours 43 minutes; distance, (France) George Cor- mier, July 1, 1922, 804.173 kilometers (499.69 miles). Dirigibles. Prior to the War dirigible bal- loons or airships had been developed principally for, military purposes. They were classified as rigid, semirigid, and nonrigid, depending on arrangement of the gas bags and the support- ing frame. At this time the sole examples of the rigid type were the Zeppelin airships of Ger- many, which had found a limited application for passenger transportation. Of the last two groups named, the airships of French workers and of the Schiitte-Lanz and Parseval types in Germany were, perhaps, the most important, though airships of these types had been built in Great Britain and the United States. The Italians also had a semirigid airship which served to train pilots as well as indicate the possibility of future designs. During the War a number of these semirigid and nonrigid craft were built and used, but without decided mili- tary advantages. The Zeppelin Airships. In the field of the rigid airship, the work of Zeppelin done before the War on a systematic basis looking not only to military applications but also to use in com- mercial air travel and transportation was sig- nificant and had an important bearing. In 1913, 10 Zeppelin airships were in service in Germany, and others were being built for the military or naval service. Of the latter, two of the larger craft were destroyed accidentally in AERONAUTICS 1913. At the outbreak of the War there were three Zeppelins, each of 15,000 cubic meters ca- pacity (19,619 cubie yards; 530,000 cubic feet) in the German Navy. With manufacturing fa- cilities previously developed, it was possible straightway to proceed with further construc- tion, following essentially the same designs but increasing capacity and motive power and im- proving equipment of the craft. The greater capacity naturally was required for explosives, incendiary, and other bombs which were dropped in the course of raids on enemy territory. It was stated that the total number of Ger- man Zeppelins by the end of the War was 67, of which 17 were lost in action with the enemy, 34 were accidentally destroyed, and six were captured. This statement shows clearly the usual hazards incidental to the operation of dir- igibles and the war dangers to which they were exposed from hostile airplanes. In fact when the French and British air squadrons were well organized and the defense measured up to its full strength, it was impossible to employ the Zeppelins on the western front or even in air raids over Great Britain. British Dirigibles. Previous to the War the dirigible balloon had aroused little interest in Great Britain, and even in 1915 the British Government decided that they were not worth building, principally on account of the in- flammability of the hydrogen gas, which could be readily ignited by an incendiary bullet from an airplane. The British government did build in 1916 a series of nonrigid or semirigid dirigi- bles or miniature airships, known as “blimps,” largely for observation purposes. In 1918, when it was realized that there could be made avail- able helium in quantity, it was decided to build a fleet of rigid airships which would be safe from dangers of explosion or fire. Accordingly, with the experience derived from the War and particularly from a study of captured Zeppelins which had been brought to earth, including the [383 which had been brought down in England, Sept. 23, 1916, there was designed in England, before the Armistice, a type of airship which, filled with helium gas, not only would be suitable for a transatlantic trip, but which would be able to transport and discharge large amounts of high explosive. Inasmuch as the British had suf- fered severely from the Zeppelins, they sought to make these craft, eight of which were pro- jected, as efficient as possible. None was com- pleted before the Armistice. The R34, put into commission in 1919, made the first transatlan- tic flight by a dirigible. Unfortunately, this craft ran aground and was destroyed, Jan. 28, 1921, during night flying in Yorkshire. An- other of the group, the R38, was purchased by the United States government and was prepar- ing for an overseas trip to America when it was wrecked in the air, and almost the entire crew of British and American officers and men per- ished. The R36, on June 10, 1921, had a suc- cessful endurance test; it was 30 hours in the air on a trip from Pulham to Land’s End and back. The R80, the R34 and the R38 were com- pleted, or practically completed, by 1920. The R80 had a volume of 1,250,000 cubic feet and a length of 530 feet, as against a volume of 1,980,- 000 cubic feet and length of 643 feet for the R34, and a volume of 2,720,000 cubic feet and a length of 698 feet for the R38. The R34 scored the first transatlantic flight for a dirigible, leaving East Fortune, near Edinburgh, Scot- Io AERONAUTICS land, at 2 a.M., July 2,1919 and flying by way of Newfoundland, arrived at Roosevelt Field, Mine- ola, N. Y.,at 9 a.m., July 6, 1919. A return trip was made even more successfully, leaving New York on July 9, and reaching Great Britain on the morning of July 12, a distance of 3200 miles in 75 hours and 3 minutes, or a total flying time for the R34 of 183 hours and 15 minutes for some 7000 miles on this transatlantic trip. This achievement was notable in that the airship experienced various kinds of weather, including fog, heavy squalls, thunderstorms and _ head winds, and indicated the possibilities of trans- atlantic flight by a dirigible on a commercial scale. The R38, also referred to above, was designed and constructed by the British for the United States, being known in the United States Navy records as Z2. ‘This airship was the largest and most powerful of the British dirigibles; it had six Sunbeam Cossack engines, each of 350 horse power, or a total of 2000 horse power, and a maximum speed of 72 miles per hour. It was designed for a cruising range of 5000 miles. The R38 made a number of flights in England and was destroyed on a trial trip, Aug. 25, 1921, falling into the Humber River and carry- ing with it some 62 officers and men, both Brit- ish and American. The Americans were includ- ed in the training crew which was to take the airship across the Atlantic for the United States. While there was no definite informa- tion as to the reason for the failure, it was be- lieved that certain features of design had been overlooked and that there was lack of strength at certain important points. Once the structure failed, the ignition of the gas by the broken electric wires resulted in a fire. United States Dirigibles. Before the United States had entered the War several small diri- gibles had been secured for the army and when it was decided to participate actively in the conflict a number of nonrigid dirigibles resem- bling the British “blimps,” which had been or- dered, became available, the first of which were tested in May, 1917. 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EWrepengst ok: fete RMARITZBURG Fay | Rais 2 Rigas adn, Litod a alo} -¢ ‘ee Se : | 30 2 cana De Al wi Tape [gUurban =u Sftendy Mtani} Fenisd » = |Carnarvon tga faa — SIM Port Shepstone — UP A Cti‘“—t;‘<‘i SCStCSCC MR, SE AN a } S v irs We, aes 7 Port Shepstone x pas | Muyarea i oA Pp E> 0 K fh AU P E angambe” C Giiena F } MM nrg aS) Port Grosvenor wv Raton, orTOnEe aaa Ca iris aout O's > x Port St.John = St. Holenabay., DP Pp ny. Vv} Somerset. 15} Williams Town 5) ringeza Amelia oKal ( & E som g Wi EST AFRIC ag lomo}, Do beeen no East Landon 6 Sree ae) = 2 z e ae S—Giahamstow CAPE TOWN} 2 a orge—S/ “Port Elizabeth > Cape of Good Hope. Hosse) Bay < ore C. Agulhas Same scale as main map Greenwich Longitude 30° 20° from cs ok ad se OU eee Same scale as main map AFRICA tween Bahr-el-Jebel and Lake Rudolf, and the divide between the Congo and Nile Rivers. In Central Africa, boundary commissions represent- ing the British, Belgian, and Portuguese govern- ments, surveyed the Congo-Zambezi watershed (1911-14), for the more exact determination of frontiers. A French-British commission set to work in 1922 on the. determination of the Darfur-Wadai boundary. War operations added much to the knowledge of the whole continent, not only ethnologically but geographically; for this, the airplane was used to advantage. In 1920 a British aviator, flying over the Nile Basin, discovered a hitherto unknown range of voleanic hills north of Khartoum. It is inter- esting to note that the end of the War saw an awakened interest in scientific and economic re- search apart from pure geographical explora- tion. The activities of the French in the Sa- hara have been alluded to. A British expedi- tion (1919-20) under the Rey. John Roscoe car- ried on extensive ethnographical investigations in the Uganda. Biological expeditions also fig- ured prominently. A Smithsonian Institute party was maintained in Central and South Africa, covering the Transvaal, Kafue River valley, Lake Tanganyika, and the Budongo forest, for the collection of fauna and flora. One in- vestigator (Mr. L. H. Shantz) gathered 1600 specimens of plants, including forage and nut plants, fruits and vegetables, for introduction into the United States. Similarly, in 1921, Prince William of Sweden in explorations in the regions south and southwest of Uganda, col- lected 1000 mammals, 2000 birds, and more than 6000 insects. Italian research workers discov- ered in Eritrea, near the Abyssinian frontier, important bodies of chloride of potash. Finally, in 1922-24, of the many expeditions at work, may be noted the investigation of the etiology of the tribes in the Mongalla district by an Anglo-Egyptian group and the exploration, for geographical and zodlogical purposes, of the Central Sahara by the British and Rothchild Museums. Communications. Hand in hand with the geographical researches went the extension of the means of communication. An _ Atlantic- Indian Ocean route by water and rail was com- pleted in 1914-15, so that it became possible to travel from west to east by water along the Congo, thence by rail from Kakalo on the Up- per Congo to Albertville on the west shore of Lake Tanganyika, across the lake by water, and finally by rail from Kigomo to Dar es Salaam on the Indian Ocean. An east-west route along South Africa was similarly completed in 1915 so that Walfish Bay and Delegoa Bay became linked. Along the Cape to Cairo route the progress made was from Ndola on the Belgian Congo frontier to Bukama, a distance of 442 miles (1909-18), and extension of this line along the Lualaba River to a point better adapted for large vessels. Thus it was possible to travel from Cairo to the Cape by rail and water almost completely, except for two breaks of 300 miles, one from Tabora to Mwanza on the Victoria Nyanza, the other between Nimule and Rejaf along the Upper Nile. The terri- torial changes after the War brought the Cape- to-Cairo line wholly within British territory, so that it was evident that the next few years would see the work pressed to completion. Two other general schemes need mention. Rail- roads were started by the French from Dakar 27 AFRICA (Senegal), Konakry (French Guinea), Abid- jan (Ivory Coast), and Katonu (Dahomey), with the purpose of pushing all of them into the French Sudan and then uniting all the lines by a single railroad running from west to east. The work was delayed during the War, and the French were slow up to 1924 in tak- ing it up again. The 1924 announcement of a north and south Saharan railway project was even more ambitious. After a spirited domestic controversy the French government announced its acceptance of the Pabatier route which called for a railway line from Arzeu and Oran in Algeria through Tosaye on the Niger to Wagadagu, the capital of Haute Volta in the “Loop” of the Niger. Of this, 112 miles were already built across the Atlas range to Raz-el- Mao; the scheme called for the construction of 2090 miles more at a cost between 1,400,000,000 and 1,700,000,000 franes. (For local railroad construction see under the headings of the sep- arate African countries and territories.) oe oe Zero to 65° Zero to 65° PVAVErses 2. FER s ie re 360° 360° Type of projectiles ... H. E. Shell H. E. Shell Self-propelled caterpillar unit desirable for 155mm. un. z, Certain proportion should be retained on rubber- tired wheel mounts. It is desirable to develop a carriage which can be used interchangeably for 155 mm. gun and 8 in. howitzer. Maximum speed of S. P. caterpillar 6 m.p.h.; wheel mounts, 12 mph. Conventional caissons for this calibre are obsolete. Transport: All of this type should be motorized. Ammunition vehicles to correspond should _ be developed. Requirements of heavy field artillery as given above can be met except in regard to maximum elevation of 65 degrees and traverse of 360 de- grees for the reasons previously discussed under division and corps artillery. Unlike the preced- ing classes, however, it is entirely practicable to design a carriage on which the 155 millimeter gun and 8 inch howitzer can be mounted inter- changeably. REQUIREMENTS FOR SUPER-GUNS Guns Howitzers Calibre 8orl10in. 14in. 12in. 16in. Length in calibres ... be\5 50 20 25 Weight - of projectile 240-510 1,400 700 1,600 Maximum range ..... 35,000 40,000 25,000 30,000 18,000 BHlévations .. 2.5 sicoeeiece O;to. Of tome2oustos 25, to 50° 50° 60° 65° ET AVOIRG 64/0 sso. stekstene « 300; soOUmmeabOn SOO, 15° 10 Type of projectile ... Shed Oe ELD. del yiope yo sled a Time for occupying position— Prepare din ejsc ie scatter soehcger) A COMI iets 5 Unprepared ....... 1 to 4hrs. 8 hours 1 hour Maximum rate of fire . 1 shot, 2 Bi Sia2 Be ic minutes Gauge of Track Stand- Stand- Stand- Stand- ard, 60° ard ard ard em.—24 in. 12-—in. Ammunition for all cannon: Smokeless, Related zone charges for howitzers. Fuses: Bore safe, instantaneous, and selective delay. flashless. Of the super-guns listed above, a 14 inch 50 calibre gun on a railroad mount has been designed, manufactured and successfully tested. The 16 inch 25 calibre howitzer has also been successfully fired from a _barbette carriage. This howitzer can be used in combination with the railroad mount for the 14 inch 50 calibre gun. Coast Defense Artillery. The superiority of land fortifications over battleships where land guns have approximately the same range as those on the ships has always been accepted by artillery authorities. The failure of the joint ‘British and French naval attacks on the Turk- ish coast defenses at the Dardanelles and the lack of success which attended the constant shelling of hastily erected German defenses on the Belgian coast, supplemented by bombing from the air, strengthened the contention that battleships cannot hope to attack with success coast fortifications provided with armament of approximately equal power. However, due to the increased elevation and the correspond- ingly greater range of guns mounted on battle- ships built since the War, artillery intended for coast defense purposes must of necessity be provided with carriages permitting elevation to develop the maximum range of the piece. In 1914 the American 14 inch 40 calibre gun 104 ARTILLERY mounted on a disappearing carriage and the 12 inch long range mortar were typical of stand- ard heavy coast defense armament. Through the development of airplane carriers to ac- company attacking fleets, and the steeper angle of fall of projectiles fired at the 30 degrees to 40 degrees elevation now required for long range naval fire and provided in recent designs of battleships, the protection formerly given to guns mounted on disappearing carriages by extensive concrete emplacements was materially diminished. This consideration, together with the difficulty encountered in providing the re- quired high angles of elevation on disappearing carriages, resulted in the adoption of the sim- pler barbette carriage for future installations. The best example of modern high-powered coast defense artillery is probably in the 16 inch 50 calibre gun mounted on a barbette carriage following designs of the United States Army Ordnance Department. This gun is of wire- wound construction, is approximately 70 feet in length over all, and with its recoil band weighs about 200 tons. It is equipped with a drop breech-block of the Smith-Asbury type, operated by compressed air. The normal charge for this gun consists of 850 pounds of smokeless powder, giving a maximum interior pressure of 38,000 pounds per square inch. With this charge a range of 50,000 yards is given an armor-piercing projectile weighing 2340 pounds and capable of penetrating 14 inches of battleship armor at all ranges. The barbette carriage on which this gun is mounted is simple and rugged in design; yet it has adequate pro- vision for rapid and accurate maneuvring of the gun. The recoil of the gun is controlled by four recoil cylinders symmetrically located and integral with the cradle. The energy generated on discharge of the piece is dissipated by forc- ing oil through throttling grooves in the wall of each cylinder as the piston rods and heads securely fastened to the recoil band of the gun move to the rear with it. The piston rod pull amounts to 1,250.000 pounds for every 40 inches of recoil, so that the recoil cylinders dis- sipate 4,567,000 foot-pounds of energy each time the gun is fired. To insure the rate of fire of one round per minute, a power rammer is located on the racer near the breech of the gun. The powder charge and projectile are brought up to the carriage on special cars and rammed home by means of an electric motor actuating the rammer through hydraulic speed gears. The carriage is equipped so that all operations are normally performed by electric or mechanical power, but the mechanisms are so arranged as to permit mancuvring by hand power in emergencies. German Long Range Guns. All military weapons are appraised, in general, on the basis of the amount of destruction they can cause. If the performance of the German long range guns used for the bombardment of Paris from Mar. 23 to Aug. 9, 1918, are judged on the usual basis, they must be set down as failures. The casualties caused by them averaged only about two and a half per round, notwithstanding that a thickly populated city was being bombarded. The property damage per round fired was ap- proximately that of an ordinary 6 inch shell and in the aggregate was of negligible military value. However, these guns were not primarily weapons of destruction but were rather psycho- logical weapons, for their purpose was served ARTILLERY when the German High Command was able to say without fear of contradiction that their troops were bombarding Paris by artillery fire. At first, no mention was made in their com- muniqués that super guns of much greater range than had ever before been even proposed for use in battle were responsible for the ar- tillery bombardment. The known fact that Paris was under fire of German artillery served two purposes. First, it greatly heartened the German civilian population as well as troops in the field with the knowledge that the ultimate goal had prac- tically been reached. Secondly, it caused con- sternation among the civilian population of the Allies, who could not at first believe but that the Germans had succeeded in arriving at the gates of Paris. Before it was learned that the shells were coming from guns situated more than 75 miles from the city, a considerable ex- odus of Parisians to the South and West of France threw such a load on the railroad sys- tems that a serious interference with the move- ment of supplies and troops was narrowly averted, but when the French technical experts had succeeded in reconstructing the projectile from fragments found at the point of burst and had deduced from their angle of fall the exterior ballistic characteristics which must have been used to produce the observed results, the situation was immediately relieved. Although over 300 shells fell in the environs of Paris, none of them was known to have failed to explode. Exact information in regard to the ammunition remained unavailable. The guns themselves were withdrawn into Germany and broken up prior to the Armistice. Al- though the terms of this undertaking provided for delivering one of these pieces to the Allies, Germany never lived up to the agreement, and exact information as to the design of the gun and carriage still remains in the sole possession of the small group of Germans who conceived and successfully carried out this spectacular performance. As an artillery curiosity, this type of gun attained a range never before con- sidered possible and also demonstrated that greater range could be attained at an angle of 50° elevation than the previously accepted 42° or 43°, provided that extremely high muzzle velocity was used and the projectile attained extremely high altitudes early enough in its flight to get full benefit from the more highly rarefied strata of air, instead of attempting to force the projectile against denser strata of air encountered at lower altitudes. The following table gives the characteristics of the German Long Range Gun as computed by Maj. J. Maitland Addison of the British Army and in a parallel column, the reconstructed characteristics as determined by the French General Staff. British French Peurtanee bi Miles: ssi. sf see ee 76 76 2. Maximum height in miles 23.9 25.7 3. Time of flight in seconds .... LTT LU 4. Muzzle velocity, ft. per second 5,000 5,620 Db. Angle’ of elevation... ok. 50° 48°—39’ 6. Velocity of Vertex, ft. per ROGON Clee Bis kees cg sandie te oN nny j Sees : os ES wf "on, Freudena Simmeringer \ Haide/ ‘s=*FPriesach? 9 PLO. * Lussiny, 2,0 Pa Dey ty, mI ‘ 0. “ \e [a ‘< a “" & ' i . ’ AUSTRIA-HUNGARY fluence of the Entente in Bucharest grew stronger all the time and the Austro-Hungarian defeats in Russia in August, 1916, served to strengthen the conviction of the Rumanians that the ultimate superiority in the War lay with the Allies. Burian continued his’ stead- fast refusal to grant the Rumanian demands and at the end of August, 1916, an agreement was concluded between the Allies and Rumania whereupon the latter, on August 27, entered the War against the Central Powers. In order to allay Turkish fears growing out of Rumania’s entrance into the War, Germany concluded two agreements with Turkey on Jan. 11 and on Nov. 27, 1917, which provided for the abolition of the capitulations. The Dual Monarchy _hes- itated for a long time to come to similar agreements with Turkey, and only on Mar. 30, 1918, was a treaty signed between Turkey and Austria-Hungary under which the latter bound herself not to sign any peace re-establishing the eapitulations. The weariness of the Austro- Hungarian people, who had suffered more from the War and were in a much weaker condition than their German allies, induced the Vienna government to address itself to Berlin in the fall of 1916 with the proposal to inquire through neutral channels whether the Allies were prepared for a discussion of peace. Ger- many objected, and for a time there was a live- ly exchange of opinion between the two govern- ments. Finally an agreement was reached. Emperor Francis Joseph had died meanwhile, and Charles had ascended the throne. The lat- ter was determined on the conclusion of a peace satisfactory to both sides. On Dec. 12, 1916, the Quadruple Alliance made its peace offer, proposing a conference of the Powers. Austria- Hungary at this time was ready to conclude a peace which left her territory intact and gave her minor frontier rectifications. The offer was met on Jan. 12, 1917, by the answer of the Allies to President Wilson’s peace pro- posal. Thereupon Germany started her cam- paign of submarine warfare. Neither Count Czernin, who in the meantime had become Aus- tro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, nor Emperor Charles entertained the sanguine hopes which the Germans placed on this policy, and they gave their consent to it only under pressure from the German statesmen and generals, and the Emperor. Czernin, in fact, pointed out the danger of war with the United States. While war broke out between Germany and the United States on Apr. 5, 1917, the United States did not declare war on Austria-Hungary until Dec. 7, 1917. As the results of unlimited subma- rine warfare fell short of expectation, Emperor Charles on Mar. 24, 1917, through his brother- in-law, Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, pro- posed peace pourparlers and assured France of Austrian support for her “just claims” on Alsace-Lorraine. On Mar. 27, 1917, Count Czernin, who knew the substance of the offer, but not the text, signed an agreement with the German Chancellor which contained a minimum and maximum programme for peace neither one of which provided for ceding Alsace-Lorraine to France. On Apr. 3, 1917, and repeatedly afterwards, Count Czernin approached the Ger- man Emperor and his statesmen with a peace proposal which suggested possible cession of Alsace-Lorraine to France, and, as compensa- tion for this sacrifice, the annexation of Poland to Germany. Such a proposal the Germans re- 125 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY fused to consider. Shortly thereafter the Prince Sixtus move came to naught, because the Ital- ians insisted on territorial concessions as prom- ised by the London Treaty, which Austria-Hun- gary was not prepared to grant at this time. Under these circumstances Emperor Charles and Czernin concluded, on May 17-18, 1917, an agreement with Germany which provided for large Austro-Hungarian annexations in the Balkans, and, on the fulfillment of these condi- tions, for the surrender of Austro-Hungarian interests in Poland to Germany. Czernin, how- ever, during the remainder of 1917, continued his efforts in various directions toward a peace by agreement, but without result. A ray of light appeared with the Bolshevik ascent to power in the East. The new Russian government issued a summons for a general peace, and on the refusal of the Entente to con- sider it, began peace negotiations with the Quadruple Alliance on Jan. 9, 1918. Various difficulties arose, some of which led to the con- clusion of Feb. 9, 1918, of a separate peace be- tween the Ukrainians and the Quadruple Alli- ance. Under this peace the Austro-Hungarian frontiers remained unchanged, but the Dual Monarchy promised to surrender the district of Cholm, in Russian Poland, for incorporation in- to the Ukrainian Republic, and to make Galicia an autonomous Austrian Crownland. After further difficulties with the Soviet delegates, in which Czernin was often at variance with the German spokesmen and which brought about a temporary renewal of the war with Russia, a peace treaty was signed on Mar. 3, 1918, at Brest-Litovsk. From this peace the Dual Monarchy received no territorial enlarge- ment. Poland having become an independent state under the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the Pol- ish question came up once more. The decision of the previous year, to leave Poland to Ger- many, was abandoned, and Charles and Czernin advocated in its stead the Austro-Polish solu- tion, which provided for the incorporation of Poland in Austria-Hungary. This scheme was opposed by the German government, which would merely consent to a personal union be- tween Poland and the Dual Monarchy. This latter proposal Vienna refused to accept. The Poles made skillful use of this disagreement between the two Powers and obtained the signa- ture of the latter to a protocol providing for a future rectification of the frontier between Poland and the Ukraine. Count Hertling, the German Chancellor, advised Vienna in July, 1918, that Germany would not accept the Aus- tro-Polish solution and would leave it to the Poles to choose their form of government, pro- vided that they came beforehand to an agree- ment with the Central Powers. Vienna ac- cepted in principle, but succeeding negotiations failed to bring a solution. The peace with Russia led also to the signing of the Peace Treaty of Bucharest on May 7, 1918, which gave Austria-Hungary a strategic frontier with Rumania and valuable economic advantages. The favorable settlements gained in the East could not, however, hide the grave condition of the Dual Monarchy, which was in urgent need of peace. Czernin, fully aware of this, at- tempted unsuccessfully in various ways in the early months of 1918 to bring about a cessation of hostilities. He even approached President Wilson through the King of Spain. The only possible road which could lead to peace for ' AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 126 Austria-Hungary, namely, the conclusion of a separate peace with the Allies, which would have been equivalent to leaving Germany in the lurch, Czernin refused to take. This he had stated on previous occasions, and did so again in his address to the Vienna Town Council in April, 1918. This latter statement led to the publication by Clemenceau of Emperor Charles’s letter to Prince Sixtus in the previous year, in which reference had been made to the ‘just claims” of France on Alsace-Lorraine. Czern- in, who had not been apprised of this reference, resigned thereupon and was succeeded by Bur- ian. Charles had to make a penitent trip to German headquarters at Spa in order to ap- pease Emperor William and was induced on May 12 to sign an agreement binding the Dual Monarchy closer than ever to Germany. The agreement, however, did not become effective, due to the breakdown of the negotiations on the Polish question, on which it had been made to depend. The ultimate failure of the great Ger- man effort in the West made the Germans more amenable to the Austro-Hungarian insistence on peace by diplomacy, although before August they had rejected all of Charles’s and Burian’s efforts in this direction. Since Vienna and Berlin could not agree on a proper course of action, Burian made finally, without Germany’s participation, an appeal to the Allies which was turned down flatly and resulted in reveal- ing to the Entente in a more glaring light than ever the desperate straits of the Dual Mon- archy. The catastrophic military events of the early fall and the defection of Bulgaria and Turkey ushered in the last act of the drama. The Austrian collapse followed rapidly. Aus- tria-Hungary and Germany appealed to Presi- dent Wilson for an armistice. When Wilson failed to reply, Emperor Charles in a manifesto on October 16 proclaimed Austria a federal state. Wilson rejected the peace offer, finally declaring that the United States recognized Czecho-Slovakia as an independent state and ac- knowledged the national aspirations of the Southern Slavs. The dissolution becoming man- ifest now, Charles was ready to make a separate peace at great sacrifice, provided the territories remained under the dynasty, no matter in how loose a federation. On October 24 Count An- drany became Foreign Minister and three days later the pacifist Professor Lammasch was ap- pointed Austrian Premier. New efforts for an armistice failed. The débacle in Italy brought about the final disintegration. On November 3 the Dual Monarchy was forced to sign an armis- tice which turned her over, defenseless, into the hands of the victors and compelled her to give passive aid against her ally. Emperor Charles agreed to this under protest. But the catastro- phe went still further. Charles gave up his share in the Austrian government on November 11, without, however, renouncing his crown. The Lammasch government finished its task of liquidation and resigned. The proclamation of the Austrian Republic on November 12 and of the Hungarian Republic on November 16 com- pleted the disintegration of the Dual Monarchy. (For the Treaty of St. Germain and the Treaty of the Trianon, see PEACE CONFERENCE AND TREATIES. ) Internal Political History of the Austrian Empire, 1914-1918. All predictions to the contrary notwithstanding, the outbreak of the War evoked from the various nationalities com- AUSTRIA-HUNGARY prising the Austrian Empire loud protestations of their loyalty to the dynasty and the state. Even the Czechs gave evidence of their enthusi- astic support of Austria’s cause in the War, and the Austrian Poles called for a union of Russian Poland and Galicia under the Habs- burg crown. Likewise most of the Italians in the Tirol remained faithful after Italy’s en- trance into the War. In spite of these favor- able demonstrations, the Austrian government did not deem it advisable to convoke Parlia- ment. The ministry was in a position of al- most complete political impotence and _ prac- tically all control over internal affairs was in the hands of the military, which used rigid and shortsighted police measures. This system led finally to the assassination of the premier, Count Sturgkh, on Oct. 21, 1916, by the So- Cialist, Friedrich Adler. Under his successor, Dr. Korber, little change was wrought in the internal affairs of Austria. The only _ out- standing event of his administration was the creation of an Office for Food Control on Nov. 14, 1916, which was later enlarged into the Food Ministry. On the death of the aged Francis Joseph, Nov. 21, 1916, young Charles Francis Joseph, as the nearest heir, inherited his great-uncle’s crown. Emperor Charles, am- bitious and intelligent, was resolved not only to maintain the greatness of his dynasty, but also to effect a constitutional readjustment more satisfactory to the non-German peoples of the empire and to restore peace at the earliest opportunity. Himself assuming supreme com- mand of the army, he proceeded to replace many of the highest officials with his own trusted friends. Hétzendorf was superseded by Aiz von Straussenburg as chief of staff; For- eign Minister Burian gave place to Count Ot- tokar Czernin; and Premier Kérber, with whom the headstrong monarch disagreed on several issues, was dismissed on December 20, to be followed by a Czech nobleman, Count Clam- Martinitz, in whom Charles expected to find a more obedient agent for the execution of his policies. That the highhanded measures of the military rule and the economic hardships pro- duced by the War had not yet at this time se- riously affected the allegiance of the various nationalities to the Crown was evinced by the numerous declarations of loyalty which fol- lowed on President Wilson’s note of Dec. 11, 1916, and the answer of the Entente of Jan. 12, 1917, in which reference had been made to the oppressed nationalities of Austria. At the same time, however, actual attempts at ironing out the conflicts and difficulties between the nationalities proved futile. On the final con- vocation of Parliament, on May 31, 1917, the Southern Slavs and the Czechs demanded the creation of a federal state, and the German Austrians offered strong opposition to any such proposal. Under these circumstances Clam- Martinitz, who had hoped for a national coali- tion, resigned on June 19, 1917, and was suc- ceeded by Ritter von Seidler. On account of the amnesty granted the Czech political of- fenders on July 2, 1917, the German National Council at Prague passed on July 15 a vote of censure. With a reorganized cabinet, Seid- ler embarked in August, 1917, on a vast plan of social, economic, and political reform, which, however, proved a complete failure. In fact, his attempts at reconstructing the state on the basis of national autonomy served to reveal to AUSTRIA-HUNGARY what extent dissolution had progressed. The nationalities advanced demands now’ which could hardly be reconciled with the unity of the Empire. The calling of a fresh Parliament on June 16, 1918, proved no remedy. The previ- ous day, the Czechs had set up at Prague a na- tional committee demanding a sovereign and independent Czecho-Slovak state. Seidler re- signed on July 22, 1918. Baron Hussarek, his successor, attempted in vain to reconcile the nationalities. Disintegration had gone _ too. The Czechs won Allied recognition in August and were acting as an independent nation. The Poles, too, had become intractable, al- though Hussarek advocated Polish indepen- dence. As a last means to avoid dissolution, the Emperor issued on Oct. 16, 1918, his mani- festo proposing a federal state for Austria. Its effects on the nationalities was null, be- cause at the same time they were beginning to set up national councils. Disintegration was an established fact. The last imperial cabinet, the ministry of liquidation of the pac- ifist Lammasch, Oct. 27-31, 1918, could do no more than help the peaceful settlement between the rising Republic of Austria and the succes- sion states, Czecho-Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia, and Poland. . Economic History of the Austrian Empire, 1914-1918. The outbreak of the War produced a serious economic crisis in Austria. Industri- al production ceased almost entirely and the country was cut off from foreign markets. In agriculture great want of labor was encoun- tered in bringing in the harvest. The govern- ment tried to meet the serious situation, but all that it could do was to close the Bourse and declare a moratorium. More than any govern- mental measures, the development of a war in- dustry helped to improve the situation. The needs of the army stimulated production for military purposes, especially since only a very limited market could be found for non-military products. This transformation of Austrian in- dustry took place within six months after the outbreak of the War. Soon, however, and in an increasing degree as the War progressed, Austria was faced with a shortage of raw ma- terials, resulting from the blockade and the dis- ruption of all communication between the Cen- tral Powers and the outside world. This was further aggravated by the fact that parts of the Austrian Empire which had been produc- tive of raw materials were in the hands of the enemy. Moreover, economic union, s0 _ neces- sary in time of war, did not exist in the Dual Monarchy, and in the negotiations on economic matters Hungary, as the producer of foodstuffs, was often able to strike bargains which were . greatly to the disadvantage of Austria. Short- age of raw materials and lack of foodstuffs forced the government soon to take measures for the regulation of supplies and to set up a rigid system of central control. A further step of the government in war economy was an agreement with the’ German government re- garding the distribution of raw materials be- tween the two powers. Austria followed Ger- many’s example in creating central offices for the purchase of raw materials abroad. When this purchase was more and more curtailed and ceased in 1915, the central offices were trans- formed into a machinery to ensure the utmost economy in the use of raw materials within the country. The central offices, which. were 127 AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC composed of experts, supervised distribution and performed other duties in order to conserve or increase the stock of materials. Strict measures were used to regulate the supply of foodstuffs. For this purpose food cards were finally introduced. The entire traffic in grain was regulated by a Central Grain Traffic Of- fice exercising absolute control over grain, flour, mills, and bakeries. It fixed the price of bread, determined its quality and ,rationed the supplies. For industries which employed grain as raw material, as for instance the brewing industry, offices similar to these central offices for raw materials were established. The func- tions of these offices were to regulate the dis- tribution of supplies and to stimulate new methods of production in the industries. In short, the state set up a rigid system of cen- tralized control over economic activities, which, if it did not function well, served at least the necessary purpose for which it was created. But rationing methods could not make up for lack of raw materials and foodstuffs. Not only did imports from abroad cease almost entirely, but production at home fell off for a number of reasons. Between 1914 and 1918 the crops decreased by more than 50 per cent through lack of labor, draft animals, implements, and manure. The substitutes which the people were taught to use were entirely inadequate. The population grew restive under the inter- minable hardships and deprivations, and labor became fruitful soil for revolutionary ideas. The War and the following collapse of the Em- pire left Austria economically destitute, but the subsequent settlement succeeded in making conditions even worse than they had _ been before. AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC. The Austrian Empire had an area of 115,831.9 square miles and a population of 28,571,934 in 1910. As a result of the Treaty of St. Germain (Sept. 10, 1919), the plebiscite decision in the Klagenfurt (q.v.) district, and the ruling of the Council of Ambassadors with respect to the Burgenland (q.v.), the Austrian Republic had, in 1922, an area of 32,352 square miles and a population of 6,428,336 according to the census of 1920. The density per square mile was 199; females in the population were in the ratio of 1089 to 1000 males. The Republic consists of the fol- lowing provinces: Vienna, Lower Austria, Up- per Austria, Salzburg Styria, Carinthia, Tirol, Vorarlberg, Burgenland. The leading towns gave these population figures for 1920 (1910 figure in parentheses): Vienna, 1,841,749 (2,- 031,498) ; Graz, 157,644 (151,886); Linz, 94,- 072 (67,817); Imnsbruck, 55,650 (53,194) ; Salzburg, 36,749 (36,210). From 1916 to 1919 deaths continued to exceed births, the excess being 31,815 in 1916, 66,877 in 1918, and 14,- 555 in 1919. Births in 1920 numbered 137,324, and deaths, 116,284. Distribution by religions was thus given in the 1910 census for all this area except Burgenland: Catholics, 5,979,667 ; Protestants, 165,007; Jews, 189,758. As for education, there were, in 1920, 4772 elementary schools attended. by 888,640 pupils, 143. sec- ondary schools with 40,257 pupils, 4438 of them girls; and three universities, viz., Vienna (11,442 students), Graz (1937 students), Inns- bruck (1968 students). Besides, there were 2 technical high schools and 18 _ theological schools. Industry. Agriculture formed the main oc- AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC cupation of the country. In 1921, 4,152,237 acres were under crops, largely in Lower Aus- tria and Upper Austria. The main classes were: fields and gardens, 24 per cent; woods, 38 per cent; meadows, 11 per cent; pastures, 16 per cent; vineyards, 0.6 per cent. The leading crops were wheat, of which 177,715 metric tons were counted in 1922; rye, 334,311 tons; bar- ley, 119,340 tons; oats, 275,788 tons; potatoes, 832,985 tons; turnips, 530,514 tons. In every case but the last, the yield surpassed that of the previous year. Deprived of the agricul- tural products of the rich provinces of Moravia, the Alpine forelands, Bohemia, Galicia, Istria, and Goritza, the Austrians were compelled, aft- er the War, to import their food stocks from Hungary, Bohemia, Russia, and Rumania. In 1920, imports of grain and flour totaled $58,- 200,000; in 1921, $49,100,000. That the agri- cultural situation was gradually improving was indicated by a smaller importation for 1922, viz., $36,900,000. Livestock numbered, in 1919: horses, 243,000; cows, 911,000; oxen, 214,000; bulls, 55,000; calves, 539,000; swine, 1,269,875; sheep, 300,000; goats, 300,000. Mineral sup- plies were scarcely adequate for local wants. In 1921, 2,469,701 metric tons of lignite coal were mined, and 137,666 tons of anthracite, while 5,842,978 tons had to be imported. Iron ore mined in 1920 totaled 435,062 tons, largely from Styria. Other minerals were copper, zine, lead, and salt. The leading industrial centres were in Lower Austria, Vorarlberg, and Upper Styria, where iron foundries and ma- chine, automobile, textile, and clothing fac- tories were gathered. Chemical and paper goods works were grouped chiefly around Vien- na, which was also the centre of the artistic trades. Trade and Communications. The first years of the Republic showed heavy adverse balances, which, however, continued to decrease. In 1921, imports of 8,228,249 metric tons were valued at $349,960,000; exports of 1,546,532 tons were valued at $186,259,000. For 1922, imports weighed 7,448,737 tons and were worth $327,721,000; exports were 2,115,760 tons, at a value of $209,944,000. During 1922, the greatest amount of imports, by weight, came from Germany, 37.3 per cent; from Czecho-Slovakia, 37.1 per cent; from Hun- gary, 6.3 per cent. Exports to Germany amounted to 31 per cent of the total; to Italy, 19 per cent, and to Hungary, 11.9 per cent. Up to 1923 trade was hard hit by Germany’s disastrous competition in foreign and domestic commerce. The situation improved after 1923, particularly with respect to the Balkan trade, because of the disorganization of German in- dustry and transportation, consequent on the Ruhr occupation, and because of the German tendency to quote prices only in foreign cur- rencies. In 1923, however, the unfavorable trade balance had mounted up to $163,000,000. Replacements of depreciated stocks were heavy in this first year of Austria’s reconstruction; imports were many to avoid future turnover taxes, and many purchases were made in Ger- many with the stabilized Austrian crown, all of which helped bring this about. The factors of invisible exchange were also _ effective. Vienna was the banking centre of the Succession States as well as the wholesale centre; Austria had large interests in the industries in the Suc- cession States; the tourist trade was consider- 128 AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC able. Discounting these conditions, the adverse balance was still high, and it was an important reason for Austria’s economic plight. The country had 4274 miles of railway, of which 2964 were state-owned. The principal lines were the Western, the Northern, North- western, Eastern, and Franz Josef Railways, the last connecting Vienna with Czecho-Slovak- ia. Not until July, 1923, was the government able to see its way out of the hopeless railway tangle. From the end of the War, the railways had been regularly operated at a loss, because the portion of the railway system left in Aus- tria contained a high percentage of mountain- ous track, which, before the War, had been counterbalanced by the level stretches in the territories now belonging to Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland; it was necessary to im- port fuel; a surplus of personnel prevailed; the government operation was unprofitable. ‘To meet the situation, by the law of July 19, 1923, a corporation was created to conduct operation under a centralized control. The government financed the venture with a capital of 200,000,- 000,000 crowns and placed control in the hands of a directorate of 14, 11 of whom were to be business men or transportation experts, and 3, representatives of railway employees. To the government were reserved the rights to regu- late tariffs, approve loans, supervise social and safety measures, and regulate construction. River traffic was equally hard hit by the loss of ships and barges during the War. | Finance. Nothing revealed so completely the helplessness of the country as the unsatisfac- tory condition of government finances. Reve- nues for 1921-22 were 93,325,000,000 paper crowns, or $42,276,000; for 1922, they were 209,763,000,000 crowns, or $169,698,000; for 1923, they were estimated at 11,488,267,000,000 crowns, or $160,836,000. Expenditures for 1921- 22 were 258,229,000,000 ($116,978,000); for 1922, 347,533,000,000 ($281,154,000) ; for 1923, 13,862,760,000,000 ($194,079,000). Thus the def- icits were $74,701,000, $111,456,000, and $33,- 243,000. From 1919 to 1921 conditions stead- ily grew worse, so that on Jan. 11, 1921, the Austrian government confessed itself at the end of its resources and offered to turn over the country’s administration to the Reparations Commission which the Treaty of St. Germain had established in the country. While the Su- preme Council talked, the country’s obligations continued to pile up. In 1921 it was estimated that Austria’s share of the Dual Monarchy’s debt was 53,200,000,000 crowns out of its total debt of 116,693,000,000 crowns, with an annual interest charge of 1,918,000,000 crowns. Fi- nally, on Sept. 27, 1922, the League of Nations accepted responsibility for’ the economic re- - habilitation of Austria, and in so doing, prac- tically established a dictatorship over the Re- public. The plan accepted included the placing of a loan of $135,000,000 for 20 years among Italy, Great Britain, France, and Czecho-Slo- vakia; the appointment of a commissioner gen- eral by the League of Nations to direct expendi- tures; a committee of control to represent each of the guarantor governments; the setting aside of gross receipts from customs and the tobacco revenue as security; the promise on the part of Austria to eliminate the deficit by 1925. The Austrian government agreed to push retrenchments, cut down personnel, ete. On Feb. 1, 1923, the League of Nations author- AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC ized the issuance of the loan. Of this, Ameri- ean bankers took $25,000,000, at 7 per cent for 20 years. On February 21, the Reparations Commission renounced all rights to Austrian property and revenues for 20 years. As an in- dication of good faith, the Austrian government between September, 1922, and October, 1923, dismissed 50,000 functionaries; on Nov. 22, 1922, heavy increases were announced in the income tax, the tax on shares, and the turnover tax. Under Dr. Zimmermann, the League Com- missioner General, appointed in December, 1922, the financial reforms were pushed and the success with which they met was indicated by the fact that the draft budget of 1924 carried a deficit of 836,900,000,000 paper crowns as against the 1923 deficit of 2,664,200,000,000. Whether it would be possible to reach a bal- ance by 1925 was problematical, for with the growing soundness of economic conditions it was inevitable that expenditures should in- crease, especially in the replacement and repair of depreciated equipments. It was plain in 1924 that the Austrian people were taking heart at the activities of their government and that such a return of confidence could not but augur well for the future. On Jan. 1, 1923, a new National Bank for Austria was opened with a capital of 30,000,000 gold crowns. Economic Conditions. Its state condition made it inevitable that the Austrian Republic should turn to the printing press to meet cur- rent expenses. In June, 1919, 7,000,000,000 pa- per crowns were in circulation; at the end of 1920, 30,600,000,000 paper erowns, with a metallic reserve of 8,807,000 gold crowns; 1921, 181,000,000,000 paper crowns, with 10,022,000 gold crowns in reserve; 1922, 4,080,400,000,000 paper crowns, with 356,000 gold crowns in re- serve. That the currency should depreciate with this unprecedented inflation was inevita- ble. The gold crown at par is worth $.2026. On Jan. 1, 1922, the paper crown was worth $.000387; on Jan. 1, 1923, $.00014. The cost of living mounted. Compared with the fig- ures for 1914, it rose to 13 in December, 1918; 69 in January, 1921; 662 in January, 1922; and 11,271 in December, 1922. Wages rose al- most equally; on the same scale, the wage in- dex for September, 1922, was 10,744. The establishment of the rehabilitation scheme at once changed tendencies for the better. In the first quarter of 1923, note circulation increased only 9 per cent; the metallic reserve increased ; savings deposits became greater, and the cost of living index dropped 14 per cent. It is plain that these conditions had been merely the re- flections of a general debilitation. Austria had been a manufacturing centre. After the War, the lack of raw materials, fuel, and grains brought on a complete breakdown. The gov- ernment found it necessary to centralize trade in food, and in many instances, food stocks were sold to the public below their actual costs. To June, 1921, it was estimated that £32,500,- 000 was spent in foodstuffs by the government. Unemployment naturally mounted with the general breakdown. In May, 1919, 186,000 per- sons were out of work, 132,000 of them in the Vienna district alone. In April, 1920, the number had fallen to 46,000, with 38,000 in the Vienna district; by October, 1921, to 24,- 000 in the Vienna district. Thence forward it mounted again. December, 1922, saw 86,000 men out of work in Vienna, and January, 1923, 129 AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC 125,000; but in October, this figure had dropped to 77,900. The government applied it- self to the problem of relief doles; in April, 1919, 46,000 were receiving aid; and not until May, 1920, was it able to put the situation on a scientific basis by the enactment of unem- ployment insurance legislation. It should be pointed out that the mounting unemployment of 1922-23 was a sign for the better. The ex- change ‘was now stabilized and industry was merely going through a _ transitional period. During these troublesome times measures were taken to render the lot of labor more com- fortable. Many of these acts were of an ad- vanced character. An eight-hour day was en- forced, and laws were enacted for compulsory holidays, the legalizing of collective bargaining, the establishment of workers’ councils in in- dustry, and the building of houses by govern- mental agencies. For example, the city of Vienna, in 1923, made plans for the erection of 25,000 houses, workshops, and _ business places. These, then, were evidences of an eco- nomic and moral rehabilitation. At the close of 1923, observers saw Vienna regaining her po- sition as a commercial and exchange centre of Southeast Europe. In 1923 alone, new capital investments in the country totaled 200,000,- 000. Three things were still needed, an in- tensification of agricultural methods, develop- ment of water power to eliminate heavy coal imports; and the breakdown of the customs barriers which the Succession States had erected. History. The proclamation of the Republic of Austria on Nov. 12, 1918, left the country in a precarious political and economic situa- tion. Its territory had been materially re- duced and comprised not even all of the Ger- man language districts of the old Austrian Em- pire. The government was carried on by the provisional National Assembly which had con- vened on Oct. 21, 1918. On Feb. 16, 1919, a National Constituent Assembly was elected, in which the Socialists and the Christian Social- ists held a majority. The Assembly elected the Socialist, Seitz, President of the new republic and appointed on Mar. 15, 1919, a ministry with Dr. Karl Renner as Chancellor. The new government launched a programme of exten- sive social and economic reform, including abolition of the feudal nobility and nationaliza- tion of the means of production; but confronted with serious internal difficulties, it was not able to proceed very far along these lines. As a result of the spread of revolutionary ideas and of the very bad economic conditions, nota- bly the lack of foodstuffs, Communist agita- tion developed which had to be put down by force. The terms of the Treaty of St. Germain to which Chancellor Renner affixed his signa- ture on Sept. 10, 1919, served to aggravate the internal situation still further. The only way out of what seemed an impossible state of af- fairs, by union with Germany, which, for polit- ical and economic reasons appealed strongly to the Austrian people, was blocked by the opposi- tion of the victors. By Article II of the Fun- damental Law of Nov. 12, 1918, German Austria had proclaimed itself a constituent portion of the German Republic, but despite the vigorous popular agitation, the actual union had not been consummated. This project was vetoed by Article 88 of the Treaty of St. Germain, in- serted on French initiative and declaring the AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC independence of Austria inalienable without the consent of the Council of the League of Nations. The establishment of a Soviet Republic in Hun- gary strained relations with that country, for the Austrian government was in constant fear of a rising among its own ultra-radical elements with active support from the Hungarians, which, indeed, might have proved serious, since the feeble Austrian army was in part strongly Bolshevik in sympathy. Meanwhile the inter- nal situation grew steadily worse. Except for the German language and nationality there was no bond of cohesion in this country, which, against its will, was forced by the dictum of the victors to exist as an independent state. The old antagonism between the city of Vienna, comprising one-fourth of the population of Aus- tria, and the agricultural sections, which were unwilling to supply the food without which Vienna was doomed to starvation, assumed at times serious proportions and threatened the very existence of the metropolitan population. Under the grave circumstances a steadily grow- ing and almost desperate desire for union with Germany manifested itself, both on the part of the country as a whole and of individual dis- tricts, especially Salzburg and the Tirol. On June 22, 1921, the Austrian Assembly voted to submit the project to a plebiseite. The Allies, however, particularly France, let it be known in various unofficial ways that, while they would not interfere with the plebiscite, they would regard any attempt at union with Ger- many as an infraction of the peace treaties and would take the proper steps to prevent it. The withdrawal of socialist support from the coalition forced the ministry to resign on June 11, 1920. Pending a new general election, which was held on Oct. 17, 1920, the Christian Socialist Dr. Michael Mayr presided over a Proportional Cabinet representing all parties. The elections proved a victory for the moderate policy of the Christian Socialists, who obtained 82 seats as compared with 66 for the Social Democrats and 19 for the Pan-Germans. Dr. Mayr now formed a Christian Socialist cabinet, braving the open opposition of the Socialists. Dr. Michael Hainisch, well-known as a sociolog- ical writer and formerly a Socialist, but now rather non-partisan, was elected President of the Republic by the new Assembly on Dec. 9, 1920. A ray of light illumined the abysmal scene when the decision of the Klagenfurt pleb- iscite (q.v.), on Oct. 10, 1920, saved the terri- tory for Austria. This was a valuable territo- rial acquisition in view of the agricultural pro- ductivity of the region. Another favorable turn was the admission of Austria into the League of Nations in December, 1920. But the economic plight of the country had grown worse meanwhile. With the approaching win- ter of 1920 Austria was in dire need of food and fuel. Her production of these necessaries of life was small in comparison with her needs. Purchase of these commodities in foreign coun- tries was precluded by lack of funds, a deficit in the budget, and an ever-mounting inflation ofthe currency. If anything, this situation be- came worse during the course of 1921, and it was evident that the unfortunate country was headed for disaster. By October of that year the crown had become practically worthless. While the people were facing famine, the gov- ernment made desperate attempts to obtain financial aid abroad. In the spring of 1921 it 130 AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC requested the Finance Committee of the League of Nations to procure the necessary funds for the purchase of foodstuffs. The League sent representatives to study the Austrian problem. Meanwhile the economic distress and the ap- parent uninterest of the outside world had made the Austrians even more weary of an in- dependence which was forced on them and had stimulated the agitation for union with Germany. Alarmed by the extent of the move- ment, the Allies declared on Apr. 14, 1921, that all agitation toward this end must cease forth- with, lest the Allies withdraw their proposals for financial relief. The government was forced to curb the movement, whereupon a section of the Chancellor’s party refused him support, compelling the Mayr Ministry to resign. Scho- ber, the Police President of Vienna, formed a new cabinet in June, 1921. The threat of the Allies did not, however, prevent the people of Tirol on Apr. 24, 1921, nor those of Salzburg on May 29, from voting by overwhelming ma- jorities in favor of union with Germany. Self- sufficient for food, these provinces could well afford to disregard the Allies’ declaration. It is also true that the movement was only par- tially dictated by economic necessity and that political desires and nationalist aspirations were important in it. These plebiscites were, of course, ineffective except as indications of popular sentiment. The three-cornered contro- versy between Austria, Hungary, and the Al- lies regarding Burgenland (q.v.), a strip of western Hungary inhabited chiefly by Germans and ceded to Austria by the Treaties of St. Ger- main and the Trianon, was settled after long altercations and some violence by the assign- ment of most of the area to Austria and the return of a small portion, the Oedenburg or Sopron district, to Hungary, after a plebiscite held in that locality on Dee. 17, 1921, had shown its predominantly Hungarian sentiment. The Schober cabinet was forced out of office in May, 1922, over a budget question. It was succeeded by a coalition cabinet under Dr. Ignaz Seipl, the leader of the Christian Social- ists. The desperate situation of the country at this time made some sort of action imperative. Austria had either to procure international financial assistance or unite with one of three neighboring countries, Italy, Germany, or Czecho-Slovakia. Italy addressed a note to the countries concerned announcing that she would consider union with Germany or the Little En- tente a casus belli. Thus the only course open was to seek financial aid abroad. Toward this end Chancellor Seipl appealed on Sept. 6, 1922, to the League of Nations. The latter adopted a plan for the restoration of Austrian finances, providing for an international loan of 650,000,- 000 gold crowns redeemable in 20 years, se- cured by Austrian productive assets and guar- anteed by England, France, Italy, Belgium, Czecho-Slovakia, Spain, and Holland, and the creation of a commissioner general, appointed by the League to supervise Austrian expendi- tures. Moreover, a committee of control, con- sisting of one representative of each of the gov- ernments guaranteeing the loan, was to be set up. ‘he guarantor states pledged themselves to respect Austrian sovereignty and independ- ence, in return for which Austria agreed not to alienate her independence. This last clause was inserted in the agreement to prevent union with Germany. The plan also provided for certain AUSTRIAN REPUBLIC governmental reforms to insure economy. On Noy. 26, 1922, the plan of the League was ap- proved by the Austrian Parliament, the Chris- tian Socialists and the Pan-Germans voting for it and the Socialists against it. The plan was put into operation immediately with Dr. Alfred Zimmermann of Rotterdam as commissioner general. The methods of drastic financial sur- gery which were applied brought about as early as the spring of 1923 the stabilization of the paper crown and a reduction of the deficit in the budget, although unemployment increased. This increase was counteracted by an accom- panying decrease in the cost of living and a revival of industry and trade which during the course of the year absorbed a great number of the government employees dismissed for reasons of economy. Slowly Austria progressed toward financial stability and economic reconstruction. This process of recovery lasted all through the year. By the end of 1923 Vienna was regain- ing her position as the commercial and ex- change centre for the Danube Basin and South- ern Europe. The activities of the League not only had a wholesome effect on the economic life of the country, but served also to dampen agitation for union with Germany, which in its extreme form had been largely an outgrowth of economic difficulties. That fact was demon- strated sufficiently by the elections for the As- sembly on Oct. 20, 1923, in which the Pan- Germans and the Socialists suffered defeat at the hands of the Christian Socialists, who for the past year had looked with disfavor on‘the movement. The report of the Commissioner General at the end of the year showed clearly the great forward stride, which had been made during 1923 toward the complete economic re- covery of Austria. The budget deficit had been cut in half, savings had multiplied, the curren- ey had been stabilized, industry had been re- vised, and foreign capital was beginning to come into the country. The balancing of the budget was in sight. This recovery was ac- companied by the establishment of more amica- ble relations with the succession states early in 1924. In the spring and summer of the lat- ter year there began to appear evidences of a desire on the part of the Austrians to escape from the supervision of the League of Nations, although the budget had not yet been balanced. At this time there were also disagreements be- tween the Austrian government and the commis- sioner over the methods of achieving a balanced budget. The Austrians preferred to do this by means of increased revenue, while the commis- sioner advocated reduction in expenditures. During the first half of 1924 came a marked increase in the cost of living. See BURGEN- LAND; TIROL, GERMAN SOUTH; NAVIES OF THE Wor Lb. The Austrian Constitution. On Oct. 1, 1920, a new constitution was promulgated which was a formidable document indeed and which went into much more detail than custom- ary. It declared Austria a democratic republic, composed of seven states and the city of Vi- enna. Austria became thereby a federal state in place of the old Austrian centralized state. All privileges were abolished and equal rights were given to all citizens. Universal suffrage for women as well as for men was established, and the voting age was set at 21. Executive power was vested in a president chosen for four years and a cabinet appointed by the As- 131 AZERBAIJAN sembly. Legislative power belonged to a Par- liament of two chambers, an Assembly elected for four years by popular vote and in accord- ance with the principle of proportional repre- sentation, and an upper chamber elected by the provincial diets in proportion to the population of the states. Since the upper chamber was given only advisory powers, the Parliament consisted in fact of only one chamber. The President was to be elected in a joint session of both chambers. AUTHORS’ LEAGUE OF AMERICA, Inc. An organization founded in 1912 to provide mutual assistance in the technicalities and dif- ficulties of publishing and copyrighting. Mem- bership was limited to persons of recognized standing in the literary or artistic professions. It was divided in 1922 into five departments: The American Dramatists; the Authors’ Guild; The Authors’ League Fellowship; The Art- ists’ Guild; and the Screen Writers’ Guild. Throughout the decade the League supplied confidential information to its members regard- ing managers, producers, etc. In 1919 _ it launched a world wide propaganda on behalf of American literature to raise the standard of literary criticism and to secure for American books the attention due them. The constitution of the league was revised in 1920 in regard to membership, dues, and the formation of guilds. Presidents during the 10 years were: Winston Churchill, Rex Beach, Owen Davis, Jesse Lynch Williams, and Ellis Parker Butler. AUTOINTOXICATION. See DIET. AUTOMATIC RIFLES. See Smatt ARMS. AUTOMOBILES. See Motor VEHICLES. AUTOMOBILE TIRES. See Motor VEHI- CLES; RUBBER. AYLMER, Sm Fenton Joun (1862- es A British general. He joined the army in 1880. He gained distinction as an officer in Burma, India, and China, and in 1912 was made adjutant-general at Simla. In 1915 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general and led the forces in Mesopotamia for the relief of Kut-el-Amara. The attack on the Turks failed; he was taken prisoner in April, 1916, and was exchanged in September. See WAR IN EUROPE, Turkish Front. AYRES, Louis (1874- ). An American architect, born at Bergen Point, N. J. He graduated from Rutgers College in 1896, en- tered the offices of McKim, Mead and White, and in 1910 went to the firm of York and Saw- yer, prominent 9s the firm architects of the Guarantee Trust Company Building, Postal Life Building, Broadway Savings Bank, and Rocke- feller Hospital (New York), as well as the Riggs Bank and the American Security and Trust Company (Washington, D. C.). He was appointed architect. for the Federal Reserve Bank, Bowery Savings Bank Building, Green- wich Savings Bank (New York), First Nation- al Bank (Boston), ete. He was a member of the Federal Fine Arts Commission for 1921-25. AZERBAIJAN, SOVIET REPUBLIC OF. One of the three Transcaucasian republics, af- filiated with the union of Socialist Soviet Re- publics that emerged in October, 1917; made up of the former Russian governments of Baku and Elisavetpol, and situated on the _ land- bridge which links Asia with Europe. The re- public derives its name from the Persian Azer- baijan to which it belonged up to 1813, when Russia acquired it. Geographically it lies in AZERBAIJAN 132 the basin of two great Caucasian rivers, the I\uru and the Aras, and is enclosed by the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, and the highlands of Armenia and Persian Azerbaijan. Around its chief city, Baku, is to be found oil, and in this single fact lies the prominence of an other- wise unimportant state. Within its boundaries is an area of 33,616 square miles, and a popu- lation, according to Russian statistics, of 2,096,- 973. Seventy-five per cent of the people are Moslems of Tartar and Turk stock, and almost the whole of the remainder are Armenians. The few Russians and Europeans in the state are to be found in the Baku district. Industry. The natives are a pastoral people. Cattle- and sheep-herding is their leading actiy- ity. Lack of communications and absence of a real community life made for ignorance and superstition, and backwardness was further fos- tered by unfamiliarity with the western world. The city of Baku, with an estimated population of 250,000, was the centre of great oil wells and before the War was the most prolifie single dis- trict in the world and almost the only source of Russia’s petroleum output. Lines of com- munication and trade centred here, making Baku the focal point of the whole Transcauca- sian isthmus. ‘The city was in direct communi- cation by rail and water with Europe and Asia, particularly because it was the eastern termi- nus of that Transcaucasian railway which end- ed in the West at Batum, Georgia. Another tie that knitted the two cities together into a sin- gle economic unit was the pipe line that tapped the Baku oil fields. two cities from 1917 to 1923 as a result of po- litical upheavals was really the nucleus of the Transcaucasian problem, Besides the petrole- um some developments were made in Azerbaijan in cotton culture, stock-raising, silk, cereals, and fisheries. History. The story of Azerbaijan is inti- mately connected with that of the Russian Re- public. In March, 1917, the Russian Republic was established; in September, in concert with Georgia and Armenia, Azerbaijan set up an autonomous government for Transcaucasia. The seat of this federal republic was estab- lished at Tiflis and a parliament or seim of 132 members organized. The republic had a brief and stormy career, for profound divergences of faith and sympathy impeded attempts at a mu- tual understanding. The Georgians and Ar- menians were Christians and looked to Europe for aid; the Tatars of Azerbaijan were Mus- sulmans and regarded Turkey as their natural ally. The invasion of Transcaucasia by Turkey in the spring of 1918 to secure the territories allotted it under the Brest-Litovsk treaty of Mar. 3, 1918, caused serious dissension in the Republic, for the Azerbaijani refused to take arms against their kinsmen. Other forces of disintegration were also at work. A Bolshevik government had established itself at Baku, and aided by the Armenian traders in the city, suc- ceeded in seriously hampering the activities of the Azerbaijan government set up provisionally at Elisavetpol. In March, 1918, the Tatar Moslems were compelled to flee from Baku as a result of serious disorders in which thousands were slain. On Mar. 17, 1918, an Azerbaijan attack on Baku was repulsed, compelling the Tatars to turn to their co-religionists, the Turks, for aid. This definite alliance with the Turks on the part of Azerbaijan brought about The separation of these - AZERBAIJAN the fall of the federal republic, which was dis- solved on May 26, 1918. Great Britain had watched all these movements with alarm. The victories of the Turks, together with the threat to the East that their advances implied, com- pelled the despatch of a British force to the aid of the Russians and Armenians beleaguered in Baku. But the counter-attack of the Turks could not be withstood; the British were com- pelled to take to their ships; and Baku fell on Sept. 14, 1918. The armistice of October 30 be- tween Turkey and the Allies cleared Transcau- easia of Turkish troops, and a British division soon took possession. It seems to have been the intention of the British to maintain a perma- nent sphere of control in Transcaucasia. But this policy depended on French successes in the Ukraine, and when the French met with hostil- ity in Odessa and were compelled to withdraw, the British position in Transcaucasia was cor- respondingly weakened. During July and Au- gust, 1919, the British withdrew. When the Peace Conference assembled early in 1919, Azerbaijan attempted to have its boundary question considered. This matter was compelled to wait on the completion of the Turkish treaty, and nothing was settled. In January, 1920, recognition was accorded by Great Britain to Azerbaijan and its sister- republics, Armenia and Georgia. A little later the three states exchanged treaties in which they promised to safeguard one another’s inde- pendence and to permit unimpeded intercourse between Batum and Baku. This show of exter- nal independence was brief. The defeat of Den- ikin and the understanding that was reached between the Russians and the Turkish Nation- alists on Mar. 16, 1920, once more left unhin- dered the Russian advance into Transcaucasia. On Apr. 28, 1920, a Russian army entered Baku without opposition. A rising of local Bolshe- viks turned out the Equality Party then in power and a Soviet government was _ estab- lished, patterned after and in complete sympa- thy with the Moscow government. Local disor- ders as a result of the concentration of Russian activities exclusively in Poland during the fall of 1920 caused much bloodshed. Bolshevist sympathizers were attacked by Tatars at Elis- avetpol, and Bolsheviks and Armenians retal- iated with the massacre of some 15,000 Tatars of all ages. In September, 1920, Azerbaijan signed a series of treaties with Soviet Russia consenting to unification of the military organ- ization, financial and economic control, and for- eign relations of the two countries; Azer- baijan became a dependent state with a very restricted local autonomy. In the fall of 1920 the Russian Bolsheviks brought about the down- fall of the national governments of Armenia and Georgia, and in the spring of 1921 soviet governments were set up in these countries. Once more Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia were bound together in a federal republic of Transcaucasia, but the federation was now in vassalage to Soviet Russia. Thus, in effect, Russia was once more in control of her old Transcaucasian provinces and dominated their economic and political life as before the events of 1917. This influence was given the stamp of legality by the completion of the important treaty of Dec. 30, 1922 (see Russia) at Mos- cow; all the Russian soviet republics were sig- natories to this. By it the governments of Rus- sia, the Ukraine, White Russia, Georgia, Ar- AZERBAIJAN menia, Azerbaijan, Bokhara, and Khiva, sub- stituted for their bi-lateral treaties a federal state, called the Union of Socialist and Soviet Republics. Under the treaty a centralized con- trol for the army, navy, foreign affairs, trade, finances, economic resources and relations, etc., was established, and a Central Executive Com- mittee for the Allies was at once created. This body comprised 270 representatives from Rus: sia, 68 from the Ukraine, 7 from White Rus 133 AZORIN sia, and 26 from the Transcaucasian states. As far as Azerbaijan was concerned the Union meant, economically, the establishment of rela- tions once more with the port of Batum, and politically, the definite passing of Azerbaijan, as an independent state after a turbulent his- tory of less than six years’ duration. See RUSSIA. AZORIN (1876- ). See MARTINEZ RUIz, Joss. B ABBITT, Irvina (1865- Aa American scholar and critic (see VoL. Il). His Rousseau and Roman- ticism (1919), one of the outstand- ing critical productions of the time, synthesized the attitude toward life and letters which he had expressed in previous works. His brilliant attack on the fetish of naturalism in science, philosophy, and _ litera- ture, and his insistence on the classical formula of moderation and form, came with particular timeliness, when the romantic cult seemed to reach its apogee. His work had something pro- phetic in it; for the swing toward classicism in France and England became more and more marked. In the United States he was more per- sistently romanticist because of the absence of a humanistic tradition and because of the firm entrenchment of pragmatism. Mr. Babbitt also published occasional papers in reviews and peri- odicals. BABCOCK, BeERnirE (SMADE) (1868- Ms An American author, born at Unionville, Ohio. She was a member of the staff of the Arkansas Democrat and later owned and edited The Ar- kansas Sketch Book, the first venture of its kind in her native State. She wrote Mammy, a drama read at Chautauqua and on lyceum circuits. She is also the author of Yesterday and To-day in Arkansas (1917), The Coming of the King (1921), The Soul of Ann Rutledge, Abraham Lincoln’s Romance (1919), and The Soul of Abraham Lincoln (1923). BABCOCK, SAmMvuEL GaviTT (1851- )e American bishop in the Protestant Episcopal Church. He graduated from the Episcopal The- ological School at Cambridge, Mass., in 1891. After holding pastorates in Rhode Island and Massachusetts he was archdeacon of Massachu- setts from 1903 to 1913, when he was elected bishop. BABINSKI, JuLEs (1855- ). A distin- guished French neurologist, pupil and successor of Chareot. Born in Paris, he graduated in medicine from the University in 1885. He dis- covered several valuable diagnostic signs in con- nection with neurological practice; two of these are in daily use among neurologists. The so- called “great toe” or “first Babinski” reflex was described in 1896-97 and the “‘second toe sign” in 1903. He was Charcot’s chief of clinic in the Salpétriere and Pitié Hospitals, and during the War, he had charge of many traumatic neu- rological cases at the latter institution. He was professor of neurology in the University of Paris. Babinski has written over 200 papers on nervous affections. With Froment he published Hysteropithiatisme en Neurologie de (Guerre, 1917. This work was translated into English by Sir H. Rolleston in 1918. BACHELIN, HEnrr (1879- ). A French novelist, born at Lormes (Niévre), France. He is especially noted for his novels describing Morvan, the section of France with which he was best acquainted. In 1918 he was awarded the Vie Hewreuse prize. His works include Pas comme les Autres (1906), Les Manigants (1907), Horizons et Coins du Morvan (1909), Jules Renard et Son Oeuvre (1909), Robes Noires (1910), Juliette la Jolie (1912), Sous @Humbles Toits, short stories (1913), L’Heri- tage (1914), La Renaissance du Livre (1917), L’Eclaircie (1918), Le Serviteur (1918), Les Rustres (1922), and Le Chant du Coq (1922- 23). BACHELLER, Irvine _ (1859- ). An American author (see Vou. Il). He published Marryers (1914); The Light in the Clearing (1917); Keeping Up with Williams (1918); A Man for the Ages (1919); and The Prodigal Village (1920). BACON, FRANK (1864-1922). An American actor, born at Marysville, Cal. He was educat- ed in the public schools of San José, and after experimenting in journalism and photography he made his first appearance on the stage at the Garden Theatre, San José, Cal., in 1890 in the melodrama Ten Nights in a Bar-Room. His first appearance on the New York stage was at the Gaiety Theatre, New York, beginning in Alabama, Pudd’n’ Head Wilson, Me and Grant, The Cinderella Man, The Fortune Hunter, etc. His most popular character play was Lightnin’, written by himself and produced with extraor- dinary success for three consecutive years at the Gaiety Theatre, New York, beginning in 1918. BACON, RAymonp Foss (1880- ) Ag American chemist, born at Muncie, Ind. He was graduated in 1899 at DePauw University. He then received a fellowship at Chicago. He taught chemistry at Vincennes University, but subsequent to obtaining his doctor’s degree he took up the commercial practice of chemistry in Chicago. In 1905 he went to the Philippines as chemist to the Bureau of Science and five years later accepted a similar appointment in the Bureau of Chemistry in Washington. He was director of the Mellon Institute in Pitts- burgh, 1914-21; in 1921 he entered commercial practice in New York City. During the War he served in the Chemical Warfare Service with the rank of colonel and was also connected with the Naval Construction Board. BADEN, FREE Stave oF. Formerly a grand duchy, now a republic, in Southwestern Ger- many. Its area is 5819 square miles; its pop- ulation in 1919, 2,208,503 (the 1910 census gave Baden 2,142,833). The capital, Karlsruhe, had, according to the census of .1919, 135,952. The largest cities include: Mannheim (229,576), Freiburg (87,946), Heidelberg (60,831), and 134 BAEKELAND Baden (25,444). No important changes have appeared in the activities of the population. Wheat, barley, rye, tobacco, hemp, and various root crops are cultivated. The vine culture yielded about 6,000,000 gallons of wine in 1921. The manufactures have included tiles, cigars, jewelry, machinery, musical instruments, chem- icals, hats, paper, leather, and brushes. . Up to the revolution of 1918, Baden was ruled by a hereditary monarch, the Grand Duke, with the aid of an election diet. The country, because of an alliance of the Liberal parties and the Social Democrats, and also be- cause of its long liberal tradition, was regarded as one of the most happily administered in all Europe. But the downfall of the Hohenzollern family dragged with it the reigning house of Baden and the Grand Duke abdicated on Nov. 22, 1918. On Jan. 15, 1919, a national assem- bly, which had been elected on a basis of uni- versal suffrage, met for the preparation of a new constitution. On May 21, 1919, the new constitution was promulgated, the first such document to emerge in revolutionary Germany. It abolished all privilege of birth, religion, and caste; bestowed full legal rights on women; recognized the right of workers, including civil servants, to combine; and granted the suffrage to all men and women over 20. The sovereign power has been vested in a single-chamber diet (Landtag), which chooses the ministry of eight, and, from their number, one to act as minister- president and president of the state. Through the exercise of the initiative, the diet may be dissolved at any time. Baden is a member of the German Federated Republic or Reich and has three members in the Reichsrat or Imperial Council. BAEKELAND, Leo HENprix (1863- yi A Belgian-American chemist (see ‘Vout. II). In 1914 he was awarded the Chandler Medal by Columbia University, in 1915 the Grand Prize at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, and in 1916 the Perkin Medal. BAEUMER, Gertrup (1873- ). A phi- lologist, teacher, lecturer and active worker in the woman’s movement of Germany. She was born in Berlin, where she studied at the univer- sity. She is the author of some philological works, Die Soziale Idee und die Weltanschauun- gen des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts and Hand- buch der Frauenfrage (in collaboration with Helene Lange). She edited Die Hilfe and Die Frau, was elected member of the Diet (1918) and became councilor in the Cabinet of the In- terior. BAFFIN LAND. For three centuries this was a land .of mystery. Its boundary and ex- tent were unknown, and authorities differed as to whether it was an island or a _ peninsula. Macmillan added to our knowledge, but it re- mained for the governmental expedition of Can- ada in 1923 to solve the geographic problem. It is by far the largest island in the Parry archipelago, extending northward 1200 miles from latitude 62°N. to 74°N. Its estimated area is 211,000 square miles, five times the size of Cuba. Canada perfected its claim to the is- land by the establishment of a station of mounted police in Ponds Inlet, where the Hud- son Bay Company had a factor trading with the inhabitants of a permanent village of about a ‘hundred natives at that point. There were several different tribes of Eskimos living by hunting and fishing in the interior. In the 135 BAGDAD RAILWAY southern district are two large lakes, compar- able in size to Lake Ontario. Outcroppings of iron and coal were noted, and the latter was mined to some extent. Explorations were being made for gold and other valuable minerals. BAGDAD. See Mesororamia; WaAR_ IN Europe, Turkish Front. BAGDAD RAILWAY. The Asiatic link, a line 2500 miles long, of the Great “Berlin to Bagdad” Railway, which was intended to fur- ther German penetration into the Near East. It was one of the most important “stakes of di- plomacy” and as such may be regarded as one of the factors that contributed to bring about the War of 1914; indeed, the frustration of the German ‘“Berlin-Byzantium-Bagdad” plan was publicly declared by Allied and American lead- ers during the War to be a vital issue of the world conflict. Before the inception of the Bag- dad Railway scheme, Central Europe had been connected with Constantinople by the Oriental Railway: and in the very year (1888) in which the first through train ran across the Balkans to the Ottoman Capital, a German syndicate headed by the Deutsche Bank obtained a conces- sion to extend the Haidar Pasha-Ismid Railway as far as Angora, in the interior of Anatolia. As soon as this line was opened (in 1893), the same syndicate, operating through the Anatol- ian Railway Company, obtained permission to build a branch to Konia (completed 1896). Now a wider vista of economic-political pene- tration was unfolded to the ambitious German engineers and financiers; they now proposed to push the railway from Konia across the frown- ing Taurus mountains, through Cilicia and northern Syria, across the desert to Mosul on the Tigris, thence to Bagdad, and on to the Persian Gulf. Negotiations for this project, begun in the nineties, culminated in 1903 in the formal grant of the Bagdad Railway Concession by the Ottoman government to an Ottoman cor- poration, the Bagdad Railway Company con- trolled by German banks. Russia immediately objected; England and France, declining an of- fer of shares in the enterprise, raised obstacles in the way of the German advance. Neverthe- less, the work of construction was begun, and section after section was completed; yet, be- cause of diplomatic as well as engineering diffi- culties, the line was unfinished when the War began. Great gaps were still unbridged in northern Mesopotamia and in the Amanus mountains. Turkey’s entry into the War was largely due to the politico-economic grip which the railway project had given Germany on the Ottoman Empire. During the conflict, Turks and Germans labored in frantic haste to com- plete the line, for military purposes. The cele- brated Bagtché tunnel was pierced in 1915, a narrow-gauge track was laid to Aleppo, and by the Armistice all but about 325 miles between Nisibin and Bagdad, and the sector below Bag- dad, remained unfinished. But not for Ger- many were the fruits of the enterprise reserved. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) cancelled all former German rights in the Bagdad Railway; the Treaty of Sévres and the accompanying se- eret Anglo-French-Italian agreement (1920) provided that Turkey should appropriate the Anatolian and Bagdad Railways, and transfer them to a Franco-British-Italian corporation. France, stealing a march on Britain by the Franeco-Turkish Treaty of Angora (1921), ob- tained for a French syndicate (the Cilician- BAGLEY Syrian Railway Company) the concession for the middle section between Bozanti and Nisibin (i.e. between Cilicia and the Tigris) in 1922. The southeastern sections, from Samarra to Bagdad and thence to Basra, having been com- pleted by the British army of occupation, were, of course, under British control. The north- western or Anatolian section, from Haidar Pasha to the Cilician Gates, remained provi- sionally in Turkish hands, pending fulfillment of the Sévres treaty or some other arrangement. It was a delicate problem, because the stock- holders of the Bagdad Railway Company, which was to be expropriated, were by no means all Germans; about 30 per cent of the stock was owned by French investors, and a large block was held by the Swiss Bank fiir orientalischen Eisenbahmen, to which the Deutsche Bank had transferred its holdings. By purchasing a con- trolling interest in this Swiss bank, in May, 1923, British financiers hoped to obtain in- directly a dominating interest in the railway. A little later, a British financial group repre- sented by Mr. Huguenin was reported to be ne- gotiating with the Turkish government for a lease of the Anatolian Railway. Such negotia- tions, of course, were pursued largely behind the scenes of public diplomacy, and could not be traced with certainty, nor had the ownership of the Anatolian-Bagdad system been definite- ly determined by 1924; but of one point there could be no doubt, that the magnificently am- bitious German scheme, which had so profound- ly stimulated the hopes of German imperialists and no less deeply stirred the enmity of Entente statesmen before the War, was no longer to be a German enterprise. BAGLEY, WILLIAM CHANDLER (1874- \3 American university professor born at Detroit, Mich. He was educated at the Michigan Agri- cultural College, the University of Wisconsin, and Cornell Univers:ty. He taught in the pub- lic schools and was professor of education in the University of Illinois und Teachers’ College, Columbia University. He was president of the National Society for Study of Education and the Society of College Teachers of Education. During the War he edited The National School Service. Among his published works are Edu- cational Values (New York, 1911); The His- tory of the American People, with Charles A. Beard (New York, 1919); A First Book im American History, with Charles A. Beard (New York, 1920); The Nation and the Schools, with John A. Keith (New York, 1920); and Our Old World Background, with Charles A. Beard (New York, 1922). BAHAMAS. A British colony north of the West Indies consisting of 29 islands, 661 islets, and over 3000 reefs. Only 20 islands of this whole group are inhabited. The principal is- lands are: New Providence, which contains the capital, Nassau (13,554); Abaco (4463) ; Grand Bahama (1824); San Salvador (5072); Long Island (4150); Eleuthra (6533); Exuma (3465); and Andros Island (7545). The plant- ing of sisal, the growing of vegetables, and the sponge fisheries continued to be the leading in- dustries, while fruit culture increased rapidly because of the establishment of canning facto- ries. The imports for 1922 were valued at £1,963,152 (a gain of 386 per cent over 1913), and the exports at £1,827,735 (a gain of 599 per cent over 1913). In 1922, 721,846 tons of shipping entered and 718,110 tons cleared the 136 BAILEY ports of the islands. In 1922, the share of the United States in Bahamas imports was 60 per cent, and of their exports, 8 per cent, carried for the most part in American bottoms. A large proportion of the illicit alcoholic traffic carried on with the United States originated in the Bahamas, the city of Nassau devoting itself tc a large extent to this activity. BAHREIN. See ARABIA. BAIKO, ONoYE ( ?- ). A Japanese actor of the Imperial Theatre in Tokyo whose deli- cacy and charm as an interpreter of female roles have won him great favor. He is a mem- ber of the company which presents classical Kabuki drama. Baiko and his associates per- form on a stage whose basic fictions are differ- ent from those of the American theatre. The orthodox Japanese stage makes little effort to conceal its operation. BAILEY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1875—- }e American electrical engineer, born at Sheridan, Mich. He studied electrical engineering at the University of Michigan and later held the posi- tions of chief engineer of the Fairbanks-Morse Electrical Manufacturing Company and Howell Electrical Motor Company, director of Bailey Electrical Company, and vice-president and di- rector of the Fremont Motor Corporation. He is the author of several books on electrical en- gineering, including Principles of Dynamo-elec- tric Machinery (1915). He became professor of electrical engineering at the University of Michigan in 1913. BAILEY, CARroLyN SHERWIN (1877- 1g An American author of children’s stories, born at Hoosick Falls, N. Y. She graduated from Teachers’ College, Columbia University, in 1896. She has contributed to the Ladies’ Home Journal and other magazines, and published volumes of stories for children, methods of story telling, methods of teaching children, etc., which include Boys and Girls of Colonial Days (1917); Broad Stripes and Bright Stars (1919); Flint; The Story of a Trail (1922); and Friendly Tales (1923). She wrote For the Children’s Hour (:906) in collaboration. BAILEY, CHARLES JUSTIN (1859- ). An American soldier, born in Tamaqua, Pa. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1880 and in the same year was ap- pointed second lieutenant. He was promoted through the various grades and became colonel in 1911 and brigadier-general in 1913. On Aug. 5, 1917, he was appointed major general of the National Army. He commanded the Philippine Department in 1918 and in the same year was made commander of the 81st Division of the National Army, which he commanded in France in 1918-19. In the latter year he was appoint- ed commander of the Middle Atlantic Coast Artillery District, and in 1921, commander of the Third Corps Area. He was awarded the D. S. M., the Order of Leopold (Belgium), the Croix de Guerre with palm, and was an officer of the Legion of Honor. BAILEY, PrEArcE (1865-1922). An Ameri- can neurologist and psychiatrist, educated at Princeton and Columbia Universities. He _ be- came a consultant in several New York hos- pitals and with Collins and Fraenkel founded the Neurological Institute. He was also ap- pointed an associate professor of neurology in Columbia. On the entry of the United States into the War, he was appointed chief of the division of neurology and psychiatry in the BAILEY United States army with the rank of colonel. He perfected a system for weeding out defec- tives which is said to have been used as a model by the Allies. His major literary efforts comprise a translation of Golobievski’s Atlas and Epitome of Diseases Caused by Accident (1900) and a monograph Accident and Injury; Relation to the Nervous System (1906), which he later expanded into Diseases of the Nervous System Resulting from Accident and Injury, a valuable work for the medical world. At the time of his death, Dr. Bailey was chairman of the New York State Committee for Mental De- fectives. BAILEY, VERNON Howe (1874— ye" An American artist, born at Camden, N. J., who studied at the Pennsylvania Museum School of Art and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Mr. Bailey’s special subject is city streets in Europe and America. The _ best known of his drawings are his sketches in pen- ceil of London. Bailey was the first artist priv- ileged by the United States government on the declaration of war to make drawings of navy yards, munition factories, and other centres of war work. These drawings appeared in exhibi- tions and were published in the leading maga- zines throughout the country. The Hispanic Society has a collection of 150 drawings which Mr. Bailey made of Spain, and the Musée de la Guerre of France contains a collection of lithographs of American war subjects. Be- sides his work as a newspaper artist in London and America Mr. Bailey illustrated many books. BAIN, Harry Foster (1871- }etAn American geologist, born at Seymour, Ind. He was éducated at Moores Hill College, Johns Hopkins, and the University of Chicago. Meanwhile he became connected with the Iowa Geological Survey in 1893 and remained in this position until 1901, when he entered the United States Geological Survey, with which he served for two years. From 1905 to 1911 he was State geologist of Illinois. In 1918 he re- turned to the government service as assistant director of The Bureau of Mines and in 1920 succeeded to the directorship. He was editor of the Mining and Scientific Press, 1909-15, and in 1915-16 he edited the London Mining Magazine. Dr. Bain gave courses of lectures on economic geology at the University of Iowa in 1897 and at the University of Chicago in 1899 and 1902-3. BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM SEAMAN (1870-__—+?). An American surgeon and gynecologist born at Providence, R. I. He studied at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia Uni- versity and at various hospitals in New York City and abroad. He has been a prolific writer on surgical subjects in many fields, notably in- testinal stasis and cancer. He became a pro- fessor at the New York Polyclinic Medical School and Hospital in 1906. Before the entry of the United States into the War he was United States medical observer with the Allied armies and later was attached to the Surgeon General’s office to report his findings. After the entry of the United States into the War he functioned as naval surgeon on vessels and at naval base hospitals and was subsequently com- missioned commander of the United States Medical Corps. He is the author of The Can- cer Problem (1914), re-issued in French in 1922; Life’s Day (1909), a work on personal 137 BAKER hygiene; and Report of Medical and Surgical Developments of the War (Government Print- ing Office, 1919). BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See War IN Europet, /talian Front. BAIRNSFATHER, Bruce (1887- Pa English humorist born at Murree, India, and educated at the United Services College, West- ward Ho. He studied to be an engineer but in 1914 rejoined the Royal Warwickshire Regi- ment and served in France until 1916, when he received a War Office appointment. His hu- morous black and white sketches of life in the trenches which appeared in Bystander made Bairnsfather’s reputation, and his play The Better ’Ole, which scored a great success in 1917, was based on the adventures of the “Old Bill” of these sketches. Fragments of France contains many of his drawings. He also pro- duced Bullets and Billets (1916) and From Mud to Mufti (1919). In 1919 he started Fragments, a weekly comic paper. BAKER, GEoRGE BaArR_ (1870- ). An American editor, born at Wyandotte, Mich. He began as reporter on the Detroit Tribune (1895- 96) and was subsequently art critic, foreign cor- respondent, etc., for leading newspapers and magazines. He was American correspondent of the London Daily Express, 1904-05. Later he was associate editor of Hverybody’s Magazine (1907-10) and literary editor of the Delineator (1911-14). Through the Spanish-American War he was ship’s writer for the U.S.S. Yosem- ite, and during the European War he held the important positions of secretary of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, director of the American Relief Administration, Comman- der of the United States Naval Reserve Force, etc. He wrote of Mother’s Geese: a New Brood, in collaboration (New York, 1906). BAKER, Horace ( ? — ). An American railway official, born in Missouri, where he was educated in the public schools. He worked up from subordinate positions in various railway companies and became in 1917 general man- ager of the Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway and the Alabama Great South- ern Railroad System (lines west). In 1920 he was a member of the Railroad Board of Ad- justment and of the United States Railroad Labor Board. BAKER, HucH Potrer (1878- ). An American forester, born at St. Croix Falls, Wis. He graduated from the Michigan Agricultural College in 1901 and took post-graduate courses in forestry at Yale. He also studied at the University of Munich. For 10 years he was in the United States Forest Service in Idaho, Wyoming, New Mexico, and other western States. He became professor of forestry in the Iowa State College in 1904 and filled the same chair at Pennsylvania State College, 1907-12. He was dean and professor of sil- viculture at the New York State College of Forestry, 1912-20, and in 1920 he became ex- ecutive secretary of the American Paper and Pulp Association. During the War he served with the 46th Infantry and was a member of the General Staff. BAKER, (Mrs.) KArLE WILSON (1878- his An American poet and author, born at Little Rock, Ark., and educated at the University of Chicago. In spite of the frequent mordant bits, her poems have visions of real beauty. Under the pseudonym of “Charlotte Wilson,” BAKER 138 she was co-author of Women and Prisons (1912), published in London by the Fabian Society. She has contributed fiction and poet- ry to Harper’s, Atlantic Monthly, Yale Review, The Century, etc., and is the author of Blue Smoke, poems (1919), The Garden of the Plynck (1920), The Burning Bush (1922), ete. BAKER, Newton Dienu (1871- ) heed American lawyer and public official, born in Martinsburg, W. Va. He graduated from Johns Hopkins University in 1892 and from the law department of Washington and Lee University in 1894. He served as private sec- retary to Postmaster General Wilson, 1896-97, and in the latter year began the practice of law at Martinsburg, W. Va. He removed to Cleveland, Ohio, and from 1902 to 1912 was solicitor for that city. He was elected mayor in 1912 and was reélected in 1914. His work as an efficient administrative oflicer attracted wide attention, and in 1916 he was appointed Secretary of War by President Wilson. He was in charge of this most important branch of the government during the War, and al- though his administration was severely criti- cized, it was generally conceded that on the whole his conduct of the office was marked by zeal and by absolute devotion to its duties. He served until Mar. 4, 1921. In that year he was commissioned colonel of the O. R. C. On the conclusion of his official service, he resumed the practice of law in Cleveland, He was a zealous advocate of the League of Nations, and at the Democratic national convention of 1924, he made an impassioned appeal for the inclu- sion of the plank favoring the League in the - Democratic platform. This move was. defeated. BAKER, P. Bryant (1881— ). An English sculptor, born at London. He studied at the London Royal Academy of Arts. Baker came to the United States in 1915 and served in the army, 1918-19. His work includes a statue of King Edward VII at Huddersfield, Yorkshire; a memorial to Archdeacon Henry Robeson in Tewkesbury Abbey, the Rt. Hon. Percy Illing- worth Memorial in London, a marble bust of King Edward VII, executed for Queen Alexan- dra, and a portrait of Prince Olay, for the Queen of Norway. An idealistic imagination is evident in his “Eros” (Manchester) and “Mnemosyne” (Hull City Art Galleries). As a student he attracted much attention with the four figure group, “The Entombment,”’ which won a first prize at the Academy. He has made portrait busts of President Wilson, Gen. J. J. Pershing, Chief Justice William H. Taft, and Theodore Roosevelt. His work has been exhibited at the Royal Academy London, the Paris Salon, the Corcoran Art Gallery in Washington and at various important galleries in the United States. BAKER, Ray STANNARD (1870- ). Amer- ican author and publicist (see Vor. II). After the War, Mr. Baker was prominent as director of the press bureau of the American Peace Del- egation in Paris. In this capacity he passed on all the news concerning the peace proceed- ings which emanated from official sources for home consumption. Continuing his prolific writing, he published books in many genres. Under the pen-name of “David Grayson” he wrote a series of rural studies which in their idyllic charm struck a rather unusual note in American literature. Their tranquillity and BALDWIN kindliness had the flavor of Vergil’s Georgics. These sketches included Adventures in Content- ment (1907), Adventures in Friendship (1910), The Friendly Road (1913), Great Possessions (1917), and the novel Hempfield (1915). As a result of his peace activities, he wrote What Wilson Did at Paris (1919), and Woodrow Wil- son and World Settlement (1922). The latter was a full account accompanied by official doc- uments and had as its purpose the vindication of President Wilson’s attitude. BAKU. See AZERBAIJAN. BALCH, EpwIn Swirr ( ? —- ). An American writer on the Antarctic, glaciers, ete. He was born at Philadelphia and graduated from Harvard University. After studying in the law office of William Henry Rawle, he was admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1882. Be- sides contributing to periodicals, he has writ- ten Antarctica (1902), Comparatiwe Art (1906) The North Pole and Bradley Land (1913), Mt. McKinley and Mountain Climbers’ Proofs (1914),.and Arts of the World (1920), ete. BALDWIN, JAmes Mark (1861- ). An American philosopher and psychologist (see Vou. IT). During the War he.was active in be- half of the Allies’ cause and published ad- dresses pleading for American participation. American Neutrality, Its Cause and Cure (1916) and France and the War (1916) are two such collections. The Swperstate and the Eternal Values was the Spencer memorial lec- ture for 1916. A Genetic Theory of Reality, presented as the culmination of his previous studies in genetic logic, is the only comprehen- sive philosophic work he published after 1914. Professor Baldwin’s works have been ‘trans- lated into French and have been well received by the philosophic public of France. BALDWIN, Lewis WARRINGTON (1875— 3 An American railway official, born at Water- bury, Md., and educated at St. John’s College (Annapolis, Md.) and at Lehigh University. He began his career in the engineering depart- ment of the Illinois Central Railroad in 1896. From 1906 to 1915 he held various positions with the Illinois Central and Yazoo and Mis- souri Valley Railways, finally becoming their general superintendent. He was successively general manager and vice-president of the Cen- tral of Georgia Railway, 1915-18, and in 1918 he became assistant regional director of the United States Railroad Administration for the southern region. He held a similar position in the Allegheny region, 1918-19, and became di- rector in 1919-20. In the latter year he was also made vice-president in charge of the operating department of the Illinois Central Railroad. BALDWIN, STantey (1867- ). A prime minister of Great Britain, born Aug. 3, 1867, and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. He entered Parliament in 1908. Business ab- sorbed most of his attention for some years, and it was not until the break-up of the Lloyd George coalition in October, 1922, when he was made financial secretary to the treasury, and later president of the Board of Trade, that he caused any particular stir in politics. His training in trade and finance stood him in good stead, and his great ability in these fields be- came widely recognized. In the Bonar Law government he was made Chancellor of the Ex- chequer, and did much to increase Great Bri- BALDWIN tain’s prestige abroad. In January, 1923, he came to the United States to arrange for the payment of the British war debt. After a month of successful accomplishment he re- turned home to England. On April 16 he in- troduced his first budget, which showed a sur- plus of $500,000,000, most of it due to drastic economy. Soon after Easter, Bonar Law lost the use of his voice, and Baldwin acted as his deputy and spoke for him on many occasions. When Bonar Law resigned in May, 1923, Bald- win became prime minister. Baldwin and his supporters believed that the protection of home industries was the sovereign cure for unem- ployment, but he was bound by his late chief’s pledge to let tariff reform alone. He appealed to the country, and an election was held on December 6. The vote was against protection, and by the time Parliament met on Jan. 8, 1924, it was expected that the Baldwin govern- ment would be given a vote of censure. The anticipated vote occurred on January 21, and on Mr. Baldwin’s resignation the next day, Ramsay MacDonald was summoned to Buck- ingham Palace and asked to form a new cabinet. ‘BALDWIN, Tuomas Scott (1854- Jeo An aéronaut born in Merrien County, Mo. His flying experience extended over a 46-year peri- od, from 1875 to 1921. He is best known as the originator of parachutes and as the first to descend from a balloon in a parachute in the United States (at San Francisco in 1885). He delivered the first airship to the signal eorps of the United States army. During the War he was chief of the army balloon inspec- tion and production. BALFOUR, ARTHUR JAMES, First EARL OF (1848- ). A British statesman and former prime minister (see VoL. II). With other Un- ionist leaders he discarded all party differ- ences on the outbreak of the War and joined Mr. Asquith’s first Coalition cabinet of 1915 with the portfolio of First Lord of the Admi- ralty. In this office his work met the uncom- promising criticism of Winston Churchill, whom he had displaced, but his dignified deportment and excellent reports earned public confidence. In his administration the battle of Jutland was fought; he was responsible for the appointment of Sir John Jellicoe as First Sea Lord and Sir David Beatty as commander of the sea forces. With the accession of Lloyd George in Decem- ber, 1916, Mr. Balfour was transferred to the Foreign Office, where it was felt that his pleas- ing address could be of greatest aid in gaining the sympathies of the United States. In 1917 he came to the United States as the head of the British Mission and served as an important element in fusing the purposes of the two na- tions. In the same year his statement to the effect that Great Britain would support the creation of Palestine as a homeland for the Jews attracted the support of Jewry the world over and was regarded as proof of English sin- cerity in championing the cause of small na- tions. In the years that followed, Mr. Bal- four accepted comparatively unimportant posts cheerfully. He attended the Peace Conference as a British representative and watched the Big Four write the peace. In 1919 he resigned his Foreign Secretaryship to accept the less significant post of First President of the Coun- cil. In 1920 he represented his country at the first Assembly of the League of Nations, and Law in San 139 BALLANTINE in 1921 he once more came to America as his government’s spokesman at the Washing- ton Disarmament Conference. His disinterested services were fittingly recognized; the Order of Merit was conferred on him in 1916, and in 1919 the chancellorship of Cambridge Uni- versity. Finally in 1922 he was created first Earl of Balfour and Viscount Traprain of Wittingehame, and thus took his seat in the House of Lords after serving in the Commons for almost 50 years. He published, after 1914, Theism and Humanism (1915) and Essays, Speculative and Political (1920). ~“BALFOUR, Sir Isaac BAYLEY (1853-1922). A Scottish botanist, born at Edinburgh (see Vou. II). From 1888 to the year of his death he was King’s Botanist in Scotland, Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden at Edin- burgh, and professor of botany at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. BALFOUR DECLARATION. See PALEs- TINE. BALIEV, NIKITA FyopoROVITCH ( ?- yy, A-Russian actor and theatrical producer whose reputation in America was due to the success of his Théatre de la Chauve-Souris. This “bat theatre’ was in origin nothing else than a “cabaret carried out with finesse, fantasy and fancy.” In Baliev’s establishment the authors and artists of the Moscow Art Theatre gathered for amusement and relaxation. The Revolu- tion came and with it poverty: Baliev went to Paris with his troupe. First Paris, in 1920, then London, and later New York saw in his productions the “enigmatic smiling Russia that is of no time and no age.” Baliev is a master showman who knows how to make the most of his limitations. Even his broken English is capitalized in his stage presence. BALL, ELMER DARWIN (1870- ) FAD American entomologist (see Vou. II). He was State entomologist of Wisconsin (1916-18) and professor of zodlogy and entomology at the Towa State College and State entomologist of Iowa (1918-21). In 1921, Professor Ball be- came director of scientific work in the United States Department of Agriculture. BALLANCH, Sir CHARLES ALFRED ( ?- i A distinguished British surgeon who has spe- cialized in cranial and vascular surgery. He re- ceived his medical degree from the University of London in 1881. Among his appointments are those of surgeon to the West End Hospital for Nervous Diseases, chief surgeon to the Metropolitan Police, and, during the War con- sulting surgeon to the British army. He was knighted in 1918. Among his published works are Surgery of the Brain and Its Membranes (1907) ; Cerebral Decompression (1912); Sur- gery of the Temporal Bone, 2 vols. (1919) ; Surgery of the Heart (1920) and History of Surgery of the Braiw (1922). Earlier in his career he wrote two other works in collabora- tion, The Healing of Nerves with Stewart (1901), anc Treatise on Ligature of the Great Artertes in Continuity, with Edmunds (1891). BALLANTINE, Henry WINTHROP (1880-— ). An American professor of law, born at Oberlin, Ohio, and educated at Oberlin, Am- herst, and Harvard Colleges and the Harvard Law School. He was admitted to the Califor- nia bar in 1904 and was lecturer on law at the University of California, 1905-09, and as- sistant professor of law at Hastings College of Francisco. He was dean of the BALLET Law School of the University of Montana, 1911-13, professor at the Law School of the University of Wisconsin, 1913-16, and dean of the College of Law of the University of Il- linois, 1916-20. In 1920 he became professor of law in the University of Minnesota. Be- sides contributions to periodicals, he has writ- ten Problems in the Law of Contracts and Preparation of Contracts and Conveyances (1921). BALLET. The year 1910 marks the begin- ning of a new era in the history of the ballet. In May of that year Sergei Diaghilev appeared in Paris with his new and individual creation, the Ballet Russe, which immediately created a sensation. He had been working for several years toward the realization of his new ideas and had found sympathetic allies in Leon Bakst, the painter, and Michael Fokin, the di- rector of the Imperial Ballet in Moscow. Fokin, before meeting Diaghilev, had seen Isa- dora Duncan interpreting choreographically masterpieces of absolute music (Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony, Chopin, Schumann, etc.). Her art suggested to him the idea of using the mere technical skill of the dancer as a means for the expression of definite emotions through pantomime. Thus the collaboration of Diagh- ilev, Fokin and Bakst resulted in the develop- ment of the ballet by coérdinating dancing, stage-decorations, costumes, lighting-effects and music, and fusing these concomitant elements into a homogeneous whole. Moscow thus _be- came the cradle of the new art. The beginning was made with the ballets in the regular reper- tory, which were interpreted in the new style. Then, following the example of Isadora Duncan, Fokin adapted choreographic actions to famous instrumental works, such as Rimsky-Korsa- kov’s Scheherazade, Debussy’s lV’ Aprés-midi dun Faune, Strauss’ Till Eulenspiegel. About that time Diaghilev mt Stravinsky, then entirely unknown, whose style of music seemed to fit admirably into the general scheme of things. The young musician was commissioned to write the music to l’Oiseau de Feu. In 1909, Diagh- iley visited Paris with an operatic company, ostensibly for the purpose of introducing Rus- sian operas, in which ballets figure extensively. Incidentally, separate performances of standard ballets were also given, and these aroused the greatest enthusiasm. The following year Diaghilev returned, but only with the Ballet Russe. It was then that Stravinsky’s ballet, Oiseau de Feu, was produced with sensational success. The next year (1911) furnished an- other sensation, the same composer’s Petrushka. Two years later these phenomenal successes were even eclipsed by Le Sacre du Printemps. The opinion of musicians regarding the value of Stravinsky’s scores as absolute music does not enter into consideration here; what counts is the fact that this music fits into the general ensemble as no other music does. This was proved before long, when Diaghilev commis- sioned ballets from other composers of con- siderable reputation: Debussy (Jeuw), Ravel (Daphnis et Chloé), Hahn (Le Dieu bleu), Dukas (La Péri), Tcherepnin (Narcisse, Le Pavilion @Armide), R. Strauss (Légende de Joseph). Taris had gone wild over the new art, London fully indorsed the verdict of Paris, and even conservative New York gasped when the new organization made its first appearance there (1916). Such was the success of the 140 BALMONT original season of two weeks that the regular season at the Metropolitan Opera House was shortened by three weeks in order to present the new sensation to the subscribers. Although Diaghilev has not revisited the United States, interest in the new art has been kept alive by the tours of Anna Pavlowa, who, though never connected with Diaghilev, has developed her own company along similar lines. BALLET, GivsertT (1853-1916). housed per acre, and the location of industries and trades. It divided the city into four use districts, five height, and six area districts. A model elevator code was enacted. BANAT OF TEMESVAR. Formerly a ter- ritory of the Hungarian Kingdom but since 1919 a Rumanian province of the same name. Jts area is approximately 10,000 square miles, and its estimated population, 1,580,000. In 1916, in order to gain Rumanian support, the Allies, by a secret treaty of whose terms the Serbs were not apprised, promised Rumania the entire Banat. This was done in spite of the fact that the district is ethnographically by no means a homogeneous unit, there being Slavs in the west, Rumanians in the east, and strong Hungarian and German minorities throughout. In 1919, an act of union of the BANCROFT Banat with Rumania was promulgated by the Rumanian Crown and the Peace Conference was confronted by a fait accompli. The Supreme Council, however, refused to recognize the an- nexation and by the statement of June 12, 1919, divided the Banat between Jugo-Slavia and Ru- mania. Meanwhile the Serbs occupied the dis- trict, and, partly in protest against an action that seemed to have the tacit consent of the Supreme Council, the Rumanians marched into Hungary and invested Budapest. It was not until the signing of the Treaty of the Trianon (June, 1920) that Rumania finally signified her consent to the partition of the district. By this arrangement, the counties of Krass6-Szér- ény and Temes in the east were granted to Ru- mania, and the county of Torontal, bordering on the Danube, to Jugo-Slavia. The economic considerations underlying the diplomatic con- troversy were perhaps of greater importance than the purely racial. To the Serbs, whose lands are deficient in cereals, the rich farming country of the Banat made an especial appeal. The peasants of Temesvar wished to join the Serbs; the landowners, because of Rumania’s traditional friendliness toward their class, sought annexation to her. Again, any north and south boundary line through the country must disorganize its economic life because the westward-flowing streams, the railways, and canals, all would be cut. That both countries desired the whole Banat was natural; and the partition of the territory in 1920 left a group of problems difficult of solution and containing elements of inevitable discord. BANCROFT, WILDER Dwicut (1867—- +. An American chemist (see Vou. II). During 1917 and 1918 he was chairman of the sub- committee on electro-chemistry of the National Research Council and chairman of the division of chemistry (1919-20). He was also a mem- ber of the advisory committee of the Chemical Warfare Service and lieutenant-colonel in 1918 and 1919. In 1921 he wrote Applied Colloid Chemistry. BANDHOLTZ, Harry Hitt (1864—- De An American soldier (see Vou. II). He served on the Mexican border in 1916 and went to France as provost marshal-general (1918-19). He was American representative on the Inter- allied Military Mission to Hungary in 1919. On Sept. 1, 1921, he was appointed to command of the District of Washington. In September, 1921, he was sent to West Virginia and success- fully suppressed a miners’ insurrection there. He received many foreign decorations. BANDLER, SAMUEL WyLiis_ (1870- . An American obstetrician and gynecologist, educated at Columbia University. He hecame professor of obstetrics and gynecology in the New York Post-graduate Medical School. In addition to his unusual activity in the publica- tion of medical papers on obstetrics, gyne- cology, and endocrinology, he wrote many books, including Dermoid and Other Cysts of the Ovary (1901), also issued separately in Ger- man; Uterine and Tubal Gestation (1903), Medical Gynecology (1908), Vaginal Celiotomy (1911), The Expectant Mother (1916) and The Endocrines, 1920. In 1901 he published a translation into English of Abel’s Gynecologi- cal Pathology. BANERJEA, Sir SuRENDRANATH (1848-__—), An Indian political reformer and journalist ed- ucated at Doveton College, Calcutta, and Uni- 142 BANTING versity College, London. Early in his career he opened a school in Caleutta which later be- came Ripon College. In 1876 he became editor of the Bengalee newspaper, a political instru- ment in his hands. In 1905 he supported the boycott of foreign goods and the “national edu- cation” movement. He went to London in 1919 as representative of an “Indian Liberal” organization which he had formed and gave evidence before the Joint Parliamentary Com- mittee of both Houses on Indian Reforms. Subsequently he accepted office as Minister for Local Government and Sanitation in Bengal and was knighted in 1921. BANG, Ivar (1869-1918). An _ eminent Swedish chemist. He began his career as a practicing physician but took up chemistry un- der Professor Hammarsten of Upsala, 1897-99. His research attracted wide attention and led to his appointment in 1904 as professor of med- ical chemistry in the University of Lund. Of several branches of biochemistry to which he devoted especial attention the most significant was the so-called micromethod of quantitative analysis of the blood. As a result of this it is possible to determine the percentage of con- stituents by testing very small amounts of blood. His writings include Chemie und Bio- chemie der Lipoide (1911), Der Blutzucker (1913), Methoden zur Mikrobestimmung ein- iger Blutbestandtheile (1916), and Lehrbuch der Harnanalyse (1918). BANKING. See FINANCE AND BANKING. BANKS, CoOpeRATIVE. See LABOR BANKS. BANNING, Kenpati (1879- ). Ameri- can editor and author, born in New York and educated at Dartmouth. During the War he served as major in the Signal Corps (1917), major on the General Staff of the United States army (1918-19), and officer in charge of com- piling a history of the War. He was a mem- ber of the Committee on Public Information. Formerly he was manager and associate editor of System (1903-17) and managing editor of Hearst’s Magazine and Cosmopolitan (1919- 21). He has contributed to the magazines and is the author of several plays. BANTA, ARTHUR MANGUN (1877- ). gcAn American zodélogist, born at Greenwood, Ind. He was educated at Indiana and Harvard Uni- versities. He was a teacher in public schools (1895-1901); assistant in zodlogy, Indiana University (1903-05); professor of biology, Marietta College (1907-09); and resident in- vestigator at the Station for Experimental Evo- lution, Cold Spring Harbor (1909- ). His researches have been ou the development of pig- ment in animals, on the effects of changed en- vironment on cave-dwelling and non-cave-dwel- ling animals, and on sex determination. BANTING, FREDERICK GRANT (1892- i. A Canadian physician who in 1922 received the larger share of credit for the discovery of in- sulin (see INSULIN and DIABETES), apparently one of the greatest practical triumphs of labo- ratory medicine. He took his medical degree at the University of Toronto in 1916. Two years later he became a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons and Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. During the War he was a cap- tain in the Army Medical Corps. The first an- nouncement of his great discovery was made in the Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medi- cine; vol. vii (1921-22). Banting and Best also published jointly an article on the treatment ee ee ee ee ee en ee ed BANTU of diabetes mellitus in the Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. xii (1922). In 1923 the Canadian Government awarded Banting an annuity of $7500, to enable him with freedom from pecuniary worry to devote his time to the further study of this and similarly important matters. At the time when his discovery was announced he held the office of resident, surgeon of the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto. BANTU. See Erunocrapuy. BAPTISTS. The second largest Protestant denomination in the United States, first estab- lished in America about 1638-39. Three prin- cipal bodies represent the Baptist churches in America, the Northern, Southern and National (Negro) Conventions. Fourteen separate Bap- tist organizations were listed in the American Baptist Year Book, but the minor divisions, known as Primitive, United, Free, General, etc., are separated from the main body of the denom- ination by no serious differences and the trend for many years has been in the direction of Baptist unity. The Free Baptists, for example, have merged with the Northern Convention. During the decade 1914-1924 Baptist member- ship in America increased from 5,799,233 to ap- proximately 8,500,000. In the same period the Southern Convention advanced in membership from 2,522,623 to 3,352,938; the Northern Con- vention from 1,291,688 to 1,344,346 and the Na- tional Convention from 1,934,952 to upwards of 8,250,000. The denomination made enormous gains in membership among the Negroes, both North and South, and a Negro Church, Olivet of Chicago, had the largest Baptist congrega- tion in the world. The aggregate Baptist mem- bership of all countries from whose churches reports were obtained, approached 10,000,000 in 1924, ‘There was a very rapid increase in Rus- sia and Eastern Europe generally, after 1917, as the Slav population found the Baptist doc- trine and polity congenial and turned to them as a substitute for the disrupted churches of the prerevolutionary period. No accurate sta- tistics were obtainable, but there were in 1924 far more than 1,000,000 Russians who called themselves Baptists. While the attitude of opposition to infant baptism, with its corollary acceptance of “be- liever’s baptism,” is one of the distinguishing marks of all Baptist bodies, there is no Baptist creed. It is characteristic of the denomina- tional spirit that no authority exists with power to bind the individual churches in respect to matters of faith. The Northern Baptist Con- -vention in 1924 accepted as an expression of the Baptist position the Stockholm declaration of the Baptist World’s Alliance, a statement covering those points upon which practically all Baptists are agreed. This action was taken with the definite provision that the statement was in no sense to be regarded as a creed. Baptist churches always held to the congrega- tional or independent system. Indeed the Bap- tist temper and tradition would hardly tolerate any other, though there was a growing disposi- tion to moderate an individualism which left each church absolutely sovereign in matters touching its own worship and discipline, but lacked certain advantages in achieving purposes held by all the churches in common. This tend- ency to codrdinate Baptist activities found ex- pression in the New World Movement of the _ Northern Convention, a five-year programme that terminated in April, 1924, and in the 6 143 BAR ASSOCIATION $75,000,000 campaign of southern Baptists. In the case of the northern Baptists the movement resulted in the establishment of a permanent organization to unify and codrdinate the work of the various participating organizations, known as the Board of Missionary Coéperation. This board became the agent of seven national societies and boards, 36 State conventions, 14 standard city mission societies, and 52 schools and colleges, for the purpose of disseminating information regarding the various organizations and raising funds for them. The nearly 10,000 Baptist churches which united through the Northern Convention in support of all these agencies remained as independent as ever, but they were applying such a measure of co- operation as their experience after 1919 showed to be possible and desirable. The period which saw the rise of the codpera- tive spirit in the denomination also saw the Baptist organizations take advanced ground for a ministry of service. A strong Baptist inter- est always supported schools maintained under Christian influences. Such institutions as Chi- cago, Brown, Colgate and Rochester universi- ties and Vassar College testify to a zeal for ed- ucation that has not been limited to America. In Burma, Judson College, bearing the name of the most famous of Baptist missionaries, was constituted an integral part of the University of Rangoon, taking equal rank with the Govern- ment college. Great progress was made in the development of opportunities for the education of women in the Orient, especially in India and China. Baptists maintained missions in 11 dif- ferent national fields and had churches in every part of the globe. BAPTISTS, Free. The organizations of the Free Baptists were undergoing union with. the Northern Baptist Convention throughout the whole decade 1914-24. The movement began in 1911, and complete financial arrangements were made in 1919, but the denomination retained its separate legal existence for the administration of funds and interests which awaited final set- tlement and transfer. Sc: BApTISTS. BARANY, Roserr (1876- ). An } ceosmeae ci: 4,636,598 9,077,112 12,550,387 EXPORTS Values in Thousands of Francs 1913 1922 1923 Lived/animals) 2 #0... 44,413 90,064 83,997 Foodstufls and bev erazes 50S, : 327,663 506,821 806,712 Raw ‘materials %).>.. 1, 826, 078 2,095,738 2,595,238 Manufactured articles 1,436,430 3,366,959 5,370,543 TOURS). a.c custodians tees 3,634,584 6,059,582 8,856,490 All of the figures in the foreign trade table are exclusive of the trade in gold and silver. Converted into dollars at the rates of exchange mentioned above, the total values of the com: merce of Belgium were: imports in 1913, $894,- 863,000; in 1922, $697,385,000; and in 1923, $665,004,000; exports in 1913, $701,475,000; in. 1922, $465,552,000; and in 1923, $462,220,- 000. From a dollar standpoint, the trade seemed to be still diminishing in 1923, but it must be remembered in this connection that the rise in prices, when a currency is depreciating rapidly as was the Belgian franc in 1923, is not so rapid as the fall in the value of the currency unit. It is probable that Belgian exports were ac- tually somewhat ereater. rather than slightly less in 1923 than in 1922. The distribution of Belgian foreign commerce in the same three years is shown in the next table. Seer OF BELGIAN FOREIGN COMMERCE IMPORTS Values in Thousands of Francs COUNTRIES 1913 1922 1923 ET CORE 6c bus. Siete pe ie 1,000,297 1,840,850 2,784,554 Great seritain v.43, 518,475 1,368,858 1,928,046 United States ..... 420,496 1,030,781 1,481,384 Netherlandsi% ..wktoik 356,998 1,001,838 1,285,379 AT CONUS Duel hal! oso) 316,797 616,037 960,501 CGLOTINA DYE eee. asc. 7 (OL 65 een eta, eLO 912,040 Daly tad sak atsvetshete 44,007 129,162 200,885 Switzerland ....... 19,379 123,865 167,945 *‘recoverable expenses” 160 BELGIUM EXPORTS Values in Thousands of Francs COUNTRIES 1913 1922 1923 Mramyec Bere .cfkis 5 eects 762,1871:1,613,290 121,979,561 GYreabp britain...» 611,71 957,405... 15,762,232 United’ States) ov22% 106,881 218,401 340,365 Netherlands 00: 8224 320,930 644,715 '1;5182,755 Apgrentina W139. som.k 91,154 180, 391 343,742 Gerinany sch ootcsteies 940,378 849,986 453,286 TUMLV Ya soit te re estes 75,931 120, 056 172,632 Switzerland ......% 53,416 198,781 352,284 Leading imports in 1922 were cheese, wool and woolen goods, coal, cotton, machines and mechanical articles, lumber, coke, corn. Changes over 1913 were: an increased importance of coal and metallurgical products and the disappearance of flax, diamonds, hides, and erude rubber from the leading items. Leading exports in 1922 were iron and steel bars, woolens, coal, glass, flax yarn, machines and mechanical articles, refined sugar, flax. Changes over 1913 were: the in- creased importance of coal and iron and steel products, and the rising importance of Belgium as a manufacturer and exporter of glass, with the falling off of textiles except flax. Finances. Even prior to 1914, deficits were not uncommon in the financial administration of the Belgian government. For _ instance, for the year 1913 budget estimates gave receipts as 758,452,349 frances and expenditures as 884,829,630 francs, leaving a deficit of 126,- 377,281 franes. In general, however, there was in pre-war days a relative equilibrium between expenditures and receipts. But for the period surveyed, this approximate balance was entirely destroyed; expenditures advanced to such an ex- tent as to leave a considerable deficit, even had reparation receipts equaled budget forecasts (as they have consistently failed to do). For 1923, the deficit was officially estimated at 2,244,000,- 000 franes, but the failure to receive anticipated payments from Germany to cover the so-called caused the actual deficit to be probably in excess of 4,000,000,000 frances. The same sort of situation existed with refer- ence to the 1924 budget estimates, in which a deficit of 1,645,439,651 franes was shown; this budget included ‘“‘recoverable expenses” of 1,636,- 000,000 franes, of which 1,500,000,000 represent- ed the balance of Belgian priority under the Spa agreement, the receipt of which was at least problematic. Total receipts in the 1923 budget were set at 5,942,000,000 francs and expenses at 8,186,000,000 frances, while in the 1924 budget estimated receipts were increased to 6,687,000,- 000 francs and expenses to 8,332,000, 000 franes. The extraordinary budget, included in the gen- eral budget for 1924, was reduced from the pre- vious year by about 24 per cent by transfer to ordinary account of high cost of living allow- ances. The operating deficit of the state monop- olies (railways, posts, telegraphs, and _tele- phones) was reduced by 40 per cent, and it was hoped that a contemplated increase in rates would eventually wipe it out. Extensions of line and the purchase of new equipment, how- ever, would add about 100,000,000 franes to the extraordinary expenditures beyond the amount required for 1923. The revenue budget showed important increases due to extensive tax re- forms. The Belgian public debt as expressed in paper frances varied considerably according to fluctua- tions in exchange. As the foreign debt was in gold, a drop in the france caused an immediate increase in its amount as given in paper francs, a ee ee ee ee ee eee | g cf eb > * + / v Pub ia Ma me — BELGIUM though its actual gold or dollar value did not change. The Belgian Ministry of Finance, eal- culating the external debt for each year uni- formly at the exchange rate of Oct. 1, 1923 (United States dollar = 19.20 francs), issued the accompanying table showing the increases in the public debt from year to year. 161 BELGIUM port of Antwerp in Belgian shipping and its continued importance in European trade. History. Belgium’s history was overshadow- ed by the War. On July 31, 1914, amid the alar- ums of a threatened world conflict, the Belgian government ordered a general mobilization. Two days later it was in receipt of an ultimatum ener BELGIAN PUBLIO DEBT DATE CONSOLIDATED (Francs) ee ATES ES ee ga on oe te 5,205,000,000 PL ea eer Leama Lliwe Wit evs, 3 bree oy eeet ah tees 7,046,000,000 POS OPMOGEL ATE TOA IP IO OTE 10,356,000,000 LOS PaO Cin Oh nc : task Ma. tread 11,858,000,000 ee meOCte LP ek. a le ee 14,763,000,000 Maer CCUM BN hee a voce a telat ca ko aunrs 16,512,000,000 FLOATING (Francs) 661,000,000 18,031,000,000 20,091,000,000 24,582,000,000 24,173,000,000 TOTAL (Francs) 5,866,000,000 27,077,000,000 30,447,000,000 36,440,000,000 38,936,000,000 23,395,000,000 39,907,000,000 According to another statement, the total Belgian debt on Jan. 1, 1923 (using the ex- change rate of that date, 14.70 francs to the dollar), was 37,446,367,125 frances, of which 15,246,899,970 frances was funded and 22,199,- 467,153 franes floating debt, of which latter 16,- 980,381,355 franes was external floating debt. Although some progress was made in the way of increasing revenues, and reforms of taxation were expected to yield considerable returns, the annual deficits of the Belgian government were still large in amount in 1924, and were increased by the failure to receive reparation payments anticipated in the budgets for each year. The extensive increases in the tax rates evinced a growing tendency to place little dependence on reparation and to rely more and more on in- ternal resources. Prospects seemed hopeful for a gradual reduction of deficits, but the time of their elimination was, it was evident in 1924, as yet far distant. Communications. Belgium is a small, well unified country, and communication facilities are excellent; the country has access to the sea, with a port of paramount importance in Ant- werp; and it has also internal water connection by river and canal, as well as water and rail connection with the rest of western Europe. Practically all of the railways in Belgium are operated by the state; in 1913, the length of the state railways was 2712 miles, while in 1922, with the lines constructed during the War and those in the new districts of Eupen and Mal- medy, it had increased to 2981 miles. The pri- vately operated lines had in 1913 a length of 191 miles, but in 1922 this had declined to 171 miles. in 1913, the state railways yielded a profit of 119,619,000 franes from a total op- erating expense of 222,416,000 francs, while in 1919 they gave a deficit of 117,150,000 francs with a total operating cost of 530,352,000 frances. On Dec. 31, 1923, the Belgian merchant marine consisted of 179 steam and three sailing vessels, with a net tonnage of 378,923 and 2573 tons, respectively, compared with 124 vessels with a tonnage of 236,136 tons in 1913. The number of vessels entered at Belgian ports in 1923 was 13,406, with a tonnage of 19,963,596 tons, com- pared with 11,964 vessels and 17,097,515 tons in 1913. About two-thirds of the tonnage en- tered at Antwerp before the War, and the proportion increased somewhat after the War. The two other leading ports were Ghent and Ostend, which together receive about 20 per cent of the total tonnage. These statistics bring out particularly the increasing importance of ship- ping in Belgium, also the preéminence of the from Germany demanding the right of passage across Belgian territories. The refusal to com- ply brought down on the Belgian people all the horrors of a war-ridden country. During Au- gust 3 and 4, German troops entered, and de- spite the heroic defense of the army, swept on unchecked. The lines yielded in rapid succes- sion. Louvain was taken, August 10; Brussels, August 20; the French frontier was crossed on the 24th. The career of brutality embarked upon by the German invaders in an endeavor to break the spirit of the Belgian people will long remain a symbol of the meaning and pur- poses of modern warfare. The pillaging and burning of homes and the deportations and in- discriminate killing of civilians were coolly ordered and carried out by a staff and soldiery to whom war meant ruthlessness,. Belgian of- ficial records reveal more than 1000 deaths in the province of Liége alone during August. The toll was almost as heavy in the Namur, Limburg, and Luxemburg provinces. The de- struction of Louvain was indeed an act of cold- blooded ferocity. The city was entered on Au- gust 19 and was fired three days later after all effective opposition had ceased. The cathedral, the university and library, and more than 1000 homes were destroyed. In the city and its en- virons, 300 men were shot, and from it 1000 inhabitants were deported to forced labor in Germany. In Flanders, the career of the Germans was the same. With the fall of Brussels, the Belgian government fled to Antwerp; from thence, after the fall of that city, it moved to Ostend, and later to Havre. Central adminis- tration, therefore, ceased, with the result that only the local authorities were left to attend to the business of government. That such was not to remain the condition of affairs at once became apparent. Under the German military governors, von der Goltz, von Bissing, and von Falkenhausen, Belgium was organized as a con- quered province for the purpose of utilizing her economic resources to the full. Authority was vested more and more in the hands of German officials as gradually the provincial councils were deprived of power. With the suppression of the latter in July, 1918, for their consistent refusal to collaborate with the occupation gov- ernment, the Germans were in entire control of the country. Yet, while ostensibly German dom- ination was complete, the spirit of the people could not be erushed. Opposition was never completely stilled. The world now and then caught echoes of the heroic deeds of a M. Max or a Cardinal Mercier. La Libre Belgique, BELGIUM printed secretly, appeared regularly from 1915 to the end of the War. In every channel of Belgian life, no matter how insignificant, the German influence was to be encountered. Law and justice received a studied attention. Military and civil tribunals were erected to try offenders under the edicts emanating from the German authorities; pun- ishments might be meted out to substitutes, and confiscation of property was countenanced. Fi- nally, in 1918, the Belgian courts were abol- ished altogether. Something of the repressive character of the edicts may be gained from the fact that not merely was tale-bearing encour- aged, but punishment was imposed on those who were believed cognizant of an illegal act and who did not denounce it. The presence of spies, etc., had to be reported on pain of long-term imprisonment. Even in civil practice profound modifications were introduced. For refusing to accept German interference in the regular court procedure, Belgian magistrates were often for- cibly seized and deported to Germany. In 1918, the most flagrant example of this conduct oc- curred when the justices of the Brussels Court of Appeals were interned in a German civilian camp. Belgium was struck at. in other ways, notably in the attempt to separate Flanders from Wallonia. From 1914 to 1917, the occupation government employed all means to encourage the use of Flemish in the northern provinces. In 1917, von Bissing finally effected a complete separation by erecting two different administra- tions, one for Flanders to be governed from Brussels, where Flemish was to be used exclu- sively; the other, to be governed from Namur. Attempts were made seriously to further the partition. A Flemish party known as the “Ac- tivists’” received the encouragement of the Ger- mans in its propaganda. In 1918, an attempt was made to hold elections for members of a Flemish consultative council, but so great was the antagonism aroused that the order was given to desist. A council was nevertheless erected, bolstered up by German arms; attempts on the part of the Belgians to arrest members of the council were met with reprisals, which led to more bitterness. In these schemes the University of Ghent was chosen as the pivotal point. To hasten the process of Fleminization, all professors except those Activist in sym- pathies were dismissed; lectures were ordered to be given in Flemish; to attract students all other universities were closed and liberal schol- arships were offered. Nevertheless, the Univer- sity did not thrive. In fact, all these plans met with failure, and the move to divide the country culturally never met with any real Belgian sup- port. It is not to be supposed that German domina- tion stopped here. Possibly affecting the life of the people more closely was the Germaniza- tion of all branches of the economic order. Belgium, in short, was utilized to further the German military effort. By requisitions, by ad- ministrative orders, by forcible seizure, Ger- many soon gained control over all branches of Belgian industry and trade. Central bureaus, making in effect German monopolies, were put in charge, beginning with 1914, of coal, water, gas, electricity, oils and fats. Raw materials were requisitioned and paid for at prices fixed by German officials, not, however, in coin, but in vouchers. Requisitions even penetrated into the homes where all household articles contain- 162 BELGIUM ing materials needed in the war, e.g. copper, zinc, lead, iron, leather, wood, wool, cotton, etc., were seized. The work of the “coal central” was typical. Coal produced was utilized first on the railways and them for the army; the needs of Belgian industry came next; finally the surplus was exported to neutral countries and the profits appropriated under the guise of a war loan. As industry languished because of the cessation of trade and the sequestration of raw materials and machinery by the Ger- mans, the status of the civil population became alarming. Unemployment daily increased until by 1917 the body of idle workers numbered 700,- 000. This state of affairs gave color to the German excuse for expediency for the large-scale policy of deportations which the occupation gov- ernment inaugurated in 1916. The lack of raw materials and the inadvisability of spend- ing large sums for public works in a country subject to the chances of war prompted the German government, ostensibly, to offer em- ployment to Belgians in German industries or in war areas behind the lines. In spite of Bel- gian protests that factories were willfully be- ing destroyed and local units hindered in their work of relief and that action of such a char- acter was merely an excuse for a studied plan to crush the Belgian industrial and national life, the Germans proceeded in the years 1916-18 to deport more than 50,000 Belgians to Ger- many and another 50,000 to the war areas. Undoubtedly some Belgians went willingly, for even the small wages offered were more accept- able than starvation, but that coercion was the rule cannot be denied. The treatment accorded these unfortunate individuals was of a piece. Used brutally, often starved at the first sign of recalcitrancy, Belgians were set to work digging trenches and constructing railroads in the war zones or making munitions in the German facto- ries. The protests of Belgians, Cardinal Mercier chief among them, were unavailing. Not until the American, Dutch, and Spanish diplomats took up the cry did the German Emperor consent to rescind the order and promise to send back all these deportees against whom coercion had been applied. This pledge was never carried out. Some sent back to Belgium were reshipped to France; others were put to work in the seized Belgian factories; many more were returned to Germany. Deportations, in fact, never ceased until the end of the war. The story of Belgium during the War cannot be complete without the tale of the Commission for Relief in Belgium. This _ organization, brought into existence late in 1914 by the Amer- ican and Spanish ambassadors and ministers at London and Brussels, and the American am- bassador and minister at Berlin and at the Hague, and managed until America’s entry by Mr. Herbert C. Hoover, became the international clearing house and liaison division for the Bel- gian Comité National de Secours et d’Alimen- tation in the work of feeding Belgium. Impor- tations and payments were handled by the Com- mission; distributions by the Comité National. To facilitate the work, the United States opened a monthly credit of $15,000,000 for the Com- mission. An idea of the scope of the project may be gained from the fact that the provision- ing department of the Commission undertook to feed from 7,000,000 to 10,000,000 people in the devastated areas of Belgium and_ northern France. During the year ending Oct. 31, 1916, QAOWJOM ® UBL ‘S}OI}IYOAW 94} JO SuImMesG au} WOd apeoRy jediouldg sy L SL4ID NVOIMSWY AG J1IGISSOd 3S0VW NIVANOT JO ALISYSAINN JHL JO AYVYSIT SJHL JO NO!LVYOLSSY SHL LV iON ete Sag os gyi 3 i THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLIMGIS BELGIUM there were imported 1,706,774 metric tons of food into Belgium and 483,346 tons into France. Nearly one-half of these supplies came from the United States and the remainder came about equally from Argentina and the British Em- pire, though small quantities came from Hol- land. Food was distributed through 3000 com- munal communities in Belgium and 2000 in France, staffed by about 35,000 volunteer work- ers. The benevolent department of the Com- mission cared for those who were wholly or partially destitute, including more than 1,500,- 000 children. It maintained special committees for children, farmers, refugees, the tubercular, destitute, and others. Up to the close of 1917 the Commission had expended nearly $400,000,- 000, and during the fiscal year ending Oct. 31, 1918, it spent for relief in Belgium over $83,- 000,000 received from loans to Belgium by the United States, and $7,275,000 from loans by Great Britain and France. To complete the account, it should be stated that the Commis- sion also expended in 1918, in northern France, $56,000,000 received from the United States loan to France, and an additional $2,376,500 received from French sources. When the Com- mission wound up its affairs on Apr. 30, 1919, it was stated that something like $1,000,000,000 had been spent in the relief of war victims dur- ing 1914-19. Until the entrance of the United States into the War the entire personnel of the Commission was American; after 1917, direction was taken over by Spanish and Dutch citizens, although Mr. Hoover remained throughout as chairman. The director in America was Mr. W. L. Honnold, its treasurer, Mr. A. J. Hemp- hill, while Mr. Poland was the European direc- tor. Nothing presented so disheartening an aspect as the condition of Belgium on the resumption of peace; and nothing showed so clearly the en- during qualities of the human spirit as the rapidity with which Belgium was resurrected. Not only had industry been destroyed but the usual channels of communication had been com- pletely dislocated. In fact, the damage to prop- erty was put at $7,600,000,000. Yet by the end of 1922 it could be seen that the manufactur- ing industries were practically on a normal foot- ing. Iron and steel plants were operating on a 75 per cent basis; linen, cotton, and artificial silk works exceeded their pre-war capacity, as did also the plate-glass and cement factories. The acreage under crops in 1922 was 97 per cent of the 1913 figure. In 1918 shipping was dead, the ports of Zeebrugge and Ostend badly dam- aged and their terminal facilities wrecked. ‘The approach to Ghent by the sea canal from Hol- land was choked up because of the severe fight- ing which had taken place in that area. The losses from destruction of railway bridges, etc., in the four years of war were estimated at $275,000,000. Rolling stock had been diverted for military purposes and had greatly depreci- ated; rails had been torn up by the enemy in retreat. Yet so rapidly had reconstruction been pushed that 58,221,686 metric tons of freight were carried on the railroads in 1922 as against 66,541,975 metric tons in 1913, and 238,096,000 passengers in 1922, as against 204,541,098 in 1913. At the time of the Armistice there were 800,000 industrial workers unemployed and _ be- ing supported by government doles; in September, 1919, the number thus supported had fallen to 200,000; by 1923 it was reported that marked 163 BELGIUM shortages of labor were apparent in all special- ized industries and so acute in the unskilled trades that laborers had to be imported from Poland and Italy. The political parties met the awesome prob- lems with courage. A coalition government rep- resenting the Catholics, Liberals, and Socialists administered affairs. The election of 1919, for the first time, was conducted on the principle of “one man, one vote” (women being given the vote only in municipal elections), and resulted in a great increase of the Socialist delegation. Legislative measures were progressive and showed a desire to conciliate all elements of the populace. In 1919, the repressive laws against freedom of association were, to a great extent, lifted and labor unions accordingly increased mightily; the eight-hour day in industry was installed in the same year; so were the income tax, a progressive inheritance tax, and a law limiting the sale of alcohol. Councils and com- missions were erected for the amicable settle- ment of problems arising between capital and labor and their functions soon penetrated into almost every important industry. Echoes of the controversy over the Flemish question con- tinued to be heard increasingly In 1919, three Activists were elected to Parliament besides many others of Flemish sympathies in the Cath- olic party, so that, for a time, the government considered offering a Fleming a cabinet port- folio. In 1921, the line of division became sharper. As a result of continued agitation, the lower house passed a bill for the installation of both languages in the administration, to go into effect Jan. 1, 1922. The measure occa- sioned a storm of disapproval. Debate in the house was heated, and for the first time in parliamentary annals, Walloons and Flemings voted against each other in solid blocs. It he- came increasingly perceptible that the Flemings could not be denied. Their attacks on the in- fluence of the French became more bitter, their focal point in particular being the University of Ghent. Despite the pleas that the French language was necessary to bridge the gap of the patois used by both branches of the popula- tion and that the University was therefore neces- sary as the seat of a common culture, the lower house in 1922 voted for the use of the Flemish language at Ghent. In June, 1923, the Flemish question almost occasioned the fall of the The- unis government. This question, and the new economic and social problems which the War had brought in, had a curious effect on politi- cal groupings. The traditional three parties were in a process of disintegration which showed itself in alliances cutting athwart party lines. Thus, the Catholic Right, under the control of the Flemings, was split up into Christian Demo- crats, Agrarians, Moderates, and Conservatives ; the Socialists belonged to national and interna- tional groups, the latter Fleming in sympa- thy; the Liberals were either Conservative or Socialist in their leanings. Government, there- fore, was falling more and more into the bloc system. On the Flemish question, the Catholics, international Socialists, and some Liberals stood together, and as this policy was antipathic to France, the group also opposed a French alli- ance and favored one with Holland. However, on the question of military service the group did not hold together, so that another alliance was necessary to effect legislation. The same situation held in the question of the extension BELGIUM of the provincial and parliamentary franchise to women. The Catholics, for reasons of politi- cal expediency and because of the innate con- servatism of the women, favored the project. The Liberals and Socialists, though they were committed to the principle of political equality for women, strenuously opposed. ‘The result, be- cause of these mixed loyalties, was an impasse after the election of 1921 which had ended in the return of a majority for no party. Only with the greatest difficulty was Colonel Theunis able to form a cabinet composed of Catholics and Liberals. In the domain of foreign policy an attempt was made to strike a new and more independent note, with little success, however. Belgium’s plea for revision of the treaty of 1839 by which she had lost to Holland the Province of Limburg and had been compelled to share with the Dutch the control of the Scheldt, was not entertained by the Peace Conference, and subsequent nego- tiations with Holland were equally fruitless. (See Ho_Lanp and Limspura). Her territorial gains as a result of the War were very small. To her fell the districts of Eupen and Malmédy and the tract of Moresnet on the German fron- tier, in all containing 382 square miles and a population of 64,000, and important for tanning and textile works. Only a small number of the population having indicated their desire to re- main under German sovereignty, these regions were formally annexed in September, 1920. (See EurpEN, MALMEDy, AND MOoRESNET.) In Africa, Belgium obtained Ruanda and Urundi, districts in western ex-German East Africa, which have an area of 18,000 square miles and a population of 3,500,000, and are important agriculturally because of their uplands. (See Congo, BretGian). In 1918, Belgium effected with France a defensive alliance, and a military convention was concluded in 1920. An economic convention designed to cement still further the interests of the two countries was rejected in the Belgian Chamber, in February, 1924, by a coalition of Socialist and Flemish Catholic depu- ties, whose opposition led Premier Georges The- unis to reorganize his cabinet, dropping out M. Jaspar and replacing him with M. Paul Hymans as Foreign Minister. In 1922, Belgium con- cluded a treaty with Luxemburg by which all customs barriers were abolished. As for Rus- sia, though the government in 1920 seemed fa- vorably disposed toward a resumption of com- mercial relations, in 1922 it definitely sided with France at the Genoa Conference against any recégnition, unless Russia conceded the rights of private property. The reasons for the Bel- gian hostility were plain: it was indicated that Belgians had controlled about 150 Russian in- dustrial and mining enterprises, capitalized ‘at $700,000,000. By the Peace Treaty, in addition to 8 per cent of the German indemnity. Belgium was assured reimbursement from Germany for the 5,000,000,000 franes borrowed from the Allies and expended in the War. In the controversies with Germany regarding reparation payments, Bel- gium, like France, was disposed to insist rigor- ously on execution of the Versailles Treaty, and with France Belgium joined in occupying the Ruhr, January, 1923. Subsequently, however, French and Belgian policies tended to diverge, until the report of the Dawes Commission in 1924 offered a new basis of agreement. See REPARATIONS. 164 BELLINGER BELGIUM, ComMMISSION FOR RELIEF IN. See BELGIUM. BELL, CLivE (1881- ). An English art and literary critic, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In his critical essays he has harsh- ly rebuked all artists who follow the doctrine of exact representation and lauded those wield- ing their talent for the expression of personal emotion. He is the author of Art (1914), Peace at Once (1915), Pot Boilers (1918), Poems (1921), Since Cézanne (1922), and On British Freedom (1923). BELL, GeErTRUuDE M. L. (1868- ). An English traveller and geographer, born at Wash- ington, Durham, and educated at Queen’s Col- lege, London, and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. During the War she was in a position, because of her adventurous journeys through northern Arabia (1913-14),'to give valuable information concerning unknown routes and so to aid the British army in its advance into Palestine. She was connected with the Red Cross Bureau of the Missing (1914-15) and the Admiralty Intelli- gence Office in Cairo (1916-17). In 1917, she went with the British army to Bagdad and later acted as assistant political officer. She has received the founder’s medal of the Royal Geographical Society. Her publications include Poems from the Divan of Hafiz (1897); The Desert and the Sown (1907); The Thousand and One Churches, with Sir W. M. Ramsay (1909) ; Palace and Mosque at Ukhaider (1914), and Review of the Cwil Administration of Mesopo- tamia, issued by the Indian Office (1920). BELL, JAMES FRANKLIN (1856-1919). An American soldier (see, Vou. III). He com- manded the second division of the United States army in Texas, 1914-15; the western department at San Francisco to May, 1917, and the Eastern department to September, 1917, when he became commander of the 77th Division of the army, at Camp Upton. BELL, Louis (1864-— ). An American electrical engineer, born at Chester, N. H. He was graduated at Dartmouth i 1884 and won a fellowship at Johns Hopkins. During 1888-89 he was professor of applied electricity in Purdue University and during 1890-92 he was editor of The Electrical World, but after 1893 was in practice in Boston as a consulting engineer. He was active for many years in the General Electric Company and organized its _ elec- tric power transmission department; he de- signed the first polyphase plant used in the United States, both for power and lighting, as well as for railway service. His original in- vestigations have included studies on spectro- scopy, alternating current phenomena, wireless telephony, physiological optics, and the inter- pretation of albedo. During 1905 he lectured on electrical power of transmission at the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, and he has al- so lectured at Harvard on public lighting and since 1914 at Harvard Medical School on il- lumination. In addition to many scientific papers and monographs he is co-author, with Oscar T. Crosby, of The Hlectric Railway (1892), Power Distribution for Electric Railroads (1896), Hlectric Power Transmission (1897), The Art of Illumination (1902), and The Tele- scope (1922). BELLINGER, LYNCH (1885-— ). A naval airman born at Cheraw, S. C., and edueated at the United States Naval Academy. During the seizure and occupation of PATRICK NEISON BELLOC Vera Cruz in 1914 he was in charge of the airplane section and made daring flights over enemy territory. In 1919 he assisted in select- ing a starting-point for the Transatlantic flight and commanded the NC/ during the flight (May 3-June 16). Later he had charge of the ma- terial division of naval aviation. During the War he received the order of the Commande- Torre Espada from the Portuguese Government and the Navy Cross. BELLOC, Hivarre (1870— ). An English author, born in France (see Vou. III). Since 1913 Mr. Belloc has lengthened the list of his works with A Continuation of Linguard’s His- tory to the Death of Edward VII (1914), The Last Days of the French Monarchy (1916), General Sketch of the Huropean War, second Phase (The Battle of the Marne) (1916), Europe and the Faith (1920), The House of Commons and the Monarchy (1920), The Jews (1922), The Mercy of Allah (1922), and A Con- trast (1923). BELLOWS, GrEorcE WESLY (?- ray An American artist (see Vou. III). In the last few years he won a very long list of awards for his very unusual paintings. The chief awards in- cluded the Carnegie Institute bronze medal (1914), gold medal Panama Pacific Exposition (1915), bronze medal from the Art Institute of Chicago (1916), Isidor medal National Academy of Design (1916), Temple medal of the Penn- sylvania Academy (1917), landscape prize from the Newport A. A. (1918), gold medal from the Pennsylvania Academy (1921), bronze medal from the Art Institute of Chicago (1921) and first prize at Carnegie Institute (1922). BELMONT, Atva E. Smiru (Mrs. O. H. P.) An American feminist, born at Mobile, Ala., and educated in France. While actively and generously interested in all movements for social betterment, such as hospitals, children’s homes, the abolition of child labor, and the improve- ment of working conditions for women engaged in industry, she is known preéminently for her efforts in the cause of woman’s rights. His position took on par- BERGSON ticular interest when the House of Representa- tives, in November, voted his exclusion from the seat to which he had been elected the year pre- vious. In December, 1919, he was once again elected by his Milwaukee constituency and was again denied his seat. In January, 1921, the United States Supreme Court reversed his con- viction; in November, 1922, the indictments against him were dismissed; and in the same month he was returned for the fourth time to Congress, this time as the only Socialist party representative. His socialist doctrine was mod- ° eled after that of the German revisionist school of Kautsky and Bernstein, and therefore he re- jected Sovietism. In 1924, with Morris Hill- quit and others, he supported the candidacy of Robert M. La Follette for President. BERGER, VILHELM (1867-— ). An editor and author, born at Viirmland, Sweden; he was educated in the high school there and later in Upsala College, N. J. He was traveling agent for Swedish-American publications (1897- 1903), editor of New York Nordstjernan (1903- 15), and office manager and director of the Swedish Lutheran Immigrant Home (1913-15) and the Swedish Augustana Home for the Aged, Brooklyn. He is the author of numerous books in Swedish, dealing especially with the prob- lems and conditions of the Swedes in America, published from 1902 to 1918. BERGONIE, JEAN-ALBAN (1867— leith graduated in medicine at the University of Bor- deaux in 1883 and was later appointed professor of biological physics and electrotherapy there. Since 1893 he has edited the Archives d’Hlec- tricité Medicale, a periodical of great merit. Bergonie, in addition to publishing many articles on high frequency and other modalities of elec- tricity, devised (1909) a method of treating obesity by passive exercise, in which the patient sits in a specially devised chair while his mus- cular system is thrown into successive contrac- tions by faradism. This method, which the author terms passive ergography, appeared to be very successful in reducing weight without putting stout subjects to the necessity of volun- tary exercise. BERGSON, Henri Louis (1859- yw Lhe most notable of contemporary French _ philoso- phers (see Vou. III). He was elected a member of the French Academy in the spring of 1914; he had already become a member of the Acad- emy of Moral and Political Science in 1903. The War caused an interruption of his philosophic activity and he devoted his talent to the French cause. Besides publishing a pamphlet on the Significance de la Guerre (1915), he went twice on diplomatic missions to Washington and was instrumental in preventing the recognition of the Soviet Government by the United States. On the occasion of the San Francisco Exposition he prepared a short survey of French philosophy, published in the collection La Science Frangaise 2 vols., (1915); this constituted his only scien- tific production during the four years of hos- tilities. If Bergson refrained from philosophiz- ing in this time of stress, his fellow philosophers in Germany published numerous articles and books to prove that the Bergsonian philosophy was plagiarized from German sources, particu- larly from Schelling; this literature of Schreck- lichkeit stands as mute testimony to the frailty of human reason in time of war. In 1918, the Academy having resumed its meetings, Berg- son delivered an address before it on the life BERKEY and works of his predecessor, in its membership, Emile Ollivier. This was published with the Discours de Reception by René Doumic (1918). At the close of the War, Bergson gathered up a number of his shorter writings and published them under the title of L’Energie Spirituelle (1919), translated into English as Jlind Energy (1920). He took a leave of absence from the Collége de France in 1919 in order to devote himself to philosophic writing, and at the be- ginning of 1922 he. resigned his chair definitely. Edouard LeRoy, one of his disciples, was elect- ed to succeed him. Bergson was at work for some time on the revision of the Gifford lec- tures delivered in 1912. In 1922 a short vol- ume came out, Durée et Simultanéité, dapres la Théorie dEinstein. As the title suggests, the book attempted to reconcile the theory of relativity with the Bergsonian conception of duration. M. Bergson insists that the relativ- ity of mathematical times, which must depend necessarily on the orientation of the observer, does not preclude the existence of an absolute qualitative time, revealed by psychological in- trospection. He attacks therefore not the mathematical theory of Einstein but the meta- physical interpretations which have been grafted on it. The literature on Bergson’s philosophy con- tinued to increase at a rate which makes him the subject of more commentaries than any other modern thinker except Kant. Among the re- cent books in English which may be consulted are H. Wildon Carr’s The Philosophy of Change (1914); and G. W. Cunningham’s Study in the Philosophy of Bergson (1916); J. Alexander Gunn’s Bergson (1921); and Mrs. Karin Stephen’s The Misuse of Mind (1922). BERKEY, CHARLES PETER (1867-— yee NTT American geologist, born at Goshen, Ind., and educated at the University of Minnesota. In 1892-1903 he was an instructor in geology at Minnesota, and in the latter year went to Colum- bia, where he became a full professor in 1916. As assistant geologist to the State surveys of Minnesota and Wisconsin, he devoted special attention to the geology and mineralogy of certain Keweenawan and Cambrian areas of these States and later held a similar relation to the New York survey, for which he studied the structural and stratigraphical features of the Highlands, and the structural, areal, and engineering geology of New York City. More recently, as consulting geologist to the New York City Board of Water Supply he made an elaborate investigation of the geology of the Catskill Aqueduct region. His original re- searches have also included studies on the geol- ogy of Porto Rico and China. BERKSHIRE FESTIVAL. See Music, Chamber Music. BERLIN, Irvine (1888- ). An Ameri- can composer, born in Russia and educated in the public schools of New York City. At 16, Berlin commenced his career as a performer in the restaurants and eafés of New York. Alex- ander’s Rag-Time Band (1905) established his position as the king of syncopation. He is the writer and composer of the musical plays and revues, Watch Your Step (1914); Stop! Look! Listen! (1915); The Century Girl, with Victor Herbert (1916); The Ziegfeld Follies of 1918; The Canary, with Ivan Caryll (1918), and many other popular song and dance successes. He is the proprietor, with Sam H. Harris, of the 170 BERNHARDI Music Box (New York) and composed the score Se the Music Bow Revues for 1921, 1922, and 923. BERLINER, EMILE (1851-— ek 9. German-American inventor (see Vou. III). He was elected president of the District of Colum- bia Tuberculosis Association in 1915. In No- vember, 1919, under his direction, his son, Henry A. Berliner, designed and used the first successful helicopter. BERLINER, HEnry A. (1895- )e0 CAn engineer, born Washington, D. C., son of the in- ventor Emile Berliner, and educated in Wash- ington and at Cornell and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He designed, con- structed, and flew the helicopter (1919) on which his father had experimented since 1903, and in 1924 was engaged in helicopter development. BERMUDA ISLANDS. The British colony composed of approximately 350 small islands ly- ing 518 miles east of Cape Hatteras. The area of the group is 19.3 square miles; the popula- tion, in 1922, 20,410, of whom all but 700 were Negroes. The chief town, Hamilton, on the Is- land of Bermuda, has a population of 7000. Barely one-third of the area was fit for cultiva- tion and on this were planted early spring leguminous crops for the United States market. Similarly, most of the commodities imported come from the United States. The import trade totaled, in 1922, £1,266,696 (a gain of 122 per cent over 1913); and exports, 233,296 (a gain of 157 per cent over 1913). In 1922, the total tonnage cleared was 2,178,562 tons (a gain of 73 per cent over 1913). Until 1920, alcoholic liquors were exported to the United States in large quantities, but, with the coming of Pro- hibition and the falling off of this traffic, ex- periments were conducted for the conversion of the alcohol into motor spirits. The Bermudas continued to attract American tourists and win- ter colonists, as many as 20,000 making their residence here annually. BERNARD, TRISTAN (1866- ) i French novelist. He is the author of two out- standing novels, L’Enfant Prodigue du Vesinet (1920) and Le Jeu de Massacre (1921). BERNARDES, ARTHUR DE SILVA (1875- ). A president of Brazil, born at Vicosa, Minas Geraes. After two years at Caraca College, he became a clerk in a store at the age of 13 to earn enough to begin a college course at Ouro Preto. He maintained himself there by doing newspaper work. Later he took up law and began practice at Vicosa. He was elected to the Congress of his native state, was its first secretary, and later secretary of the treasury of Minas Geraes. In September, 1918, he was elected governor of Minas Geraes, and was occupying this position when he was made president of Brazil in 1922. BERNAUER, RvuDOoLF (?- ). A libret- tist known chiefly for his adaptation, with Carl Meinhard, of the play Johannes Kreisler, from Die Wunderlichen Geschichten des Kapellmeister Kreisler, produced in New York (1922-23). Bernauer also wrote with L. Jacobson and O. Straus the comic opera The Chocolate Soldier, founded on Arms and the Man by George Ber- nard Shaw and revived at the Century Theatre in 19213 BERNHARDI, FRIEDRICH von (1849- ie A German military leader and writer, born at Petrograd. He served in the Franco-Prussian War, and from 1891 to 1894 was at Berne as ee ee Ve ee ee ee ee German politician (see Von, III). BERNHARDT military attaché; later he went to Berlin as head of the history department of the Grand General Staff. He was general of cavalry and commander of the 7th Army Corps from 1907 to 1909, retiring in the latter year to write on military subjects. He attracted interna- tional attention by his book, Germany and the Next War (1912). At the outbreak of the War he was again given command of an army corps and served with distinction on the Stochod and on the western front. He published in English Cavalry in War and Peace (1910); On War of To-day (1914), and Britain as Germany’s Vas- sal (1914). BERNHARDT, Sarauw_ (1844-1923). A French actress (see Vou. III). In 1914, at the age of 70, the great tragedian was forced to undergo a leg amputation. Despite this disa- bility she refused to abandon the stage. She earried out a successful tour of America in 1915, and on returning to France she played in her own productions almost continuously until her death, March 26, 1923. Her later successes included Daniel (1920), La Gloire (1921), and Regine Armand (1922). Her physical condi- tion confined her practically to immobility on the stage, but the charm of her voice, which had altered little with age, insured her triumphs. BERNHEIM, Bertram Moses (1880- i, An American surgeon, born at Paducah, Ky., and educated at Johns Hopkins and abroad. He is known for his original work in blood transfusion and surgery of blood vessels. Dur- ing the World War he served with the Johns Hopkins Hospital Base Unit. He is the author of Blood Transfusion (1917), Surgery of the Vascular System (1913), and a volume of his experiences at the war front, Passed as Cen- sored (1918). BERNHEIM, Hrppotyte (1840-1919). A French physician, renowned for his development of our knowledge of suggestion as a cause and remedy for disease. With his chief, Liébeault, he founded the so-called Nancy school of psy- chotherapeutics, although he remained through- out a general practitioner of medicine and pro- fessor of medicine in the local university. His books have been widely translated and his clinic at Nancy visited by physicians from many countries. His first book, devoted to general medicine, Legons de Clinique Médicale, appeared in 1877 and was translated into Spanish. His first work on suggestion, De la Suggestion et de Ses Applications @ la Thérapeutique (1888), was translated into German by Freud and also into English. Hypnotisme, Suggestion et Psy- chothérapie appeared in 1891; L’Hystérie (1913); L’aphasie (1914), and Automatisme et Suggestion (1917). BERNSTEIN, (1850— eA In 1920 he was again elected to the Reichstag and became Town Councillor of Berlin. He also published a new edition of his book Voraussetzung des Sozialismus und Anfang der Sozialdemokratie (1915), besides Vélkerrecht und Volker-Politik (1919) and Wirtschaftswesen und Wirtschafts- werden (1920). BERNSTEIN, ELsa (1866- ). A German dramatist born at Vi- enna. Frau Bernstein is the daughter of Hein- rich Porges, a writer on music and one of the earliest champions of Wagner, and the wife of Dr. Max Bernstein, a prominent lawyer and successful playwright of Munich. She was an EDUARD (“ERNST ROSMER’’) 171 BERRY actress but left the stage on account of failing eyesight and wrote the dramas Wir Drei (1893) and Ddmmerung (1894), and a volume of stories, Madonna. Her greatest success was achieved with the poetical drama Kénigskinder (1899), which was played by Sir Arthur Harvey and his company in New York under the title Children of the King. The play was made the libretto of Humperdinck’s opera Kénigskinder, in which Geraldine Farrar excelled as the Goose- girl. Other works of Frau Bernstein are Te- deum, a comedy of musical life, the tragedies Themistocles and Achilles (1910), and _ the dramas Dagny, Merele, Johannes Herkner, Mut- ter Maria (1900), Nausitkaa (1906), Maria Arndt (1908), and Schicksal (1914). BERNSTEIN, Henry LEON GUSTAVE CHARLES (1875- ). A French dramatist (see Vou. III). He continued to occupy a lead- ing position among writers of high-class the- atrical thrillers. His war play, L’Elévation, was acclaimed in France as a work of genuine sincerity, and in the United States, where it was produced with Grace George in the season 1917-18, it was hailed as a drama of spiritual rebirth. The play dealt with the customary French triangle and attempted to show a purifi- cation of emotions in the white heat of the War. No doubt the plot had the appearance of sincer- ity, but the piece was an example of self- deception induced by the war fever. Another play by Bernstein, The Claw, was produced in 1921 with Lionel Barrymore and Irene Fenwick in the leading réles. It was a vigorous char- acter study of a French statesman fallen into moral decay and was built up with effective situations. BERNSTEIN, Herman (1876~ ). An American journalist and translator of Russian literature. He was born at Neustadt-Scher- windt, Poland, of Russian parents, and emi- erated to the United States in 1893. He visited Europe at various times during a long period of years as special correspondent of American newspapers including the New York Times, which he represented during 1908-12 and again in 1915, when he made a study of the conditions of the Jews in the war-stricken countries; the New York Herald, 1917-19, in Russia, Siberia, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, and at the Paris Peace Conference; and the New York American (1920-— 21). He was founder and editor of The Day (1914-16) and editor-in-chief of The American Hebrew (1916-19), to which he returned in 1923 as editor. He began by writing poems and a novel of orthodox Jewish family life (Contrite Hearts) but is better known for his translations of Russian authors, especially Andréev, and for his discovery and publication of the secret tele- grams exchanged between the Czar and the Kaiser (1904-07), known as the Willy-Nicky Correspondence. BERNSTORFF, JoHAnN-HEINRICH A., COUNT von (1862- ). A German diplomat, am- bassador plenipotentiary to the United States from 1908 until the entrance of the latter into the World War (see Vou. III). BERRY, Epwarp Wiser (1875- ). An American paleobotanist, born at Newark, N. J., and educated privately. In 1897 he became as- sociated in the management of the Passaic Daily News; he was later president of the com- pany publishing it. In 1905 he entered Johns Hopkins University, where he soon became a member of the teaching staff and in 1917 pro- BERTHELOT fessor of paleobotany, a subject on which he is accepted as one of the foremost authorities in the United States, specializing on the plants and geological history of southeastern North America, in connection with which he has trav- eled extensively in those regions. In 1919 he visited South America as a member of the Wil- liams Memorial Expedition. Since 1910 he has been associated with the United States Geologi- cal Survey and has contributed to its publica- tions important memoirs on The Upper Cre- taceous and Eocene Floras of South Carolina , and Georgia (1914) and The Lower Eocene Floras of Southeastern North America (1919). He has published reports to the Maryland State Geological Survey on Lower Cretaceous of Mary- land (1911) and Upper Cretaceous of Mary- land (1916). After 1917 he held the office of assistant State Geologist on that Survey. In 1901 he received the Walker Prize of the Boston Society of Natural History. He belongs to many scientific societies in the United States and abroad, including the Paleontological Society of America, of which he was president in 1924; the Geological Society of America, of which he was vice-president in 1924; and the National Acade- my of Sciences, to which he was elected in 1922. He is the author of more than two hun- dred scientific papers and a book, Tree Ances- tors (1923). BERTHELOT, PHILIPPE JOSEPH LOUIS (1866- ). A French diplomat and son of Marcellin Berthelot, the famous savant and statesman. He passed through the regular ap- prenticeship of the diplomatic career and was sent on a mission to the Far East in 1902. He returned to the Foreign Office and advanced rapidly to the position of Chef de Cabinet and finally to director-general of the Quai d’Orsay. From this post he ruled French foreign policy and was trusted alike by Clémenceau, Millerand, and Leygues. During Leygues’ premiership he exceeded his power and sent a telegram in the premier’s name instructing the French ambas- sador in London to ask the Bank of England to assist the Banque Industriel de Chine. This telegram was made the subject of a subsequent interpellation in the Chamber of Deputies, and Premier Briand was compelled in March, 1922, to put Berthelot on the retired list for 10 years. Despite this political scandal, Berthelot was recognized by friends and foes alike as one of the ablest diplomats in France. BERTOLINI, Pierro (1853-1920). An Italian statesman, born at Montebelluna. He devoted himself to economic and administrative questions and represented his native town in the Italian Parliament (1891). After an active career in which he held various public offices and was at one time Minister of Public Works (1907) and at another Minister of the Colonies (1912), he became a supporter of the extension of the suffrage bill and devised a worthy sys- tem for allowing illiterates to vote and at the same time reducing electoral corruption. He remained in retirement during the War and was afterward appointed Senator and headed the Italian delegation at the Reparations Commis- sion. He is the author of several important works on politics and economy and on local government in England. BERTRAND, Louris (1866- ). A French novelist, disciple of Flaubert. He sought to con- tinue the naturalistic and psychological novel. Sanguis Martyrum (1918) shares the Carthagin- 3) oil BESSARABIA ian setting and even the general perspective of Flaubert’s Salammbé. Bertrand, however, has not attempted to be completely historical and is satisfied with portraying emotions which were the same in the days of the War as in those of the Christian martyrs. His works include a biography, Flaubert a@ Paris, ow le Mort Vivant (1921), and the novels Les Villes @Or, L’In- fante (1920), Le Rival de Don Juan, Bains de Phalére (1921), and Cardenio (1922). BERWALD, WILLIAM’ (1864- spas American conductor, born at Schwerin, Ger- many. A pupil of Rheinberger and Faiszt, he began his career as conductor of the Philhar- monic Society at Libau in Russia. In 1892 he settled in Syracuse, N. Y., where he has since been head of the department of musical theory at the University. In 1922 he was appointed conductor of the newly organized Syracuse Sym- phony ‘Orchestra. As a composer he is known by his cantatas, The Seven Last Words of Christ and Crucifixion and Resurrection; two overtures for orchestra; chamber music; and many songs and pieces for piano. BESELER, Hans von (1850—- aa: German soldier, born at Greifswald in Prussia. In the War he led the assault on Antwerp, which he took on Oct. 9, 1914. With the occu- pation of Poland in 1915 he became German governor at Warsaw where his attempts to set up a Polish national government buttressed by German arms met with only slight success. In 1918 the Armistice ended his activities. BESNARD, PAut ALBERT (1849- ). SoA French painter (see Vou. III). He was head of the French School at Rome in 1913-21 and director of the Ecole des Beaux Arts since 1922. He was represented in the official exhibition of French art held in the United States in 1919-20) by a symbolic portrait of Cardinal Mercier. An important exhibition of his works was shown: in different cities of the United States in 1924. BESSARABIA. A former government of the Russian Empire but since 1920 a Rumanian province. It has an area of 17,146 square miles, an estimated population (1919) of 2,344,800, and is a country of rich cereal lands. The popula- tion is of a mixed character containing large communities, in the southern districts, of Ukrainians and Germans, as well as considerable numbers of Jews, Poles, Bulgars, Armenians, and Tatars. The collapse of the Russian Em- pire in 1917 gave impetus to the separatist move- ment, which had long attracted the enthusiasm of the Rumanians in the province, with the re- sult that a request was made to the new repub- lican government for the establishment of an autonomous Bessarabia. But the success of the Bolshevist revolution encouraged the Rumanians to hope for loftier things. On Dec. 15, 1917, a “Council of the Land” proclaimed Bessarabia free, under the name “Moldavian Republic.” Its independence, however, was short-lived. The hostility of the Ukrainians prompted the Ru- manian government to send an army into the country and commence a carefully fostered agi- tation for annexation. From January, 1918, on, in spite of an Allied attempt in March to bring Rumania and Soviet Russia to terms, the Ru- | A manians remained in occupation of the country. The Bessarabian National Council, which was erected by the Rumanians, twice, in 1918, asked for annexation to Rumania. While sweeping promises of political and religious liberties were held out to the people and the estates of ee ee ae oe ge ee ee eg ee | BEST the large landowners were proceeded against, dissent was treated with a high hand: deporta- tions and imprisonments were frequent; local governments were dissolved; Bessarabian judges were dismissed and the courts closed. Conversa- tions were carried on between Russia and Ru- mania in 1919 and 1920, but unknown to Rus- sia, Rumania at the very moment was secretly treating with the Allies. On Oct. 28, 1920, a treaty was signed by which Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan recognized Rumania’s sovereignty over Bessarabia. To 1924, however, only the British government had given formal assent to the treaty. In spite of the protests of the Soviet government that it could not recog- nize the validity of a treaty concerning Bes- sarabia which had been signed without its par- ticipation and to which only foreign powers were signatories, no warlike measures were taken. However, that the matter was not closed was seen in the frequency with which Russia com- plained, throughout 1920-23, of irregularities on the frontier and in the control of the Dniester River, and of raiding parties originating in Bessarabia, ete. In October, 1921, commission- ers of both countries met at Warsaw in an at- tempt to resume friendly relations but the con- ference soon collapsed. The same was true of the Vienna conference held early in 1924. Rus- sia regarded French interests in Rumanian af- fairs with suspicion; Rumania demanded, be- fore any agreement was to be reached, the re- turn of some $80,000,000 in Rumanian treasure which had been sent to Russia for safekeeping during the War. In short, animosities still ex- isted on both sides; no solution seemed in sight in 1924, and at any moment it appeared that the hatreds might be fanned into war. The at- tempts, in April, 1924, of the Rumanian king to negotiate a defensive treaty with France, whose purpose could be only the maintenance of Rumanian sovereignty in Bessarabia, were re- garded with breathless interest by the western world. For France to take such a course meant only one thing: the possibility of war with Russia. BEST, Harry (1880- ). An American sociologist, especially interested in the problem of the deaf, dumb and the blind. He was born at Millersburg, Ky., and educated at Centre Col- lege, Danville, Ky., George Washington Uni- versity, Gallaudet College (Washington), Co- lumbia University, and the New York Law School. Before 1912 he held various instructor- ships in schools and colleges for the deaf and dumb. He was a resident worker in the Uni- versity Settlement in New York from 1912 to 1919, and in the latter year became professor of sociology in the University of Kentucky. He is the author of two standard texts, The Deaf (1914) and The Blind (1919), and of contri- butions to periodicals. BESTOR, ARTHUR EUGENE (1879— ).bpA president of Chautauqua Institution, born at Dixon, Ill., and educated at the University of Chicago. He was professor of history and po- litical science at Franklin College, Ind., 1901-03, and lecturer on political science in the Extension Division of the University of Chicago, 1904-12. He was assistant general director of Chautauqua Institution, 1905-07; director, 1907-15, and since 1915, president. During the period 1917-18 he was chairman of the Committee on Lectures and Entertainments in the Training Camps of the National War Work Council of the Y. M. C. A. 173 BEWER and director of the speaking division of the Committee on Public Information. BETHLEHEM BACH FESTIVAL. Music, Festivtuls. BETHMANN-HOLLWEG, THEOBALD VON (1856-1921). A German statesman and Chancel- lor of the German Empire, 1909-17 (see Vou. III). As chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg’s place in domestic and foreign affairs was decidedly subordinate; his movements were continually being circumscribed by the caprices of his royal master and the intrigues of the military party led by von Tirpitz. He entertained the same ambitions for Germany’s expansion as all Ger- mans of the ruling class and regarded the vio- lation of the Belgian treaty and the declara- tions of war which followed it with complacency. To his eredit, he refused to accede to the wn- limited submarine warfare inaugurated in 1917. His compromising and equivocal attitude satis- fied neither his masters nor his critics. When the military command attempted in July, 1917, to interfere in affairs which he regarded as pe- culiarly his own, he handed in his resignation. He retired from public life to Hohenfinow, where, after preparing Reflections on the World War (1919), he died on Jan. 1, 1921. See GERMANY, History. BETTELHEIM, Anton (1851- )27iAn Austrian author (see Vor. III). In 1917 he published Leben und Wirken des Freiherrn Roch, von Inliencron, mit Beitréigen zur Geschichte der Allgemeinen Deutschen-Biographie (New Series, 1919, with Ludwig Augengruber). BETTS, Louis (1873- ). An American portrait painter, born at Little Rock, Ark., who was the pupil of his father, E. D. Betts, Sr., of William Chase, and of the Art Institute (Chi- cago). He was elected an Associate Member of the National Academy in 1912 and a full mem- ber in 1915. He is also a member of the Na- tional Institute of Arts and Letters. Louis Betts, who began painting as a child, received the Cresson Travelling Fellowship from the Pennsylvania Academy of Design after study- ing with Chase and went to Europe to familiar- ize himself with the work of Franz Hals and Velasquez. He attracted attention as a copyist. His portraits are painted with regard to empha- sizing character above everything else, and he gains his effects without the use of accessories or non-essentials. He has painted portraits in Chicago, New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam. and Madrid, and his work is represented in the permanent collections of the National Arts Club and the Art Institute of Chicago. BEVERIDGE, ALBERT JEREMIAH (1862- 2 An American politician and lawyer (see VOL. III). Since 1915 he has published What Is Back of the War? and A Life of John Marshall, 4 vols. (1916-19). BEWER, JvuLtius Aveust (1877- yeh gé professor of theology, born at Ratingen, Ger- many, and educated at the Royal Gymnasium (Diisseldorf), Union Theological Seminary (New York), and the universities of Basel, Halle, and Berlin. He was professor of Old Testament lan- guage and literature at the Oberlin (Ohio) Theological Seminary (1902-04). becoming or- dained two years later in the Congregational ministry. He was called to Union Theological Seminary in 1904 as assistant professor of Bib- lical philology. In 1914 he was made professor. He became a member of the faculty of philology of Columbia University in 1913 and lecturer at “See BEWLEY Teachers’ College in 1912. He is author of sey- eral critical essays on the Old and New Testa- ments. BEWLEY, LUTHER Boone (1876- ).: An American educator in the Philippine Islands. He was born at Mosheim, Tenn., and educated at Maryville College. In 1902 he went to the Philippines as a teacher and held various posi- tions until he was appointed superintendent of schools in Manila in 1914. He became di- rector of education in the Philippine Islands ing D1 9: BEYERLEIN, Franz ApAm (1871- i. fee German novelist and playwright (see Vor. III). He is author of O Deutschland, Heiliges Vater- land, a novel (1915); Der Philister, essays (1919); and Besuch, four one-act plays (1919). BIANCHI, Leonarpo B. (1848-1916). A distinguished Italian alienist who became Min- ister of Public Instruction for Italy. Born in San Bartolomeo he received his M.D. from the University of Naples in 1871. After holding several minor chairs in his alma mater he be- came clinical professor of psychiatry and neuro- pathology and was for years director of -the Provincial Asylum at Naples. He is the author of treatises on neurological subjects which in- clude L’Emiplegia (1886) ; Semeiotica delle Ma- lattie del Systeme Nervosa (1891); Malattie del Cervello (undated). In 1905 appeared the Trat- tato de Psichiatria which was at once translated into English, the translator stating that in knowledge of the physiology of the brain, nor- mal and morbid, it was superior to any text- book in English. Not until 1920, four years after his death, did another distinctive work by Bianchi appear, La Meccanica del Cervello e la Funzione dei Lobi Frontali. This was also translated into English by MacDonald of Glas- gow in 1921. BIBESCO, PrRiINcE ANTOINE (?- ). ned Rumanian minister to the United States and the husband of Elizabeth Asquith, the daughter of the former British Premier. He was edu- cated in France, and later served as counselor to the Rumanian Legations in London, Petro- grad, and Paris. In 1921 he was made Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from Rumania to the United States. BIBLE SOCIETY, American. A_ society founded in 1816 which strives for a world cir- culation of the Bible to all people without de- nominational or racial discrimination. The Bibles were furnished at cost price and dis- tributed at cost price through the society’s home, foreign, and other agencies. The Scriptures is- sued by the society in 1923 totaled 7,101,289 volumes; 3,856,199 from the Bible House, New York, and 3,245,090 in foreign lands. These Seriptures were in 175 different languages. During the War, from August, 1914, to the end of 1919 the society distributed 6,808,301 copies of the Bible free of cost among the armed forces of the belligerent nations; of these 4,920,543 were given to men in the service of the United States, and 1,887,758 to those of other nations. The translation and revision of the Bible in other languages was an important part of its work. A translation of the whole Bible into Mandarin was finished in 1919; the Portuguese version was completely revised in 1917; a revision of the Spanish New Testament was issued in 1923, as was the New Testament in Bolivian Quechua; and portions of the Bible were translated into several other tongues. The official publication 174 BIGGS of the organization was the monthly Bible So- ciety Record. BIDDLE, ANTHONY J. DREXEL (1874- 15 An American author, born at Philadelphia and educated at Heidelberg. He lived in the Ma- deira Islands for a number of years, studying conditions there, and returning to the United States in 1891, when he took up editorial work. He was first on the staff of the Philadelphia Public Ledger and in 1895 became editor of the Philadelphia Sunday Graphic, which he re- vived. From 1895 to 1904 he was head of the publishing house of Drexel Biddle (New York, San Francisco, and Philadelphia), and founded the Drexel Biddle Bible Classes in the United States, the West Indies, Great Britain, and Can- ada. In 1918 he was in France as Marine Corps Captain of the Reserve Forces. He is the au- thor of several novels, but his most important work is The Madeira Islands (1900), an aecount of the history, customs, inhabitants, ete., which has, however, been criticized as biased and ex- aggerated. BIDDLE, CHARLES J. (1890- ). An ‘American Ace, officially credited with the de- struction of eight enemy airplanes during the War. He recently wrote The Way of the Eagle. He was trained in French aviation schools and was in active service, 1917-19. He won high honors including the Distinguished Service Cross, the French Legion of Honor, Croix de Guerre with four palms, and the Belgian Order of Leopold. BIER, Aucust C. G. (1861- ). A promi- nent German surgeon (see Vou. III) and pro- fessor of surgery in the University of Berlin, who recently published many articles founded largely on his military experiences. His favor- ite subject is regeneration in the human body. In 1917 an edition appeared of Chirurgische Op- erationslehre by Bier, Braun and Kiimmel. BIERSTADT, Epwarp HAte (1891- yi An American author and editor, born in New York City and educated at the Taft school at Watertown, Conn. He has held various ed- itorial positions with publishing firms, includ- ing the Century Company, and was editor of the Opera Magadine (1914-1915). In addition to frequent contributions to The Bookman, New Republic, ete., he is the author of Dunsany, the Dramatist (1917), Aspects of Americanization (1922), Sounding Brass (1922), and Lost Trails of the Spanish Main (1922). He edited Three Plays of the Argentine (1920), Portman- teaw Plays by Stuart Walker (1919), and More Portmanteau Plays (1919). BIG BERTHAS. See ARTILLERY. “BIG FOUR.” See Pracke CONFERENCE AND TREATIES. BIGGERS, EArt Derr (1884- ) An American author born at Warren, Ohio, and educated at Harvard. From 1908 to 1911 he was identified with the Boston Traveler as con- ductor of a humorous column and dramatic critic. He has written If Yow’re only Human (1913); Thieves, with Grover Harrison (1913) ; Inside the Lines (1915); A Cure For Curables, with William Hodge (1917), See-saw (1919), and the popular novel, Seven Keys To Baldpate. dramatized by George M. Cohan (1913). BIGGS, HERMANN MiIcHAEL (1859-1923). An American physician (see VoL. III) who was distinguished as a clinician, pathologist, bac- teriologist, and sanitary officer. In 1914 he be- came State Commissioner of Health for New ee ae ee a ee ee ee ee BILLIARDS York. He was appointed medical director of the General League of Red Cross Societies at Geneva in 1920 and was knighted by the King of Spain for services in preventive medicine. BILLIARDS. See Sports. BILLINGS, Frank (1854— ). (See Vor. III). Dr. Billings summed up his doctrines in a monograph Focal Infection (the Lane Medical Lectures) in 1916 and with Salisbury has com- pleted the reference work General Medicine, 15 vol. (1918). During the War he served in the American Expeditionary Force as_ chief provost marshal, attached to the office of Sur- geon General. BINET SCALE. See MENTAL MEASURE- MENT. BINET-VALMER, GUSTAVE ‘A French novelist. (1875-— }. He is the very popular au- thor of more than a dozen novels. These in- clude La Passion (1914); Le Mendiant Mag- nifique (1919); Antonine Jassart, Veuve (1921); L’HEnfant qui Mewrt (1921); Les Seig- neurs, les Dames, et les Petits Messieurs (1922); and Les Jours sans Gloire (1922). BINGHAM, Hiram (?- ). A professor of Latin-American history at Yale. Well known for his recent books on aviation and other subjects. These include Five Straws; Journal of an Expedition across Venezuela and Colombia; Across South America; The Monroe Doctrine an Obsolete Shibboleth; Vitcos, the Last Inca Capital; The Wonderland of Peru, and An Explorer in the Air Service. He also organized the United States Schools of Military Aéronautics and was on active service 1917-19. BINGHAM, JosepH WALTER (1878-— ie An American professor of law, born at Indian- apolis and educated at the University of Chi- cago. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1904 and practiced in Chicago during the fol- lowing year. He was acting assistant professor of law at Cornell University, 1905-07, and at Stanford University, 1907-08, becoming profes- sor in the latter institution, in 1912. In 1918 he was assistant director of the Bureau of War Trade Intelligence of the War Trade Board. He is author of Cases on the Law of Water Rights (1916) and articles in law journals. BINGHAM, WALTER VAN DYKE (1880— yp: An American psychologist born at Swan Lake, Iowa. He was educated at the University of Chicago and the University of Berlin and de- voted himself to educational and applied psy- chology. He taught at the University of Chi- cago; Teachers’ College, Columbia University ; and Dartmouth College. Since 1915 he has been the head of the division of applied psy- chology of the Carnegie Institute of Technology and has carried out a number of researches re- garding the application of psychological theory to education and in business advertising. Dur- ing the War, Professor Bingham served as ex- ecutive secretary of the committee on the class- ification of personnel and was made Lieutenant- Colonel on the General Staff of the United States Army. BINSWANGER, Otto Lupwia (1852- ). A distinguished German neurologist born at Miisterlingen, Switzerland, who received his medical degree from the University of Kénigs- berg in 1878, took up the study of neurology and psychiatry, and in 1882 was appointed pro- fessor in these branches in the University of Jena and director of the Grand Ducal Insane Asylum. In 1911 he became rector of the Uni- 7 175 BIOCHEMISTRY versity. Binswanger is known chiefly for his exhaustive treatises on various nervous affec- tions, Die Pathologie und Therapie der Neuras- thenie (1896); Die Hpilepsie (1899); and Die Hysterte (1904). Finally, in collaboration with Siemerling, he published his Lehrbuch der Psy- chiatrie (1907) and also edited the periodical Epilepsia, 1909-14. His three treatises named above were translated into English as volumes of Nothnagel’s Special Pathology and Therapy. BIOCHEMISTRY. This subject has been defined as the chemistry of physiology and hence is naturally subdivided into the chemical phenomena of the separate functions of living organisms, as digestion, respiration, metabolism, etc. Biochemistry, however, is a much more comprehensive subject, for it comprises the chemical composition of animal tissues, agri- cultural and plant chemistry, physico-chemistry of the body including electrochemical reactions, the chemistry of foods, the chemistry of disease processes and products, the chemical aspect of therapeutics, etc., etc. Since most of these subdivisions are separately considered, the sub- ject of biochemistry is regarded by some au- thorities as an artificial one. These authors retain the old name of physiological chemistry and narrow the scope to the dynamic chemistry of the animal functions, although these should be found intact in any good work on physiology. The chief use of the term Biochemistry may be to call attention to certain subjects which do not receive proper attention in works on phys- iology and of these there are not a few. ‘There is, for example, the subject of the animal syn- theses, which originated almost a century ago when Wohler first formed urea from. extra- animal sources. Akin to this laboratory ac- tivity is the isolation of definite chemical bodies from animal tissues. Both animal synthesis and isolation of active principles have been go- ing ahead steadily up to the present time and as a result we have long series of products which comprise adrenalin, synthetic suprarenin, thyroxin, etc. Thus far it well appears that in the narrower and technical sense, biochemistry really means laboratory analysis and synthesis which does not differ essentially from any other organic analysis and synthesis. At one period in the history of physiology, advance in this science was at a standstill, until Liebig and other chemists helped materially in its development. Despite the fact that much of Liebig’s teaching has been found erroneous, physiology has from that period largely as- similated animal chemistry. Another impor- tant phase of organic analysis and synthesis has to do with the protein substances and their dis- sociation into various aminoacids and polypep- tids, some of which have specific nutritive and growth-promoting functions. In this connec- tion it has been possible to nourish certain an- imals over considerable periods with inorganic nitrogen in place of protein matter. Fischer, who was one of the most active discoverers in this field, was similarly successful in the study of carbohydrates and in showing the practica- bility of using inorganic carbon in the diet. In the study of ferments, internal secretions and vitamins, inability to isolate the actual active principles—with a few exceptions—may keep this department out of biochemistry and leave it in the hands of physiology. In like manner the subject of immunology and of preventive and curative sera remains within BIOLOGY the confines of experimental and practical medi- cine. The comparatively new study of physi- cal chemistry which has numerous practical ap- plications in physiology and medicine, is now covered in works on biochemistry with special reference to the optimum concentration of mineral matter in the fluids, the acid-alkaline balance and the subjects of hydrogen-ion con- centration and acidosis. The art of diagnosis has been greatly enriched by numerous tests which are decidedly of biochemical character. Under therapeutics we see that withholding salt from the diet will rapidly clear up the severest dropsies, while the addition of a little iodine to the diet will prevent simple endemic goitre and the injection of alkalies will at times com- bat severe conditions due to acidosis. From what has already been mentioned it is easy to form the impression that the word biochemistry should be limited to our knowl- edge of exact substances which can be isolated and employed in pure state. Thus construed it should be a simple matter to distinguish between chemistry on the one hand and _ physi- ology and other subjects on the other. BIOLOGY. A term first applied by Lamarck in 1801 and Treviranus in 1802 to that study of living beings which differs in its point of view from either botany or zodlogy in that more attention is given to the fundamental laws of life and less to detail¢ of anatomy and classification. Obviously this branch of science assumed especial importance after 1859 when the evolution hypothesis furnished an interpre- tation for the resemblances which appear be- tween the structures and activities of all living beings. In more recent years the term Biology has been used with two distinct meanings. On the one hand, General Biology deals with both plants and animals and uses’ representatives of either group according as one or the other better illustrates the principles under consid- eration; while on the other hand the distinc- tion between plants and animals is retained and Animal Biology and Plant Biology are treated as distinct subjects, the word “biology” being here understood to mean a study of plants or animals respectively, deriving from a com- prehensive examination of the anatomy, embry- ology, ecology, paleontology and classification of either group of conclusions as to the funda- mental principles underlying their structures, their activities, their relations to one another and their ancestral history. As a result of intensive investigation along these anatomical, physiological and other lines, each of these subdivisions of the subject has acquired the importance of a distinct science with its own technique and its own vocabulary. Moreover, it soon became evident that chemical reactions certainly accompany and probably play an important part in all life processes, so that the chemist has been called on to develop Bio- chemistry as an aid to further analysis of vital processes. Hence it follows that we have at the present time no such thing as a science of biology but rather a group of biological sciences all dealing with living matter and codperating in the attempt to answer some fundamental biological problems: e.g—What is the nature of living matter ?—How may it have originated on the earth and to what extent is “life” a physical and chemical process?—How does liv- ing matter adjust itself to its environmental conditions?—If the present life of the earth 176 BIRTH CONTROL has evolved from earlier life, what are the forces which have produced these modifications? —What are the laws according to which the peculiar characteristics of living beings are transmitted to their descendants? While for purposes of instruction it is common practice to group the most important of these conclusions into a summary called biology, these biological sciences really differ so much from one another that they are best treated under distinct heads as given below. See ANATOMY, ANTHROPOLOGY, BIocHEMISTRY, Botany, Ecotocy; HeErepity; ZooLoGy, HEvoLuTIOoN. For an excellent brief summary of the subject consult General Biology by Burlingame, Heath, Martin and Pierce. BIOMETRY. See HeEReEpIry. BIRGE, Epwarp ASAHEL (1851— ). An American educator (see Vou. III). He was chosen president of the University of Wisconsin in December, 1918. From 1897 to 1919 he was director of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Wisconsin, and from the latter date, president of the commission. He was one of the Conservation Commissioners, 1908-18 and in 1918 became president of the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa. He was the author of many books on zodlogy and limnology. Professor Birge’s researches were mainly on the fauna of fresh-water lakes and the biology of the floating forms. BIRMINGHAM. The largest city of Ala- bama. The population rose from 132,685 in 1910 to 178,806 in 1920, and to 223,507 by local estimate for 1924. A $750,000 municipal auditorium and $1,000,000 post office were built. In 1924, a $3,500,000 bond issue was voted by the city for public school improvements, and $650,000 for the public library. In 1922, a new fire-alarm system was put in service; and in 1924 a light and bell signal system for regulat- ing downtown traffic. The number of manufac- turing plants increased from 274 in 1914 to 565 in 1924, and the mining companies in the district from 48 to 141. Building permits in- creased also from 3524, valued at $3,043,374 to 5390 valued at $12,166,946; bank clearings from $155,674,395.84 to $1,305,871,257, and the week- ly payroll from $1,500,000 to $3,125,000. As- sessed valuation of real and personal property, based on a valuation of 60 per cent, increased He $95,458,826 in 1914 to $145,737,466 in 1924. BIRNEY, Lavuress J. (1871- ). An American bishop, born at Dennison, Ohio, and educated at Scio College and at the Boston Uni- versity School of Theology. From 1895 until 1911 he was pastor of various Methodist churches in Ohio and Massachusetts. He was dean of the Boston University School of Theology from 1911 to 1920, and was elected bishop, in the latter year. BIRRELL, Rt. Hon. AUGUSTINE (1850- sy An English author and publie official (see Vou. III). He was secretary for Ireland from 1907 to 1916, and under his rule the Irish Univer- sities Act, the Irish Land Act, and the Home Rule Act were passed by Parliament. At the outbreak of the government rebellion, Easter 1916, he resigned. Although active in politics for many years, Birrell is better known as a writer of essays and of biographies. He pub- lished Frederick Locker-Lampson, a biography, in 1920. BIRTH CONTROL. The World War syn- chronized with an almost world-wide awakening ; i | . | eS —aS eee eee ee — _—— — a fice of the BIRTH CONTROL of avowed public interest in the political, ethi- eal, medical and practical aspects of family limitation. This was probably due fundamental- ly to a realization that international competi- tion tended to be intensified by population pres- sure. It was realized that the open spaces of the earth are now small and relatively unat- tractive as compared with those into which the European stock had expanded during the nine- teenth century. Moreover, the advancement in the complexity of social life with the resultant expansion of wants and especially the increasing freedom of women had brought into vigorous operation powerful social-psychological forces favoring the public discussion of birth control. A complete survey would show that there was no advanced country in Orient or Occident in which the subject was not agitated during the decade under review and especially since 1919. American Movement. Active propaganda for birth-control began in the United States with the publication in 1924 by Mrs. Margaret Sanger of a magazine, The Woman Rebel, in which the use of preventive methods was ad- vocated. Her indictment under the Federal law forbidding the sending of “improper mat- ter” through the mail, the repeated postpone- ment of her trial and the final quashing of the proceedings in February, 1916, gave wide pub- licity to the propaganda. The same may be said of the arrest and the sentence to thirty days in the workhouse of Mrs. Sanger and her sister for activities connected with a “birth control clinic’ established in Brooklyn. The ease was appealed and reached the Federal Supreme Court in October, 1919; it was dis- missed on the ground of no jurisdiction. In- terested persons by 1916 had formed the Na- tional Birth Control League; also a supporting Woman’s Committee of One Hundred, headed by Mrs. Amos Pinchot, and the Committee of One Thousand, headed by Dr. Ira S. Wile. Birth Control Leagues were rapidly formed in more than a score of the larger cities during 1916 and 1917. Various other arrests in 1916 brought forward the issue of freedom of speech and press and led to the formation of the Free Speech League, headed by Leonard P. Abbott, interested in preserving the constitutional guar- antees of liberty of expression. By the close of that year the propaganda was well organized, country-wide, and well supported. Every ac- tivity of the promoters was considered by the press to have considerable news value and the more decided the opposition the greater the publicity. While the drama and the motion picture were used to aid the propaganda, the most effective means were public addresses, pub- lie debates, the publication of the Birth Con- trol Review (first issue, February 1917), and the distribution of leaflets. Considerable sup- port was given the movement by its endorsement in October 1920 by the New York State Feder- ation of Women’s Clubs by a vote of 149 to 97. Many efforts to secure repeal of existing legislation, both State and Federal, proved in- effective. In November, 1921, was formed the American Birth Control League, 104 Fifth Avenue, New York City, Margaret Sanger, president. The League organized the First American Birth Con- trol Conference at New York, Nov. 11-18, 1921. One of the sessions was broken up by the police, as inquiry revealed, at the request of the of- Catholic Archbishop. The city 177 BIRTH CONTROL council of Syracuse, New York, passed a reso- lution prohibiting the holding of the State Birth Control Conference there in February, 1924; the resolution was vetoed by the mayor after many elements in the community had been aroused over the free speech issue. ‘The League held notable conferences at New York, Noyem- ber 1921, Philadelphia, January 1922, Cincin- nati, November 1922, Albany, January 1928, and Chicago, October 1923 and is arranging the Sixth International Congress on Birth Control to be held in this country in 1925. In the year ending June 1924 it distributed 610,000 pieces of free literature, published 114,000 copies of the Birth Control Review, enrolled 15,000 new members and held meetings in 33 cities. The Voluntary Parenthood League with Mrs. Mary Ware Dennett as director and_head- quarters at 10 West 44th Street, New York City, was formed in 1919. It began the publica- tion of The Birth Control Herald in 1923. Its objects are: “1. To render available for the people’s need, the best scientific knowledge as to how parenthood may be voluntary rather than accidental; and, as a first step the removal of the words ‘prevention of conception’ from the Federal obscenity laws. 2. The education of parents.” International. At the present time national organizations are found in England (founded in 1877), Holland (1885), Germany (1889), France (1895), Spain (1904), Belgium ;(1906), Switzerland (1908), Czechoslovakia (Bohemia) (1901), Portugal, Brazil (1905), Cuba (1907), Sweden (1911), Italy (1913), Algeria, Mexico (1918), and Japan (1921). These bodies con- stitute the Federation of Neo-Malthusian Leagues of which Dr. Alice Drysdale Vickery, London, is president. In 1922 Mrs. Sanger made a world tour in which she visited most of the countries of the northern hemisphere. The es- tablishment of an organized movement in Mexico was soon followed by increased interest in South America. In Europe increased activity and growing favor for propaganda were manifest in Eng- land, Germany and Austria, but not in France. In England widespread interest was aroused by the reports (see Literature below) of the first and second National Birth Rate Commissions organized by the National Council of Public Morals. These reports constitute a compendium of religious, social, medical and biological opin- ion for and against. Religious opinion in Eng- land appears divided, though the Catholics pre- sent the same opposition there as in this country. Medical and scientific opinion, as also of social workers, is overwhelmingly favorable. Great publicity was secured by the propaganda - of Dr. Marie Stopes and her husband, Dr. H. V. Roe, who established in March, 1921, The Mothers’ Clinic. Two additional clinics in London were opened the following year. The Fifth International Birth Control Congress was held at London July 11-14, 1922. In France during the war the censorship greatly interfered with birth control publica- tions and such efforts as revived in 1919 were terminated by an act of July, 1920, which dras- tically and comprehensively prohibited every sort of propagation of knowledge of contraconception and abortion. The publication, transportation, and sale of literature is prohibited and public lectures forbidden. Violations, moreover, are to be tried by the judges of the Tribunal Correc- BIRTH CONTROL LEAGUE tionnel instead of the juries of the Cours d’Assizes. This not only means secret proceed- ings and hence no propaganda value in the trials but places the guilty at the mercy of the judges. This legislation was undoubtedly a reaction of publicists, employers and militarists to the after-war desire for population increase to insure national safety and prestige. It had the support of numerous economists and demog- raphers and of various organizations, such as, L’Alliance nationale pour Vaccroissement de la population francaise. In Vienna, Austria, a clinic was opened in November, 1923 by Johann Ferch, with the support of the League Against Forced Mother- hood. This began agitation for repeal of the law prohibiting abortion. Dr. Ferch says, Birth Control Review, July, 1924: “We pro- pose that poor and sick women in the first three months of pregnancy shall have the right, for social and health reasons, to interrupt the pregnancy.” The proposed law was defeated in December, 1923 by the combined opposition of clericals and national militarists. An inter- national congress on contraceptive devices was held at Amsterdam, Holland, Aug. 29-30, 1921. Representatives were present from the United States, England, France, Germany and Holland. Japan, China and India all show increasing consciousness of overpopulation. Unchecked births and decreasing death rates compel a dis- cussion of Neo-Malthusianism. In spite of offi- cial opposition a birth-control group was formed at Tokyo in 1921 with Baroness Ishimoto as head. In 1922 official objection to Mrs. Sanger’s visit was withdrawn on the understanding she would hold no public meetings. Nevertheless, the Japan Birth Control League began issue of a magazine in May, 1922. The first supporting organization in China was formed by the women of the National University in 1922. About the same time organized propaganda be- gan in India. See ABORTION. Bibliography. Birth Control Review, 104 Fifth Avenue, New York City; William J. Robinson, Woman: Her Sex and Love Life, New York; The Critic and Guide Company, Proceedings, First American Birth Control Conference, November 1921; Margaret Sanger, What Every Woman Should Know; The Pivot of Civilization; S. Adolphus Knopf, M.D., Birth Control—Its Medical, Social, Economical and Moral Aspects; Adelyne More, Uncontrolled Breeding, or Fecundity versus Civilization ; National Birth-Rate Commission, The Declin- ing Birth Rate, Its Causes and Effects, London, 1916; Problems of Population and Parenthood, London, 1920; Harold Cox, The Problem of Population, contains the best presentation of the ethical aspects of birth control; Eden and Cedar Paul (Ed.), Popu- lation and Birth Control; H. H. Laughlin, Eugenical Sterilization in the United States; Rev. James Marchant (Ed.), Control of Parenthood; Rev. John M. Cooper, Birth Con- trol, a most effective presentation of the Catho- lie viewpoint, National Catholic Welfare Con- ference, Washington, D. C. BIRTH CONTROL LEAGUE, AMERICAN. A Society organized Nov. 2, 1921 and in- corporated under the laws of New York State, Apr. 5, 1922. The purposes of the society were stated as follows: ‘To enlighten and educate all sections of the American public in the various aspects of the dangers of uncontrolled procrea- 178 BISHOP tion and the imperative necessity of a world programme of birth control; to correlate the findings of scientists, statisticians, investigators, and social agencies in all fields; to organize and conduct clinics where the medical profession may give to mothers and potential mothers harmless, reliable methods of birth control; to enlist the support and codperation of legal ad- visors, statesmen and legislators in effecting the removal of State and Federal statutes which encourage dysgenic breeding. The League is in close relation with European organizations carrying on the same work. In 1924 there were 27,500 members. It published leaflets, pamphlets and books, and the monthly Birth Control Review. Besides the headquarters in New York the League maintained 10 branches in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Mas- sachusetts, Connecticut, Colorado, and British Columbia. President, Mrs. Margaret Sanger; vice-presidents, Mrs. Lewis L. Delafield, and Mrs. Juliet Barrett Rublee; Treasurer, Mrs. Frances B. Ackerman; Executive Secretary, Mrs. Anne Kennedy. Headquarters, 104 Fifth Avenue, New York City. BIRTH REGISTRATION. See Cuitp WEt- FARE, VITAL STATISTICS, BISCHOFF, DIETRICH (1866- ). A German author born at Bremen, formerly known under the pseudonym “Adam _ Ego.” He has written prolifically on social ethics, masonry, insurance laws, and kindred subjects, and at the same time held the presidency of the leading insurance company of Leipzig. His works include Pie Soziale Frage und Ihre Lésung (1896), Echte und Falsche Gerechtigkeit (1899), Der Soziale Grundgedanke der Frei- maurerlehre (1900), Der Individualismus in der Freimaurerei (1901), Maurertum und Men- schheitstum (1902), Wesen und Ziele der Frei- maureret (1912) SFrevmaurerische Kriegsge- danken (1914), Vom Zukunftsberuf der Deut- schen Freimaurer (1915), Religion und Frei- maureret (1916), Die WNSozialisirung Unseres Wirtschaftslebens (1918), Sozialismus und Re- ligion (1919), Die Sozialisirung der Geister (1919), Freimaurerei und Deutschtum (1920), and Vom Vaterlindischen Beruf der Deutschen Freimaurer (1919). BISHOP, FrepERIc LENDALL (1874— ie An American physicist, born at St. Johnsbury, Vt., and educated at the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technology and the University of Chi- cago. In 1898 he became head of the depart- ment of physics in the Bradley Polytechnic In- stitute and remained there until 1909, when he was called to the chair of physics in the Univer- sity of Pittsburgh, and also became dean of its engineering college. His original investigations include studies on thermal conductivity and variations of wave length with pressure, sur- face tension, high temperature, and viscosity, on all of which he has published papers. Be- sides editing Hngineering Education, he has served as secretary of the Society for the Pro- motion of Engineering Education and is a mem- ber of many scientific societies. BISHOP, JosepH BucKLIN (1847- yi wAn American journalist and government official (see Vou. III). He is author of A Chronicle of 150 Years (1918), Theodore Roosevelt and His Times, and Charles Joseph Bonaparte: His Life and Public Services (1922). Shown in His Letters, 2 vols. (1920), and edited Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children (1919). BISHOP BISHOP, Louis FAuaéres (1864— V0 An American physician born in New Brunswick, N. J., and educated at Rutgers College and Columbia University. He is professor of dis- eases of the heart and circulation in Fordham University Medical School and physician to Lincoln Hospital. He made many contributions to periodical literature on diseases of the heart and blood vessels and blood pressure, etc. His works include Heart Disease, Blood Pressure, etc., (1909), translated into French the fol- lowing year; Arteriosclerosis (1914), trans- lated into French by Francon in 1921; and Heart Troubles: Their Prevention and Relief (1920). BISSING, FERDINAND, BARON ‘von. See BEL- aiumM, History. BISSOLATI-BERGAMASCHI, LEONIDA (1857-1920). An Italian Socialist politician and statesman, born at Cremona, the son of Demetrio Bergamaschi, and adopted son of the philosopher, Professor Bissolati. Using as tools his weekly editions, La Critica sociale and La Lotti di Classe, and the daily Socialist organ, L’Avanti, he became widely known as the leader of the Socialist element in Italy which re- mained faithful to the government during the War. He was elected to the Chamber from Pescarolo in 1897, later from Budrio, and in 1908, from the second division of Rome, which he represented until his death. Because he could not sympathize with the Socialists in their anti-patriotic sentiments, particularly in the Libyan War, Bissolati formed with Bonomi and other Socialist leaders what was called the Reformed Socialist group. On the out- break of the War he enlisted as a sergeant of the Alpini, was wounded, and was decorated for his valour. In June, 1916, after the fall of the Salandra government, he was appointed to the cabinet and served under Premier Bosselli as well as in the succeeding ministry of Orlando. At the Armistice he resigned because of a dis- agreement over the Pact of London. Although he advocated the annexation of Fiume, he lost popular support because of his opposition to the annexation of Alto Adige and North Dal- matia. When he expressed these views in his speech at Milan on the League of Nations, he was severely criticized. He died at Rome on May 6, 1920. He had not been popular in the last years of his life but was greatly mourned at his death. BITTERAUF, THEODOR (1877- Ws yrck German historian, born at Nuremberg. He was professor at the universities of Erlangen and Munich, lecturer on history at the military academy of Munich, and writer of Die Kurbair- wchen Polen im Srebenjaihrigen Kriege (1901), Geschichte des Rheinbundes (1905), Die Tradi- tionen des Hochstiftes Freising (1905-9), Bayern als Kénigreich (1906), Die Deutschen Polen und die Entstehung des Krieges (1915), Napoleon I (1916), Friedrich der Grosse (1916), Geschichte, der Franzdsischen Revolution (1921), and other historical works. BITUMINOUS COAL. See Coat. BITUMINOUS ROCKS. See ASPHALT. BJERKNES. See METEOROLOGY. BJORKMAN, Epwin Avcust (1866— ile An American author, born at Stockholm, Swe- den, where he was educated in the South-End Higher Latin School. When he was 25 years old he came to America and edited the Minnesota Posten at St. Paul (1892-94). His later work 179 BLACK in journalism took him as a reporter, music critic, and editor to The Times, Minneapolis (1894-97), the New York Sun and New York Times (1897-1905), and the New York Eve- ning Post (1906). Subsequently he was a de- partmental editor of The World’s Work and editor of the Modern. Drama Series (1912-15). In 1915-17, he represented the British Depart- ment of Information in Sw eden and directed the Scandinavian bureau of the Committee on Pub- lic Information (1918-19). Mr. Bjorkman be- came associate director of the League of Nations News Bureau in 1920. He wrote Is There Any- thing New Unden the Sun (1911); 'Gleams—A Fragmentary Interpretation of Man and His World (1912); Voices of To-morrow (1918) ; Scandinavia and the War (1914); The Ory of the Ukraine (1915); and The Soul of a Child (1922). In addition he translated plays of Bjérnson, Bergstrom, Schnitzler, and others. BJORNSTAD, ALFRED WILLIAM (1874— x An American army officer, born in St. Paul, Minn., educated at the University of Minnesota, which he left in 1896 to enter the army at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. He was commissioned first lieutenant in the 13th Minnesota Infantry in 1898. In 1899 he was appointed Captain of Volunteers in the United States Infantry and in 1901 became first lieu- tenant in the Regular Army. He was promoted to the rank of major in 1917, to lieutenant- colonel in the National Army in the same year, and in 1918 rose to brigadier-general. From 1898 to 1904 he served in the Philippines. He was on duty with the General Staff in 1911-12 and served in various capacities with that body until 1917. He organized and directed, in that year, 16 training camps for training officers for the War. He served as Chief of Staff for the 30th Division in 1917 and organized and di- rected the Army General Staff College in France, 1917-18. He was Chief of Staff for the 3d Army Corps in 1918 and was commander of the 13th Brigade in 1918-19. In this capacity he took part in all the major engagements in France. After the War he resumed duty at the General Staff College and in 1920 was appointed commander at Fort Snelling, Minn. He re- ceived the Distinguished Service Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal and was decorated by the British and French governments. BLACK, HENRY CAMPBELL (1860- ). An American law author and editor, born at Os- sining, N. Y., and educated at Trinity College. After studying law, he was admitted to the bar in 1883. He practiced for several years at Williamsport, Pa., and St. Paul, Minn. In 1888 he removed to Washington, where he devoted himself to legal literature. He was editor of the Constitutional Review and in 1917 lectured on constitutional government at Trinity College. Among his published books are Constitutional Prohibitions (1887) ; Dictionary of Law (1891- 1910); American Constitutional Law (1895, 1897, 1919); Income and Other Federal Taxes (1917 and 1919); and Relation of Executive Power to Legislation (1919). He contributed frequently to legal periodicals and encyclopx- dias. BLACK, Hucu (1868— ). An English theologian (see Vou. III). He is the author of The Open Door (1914), The New World (1915), and Lest We Forget (1920). BLACK, WILLIAM Murray (1855-— )eevAn American army officer (see Vou. III). In 1917 BLACK WART DISEASE he was chairman of the Inland Transportation Committee of the Council of National Defense. He was a member of the United States Ship- ping Board in 1919 and retired from active service in the latter year. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1918 for planning and administering the engineering and mili- tary railway service during the War. In col- laboration with Prof. E. B. Phelps he invented a method of purifying sewage by aération. BLACK WART DISEASE oF POTATOES. See PLANTS, DISEASES OF. BLACKWELDER, Exior (1880- ) aren American geologist, born at Chicago, Ill., and educated at the University of Chicago. In 1902 he was given a fellowship at Chicago, where he also became an instructor in geology, but in 1905 he transferred his allegiance to Wisconsin, where he remained until 1916, attaining full professorial rank in 1910. He was professor of geology and head of the department in the Uni- versity of Illinois, 1916-19, and in 1919 was visiting professor of geology at Leland Stanford Junior University, where in 1922 he became a full professor. From 1906 to 1918 he was also connected with the United States Geological Survey at first as field assistant in Montana and Wyoming but after 1909 as a _ geologist studying problems in northern Utah, south- eastern Idaho, western Wyoming, and _ then Alaska, especially the glacial and stratigraphic features and economic resources of these re- gions. He was a member of the California Petroleum Commission in 1917 and of geological expeditions to China and other foreign countries. BLACKWELL, ALiceE StToneE (1857- ae An American journalist (see Vox. III). She was editor-in-chief of the Woman’s Journal (Boston) until 1917, when the Woman’s Jour- nal, the Woman Voter, and the Headquarters News-Letter were consolidated as the Woman Citizen. She became contributing editor to the latter. She is the author of The Little Grand- mother of the Russian Revolution: Catherine Breshkovsky’s Own Story (1917). BLAKE, Epaar (1869— ). An American bishop, born at Gorham, Me., and educated in the common schools and in the Boston Univer- ‘sity School of Theology. During 1895-1908 he was pastor in Methodist churches of Salem, Lebanon and Manchester, N. H. He was elected bishop in 1920. BLAKE, JosepH AuGustus (1864— Pomeran) American surgeon, born in San Francisco, and educated at Yale and Columbia Universities. At the outbreak of the War he had charge of the surgical ambulance at Neuilly, France, and in 1917 Cross Military Hospital. In 1917 he was given the Cross of the Legion of Honor. He has written much on surgical subjects and in 1918 published his Gunshot Fractures of the Hea- tremities. BLAKELOCK, Ratrpn Apert (1847-1919). An American landscape painter, one of the fore- most of the school (see Vor. III). During his long confinement in the State hospital for the insane at Bennington, N. Y., his great paintings, | from which he had been unable to eke a liveli- hood, brought record prices; “Moonlight,” for example, was sold to the Toledo Art Museum for $20,000. In 1916 he was released from the hospital as sane and endeavored to resume his work’ as a painter, but without success. He was taken back to the institution in 1918 and became head of the American Red © 180 BLASCHKE died at the camp of a friend in the Adirondacks in 1919. BLAKESLEE, GEorcE HUBBARD (1871-— ). An American professor (see Vou. III). He is the editor of Recent Developments in China; Latin America; Problems and Lessons of the War; Mexico and the Caribbean; and the Jour- nal of International Relations. He organized the Clark University Conference on Internation- al Relations and in 1917-18 prepared reports on German colonies in the Pacific for the American Commission to Negotiate Peace. He was technical advisor to the American delegation at the Disarmament Conference in Washington, 1921. BLAKEY, Roy GILLISPIE (1880— HAD American economist, born at Shelbina, Mo., and educated at Drake, Missouri, Colorado and Co- lumbia Universities. He began as a _ news- paper reporter, and later became a university instructor and member of various economic commissions. In 1919 he was made professor of economics of the University of Minnesota. Among his works are The United States Beet Sugar Industry and the Tariff (1912) and the brochure, The Comparative Costs of State Gov- ernments (1916). BLANCHARD, Artyur Horace (1877— ie An American civil engineer, born at Providence, R. I., and educated at Brown and Columbia Uni- versities. He began teaching in 1899 as an in- structor in civil engineering and mathematics at Brown, where he remained until 1911, when he returned to Columbia as professor of high- way engineering, a chair which he relinquished in 1917 and in 1919 went to the University of ‘Michigan, where he became professor of highway engineering and highway transport. Meanwhile he was consultant to various official organiza- tions. During the War he was a member of the Council of Defense and chairman of the National Highway Commission. Besides being associated in the authorship of Highways (1910-12) and Highway Engineering (1913), he was editor-in-chief of the American Highway Engineer’s Pocketbook (1919) and the American Highway Transportation Handbook (1920). BLAND, EpirH NeEssir (Mrs. HUvsBERT) (1858-1924). An English poet and_ novelist (see Vou. III). She is the author of Garden Poems (1914), Five Children and It (1921), The Incredible Honeymoon (1921), The Story of the Amulet (1921), The Enchanted Castle (1922), The Lark (1922), and. Many. Voices: Poems (1922). New editions of many of her earlier books have appeared. BLAND-SUTTON, Sir Joun (1855- Ke An eminent British surgeon, born at Enfield Highway. His writings, concerned chiefly with pathology and gynecological surgery, include Introduction to General Pathology (1886) ; Ligaments, Their Nature and Morphology (1887); Evolution and Disease (1890); Surgi- cal Diseases of the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes (1891), and Tumors, Innocent and Malignant (1893). The volume on tumors, his master- piece, went through its seventh edition in 1922. He has also written Gallstones and Diseases of the Bile-ducts (1907); Fibroids of the Uterus (1913), and Selected Lectures and Essays (1920). In collaboration with Giles he wrote a textbook on Diseases of Women (1897), which has also seen its seventh edition. BLASCHKE, Pau (1850- ). A German served as vice- — * (1918), 4 Woman’s Point of View (1919), BLASCO IBANEZ 181 lexicographer, born at Wigandstal, and educated at the University of Leipzig. After employ- ment in the postal service, he spent several years as a tutor and finally became a lexicog- rapher. During the period 1878-1916, he pub- lished innumerable books on French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish grammar, German- English-French guides to conversations, a Ger- man-English-French and French-English-German electrotechnical dictionary (1913), a Polish grammar (1916), and a German-English-French medical dictionary (1916). BLASCO IBANEZ, Vicente 1867—_). A Spanish novelist, journalist, and politician. In his youth he occupied a prominent place in the political and literary controversies of the day and often found himself in difficulties with the authorities. His first novel, La Barraca, appears in 1899; thereafter he wrote volumin- ously. He was introduced to the English- speaking world with his Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1918), which achieved an extraor- dinary popularity. Other works done into Eng- lish were Our Sea (1920); Torrent (1923); and The Temptress (1923). For a time, Ibafiez ranked in the forefront of contemporary Span- ish novelists, but his reputation declined as fa- miliarity with other modern Spanish writers, Pio Baroja, for instance, grew. It was seen that while he had mastered narrative art, his _work showed scarcely any contact with reality. During the period he continued to attract Amer- ican attention by his sensational newspaper ar- ticles on Mexico, Europe, ete. BLATCH, Harrior Sranton (1856- ie An American lecturer and writer on feminism (see Vout. IIIT). In 1917 she became head of the speakers’ bureau of the Food Administration. She is the author of Mobilizing Woman Ra an Elizabeth Cady Stanton as Revealed in Her Reminiscences, Letters and Diary (1921). BLEI, FRANZ (1871- ). An Austrian, writer, born at Vienna, and educated in po- ‘litical economy at the universities of Vienna, Paris, Berne, and Zurich. After traveling in France, Italy, and America, he entered the lit- erary field as playwright, but soon devoted himself to the essay. His principal works in- clude Oscar Wilde (1904), Novalis (1904), Von Amoureusen Frauen (1906), Felicien Rops (1906), Die Romantische Rennaissance (1906), Landfahrer und Abenteurer (1913), Die Puder- quaste (1913), Menschliche Betrachtungen zur Politik (1915), Summa (1918), and Retrung (1920). He has also translated numerous works of French authors, among them Marcel Schwob’s Monelle, André Gide’s Le Roi Can- daule, Maurice Barre’s Du Sang de la Volupté et de la Mort, and others of Paul Claudel, Walt Whitman, and Oscar Wilde. He has also edited the works of Goethe, Reinhold Lenz, and others. BLEIBTREU, Cart (1859- +). A German author and historian, born in Berlin. (See VOL. III). He is said to have inaugurated the mod- ern movement in German literature by his essay, Die Revolution der Litteratur (1885). His contributions to war literature are Englands Waterlooliige (1915) and Stegemanns Weltkrieg und die Marneschlacht (1916). BLEININGER, Atpert Victor (1873- yi A German-American chemist, born at Polling, in Bavaria, and educated at Ohio State Uni- versity, where he became instructor in ceramics, attaining an associate professorship in 1906. BLINN {In 1907 he went to the University of Illinois and three years later was made full professor and director of the department of ceramics. During 1908-10 he was in charge of the clay products section of the United States Geological Survey and in 1912-20 of a similar division of the Bureau of Standards, becoming in 1920, chemist to the Homer Laughlin China Company. He has lectured on his specialty at the Univer- sity of Chicago (1912) and at the Franklin Institute (1917) and was chairman of the com- mittee on ceramic industry of the National Re- search Council. Professor Bleininger is a mem- ber of various technical societies including the American Ceramic Society, of which he was president in 1918. Besides editing vari- ous journals he has published the Oollected Works of H. A. Seger (1903) and is the author of The Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement (1904). BLEULER, Pavut Evucen (1857- Yate, Swiss psychiatrist, known especially for his original conceptions of psychology and insanity. He has divided all mankind into schizoids and syntonics and has renamed dementia precox by calling it schizophrenia; that is, the highest pa- thological expression of the schizoid mind. Bleuler was born at Zollikon, received his med- ical degree from the University of Berne, and was appointed professor of psychiatry in the University of Ziirich. He wrote Dementia‘Pre- cox oder Schizophrenia (1911), translated into English by William A. White (1912); Das Au- tistisch-undisziplinierte Denken in der Medizin (1919), and Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie (1920), translated into English by A. A. Brill (1924). He was editor of the Jahrbuch fiir Psycho- analytische und Psychopathische Forschungen during 1909-13. He was the first of Freud’s contemporaries to speak favorably of psycho- analysis; however, he has never been classed as a militant member of this movement. BLICHFELDT, Hans FREDERIK (1873- ps Mathematician, born in Denmark. He came to the United States in 1888, and after settling in Washington he became in 1892 a draftsman in the engineering department of the city and coun- ty of New Whatcom. Two years later he en- tered Leland Stanford Junior University. He studied also at the University of Leipzig. He then returned to Stanford as instructor in mathematics, and after passing through the lower grades he was made professor of that subject in 1913. Dr. Blichfeldt has made orig- inal studies of various subjects on continuous - groups, linear homogeneous substitution groups, and the geometry of numbers, and has contrib- uted papers on the results to the American Journal of Mathematics and especially to the transactions and bulletins of the American Mathematical Society, of which he was a vice- president in 1912. His published papers are about 30 in number and include Finite Groups of Linear Homogeneous Transformations, pub- lished as Part Two of the Theory and Applica- tion of Finite Group (1916). BLINN, Hotsrook (1892-— ). An Ameri- can actor, born in San Francisco. He appeared on the legitimate stage as a child, played throughout the United States and in London, and did some good work for the moving pic- tures. His successes include Moliére (1919), A Woman of No Importance (1916), The Lady of the Camelias (1917), Getting Together (1918), and The Bad Man (1920-23). In the BLISS last he had perhaps his best stage part. In 1923-1924 he worked in moving pictures. BLISS, GiILsertT AMES )(1876— An American mathematician, born at Chicago, where he was educated-at the university. As an instructor in mathematics he taught at the University of Minnesota. He went to Géttin- gen for a year in 1902 and then returned to Chicago as an associate. In 1904 he was called to the University of Missouri, and from there to Princeton, where he remained three years. Returning to Chicago in 1908 as associate pro- fessor, he continued in this capacity until 1913, when he attained full professorial rank. He has given special lectures in mathematics at Princeton in 1909 and at Harvard in 1911. The former were published as The Princeton Colloquium Lectures, Part One: Fundamental Existence Theorems (1913). During the War he served as a scientific expert on range firing sections in the United States Army. He has made special studies of differential equations, calculus of variations, and theory of functions of lines with an application to ballistics, on all of which he has contributed valuable papers to the American Journal of Mathematics and to the transactions and bulletins of the American Mathematical Society. Dr. Bliss was associate editor of the Annals of Mathematics in 1906—- 08 and of the transactions of the American Mathematical Society in 1908-16. BLISS, Tasker Howarp (1853- )¢\ GAn American soldier, born at Lewisburg, Pa., and for two years a student at the university of that city, now Bucknell University. He grad- uated from the United States Military Academy in 1875, was professor of military science at the Naval War College from 1885 to 1888, and spent two years as military attaché at Madrid. At the close of the Spanish-American War in which he had served during the Porto Rican cam- paign. of 1898, he was appointed collector of customs at the port of Havana and in 1902 was made special envoy to Cuba, to negotiate the treaty of reciprocity between Cuba and the United States. He was commandant of the Army War College in 1903. From 1905 to 1909 he held commands in the Philippines. In the early part of 1911 he commanded the provisional brigade on the southern California border dur- ing the Mexican insurrection, after which he was for a short time commander of the Western Department. He was placed in command of the Department of the East on Aug. 12, 1911, and became chief of staff of the United States army, with the rank of general, on Oct. 6, 1917. Although he reached the legal age of retirement on December 31 of that year, he remained on active duty by order of President Wilson and was appointed to membership on the Supreme War Council in France. He was also a member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace in Paris, 1918-19. On May 1, 1920, he was detailed by the President as governor of the United States Soldiers’ Home. He received the United States Distinguished Service Medal. BLOCH, Ernest (1880- ). A distin- guished Swiss composer, born at Geneva. He received his musical education at the Conserva- toire in Brussels and later at Hoch’s Conserva- tory in Frankfort. In 1909-10 he was conduc- tor of the subscription concerts in Lausanne, and from 1911 to 1915 professor of composition at the Geneva Conservatory. In 1916 he came to New York, where he taught composition at 182 BLOCKADE the David Mannes School of Music. In 1920 he became director of the Cleveland Institute of Music. His music is rather harsh and austere; he draws his inspiration mainly from Jewish subjects and consciously attempts to give ex- pression to the aspirations and ideals of the Jewish race. His works include an opera, Mac- beth (Paris, 1910); three symphonies, in C sharp minor, in F (Jsrael), and Symphonie Or- ientale, on Hebrew themes; two symphonic poems, Hiver-Printemps and Vwre et Aimer; Trois Poemes Juifs for orchestra; Poémes @Automne for soprano and orchestra; Schelomo for ’cello and orchestra; Psalms 22, 114, and 137, for solo voices and orchestra; a string quartet in B; a violin sonata; and a viola sonata which won the Coolidge Prize at the Berkshire Cham- ber Music Festival, 1919. A second opera, Jezabel, was still unfinished in 1924. BLOCH, JEAN-RICHARD (1884— Jin French editor and author, born in Paris. In 1910 he founded the review l’Effort, which was later enlarged and entitled V’Effort Libre. He wrote essays, short stories and novels. His best known works are Carnaval Est Mort, a col- lection of articles whose general tenor is that there is no more art because there is no more faith; Lévy; Premier Livre de Contes (1912) ; and Ht Cie., a novel (1918). The two last works are stories constituting a sympathetic analysis of the Jewish character. BLOCK, ALEexANDER A. (1880-1921). A Russian poet and playwright, born in Petrograd. He was one of the leaders of the Modernist school in Russia. His poetry shows two dis- tinct phases of development; during the earlier period he seemed to live in a mystic land of un- reality and dreams; later, he became vigorous, patriotic, hopeful. Songs of the Beautiful Lady (1905) belongs to the earlier phase, Poems on Russia (1915) to the later. His poetry is impressionistic, and he employs the so-called new rhythm, similar to that of Ger- man and English. Besides the works mentioned he is author of The Unexpected Joy (1907), Snow-Mask (1907), Snow-Bound (1908) Night Watches (1911), and The Twelve. The last is his masterpiece, giving a powerful picture of Petrograd at the beginning of the Bolshevist Revolution. Block, although not a Communist, was acclaimed by the Bolshevists after the publication of The Twelve. He died from ill- ness due to undernourishment under the Bol- shevist régime, on Aug. 1], 1921. BLOCK, Paut_ (1862- ). A German editor and author, born at Memel. He studied at Memel and Ko6nigsberg and specialized in history and literature. In 1899 he became con- nected with the Berliner Tageblatt, and has been its Paris correspondent (1906-11), war corres- pondent, and literary editor. His works are the novels, Der Grauménch (1885), Am Leucht- turm (1886), Anno Sturm (1887), Die Diaman- ten der Kénigin (1888); the plays, Der Racher (1888), Riibezahl (1888), Rolands Knappen (1888), In der Tiefe (1889), Bergmanns Glick (1889), Gift (1890); a volume of Parisian sketches (1911); Der Verwandelte Biirger (1919), dealing with the outbreak of the rev- olution in Germany; and numerous translations. BLOCKADE, AL.iep. The measures taken by Great Britain, with the approval of the other Allies, and to some extent assisted by them, to prevent goods from reaching Germany which could assist the latter in prosecuting the War, — BLOMFIED did not constitute normal blockade of the Ger- man Coast in the earlier sense of the word. At first, it was less than a blockade as hereto- fore understood; by 1916 it had become the most drastic and effective control of neutral commerce ever attempted by belligerents. Sub- marine mines and submarine boats had made a close blockade of the old type absolutely imprac- ticable. The blockade lines of cruisers were drawn across the English Channel in the south and between the north of Scotland and the Nor- wegian Coast. At the outbreak of war, the Al- lies announced that they would follow the rules of the Declaration of London, of which Great Britain and the United States were not signa- tories, with some modifications. No notice of formal blockade was given then or later, but lists of articles declared to be contraband were published; these lists were subsequently extend- ed. The results of these measures were very un- satisfactory. In an intensive war, where the whole population is concerned in efforts to main- tain the greatest field force possible, the receipt of almost any kind of goods from abroad will re- lease some of the people to military service or to some industry which is engaged in supplying the fighting line. Nearly all goods thus become con- traband in the sense that they assist the enemy in the prosecution of the war. Moreover, enemy goods sent to neutral countries furnished means for the purchase of goods for import in return. In the cases of neutral countries whose land frontiers bordered Germany, interruption of traffic in goods originating in the neutral coun- try or brought by land from some other neutral country was neither legal nor practicable. But in the case of goods imported by neutrals from overseas, the conditions were different. The doc- trine of “continuous voyage” was amplified and extended. All such goods in excess of local neutral requirements were seized and condemned for purchase by the Allies or for confiscation. The restrictions imposed on this trade, especial- ly in regard to insurance, censorship, cables, and the supply of coal and oil, forced the for- 183 mation of mercantile associations in the neutral . countries outside the Baltic, and these guaran- teed the purely neutral destination of cargoes. When the United States entered the War, the source of supply of goods which could be passed on to the enemy via neutral territory was re- duced to comparative unimportance, as control could be exercised at the place of export. The suppression of oversea trade designed to furnish supplies to Germany was then complete and was largely instrumental in forcing the enemy to sue for peace. BLOMFIELD, Sir Recinarp (1856— Va An English architect, born at Aldington, Kent, and educated at Haileybury, Oxford University, and Exeter College. After spending three years -in an architectural office and studying at the Royal Academy School of Architecture, he trav- eled on the Continent for a year and then started practicing in London in 1884. His style is late English Renaissance. Besides country houses he designed many public buildings in London and elsewhere including the Goldsmiths’ College, New Cross; the Imperial War Cross, Chelsea, and the new buildings for Lady Mar- garet Hall, Oxford. He also designed part of the facade of the Quadrant in Regent Street, London. At the outbreak of the War he ob- tained a commission in charge of trench work and was afterward chosen principal architect BLUE of the Imperial War Graves Commission. He was made Associate of the Royal Academy in 1905 and served as professor of architecture there from 1906 to 1910. He was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1913 and in the following year was elected president of that body. Well-known as an art historian and critic, he was made Officer de l’Instruction Publique by the French govern- ment. His works include The Formal Garden in England, with F. I. Thomas (1892), History of Renaissance Architecture in England (1897), The Mistress Art (1908), and French Architec- ture, successive volumes (1911 and 1921). He was knighted in 1919. BLONDIN, Pierre Epovarp (1874— ) A Postmaster General of Canada, born at Saint Francois du Lac, Yamaska, and educated at the Séminaire de Nicolet, St. Michel’s College, To- ronto, and Laval University, Montreal. In 1908 and 1911 he was elected to the House of Commons for Champlain and in the latter year was Deputy Speaker at the first session of the 12th Parliament. He was sworn of the Privy Council and appointed Minister of Inland Rev- enue in 1914. Blondin enlisted in 1917 and was given command of the 158th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Forces; he went abroad in October of that year as Commander of the Legion of Honor. He was a Conserva- tive member of Parliament for the county of Champlain in 1917 and in the following year was called to the Senate. BLOOD PRESSURE. Since about 1914 many diagnosticians have formed the opinion that the ordinary measurement, the systolic, is insufficient to give a correct idea of the true state of the blood pressure. They have there- fore advocated that the diastolic and differential pressures be given more weight, the differential or pulse pressure being the true index of the circulation. While this attitude is sound in theory, it is so difficult to obtain satisfactory readings of the pulse pressure that some prac- tical men have returned to dependence on the systolic pressure alone. The practical value of the systolic pressure is still held to be great, but this value is restricted to a very few dis- eases. In regard to the prevention and relief of high blood pressure, certain factors common- ly accused have never been proved to cause or maintain this condition. Remarkable reduction of pressure has sometimes been obtained by the use of certain diets, as the so-called basie or alkaline diet, and also by the use of alkalies themselves. BLOOMFIELD, MaAvrice (1855- ). An American orientalist. He was born in Austria but came to America as a youth and studied at the University of Chicago and Johns Hopkins, as well as at Berlin and Leipzig. He has been professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology since 1885. His early works dealt with the Vedas, their religion, mythology and _ poetry. Recent publications of his are Life and Stories of the Jarna Savior Paravanatha (1916) and a work on the Rig Veda (1916). BLOS, Anna (1866-— ). A German social worker and teacher, born at Liegnitz. She has written on feminism and various social prob- lems. Among her works are Krieg und Schule (1915) and Frauenarbeit im Kriege (1917). She is the wife of Wilhelm Blos, the author. BLUE, Rupert (1867-— ). An American sanitarian and public official (see Vou. III). In BLUE 1915 he was elected president of the American Medical Association and of the Association of Military Surgeons. In 1920-21 he was United States delegate to the International Office of Public Hygiene at Paris, and to the third Decen- nial Revision of International Nomenclature of Diseases. BLUE, Victor (1865- ). An American naval officer (see Vor. III). He commanded the battleship Texas in the North Sea under Ad- miral Beatty in 1917 and 1918. On Dec. 16, 1918, he was reappointed chief of the Bureau of Navigation and was made rear-admiral on Apr. 1; 1919. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for service in the North Sea. He was retired in June, 1919, because of dis- ability received in line of duty. BLUNT, Witrrip ScAwEN (1840-1922). An English author (see Vou. III). In 1914 he pub- lished his complete poetical works. He also pub- lished My Diaries, in two parts (1919 and 1920). BLYTHE, SAMUEL GEORGE (1868-— )? en American writer born at Geneseo, N. Y., where he was educated at the State Normal School. In the period 1893-99, he did editorial work for the Buffalo Express, the Buffalo Courier and Enquirer, and the Cosmopolitan Magazine. For the next seven years he was Washington corre- spondent for the New York World. He became a staff writer of the Saturday Evening Post (Philadelphia) in 1907. Among his publica- tions are We Have With us To-night (1909) ; ‘Cutting It Out (1912); The Old Game (1914); The Fakers (1915); Hunkins (1919) and The Manikin Makers (1921). BOAS, IsmaAr_ (Isrmpor) (1858— yer A German physician and pioneer gastroenterolo- gist, born at Exin in Posen, and educated at Halle. In 1886 he established at Berlin the first service for diseases of the stomach and intestines. In 1907 he became professor of gastroenterology in the University of Berlin, began to write on gastroenterological sub- jects in 1886 and republished his minor ar- ticles in 1906 under the title Gesammelte Beitrége. His book, Diagnostik und Therapie der Magenkrankheiten, published 1890-93, was often republished, and an American translation was made by A. Bernheim in 1907. His com- panion book, Diagnostik und Therapie der Darmkrankheiten, first published in 1898, was followed in 1901 by an American translation by Seymour Basch. Other well known works of his are Die Lehre von der Okkulten Blitungen (1914), Diatetik der Magen-und Darmkrank- heiten (1920), and Das Hemorrhoidalleiden (1922). A monograph, Habitual Constipation, appeared in 1923 in a translation by Dr. T. L. Stedman. ‘BOCKENHEIMER, Puitipr (1875- re German surgeon, born at Frankfurt-am-Main. In 1907 he was made professor of surgery in the University of Berlin. In 1904—06, in collabora- tion with Frohse, he published the Atlas Typischer Chirurgischen Operationen put into English by J. Howell Evans. The Atias Chirur- gischer Krankheitsbilder was issued by Bocken- heimer alone in 1907 and translated into Eng- lish by C. F. Marshall in 1908. Other works are the Leitfaden der Frakturen-Behandlung (1909); Plastische Operationen (1912), and Die Neue Chirurgie, (1921). BODANZKY, Artur (1877- ). An Aus- trian conductor, born at Vienna. After gradua- 184 BOEHN tion from the Vienna Konservatorium he began his career in 1897 as violinist at the Hofoper and studied composition with A. von Zemlinsky. His first position as conductor was at the Stadttheater at Budweis, where he conducted only operettas. In 1901 he went to the Karl- theater in Vienna, and two years later became Mahler’s assistant at the Hofoper. He then conducted one season at the Theater an der Wien (1904) and at the Lortzing Theater in Berlin (1905). In 1906-09 he was conductor at the Deutsches Landestheater in Prague and also conducted symphony concerts. There his excellent work soon attracted attention, and in 1909 he was called to Mannheim as direc- tor and first conductor of the Grandducal Theater and conductor of the symphony and oratorio concerts. In 1914 he conducted the first performances of Parsifal at Covent Gar- den, where Gatti-Casazza was so impressed with his ability that he secured him as Hertz’s successor at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. This position he has filled with dis- tinction since he began his American career with a masterly performance of Gétterdimmerung (Nov. 17, 1915). Since 1916 he has also been conductor for the Society of the Friends of Music, and from 1919 to 1921 he led the concerts of the National Symphony Orchestra with con- spicuous success. After the amalgamation of the latter organization with. the Philharmonic Society (1921), he directed several Philhar- monie concerts as guest-conductor. He is a conductor of the Mahler type, authoritative, electrifying, and forceful. He revised the scores of Weber’s Oberon and Freischiitz, set- ting all the spoken dialogues to music. Both works were brought out at the Metropolitan Opera House under his direction, the former on Dec. 28, 1918, the latter on Mar. 22, 1924. He has made an excellent German translation of the libretto of Mozart’s Don Giovanni (1911). BODEWADT, Jacop A. C. (1883- 3 German author born in Tondern (formerly Schleswig, now Denmark). He has specialized -on political.and literary subjects concerned with the Low Germans and is the author of Johannes Dose, der Erfolgreiche (1905), Gustav Frenssen (1906), J. H. Fehrs (1913), Weltkrieg und Niederdeutschtum (1915), Timm Kroger (1916) and some one-act plays in Plattdeutsch dialect. He edited Holstenart (1914), J. H. Fehrs’s Ge- sammelte Dichtungen (1913), Klaus Groth’s Briefe iiber Hoch-und Niederdeutsch (1914), Timm Kroéger’s Gedenkbuch (1920) and Zwi- schen zwet Meeren (1921), and an anthology, - Dichter der Nordmark (1921). BODLEY, JOHN EDWARD COURTENAY (1853- ). An English author (see VoL. III). He has written An Introduction to the English Edition of the National History of: France (1916) and The Romance of the Battle- line in France (1918). BOEHN, MAx von (1860- ). A German writer, born in Potsdam. He concerns himself with customs, fashions, and art. He is the au- thor of Spanische Reisebilder (1905), Menschen und Moden im Siebzehnten, Actzehnten, und Neunzehnten Jahrhundert (1906), biographies of Guido Reni, Giorgione, Palma Vecchio, Lo- renzo Bernini, and Karl Spitzweg (1907-09), Biedermeier ten (1916), Bekleidungskunst und Moderne (1917), Vom Kaiserreich zur Republik (1917), Modenspiegel (1919), Rokoko, Frankreich im (1911), Miniaturen und Silhouet- — BOGARDUS Achtzehnten Jahrhundert (1919), England im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert (1920), and Das Biihn- enkostum in Altertum, Mittelalter, und Neuzeit 1921). ; BOGARDUS, Emory Stepnen (1882- ). An American sociologist, born near Belvidere, Ill., and educated at Northwestern and Chicago Universities. At the University of California he was assistant professor of sociology and _ eco- nomics (1911-13) and associate professor (1913- 15), and in 1915 he became professor of sociol- ogy, and head of the department two years later. He became director of the Division of Social Work at the same institution in 1920 and in the same year editor of the Journal of Applied Sociology. He closely identified him- self with social work in southern California and has published several works on the sub- ject, among them Introduction to Sociology (1917); Essentials of Americanization (1919, 1920) ; and a History of Social Thought. BOGART, Ernest Luptow (1870- ). An American economist and writer, born at Yon- kers, N. Y., and educated at Princeton and the University of Halle. He held assistant pro- fessorships at educational institutions, includ- ing his alma mater, and in 1909 became pro- fessor of economics at the University of I1- linois. He had charge of commodity studies for the research bureau of the War Trade Board in 1918 and in the next year was re- gional economist’ in the Foreign Trade Ad- viser’s Office for the Department of State. Among his works are Hconomic History of the United States (1907), Practical Economics (1910), Readings tn the Economic History of the United States (1915), Centennial History of Illinois (1918), Direct and Indirect Cost of the ‘Great World War (1919), and War Costs and Their Financing (1921). BOGERT, GEorGE GLEASON (1884— ). An American lawyer and educator, born in Scot- land, and was educated at Cornell University. After studying law he was admitted to the bar in 1908. For three years following, he prac- ticed at Elmira, N. Y., and in 1911 was acting assistant professor of law at Cornell. He be- came assistant professor in 1912, and professor of law and dean of the College of Law in 1921. In 1920 he was commissioner on Uniform State ’ Laws for New York. During the War he served in many important legal capacities. In 1919 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel and judge advocate in the General Corps. He was author of The Sale of Goods in New York (1912), The Elements of the Law of Trusts (1914), and Hornbook on Trusts (1921). He was for many years editor of the Cornell Law Quarterly. BOGERT, Lotra JEAN (1888—- )ov An American chemist, born at Scotland, S. D., and was educated at Cornell and Yale Universities. She served as instructor at Simmons College during 1910-12 and at Mt. Holyoke during 1911-12. After further studies at Yale, she held teaching appointments there until 1919, when she became professor of food economy and nutrition at Kansas State Agricultural College. Her original investigations have included studies in human nutrition, blood volume, excretion of’ calcium and magnesium phosphate, and an im- portant research concerning pellagra. BOGERT, Marston (1868— ). An Ameri- can chemist (see Vou. III). During the War he was consultant of the Bureau of Mines and 185 -a full member in 1920. BOILERS held a number of important posts in the chemi- eal and gas service of the United States gov- ernment. He was honorably discharged on "May 1, 1919. BOHEMIA. See CzecHo-SLovakIA. BOHM, MAx (1868-1923). An American artist, born at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1868, and educated at the Cleveland Art School. At 19 he went to Europe, where he was the pupil of Jean Paul Laurens, Lefebvre, and Benjamin Constant. Two years after his first visit to Europe he had a picture in the Paris Salon (1889). In 1898 he won prizes and the gold medal of the Paris Salon, and from that date his list of awards has been exeeptionally long. Among them is a gold medal from the Panama- Pacific Exposition 1915. Bohm was elected an Associate of the National Academy in 1917 and His best known pictures are “The Family” and “Happy Hours” in the Luxembourg Museum. Bohm’s work as a mural painter is well illustrated in the music room of Mrs. Mary Longyear’s house in Brookline, Mass. BOHR, Nie~ts HENprRicK Davip (1885-— Ip A Danish scientist, born at Copenhagen, and educated at the University of Copenhagen. When but little over 20, he decided to devote himself to the study of the atom. He became professor of mathematical physics at the Uni- versity of Copenhagen in 1916 and director of its Institute of Theoretical Physics in 1920. In 1922 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his theory in respect to the electric structure of the atom (see CHEMISTRY: Electronic Theory of the Atom). In November of the following year he delivered a series of six lectures at Yale Uni- versity, describing his theory as to how atoms are built up by the binding of one electron af- ter another in an atomic nuclei. This theory has enabled other Danish scientists to discover a new element, hafnium. As a direct result of the Yale lectures, the Rockefeller International Education Board appropriated $40,000 for the enlargement and extension of Dr. Bohr’s lab- oratory at Copenhagen, in order that American students, as well as those of other countries, might work with him. In 1922 he published Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution. See PHYSICS. BOILER, Mercury. See QUICKSILVER. BOILER CODE. See BoILers. BOILERS. With the pronounced tendency to construct steam power plants of increasing size and efficiency during the period from 1914— 1924 considerable attention was paid to boilers, and as a result units of larger capacity were installed capable of working at constantly greater pressures, and also at higher conditions of superheat. Not only were units of greater size provided, but also with the increased costs of fuel and labor, it was found necessary to secure the most efficient installations possible, and to provide automatic stokers and similar devices which would ensure regular feeding of the furnaces. This increased economy was seen particularly at public utility power plants where in 1919 a ton of coal produced 625 kilo- watt-hours of electricity. In 1923 it produced 835 kilowatt-hours. Of course the boiler in- stallation was responsible for only a part of this efficiency. Naturally the largest boiler installations were to be found at the great central stations of the electric light and power companies as under BOILERS modern conditions it was desirable to concen- trate as much generating capacity as possible in large central stations favorably located for ob- taining supplies of fuel and condensing water. ~ For the larger central stations the tendency was to standardize the boiler installations with units of from 14,000 to 20,000 square feet of surface, and to provide for the more efficient burning of coal with the increased capacity and at the higher ratings. A boiler with a record for large size was that built for the Cleveland Electric [lluminat- ing Company with 30,600 square feet of sur- face. All of these large units, of course, were operated in connection with steam _ turbines which had become the approved practice in large central stations. Where powdered coal was employed the furnace volume was consider- ably increased, while with the larger furnace and higher temperatures more attention was be- ing paid to the brick work and thicker, larger walls were employed. A large number of plants were being equipped for the use of oil fuel, and with this object a portion of the installation of the power station of the New York Central Railroad at Yonkers was changed, as_ well as that of the Singer Building at New York City. At the Weymouth Station of the Edison II- luminating Company at Boston, and at the Calumet plant of the Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago, in 1923, experiments were in progress with boilers designed for 1200 pounds pressure which were sufficiently large that they would operate on a commercial load. This type of boiler had an inclined heater and cross-drum with upper and lower decks of two inch tubes separated to accommodate a primary and secondary superheater, the latter being used to reheat the steam exhausted from an extra high pressure turbine before it was de- livered into the main heater. Experiments in Germany by Dr. Wilhelm Schmidt indicated that steam could be gen- erated in boilers at pressures of 800 pounds and higher, to be used in an especially designed re- ciprocating engine with a gain of some 20 per cent in efficiency over the best turbine practice prevailing. In 1923 Schmidt had a high pres- sure boiler designed to generate 15,500 pounds at a gauge pressure of 850 pounds. In his re- ciprocating engine his exhaust had a pressure of 140 pounds passed to a heat accumulator supplying the steam hammers of the shop. The drums of the boilers were forged from a single piece of metal without welded or lifted joints, and were rendered more or less immune to internal stresses by being annealed after forging. In Sweden about the same time, a boiler de- signed for 1500 pounds pressure was operating successfully at 900 pounds. Here steam was produced from centrifugally formed shells of water in rotary tubes, 12 inches in diameter. An interesting test plant was installed to test experimentally the Benson super-pressure boiler where steam was generated under critical con- ditions at 3200 pounds per square inch, and at a temperature of 706 degrees Fahrenheit. This would be utilized by throttling to 1500 pounds, and then after being superheated to 788 degrees Fahrenheit would be passed through a high pressure turbine exhausting 200 pounds pres- sure. This exhaust steam would then be re- heated to 662 degrees Fahrenheit expanded in 186 BOILERS a standard turbine and condensed to 29 inches vacuum. Electric Boilers. An interesting development where coal or oil fuel was costly and water power cheap and abundant, as in the northern United States and Canada, was the use of elec- tric boilers, where electricity was employed to produce steam at the plant of the Laurentide Company of Canada, where in 1923, largest boilers of this type were in service. Each unit had a capacity of absorbing 35,000 kilowatts of electricity and producing 100,000 pounds of steam per hour. Another electric steam boiler installed at Berlin, New Hampshire, employed three phase, 60-cycle current at 22,000 volts, and had a capacity of 18,000 kilowatts generat- ing steam at 135 pounds pressure. National Boiler Code. A committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ap- pointed in 1911 to consider the subject of a comprehensive national code for the construc- tion and installation of steam boilers, pre- sented a preliminary draft of such a measure at the annual meeting of the society in 1914. This code was approved by the council of the Society in 1915, and straightway it was recom- mended as a basis for uniform state and munic- ipal legislation. In preparing the draft the Massachusetts and Ohio state regulations were adopted as a basis, and all interested manu- facturers, users and engineers were invited to make suggestions. The report and the accom- panying code deal in detail with specifications for steam boilers and boiler tubes. Uniform rules for safety valves, fire tube and water tube boilers, and steam and hot water heating boilers combined practice with theory so that the interests of all. were protected and the safety of the public was insured. The American ‘Uniform Boiler Law Society was formed to further. the adoption of this code which secured the approval of a number of states and the enactment into statutes. In fact it received such general approval that the specification for boiler work on the Panama Canal provided that construction should be in accordance with the code with alternate bids on boilers not so constructed. This code came into effect in 17 states, the District of Columbia, and the Panama Zone, and in 14 cities. The states adopting the code included the more important states such as New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan and Indiana. Mercury Boiler. The period from 1914 to 1924 witnessed the culmination of.some success- ful experiments by W. M. L. Emmet in the de- velopment of a mercury boiler and turbine, where mercury vapor took the place of steam. Inasmuch as mercury vapor has a vapor pres- sure lower than that of steam its expansive force under the action of heat would be corres- pondingly greater, and for the same expendi- ture of fuel more energy would be developed. It was this increased theoretical economy that interested engineers and between 1914 and 1924 Emmet was working on a practical solu- tion of the problem. In 1923 after some 15 different experimental designs had been de- veloped a working installation was built and placed in commercial service at the Dutch Point Station of the Hartford Electric Light Com- pany. This equipment was designed to develop 1800 kilowatts from the mercury turbine gen- BOISSEVAIN erator, while in addition at least 28,000 pounds of water steam would be generated from the condensing mercury, though up to the end: of 1923 the plant had not been operated to gen- erate more than 15,000 kilowatts and 27,000 pounds of steam per hour. In this Hartford boiler which was oil fired, mercury was va- porized at 812 degrees Fahrenheit and 35 pounds pressure. The vapor then passed to a special turbine engine, where it was expanded to 29- inches vacuum and 414 degrees Fahrenheit. The temperature of condensation was used in a connected steam boiler to generate steam for an ordinary steam turbine, or for delivery to the main steam line. Theoretically there was a considerable margin of economy to be gained, and it was stated that for each pound of fuel consumed a mercury-steam plant would afford 52 per cent more electrical output than an ordi- nary efficient steam turbine installation operat- ing at 100 pounds pressure, while if the mer- cury equipment were added to the same turbine installation for an increase in fuel of 18 per cent, there would be an additional output of some 80 per cent. The Hartford equipment held about 32,000 pounds of mercury, which was evaporated at a rate of 230,000 pounds of mercury per hour, or in other words all the mercury used in the system would be vaporized about eight times in an hour. It required about 8.5 pounds of mercury to make 1 pound of steam. It was believed that in future instal- lations there could be a considerable reduction of the amount of mercury required by reducing the size of the mercury spaces in the mercury boiler and mercury economizer. A new edition of Steam Boiler Economy by William Kent was published in 1915, discussing modern practice up to the time of its publication. BOISSEVAIN, INEz MILHOLLAND (1886-— 1916). An American suffrage leader and law- yer, born in New York. She was graduated from Vassar College in 1909, and being refused ad- mittance to Oxford, Cambridge, and the Harvard Law School on account of her sex, she entered the New York University Law School. Inez Milholland, as she was known in suffrage circles even after her marriage to Eugene Boissevain, a Dutch electrical engineer, was prominent at col- lege for her championship of radical social ideas. Part of her time was devoted to court proba- tion work in Poughkeepsie. During a vacation she went to England, joined Mrs. Pankhurst’s forces, and was arrested in. a demonstration. In 1912 she aided the shirtwaist strikers in New York. Her methods were somewhat spec- tacular, but her enthusiasm and ability as a speaker and organizer made her invaluable to the Woman’s party and the Congressional Union, with which she was identified. She died on Nov. 25, 1916, at Los Angeles, Cal., where she had been overtaken by illness during a speaking tour for the Woman’s Party. BOJER, JoHan (1872- ). A Norwegian novelist (see Vou. III). In 1916 he published Sigurd Braa, a drama. He is also the author of the following works, all of them translated into English: The Great Hunger (1916), The Face of the World (1917), God and Woman (1920), and The Last of the Vikings (1922). In 1923 he visited the United States. See SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE, Norwegian. BOK, Epwarp WILLIAM (1863-— ). An American editor and author (see Vor. III). In 1919 he resigned from the editorship of The 187 BOLIVIA Ladies’ Home Journal. He has written Why I Believe in Poverty (1915), The Americaniza- tion of Edward Bok (1920), Two Persons: an Incident and an Epilogue (1922), and The Man from Maine (1923). He was the originator of the American Peace Award, a prize of $100,000 offered in 1923 for the most practicable plan for securing permanent world peace. BOKHARA. Formerly a dependency of the Russian Empire with a crowned head, but since the Revolution, an independent republic. It is situated in Central Asia, has an area of 79,440 square miles, and an estimated popula- tion of 3,000,000. Bokhara, the capital, has a population of 75,000; Karshi, 25,000. Its civilization is typically Asiatic, the Occidental life pressing all about it having touched it not at all. The activities of the people still in- dicate the pastoral and handicrafts stages. Corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, cotton, and hemp are produced; goats, sheep, horses, and camels are bred. Green tea,'to the amount of 1125 tons yearly, was imported from India, which, in turn, received almost all of Bokhara’s raw silk. In September, 1920, the reigning Amir, Mir Alim Khan, was deposed as the result of the return of the exiled Bokharan progressive in- ° tellectuals who received help in arms and troops from Soviet Russia. A Soviet government was set up and an attempt made to modernize the country by closing the theological schools and introducing secular education. But religious feeling was too deeply implanted and a revolt at once broke out, in which Enver Pasha took a prominent part, which dragged on through 1922, principally in the mountainous districts of Eastern Bokhara. A Soviet force defeated Enver’s troops in July, 1922, and Enver was reported killed. It was ascertained that the rebels received material aid from Afghanistan. Like the other Russian Succession States, Bokhara was treated generously by Russia and its independence assured through military and political agreements. (A _ political treaty on Mar. 4, 1921, and an economic treaty on the same day, were signed.) See RUSSIA. BOLIVIA. A South American republic, and the only country on the Western Hemisphere that has no direct access to the sea. It is sit- uated west of Brazil and northeast of Chile. Its area is estimated at 560,000 square miles, certain territories still being in dispute; and its population is estimated at 2,820,000. La Paz, the largest city and the actual seat of govern- ment, has a population of 107,250. Other large and important cities are: Cochabamba, 30,818; Potosi, 29,795; and Sucre, 29,686. Industry. Although mining was the prin- cipal factor of economic wealth in the country, agriculture continued to be the leading occupa- tion of the people. Of the agricultural prod- ucts, rubber was the most important. The rub- ber industry was centred in the departments of Beni and Santa Cruz. Rubber, in fact, was second in importance only to tin. The crude rubber production of Bolivia was only slightly inferior to that of Brazil, and many thousand acres of wild rubber trees were available. Bo- livia was, however, the second tin-producing country in the world, ranking after the Malay Straits Settlements, and in 1923 it was reported that Bolivia had taken the lead in world pro- duction of this mineral. Besides this, Bolivia produced important quantities of wolfram, sil- ver, lead, antimony, copper, and zine. Con- BOLIVIA siderable prospecting and some drilling for oil was undertaken during the period, particularly in the eastern part of the country, but no large production was reported. In 1921, the last year for which statistics were available, mineral ex- ports constituted over 81 per cent of the total export (54,604,131.51 bolivianos, out a total of 66,919,445 bolivianos). Exportation of im- portant minerals for 1921 was as follows: tin, 31,811,145 kilos for 42,909,303 bolivianos; sil- ver, 16,719,027 kilos for 10,473,265; copper, 33,330,891 kilos for 5,970,680. (One kilo equals 2.2 pounds, and one boliviano equalled $0.23 average for 1921.) Commerce. The total commerce of Bolivia for the year 1921 was approximately 30 per cent greater than the total figures for 1914. Practically the entire increase was due to larger importations, however, which increased from 39,761,222 bolivianos in 1914 to 70,853,152 bolivianos in 1921. The year 1918 marked the high level of exports, the ‘year’s total trade figures passing the 217,000,000 bolivianos mark. The 1920 total trade, however, was the largest of any year in the period 1914-21 inclusive. Fol- lowing are the trade figures for the more im- portant years of this period (in bolivianos) : Year Importations Exportations Total VOT Caters Saecp vie 39,761,222 65,801,146 105,562,368 EOTG OAV ce 31,098,215 101,484,800 132,583,015 MOURA be Sus shia 34,999,886 182,612,851 217,612,737 2:0 Tat cites leenele 65,339,505 156,018,745 221,358,250 OR Laas so) etmmens 70,853,152 66,919,445 137,772,597 The chief articles of import were manufac- tured articles, foodstuffs and beverages, and textiles. The United States was the chief country to gain by Germany’s disappearance from the competitive market. However, Great Britain also made rapid strides in obtaining the trade of Bolivia. In 1921, the United States supplied 28.40 per cent of Bolivia’s imports, and took slightly over 37 per cent of her exports; the United Kingdom supplied 23.79 per cent and took 53 per cent. In 1919, the United States took 41 per cent of Bolivia’s exports, and Great Britain 49 per cent. Communications. In 1922, total length of railways in operation was 1100 miles including a new line, opened in July, 1917, from Oruro to Cochabamba. In addition 230 miles were under construction. A line was also projected to tap the oil lands in the east, but by 1924 no construction work was under way. In 1921, a line from Atocha to Villaz6n was commenced, to be completed early in 1925. The importance of this road lay in the fact that it would con- nect with the Argentine frontier and thus form another means of transcontinental transporta- tion, via La Paz. Work was proceeding on this road in 1924, and considerable sums were being spent to push it to completion. Finance. The cost of government steadily mounted, and large deficits were returned each year. The 1924 budget called for revenues of 23,938,533 bolivianos, and expenditures of 38,623,832 bolivianos, a deficit of 14,685,299 bolivianos. In 1912, revenues and _ expenses were almost equal at about 17,300,000 bolivianos. In 1922, the deficit was over 20,000,000 bolivi- anos. Annual charges for the foreign debt were estimated at 12,500,000 bolivianos; 2,500,000 for internal debt, and 5,000,000 to cus- toms house warrants. On. May 28, 1923, the demimonde of two continents. 188 BOLO foreign debt of Bolivia was reported as 91,365,100 bolivianos; internal debt, 13,852,555 bolivianos, and floating debt 6,345,354 bolivi- anos. This would make a total in dollars of $36,855,966, or approximately $13 per capita. A refunding loan of $24,000,000 was authorized in the United States in 1922, and a loan of 12,000,000 bolivianos was secured in 1923, to be applied to the deficit. Education. An increasing evinced in education in Bolivia. free and obligatory. There were 504 national primary schools, about 650 municipal schools, and about 108 private schools, making a total of 1265 schools for lower education. Also, 16 higher-grade schools were established, besides the National School of Commerce at La Paz, and the University at Sucre, which bestowed de- grees in law, medicine and theology. There were several specialized technical schools. The best secondary institutions were those schools endowed by American Methodists at La Paz and Cochabamba. History. General Ismael Montes was once more elected president of the republic for the term 1913-17, to suceeed President Villazon. During his administration the effects of the War were felt in the decline of exports, though purchases by the United States lightened the stringency considerably. As a result of Ger- many’s submarine campaign, Bolivia broke off diplomatic relations in April, 1917, and thus became one of the signatories of the Peace Treaty in 1919 as well as an original member of the League of Nations. For the term 1917- 21, Sr. José Guerra was elected, but he was compelled to resign and leave the country in 1920, as the result of a revolution caused by his friendliness toward Chile. In January, 1921, Sr. Bautista Saavedra, leader of the revolution, was elected president by the National Assembly ; he was recognized by the United States in February. Bolivia’s boundary lines with her neighbors were amicably settled, the Bolivian-Peruvian frontier being fixed in 1915, the Bolivian- Brazilian in 1920, and the Bolivian-Argentine in 1913. The Bolivian-Paraguayan frontier, provided for by treaty in 1913, had not yet been delimited in 1924 because of the disputed Gran Chaco region. Bolivia, because of her desire for an outlet to the sea, was precipitated into the Tacna-Arica dispute (q.v.), and in spite of the advances made by Chile, aligned herself with Peru. Bolivia’s claim for a corridor through Tacna was placed before the Peace Conference with no results. In 1920, in a protest to Chile on the matter of the treaty of 1904 which per- petually barred Bolivia from the Pacific, the Bolivian government called for a reopening of the question on the grounds of its international importance. Bolivia placed her claims before the United States government, which had been chosen mediator of the whole question, in 1923. interest was BOLL WEEVIL. See Cotton; AGRICUL- TURE. BOLLWORM, PINK. See EwntTomo.ocy, Economie. BOLO, Raver (PAScHA) (?-1918). A French adventurer. By 1914, as a result of his shady financial operations, Bolo Pasha (a title gained from the Egyptian Khedive) was known in the In 1917 he was arrested for treason; it was charged that he was in the hire of German agents. In particular, It was both © Se TON a LT ee PII ae er ae BOLSCHE 189 he was accused of having traveled in the United States, in 1915-16, in the interest of Count von Bernstorff, German ambassador at Washington. He was tried in February, 1918, and shot at Vincennes, Apr. 17, 1918. An. attempt was made two years later to link Caillaux’s name with Bolo’s. BOLSCHE, Wirnerm (1861— +). ~A Ger- man writer on science, born in Cologne. He studied philology but specialized in nature and literature and has written on scientific subjects in a peculiarly fascinating style. He is the author of Naturwissenschaftliche Grundlagen der Poesie (1887), Entwicklungsgeschichte der Natur (1893-96), Darwin (1898), Liebesleben in der Natur (1898-1902), Vom Bazillus zum Affenschen (1899), Héckel (1900), Goethe (1900), Entwicklungslehre (1900), Hinter der Weltstadt (1901), Sonnen und Sonnenstiubchen (1902), Die Hréberung der Menschheit (1903), Aus der Schneegrube (1904), Die Abstammung der Menschheit (1904), Weltblick (1904), Na- turgeheimniss (1905), Stammbaum der Tiere (1905), Sieg des Lebens (1905), Auf dem Men- schenstern (1909), Stunden im All (1909), Was Ist die Natur (1907), Menschen der Vorzeit (1909), Komet und Weltuntergang (1910), Festland und Meere im Wechsel der Zeit (1913), Stirb und Werde (1913), Menschen der Zukunft (1913), Tierwanderung in der Urwelt (1914), Neue Welten (1915), Stammbaum der Mensch- heit (1916), Schutz und Trutzbiindnisse in der Natur (1917), Hiszeit und Klimatwechsel (1919), ete. Bélsche has also written some fiction and has edited the works of Goethe, Hauff, Novalis, Uhland, Heine, and others. BOLSHEVISM. Russian Bolshevism is merely an application of the well-known doc- trine of Communism familiar to Europe since the publication of the Communist Manifesto in 1847. Its system includes these main precepts: the capture of the means of production and dis- tribution by the proletariat, by force if neces- sary, and the continued dictatorship of society by this proletariat, even though it should con- stitute a minority. The word Bolshevism is de- rived from Bolshevik (Russian Bolshevik, plu- ral Bolsheviki) the name applied to the mem- bers of the majority (Russian bolshinstv6) at the second Congress of the Russian Socialist party in 1903, as opposed to the Mensheviki or minority. This antagonism between the two wings of Russian socialism, centring mainly in the rejection, by the Bolsheviki, of democratic control, was continued up to the Russian Rev- olution (1917), and after. It served largely, too, to divide European and American socialism into two camps, the first of which was ready to accept the Bolshevist doctrine of the dictator- ship of the proletariat, and the second ‘to repu- diate it. Of the latter group may be mentioned the Englishman MacDonald, the German Kaut- sky, the Americans Berger and Hillquit. In the United States, after 1917, the term Bolshe- vism was applied loosely to almost all move- ments that aimed at radical change in the ex- isting system of private ownership, whether the means advocated were peaceful or violent. For the history of Russian Bolshevism, see Russia. See also Communism for other de- velopments in theory and practice. BOLTON, Guy REGINALD (? V3 dramatic author, born in England. His first play, The Drone, written in collaboration with Douglas J. Wood, was produced in New York in BOMB 1911. After 1911 he wrote many plays, mostly in collaboration. Those on which he worked with P. G. Wodehouse included Have a Heart (1917); Leave It to Jane (1917); Miss 1917 (1917); Oh! Boy (1917); The Riviera Girl (1917); Ringtime (1917); Ask Dad (1918); The Girl Behind the Gun (1918); See You Later (1918); and The Rose of China (1919). With George Middleton he wrote Polly with a Past (1917); Adam and Eva (1919); The Light of the World (1920), and The Cave Girl (1920). In association with Wodehouse and the composer, Jerome Kern, he produced musical comedies of a novel elegance and refinement which were presented at the Princess Theatre (New York). BOLTON, THappEuS LINCOLN (1865- ). An American psychologist, born at Sonora, IIL, and educated at Michigan and Clark Univer- sities. After teaching in secondary schools, he became successively professor at the University of Washington (1897-98), University of Ne- braska (1899-1910), and University of Mon- tana (1912-17). In 1917 he became professor of psychology at Temple University (Philadel- phia), and in 1919, lecturer at the Philadelphia School of Occupational Therapy. His exper- imental researches include papers on rhythm, growth of memory, fatigue, motor power and intelligence, efficacy of consciousness, and _ in- heritance of special traits. BOLTWOOD, BERTRAM BORDEN (1870— ). An American chemist, born at Amherst, Mass., and educated at Yale University and abroad, chiefly in Munich. In 1894 he became an as- sistant in the chemical laboratory of the Shef- field Scientific School, and two years later an instructor in physical chemistry at Yale. Dur- ing 1900-06 he devoted his attention to re- search, chiefly in radium and _ radio-activity. He returned to Yale in 1906 and was made as- sistant professor of physics but spent the years 1909-10 at the University of Manchester, where he held a John Harding fellowship. In 1910 he resumed his teaching at Yale as professor of radio-chemistry and in 1918 became director of the Kent Chemical Laboratory. His published papers have been devoted for the most part to his specialty, radium, and its activities. On this subject he is perhaps the foremost author- ity in the United States. BOMB, AIRcRAFT. See BOMBING OF VESSELS, BY AIRCRAFT. . BOMB, DertH. A portable submarine mine carried by vessels in the Allies’ anti-submarine service during the War, and by some others’, for use against submarines which were submerged. The bombs were of two types: stick bombs for projection by bomb-throwers, and plain cylin- drical bombs for dropping or ejection from chutes. The bomb case was cylindrical, of sheet steel, and had a ring in each end for handling and securing. In stick bombs, the stick was secured in the cylinder like the handle of a hammer. In using either a single barrel or a Y gun bomb-thrower, the stick of the bomb was inserted in the muzzle. The firing mechan- ism of the bomb could be set to cause explosion at any desired depth, and the safety key was connected with the depth control. The charge was from 50 to 300 pounds of light explosive depending on the size of the bomb When a destroyer or patrol boat passed over the sup- posed position of a submarine, bombs were slid overboard from the chutes astern or projected BOMBING OF VESSELS from the bomb-throwers, which could throw them about 40 yards. The depth bomb was the most important weapon used against submarines in the War, and according to British reports, it destroyed 34 of them. The explosion of a 300—pound depth bomb was always fatal at distances of 25 feet or less and even at more than 30 feet if the explosion took place below the plane of the submarine and not too near the surface. At moderate distances beyond the fa- tal range, the violence of the explosion caused serious leaks and often put out of action much of the operating mechanism thereby forcing the boat to the surface or to the bottom, while the effect on the nerves of the crew was severe. See BoMBING OF VESSELS; MINE, SUBMARINE; NAVIES OF THE WORLD; SUBMARINES AND THEIR Wak ACTIVITIES. BOMBING OF VESSELS, sy Atrcrarr. The use of bombs by aircraft in the attack of ves- sels was, during the War, chiefly directed against submarines. The bombs were small and of the type employed against troops, fortifica- tions, arms factories, railways, and the like, in the attack of which numbers were usually more important than great size. Although large bombing planes and large bombs were de- veloped during hostilities, their use was ex- ceptional. Since the close of the War, and par- ticularly since 1920, the large bombing plane designed to attack naval vessels of the best protected and most powerful type has received much attention and is being steadily improved. The first extensive tests in the United States were made in July, 1921. The ex-German bat- tleship Ostfriesland, the cruiser Frankfurt, the destroyer G-102, and the submarine U-117 were the vessels attacked. Both army and navy planes joined in the operations. The vessels withstood attack remarkably well. Bombs of 600 pounds and less which landed on the deck of the Ostfriesland produced local damage only. She was finally sunk by 2000-pound bombs which exploded under water close alongside. Still more interesting tests were carried out in the summer of 1923. The old battleships New Jersey and Virginia were the targets. The ships were anchored. The weather was mild and so clear that approaching planes were vis- ible 15 miles away. In fact, all conditions were abnormally in favor of the attacking force. The first attack was made on the New Jersey from a height of 11,000 feet by five Martin bombers, each carrying four 600-pound bombs and one 100-pound sighting bomb. The planes moved in column, half a mile apart, in a large circle, and each dropped one bomb every time it passed over the target. Three hits were made, but the bombs exploded above decks and dam- aged only upper deck plating and fittings. The next attack was made by seven bombers at a height of 6000 feet, with each plane carrying one 2000-pound bomb. No hits were made, but one bomb exploded close alongside. The ship took a slight list, and it was thought she would sink; consequently, the next attack was made on the Virginia by seven bombers at 3000 feet, each carrying two 1100-pound bombs. One bomb struck the ship, and breaking through one or more decks, exploded below with enormous effect; the masts, smokepipes, upper deck, and upper works were demolished. Thirty minutes later, the vessel turned over and sank. Four hours after the attack with 2000-pound bombs, as the New Jersey was still afloat with only a 190 BONE slight list and no serious injury to masts, tur- rets, guns, or anything except light plating which was perforated and torn by the explosions and fragments of the 600-pound bombs, she was assailed by seven bombers, each carrying two 1100-pound bombs and flying at 3000 feet. No hits were made, though apparently one bomb fell near enough to increase the ship’s list slightly. Two more bombers then appeared and dropped three 1100-pound bombs; one of these made a direct hit, and one fell close alongside. The bomb which hit broke its way through one or more decks and burst below, opening up the side or bottom plating so that the ship turned over and sank in five minutes. If, in these tests, the vessels had been under- way and steering zigzag courses at varying speeds, no hits would have been made except by accident. Had the upper decks been lightly armored, no explosions would have taken place below decks and the resulting injuries would have been no greater and perhaps less than the hit of a single 16-inch shell. Had the vessels been fitted with cellular anti-torpedo belts, the bombs which fell close alongside would have caused no serious damage except a slight reduc- tion in speed. If in addition the vessels had been equipped with anti-aircraft batteries, smoke shells, and smoke-producing apparatus, and if they had been accompanied by an aircraft car- rier with a squadron of combat planes designed for attacking bombers, then the attacking force would have been in much greater danger than the ships. In the present state of bomber de- velopment the vessels which have most to fear from them are light cruisers and auxiliary ves- sels, especially fuel and supply ships and trans- ports. These ought not to approach within 200 miles of a shore bomber station without ade- quate protection by aircraft, by swift patrol vessels carrying numerous anti-aircraft guns and other defensive apparatus, or by both. See Boms, DEPTH; GUNNERY, NAVAL; ORDNANCE, BONE, MurrHEAD (1876- ). A British painter and etcher, born at Glasgow, and edu- cated at the Glasgow Evening School of. Art. In 1897 and the following years he produced excellent work in black and white for the Scots Pictorial. He established himself in London in 1891 and there quickly made a reputation by his etchings. He assisted prominently in found- ing the Society of Twelve and he was elected a member of the New English Art Club The National Art Collections Fund in 1906 bought his etching, “The Great Gantry, Charing Cross,” and presented it to the British Museum. He was appointed official artist on the western front and with the fleet by the British War Office from 1916 to 1918, and some of his draw- ings were subsequently reproduced in volume form. They include every phase of activity on the western front, military operations, hospital scenes, and camp and trench life. Chalk line and wash are successfully used to give rhythm, form, and atmospheric effect; in others of these sketches, charcoal is the medium. Mr. Bone has also done numerous individual portraits. BONE, Scorr CARDELLE (1860- pax Am American editor and governor born in Shelly County, Ind., and educated in the public schools. He wrote for the Indianapolis newspapers and later identified himself with the Washington (D. C.) Post for 17 years, first as news editor and later as managing editor. He owned and edited the Washington Herald (1906-11), and BONNER in 1911-18 he was editor-in-chief of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer. In 1914-15, he was chair- man of the Alaska Bureau of the Seattle Cham- ber of Commerce, and in 1921 was appointed Governor of Alaska, having held in the interim several positions of a political nature. BONNER, GERALDINE'- (1870- Vea AL American author (see Vou. III). Her later work includes The Girl at Central (1914), The Black Eagle Mystery (1916), Treasure and Trouble Therewith A1917), and Miss Maitland, Private Secretary (1919). BONNET, JoserH (1884- ). A famous French organist, born at Bordeaux. Under his father’s instruction his progress was so rapid that at the age of 14 he was appointed regular organist at St. Nicolas and, a little later, at St. Michel, where his recitals attracted atten- tion. He then entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied with Guilmant and carried off the first prize. In 1906 he won in competition the coveted post of St. Eustache, Paris; all competitors were first-prize winners of the Con- servatoire. This position he has filled since then but has been allowed frequent leave of absence for extended concert tours all over Europe. In 1917 he made his first tour of the United States and met with such success that he has repeated his visit annually. He aroused special enthusiasm with his series of five his- torical recitals, as well as with his extraordinary improvisations. In 1922 he organized in Roch- chester, N. Y., after the model of that of the Paris Conservatoire, a fully equipped organ de- partment at the Eastman Conservatory. His original compositions for the organ are held in high esteem. BONNEY, THoMAS GeEoRGE (1833-1923). An English geologist (see Vor. III). Among his later publications are The Present Relations of Science and Religion (1913); the text to Anderson’s Volcanic Studies (1917), and Mem- ories of a Long Life (1922). BONSAL, STEPHEN (1865- ). An Amer- ican newspaper correspondent (see VoL. III). In 1914 he was Commissioner of Public Util- ities in the Philippine Islands. He was _ sent on a special mission to Mexico in 1915 and was also with Hindenburg’s army on the eastern front in the same year. In 1916 he was advisor at the American-Mexican Conference. In the following year he was commissioned: major in the national army and was on duty in the War College in Washington. He went to France with the American Expeditionary Force in 1918 and was American representative at the Con- gress of Oppressed Nationalities. He was ap- pointed lieutenant-colonel of infantry, attached to the American mission to the Peace Conference IgI BOOTS AND SHOES after the Armistice, and in 1919 was American member of the inter-Allied mission to Austria- Hungary under General Smuts and of the spe- cial mission to Germany and Bohemia. BOOTH, EVANGELINE Cory (?- ae | commander of the Salvation Army and daugh- ter of William Booth, founder of the Salvation Army. She was born in England and educated in London, later commanding field operations of the Salvation Army in Great Britain, Canada, and the Klondike, and in 1904, in the United States, with approximately 3000 officers and cadets and over 1200 corps and institutions un- der her. During the War she did noteworthy work, for which the United States government awarded her the Distinguished Service Medal (1919). BOOTS AND SHOES. In the production of boots and shoes the United States in 1924 ranked first, followed by Great Britain and Ger- many, and in addition to its own domestic com- sumption it had a considerable export business. Naturally the manufacture of boots and shoes was seriously interfered with by the War and subsequent readjustment period as it affected the production, price of leather and the normal distribution. In 1921, according to the Bureau of the Census, boot and shoe manufacturing ranked fourteenth among the industries of the United States, with a product valued at $867,476,000 though in the previous census of 1919 its value was $1,155,041,000. According to the census of manufactures of 1919 New England was the centre of the boot and shoe industry and produced more than 49 per cent of the total value of the country’s out- put. Of the different states Massachusetts ranked first with a production of 116,944,018 pairs produced by 492 establishments, followed by New York with 62,246,321 pairs produced in 342 establishments; New Hampshire with 22,700,694 pairs produced in 52 establishments; Pennsylvania with 23,617,362 pairs from 123 establishments; Missouri with 26,362,367 pairs from 54 establishments, and Ohio 17,870,140 pairs from 60 establishments. The five leading cities in the production of boots in the United States are Brockton, Massachusetts, New York City, Lynn, Massachusetts, St. Louis, Missouri, and Haverhill, Massachusetts. The condition of the industry in the interval from 1914 is shown in the accompanying tabula- tion from statistics published by the Bureau of the Census. Whereas in 1922 the total pro- duction of boots and shoes, exclusive of rubber footwear, was 323,876,458 pairs, or an increase of almost 11 per cent from 1914, the production in 1923 was 351,114,273 pairs, marking a record for the industry. PRODUCTION OF BOOTS AND SHOES IN THE UNITED STATES Kinds 1914 1919 1921 1922 Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs [otal boots) dnd shoes (.0.. tacts cies 292,666,468 331,224,628 286,771.101 323,876,458 Ce High and low cut (leather) (total) 265,642,260 291,540,408 241,838,226 280,366,192 CARAS tp lee tlie a 8 TR aii a Pie A 98,031,144 95,017,356 69,457,535 89,984,065 BOVHa ATO VOUtSed < sos ces chctererereien ae 22,895,719 26,503,432 18,462,032 21,631,905 WV CTEM SAUNT. on228% 5 Oo Maid sie} opMekehers 80,916,239 104,812,505 101,473,985 105,367,667 Winsest and \ children’s: . «. ..0.5, 0 « 8s!éece 48,322,395 48,538,203 35,065,527 89,443,554 IULAVIGS Eas, cua < «hc feo 2 oe he eaters 15,476,763 16,668,912 17,379,147 23,939,001 Athletic and sporting (leather) ...... (*) 585,710 5,546,898 8,448,308 Canvas and other textiles ............. G) 11,056,363 8,601,582 6,739,339 All other (slippers and miscellaneous foot- DW iCR ES MMMEEANE TS oe. cite re! a;ona'levahe. 5 + biini'd) sive. 0)'6,< le toee 27,024,208 28,042,147 30,784,395 28,322,619 LL et * Not reported separately. BOOTS AND SHOES The principal types of shoes manufactured in the United States may. be divided as follows: Goodyear welted, McKay sewn, screw or metal- lic fastened, stitched down and turned. In 1919, 38 per cent of the shoes manufactured were of the Goodyear type, 36 per cent were McKay sewn, 19 per cent were turned and 4 per cent were standard screw or metallic fastened. In the United States the prices for shoes in- creased from 1913, during the War reaching a peak in 1920, as indicated by the accompanying table. AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICE PER PAIR OF LEATHER BOOTS AND SHOES IN THE UNITED STATES From data published by the United States Department of Labor Men's Women’s Black Black Black Black Patent- calf calf vici kid leather Good- Good- kid lace pump, Year year year Good- Good- McKay welt welt year year sewn blucher bal welt welt OLD ah cavertny $3.11 $3.16 $2.86 $3.00 $1.37 TUS) We Boot eae Soe 3.17 3.28 2.98 3.00 1.45 POTH Sa a 3.25 3.30 3.10 3.00 1.50 BOT Gis Sei 8.7 3.88 3.50 3.44 1.90 oR ORCS Sr 4.75 5.14 5.06 4.49 2.15 LOLS cere. seers 5.62 5.oL 5.44 4.37 2.93 VOLS att Aes 7.60 7.10 7.24 6.59 4.07 UO Owen rete. 8.95 7.50 8.33 7.66 4,86 LO 2 aha «dalsivete 7.00 4,80 6.39 5.06 4.00 DOA econ ee 6.50 4.61 5.83 4.33 3.60 From that time there was a recession tending towards more suitakle prices but not reaching those prevailing before the War. In the Amer- ican shoe industry there was a tendency to- wards consolidation and larger factories, so that LEATHER BOOT, SHOE, AND SLIPPER Division of Statistics, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 192 BORDEAUX EXPORTS OF SHOES IN 1923 Men’s and Boys’ 3,187,623 pairs, valued at $10,029,918 at, oe oc “ Women's 2,292.96 5,302,641 Children’s 1;S61;4 1308 *f FS 2,183,780 Slippers 239,042‘ rs i 295,390 In 1923 there were imported into the United States 398,929 pairs of all leather boots and shoes, valued at $1,246,176; 653,964 pairs of slippers valued at $280,015, and 884,862 pairs valued at $357,810. In, 1921 the exports in- cluded 2,600,000 pairs of men’s shoes sent to Russia. The accompanying table will show the extent of the boot and shoe export trade of the United States which developed extraordinarily in the years immediately following the War when the European markets were larger. consumers of American shoes. Ordinarily Cuba, Mexico, Ja- maica, Panama, the Dominican Republic, New- foundland and Labrador and the United King- dom and Canada are the most important export markets for the United States, though Austra- lia, British South Africa and some South Amer- ican, Asiatic and European countries take a quota. See also LEATHER. BORAH, WILLIAM EpGarR (1865- jan American politician (see Vou. III). again elected to the Senate in 1919. During the War he took an active part in all matters relating to war measures, while opposing the League to Enforce Peace, and violently advising against the policy of President Wilson, especial- ly in regard to the League of Nations. As delegate-at-large from Illinois, he spoke suc- cessfully against the League at the Republican national convention of 1920. He also opposed EXPORT TRADE OF ‘THE UNITED STATES Figures for 1913 are for fiscal year; all others are for calendar years. Year Total Men’s shoes Women’s Children’s Slippers shoes shoes Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs Pairs MOTUS Bs oh ahetetevalichs ‘sid oie iebetclp 10,650,160 5,260,531 3,217,544 1,826,719 345,366 PUIG) abst oiths Je Gis tapeils essiemedete te 21,682,751 11,928,156 5,891,753 3,434,670 BAe te kr (7) Os cane = oerenes Bete aot 17,069,254 7,711,310 5,064,472 4,065,810 227,662 OAL Ce ede hiF eke a) side ne nae 9,019,263 5,173,776 1,767,880 2,016,041 61,566 SD 2, MARE) < styelca ere hereto ue heettens 5,532,933 1,878,259 2,280,065 1,246,338 Pape Us the number of establishments decreased during the decade. Also, the industry suffered from the varia- tions due to fashion, some of which were of long life and led to considerable margin of profit by the retailer on sales actually made, while others were but temporary in their vogue. There was a tendency to decrease the number of styles and to standardize the production, but it was felt that fashion played an important part in the industry as at times there would be a vogue of low shoes in preference to those higher cut, and various temporary fashions more or less short lived. In addition the shoe industry suffered due to the increased use of motor cars and taxicabs, and it was estimated in 1923 that the average life of a pair of shoes was 25 per cent more than a few years previously before the motor car was so universally used in the rural dis- tricts, and in urban communities such means of transportation as motor busses and taxicabs had developed. ; In 1923 the exports of shoes from the United States were as follows: the Four-Power Treaty, believing that the United States should stand aloof. BORCHARD, Epwin MONTEFIORE (1884- __). An American lawyer and educator, born in New York City. He attended the College of the City of New York and afterward studied at New York Law School and the Columbia University Law School. In 1910 he was expert on inter- national law of the American agency of the North Atlantic coast fisheries arbitration at The Hague. In the same year he traveled through Europe for the Library of Congress and investi- gated and collected literature on continental law. He was law librarian of Congress from 1911-16. In 1915 he accumulated commercial law material for the Department of Commerce. In 1917 he was appointed professor of law at the Yale University Law School. His published writings include Guide to the Law and Legal Literature of Germany (1911); The Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad (1916); The De- claratory Judgment (1918), and Latin-Amer- ican Commercial Law, with T. E. Obregon (1920). wh are BORDEAUX, Henri (1870—- _—+)..:~SOA French BORDEN novelist and critic, born at Thonon, Haute- Savoie, and educated at the Collége de Thonon, the Collége Stanislas (Paris), the Sorbonne, and the Faculty of Law (Paris). In 1889 he was admitted to the bar at Thonon and spent two years in his father’s law office. He then went to Paris as counsel for the Paris-Lyons- Méditerranée Railroad. His father died in 1896, and he was obliged to return to Thonon and go on with his father’s practice. After five years, however, he was able to go back to Paris and devote the rest of his life to letters. In the War he began his service on Aug. 1, 1914, as captain of infantry, was then transferred to the General Staff of the lst Army in Lorraine, then to the 2d Army at Verdun, and finally to General Headquarters. He was sent on a mission to Verdun in 1917, and received two citations and the rank of Chief of Battalion for his work. In 1920 he was received in the French Academy, taking the place of Jules Lemaitre. His first book, La Course a la Vie (1893), was a volume of poems, but he soon turned to the novel and critical essay. His writings show him to be a moralist and psy- chologist rather than a stylist. Yet he does not write romans a thése or belong to the na- turalist school He is a realist, but his realism consists in the depicting of the cultured classes. He pleads the cause of society against the in- dividual and upholds tradition, especially that of the family. Some of his more important works are Jeanne Michelin, his first attempt at a novel (1895); Le Pays Natal (1900): La Voie sans. Retour (1901); La Peur de Vivre, erowned by the French Academy (1902) ; LPAmour en Fuite (1908); La Petite Mademoi- selle (1905); Les Yeux Qui s’Ouvrent (1908) ; La Croisée des Chemins (1909); La Robe de Laine, considered one of his best novels (1910) ; Ta Neige sur les Pas (1911); La Maison (1913); and La Maison Morte (1922). Among his works of a critical nature are Vies Intimes (1904); Portraits de Femmes et d Enfants (1909); La Vie aw Thédtre, 4 vols. (1910- 21); Quelques Portraits WHommes 1914); Jules Lemaitre (1920), and La Jeunesse d’Oc- tave Feuillet, 1821-90 (1922). Inspired by the War were La Jeunesse Nouvelle (1915); Trois Tombes (1916); Les Derniers Jours du Fort de Vaux; Les Captifs Délivrés; La Chanson de Vauzr-Douammount (1917); La Vie Héroique de Guynémer (1918); Sur le Rhin (1919); Le Plessis-de-Roye (1920), and La Resurrection de la Chair (1920). BORDEN, RT. Hon. SiR RospertT LAtRpD (1854— ). A Canadian statesman (see VOL. IIT). In 1914 he was created Grand Comman- der of the Order of St. Michael and St. George, in 1915 he received the Grand Cross of the Le- gion of Honor, and in 1916 the Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold. He was honored with the freedom of the city of various British mu- nicipalities. In 1917 he formed a Union Gov- ernment and was appointed Secretary of State for External Affairs He was a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, the Imperial War Con- ference held in London, 1917-18, and was pres- ent at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as a representative of Canada. It was he who presented the Peace Treaty to the Canadian Parliament in the same year. In July, 1920, he tendered his resignation as Premier. In the following year he was elected President of the League of Nations Society of Canada and was 193 BORI Marfleet Foundation Lecturer at the University of Toronto. In 1921-22, he represented Canada at the Washington Conference and signed many treaties in this capacity, among them, the treaty on limiting naval armaments, the four-power treaty relating to insular possessions and do- minions in the Pacific Ocean, the treaty relating to the use of submarines and noxious gases in warfare, and treaties in regard to China. BORDET, JuLes (1870- ). A Belgian pathologist and bacteriologist, born at Soignes. He graduated from the University of Brussels in 1892 and later became professor of bacteriol- ogy, parasitology, and epidemiology and_ pres- ident of the medical faculty there. In 1901 he was appointed head of the Brussels Pasteur In- stitute. He published two works on immunity, Etudes sur VImmunité (1909) and Traité de Vimmumté dans les Maladies’ Infectieuses (1920). In 1919 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine. Bordet has much to his credit, for in 1900-01 he discovered complement- fixation, with Gengou; bacterial hemolysis in 1898, and the bacillus of whooping-cough in 1906. His theory of immunization is far sim- pler than that of Ehrlich, and many regard him as the leading figure in serodiagnosis and im- munization. BORGLUM, GUTZON (JOHUN GUTZON DE LA MontTHE) (1867- ). An American sculptor (see Vor. III) His best known achievement was the planning and execution of the Stone Mountain (Ga.) memorial to the Confederacy. This is a gigantic bas-relief depicting in heroic proportions a group of Southern leaders (Lee, Davis, Stonewall Jackson, Johnston, Forrest and Stuart), in the midst of marching troops, cut out of the mountain, and being a quarter of a mile in length. The distance from the knee of Lee’s horse to the General’s hat is’ 120 feet. The site of the memorial was dedicated in May, 1919, but the work was not begun till 1922. General Lee’s head was unveiled Jan. 18, 1924. A part of the plan is a memorial hall, cut into the mountain below the sculpture, 320 feet long, 40 feet high, and 78 feet deep. An important service to national art was the founding of the American School of Seulpture for practical instruction. BORGLUM, Soton (1868-1922). An Ameri- can sculptor (see Vou. III). He made the eques- trian statue, “The Pioneer,” at the San Fran- cisco Exposition (1915) and executed colossal portrait busts of generals ot the Civil War (for the Vicksburg, Miss., National Park). He re- ceived the Croix de Guerre for services with the French army in the War and was active in edu- cational work in the American Expeditionary Force in France. His most recent achievements include a group of 42 heroic figures in bronze, “Wars of America,” for Newark, N. J.; a colos- sal bronze equestrian statue of General Sheridan for Chicago, and a monument to Governor Aycock, Raleigh, N. C. BORI, Lucrezia (1888- ). A Spanish lyric soprano, born at Valencia. After six years of study under Vidal, in Paris, she com- pleted her education in Milan and Rome. Her very successful début in Rome as Carmen (Oct. 31, 1908) led to engagements in Paris, Milan, Naples, and Buenos Aires Her American dé- but took place at the Metropolitan Opera House as the heroine in Puccini’s Manon Lescaut (Nov. 11, 1912); she immediately established herself in favor. Her brilliant career really be- BORING gan after her overwhelming success as Fiora in the American premiére of Montemezzi’s Amore dei Tre Ré (Jan. 2, 1914). In the next year she was stricken with an affection of the throat which necessitated a serious operation and for some time it was feared that her career had been ended. Fortunately she not only re- covered entirely, but after her illness her voice even gained in volume. She returned to the Metropolitan Opera House in 1921, where she continued as a regular member. BORING, EpwiIn GarricurEs (1886- ie An American experimental psychologist, born in Philadelphia. Originally destined for an _ en- gineering career, he took the degree of M.E. at Cornell University in 1908. Shortly afterward he became interested in the study of psychology. He was a member for more than 10 years of Professor Titchener’s laboratory in which he served first as assistant and then as instructor (1913-18). From 1919 to 1922 he was profes- sor of experimental psychology and director of the psychological laboratory at Clark Univer- sity. In 1922 he became associate professor of psychology at Harvard University. Professor Boring’s most important contribution has been in the field of cutaneous and organic sensations. He carried through the Head experiment in cutaneous nerve division and was able to chal- lenge Head’s theoretical conclusions as to the existence of two systems of nerve sensibility. In his systematic outlook Professor Boring fol- lowed the general introspective position of ‘the Titchener school but was more favorably dis- posed toward the newer doctrines. See Psy- CHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL. BORIS III (1894— ). The King of Bul- garia. He succeeded his father, King Ferdi- nand, on the latter’s abdication, Oct. 4, 1918. King Boris was born at Sofia, the eldest son of King Ferdinand and Marie Louise de Bourbon. He was educated in Bulgaria by tutors and at the Cadet and Officers’ School. Subsequently he was aide-de-camp to the King and several generals of the Bulgarian Army. BORNEO. One of the largest islands in the world, situated in the East Indian Archipelago. It has an area of 283,900 square miles. Po- litically it is divided into: (1) British Borneo which is made up of the divisions, North Bor- neo, Brunei, and Sarawak, covering the north- ern portion of the island (total area, 77,100 square miles; total population, 832,637), and which is administered from the Straits Settle- ments (q.v.); (2) Dutch Borneo, covering the rest of the island, which is made up of the di- visions, West Coast Borneo, and South and East Districts of Borneo (total area, 206,810 square miles; total population, 1,626,000), and which is administered from the Dutch East Indies (q.v.). BORNSCHEIN, Franz Cari (1879- ). An American violinist and composer, born at Baltimore. From 1895 to 1902 he studied at the Peabody Conservatory there with J. Van Husteijn (violin) and O. B. Boise (composition). In 1905 he became violin instructor at that in- stitution and director of the junior orchestra. In 1913 he was appointed conductor of the or- chestra of the Baltimore Music School Settle- ment. From 1910 to 1913 he was music critic of the Baltimore Evening Sun and at various times was connected with other publications. He wrote three symphonic poems for orchestra, The Sea-god’s Daughter, A Hero’s Espousal, 194 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA The Rime of the Ancient Mariner; a suite, The Phantom Canoe; a ballad for baritone and or- chestra, The Djinns; a violin concerto in G minor; a cantata for chorus and orchestra, Onowa; and some chamber music. BOROWSKI, Fetix (1872-— ). An Amer- ican composer, born at Burton, England. He began his musical education with his father, continued in London under A. Pollitzer (violin) and C. W. Pearce (composition), and in 1888 entered the Cologne Conservatory, where he was a pupil of G. Jensen (composition), E. Hauser (piano), and G. Japha (violin). Having taught for some time at Aberdeen, he settled in 1894 in London and devoted himself to com- position. In 1897 he became professor of theory and composition at the Chicago Musical Col- lege and in 1916 was elected its director. From 1906 to 1909 he was critic of the Chicago Eve- ning Post, and from 1909 to 1918 he filled a similar position on the Record-Herald. After 1908 he wrote the programme-books for the Chi- eago Symphony Orchestra. His compositions include a ballet-pantomime, Boudoun (Chicago, 1919) ; three symphonic poems, Eugen Oniegin, Printemps Passionné, Youth (North Shore Fes- tival prize, 1923); Valse Pathétique, Marche Triomphale, Ecce Homo, Elégie Symphonique, Trois Peintures, for orchestra; a piano concerto in D minor; Crépuscule and Serenade for string orchestra; Allegro de Concert for organ and or- chestra; a string quartet in A minor; a suite and two sonatas for organ; and pieces for violin and piano and for piano solo (Sonata russe, etc.). BOSANQUET, Bernard’ (1848-1923). A British philosopher. His death in February, 1923, came at the height of his creative activity. His last book, left unfinished, has been pub- lished posthumously by his widow, under the title Three Chapters on the Nature of Mind (1923). The works written since the War be- long to the third period of his work, when he was defending the conception of the absolute. These include The Meeting of Extremes in Con- temporary Philosophy (1921), Implication and Linear Inference (1920), Life and the Individ- ual (Processes of the Aristotelian Society, 1918), and Some Suggestions as to Ethics (1918). Taken together with the Gifford Lec- tures of 1911-12 (The Value and Destiny of the Individual), they may be regarded as constitu- ting a bulwark against the tide of easy-going philosophies of sentiment to which the modern mind is peculiarly inclined. In Contemporary Philosophy he pointed out how Italian neo- idealism (Gentile and Croce) and British neo- realism (Alexander) converg? at one focus after starting from diametrically opposite di- rections. “You cannot,” he wrote, “cut down the uni- verse to the creative work of constructive think- ing on the one hand, nor to the real world of the context of our waking bodies on the other. The narrowness and recognitions of neo-idealists and of neo-realists balance one, another and amplify our conception of the whole.” See AESTHETICS. BOSHER, KATE LANGLEY (“KATE CAIRNS”) (1865-— ). An American author (see VOL. III). She wrote How It Happened (1914), Peo- ple Like That (1915), Kitty Canary (1917), and His Friend, Miss McFarlane (1918). BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA. Up to Novem- ber, 1918, this land continued a territory of a ee Re See ee ee ee ee, Sa ee a ee nie sae or OD; Peta eto Aci magow PARED oy x; -_ 7 BOSPORUS STRAITS Austria-Hungary and was administered from the Dual Monarchy’s Ministry of Finance. (It has an area of 19,768 square miles, and a pop- ulation, in 1920, of 1,889,929, as compared with the 1910 population of 1,895,044.) On Nov. 1, 1918, the Diet constituted itself a national government and took over the administration of the territory; the formation of Jugo-Slavia found Bosnia-Herzegovina a constituent prov- ince. BOSPORUS STRAITS. See DARDANELLES AND Bosporus STRAITS. BOSS, BENJAMIN (1880- ). An American astronomer, born at Albany, N. Y. He was graduated at Harvard in 1901 and at once be- came an assistant at the Dudley Observatory in Albany. In 1905 he became connected with the United States Naval Observatory in Washing- ton, and during 1906-08 he was in charge of the Naval Observatory at Tutuila in Samoa, where he made important observations of New- ecomb’s fundamental stars. On his return to the United States in 1908 he became secretary of the department of Meridian Astronomy of the Carnegie Institution, of which work he be- came director in 1915. In that year he re- turned to Albany, where he was called to the directorship of the Dudley Observatory, in suc- cession to his father. His scientific work has had to do principally with the determination of the star positions and motions. He was a member of the total eclipse exposition to Flint Island in 1908 and became editor of the As- tronomical Journal in the same year. BOSSANGE, Epwarp RAyMonp (1871- bs An American architect, born at Enghein in France. He was brought to the United States when nine years old and was educated at Co- lumbia University and at studios in New York and Rome. He was connected at various times with Ernest Flagg, Carrere and Hastings, and Warren and Whitmore; he was also a member of the firm of Bossange and Newton. From 1913 to 1915 he was professor of architecture in Cornell University and in the latter year be- came a member of the faculty of the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he was director of the College of Fine Arts (1918— Vis BOSTON. The capital of Massachusetts and the commercial metropolis of New England. The population rose from 686,092 in 1910 to 748,060 in 1920 and to 776,683 by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1924. The metropolitan district, including territory within 10 miles of the city boundaries, had a popula- ton of 1,772,254 in 1920. During the War, Boston shipping and port facilities expanded rapidly. Extensive plans for terminal and dock warehouses were made in 1918, and in 1919 a drydock, the largest in the United States, which had been begun by the State of Massachusetts before the War, was purchased by the United States Navy Department and completed. It was 1176 feet long and 149 feet wide and cost over $3,000,000. In 1922 the Boston airport was established. The Legislature made an ap- propriation for the airport and leased the land in East Boston for use as a landing field for $1 a year. Additional money was raised by private subscriptions to complete the construc- tion and equipment of the field. It was leased by the United States army for military pur- poses, on condition that commercial flyers were to be allowed full use of the field. Two new subways begun in 1912 were opened during the 195 BOSTON decade. The East Boston extension opened in 1916 was .41 miles long and cost $2,287,000 to construct; the Dorchester tunnel completed in 1918 at a cost of $10,582,000 was 2.26 miles in length. A second section of the Museum of Fine Arts was opened in 1915 and the State House was enlarged by the addition of east and west wings in 1919, at a cost of approximately $3,000,000. In 1922-3 the State Legislature authorized a new two-mile northern gateway to give the towns to the north and east of Bos- ton better access to the city. Downtown traffic was to be given more elbow room by the widen- ing of Kneeland and Tremont Streets; by widen- ing Cambridge and Court Streets, a new direct thoroughfare was to be provided in and out of the congested district. Within the city itself, the most notable de- velopment of the decade in the park ‘system was the cutting through of the Strandway in South Boston and Dorchester, along the shore of Dorchester Bay. This great improvement ran perhaps six miles almost from City Point to Neponset. Between the park roadway and the water was a continuous beach varying in width from about 50 to 500 feet. Along this, various public conveniences including bath and _ boat houses and playgrounds, baseball fields, ath- letic fields, ete., were arranged. Under the will of George E. White, something over $7,000,000 was left as a fund almost without restrictions for the general public welfare of the city. It was administered by a board of five trustees, including three city officials, so that the use of the fund is such as to make it practically a part of the municipal finances of the commun- ity. The Board of Trustees up to 1924 devoted the income from the fund almost entirely to public health work, including the establishment of health centres in congested districts. In 1919 the Metropolitan Parks Board, the Metro- politan Sewer Board and the Metropolitan Water Board were consolidated under the Metro- politan District Commission, and in 1923 the Legislature created a division of metropolitan planning, which began immediately to codrdi- nate the activities of all the planning boards in the 39 cities and towns of the metropolitan dis- trict. The zoning law of the city itself was amended. The exports of the city increased from $71,- 963,879 in 1914 to $221,728,343 in 1918, and to $349,620,484 in 1923; imports rose from $163,013,099 in 1914 to $295,907,047 in 1918. After 1918 imports through the port of Boston did not continue to increase, owing in part to the fact that the ports to the south of New York had lower rates from the interior of the country. The imports that did come through Boston were very largely for the immediate use of the manufacturers in New England itself. Bank clearings increased from $7,866,664,000 in 1914 to $19,068,369,000 in 1923. Postal re- ceipts in the Boston Postal District, one of the largest of the country in area, increased from $8,209,414 in 1914 to $13,817,716 in 1923. Manufacturing establishments in Boston in 1922 turned out a product valued at $496,- 982,035 as against $284,802,479 in 1914. The police force of the city went on strike in 1919 to compel recognition by the city admin- istration of the organization of their union and their right to affiliate with the American Fed- eraton of Labor. Order was restored and main- tained by the State guard, and Calvin Coolidge, BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA then Governor of Massachusetts, also requested Federal aid in case of necessity, but no fur- ther disturbances occurred. On the third day the strikers offered to return to duty, but the city, declining to receive them, recruited a new police force at an increased wage scale. BOSTON SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA. See Music, Orchestras. BOSTON UNIVERSITY. A _ nonsectarian institution at Boston, Mass., founded in 1869. The student enrollment increased from 1827 in 1914 to 10,008, including evening and Saturday courses, in 1923-24, and 1082 in the summer session of 1923; the faculty was increased from 170 to 382 members; and the number of volumes in the library from approximately 43,000 to 92,134 volumes. The endowment was increased during the same period from $2,367,820 to $4,- 179,984, of which $965,000 came by bequest in 1918 from Mrs. C. C. Corbin. In 1922, a cam- paign for $4,500,000, called the Fiftieth En- dowment Fund, was launched, of which approx- imately $2,000,000 was pledged’ by June, 1923. President, Lemuel Herbert Murlin, D.D., LL.D. BOSTWICK, ArTHuR ELMORE (1860- An American librarian (see Vou. III). He was president of the Missouri Library Association in 1917 and of the publication board of the Ameri- ean Library Association, 1918-21. He is the author of Earmarks of Literature (1914), The Making of an American’s Library (1915), Li- brary Essays (1920), and A Librarian’s Open Shelf (1920). He edited Classics of Ameri- can Librarianship, 3 vols. (1915-21). BOSWORTH, Epwarp INCREASE (1861-— hs An American theologian, born at Dundee, IIl., and educated at Oberlin College, Yale Uni- versity, and the University of Leipzig. After a year as pastor of a congregational church in Mount Vernon, O., he joined the faculty of the Oberlin Graduate School of Theology, of which he became dean in 1892. He was acting pres- dent of Oberlin College, 1918-19. His works include Studies in the Acts and Epistles (1898) ; Studies in the Life of Jesus Christ (1904); New Studies in Acts (1908); Commentary of Ro- mans (1919); and What It Means to Be a Christian (19238). BOTANY. Investigators in all fields of bo- tanical science were active in the period between 1914 and 1924, and the amount of literature turned out was very large. Without disparag- ing in any way investigations in other fields, only the more recent discoveries in a few lines ean be noted here. General. The address of Dr. William Bate- son, “Evolutionary Faith and Modern Doubt,” delivered before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Toronto, Canada, in December, 1921, was seized upon by the foes of the theory of evolution as a repudiation of that doctrine. Later Dr. Bateson attempted to correct this impression by stating, “Though no one doubts the truth of evolution, we have as yet no satisfactory account of that particular part of the theory that is concerned with the origin of species in the strict sense.” He was apparently considering the processes of varia- tion and not the survival of variants after they have appeared. He did not consider with favor DeVries’ Mutation Theory as an explanation of discontinuous variation. A. L. and A. C. Hagedoorn offer an explana- tion of the origin of species based on the modern conception of the crossing and inbreeding of 196 BOTANY species. According to their hypothesis the somatic characters possessed by any group of individuals capable of crossing are determined by the genes of the zygotes which produce them, and variation arises from the blending of genes that are not common to all the members of a group. This implies the influence of environ- ment and Tansley thinks it is conceivable that genes may be altered or new ones created by the long continued influence of environment. Bonnier reports the changed character of moun- tain species when grown on lowlands and vice versa, and Rawson claims to have produced a double strain of poppy by change of environment. Anthony has produced definite strains of violets by constant asexual propagation. 4 8 Baw \ r Te ee wreonsy soB haw 4109049 D a. ° Ko) = o ol waders ad ° 2, S0TL yo 6 cs SHayNY ACO visyuaHt wena < 3 ; Sst ov > = _ \yo pny? _pee ar ¢ : : ee = OS ey ee, BANG “0 Y oe = 8 2 ue, Oh yziHos \ vinvdouL soy z 1 + . — ony = 2 = 4 a Ax a ‘ dew uyeur sv ojvosomug «= ee gc sou A SUS AA VIA veanonal peewee _—y (20904) OL) a 9 : See ' SB ong y \ S WHAYARI SOuYX wh a6 : BEM HoMse00e =A, VIGNVO 40 ALAND 011091439 2 ay = r= £9 YN \ SOuWd Stra), aks H Sacinh 2 Nt oNvaowa Z ON ¥ r 4 wdii as" N wr Oo ‘. ‘ : / Wein ty Ss = . ysnn3a © \ solr, — sonaiuas / ; Missa prviiediey! y’ Hoy qoute, s VHOAH . osnig ° £4 00) \ a (eehsin @ 5°00 V IE d In Oa V wa Sime yey | -- 9 ere Wi) mt == vidoavis, “SSnR" VUASE vinuaHt) ex, ” bt ace MmpoyLy. fo fyng jsetsey, r Fofis p Ces %o 2 ‘eadkitap ! 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SF " OL 20, yeaey: y S ryvedey DVuHLYWYS (Pruruunsepun enynic) SOHLY LNNOW \ S| «p of ee . c Kine I, : u : = : x BN , al rd °. ruoKuy Ke . et , eee te. 5 Y ae : Ce ee th) Was «0S b F > 2 + =, = ts Z 7 * 4 ; \ Ae, a 0 ee tasope 154 O° ” THE Liekant OF 1HE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS = o- pe q BULGARIA 229 power by the general elections of Mar. 28, 1920, which returned 110 Agrarians, 50 Communists, and 9 Socialists, as compared with 59 for the bourgeois parties. Under M. Stambulisky an internal policy was formulated wholly in the interest of the agricultural class. A _ recon- struction programme, stubbornly pushed in the . face of the opposition of the bourgeoisie, in- cluded such diverse items as compulsory labor (1920), the expropriation of Crown and Church lands and all estates over 75 acres in the in- terests of the landless peasantry (1921), the prohibition of speculation and_ profiteering (1920), the extension of the education code (1920), government control of foreign trade through consortiums. Stambulisky’s tone to- ward his Central European neighbors was friendly. A healthy agrarianism was the foun- dation of his country’s well-being as, he saw, it was also of Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, Jugo- Slavia and Rumania. In January, 1921, he tried to gain the support of the first two for the creation of an international agrarian league, the so-called Green International, for their common protection against the bourgeois reactionaries and the communist radicals. The same purpose was expressed in the declarations of the congress of the Bulgarian Peasant Un- ion, held in February, 1921. To lighten his country’s burdens by gaining the good will of the Supreme Council and to show Western Eu- repe that Bulgaria had parted with the old ways, Stambulisky during 1921-23 proceeded against those ministers who had involved the country in the War by contracting an alliance with Germany and breaking off relations with Serbia without the consent of the Sobranje. The last step taken was the sentencing to life imprisonment of six members of the Radoslav- off ministry, April, 1923. As a result of these activities, Lloyd George, at the Genoa con- ference (1922) gave Stambulisky his support, while in March, 1923, the Reparations Commis- sion, equally convinced of Bulgaria’s good in- tentions, reduced the Bulgarian indemnity to 550,000,000 gold francs. There was no lack of opposition at home, of eourse. Bourgeois outbreaks occurred frequent- ly during 1922 and, in September, street fight- ing in Sofia led to 15 deaths and the wounding of over. 200. The elections of April, 1928, seemed to indicate that the country wholeheart- edly supported the Agrarian cabinet, for 212 Agrarians, 16 Communists, and 15 Bourgeois were returned; but that any hope for contin- ued domestic peace and sanity was illusory was shown when, in the morning of June 9, 1923, a coup d’état overthrew the government, forced the arrest of all the ministers save Stambuli- sky, who was absent from the capital, and set up a bourgeois bloc ministry headed by M. Tsankoff. Stambulisky himself was tracked down and killed five days later; the Sobranje was dissolved; and with the recognition of the revolutionary government, first by King Boris, and later (June 27) by the Little Entente, the revolution was complete. An indication of the temper of the new government was shown in the insistence with which it made demand upon the Lausanne Conference for an outlet to the figean by way of the Maritza valley and the port of Dedeagatch, and the refusal of the treaty commissioners to comply resulted in the familiar sabre-rattling, so characteristic of the old Bulgaria. Throughout the year affairs BULLARD were turbulent. The government attempted a diversion by attacks on the Communists, 95 of whom were brought to trial in July for counter-revolutionary agitation; while Agrari- ans and Communists retaliated by disorders and riots, even going so far as to seize and hold several towns in the northeast (September, 1923). The rising was short-lived though the government did not cease its repressive actions, and this in spite of the presumably popular victory which it obtained at the polls, Novem- ber 18, when the bourgeois parties gained 185 seats against the opposition’s 62. Where once there had been confidence, now was to be found suspicion: Bulgaria again became the storm- centre of Balkan intrigue and recriminations. Jugo-Slavia, Rumania, and Greece regarded askance Bulgaria’s request for permission to employ conscription in the recruiting of the army; Bulgaria, Serbs charged, had become the stamping ground of Macedonian anti-Serb prop- aganda; from Greece came the demand that the recruiting of bands near the Thracian frontier cease. Throughout 1924 two discordant notes were still in evidence in internal affairs: the agitations of the Macedonian party which threatened repeatedly to embroil Bulgaria in a war with Jugo-Slavia, and the continued activ- ities of the Communists and Agrarians, whose strength could not be broken in spite of the high-handed actions of the government. Early in 1924, the government broke up the Com- munist party and in May, 1924, suppressed all newspapers showing Communist tendencies. Yet in the provincial councils’ elections, the Communists-Agrarians gained 150 seats as against 352 by the government party (May, 1924). See also Stavontic LITERATURE; WAR, DIPLOMACY OF THE. BULKLEY, Lucius Duncan (1845- i An American physician (see Vor. IV). As a dermatologist and founder of the Skin and Cancer Hospital, Dr. Bulkley’s natural interest in the subject of malignant tumors led him to devote his attention entirely to the possibili- ty of their non-surgical treatment. He has published four new books on this subject since 1915, Cancer: Its Cause and Treatment, 2 vols. (1915-16); The Medical Treatment of Cancer (1919); Cancer and Its Non-surgical Treat- ment (1921), and Cancer of the Breast (1924). He also established a new quarterly periodical, Cancer, the first number of which was issued in October, 1923. BULLARD, ARTHUR (1879- ). An American author, born at St. Joseph, Mo., and educated at Blair Presbyterian Academy and Hamilton College (Clinton, N. Y.). As foreign correspondent he has been connected with Harper's Weekly, Collier’s Weekly, The Out- look, Atlantic Monthly, etc. In 1917-19, he was a member of the committee on public in- formation and subsequently director of its Rus- sian and Siberian divisions. Among his works are The Diplomacy of the Great War (1915) ; Mobilizing America (1917); The Russian Pen- dulum (1919); The Stranger (1920), and A B O's of Disarmament and Pacific Problems (1920). BULLARD, Rosert LEE (1861- een American army officer, born in Youngsboro, Ala. He graduated from tue United States Military Academy in 1885 and was appointed second lieutenant in the same year. During the Spanish-American War he served as colonel of BULLOCK the third Alabama Infantry. In 1889 he was commissioned colonel of volunteers in the army, and in 1902, following his discharge from the Volunteer Service, became a major in the Regu- lar Army. He was promoted to be colonel in 1911 and major general in 1917. He com- manded the second brigade of the first division in France in June, July, and August, 1917, and in the last month was appointed major general in the national army. He commanded the first division in all its engagements and operations against the Germans, from December, 1917, to July, 1918. He was promoted lieutenant-gen- eral in 1918 and major general of the Regular Army in November of the same year. From October, 1918, to April, 1919, he commanded the second army. He was awarded the Distin- guished Service Medal and was. decorated by Irance, Belgium, and Italy. He was appointed commander of the Department of the East in 1921. He was the author of numerous articles in magazines and military journals. BULLOCK, SHAN F, (1865- ). An Eng- lish novelist (see Vout. IV). He is the author of The Making of a Soldier (1916) and Mr. Ruby Jumps the Traces (1917). BULOW, Bernuarp HErnricH Kart MARTIN, PRINCE VON (1849- ). A German states- man (see VoL. IV). Having been very active previously in furthering the German _ policy which caused the War, he was given temporary charge of the German Embassy in Rome on Dec. 19, 1914, to try to smooth over the differences between Austria-Hungary and Italy. He was unsuccessful, and Italy declared war on May 23, 1915. He is the author of Imperial Germany, a book defending his own foreign policy. It was translated into English in 1914, and a re- vised edition, omitting many compromising pas- sages, appeared in 1916. BUMPUS, HERMAN CAREY (1862- i An American educator (see VoL. IV). He re- signed as president of Tufts College in 1919 and in the same year held the chairmanship of the Massachusetts Security League. BUMSTEAD, HENRy ANDREWS’ (1870- 1920). An American physicist, born at Pekin, Ill., and educated at Johns Hopkins University, where he became instructor in physics until 1893, when he received a similar appointment in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale. He left Yale in 1906 to become full professor at the Sloane Physical Laboratory. He also became director of the latter, a place which he held until his death. During the War he was a sci- entific attaché of the United States Embassy in London (1918-19). Hz was connected with the National Research Council (1920). His scientific researches included studies on radio- active gait in water and on atmospheric radio- activity, as well as on the effects produced by rontgen rays in different metals. He also pub- lished a series of papers on the emission of elec- trons by metals under the influence of alpha rays. BUNDY, Omar (1861- ). An American army officer, born in Newcastle, Ind. He grad- uated from the United States Military Acad- emy in 1883 and in the same year was commis- sioned second lieutenant. He rose through the various grades, becoming colonel of the 16th infantry in 1914 and adjutant general in 1915. His earlier service included campaigns against the Indians and the Spanish-American War. He served in the General Staff College from 230 BURGENLAND 1902 to 1905. In 1917 he was appointed brig- adier general of the national army and major general in the same year. From October, 1917, to July, 1918, he commanded the second divi- sion of the American Expeditionary Forces in France; in 1918 he commanded the-sixth and seventh army corps. At the close of the War he was appointed major general of the regular army and was given command of the Philippine department in 1922. BUNIN, Ivan A. (1870- ). A _ Russian poet and novelist. An opponent of the modern- ists, he followed the older classic tradition. And in exile in Paris since the Revolution, he has described with vivid realism ruined estates, the miserable life of the peasants (for whom, however, he had no love), and the Intelligenzia. He made his real début about 1905, with a vol- ume of short stories and poems, becoming a stabilizing force in Russian literature, which had run wild under the influence of the de- cadents and the early revolution. His works include various collections of poems (1886- 1915); The Village, sketches (1910); The Tem- ple of the Sun (travel sketches); The Gentle- man from San Francisco, short stories, (1917) ; The Ory, ten stories (1921); and translations of Byron, Tennyson, and Longfellow. BUNZELL, HerRpert Horace (1887- ). An American chemist, born near Prague, Czecho- Slovakia. In 1903 he removed to the United States and in 1906 graduated from the Univer- sity of Chicago. He did graduate work at that institution and in Berlin. After service at the University of Chicago, he was an expert with the United States Department of Agriculture in 1910-11 and chemical biologist in the same department, 1911-16. He served for several years on the faculty of Georgetown University and in 1917-18 was professor and head of the department at the University of Cincinnati. He was professor of chemistry at the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1920 and also practiced as consulting chemist. He con- tributed numerous papers to chemical journals and was a member of several scientific societies. BURBANK, LUTHER (1849- ). An American naturalist (see Vor. IV). He con- tinued his experiments at the Burbank Experi- ment Farms at Santa Rosa, Cal. Here he evolved many new varieties of fruits and flow- ers, including new apples, peaches, nuts, ber- ries, and valuable trees. On these farms he has over 5000 distinctive botanical specimens from all parts of the world, and over 1,000,000 plants are raised every year for testing. He was special lecturer on evolution at Leland Stanford Junior University. He wrote Train- ing of the American Plant; Luther Burbank, His Methods and Discoveries; and How Plants Are Trained to Work for Man (1921). BURGENLAND. The problem which this region, sometimes known as German West Hun- gary, presented in the peace settlement, was un- usual in involving the transfer of territory from one enemy country, Austria, to another, Hungary. The Burgenland, lying on the fron- tier between Austria and Hungary and includ- ing parts of the three Hungarian counties of Vas, Sopron, and Moson, has an area of 1684 square miles and a population of 330,000. Ethnical divisions were: Germans, 235,000; Croats and Wends, 50,000; Magyars, 25,000; Jews and others, 20,000. On the grounds of race, therefore, the validity of the Austrian BURGENLAND claims before the Peace Conference were obvi- ous. Other considerations were favorable to the transfer, and it is likely that some of these bore more weight with the Supreme Council than the matter of ethnography. It was pointed out that the Burgenland was “the kitchen garden of Vienna” and that its separa- tion from the city by an international boundary would entail distinct hardships. Again, the territory would serve as an excellent buffer re- gion between the two states, an important de- sideratum in view of the establishment of the Bolshevist régime of Béla Kun in Hungary. It has also been suggested, not without reason, that the Allies purposed, by making Burgen- land a cause of dissension between Austria and Hungary, to prevent the restoration of the former Habsburg Empire. Therefore, on July 20, 1919, the Peace Conference decided to cede the Burgenland to Austria without a plebiscite, though it is interesting to note that the Aus- trians themselves suggested a vote for the as- certainment of the wishes of the inhabitants. Throughout 1920 Hungary remained in control, and as negotiations regarding the cession yielded no definite results, tension increased. The advent of reaction in Hungary under Horthy complicated matters. A frenzied prop- aganda in favor of the retention of the dis- puted region filled the country, and cultural and sentimental reasons were adduced to feed the flame of the new Hungarian nationalism. It was maintained that the Burgenland was one of the richest regions of the former kingdom and that 30 per cent of its population had been engaged in various manufacturing establish- ments vital to the economic life of Hungary. There were located coal mines and stone quar- ries as well as the city of Sopron (Oedenburg), the centre of a great carrying trade of cattle and foodstuffs. From the Burgenland had come Haydn, Liszt, and Count Stephen Szechen- yi; and its counties had always been regarded by the patriotic as the outposts of Magyar civ- ilization on the West and the rampart of Hun- gary against Germanism. It was becoming plain that Hungarians would not relinquish the region without a struggle. In August, 1921, irregular troops, of the party of ex-premier Friedrich and the reactionary society known as “The Awakening Hungarians,’ poured into the country and forcibly ejected the Austrian officials who had appeared to take possession in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of the Trianon. Austria, by this time, had be- come more than eager for the cession; Hungary, for her part, stubbornly maintained her rights to the eastern portion and refused to move against the armed bands. In September, Czecho- Slovakia, for the Little Entente, appealed to the Allies in behalf of Austria. On September 25 the Council of Ambassadors demanded the withdrawal of Hungarian troops, meanwhile, at the behest of Italy, refusing to permit Czecho-Slovakia and Jugo-Slavia to interfere. Largely as a result of Italian intervention a truce was patched up, October 13, by which Hungary promised to clear the counties of the predatory bands and hand over the Burgenland to Austria, while Austria consented to the hold- ing of a plebiscite in the town of Sopron and its environs. Such a plebiscite was held in December at Sopron and proved favorable for Hungary. On December 30, therefore, Sopron and those districts contiguous to the Hungarian 231 BURKE frontier were turned over to the Hungarian police by an Allied military commission. The encounter had aroused great interest in Europe because of the anomalous position of Austria throughout. At first accepting the de- cision of the Supreme Council with a real reluc- tance, her government had complied with the spirit of the treaties in every particular, only to see itself thwarted by a lawless aggression on the part of Hungarians, encouraged by French intrigue; and then, for fear of estrang- ing a powerful neighbor, she had yielded to the Italian plan for a plebiscite. The impotence of Austria under these conditions chagrined her citizens and troubled’ the liberal elements of Europe and America. The settlement revealed to them the basic injustice of the peace treaties and their aftermath. BURGESS, (FRANK) GELETT (1866- i An American author and illustrator (see Vot. IV). He is the author of Burgess Unabridged (1914), The Goop Encyclopedia (1915), The Romance of the Commonplace, enlarged edition (1916), War the Creator (1916), and Mrs. Hope’s Husband (1917). He edited My Maiden Effort (1921) and Have You an Educated Heart? (1923). BURGESS, GrEoRGE KIMBALL (1874— ¥: An American physicist, born at Newton, Mass. He was graduated in 1896 from the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, where for two years he served as assistant in physics. Re- ceiving a fellowship, he studied in Paris. On re- turning to the United States he taught in the Universities of Michigan and California. In 1903 he went to Washington as physicist in the Bureau of Standards, where after successive pro- motions he became in 1923 director of the Bureau in succession to Dr. S. W. Stratton. Dr. Bur- gess also served the United States as a member of various foreign service and engineering com- missions of the National Research Council, espe- cially during the War, and he was likewise a member of the National Aircraft Standards Board. The results of his many investigations have been published in a series of papers on the constant of gravitation, on high temperature measurements, and on the properties of metals and alloys; many of these were issued in the series of technical papers of the Bureau of Standards. BURGESS, Joun WrtttamM = (1844- Ie An American university dean (see Vou. IV). In 1914-15 he was visiting American professor in Austrian universities. He is the author of Causes of the Luropean Conflict (1914), The European War of 1914 (1915; popular edition, 1916), The Reconciliation of Government with Liberty (1915), The Administration of Presi- dent Rutherford B. Hayes (1915), America’s Re- lations to the Great War (1916), Militarism and the Emperor (1916), The Russian Revolution and the Soviet Constitution (1919), The Trans- formation of the Constitutional Law of the United States Between 1898 and 1920 (1921), and Recent Changes in American Constitutional Theory (1923). BURKE, Brirtie (Mrs. FrLorENzZ ZIEGFELD, Jr.) (1886— ). An American actress, born in Washington, D. C. She made her début in London in support of Edna May in The School Girl at the Pavilion Musie Hall. She appeared as leading woman in Mr. George (1907). In the same year she came to America and was very successful in her characterization of Bea- BURKITT trice Dupré as John Drew’s leading woman in My Wife. Her later successes in New York were in Jerry, The Rescuing Angel, Cesar’s Wife and The Intimate Strangers (1921). She has also devoted much time to the movies. BURKITT, FRANcIS CRAWFORD (1863- 2. An English professor (see Vor. IV). Among his later works are Jewish and Christian Apoca- lypses (Sweich Lectures) (1914), Some Thoughts on the Athanasian Oreed (1916), Eucharist and Sacrifice (1921), and Harliest Sources of the Life of Jesus (rev. ed., 1922). BURLEIGH, Henry THACKER (1866- i An American song writer, born at Erie, Pa. In 1892 he entered the National Conservatory in New York City, studying there with Rukin Goldmark, J. White, and M. Spicker. In 1894 he became baritone soloist at St. George’s, and in 1899 baritone soloist at the Temple Emanu-El. As a song writer he justly gained wide popu- larity. In 1917 he was awarded the Spingarn Medal for the highest achievement during 1916 by an American citizen of African descent. In 1920 Harvard University conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Music. BURLESON, Apert SIDNEY (1863- Die An American Postmaster-General (see Vou. IV). In 1918 he became chairman of the United States telephone and telegraph administration. He retired from the office of Postmaster-General in .1921. BURLESON, HucuH LATIMER (1865- ps An American bishop, born at Northfield, Minn., and educated at Racine College, Wis., and at the General Theological Seminary in New York City. From 1893 to 1900 he was curate, as- sistant, or rector of Protestant Episcopal churches in New York and Wisconsin. During the seven years following, he was dean of the Cathedral of the District of North Dakota, and in 1909-16, secretary of the Board of Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. In the latter year he became bishop of South Dakota. He wrote The Conquest of the Continent (1911) and Our Church and Our Country (1918). BURLIN, NaTALice Curtis (?-1921). An American writer born in New York City. She studied music in France and Germany and de- voted herself particularly to the collection of folk-songs of Indian tribes, traveling widely among them for that purpose. She made similar studies among the Zulu and other tribes of South Africa and among American Negroes. In 1917 she married the artist, Paul Burlin. Among her writings, which include probably the most successful works in the field of aboriginal American life, are Songs of Ancient America and The Indian’s Book. The latter was again published in 1923 under the title, The Indian Book, with a few additions. BURNET, JouHn (1863- ). An English professor and dean (see Vout. IV). In 1919, he became Associate of the Royal Academy of Bel- gium and in the same year was also made Hon- orary Fellow of the Educational Institute of Scotland. He is author of Greek Philosophy: Thales and Plato (1914), The Socratic Doctrine of the Soul (1916), and Higher Education and the War (1917). BURNETT, Frances (ELIzA) Hopeson (1849- ). An American author (see VOL. IV). After 1914 she added to her already long list of works One I Knew the Best of All (1915), Little Hunchback Zia (1916), White People 232 BURR (1917), Good Wolf (1919), The Head of the House of Coombe (1922), The Fair Barbarian (1923), Robin (sequel to The Head of the House of Coombe, 1922), and others. She edited The Children’s Book (1914). BURNHAM, CLARA LOUISE (1861- 1. An American author, born at Newton, Mass. She wrote many stories and poems for the maga- zines and the text for many of her father’s cantatas. Among her novels were Dr. Latimer (1893); The Right Princess (1902); Jewel (1903) ; Jewel’s Story Book (1904); The Opened Shutters (1906); The Leaven of Love (1908) ; The Inner Flame (1912); The Right Track (1914) ; Instead of the Thorn (1916); Hearts’ Haven (1918); In Apple-blossom Time (1919), and The Keynote (1921). She was a Christian Scientist and most of her books are permeated with the principles of that faith. She was notably successful in depicting New England characters. BURNS, James Atoysius (1867- ). An American clergyman and college president, born at Michigan City, Ind., and educated at the University of Notre Dame. spent as a lay teacher he was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1893 and from that time until 1900 was professor of sciences in the University of Notre Dame. He was then made president and professor of moral theology in Holy Cross College (Washington). In 1919 he returned to the University of Notre Dame as president. Origin and Establishment of the Catholic School System (1908); The Growth and Development of the Catholic School System (1912), and ee Education: A Study of Conditions CLOLT hi BURNS, Rr. Hon. JoHn (1858- ). An English parliamentarian (see Vou. IV). In 1914 he resigned from the presidency of the Local Government Board,. and became president of the Board of Trade. He resigned from the latter office when war was declared. Until 1918 he was a radical member of Parliament. BURNS, Keivin (1881- ). An Ameri- can spectroscopist, born at Pleasant Ridge, N. B. He was graduated at the University of Min- nesota in 1903. He was connected with the Lick Observatory during 1904-07 and again as a Martin Kellogg fellow during 1910-12. In 1913 he was a physicist at the Bureau of Standards (Washington), but in 1920 he became the as- tronomer at the Allegheny Observatory. His specialty is the application of the spectroscope to heavenly bodies, the orbit of lambda An- dromede, the ring nebula in Lyra, and the Orion region, on which he has published his findings. BURNSIDE, RICHARD H. (“ZIPP”) (?- ). A dramatic author and stage director best known for Chin-Chin, written with Anne Caldwell (1914), Hip-Hip Hooray! (1915), The Big Show (1916), Cheer Up (1917), Happy Days (1919), Miss Millions (1919), Tip-Top, with Anne Caldwell (1920): and others. He was general producer for the New York Hippodrome. BURR, GrEorcGeE LINCOLN (1857-— ). An American professor (see Vor. IV).- In 1919 he became John Stambaugh professor of history in Cornell University. He edited Narratives of Witchcraft Cases (1913). BURR, WILLIAM WESLEY (1880- ). An American agriculturalist, born at Goodland, Ind. He graduated from the University of Nebraska in 1906 and until 1913 was associate professor After two years — His publications include Principles, - 4 E i 2 4 ; Le ui BURRAGE of erops and soils there. From 1903 to 1913 he was also in charge of the codperative work in the office of dry land agriculture in the North Platte Experiment Station, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, United States Department of Agricul- ture. From 1913 to 1916 he was assistant ag- riculturalist and from the latter date professor of agronomy and head of the department at the University of Nebraska. He was also vice- director of the experiment station of that uni- versity. He was a member of several scientific societies and wrote on soil moisture, crop pro- duction, dry land agriculture, etc. BURRAGE, CHAMPLIN (1874- ). An American scholar born at Portland, Me., and educated at Brown University and at Berlin, Marburg, and Oxford. From 1912 to 1915 he was librarian of Manchester College, Oxford, and from 1915 to 1917, librarian and mem- ber of the faculty of Brown University. His publications include A New Years Gift by Robert Browne, 1588 (1904); The Church Covenant Idea (1904); The True Story of Robert Browne (1906); New Facts Concerning John Robinson (1910); The Early English Dis- senters in the Light of Recent Research (1912); John Penry, the So-Called Martyr of Congre- gationalism (1915); Nazareth and the Begin- nings of Christianity (1914); John Pory’s Lost Description of Plymouth Colony (1918); An Answer to John Robinson of Leyden (1920) ; The Minoan Hieroglyphic Inscriptions, I: The Phestos Whorl (1921), and Prehistoric A’gean Inscriptions from Minoan Crete, the Agean Is- lands, Cyprus, Greece and Troy, Part I (1922). BURRELL, Davin JAmes (1844- eA ni American clergyman (see Vor. IV). He is the author of We Would See Jesus (1914), The Apostles’ Creed (1915), Why I Believe the Bible (1917), The Laughter of God (1918), Campaigns of Paul (1919), The Resurrection and the Life Beyond (1920), Paul’s Companions (1921), and Paul’s Letters (1921). BURRELL, MARTIN (1858— yiioA Canadian statesman (see Vout. IV). From 1917 to 1919 he was Secretary of State of Canada and Minister of Mines, having previously been Min- ister of Agriculture. In 1920 he became Par- liamentary Librarian of Canada. BURRITT, Maurice CHASE (1883- je An American agriculturist, born at Hilton, N. Y., educated at Cornell. From 1902 he was engaged in farming at Hilton, N. Y. He was scientific assistant for the United States Department of Agriculture from 1908 to 1911 and was county agent leader for the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 1914-17. In ‘1917 he became vice-director of extension work at that institution. He took a prominent part in organizing a farm bureau and agricultural extension system in New York State. He wrote Apple Growing (1915), and The County Agent and the Farm Bureau (1922). BURROUGHS, Joun (1837-1921). An American essayist and naturalist, born at Rox- bury, N. Y. His writings in his later years took on a wider aspect than his earlier books and were devoted largely to a general study of life and its meaning. In 1913 he published The Summit of the Years; in 1915, The Breath of Life; in 1916, Under the Apple Trees, and in 1919, Field and Study. John Burroughs died on March 29, 1921, and was buried at his farm on the Hudson River, “Slabsides.” Since he had lived there for many years, the farm was 233 BURTON purchased by a number of his admirers and made a permanent memorial to his life and works. BURROWS, Montrosr Toomas (1884- 1 & An American pathologist, born at Halstead, Kan., and educated at Kansas and Johns Hopkins. For a year he held a_ fellowship at the Rockefeller Institute, where also during 1909-10 he was assistant pathologist. In 1910 he became instructor in anatomy at the Cornell Medical College, and in 1915 he accepted the appointment of pathologist to the Hopkins Hos- pital. Five years later he was called to the chair of pathology in the Washington University Medical School in St. Louis, and in 1920, he became director of the research laboratory at the Barnard Face, Skin and Cancer Hospital (St. Louis). His original investigations have in- cluded studies of tissue cultivation, mechanism of growth and division of cells and heart muscle contraction, inter-cranial processes, and various problems in epidermiology. . BURSTING CHARGES. See Expiostves. BURTON, Ernest Dewitt (1856- yen American theologian (see Vout. IV). He is the author of Harmony of the Synoptic Gospels in Greek, with Edgar J. Goodspeed (1920); Com- mentary on Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians (1920); Jesus of Nazareth, How He Thought, Lived, Worked, and Achieved (1920) ; and Source Book for the Study of the Teaching of Jesus in Its Historical Relationships (1923). BURTON, Marion Le Roy (1874- }: An American University president (see Vor. IV). In 1917-he resigned as president of Smith Col- lege (Northampton, Mass.), to accept the presi- dency of the University of Minnesota. He stayed in the latter institution until 1920, when he became president of the University of Michi- gan. His works include Life Which Is Life In- deed (1914), First Things (1915), and On Being Divine (1916). BURTON, RicHARD EUGENE (1861- ) An American college professor (see Vor. IV). His works include How to See a Play (1914), Bernard Shaw—the Man and the Mask (1916), Poems of Earth’s Meaning (1917), and Charles Dickens—How to Know Him (1919). He was president of the Drama League of America, (1914-15). BURTON, THEODORE ELIJAH (1851- ). An American Congressman (see Vor. IV). He was a member of the Sixty-seventh Congress (1921-23) for the Twenty-second District of Ohio. In 1921 he was a member of the exec- utive committee of the Interparliamentary Union. He had the unanimous support of the Ohio delegation for presidential nominee in the Republican national convention in 1916. From 1917 to 1919 he was president of the Merchants’ National Bank of New York City, and in the latter year he was also Stafford Little Lecturer at Princeton University. His works include Some Political Tendencies of the Times and the Effect of the War Thereon (1919). BURTON, WitriAm MerrRIAM (1865-— ). An American chemist, born at Cleveland, Ohio, and educated at Western Reserve and Johns Hopkins Universities. In 1889 he entered the service of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana as chemist and after serving as stiperintendent and vice-president became its president in 1918. His important investigations have had to do with the technology of petroleum, notably a “cracking” process which has doubled the out- BURY put of gasoline. The Willard Gibbs medal of the American Chemical Society was conferred on him in 1918, and in 1922 he received ‘the Perkins medal of the Society of Chemical In- dustry. BURY, Sir GEoRGE (1866- ). A Canad- ian railway official. He was educated at Mon- treal College and in 1883 entered the employ of the Canadian Pacifie Railroad. In 1907 he was made general manager of its western lines and from 1911 was president of the road. In 1917 he visited Russia in order to assist in the reorganization of shipping in that country. In the same year he was knighted. BUSCH, Cari (1862- ). An American composer and conductor, born at Bjerre, Den- mark. After completion of his studies at the Conservatory in Copenhagen he spent a year in Paris as viola player in Godard’s orchestra. In 1887 he settled in Kansas City, where in 1912 he founded the Kansas City Symphony Orchestra, which he conducted. He frequently appeared with other orchestras in the United States, Ger- many, and Denmark, as conductor of his own works. His works include a symphonic pro- logue, The Passing of King Arthur; a symphonic poem, Minnehaha’s Vision; Ode to France and Negro Carnival for orchestra; A Chant from the Great Plains for military band; Sir Galahad for baritone, chorus and orchestra; and nine canta- tas. BUSCH, Josrepi FrAncis (1866- atv An American bishop, born at Red Wing, Minn., and educated at Innsbruck, Austria, and at the Catholic University (Washington, D. €.). Or- dained to the Roman Catholic priesthood «in 1889, he became secretary to Archbishop Ireland and assistant pastor in St. Paul, Minn. He was then pastor in South St. Paul, Minneapolis and LeSueur, Minn. In 1910 he was made bishop Uae S. D., and in 1915 bishop of St. Cloud, Minn. BUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1860- ie An American railway official, born in Wellsboro, Pa., and educated at the State Normal School at Mansfield, Pa. He began his railway service on the Northern Pacific Railroad in 1882. In 1887 he was appointed division engineer of the Union Pacific Railroad in Idaho and Oregon. He served as general manager and superintendent of several railroads in the west and in 1907 was appointed president of the Western Maryland Railroad. He was president also of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad in 1912 and 1915 and of the Western Pacific Railroad in 1913. He went back as president to the Western Maryland in 1917. In addition to his service as railway official he held several important government offices and was a member of the advisory board on fuels and structural material in 1907. Dur- ing the War he acted as regional director in the southwestern district for the Federal railroad administration. BUTLER, HENryY MonTacu’ (1833-1918). An English educator (see Vor. IV). He pub- lished a volume of classical verse, Letsure Hours of. a Long Life (1914). He died at Cambridge on Jan. 14, 1918. BUTLER, Howarp RUSSELL (?- ). An American artist who won the Carnegie prize from the National Academy of Design (1916) and the prize from the Duxbury Exhibition in 1917. He accompanied the United States Naval Observation Expedition to Baker, Oregon, and painted the solar eclipse of June 1918. This Gold in Blue. 234 BYELY last painting is owned by the American Museum of Natural History. BUTLER, NicnoLas Murray (1862- y An American educator, president of Columbia University (see Vor. IV). He continued to take an active part in educational and political affairs in the decade 1914-24. From 1914 he was president of the France-America Society, and from 1919 was corresponding member of the Academy of Arts and Letters of Naples. In 1917 he was president of the American Hellenic Society. THe was mentioned as a possible ecandi- date for the presidency in 1920 and received several votes in the National Convention. In May, 1924, he created a nation-wide sensation by a speech delivered at a dinner of the Missouri Society, in which he denounced the Prohibition Constitutional Amendment, and declared that it should be repealed. For -this attitude he was both praised and denounced by newspapers, or- ganizations and individuals throughout the coun- try. His later publications include The Mean- ing of Education (1915); The World in Perment (1917); Is America Worth Saving? and Other Addresses (1920); WScholarship and Service, (1921). BUTTENWEISER, Moses _ (1862- Jc An American scholar, born at Beerfelden in Germany and educated at the universities of Wiirzburg, Leipzig, and Heidelberg. In 1897 he became professor of Biblical exegesis in the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, Ohio. His works include Vhe Hebrew Elias-Apoca- lypse, in German (1897); An Outline of Neo- Ilebraic Apocalyptic Literature (1901); The Prophets of Israel (1914); The Book of Job (1920), and numerous articles in learned pub- lications. BUTTER. See DAIRYING. BUXTON, Noeut (1869- ). An English social reformer and labor leader. He was edu- eated at Cambridge and acted as aide-de-camp to his father when the latter was Governor of South Australia. He founded a farmers’ co- operative society, was an active member of many organizations engaged in social reform work and also of the Christian Social Union. In January, 1924, he was appointed minister for agriculture in the Labor cabinet of Ramsay MacDonald. He published Europe and_ the Turks and With the Bulgarian Staff, and was part author of The Heart of the Empire, Travel and Politics in Armenia, The War and the Balkans, and Balkan Problems and European Peace. BUXTON, SyDNEY CHARLES BuxTon, first Viscount (1853— ). An English statesman (see Vor. IV.) and Governor General of South Africa in 1914 and was at the same time created Viscount Bux- ton. In 1920 he retired from office. BYELY, ANDREY (Bo: N. | BoGayeEv) (1880- ). A Russian poet, novelist, and critic. He early showed talent in a variety of directions; he was gifted in mathematics, phi- losophy, and music, but turned all his gifts to the cause of the literary symbolists. Just as he passed through many stages in the develop- ment of his philosophy as a theosophist, so his writings include all genres and styles. He began his career in 1904 by a series of philosophical and critical essays in The Scales and also by his first volume of collected poetry, entitled He came to be regarded as the most individual of the Russian modernists. He became High Commissioner ee med Feat Erg BYNG His works include Symphonies (symbolic poems in prose; The Heroic (Northern Symphony), 1902; The Second (Dramatie Symphony), 1904; The Return (Third Symphony), 1905; The Gob- let of Snow-Storms (Fourth Symphony), 1908; The Silver Dove, a novel, 1910; Petersburg, a novel, 1912; Poems, 1904-17; and Symbolism (essays on artistic creation), 1910. The two novels form parts of a trilogy, of which the third part, Kotik Letajew, appeared during the Revolution. BYNG, JULIAN HEDWoRTH GEORGE ByYNa, first BARON oF (1862- ). ; lelefoue skaters 8,169,000 10,859,000 Grainy NAVdae se code os were hie ou eeM MeCN Mas tay Shei! Mw ieelue eles 18 PANT Alea St. cereus. caheie se sic sitet tstets 93,560 237,770 Bodder Ucorn | Hae hie eee eet 303,650 2,616,300 Agriculture. The economic prosperity of Canada continued dependent primarily upon ag- riculture. Farm products comprised 55 per cent of Canadian exports, the most important being wheat and flour, pork products and dairy prod- ucts. The total area under field crops in 1923 was 56,569,794 acres, as against 57,189,681 in 1922, and 35,375,430 in 1913. The total values of field crops for 1913, 1922, and 1923 were esti- mated as follows: 1913 1922 1923 Wheat .... $156,462,000 $339,419,000 $316,934,700 Odtsrpsiivae: 128,893,000 185,455,000 184,857,400 Barley 20,144,000 3id800D,000 32,570,700 Rye: ces oe 1,524,000 18,703,200 11,339,900 Pease sieeeie. 4,382,000 5,818,200 4,987,400 Beans, 548% 1,505,000 3,713,800 2,773,000 Buckwheat. . 5,320,000 8,140,800 8,191,700 Mixed grains 8,685,000 16,500,700 17,654,800 Flax seed 17,084,000 8,638,900 12,643,900 Corn for husking 10,784,300 11,509,700 12,466,000 Potatoes ... 38,418,000 50,320,000 56,397,800 Turnips, mangolds, OUCH alot 18,643,000 23,886,000 22,483,100 ACS ve sy 1) clover. 124,696,000 194,950,000 162,882,000 Alfalfa 2,819,200 10,295,000 11,914,000 GOAL DAY, dirot! ge 5 cL Oe ieee ee eae sie Ao 15,063,800 Fodder corn 12,506,000 29,197,600 24,605,000 Sugar beets 906,000 1,500,000 1,401,000 The aggregate value of all field crops in 1923 was $899,166,200, as compared with $962,293,200 in 1922, a decrease of $63,127,000, caused mainly Flaxseed in 1923 yielded 7,139,500 bushels from 629,938 acres, as compared with 5,008,500 bush- els from 565,479 acres in 1922 and with 17,- 539,000 bushels from 1,522,800 acres in 1913. The yield per acre was 11.30 bushels in 1923 as against 8.85 bushels in 1922 and 11.30 bushels in 1913. The total yields of root and fodder crops, in 1923, as compared with 1922 and 1913, are given in the above table. For the year 1923, the estimated quantities and values of various fruits produced commer- cially in Canada were as follows, the correspond- ing figures for 1922 and quantities only for 1910 being given, if available: apples, (provi- sional estimate) 4,063,719 barrels, no estimate of value as yet, (5,048,405 barrels, value $24,692,- 182; 10,618,666 bushels) ; pears 227,335 bush- els, value $550,587, (461,227 bushels, value $668,- 854; 504,171 bushels) ; plums and prunes, 348,- 482 bushels, value $916,050, (408,438 bushels, value $522,393; 508,994 bushels) ; peaches 403,- 660 bushels, value $916,050 (577,561 bushels, $668,854; 646,826 bushels); cherries 203,125 bushels, value $722,440, (202,740 bushels, $481,- 850; 238,974 bushels). The gross agricultural wealth of Canada for 1923 was estimated to be $7,365,013,000, as compared with $6,774,461,000 in 1922. The total estimated agricultural rev- enue of Canada in 1923 was $1,342,132,000, as compared with $1,389,289.000 in 1922, $1,383,- 958,000 in 1921, $2,011,201,000 in 1920, and $2,109,291,000 the peak year in 1919. tae a iy Sprtte i gga ry EA eae Sn Ph see er agp iaita Tay, yall 2 agg re. le gl Pallet MBS eee CANADA 245 The numbers of farm live stock for the Do- minion were estimated as follows, the corre- sponding numbers for 1922 and 1913 (where available) being given within parentheses: horses, 3,530, 641 (3,648,871; 2,866,008) ; mules, 8722 (9202); cattle, 9,246,231 (9,719,869; 6,- 849,433) ; sheep, 2,753,860 (3,263,525; 2,598,- 470); swine, 4,405,316 (3,915,684; 2,753,964) ; poultry, 45,469,292 (42,930,562); rabbits in British Columbia 48,359 (51,623). All descrip- tions of farm live stock showed a decrease in 1923, excepting swine and poultry, which in- ereased. The total production of farm eggs in Canada for the year 1923 was approximately 202,186,508 dozen, as compared with 194,058,- 468 dozen in 1922, and 123,071,034 dozen in 1910, the total estimated value being $48,770,780 in 1923, as compared with $48,490,578 in 1922. The total production of wool in Canada from 2,- 755,273 sheep and lambs in 1923 was placed at 15,539,416 pounds, as compared with 18,523.292 pounds from 3,262,626 sheep and lambs in 1922, and 6,933,955 pounds in 1913. Forestry. The total land area of Canada is approximately 3,600,000 square miles. The area covered by existing forests ‘covered anproxi- mately 950,000 square miles, some of which was agricultural land. The estimated stand of tim- ber of merchantable size in Canada in 1922 was 141 billion cubic feet, of which 102 billion eubie feet was softwood and 39 billion hardwood. The manufacture of lumber, lath, shingles, and other products and by- products of the : sawmill, formed the principal industry in Canada depending on the forest for its raw materials. The lumber cut in 1921 was 2,869,307 thousand feet hoard measure, valued at $82,448,585; shingles cut 2,986,580 thousand feet, value $10,727, 096; lath cut 804,449 thousand feet, value $4,188, 121; in 1913 the lumber cut was 3,816,642 thousand feet, value $65,796,438; shingles cut 1,485,279 thousand feet, value $3,064,641; lath cut 739,678 thousand feet, value $1,783,283. The total value of all classes of forest products in 192] was $218,270,769, as compared with $312,683,509 in 1920, and $177,120,000 in 1913. The pulp and paper industry of Canada made rapid progress in the last two decades. In 1924, there were in existence in Canada about 50 pulp mills, 35 com- bined pulp and paper mills, and 40 mills making paper only, although not all of these were op- erating; in 1901, there were 25 mills all told. The industry in Canada included three forms of industrial activity, i.e the operations in the CANADA mills, 1,109,034 cords; exported unmanufactured 1,035,030 cords. After 1902 the exports of raw pulpwood went exclusively to the United States, and amounted annually to about 1,0000,000 cords. The total pulp production in 1922 was 2,150,- 251 tons, value $84,947,598; the amount of me- chanical pulp produced was 1,241,185 tons, value $31,079,429; and the amount of chemical fiber, 897,533 tons, valued at $53,615,692. The earliest accurate detailed statistics AAS C con- cerning the industry were those of 1917, when the total pulp production was 1,464,308 tons, valued at $65,515,335; in 1913, the total pro- duction was 854,624 tons. Canada’s paper pro- duction in 1922 was 1,366,815 tons, valued at $106,260,078; in 1917, production was 853,689 tons, valued at $58,750,341 The United States market absorbed annually about four-fifths of Canada’s pulp and paper shipments, and two- thirds of the newsprint paper consumed in the United States was either of Canadian manu- facture or was made from wood or wood pulp imported from Canada. Exports of wood pulp to the United States in the year ended Mar 31, 1923, totaled 12,853,589 cwt., valued at $26,- 595,387; exports of pulpwood amounted to 1,096,462 cords, valued at $10,755,655; and ex- ports of paper were valued at $70,054,256. Dur- ing 1923, a Royal commission was appointed to inquire primarily into the pulpwood resources of the Dominion and the expediency of pro- hibiting export from freehold lands. The com- mission held sittings throughout Canada and was expected to make its report during the 1924 session of Parliament Fisheries. The total value of the products of the Canadian fishing industry in the calendar year 1921 was $34,931,935, compared with $49,- 241,339 for 1920, and with $33,207,748 in 1913. This was the lowest since 1914, and $25,000,000 below the record year of 1918. In 1921, the total capital invested in the fisheries was $45, 669,477. The number of employees engaged in the primary operations of fishing was 55,230 in 1921, and in canning and curing establishments, 14,104; a total of 69,334. Perhaps 60 per cent of the annual capture was an average export, of which the United States took approximately one- half, and Great Britain one-quarter. In the fiscal year 1922-23, total exports amounted to $27,557,717, of which $13,057,031 went to the United States and $3,675,202 to Great Britain. Minerals. The value of the mineral produc. tion of Canada for 1923 was (the production in woods with pulpwood as a product, the manu- 1922 and 1913 is shown in parentheses) : metal- Quantity Value 1913 1923 1918 1923 MRA AER occ Goaleic ae kt cra stele atone tons 15,012,178 17,132,536 $37,334,940 $74,269,000 COT dou eat ca a ES ounce 802.973 1,179,500 16,598,923 24,382,000 ELEC ET hey, RA lg RMI ae REE Geer oh pound 49,676,772 61,444,000 14,903,032 18,433,000 CLOUDY Oped oa RO ra me niiner cimer, 5-~ pound 76,976,925 86,312.000 11,753,606 12,515 000 SEO lon Bag? OS Rn ane ounce 31,845 803 18,312,000 19,040,924 10,944,000 PERSC EL ERs copra inns. tf ciletenslgs Rens penne. 37,662,703 112,600,000 1,754,705 7.882 000 EISSN EE SE Barwa loes i t,o a Xo che, ate ton Ge) S 6g epee Uae Nhs auch cuedabatens 3,849,925 7,508,138 BMPCIR A DSi y te) s nilens «ssh e sere thaesand Teete e OVA IBS 8 Le bees le Strel wens a 3,309 .381 5,875,150 MESEIGE RMR Ay. ois Soc te aa wc eg poun O28 88 3 sani, were ete e ailen. 605,589 2,103,157 RISOTTO MUMDT Is tattoo. <2 fais ae ace tons 1,128 967 880,018 16,540 OT Zee ee eee eras oe ROTM Harel saiaics, 24%, 9. fo, oho, a hane barrel 8,658,805 7,652,000 11,019,418 14,291,000 facture of pulp, and the manufacture of paper. The total production of pulpwood in 1922 was 3,923,940 cords, valued at $50,735,361, of which 2,912,608 cords were used in Canadian pulp mills and 1,011,332 cords were exported unmanufac- tured. In 1913, total production was 2,144,064 cords, value $14,313,939; used in Canadian pulp lics, $84,187,783 ($62,120,291; $66,361,351) ; non-metallics, $92,838,961 ($82,642,210; $79.- 273,461); structural materials and clay prod- ucts, $36,993,088 (1922, $39,534,741). For prin- cipal products of the mineral industry in 1923, as compared with 1913, see above table Manufactures. According to the census of CANADA 246 1921, there were in Canada 41,323 manufacturing establishments, as compared with 19,218 in 1910. In 1921, the total number of employees was 517,141, the amount of capital invested $3,210,709,288, and the output was valued at $2,747,926,675. In 1910, the total number of employees was 515,203, capital $1,247,583,609, and output $1,165,975,639. The cost of materials was $1,446,304,122 in 1921, leaving $1,301,622,- 553 as the value added by manufacture; in 1910, the cost of materials was $601,509,018 and the value added by manufacture, $564,466,621. The salaries and wages of employees in 1921 was $581,402,385, as compared with $283,311,505 in 1910. Commerce. The trade of Canada during the fiscal year ending Mar. 31, 1923, showed a marked increase in value as well as in volume, compared with that for the previous fiscal year, 1922. The total value of the imports for the fiscal year 1923 was $802,465,043; for 1922, $747,804,332; and for 1914, $619,193,998; while the exports of Canadian produce in 1923 were valued at $931,451,448, in 1922 at $740,240,680, and in 1914 at $43 1,588 439. Of Canada’s total trade, 55 per cent was with the United States and 30 per cent with the United Kingdom. In 1923, the total trade with the United States amounted to $909,997,650, imports accounting for $540,917,432 of this amount, and exports for $369,080,218, while in 1922 the trade totaled $808,546,839, imports amounting to $515,958,- 196 and exports to $292,588,643. In 1914, the total trade with the United States was $559,- 674,963, imports from the United States being valued at $396,302,138 and exports to the United States at $163,674,963. Imports from the United States were greater than in 1914 by $144,615,- 294 pt exports to the United States by $205,- 707,38 The trade of Canada with the United Kingdom during the year ending Mar. 31, 19238, amounted to $520, 355,116; imports amounted to $141,287,671, and exports cy $379,067,445. Dur- ing, 1922; the total trade was valued at $416,- 497,018, the imports accounting for $117,135,- 343 of this amount, and exports for $299,361,- 675; and during 1914 the total trade was valued CANADA at $416,497,018, of which imports amounted to $117,135, 343 aod exports to $299,361,675. Comparing the trade of Canada for 1923 with a normal pre-war year—i.e. 1914—it will be found that the interchange of merchandise in- creased about 70 per cent. ‘The increase in ex- ports was considerably in excess of the increase in imports. The accompanying table shows a comparison of Canadian imports and exports of principal commodities in 1923 with 1914. During the year ended Mar. 31, 1923, the trade balance was favorable to Canada by $142,830,- 794, as compared with a favorable balance in 1922 of $6,122,677, and an unfavorable balance in 1921 of $29,730,763, and, for the pre-war year 1914 of $163,756,774. From 1916 to 1920, Canada’s exports exceeded her imports each year by a very large amount, due principally to ab- normal conditions which existed during the war period and the reconstruction period following the termination of hostilities. Prior to 1916, the trade balance was unfavorable to Canada for a number of years. The exports of Canadian produce, with portions exported to the British Empire and foreign countries for the fiscal years 1914, 1920, 1921, +1922, and 1923 were: Fiscal Years ‘Total Exports To British To Foreign Empire Countries 1914 1 eee $431,588,439 $238,642,517 $192,945.922 OZ ON eke ete 1,239,492,098 561,791,887 . 677,700.211 LOZ eee 15189,163;701 403.452,219° 785-711 '482 LOZ? ae ke "740,240,680 345,835,410 894,405,270 19232. eee 931,451,443 439,625,892 491,825,551 Canada vastly improved her position among the principal exporting countries of the world after 1913. In 1913, Canada occupied tenth place as an exporting country, but by 1922 she had ad- vanced to fifth place, being surpassed by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. With respect to the principal im- porting countries, Canada in 1922 occupied ex- actly the same position as in 1913, viz., eighth place. Railways. As Canada is nearly 4000 miles wide, railway transportation is a problem of vital economic importance. In 1922, there were CANADIAN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS (Figures in thousands) Articles Quantity Value * Quantity Value * Imports ConlieMrnce erat’... ae AL oe See, eR AP a Pe te ton 18,140 $46,875 14,323 $72,114 Cor niin: bese bites 50a wate bes ks bushel 7,198 4,692 11.000 7,79! CWottonzerra Wile. get kt ho teen «SEN eel Beek oie os pound 76,993 9,752 125,261 28,325 Cottons md yed cnet cee cr eee Sees eee yard 69,103 6,580 58,496 13,512 Cottons, PT CY OUR. sic cs MC eit elie ace! we yard 26,943 1,454 13,488 1,493 Distilled DCVEPALES aes Sieve. bc oeeeeeaie ere ata whe gallon 3,750 5,457 i 20 19,743 Farm implements IMACHINESLY, 4 cis MMS soca, Sienna ois SN er ees TDA OAL TE eee 8.424 Machinery 8. 5 ccc ee cane ce) I oe, RAE SPR eee SD ee ee 26,273 VARA ey 24,069 Petroleum, Scrude eee ee ct eee ee anee. gallon 177,880 5,994 397,604 20,051 foe I Ae Sri 25 hd ot yeh SA SR. pound 87,628 6,650 40,274 10,357 ODaACCOM: C - ie Siete Renae IEeE eye gee. see pound 17,598 isyen fa (8) 15,068 7,089 SUPA. Pa wine cee eee ae ie ite 3 Sc epee pound 694,337 14,764 1,143,456 36,061 NVOOLS raw: .ocs, een me Ls mean eae et La pound 7,252 1,872 18,273 5,079 Exports PIULOAODIES: | ints OO ela eee o's oe ae number 1 ee a See 3,572 49 27,051 Bacons ands NAiis 8 Cle cueE we euaireiC ss 6. «6 vacheante hundred-weight 258 4,033 DEOu5 22,536 Gatile.OVeYr ONG) yCatweal meee ete sc «sae cere number 199 7,655 229 8,738 (GHICOSD PSY. s abs Sieve t epee ORME RI clic love ce ote tells hundred-weight 1,445 18,869 1,145 20,828 BONY cached og chee 8 oe cRNA ekki wien. 4 ULL, NC AT foes orl, SW eexeh | SUD ty ere 16,384 Newsprint paper). ) Vise ce theme we. . oe. k hundred-weight 5,852 11,387 20,130 72,668 PUR MMU SPS AG bs sinc syeidel LCC aE» RMR ERE Biss alate bushel 34,997 13,380 29,022 14.533 Pianks- eilaths “and shingles Wa rerreminie oi). ert thousand feet 1,688 21,290 6,024 75,156 Sueary, crefined!)it (5. Ye VAG reels lens oo. pound’ Wi me pes oy hee eee eee 292,441 19,756 Wile aihattaeitesnc:s fo bls Tyeletde setae Ree 4 dale bushel 120,427 117,719 215,075 252,146 WY DEAR eIOUT 1 si ics Pio ats, 6 alse ROR: oites ote & barrel 4,832 20,581 LO 220 60,075 Wood oa 42 iy oy Pe a ree. Coenen, hundred-weight 6,332 6,365 16,989 42.987 * Canadian dollars; conversions not made. New York. During 1923 the Canadian dollar was 2 per cent below par on CANADA 39,773 miles of steam railways in operation, as compared with 29,304 miles in 1913. During 1922, 495 miles of new line ‘ere opened; 267 miles were completed but not 0, ened for traffic, and 1115 miles were under construction. Of the 1922 mileage, 22,681 miles were owned by the government, as compared with 2734 miles in 1914. Much of the increase in government- owned railways was after 1915 when it became necessary for the government to take over and operate the National Transcontinental Railway. Thereafter the government acquired control of the Canadian Northern, Grand Trunk Pacific and the Grand Trunk proper, the first and third in 1918, and the second in 1919. The last step in the consolidation of the various railways under government operation and control was taken on Jan. 30, 1923, when the unification of the Grand Trunk and Canadian National Railways was provided for, and the act to incorporate the Canadian National Railways was brought into effect In addition to the above roads, the Cen- tral Vermont Railway was a part of the Cana- dian National Railway System. Steam-railway statistics for 1922, with 1913 figures shown in parentheses, were: total train miles, 107,625,- 144 (113,437,208) ; passengers carried, 44,383,- 620 (46,185,968); freight, 108,530,518 tons CANADA 31, 1923, a total of 157,980 vessels (19,462 sea- going) of 72,200,372 tons register (17,095,883 sea-going) entered Canadian ports in the sea- going, coastwise, and rivers and lakes trades, as compared with 140,597 (18,320 sea-going) vessels of 72,667,084 tons register (14,982,393) for the fiscal year 1914. Clearances in 1923 totaled 156,045 vessels (19,593 sea-going) reg- istered tonnage 71,172,889 (17,182,454 sea-go- ing); in 1914, clearances numbered 135,542 ves- sels (17,695 sea-going), registered tonnage 66,- 707,541 tons (14,586,093 sea-going). Public Finance. During the fiscal year end- ing Mar. 31, 1924, the total revenue of the Do- minion was $388,514,567; in 1923, it amounted to $384,790,135, and in 1914 to $163,174,395. Expenditures, including those chargeable to the consolidated fund and to the capital account, totaled $314,327,555 for the fiscal year 1923-24, $322,069,003 for 1922-23, and $186,241,048 for 1913-14. The net public debt of Canada on Mar. 31, 1924, no credit being taken for non- active assets, was $2,409,326,639; on Mar. 31, 1923, it was $2,430,202,552; and on Mar. 31, 1914, it was $335,996,850. Details of receipts and expenditures for the fiscal years 1913-14, 1922-23, and 1923-24 are shown in the accom- panying table. 247 DETAILS OF CANADIAN RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES Revenue Customs FRETS COUCULY 20 Mery chara es raha tas vase fodbiiny tS -cleks Jo aeSne Tus naa oa te RATE GMOTU COME EE TO RE Ne cence: cectone cick beceniel onene wie ous, ons Public works, including railways and War tax revenue— EEX CISGIEDA MOS Nia ieeht © ats bees fede Ree Mansis ral cholol« ciwhet sucks cate Business profits tax Income tax Other war tax revenue Miscellaneous Gere 6 M\Oe ele Gia es @ % © elele 66 fe & & 6 fe © oh ele § le wl 6s “6 (6) /6)'8 @ 8) @ iW, @ Oh 216) 0) 0 66S 016) 0 6:16, 0 OKO Oe tere do ia 6 ole) 6 6 s 6 elu © 69S @°@ s: 6.6 st 0’ 6) 0 0” 6 ese ee ee er eee eee tee eee ose ee ees ees eee ee eeseeereee eee eee eee Expenditures Interest on public debt Agriculture Pensions Public works consolidated fund Post office Dominion lands and parks Soldiers land settlement Soldiers civil re-establishment Other expenditure accounts EWES oe cd's Sig Ge tg ORES © OME CRES Cees CPD ams RE Chae Rene oes Pee Public works. including railways and canals RIL WA VIR SUDSIOTCR AGES titnid = cuehs Guede slot et votes: ake ok eter elles Provincial subsidies Defense erercee ere eres eeoeeree ee e028 see ee ee we we ee eww Ore Fe Fee eee eee see ee & ee Siehe eo ala © She's wm o ose a's) 8G D6 6) a © 8 1s 670 (a),0, @ © ee oa, Pyyey = ebay wh ele! Phe. a) he ale, eheiene © £5) 6) Speen eee) Ons ee heres uel Le (6) ein. O61, s ee er a) v fe fo, ue avate © 5, 'she ce a hie. & 8 0 sete eer ereere ere ee esr reese eee ener 6.8 6 @ ©) e #26, 64) Co B B.0 6 © 6 6. ©.6 0 4 6 6 © 0 6 8h 60 ele 6.2, 6 aU eee ere eee eee ere sree s eee eee ee ans © Mgt a le, TO ie © fe ‘eye je 0 6 ave ta 6: of le) ate) 8 616 6 je (106,992,710 tons); gross earnings, $440,687,- 128 ($256,702,703) ; operating expenses, $393,- 927,406 ($182,011,690); ratio of expenses to receipts, 89.39 per cent (70.90 per cent). Up to Dec. 31, 1922, the total value of government aid granted to steam railways in Canada, exclu- sive of the two government railways, Inter- colonial Railways System, and the Prince Ed- ward Island Railway, amounted to $722,648,946. Of this sum _ $662,843,886 represented aid granted by the Dominion government, $43,414,- 386 that granted by the provincial governments, and $16,390,674 that granted by municipalities. Similar statistics for 1914 were: financial aid granted by Dominion government, $178,834,529 ; provincial, $37,023,275: municipalities, $17,914,- 836; total aid, $233,772.640. Shipping. For the fiscal year ended Mar. 1913-14 1922-23 1923-24 $104,691.239 $118,275,804 $120,807,085 21,452,037 35,367,430 37,893,658 12,954,530 28,043,367 28,212,159 13,394,317 1,139,338 1,301,096 102,794,070 119,075,988 12,574,823 4,708,562 59,562,176 54,087,516 1,841,485 1,861,847 10,682,272: 25,191,642 20,566,656 $163,174,395 $384,790,135 $388,514,567 $14,752,117 $132,926,597 $130,473,202 3,224,780 5,872,946 6,265,369 311,900 "30,099,446 30,451,061 19,007,512 8,937,590 10,885,724 12,822,058 23,342,985 23,805,341 3,849,084 3,963,431 3,436,418 1,638,159 1,466,366 11,706,829 9,181,395 36,434,452 89,243,577 87,653,229 4,045,067 335,901 19,739,861 10,292,376 10,373,549 19,036,237 11,280,469 39,084,657 6,697,921 $186 ,241,048 $322,069,003 $314,327,555 The government’s borrowing operations of 1923 were the most important since 1919, when the last Victory Loan campaign was launched. A $200,000,000 bond issue was floated in the Canadian market for the purpose of retiring $172,000,000 of the Victory Bonds due on Nov. 1, 1923. This was the first instance in Canada of a large national financial transaction being carried out on lines similar to the New York and London markets National Wealth. The national wealth of Canada for 1920 was estimated by the Dominion statistician at $22,482,841,122. The major items were: farm values (land, buildings, imple- ments and machinery, and live stock, Census 1921), $6,592,351,789; forest (estimated value of accessible raw materials, pulpwood, and capital invested in woods operations), $1,244,- CANADA 248 343,100; steam and electric railways (invest- ment in road and equipment, $2,868,000,000) ; urban real property, $5,944,000,000; stocks of raw materials and manufactured goods, $1,316,- 000,000; household furnishings, clothing, car- riages, motors, etc., $1,144,000,000. These esti- mates were based on 1920 when money values of commodities reached their peak. The natu- ral income of Canada was placed at between $4,500,000,000 and $5,000,000,000. Foreign Investments. The Financial Post of Toronto calculated that foreign investments in Canada were worth $4,796.500,000, of which $1,425,000,000 was in railways; $1,162,000,000 in public securities; $691,000,000 in industry; $425,000,000 in forests ; $354,000,000 in mining $278,000,000 in public services; $175,000,000 in land; $150,000,000 in mortgages; $127,000,000 in banking and insurance; ‘and $9,500,000 in fisheries. Foreign investments in 1913 were placed at $2,416,723,870 Of the foreign invest- ments in Canada, the United States held a total of $2,500,000,000 and the United Kingdom $2,000,000,000. History. Canada’s loyalty in the War was unquestioned. Old party strifes were dropped and the imperial bonds, which many had seen loosened under dominion government, tightened, as Canada hastened to proffer aid to the mother country. Parliament assembled on August 18, passed immediately eight war bills, and appro- priated $50,000,000 for war expenditures. Now the Canadians sighed for the warships which had been refused in 1913; fortunately Canada was able to purchase two powerful submarines, just completed for Chile, and to offer, with them, the Canadian cruisers Niobe and Rainbow. The call to the colors was met with generous response. - In three weeks there were 32,000 men in the Canadian training camp at Valcartier, and almost 10,000 others were under arms; while 150,000 had volunteered their services and were waiting only to be called. It is signif- icant that 2400 French-Canadians joined the first contingent. The First. Canadian Division arrived in England Oct. 14, 1914, and reached the war area, Feb. 11, 1915. The Second Divi- sion reached France in the fall of 1915; the Third and Fourth in 1916; the Canadian Army Corps was formed late in 1915. Up to the passage of the draft act in August, 1917, 465,- 984 men had voluntarily enlisted. By the act in 1917-18, 83,355 more men were obtained. In all services, 595,441 Canadians were under arms during the period of the War. Total casualties were 211,000, divided as follows: killed in ac- tion, 51,670; died of disease, etc., 5000; wounded, 149,700; prisoners of war, 3730. The more im- portant battles in which Canadians were en- gaged follow: The Canadian Army Corps, as part of the First British Army, saw service at the second battle of Ypres (1915), of the Somme (1916), the taking of Vimy Ridge, Arleux, Fresnoy, and Hill 70 (1917), the battle of Amiens, Arras, and Cambrai (1918). Cana- dians, too, saw service in Russia, Macedonia, and Palestine. To the ships above mentioned, there were added in the Canadian fleet a mother-ship for the submarines, a mine-Sweeping service, and a large number of motor launches. The per- sonnel of the navy at the War’s conclusion con- sisted of 749 men and officers. To these must be added the 4500 volunteers in the reserve who were engaged in patrol duty. There were other war activities in which Canadians _ partook. the battle. CANADA About 13,000 men were in the Royal Air Force; there were Canadians on British ships, and in the medical, engineering, forestry, radiotelegraph services. Canadian shipyards were employed for the turning out of vessels and factories were converted into munition plants for the manu- facture of shells, shrapnel, and powder. The problem of the repatriated soldier was met with foresight. In 1916, provision was made for the vocational training of disabled soldiers; in 1918, a department was created for the care of veterans and their restoration to peace-time activities. Perhaps the most important single measure was the Soldier Settlement Act whose purpose was to settle the men on the land. Aside from the 160 acres they were entitled to as civilians, men might make application for an additional homestead. Funds were to be appro- priated from which loans might be made for the purchase of the land, improvements, and live stock Throughout the War, the Unionist party, with Sir Robert Borden as premier, was in con- trol of the government. Sir Wilfred Laurier’s opposition was consistently stormy. His patri- otism, of course, was not to be questioned, and his appeals to the French Canadians for the sup- port of the War increased in fervor as the years progressed, but some of his party were’ more than lukewarm in their attitudes. Racial animosities brought the language question once more to the fore in 1916 and only the outspoken condemnation of Borden defeated a measure in the Parliament for the support of French schools in Ontario. On the eve of the general elections of 1917, Sir Robert Borden, regardless of the opposition of the Liberals, introduced a measure for compulsory military service. The bill was hotly opposed, 55 voting against it on its second reading, July 8. The vote was still closer in the Senate, standing 54 for and 39 against on the final reading. Feeling among the French Ca- nadians ran high. There were anti-draft riots in Montreal in July, and pro-war speakers were attacked and newspaper buildings stormed. The Winnipeg convention of the western members of the Liberal party, held early in August, while it subscribed to a whole-hearted prosecution of the War, rejected by an overwhelming majority the idea of compulsion. Opposition increased as the elections drew near. Toward the end of August a general strike was called in Montreal, and though it failed, on August 29 a mass meet- ing of 5000 people was held in the city and the police were stoned when they attempted to break up processions. In Quebec the French press of all parties urged that the enforcement of con- scription be deferred until after the polling. On October 12, Sir Robert Borden attempted to strengthen his government by including five Liberals in his cabinet. Another step, political in character, was the passage, in the closing days of the parliamentary session, of a group of laws “purifying” the electorate. The ballot was given to the troops in the Canadian Expe- ditionary Forces and to the female relations of soldiers, while it was taken away from natives of enemy countries who had been in Canada less than fifteen years, as well as from the pacifistic Mennonites and Doukhobors. The elections were held on December 17. The returns indicated that the balance of power was to be in the hands of the Liberal Unionists (i.e. supporters of Sir Robert Borden), for the Unionists had gained only a total of 108 seats of the 235. The senti- )) t 5 t: LS CANADA. ment in Quebec was clearly mirrored in the fact that 62 out of the 65 parliamentary districts were won by anti-draft Liberals. The election did not succeed in allaying discontent, for in January, 1918, the Quebec Pariiament debated a secession resolution, while in March and April serious rioting took place. In April, police ad- ministration in the city was taken over by the military with the result that street fighting ac- counted for the death of four civilians and the wounding of 45 others. The labor elements, too, pressed for a hearing and demanded of the government, early in 1918, either the nationaliza- tion of the railways, or their unification under a central war board. Objection was made to the use of compulsory farm labor and the employ- ment of Chinese and coolie workers. At the be- hest of their representatives, the government created a bureau for labor research and employ- ment. The transition to peace conditions after the Armistice was not easy. On Apr. 9, 1919, a Royal commission representing capital and labor was appointed for a consideration of the cost of living and the further participation of labor in industry. Official gestures were unavailing. In spite of the hostility of the Trades and Labor Congress, the “One Big Union” movement took on impetus and gained many adherents, partic- ularly in the west, but also in Toronto. How far radical ideas had gone at once became manifest when a general strike broke out in Winnipeg in June, 1919. CIVIC FEDERATION Intersections, each accompanied by diagrams and tables.) Bibliography. Among the many books on city planning and allied subjects published since 1913 are Koester, Modern City Planning and Maintenance (New York); Nolen, City Planning (New York); Lewis, The Planning of the Modern City, followed by new edition in 1922 (New York); Adams Rural Planning and Development (Ottawa, Canada); Garden Cities and Back to the Land (London); Moore, Daniel Burnham, Planner of Cities (Boston); Wil- liams, The Law of City Planning and Zoning (New York), on world-wide legislation and American court decisions; Kimball, Manual of Information on .City Planning and Zoning (Cambridge, Mass.); Hughes and _ Lanborn, Towns and Town Planning, Ancient and Mod- ern (London); Adshead, Town Planning and Town Development (London). Consult also annual reports of National City Planning Con- ference (New York) and Town Planning Re- view, a British quarterly. CIVIC FEDERATION, Nationa. Seth 393 CIVIC FEDERATION and the growth of welfare work during the past thirty years, and uniformity of legislation and court procedure. Seth Low, president, who died during the year, was succeeded by V. Everit Macy. In 1917 the annual meeting was held in New York City in January. The programme covered regulation of industrial corporations, compulsory health insurance, infringement of personal liberty, health of United States troops at the Mexican border, parallelism between set- tlement of international and industrial disputes, woman labor, and war problems. During the year, the Federation planned and undertook a great campaign for cooperation between employ- ers and employees to help win the war. The con- vention of 1918 was also held in New York City. The main subject discussed was the programme of the British labor party. The Federation was active during the year in securing compensation for enlisted men, industrial training for the war emergency, proper housing for war workers, etc. During 1919 the Federation was especially active in spreading propaganda against Bolshe- vism through its official organ, ‘The National STATUS OF ZONING IN THE UNITED STATES, JAN. 1, 1924, FROM INFORMATION COLLECTED AND COMPILED BY THE DIVISION OF BUILDING AND HOUSING, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Com Use Use Height Not State prehen Use and and Height and given Total sive Height area area ISG SIRE re re He a5 rae ales ae tye ty le ees 5 16 2 AF: Ae 1 24 MUO peste «ahs hefile é ee a, a a ae hand, the non-union fields were able to produce as much as 5,000,000 tons a week, which could have been increased to possibly 6,000,000, or even 7,500,000 tons in case of a national emer- gency. Various attempts were made to end this strike, and conferences were called by the Presi- dent of the United States, but without result. It was finally concluded with a victory for the United Mine Workers of America which forced the continuance all winter of the war-time wages. These strikes were accompanied by the usual amount of disorder, but a notable event occurred on June 22, 1922, when a mob stormed a non-union mine at Herrin, in Williamson County, Ill., capturing 48 and shooting and cutting 21 of them to death in a most brutal manner. This mine was a strip mine, six miles south of Herrin in Williamson County, which was said to have broken an agreement with the union, and attempted to operate with non-union labor under an armed guard. In 1922 an Act of Congress provided for a coal commission which made an_ exhaustive study of the conditions attending the production and marketing of coal in the United States and made a series of recommendations for the better conduct of the industry in the preliminary re- port submitted on July 8, 1923. It was appar- ent that the American coal industry was being conducted under unusual conditions due to the conflict between capital and labor, as represent- ed by the United Mine Workers of America, an efficient organization which had been success- ful in the strikes and negotiations it had under- taken. At the same time the consuming public suffered, even in this adjustment, as with in- creased wages the cost of coal was raised to the consumer. ANNUAL COAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES (Net tons) Anthracite Bituminous Total 1) ee ee ea 91,525,000 478,435,000 569,960,000 iOS ee ee 90,821,000 422,704,000 513,525,000 U2 SR ae ¢ eae 88,895,000 422,624,000 511,619,000 EE ONe tors, <%o, o%phs 87,578,000 502,282,000 589,860,000 i, Wig 9 fe S A PERS 99,612,000 551,790,000 651,402,000 1 8.7 ee Pugasi lie 98,826,000 579,386,000 678,212,000 SOL Orin eres 88,100,000 465,860,000 553,960,000 OL eka ere ss 3 89,598,249 563,490,845 653,089,094 POOL UA Sinker 90,473,451 415,921,950 506,395,401 V9 FD) 5peherws ott 54,683,022 407,894,000 462,577,022 Mine Fatalities. The mining of coal con- tinued as a hazardous occupation in the United States, but an encouraging decrease in the num- ber of fatalities was recorded. In 1922 there were 1971 fatal accidents in the United States coal mines, which represented a reduction of 16 from the previous year. There were 13 acci- dents in each of which five or more men were killed, with a total loss of 272 lives. In 1921 only five similar accidents occurred, in which 34 men were killed. The following statistics from the United States Bureau of Mines indi- cates the decreased number of accidents in this field. FATALITIES AT COAL MINES 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 2,696 2,580 2,317 2,271 1,987 1,971 British Coal Industry. The outbreak of the War in Europe brought many problems to the British coal industry in the way of securing an adequate output and maintaining satisfactory conditions of labor and employment. In the fall of 1916 the British Board of Trade an- nounced that it would take over the coal mines COAL for the period of the War and establish a new department of control for the industry. Later, matters connected with distribution, wages, production, and price of coal were concentrated in the Mines Control Department, which was established for this purpose. In order to re- lieve the traffic on the railways increased trans- port of coal by canal was provided for, and later Great Britain was divided into fuel dis- tricts te provide for inland distribution with a minimum of transportation. In 1913 Great Britain had produced some 287,500,000 long tons of coal, and of this it had exported some 97,700,000 long tons, divided as follows: coal, 73,400,000 tons; coke and_bri- quettes, 3,300,000; bunkers, 21,000,000; leaving available for home consumption 189,800,000 tons. During the War the production had fall- en in amount, so that by 1918 the output was 226,000,000, of which 35,000,000 tons were ex- ported as cargo and 25,000,000 tons as bunkers, while by 1921 there was a serious decline, with an output of but 163,000,000 tons, of which 37,- 200,000 were exported, leaving but 129,200,000 available for home consumption and requiring imports of 3,400,000 tons. At the end of March, 1921, the policy of de- partment control was ended in Great Britain, and the industry was restored to private owner- ship. This involved the reduction of wages and the abandonment of state subsidies. Already a point had been reached where, with the high- est wages on record, there had resulted the low- est average output per miner ever recorded. Unemployment and strikes now developed in the industry, and readjustment was imperative; this, by the following year, was more or less satisfactorily accomplished. British wages this year decreased 46 per cent in the leading coal fields, and while coal was exported it was at prices that did not permit of profit. In the following year, 1922, however, the industry was restored to a more normal basis, producing 255,- 891,786 metric tons; and in 1923 this was in- creased to over 260,000,000 tons. French Coal Industry. The systematic and complete destruction of the coal mines of France by the Germans in their ruthless’ inva- sion developed a condition not altogether com- pensated by the return of Alsace-Lorraine with its mines after the Armistice. The mines in northeastern France, especially those around Lens, which contributed a large part of the French coal production, were so completely de- stroyed, that by the year after the Armistice, France was facing an annual shortage of 20,- 000,000 tons, which was almost half of the to- tal normal production. Nevertheless the French miners set to work assiduously to repair the damage and put their mines on a production basis, so that they were able to approach the 41,000,000 tons marking their pre-war require- ments. The production of coal in France dur- ing the 10 years, 1913-23, follows: SS PRODUCTION OF COAL IN FRANCE (Metric Tons) LOTS A PAVIA LP. SG. . ME, 40,844,218 LOT AM pest sacle. s\ ane ss + <0 300) a-ha 26,568,258 DY 4) dine ea ee eee ky 19,523,863 LO TOMA Meera ac kia e St . ls eaeetanere ees ieee 21,310,000 BREW LYE Aus Deane me eae er BaramUrOr i tctN cy, (bho 28,891,728 TUS ties ene g sat lp od. > see es 25,000,000 LDU O Mee eee oo, (ot nyo %, «eet Ren oe 22,476,766 TO ZO RRR Aghs o cua shales! oo WBNgmenaaNe anettels 25,274,304 VOD OR id Re) 2's cheetah obe.s ERE 5 28,940,473 BRED ye Ee ne Eager NA 31,940,845 a COAL LOADERS German Coal Industry. The unsuccessful outcome of the War was indeed serious for Germany so far as the coal industry was con- cerned in its bearing on manufacturing. In 1913 the German coal production was in excess of 190,000,000 metric tons of bituminous coal and 87,000,000 tons of lignite, in addition to coke and briquettes, as specified in the accom- panying table. Of this amount Germany was able to export 34,598,408 tons, or an excess of 24,058,339 tons over domestic consumption. Naturally, during the War the exports of Ger- many were confined to adjacent neutral coun- tries; after the Armistice, Germany was stripped permanently of coal lands which had been considered invaluable to its industry. In 1922 the German inland requirements of bituminous coal were estimated at 150,000,000 tons, and for this, as will appear in the accom- panying table, approximately 130,000,000 tons were available. The loss of coal production capacity in Germany was due first to the fact that rich coal areas in Upper Silesia, which in 1913 had produced 32,500,000 tons of coal, or 17 per cent of the entire product of the nation, were allocated to Poland, while Alsace-Lorraine, which in 1913 had produced 4,790,000 tons, was returned to France. In addition Germany lost the Saar Basin and the Palatinate for 15 years, at the end of which a plebiscite was to be taken to determine the sovereignty of these areas, which, in 1913, produced 12,223,000 tons of coal; in 1920, 9,410,433 tons, and in 1921, 9,- 574,602 tons. Furthermore, the German coal industry was restricted by reduced hours of labor, which were materially decreased from those prevailing before the War, while labor it- self was marked by less efficiency. PRODUCTION OF COAL AND FUEL IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE (Metric Tons) 1913 1922 190,109,440 IB GUMIN OUSs 0 op ovescka ele 7s Eee 129,964,597 NAP TMAGS. MAY 5 ee stone otomeeete 87,283,084 137,207,125 Coked §. atch, 5h ees OS 34,630,391 29,664,291 Bituminous briquettes .... 6,992,499 5,562,811 Lignite briquettes ........ 21,498,397 29,466,149 Belgian Coal Industry. In Belgium the coal mines were not damaged as were those ir France, as the intentions of the Germans had not been to destroy them utterly but merely to render them temporarily incapable of operating, when they were not taken over immediately by the Germans themselves. Consequently all that was required was new machinery, and in 1920 an output of 22,388,700 metric tons was se- cured, which showed a slight diminution in the following years. At the same time, this was in excess of domestic requirements, which in 1921 amounted to about 17,000,000 tons, so that coal was available for export. This condition would not prevail with Belgian industry work- ing on a pre-war basis, and imports of fuel probably would be necessary. Consult current issues of The Coal Age and Atlas of Commercial Geology, Part 1: Mineral Resources (United States Geological Survey, Washington, 1921). COAL LOADERS. See Execrric Morors IN INDUSTRY. COAL STRIKE. See CoAt. COAST DEFENSE. See ARTILLERY. COATES, Aserr (1882- ). A British orchestral conductor, born (of an English fa- 310 COBB ther and a Russian mother) at Petrograd. Al- though he had studied piano with an older brother, he did not decide on a musical career until he was 20. He then entered the Leipzig Conservatory, where his teachers were Teich- miiller (piano), Klengel (cello) and Nikisch (conducting). He made his début as conductor with Offenbach’s Contes d@’Hoffmann in Leipzig. Upon the recommendation of Nikisch he was appointed principal conductor of the Elberfeld opera in 1906. After a short time as Schuch’s assistant in Dresden he went to Mannheim as coérdinate conductor with Bodanzky. Here the director of the Imperial Opera at Petrograd heard him and engaged him in 1911 for that institution, where Coates remained through the horrors of the revolution until 1919. In 1914 he made his first appearance in London, alter- nating with Bodanzky in the first performances of Parsifal in England. In 1919, he returned as conductor for Beecham’s operatic company, directing also some concerts of the London Philharmonic Society and of the Symphony Or- chestra. On Dec. 30, 1920, he made his Amer- ican début with the New York Symphony Or- chestra with emphatic success, and for two sea- sons he alternated with Damrosch. During the summer of 1923, he conducted a season of Rus- sian opera at Barcelona, and in 1924, was the guest conductor of the Rochester Symphony Orchestra for the second half of the season. He is the composer of an opera, Sardanapalus (Petrograd, 1916), and of some _ orchestral works in smaller form. COBB, FRANK Irvine (1869-1923). An American editor and writer, born in Shawnee County, Kan. He was educated in the public schools and at the Michigan State Normal School, beginning newspaper work for the Grand Rapids Herald when he was 21 years old. By reporting three national conventions and covering several sessions of the Michigan Legis- lature, he gained a wide acquaintance with po- litical leaders and thus received an adequate preparation for his future work. Before being invited to New York by Joseph Pulitzer, he had been chief editorial writer on the Detroit Free Press (1900-04), having just previous to that been on the Detroit Evening News. Mr. Cobb directed the editorial page of the New York World for 20 years (1904-24), and became rec- ognized as perhaps the strongest writer on the New York press since Horace Greeley. He has been described as a writer who shunned sophis- try and wrote sincerely and simply. Though his editorials were not signed and were written for a paper that he did not own, he became a powerful personality in the United States. In October, 1918, Mr. Cobb was drafted into na- tional service as an unofficial adviser at the Peace Conference, where he was an admirer of President Wilson and a firm advocate of the League of Nations. He was a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor and the Belgian Order of Leo- pold. He died in New York on Dec. 21, 1923. COBB, Irvin S(HREWSBURY) (1876- ). An American author, born at Paducah, Ky., and educated at the common schools and in private academies. He began as a reporter for papers in Paducah and Louisville. From 1904, when he became editor of the humorous section of the New York Evening Sun, he was section editor or contributor to New York newspapers, nota- bly the World. In 1911, he became a staff con- tributor to the Saturday Evening Post, for COBB which he was also war correspondent in Europe at intervals between 1914-18. Among his nu- merous works are the following: Funabashi (a musical comedy, 1907); Mr. Busybody (musical comedy, 1908); Back Home (1912, produced as a comedy, 1915); Cobb’s Anatomy (1912); The Escape of Mr. Trimm (1913); Cobb’s Bill of Fare (1913); Roughing It de Luae (1914); Europe Revised (1914); Paths of Glory (1915) ; Old Judge Priest (1915, 1923); Fibble, D.D. (1916); Speaking of Operations (1916); Local Color (1916); Speaking of Prussians (1917) ; Those Times and These (1917); The Glory of the Coming (1918); The Thunders of Silence (1918); The Life of the Party (1919); From Place to Place (1919); Oh, Well, You Know How Women Are! (1919); The Abandoned Farmers (1920); A Plea for Old Cap Collier (1921); One Third Off (1921); Sundry Ac- counts (1922); Stickfuls (1923); A Laugh a Day Keeps the Doctor Away (1923); The Snake Doctor (1923); and numerous series in periodicals. He also collaborated on dramatic productions. COBB, T(yRUS RAYMOND) (1886-— ). Pro- fessional baseball player, born at Narrows, Ga. After a brief stay in the minors he joined the Detroit Club of the American League in 1905, becoming manager of that club in 1920. He is regarded as one of the best all-round players America’s national game has ever devel- oped, being especially renowned as a batsman and in his earlier career for his speed on the base paths. COBERN, CAMDEN McCorMACK (1855- ye An American professor of theology, born at Uniontown, Pa., and educated at Allegheny Col- lege, at Boston University and in Europe. He was ordained to the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1878, and was thereafter member of several conferences. In 1906, he be- came professor of the English Bible and the philosophy of religion in Allegheny College Among his works are the following: Ancient Egypt in the Light of Modern Discovery (1892) ; A Critical Commentary on the Books of Ezekiel and Daniel (1901); Bible Etchings of Immor- tality (1905); Recent Explorations in the Holy Land (1914); Studies of Immortality (1916) ; and The New Archeological Discoveries and Their Bearing upon the New Testament and upon the Life and Times of the Primitive Church (1917-1921). COBLE, ArTHUR Byron (1878- y. An American mathematician, born at Williamstown, Pa. He was graduated at Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, in 1897, after which he studied at Johns Hopkins University. He was instructor in mathematics at the University of Missouri in 1902-03. After a year of research work, he returned to Johns Hopkins as instructor in mathematics and continued there until 1918, at- taining in 1909 an associate professorship. In 1918 he was called to the chair in mathematics at the University of Illinois. Among the sub- jects on which he has published the results of his studies are the theory of invariants, groups and correspondences. the quintec and _ sextec equations, symmetric binary forms and involutes, point set and cremona groups, and porisms. He was vice-president of the American Mathe- matical Society in 1917. and an associate editor the American Journal of Mathematics during 15-10: COBURN, CHARLES DovuvitLtE (1877- 3 311 CODLING MOTH An actor-manager born at Macon, Ga. When he was 18, he became manager of the Savannah (Ga.) Theatre and two years later took up the stage as a profession. He played in_ stock through the Middle West and starred in The Christian and other plays. The Coburn Players were organized by him in 1905 for the produc- tion and promotion of the classic drama. He owns and controls the American and Canadian rights to The Yellow Jacket and The Better ’Ole. It was this last production which gave him his reputation. He created the role of “Old Bill” and later of “French Leone’ (1920-21). COCHIN, Henry DeENys' BENorIT MARIE (1854— ). A French writer and legislator (see Vou. V). In 1914, he retired from the French Chamber of Deputies in favor of his son. He was for four years Conseiller Général du Nord. His works published since 1914 include: Les deux guerres (1916); L’auvre de guerre du peintre Albert Besnard (1918); and Francois Pétrarque (published in the collection Les cent chef-@aurres étrangers 1920). COCHIN-CHINA. See Frencn INbO-CHINA. COCHRAN, CHARLES B. (1873- yr 7 theatrical manager born in Sussex, England. He was educated at Oxford, became an actor and made his first appearance in New York. Subsequently he was press representative to various theatres, circuses and exhibitions in the United States. For three years he was per- sonal representative of the late Richard Mans- field. After 1917, he became responsible for the productions of the Oxford Theatre and produced The Better ’Ole. His other successes include: In the Night Watch (1918); The Man Who Came Back (1920); The League of Notions (1921); As You Were (1918). He has been interested in many of the best known English theatres either as lessee or licensee. COCKRAN, WILLIAM BouRKE (1854-1923). A distinguished American lawyer and orator (see Vout. V.) He was active throughout his career in Democratic politics and was at the time of his death a member of Congress. Mr. Cockran was generally acknowledged to be one of the leading orators of his day, and was also one of the most prominent lawyers in the United States. COCTEAU, JEAN (1891- ). A French poet and pamphleteer born at Maison-Laffite, France. His work is a barometer of contempo- rary developments in art and music. Thus we have from his pen both Cubist and Dadaist poems, besides pamphlets in which he justifies his own evolution. He does not hesitate to con- demn his own works after he has come to a new point of view in regard to the art of lit- erary expression. He seems more at ease in the pamphlet than in any other type of writing, his most brilliant and successful work being perhaps, Le Coq et VArlequin: Notes autour de la musique (1918). His first novel, Le Grand écart, appeared in 1923. Like his poems, it is impressionistic. His other works are: La Lampe d’Aladin (poem, 1909); Le Prince Frivole (poems, 1910); La Danse de Sophocle (poems, 1912); L’Art décoratif de Léon Bakst (with Arséne Alexandre, 1914); Prélude @ Vaprés-midi @un faune (with others; 1915); Le Cap de Bonne-Espérance ; Potomak (dedicated to Strav- insky, and condemned by the author afterward) ; Parade (a ballet with musie by Eric Satie, 1917), and Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel. CODLING MOTH. See Entomo.toay, Eco- NOMIC. COD LIVER OIL COD LIVER OIL. See Foop Anp Nutri- TION. CODY, Henry JoHN (1868- ena Brit- ish educator and clergyman (see VoL. V). In 1914-15 he was a member of the Ontario Com- mission on Unemployment. He was Minister of Education in the same province in 1918-19, and in 1921 chairman of the Commission on Uni- versity Finances in Ontario. He was elected Archbishop of Melbourne, Australia, in the same year, but declined the office. Other offices held by him include: Chaplain of the Queen’s Own Regiment, Toronto, Honorable Lieutenant-Colonel in the Canadian Militia, and member of the Board of Governors of Toronto University. COE COLLEGE. An institution at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, founded in 1881. The student enrollment increased from 742 in 1918 to 924 in the year 1923-24, with 132 in the normal school and 262 in the college in the summer of 1923. The faculty was increased in the same period from 47 to 75 members, and the lbrary from 15,920 to 21,000 volumes. Harry More- house Gage, D.D., LL.D., succeeded John Ab- ner Marquis, D.D., LL.D., as president in 1921. COFFIN, Henry SLoAne (1877- )) An American clergyman and author, born in New York, educated at Yale University, at New Col- lege, Edinburgh, the University of Marburg and the Union Theological Seminary, New York. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1900, and after five years as pastor of the Bed- ford Park Chureh, New York, was appointed to the Madison Avenue Church in the same city in 1905. In the previous year he had been named associate professor of practical theology in the Union Theological Seminary. He was several times preacher to universities, including Yale and Harvard. Aside from editing and col- laborating, he wrote a number of books, among them: The Creed of Jesus (1907); Social As- pects of the Cross (1911); The Christian and the Church (1912); University Sermons (1914) ; The Ten Commandments (1915); Christian Con- victions (1915); In a Day of Social Rebuilding (the Lyman Beecher Lectures, at Yale Uni- versity, 1918); A More Christian Industrial Or- der (1920), and What is there in Religion? (1922), COFFMAN, De WITT (1854- ). An American naval officer, born in Shenandoah Co., Va. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1876. During the Spanish- American War he served on the Terror. He was appointed lieutenant-commander in 1899; com- mander in 1905; captain in 1909, and rear-ad- miral in 1914. He served in many capacities, - both ashore and afloat, and in 1916 was com- mander of the 3d Division of the Atlantic Fleet. Later in the same year he commanded the 6th Division of the Atlantic Fleet, and in June, 1916, he was promoted to be vice-admiral. He commanded the second battleship force in 1918 and in the same year was given the command of the 5th Naval District and Naval Operating Base at Hampton Roads. On Novy. 28, 1918, he was retired by operation of law. He was a member of the Board of Awards, Medals and Honors until Oct. 30, 1919. COGHLAN, MTimotHy AUGUSTINE Sig (1856-— ). An Australian statistician (see Vou. V). He was created Knight in 1914, and Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George in 1918. He was again Agent- General for New South Wales in 1916-17, and 312 COKE 1920— In 1918, he published a History of Labour and Industry in Australia (4 vols.). COHAN, GrorcGe MICHAEL (1878- ). American playwright and producer (see VoL. V). His recent successful plays and_ pro- ductions include: AHit-the-Trail Holliday ; Abie’s Irish Rose, written by Anne Nichols, The Song and Dance Man, and The Rise of Rosie O'Reilly, a satire on Cinderella. COHEN, JuLtius Henry (1873- ). An American lawyer. He was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., and was graduated from the Law Depart- ment of New York University in 1896. In the following year he was admitted to the bar and began practice in New York City. He served as city attorney of the Transit Reform Committee of One Hundred (1900 to 1905), and as special counsel to the Public Service Commission, and to other civic organizations. He was a member of several legal societies and was the author of Law and Order in Industry (1916); The Law— Business or Profession (1916); and American Labor Policy (1918). He was a frequent con- tributor to legal periodicals. COHEN, Morris RApHart (1880- An American professor of philosophy born in Minsk, Russia. He was brought to America when still a child, and was educated at the College of the City of New York. He pursued graduate studies in philosophy under Royce and James at Har- vard and received the doctorate in 1906. He taught mathematics and philosophy at the Col- lege of the City of New York and at intervals at Columbia University, Johns Hopkins, and the New School for Social Research (New York). His writings, although limited largely ‘to ad- dresses before philosophical and mathematical bodies and to critical reviews in professional journals, exercised an influence beyond the or- dinary. Professor Cohen also contributed polemical writings on political and social ques- tions to the New Republic and other journals. COHEN, Octavus Roy (1891- ). An American author, born in South Carolina where he received his secondary and college education. At first an engineer, he soon drifted into jour- nalism, which he relinquished for authorship in 1915. He immediately became popular as a result of his stories printed in the Saturday Evening Post which concerned themselves with the adventures of the Southern Negro. If his people seemed to possess the usual mythical Negro qualities of drollery and miscomprehen- sions, his tales at any rate were spirited. Among others he wrote: Polished Ebony (1919); Gray Dusk (1920); Come Seven (1920); Highly Colored (1921); besides some plays and mystery romances. COKE. In the period between 1914 and 1924 many important developments were recorded in the manufacture of coke which normally takes about 15 per cent of the bituminous coal pro- duced in the United States and is essential for smelting the ores of iron and other metals, as well as for use in foundries, while it also finds application as a smokeless domestic fuel. In the United States the principal sources of coke had been the beehive oven, involving the loss of the many valuable by-products which could be obtained by the distillation of coal in a by~ product oven where the valuable volatile con- tent was preserved. The by-product oven of the Semet-Solvay type had been introduced in the United States in 1892, but its use had made slow progress until the beginning of the War, when COKE there was a considerable demand for benzol, toluol, and ammonia for use in the manufacture of explosives. These were produced at first for export but with the entry of the United States into the War in 1917 the demand increased so that in 1919, 56 per cent of all the coke manu- factured in the United States was made in by- product ovens, and since that time the propor- tion has been even greater. See CHEMISTRY, OR- GANIC. The economic advantage of the use of the by- product oven is shown by the fact that a ton of coal of 2000 pounds so treated. would yield approximately 19 pounds of sulphate of am- monia, 7.1 gallons of tar, 2.4 gallons of ‘crude light oil, and 10,500 cubic feet of gas and 1425 pounds of coke. The ammonia thus obtained ean be used in refrigeration and for the manu- facture of the high explosive ammonium nitrate (see Explosives), and for making the fertilizer ammonium sulphate. From the tar are derived many organic compounds, such as the aniline dyes, and the ultimate residue, coal tar pitch, is employed in road making, in making roofing and as a binder for fuel briquettes. In refining 313 COLBY COLLEGE dustry, with the exception of that in 1920, the last normal year. Compared with 1920, 1922 showed decreases of 29 per cent in the total pro- duction, 8 per cent in by-product coke, 58 per cent in beehive coke. The total production was less in 1922 than in any year since 1911, except 1921, when business was extremely depressed. The exports of coke from the United States are principally to Canada, in 1923 totaling 1,104,770 tons, valued at $11,889,897. The im- ports of coke into the United States in 1923 were 75,895 tons, valued at $862,596. COKE PRODUCTS. See Cnemistry, Or- GANIC. COKER, WILLIAM CHAMBERS (1872- jt An American botanist, born at Hartsville, S. C. He graduated from South Carolina College in 1894 and took postgraduate courses at Johns Hopkins University and in Germany. He taught for several years in the summer schocls of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., and in 1902 became associate professor of botany at the University of North Carolina. He was made professor in 1907 and Kenan professor of botany in 1920. PRODUCTION OF COKE IN THE UNITED STATES (Short Tons) | UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Years Beehive Per cent By-product Per cent Total of total of total UNDE RS 0 MNES yk Bile bb G cian Ae Rha A rae is 33,584,830 2.5 12,714,700 21.5 46,299,530 MCLEE PR eA he. Aesecas Oc geathts.e 8. a 20j000,9 1b 67.5 11,219,943 82.5 34,555,914 tase Chat aia ste Sil oc AT eltei eae’. s. ile shale 27,508,255 66.2 14,072,895 33.8 41,581,150 SMR Ce ie ater! o” RePOLOF sc canis tats ey e, ieid eke 35,464,224 65.0 19,069,361 35.0 54 530,000 ACY eae ae ods cts e cL yede's tel eh at tuk t 33,167,548 59.6 22,439,280 40.4 55,606,828 Pers MM RUE uth sei che’ ann sh cp oaBe. 3) cide halcaincy cs 80,480,792 54.0 25,997,580 46.0 56,478,372 PPL AMRIT ones Sees atc Naltets) sie shenins « ucteuetn, © 19,042,936 43.1 2D evo. Oe 56.9 44,180,557 IPAF, () MOPAR AG? Be see R ee oad to heb an ci iobterlen'e Meier erg 20,511,092 40.0 30,833,951 60.0 51,345,043 EMOTES Suaeen s citicteabiie s © ale oat abies) ole 5,538,042 21.9 19,749,580 78.1 25,287,622 iD ney @ee Ts ce fab cha, of diid.p esetehe! aiets eneie 8,573,000 22.0 28,551,000 78.0 37,124,000 the tar some crude light oil is obtained, but much more is secured by washing the coke oven gas. The crude light oil is valuable inasmuch as it yields benzol, the base of picric acid, and toluol, the base of the explosive trinitrotoluol, or TNT, which was employed so extensively in the War. The distillation of coal also yields illuminating gas. Naturally the most important use of coke is in blast furnaces, foundries and metallurgical furnaces as a fuel for melting the charge of ore or metal, and in 1918 when there was a total production of 56,478,000 tons, about 88 per cent was used in this way. Coke also finds employ- ment in the manufacture of water gas, in cer- tain high-temperature manufacturing processes, as a steam boiler fuel, as a producer gas fuel and as a domestic heating fuel. In this last respect the use of coke was increasing because of the cost of coal. As is shown by the accompanying table the production of beehive coke declined from 1913 to 1922, while that of by-product coke increased considerably, though in 1922 there was an in- crease in the production of beehive coke over _ the previous year due to the demand of the steel industry which in that year was very active. Of the total output of 37,124,012 net tons pro- duced in 1922, only 23 per cent came from bee- hive ovens, as compared with 22 per cent in 1921, and 40 per cent in 1920; the amount pro- duced being the smallest since 1888, except that in 1921. The output of by-product coke was the largest recorded since the beginning of the in- In 1903, he was chief of the botanic staff of the Bahama Expedition of the Geographical Society of Baltimore. Professor Coker was a member of many scientific societies and the author of The Plant Life of Hartsville, 8. C. (1912); The Trees of North Carolina (with H. R. Totten) (1916); and The Saprolegniacea of the United States (1921). Besides these he contributed numerous articles on morphology and botany to scientific periodicals. COLBY, BAINBRIDGE (1869- Jaya American lawyer and statesman, born at St. Louis, Mo., and educated at Williams College and at the Columbia and New York University law schools. In 1892, he began the practice of law in New York. From 1901, when he was elected a member of the New York Assembly, he took an active interest in State and national politics, being one of the founders of the Pro- gressive National party. He served on numer- ous boards and commissions of the government, and in 1917 was a member of the American Mission to the Inter-Allied Conference, in Paris. In 1920-21, he was Secretary of State. COLBY, Everetrr (1874— ). An Ameri- can lawyer (see Vor. V). He was a member of the Republican National Committee from 1916 to 1920. In 1917, he served in the United States Food Administration, was major in the Officers’ Reserve Corps in 1918, and occupied the chair- manship of the Executive Committee of the League of Nations Non-Partisan Association founded in January, 1923. COLBY COLLEGE. A coeducational institu- COLE tion at Waterville, Me., founded in 1813. The number of students increased from 440 in 1916 to 506 in 1923 and the library from 50,000 to 60,000 bound volumes besides pamphlets. Three buildings were erected or acquired in the 10 years between 1914 and 1924, including Hed- man Hall, a dormitory for men; Foster House, purchased as a dormitory for women; and the Woodman Stadium, a memorial for the men of Colby who served in the War, given by Mrs. Eleanora Woodman. A fund amounting to $500,000 was raised in 1920, of which $150,000 was given by the Hon. Richard C. Shannon and $125,000 by the General Education Board; in the three years following, the Board of Edu- cation of the Northern Baptist Convention gave $100,000, and a campaign for a $150,000 en- dowment was brought to a successful conclusion. President, A. J. Roberts, A.M. COLE, Leon Jacos (1877- ). An Ameri- can zodlogist born at Allegheny, N. Y. He was educated at the University of Michigan (A.B., 1901) and at Harvard (Ph.D., 1906). He was assistant in zodlogy at Michigan (1898-02) ; Austin teaching fellow, Harvard (1903-06) ; chief of the division of animal breeding at the Rhode Island Experiment Station (1906-07) ; and instructor in zodlogy, Yale (1907-10). In 1910, Professor Cole went to the College of Agri- culture, University of Wisconsin, where he was successively associate professor of experimental breeding (1910-14), professor (1914-18), and professor of genetics (1918— ). COLE, Timotuy (1852- ). The foremost American wood engraver (see VoL. V). He published with his own illustrations, Wood En- graving: Three Essays (Grolier Club, New York, 1916), and The Magic Line, a Study of the Technique of Wood Engraving (New York, aO17)2 COLEMAN, ARTHUR PHILEMON (1852- ie Professor of geology in Toronto University (see Vout. V). He was president of the Geological Society of America in 1915, and of the Royal Society of Canada in 1921. He published, with W. A Parks, An Elementary Geology (1922). COLETTE, or CoLeTTE WILLY (pseudonym of Mme. Henri de Jouvenel) ( ?—- ye uA French novelist whose work includes: Claudine a Vécale ; Claudine a Paris; Claudine en ménage ; Claudine s’en va; L’Ingénue libertine ; Dialogues de bétes; L’Envers du Music Hall; La Retraite Sentimentale; Hn Camarades; La Vagabonde ; L’Entrave; La Paix chez les bétes;, Mitsou; Chéri; La Chambre éclairée; La Maison de Claudine; Le Blé en herbe. COLGATE UNIVERSITY. A nonsectarian institution at Hamilton, N. Y., founded in 1819. With the exception of the two war years, 1917- 19, the university showed a steady growth for the decade between 1914-24. The student body increased from 518 to 771; the faculty from 47 to 57; the library, from 80,000 to 99,217 volumes; and the endowment, from $2,000,000 to approximately $3,000,000. A chapel and a dor- mitory housing 200 men were built in 1922. George Barton Cutten, Ph.D., D.D., LU.D., suc- ceeded Elmer Burritt Bryan, LL.D., as president TOA COLLEGES. See UNIVERSITIES AND COL- LEGES. COLLENS, CHARLES (1873- ). An American architect, born in New York City and educated at Yale University and at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. He collaborated on 314 COLLINS the plans for the buildings of the Union Theo- logical Seminary in New York and of the And- over Theological Seminary in Cambridge, Mass. ; also on those of the libraries of Ohio State Uni- versity and Vassar College and of the Memorial Chapel of Williams College, as well as on the plans for Mrs. Eddy’s Church in Concord, N. H., and for the Fifth Avenue Baptist Church, New York City. COLLIER, WILLIAM MILLER (1867- ). An American diplomat (see VoLt. V). He was lecturer on international law at the New York Law School until 1918. In 1915, he held the same position at Wells College, and from 1916 to 1918 he lectured on diplomacy at George Washington University, of which he was presi- dent from 1917 to 1921. In 1914 he was ap- pointed head of the American delegation to the International Conference at Christiania, to out- line a government for the Islands of Spitzberg- en In 1917-18 he collaborated on The Inquiry, conducted by Col. E. M. House. He was a mem- ber of the Committee on Policies and Platform, authorized by the Republic National Committee in 1920. From 1916 to 1919 he was a national councilor of the United States Chamber of Commerce. In 1921 he was appointed Ambas- sador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Chile. He was the recipient of several foreign decorations, during and after the War. He is author of: The Law and the Higher Law (1918) ; George Washington’s Will and George Washington University (1918); and College In- fluences Before the War and After the War (1920). COLLINS, Cuyartrs WALLACE (1879- y An American lawyer. He was born at Galion, Ala., and studied at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, the University of Chicago, and Har- vard. He was admitted to the bar in 1901 and for five years practiced in Birmingham, Ala. From 1915 to 1918, he was in charge of the Economic Section of the Legislative Reference Service of the Library of Congress, and the director of this section from 1918 to 1920. He assisted in drafting a bill for a national budget, and in 1920-21 was law librarian of Congress, serving also as counsel of the Bureau of the Budget. He wrote The National Budget System in American Finance (1915); The British Budg- et System (1920), and contributed articles on constitutional law and public finance to many law periodicals. COLLINS, Josern (1866- ). An Ameri- can neurologist, born in Brookfield, Conn He received the degree of M.D. from New York University in 1888, and after some years of private practice took up the specialty of neurol- ogy; in 1907, he was made a professor of that subject in the New York Post-Graduate Medical School. He was later a co-founder and visiting physician to the New York Neurological In- stitute. In addition to his attainments as a practitioner of medicine, Dr. Collins has long been known in general literature. His major writings, medical and secular, are: Letters to a Neurologist (1908; second series 1910); The Way with the Nerves (1911); Sleep and the Sleepless (1912); Neurological Clinics (1918) ; My Italian Year (1919); The Doctor Looks at Literature (1923). He has also been an exten- sive contributor to periodical literature, both medical and secular. COLLINS, Ross ALEXANDER (1880- ,. An American lawyer, born -at Collinsville, Mass. COLLITZ He graduated from Kentucky University in 1899, and from the Law Department of the Uni- versity of Mississippi in 1901. In the same year he began practice in Meridian, Miss. He was elected attorney general of the State in 1912 and was re-elected in 1915. In 1919, he was a candidate for governor in the Democratic prima- ry. He was elected to the 67th Congress in 1921, and in 1922 was re-elected to the 68th Congress. COLLITZ, HERMANN (1855- ye rAn American philologist (see Vor. V), professor of German language and literature at Johns Hopkins. He is editor of Hesperus: Schriften zur germanischen Philologie and author of Sammlung der griechischen Dialektenschriften (1884-1915). COLLOIDAL STATE, COLLOIDAL DIS- PERSION. See PuysicaL CHEMISTRY. COLLOIDS. See CHEMISTRY; BOTANY; SOIL. COLOMBIA. A South American republic situated in the northwestern part of the conti- nent. Because of boundary disputes its fron- tiers were not definitely delimited in 1924. Its area iS variously estimated at 435,000 square miles to 440,846 square miles. The population at the census of Mar. 5, 1918, was 5,855,077, of whom 158,428 were Indians. The population in 1912 was 5,072,604. The capital, Bogota, had 143,994. Other large cities with their popula- tions were: Barranquilla, 64,543; Cartagena, 51,382; Medellin, 79,146; Cali, 45,525; Mani- zales, 43,203. Industry and Trade. Coffee was the prin- cipal crop and chief article of export, for Colom- bia ranked second only to Brazil as a coffee producing country. The export totaled 235,- 368,038 pounds in 1922, with a value of $35,- 705,780, the United States taking 191,848,984 pounds. The export in 1913 had been 134,136,- 000 pounds. Bananas were the second most im- portant agricultural product, with exports in 1922 of 160,298 tons, valued at $3,427,051. In 1913, 157,385 tons had been exported. Other important crops were rice, sugar, cotton, corn, tobacco and wheat, while vegetable ivory, rub- ber, gums, medicinal plants and dyewoods were important forest products. Gold mining, one of the oldest industries in Colombia, has been car- ried on since Spanish colonial days, and ex- ports, which represented practically the entire production, were $5,699,920 in 1922. The plati- num mines, which furnished the greatest part of the world’s supply, had an annual production worth some $2,000,000. The emerald mines, con- trolled by the government, were the largest pro- ducers in the world. The petroleum industry was still in its infancy but promised to be of increasing importance. One foreign company opened a considerable number of producing wells, and it was reported that there were other deposits of value. The impetus given manufac- turing during the War placed many small-scale industries in the towns on a stable footing, and ° progress was made in the production of cotton textiles, shoes, cigarettes, beer, flour, soap and matches. The making of Panama hats, a na- tive industry requiring no machinery, prospered. The foreign trade of Colombia grew steadily. The balance of trade was favorable for many years, with the result that the Colombian peso, which is worth $0.973, was in 1918 above par in New York, and in 1924 practically at par. Exports in 1922 were valued at $52,390,199 compared with $33,457,370 in 1913; and imports 315 COLOMBIA for 1922 were $42,978,101, compared with $27.- 822,385 in 1913. The United States took on the average about 70 per cent of all exports and supplied some 47 per cent of all imports, so that it ranked first in Colombian foreign trade. with Great Britain second. Exports to the United States in 1922 amounted to $36,064,000 as com- pared with $15,714,000 in 1913, while imports from the United States were $20,137,000, com- pared with $7,647,000 in 1913. The chief ex- ports were coffee, gold, bananas, platinum, and hides; and the principal imports, textiles, food- stuffs, machinery, and construction material. Finance. The Colombian national debt as of May 31, 1923, was 45,698,382 pesos. This figure comprised 22,076,730 pesos of foreign debt and 23,621,652 of internal debt. The budget for the year 1924 showed estimated revenues of 38,285,- 397 pesos as against 12,043,145 pesos in 1912, and 42,965,953 pesos for expenditures, which amounted to 12,500,000 pesos in 1912. The def- icit was to be covered by a $5,000,000 foreign loan for the retirement of certain treasury bonds. Total currency in circulation as of Dec. 31, 1923, was 38,950,292 pesos. During July, 1923, the Colombian government used the first $5,000,000 installment of the American pay- ments on the $25,000,000 guaranteed under the 1921 treaty to establish a central bank of issue modeled on the Federal Reserve Banks. This exerted a stabilizing effect on the finances and currency of the country. An American mission gave Colombia valuable assistance in its finances in 1923. Communications. In 1922 there were 937 miles of railway, compared with 620 in 1911. Construction work was done during 1923 on the Pacifie railway, so that this line was complete to Zarzal, a distance of about 200 miles from the port of Buenaventura. The 1923 Colombian congress passed laws providing for the expendi- ture of the remaining $20,000,000 of American payments on the construction of 11 railroads and other public improvements. History. The outstanding events in Colom- bia’s history for the decade centred in the set- tlement of the Panama question with the United States. After the failure of the treaty of 1909 a new pact was drawn up in 1914 which contained a plain apology, attributed to the Secretary of State at the time, William J. Bryan, for the American part in the Panama revolution; the agreement gave Colombian citizens the same rights as those of American citizens in the use of the Canal Zone and the Panama Canal, and it provided for the payment of a $25,000,000 compensation in five equal annual installments. Colombia ratified the treaty, but the American Senate, incensed at its apologetic tone, withheld its consent until 1921, when, under the Repub- lican administration, the objectionable phrases were withdrawn. On Nov. 5, 1921, the Colom- bian Senate accepted the treaty as revised, and on Mar. 2, 1922, the House of Representatives finally acceded, so that in the fall Colombia re- ceived its first payment of $5,000,000. From 1914 to 1918, José Vincente Concha served as president; and his minister for foreign affairs, Marco Fidel Suarez was elected to the office for 1918-22. A decree issued by President Suarez nationalizing oil resources caused considerable excitement in business circles but was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Presi- dent Suarez resigned in 1921 because of opposi- tion encountered in the Congress, and a COLORADO provisional president, Jorge Holguin, was ap- pointed to fill out the term. For the years 1922-26, General Pedro Nel Ospina, Conserva- tive, was elected. Colombia remained a neutral during the War. In 1920 it joined the League of Nations. Relations with Panama continued unfriendly in 1924. COLORADO. Colorado is the seventh of the United States in size (103,948 square miles), and the thirty-third in population; capital, Denver. The population increased from 799,024 in 1910 to 939,629 in 1920, a gain of 17.6 per eent. The white population increased from 783,- 415 to 924,103; the number of native whites ris- ing from 656,564 to 807,149, while the foreign- born white population decreased from 126,851 to 116,954. The Negro population decreased slight- ly from 11,453 in 1910 to 11,318 in 1920, while the number of Japanese increased from 2300 to 2464. The urban population rose from 404,840 in 1910 to 453,259 in 1920, the rural population from 394,184 to 486,370. The principal cities, with their population in 1910 and 1920, are Denver (q.v.), 213,381 and 256,491; Pueblo, 41,747 and 43,050; Colorado Springs, 29,078 and 30,105. Agriculture. While the population of the State increased 17.6 per cent in the decade 1910 to 1920, the number of farms increased 29.8 per cent, from 46,170 to 59,934 In 1910 the acre- age was 13,532,113; in 1920 it was 24,462,014, while the acreage of improved land in farms in those years was 4,302,101 and 7,744,757 respec- tively. The total value of farm property ap- parently increased in the decade, from $491,471,- 806 to $1,076,794,749, or 119.1 per cent; the aver- age value of farm property, from $10,645 to $17,966. In interpreting these values, and in- deed all comparative values for the decade 1914-24, the inflation of currency in the latter part of the period is to be taken into considera- tion. The index number of prices paid to pro- ducers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The total percentage of land used for agricultural pur- poses in 1910 was 20.4 per cent; in 1920, 36.9 per cent. The percentage of improved land in farms remained practically constant, being 31.8 per cent in 1910 and 31.7 per cent in 1920. Of the total of 59,934 farms in 1920, the number operated by owners was 45,291; by managers, 880; by tenants, 13,763. There was an increase in the decade of about 8300 owners, 93 managers, and 5370 tenants. The white farmers numbered 59,381 in 1920, as compared with 45,596 in 1910; foreign-born farmers, 9535, as compared with 8398; and colored farmers, including Negroes, Indians, Japanese and Chinese, 553 as against 574. There were 20,965 farms free from mort- gage in 1920; 26,822 in 1910. Those under mortgage numbered 21,131 in 1920, compared with 9636 in 1910. The number of dairy cows rose to 233,747 in 1920, from 144,734 in 1910; beef cows to 691,731, from 405,884; sheep, to 1,813,255 from 1,305,596 Of the 59,934 farms in 1920, 28,756 were irrigated, as compared with 25,857 in 1910, the area irrigated increasing from 2,792,032 to 3,348,385 acres The estimated production of the chief crops in 1923 was corn, 31,267,000 bushels; wheat, 16,157,000 bushels; oats, 6,677,000 bushels; barley, 5,609,000 bush- els; potatoes, 16,786,000 bushels; hay, 2,393,- 000 tons; sugar beets, 1,890,000 short tons. Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 6,300,- 000 bushels; wheat, 9,680,000; oats, 10,675,000; 316 COLORADO barley, 3,250,000; potatoes, 9,200,000; hay, 1,- 824,000 tons. Apple trees of bearing age num- bered 1,688,425 in 1910 and 1,777,737 in 1920. In 1909, 3,559,094 bushels of apples were grown; in 1919, 3,417,682. Education. The high standard always main- tained in education in Colorado continued to be upheld in the decade 1914-1924. During this period a closer relationship was established be- tween the various units of the school adminis- trative forces. This has resulted in a marked progress along all educational lines, resulting in an increase in the number of centralized, con- solidated and standardized schools. In 1914 there were 120 centralized and consolidated schools, and in 1920, 130. The standardized schools in 1914 numbered 337; and in 1923, over 600. Colorado was the first of the States to adopt Americanization as a part of its system of education, and was also the first to adopt modern tests and measurements. The legislature of 1921 passed measures providing for a mini- mum teachers’ salary. The enrollment in the grades below high school increased from 110,963 in 1914 to 195,828 in 1920. The high school enrollment increased from 17,676 in 1914 to 24,000 in 1920. In 1923 there were over 3000 grade schools, and 260 high schools. The total expenditure for the ad- ministration of the educational system increased from about $7,000,000 in 1914 to approximately $18,000,000 in 1922. The percentage of illiter- acy decreased from 4.4 per cent in 1910 to 3.9 per cent in 1920; among the native white popu- lation from 2.4 per cent to 2 per cent. Among the foreign-born whites it increased from 11.3 per cent to 12.8 per cent. Mining. Colorado is one of the most im- portant of the mineral-producing States. Gold, however, was no longer its most important min- eral resource, having latterly been superseded by coal. The products in the order of their value are coal, gold, silver and clay. The prog- ress of the coal industry in the decade 1914-24 is shown by these comparative figures: 1914, production 8,170,559 short tons, value $13,601,- 718; 1915, 8,624,980 and $13,599,264; 1916, 10,- 484,237 and $16,964,104; 1917, 12,483,336 and $27,669,129; 1918, 12,407,571 and $33,404,743, 1920, 12,278,225 and $42,829,000; 1921, 9,122,- 760 and $32,377,000; 1922, 10,019,597 short tons. The decrease in gold production is indicated as follows: 1914, 960,845 fine ounces; 1915, 1,084,- 323; 1916, 926,566; 1917, 760,901; 1918, 616,- 864; 1919, 478,266; 1920, 366,504; 1921, 330,- 659, and 1922, 308,314. As silver is derived chiefly from ores which are also gold-bearing, a decrease in production of that metal has accom- panied that of gold. Figures for several of the years of the decade will indicate the progress of the silver mining industry. In 1914, 8,796,065 fine ounces were produced; in 1915, 7,027,972; in 1917, 7,304,353; in 1920, 5,409,335; in 1921, 5,631,657, and in 1922, 5,855,911. 1919, 116, with a product of $63,622,000. Other important manufacturing cities are Ansonia, Bristol, Danbury, Meriden, Middletown, New London, Norwalk, Torrington, Stamford, and Willimantic. Education. Connecticut . has always been one of the most progressive States in the de- velopment of its educational system. Legisla- tion in 1913 provided for the codification of the school laws and for vocational guidance in schools. In 1917 an agreement was made with the Federal Board of Vocational Education, un- der the Smith-Hughes Act, for Federal assistance in vocational education. A measure passed in 1921 provided for a division of physical educa- tion and health; another bill created a division of special educational standards. Several im- portant laws were passed by the Legislature of 1923. Provision was made for State aid for the transportation of elementary school pupils and for the penalizing of any town which un- duly delays in providing adequate school facil- ities for children under 16 The department of Americanization, established in 1919, was changed to the Division of Adult Education. The registration in the public schools in 1913-14 was 211,975, with an average attendance of 168,060; in 1917-18, 243,870, with a 190,897 average; in 1921-22, 279,043 and 229,689. In the year men- tioned last, registration in the elementary schools was 245,747, and in high schools, 33,- 182. The total expenditure for education in 323 CONNECTICUT 1921-22 was $20,800,637. The percentage of il- literacy in the State increased from 7.2 per cent in 1910 to 7.8 per cent in 1920, although among the population of native white parentage it de- creased from 0.6 per cent in 1910 to 0.4 per cent in 1920, and among the Negroes, from 7.8 to 7.5 per cent. Among foreign-born whites it in- creased from 16 to 18.1 per cent. Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES. Political and Other Events. During the decade 1914-24, Connecticut remained Republican in politics, and few political events had na- tional importance. In the elections of 1914, Marcus H. Holeomb, Republican, was elected governor, defeating Lyman T. Tingier. Senator Brandegee was reélected over Goy. Simeon E Baldwin. Governor Holcomb was reélected in 1916, and George P. McLean was reélected sen- ator. In the presidential election in 1916, Charles E. Hughes received 106,514 votes; Pres- ident Wilson, 99,786 votes. In 1917 and the years following, the great industrial cities of the State were benefited by the activities follow- ing the entrance of the United States into the War. Manufactories were made over for war uses and additional factories were built. At the end of 1917 the State had about 9000 men in camp under the selective draft law and about 4000 volunteers. In 1918 Governor Holcomh was elected for a third term, together with the entire Republican State ticket. The total num- ber of men drafted in the Federal service, 1917- 18, was 23,533, with a total of 54,123 in the army and navy for the State. Ammunition fac. tories and metal-working concerns continued prosperous during this year., In 1920 Everett J. Lake was elected governor, and Senator Brandegee was reélected. In the presidential voting of this year, Warren G. Harding received 229,238 votes and James M. Cox 120,721. In 1922 Charles A. Templeton, Republican, was elected governor, and Senator McLean was re- elected to the Senate. Governor Templeton was inaugurated on Jan. 3, 1923. In his inaugural address he denounced the tendency to violate the prohibition law. He also proposed a com- mission to study and report on agricultural con- ditions with a view to their improvement Legislation. Sessions of the Legislature are held biennially. Among the more important matters acted on by the Legislature in the dec- ade 1914-24 were the following: In 1915, the budget system was adopted and the State’s finan- cial policy revamped to provide a “pay-as-you- go” policy which virtually wiped out the State debt. In 1915, the woman suffrage amendment was rejected by the Legislature, but the State, after steadfastly opposing it, suddenly ratified in 1920 when doubt about Tennessee’s ratifica- tion seemed likely to threaten the validity of the forthcoming presidential election, barely thirty-six States having ratified. The Legisla- ture rejected the prohibition amendment in 1919. Demand for a soldiers’ bonus resulted in the es- tablishment of a $2,500,000 State “fund, the in- come from which is paid to an ex-service men’s organization, for the aid of needy men who served in the War, or their dependents. In 1921, a child welfare bureau and a juvenile court system were established; a new motor vehicle law enacted, basing registration fees on piston displacement and putting a tax of $01 a gallon on gasoline; a uniform system of accounting for all State departments and institutions set up, and persons accused of crimes given the right CONNELLEY 324 to choose whether to be tried by the court in- stead of by jury. In 1923, the Legislature passed a bill to facilitate codperative marketing of agricultural products and made provision for the creating of associations for this purpose; amendments were made to the income tax laws and a resolution passed by the Legislature for a constitutional amendment to allow the gov- ernor to veto single items in appropriation bills, subject to reconsideration by the Legislature if it is in session. CONNELLEY, WILLIAM ELSEY (1855- ie An American author (see Vou. V). His recent works include History of Kansas (5 vols., 1917), and History of Kentucky (5 vols., 1922). CONNELLY, Marc (Marcus CooxK) (1890- ). An American playwright born at McKeesport, Pa. He began his writing as a reporter for the Pittsburgh Sun. He has con- tributed verse and articles to Life, Everybody’s and other magazines and has written lyrics for several musical comedies including: Duley; To the Ladies; Little Old Millersville (in collabora- tion with G. S. Kaufman, 1921-22): The Beggar on Horseback (with Kaufman, 1923), founded on P. Apel’s Hans Sonnenstéssers Héllenfahrt. CONNOR, WILL1AM DurRwarp (1874- ). An American soldier, born at Beloit, Wis. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1897, and was appointed second lieutenant. He served in the Philippines cam- paign and during the Filipino Insurrection in 1898 and for several years following was engaged in engineering capacities, serving also with the General Staff from 1912 to 1916. In 1917, he served with the General Staff of the A. E. F. as assistant chief of staff. He was appointed chief of staff of the 32d Division in 1918, and in the same year commanded the 63d Infantry Brigade of that division. In 1918-19, he was chief of staff of the Service of Supply, and was com- manding general of the American forces in France to Jan. 7, 1919. In 1921, he was chief of the Transportation Service and in the same year acted as assistant chief of staff. He re- ceived decorations and honors from the British and French governments. CONRAD, JosepH (1856-1924). An Eng- lish novelist. (See Vor. V). The following works by Conrad were published over the pe- riod surveyed: Within the Tides (1915); Vie- tory (1915); The Shadow-Line (1917); The Ar- row of Gold (1919); Rescue (1920); Notes on Life and Letters (1921); The Rover (1923). Early in 1924 he made a short visit to the United States. He died in August, 1924. CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE UNCON- SCIOUS. The conception of consciousness was revolutionized in the period 1914-24 by the ac- tion of two antithetical extremist movements. These movements were behaviorism and the new psychology centring around psychoanalysis and clinical investigations of abnormal, psychology. The theoretical principles in the name of which they took the field against the old-fashioned structural psychology were diametrically op- posed, but the new schools were at one in their dissatisfaction with experimental introspection as a method for dealing with the practical prob- lems of psychology. The systematic position of structural psy- chology was expressed in the doctrine of psycho- physical parallelism; this doctrine not only gave a certain theoretical clearness to the prob- lems of psychology, but what is more important, CONSCIOUSNESS it lent itself to a vast experimental programme. Psychical phenomena were regarded not as in any sense caused by physical or physiological phenomena but as running parallel with the lower series. The hypothesis of parallelism dates back to the seventeenth century, when it was used as a metaphysical theory to explain the entire structure of the universe. In its modern form the hypothesis was less preten- tious. It took psychological and physical expe- rience at their common-sense face value and postulated as a method of investigation and com- parison the non-interaction of the two series. In order to compare consciousness. with physiol- ogy it was necessary to analyze its structure. This was done by the method of introspection; in opposition, that is, to the method of logical reflection under which philosophers down to Kant had decomposed the mind into abstract categories or faculties. The analysis of con- sciousness was carried on under experimentally controlled external conditions, and in this man- ner consciousness was first decomposed into sensations as elements, and when this theory proved untenable, into attributes as the funda- mental units. These attributes, such as ex- tensity, duration, clearness, quality and intensity, were aspects of conscious life corresponding to specific alterations of physical or physiological conditions. By the method of controlled intro- spection experimental psychology was designed to avoid the Scylla of the subjective faculty psychology and the Charybdis of materialistic mechanism. But in the view of its opponents structuralism sinned in both directions. In ac- tual practice the theory of psycho-physical parallelism was held to approach more and more the doctrine known as epiphenomenalism, according to which consciousness was only a phosphorescence peculiar to the biological be- havior of the neuron particles. Structuralism certainly failed to satisfy the common-sense be- ‘lief in the efficacy of mind on the material world. On the other hand its preoccupation with defin- ing mental life in terms of a logical system drew on it the wrath of those who were grow- ing impatient at the failure of psychology to become a science like other sciences. Add to this the failure to. deal adequately with per- ception and with the higher thought processes, and its rather uncertain stand in the case of instincts and the general substratum of our con- scious life, and we are in a fair way to appre- ciate the significance of the revolt against struc- turalism as a psychological doctrine. If one should employ a metaphor drawn from politics, the revolt of behaviorism might be characterized as a revolt from the left; that is, in the direction of more mechanical objectivity. The revolt of the psycho-analytic movement would then be a push from the right. Behavi- orism (q.v.) developed out of the objective methods of animal psychology and biology and in theory sought to abolish consciousness as anything but a functional relation of physiol- ogical reflexes. It achieved thereby unity of method but only at the expense of ruthlessly exterminating the chiaroscuro of mental life. Behaviorism, whatever its significance in psy- chological experimentation, marked a return to the metaphysics of the man-machine with the addition of the notion of the conditioned reflex. It is this conditioned reflex, the phenomenon that we observe so frequently in gymnastic training, that is the unconscious saving grace of behav- 0 i J} ? f N % [ ? ‘ — ——— oy CONSCIOUSNESS iorism, for willy-nilly it imports into the rigid materialistic mechanism the principle of con- tingence. Several attempts have been made to combine behaviorism with a realistic meta- physic for the evident purpose of eliminating consciousness as a directing principle in the universal drama. Typical of these are the works of E. B. Holt (The Concept of Conscious- ness and The Freudian Wish) and articles by Prof. R. B. Perry. On the other hand the Eng- lish Neo-Realist, Prof. S. Alexander, postulating a general monistie position, yet re- fuses to reduce the quality of consciousness to any of the lower levels of existence. To him, it is a quality over and above the nervous sys- tem in much the same manner that life is some- thing beyond the physico-chemical reactions of the living plant or animal. The line between the scientific aspects of the problem of consciousness and the radiating meta- physical speculations is always difficult to draw, and it is still more difficult to maintain in the concept of the unconscious. she importance of this notion has arisen from its growing use in clinical psychiatry, where it serves to explain and to link together facts which cannot be or- ganized on the old hypothesis of parallelism. The unconscious might have remained merely a romantic idea dear to the metaphysicians of Schopenhauerian descent had not the French school and the psychoanalytic group developed it into a systematic theory of neuroses and psychoneuroses. It is_in vain, therefore, that Knight Dunlap protested (Mysticism, Freudian- ism and Scientific Psychology) against the un- scientific nature of the new movement.’ The theory of the unconscious is much less rigorous than the theories employed in the physiological branch of psychology, and it is moreover based on a different method of approach and different type of word symbols; hence arise problems of liaison between the so-called old and new psy- chology. But withal, the Freudian theory of the unconscious, despite its admitted lack of rigor and its tendency to degrade into extrava- ganza, is preferable to a refusal to organize the phenomena of abnormal psychology at all. In brief, what is postulated by the theory of the unconscious is a hierarchic continuity of psychic life extending indefinitely back into the history of the individual, the history of the race, and ultimately into the history of life it- self. Whereas we ordinarily explain the sensa- tions of consciousness by the presence of physical stimuli outside the body, the theory of the un- conscious explains a great part of conscious phe- nomena, particularly those which are not ex- plained by the first method, by past history. In dream life very little correlation can be traced between the mental phenomena and the physical stimuli affecting the person; much more ‘inter- esting correlations can be obtained between the events of a dream and the past history, or even the future, of the individual. Even in normal consciousness, there appears to be much more in the mind than the stimulus which has given rise to the sensory experience, and the residue is generally explained on the basis of memory. The parallelistic hypothesis is unable to account for the impulse to action save by the interven- tion of a new mechanism, from which conscious- ness is excluded, the mechanism of reflexes, in- stincts, and habits. The theory of the uncon- scious is an effort to unify the three schemas of sensory perception, memory, and instinctive 325 while: CONSCIOUSNESS response into a single chain. What we regard as full or clear consciousness is merely the end product of an historical evolution. As an end product it contains the cumulative story of the past, a story which can be recovered by the proper analytic method. The method of analysis parallels the compara- tive method of biology in searching for vestigial traces. Obviously it cannot be mere external observation by the microscope and the scalpel, since that form of observation is insufficient to detect even the grosser biological evolution. The analysis has to be within consciousness, or within the lower levels of consciousness mani- fested in hypnosis or in dreams, and when this is insufficient, selected facts from the history of the individual are introduced. The event of breaking a leg is not generally of much impor- tance to the subsequent morale of the individual, but a childhood fear, long since forgotten, may be the missing link which accounts for a present psychological condition. The daring genius of Freud has consisted very largely in seizing on certain facts as significant which to other ob- servers seemed irrelevant. Prof. Pierre Janet in recent years elaborated a theory of various levels of psychological tension, according to which there are stable gradations of plateaus in the continuity from psychological automatism to the highest levels of reflective conscious ac- tivity. These levels are interestingly correlated with the physical metabolism of the organism. Thus the execution of a conscious and delib- erate act was found to demand a greater ex- penditure of physical energy than the same act executed as a reflex. This theory serves also to make more understandable not only the phe- nomena of sleep and hypnosis but the fluctua- tions in the behavior of psychopathological cases. Another ramification in the theory of the un- conscious is the problem of multiple person- alities. The clinical evidence on this subject shows all gradations from what might be re- garded as metaphorical divisions of personality to genuine cleavages in conscious activity. Im- pressed by these phenomena, Dr. Morton Prince and Prof. William McDougall have fought for a recognition of pluralism. Professor Mc- Dougall’s method of meeting the problem is through a revision of the Leibnitzian monadol- ogy. From the point of view of positive sci- ence, this problem, in reality the metaphysical problem of the one and the many, is quite ir- relevant. Whether the individual be regarded as a distinct consciousness or as a collection of conscious instinets or monads, it is evident that here is no escape from the paradox of unity and diversity. In cases of multiple personality, it is the type of unity and the type of diversity which differ from those to be found in a normal con- scious personality with multiple interests. The relation of consciousness and the uncon- scious to the instincts or hereditary tendencies is equally a problem of the one and the many. Freudian psychologists often identify the un- conscious with the sex instinct, and at other times they speak of the sex instinct as an in- stinct among other instincts. At other times they split the unconscious into two warring en- tities. These ambiguities are practically un- avoidable in the attempt to give dialectic move- ment to the life of the psyche. The physical in- stinct of sex, because it is in the generality of men the strongest of the discreet physical urges as well as the most mysterious, has very fre- CONSTANT 326 quently been employed as a symbol for the en- tire drive of life. Plato’s Eros is an instance in point. But the symbol qua symbol of an un- derlying reality cannot be confounded with the symbol qua independent entity. The whole the- ory of sublimation hinges on the distinction be- tween symbol and reality; for it is not sex, re- garded as a discreet instinct, that is sublimated into intellectual or artistic activity; it is rather the élan vital expressed in the sex instinct which has found new channels. Yet from a phenome- nological view it would seem as if there were a real conversicn or substitution. From the foregoing discussion it is evident that the representative theory of consciousness, according to which the mind carried a_point- to-point image of a physical reality, must now be regarded as obsolete. If our psychological life is made up of images, then our physical ex- perience too is made up of images or symbols. The latter symbols or images are more stable and conventional than the so-called fainter images of the subjective consciousness, but they are not different in kind. If consciousness be regarded as the phenomenon of knowledge or intelligible awareness, it follows that we never escape that phenomenon in all human experience. But if consciousness be employed in another sense to denote the subjective level of experi- ence, then the phenomena of consciousness form a distinct subject matter of science, a subject matter paralleling biology but not reducible to it. And this science has now been organized by means of the unconscious as a concept of con- tinuity. The unconscious must not be hypos- tasized into an entity, for like the concept of an imaginary number in mathematics it makes trouble when it is set up against concrete phys- ical experience, although it remains perfectly intelligible in its scientific setting. It is useful for many purposes to correlate one level of experience with another, and in this respect there will always be room for a science of physiological psychology which uses the meth- od of controlled introspection. This science is analogous to the sciences of biochemistry (q.v.) and biophysics, but like the latter it can only make correlations and cannot reduce the facts of one level to those of a lower level. Under the view here exposed there is justification for all the prevailing methods of investigating the phe- nomena of consciousness, but the justification cannot be extended to the metaphysics which is consciously or subconsciously brought in with each method. Thus hbehaviorism as a meta- physic means materialistic monism, but this ex- trapolation of the doctrine is not at all neces- sary to the positive method of charting individ- ual behavior and thereby predicting conduct. The same principle applies to structuralism and the psychoanalytic methods of investigating consciousness. Whatever conflict arises exists between rival metaphysical dogmas and not in the positive intellectual organization of facts. Bibliography. John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (1922); Sigmund Freud, A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1920); Intro- ductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1922); W. McDougall, Outline of Psychology (1923); W. H. Rivers, Instinct and the Unconscious (1920) ; J. Watson, Psychology from the Standpoitt of a Behaviorist (1919); R. M. Woodworth, Psy- chology, a Study in Mental Life (1920). CONSTANT, FRANK HENRY (1869- )e An American engineer, born at Cincinnati, cook Ohio, on July 25, 1869. He was graduated in 1891 at the University of Cincinnati, and at once entered upon the practice of his profession, as assistant engineer of the King Bridge Com- pany In 1893-95, he was with the Osborn En- gineering Company. In 1895, he became as- sistant professor of structural engineering at the University of Minnesota and two years later was made full professor. In 1914, he’ was called to the chair of civil engineering and made head of the department at Princeton The degree of Sc.D. was conferred on him by Cincinnati in 1915 and by Lafayette in the same ear. CONSTANTINE I, Kine or GREECE (1868— 1923). (see Vor. V.) His connection with the German Imperial family (his wife was the sis- ter of the former German Emperor) and his known sympathies for German methods generally, prompted him to maintain Greek neutrality in the War. The ensuing struggle between him and Venizelos, who was disposed toward an alliance with the Allies, in large part makes up the history of Greece in the eventful years 1914-17. The occupation of Saloniki by an Allied army, the formation of a Venizelist ‘‘Pro- visional government,” the capture of Athens by English and French contingents, all combined to seal Constantine’s fate. He yielded to the Al- lied demand and on June 11, 1917, relinquished his throne in favor of his second son Alexander. To December, 1920, he lived in exile. The death of his son and the overthrow of Venizelos in the election of November, 1920, resulted in his triumphal reéntry into his capital, and it was largely to rehabilitate his fortunes that he em- barked on the Anatolian adventure (June, 1921). The disastrous defeat that his armies suffered in the Greco-Turkish War (1921-22) and the consistent refusal of the Allies to sup- port or recognize his aspirations again com- bined to bring him low. He was forced to ab- dicate a second time, Sept. 27, 1922, and took refuge at Palermo. Here he died, Jan. 11, 1923. He was succeeded on the throne by his son, George II, who, in turn, on Dec. 18, 1923, was compelled to leave the country. On Apr. 13, 1924 the Greek people expressed themselves . as overwhelmingly in favor of a republic. See GREECE, History. CONSTANTINOPLE. See DARDANELLE®) AND Bosporus STRAITS. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. See Law, PROGRESS OF THE. CONSUMERS’ COOPERATION. See Co- OPERATION. CONTRACT, Liperty oF. RESS OF THE. CONTRACTS. See LAw, PROGRESS OF THE. CONTROL INSTRUMENTS. See Puys- Toss: "* CONVOY. See Wark IN EUROPE, CONWAY, SiR (WILLIAM) MARTIN (1856- ). An English art critic (see VoL. VI). He became trustee of the Wallace Collec- tion (1916), director general of the Imperial War Museum (1917), and president of the Kent Archeological Society (1923). His recent books include The Sport of Collecting (1914); The Crowd in Peace and War (1915); The Abbey of St. Denis (1916); Mountain Memories (1920), and The Van Eycks and Their Followers (1921). COOK, GeEorRGE CRAM (1873- \iee-An American author, born at Davenport, Ia., and educated at the universities of Iowa, Harvard, See Law, Proc- a cCooK Heidelberg and Geneva. In 1895-99, he taught in the University of lowa and for a short time in Leland Stanford Jr. University. In 1911, he became associate literary editor of the Chicago Evening Post, and in 1915 director of the Proy- incetown Players. His works include: In Hampton Roads (1899); Roderick Taliaferro, a Story of Mazimilian’s Empire (1903); Evolu- tion and the Superman (1906); The Chasm (1911); Battle-Hymn of the Workers (1912) ; The C. T. U. (1914) ; Suppressed Desires (1920; first written as a play in 1915); and The Spring (1921; produced as a play and published). COOK, Puimipe (1875- ). An American Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Delaware, born at Kansas City, Mo. He was graduated at Trinity College in 1898 and from the General Theological Seminary in 1902. He was ordained to the priesthood of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1902, and after serving as a mission- ary in North Dakota for two years, became vicar of the Chapel of the Incarnation in New York City. In 1911, he was called to other pastor- ates, going to Baltimore in 1916, where he re- mained until 1920, when he was elected Bishop of Delaware and was consecrated on October 14 of that year. He was a delegate to the General Conventions of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1913 and 1919. During the War, he served in France with the 77th Division of the Amer- ican Expeditionary Forces as Y. M. C. A. secre- tary. COOKE, MaARggorie BENTON (?-1920). An American author, born at Richmond, Ind. She began writing for magazines at an early age, and won success for her monologues, which she delivered throughout the country after 1902. Three one-act plays by her were produced on the stage. Bambi, a novel produced in 1914, had an immediate and remarkable success. She also wrote: Modern Monologues (1903); Dra- matic Episodes (1905); Plays for Children (1905); The Girl Who Lived in the Woods (1910); Dr. David (1911); The Dual Alliance (1915); Cinderella Jane (1917); The Threshold (1918); The Clutch of Circumstance (1918) ; The Cricket (1919); Married? (1921). She died in 1920 while in Japan on a world tour. COOKE, Morris LLEWELLYN (1872- ». An American engineer, born at Carlisle, Pa. After having served as a reporter on various Philadelphia, Denver, and New York newspapers he was graduated from Lehigh University (M.E., 1895). He practiced his profession with vari- ous corporations until 1905, after which he de- voted himself to consulting practice until 1911. Then, for four years, he was director of the De- partment of Public Works in Philadelphia. During the Spanish-American War he served in the United States Navy as assistant engineer, and during the recent War he was in Washing- ton engaged as chairman of the storage’ system of the War Industries Board of the Council of National Defense (1917) and as assistant to the chairman of the United States Shipping Board (1918). He frequently lectured on sci- entific management and municipal administra- tion, and is the author of Academic and In- dustrial Efficiency (1910), Snapping Cords (1915), and Our Cities Awake (1918). COOK ISLANDS. See Paciric OCEAN ISLANDS. COOLEY, Mortimer Etwyn_ (1855- Ps An American engineer (see Vout. VI). He was elected president of the Federated American En- 327 COOPER gineering Societies in 1921, and was also an officer in a number of scientific societies. COOLIDGE, ArcuIBALD Cary (1866- ys An American university professor (see VoL. VI). In 1918, he was sent as special agent of the State Department to Sweden and Northern Russia. The following year he was chief of the mission attached to the Peace Conference which spent five months in Vienna and three months in Paris. In 1921, he became a member of the American Relief Administration in Russia. He is author of The Origins of the Triple Alliance (1917), and translator of the English edition of Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary, 1879- 1914, by Alfred Francis Pribram (2 vols., 1920-21). , COOLIDGEH, Catvin (1872— ). A Presi- dent of the United States, born at Plymouth, Vt. He graduated at Amherst College, Mass., and practiced law at Northampton, Mass He held various local offices and served in the Mas- sachusetts State Senate (1912-15). He was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts (1916-18) and governor (1919-20). He first became na- tionally known through his intervention in the Boston police strike of 1919, when his prompt action in calling out the State troops prevented serious trouble and ended the strike. He was hailed throughout the nation as a strong cham- pion of law and order, and his selection as can- didate for the vice-presidency was felt to add greatly to the chances of Republican success at the polls. At the convention he was nominated by acclamation. When President Harding died on Aug. 2, 1923, Calvin Coolidge became presi- dent, taking the oath of office on August 3. He announced that he would follow in general the policies of his predecessor. Toward the end of the year 1923,° the so-called “oil scandals” caused him much embarrassment. The criti- cisms launched against Attorney-General Daugh- erty and Secretary of the Navy Denby finally forced their resignations from the cabinet and relieved the situation somewhat. But Congress proved more and more independent of his lead- ership by passing the bonus bill over his veto, changing the Mellon tax bill, and refusing to accede to his request in regard to postponing the operation of the Japanese exclusion part of the immigration bill. He was nominated at the Republican National Convention in June, 1924, as candidate for the presidency to succeed himself. The Price of Freedom, a collection of his speeches, was published in 1924. COOPER, CoLIN CAMPBELL (1856-— ). An American artist (see Vor. VI). He won a gold medal for oil painting and a silver medal for water color at the Panama Pacific International Exposition (1915) as well as other prizes in 1918 and 1919. One of his best recent pictures was “Broadway in War Time” in the Pennsyl- vania Academy of Fine Arts. COOPER, DEAN THomAS PoE (1881~ ie An American agriculturist, born at Pekin, IIl. From 1902 to 1907, he was statistical agent of the Minnesota Experiment Station and special agent of the Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture. He graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1908 and until 1911 was assistant in farm management and agricultural economist at that university. From 1914 to 1917, he was director of the North Da- kota Experiment Station and in 1918 became dean and director of the Agricultural College of the University of Kentucky. He was a member COOPER 328 of several scientific societies and wrote on farm management and agricultural economics. COOPER, IRvING STEIGER (1882- yO An American bishop of the Old Catholic Church, and theosophist, born at Santa Barbara, Cal., and educated at the University of California and at Madras, India. He was consecrated regionary bishop for the Liberal Catholic Church in 1919. He published the following works: Methods of Psychic Development (1911); Ways to Perfect Health (1912); The Secret of Happiness (1912) ; Theosophy Simplified (1915); Reincarnation, the Hope of the World (1917). COOPER, JAmeEs_ (1846- ). A British theologian (see Vout. VI). In 1916, and again in 1921, he was president of the Scottish Logi- cal Society, an office which he had held at vari- ous times previously. He was Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1917. In 1922, he retired from his professor- ship in church history at the University of Glasgow, an office which he had held since 1899. His later works. include: Our Sacred Heritage (closing address as Moderator, 1917), and Re- union, a Voice from Scotland (1918). COOPER, LANE (1875- ). An American university professor (see Vor. VI). He was acting associate professor during the summer term of 1914 at the University of Illinois. The following year he became full professor of Eng- lish language and literature at Cornell Uni- versity, and was professor elect at Smith College. He was acting professor during the summer quarter at Stanford University in 1918, and at the University of California the following year. Among his later works are: Methods and Aims in the Study of Literature (1915, 1921); A’ Con- cordance to the Works of Horace (1916); Louis Agassiz as a Teacher (1917) ;'The Greek Genius and its Influence (1917); Georae Meredith, an Essay on Comedy (1918), and Two Views of Education, with Other Papers (1922). COOPERATION. The decade 1914-24 wit- nessed a growth in all forms of codperation. This development was not equal in all countries; consumers’ coéperation was still most important in England; codperative credit was outstanding in Germany and India; producers’ codperation was most manifest in Holland and Denmark. In the United States which had never been friendly soil for the codperative movement, sig- nificant tendencies toward codperative effort ap- peared. Credit Unions in the United States. Alphonse Desjardins was responsible for the passing of the first general law in North Amer- ica which authorized the organization of co- operative credit associations. This was in 1906. His plan was a combination of the Luzzati sys- tem of Italy and the German Raiffeisen plan of codperative credit. Many French Canadians who had become acquainted with the operation of credit societies in Canada emigrated to the factory towns in New England. The first co- operative credit association in the United States was established in Manchester, N. H., by Des- jardins at the end of 1908. Almost all the mem- bers were French. In 1924, it was still operat- ing under a special charter granted by the Legis- lature in 1909. Massachusetts, however, was the first State to consider the possibilities of co- operative credit seriously. Desjardins was in- vited to describe the working of the credit as- sociations of Quebec before the Twentieth Cen- tury Club of Boston; and in 1909, Massachusetts COOPERATION passed an act similar to the Quebee act. The first society opened was the Myrick Credit Union of Springfield, which began its work in May, 1910. Literature was published and scat- tered broadcast to explain the advantages of co- operative credit associations. The cause was ad- vanced by addresses delivered before the Ohio Bankers’ Association in 1910 and before the American Bankers’ Association in 1912. In 1913 the First National Conference on Market- ing and Foreign Credits met in Chicago. From that time on, the agitation for legislation au- thorizing the establishment of credit societies was more pronounced, and after 86 different bills had been submitted by members of Congress, the Farm Loan Bill was finally passed, July 17, 1916. This bill was not entirely codperative in its nature, but was a combination of coéperation and Federal aid. During this time 19 States passed laws which permitted the States to lend money to the farmers and provided for rural savings banks. The characteristics of credit as- sociations differ somewhat in the various States, but the main principles are common to the majority. 1. In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Florida, North Carolina, the associations are called credit unions; in Wis- consin and Nebraska they are called codpera- tive credit associations. 2. The control is usually exercised by the bank- ing department of the State. North Carolina is an exception. | 3. The number of members necessary to form a union as authorized by the different States ranges from 5 in Rhode Island to 15 in Nebraska. 4. The par value of each share is low so that any person of good character may become a member. The range of share values is from $5 in New Hampshire, South Carolina and Utah to $25 in Texas, New York, North Carolina and Oregon. 5. Only members may receive loans from the credit unions, and most States provide a limit to the amount that may be borrowed by one in- dividual. Some States do not permit loans greater than $50. 6. Most credit unions operate on the limited liability plan, although it is possible for them to adopt the unlimited liability plan current in Germany, if their by-laws permit. 7. Credit unions may receive deposits from members in all States, and in Utah, North Caro- lina and South Carolina from non-members. Massachusetts had 81 credit unions in 1921 with 32,226 members and a share capital paid in during the year over $1,000,000. More than 12,000 members borrowed a total of $3,000,000 from the unions. $83,000 was paid as dividends. New York had 68 credit unions at the end of 1920, with 22,490 members, about one-third of whom ‘were women. These unions lent $4,511,- 000 during 1920. There was an increase each year in the number of unions formed. North Carolina had 22 credit unions in 1921, with 1000 members, and during that year lent $84,000 to 290 borrowers. The success of the credit unions must not be judged by the number of unions. The most important aim of the States in encouraging the formation of codperative unions was to furnish relief to farmers. This object had not been fully attained. North Carolina had the most con- spicuous success in meeting the demand for rural credit. The reasons were obvious. The a COOPERATION unions should not have been under the control and protection of the State banking departments, since these departments seemed to rest content with assuring themselves that the unions fulfilled the requirements of the law for banks, while European experience had definitely proved that cooperative rural credit required encouragement and direction. North Carolina was able to pro- vide this service. Codperative credit is a form of self-help which should be divorced from finan- cial aid. If the poor farmers of South Ger- many and the indigent ryots of India could, by combination, meet their own needs, it seemed that the farmers of America should be able to do as well. It is a fundamental principle of Raiffei- senism that governments should not furnish financial assistance but only supervision and sympathetic direction. See AGRICULTURAL CREDIT. Consumers’ Cooperation in the United States. The latest official report for the United States, from the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 313 (1920), stated that there were 2600 unions in the United States. Perhaps 50 per cent were operated on strict codperative principles. Consumers’ codperation was reported to be particularly strong among the Finns and the coal miners of Illinois and Pennsylvania. The bulletin referred to reports that 650 con- sumers’ societies sold $65,000,000 worth of goods. There seemed no reason to suppose that there would be any rapid development of consumers’ codperation in the United States. Producers’ Codperation in the United States. While this form of codperation made great progress in the United States during and immediately after the War, its exact growth could not be gauged because of the overlapping of consumers’ and producers’ codperation, For example, rural societies often purchase codpera- tively and market collectively their own output. In 1920, the latest year for which figures were available, the Bureau of Labor Statistics re- ported that the United States had 63,351 mem- bers of such associations with a paid-in share capital of 11,079,945. See Corron and AGRI- CULTURE. Codperation in Other Countries. Outside of the United States were reported over 60,000 codperative societies with a membership of more than 25,000,000. The Codperative Union of the United Kingdom comprised 1472 societies in 1921, 91 per cent of them consumers’ societies. There were 102 producers’ and 3 wholesale associations. The total membership of the union was 4,598,737, of which number 3,838,000 were members of consumers’ societies in England and Wales and 662,885 in Scotland. .The codperative wholesale societies had become very prosperous, owning their own fleet of vessels and more than 29,000 acres of tea plantations in Ceylon and India. The National Federation of Consumers’ Societies of France had 1,360,000 members. Be- sides this group there were reported to be as many societies which were not affiliated, and also a considerable number of codperative credit so- cieties, some organized according to the Luz- zatti system and many more on the Raiffeisen plan. The Federation of Codperative Societies of Belgium had over 231,000 members. There were also several people’s banks organized on the Schulze system. There had been a_ partial change from unlimited to limited liability. This system differs from that of Germany in having no central bank. India made great prog- 329 COPPER ress in the development of codperative credit. In many districts the power of the money lenders over the poor farmers was broken. Latest re- ports showed 42,000 agricultural credit societies with 1,400,000 members. The 1921 data from official sources in Russia showed 1082 consumers’ unions and 7500 agricultural and over 6000 in- dustrial societies. The All Russian Central Union of Consumers’ Societies, comprising 98 federations and representing a membership of 6,000,000, had a wholesale trading organization, and published a daily and a weekly paper. COOPERATIVE BANKS. See Lazor BANES. COOPERATIVE MARKETING. See Co- OPERATION; COTTON; AGRICULTURE and AGRI- CULTURAL CREDIT. COOPERATIVE MORTGAGE BANKING. See AGRICULTURAL ‘CREDIT. COOVER, Joun Epcar_ (1872- ). An American psychologist born at Remington, Ind. He was educated at the Colorado State Normal School and Leland Stanford Jr. University. After 1910, he was a member of the psychology department of the last named institution, becom- ing full professor in 1921. He is the author of Investigation with a Trumpet Medium (American Society for Psychical Research, 1915), Formal Discipline from the Standpoint of Experimental Psychology .(1916), and Haperiments in Psy- chical Research (1917). He is also the con- tributor of a number of articles on psychology, psychical research, education, and_ statistical methods, published in professional journals. COPEAU, JACQUES (7? . A’. French actor-manager and director of the ‘Théatre Vieux Colombier. He is a reformer in the theatre, and of the various theatrical experi- ments in Paris, his seem to be the only ones which have resulted in a completely modern self- dependent institution established on a basis of stability and organized so that all resources may be directed toward an idealistic aim. He has successfully waged war against decrepit tradition but he has kept traditions which are still full of life and richness. The classics, for the most part, form his repertory. Among his performances are: Dostoievsky’s The Brothers Karamazov, a very moving production; Twelfth Night, one of the plays most frequently pre- sented; and André Gide’s Saul, one of his most important theatrical achievements of recent years. In 1919, the Vieux Colombier came to New York City, and he took the part of Wash- ington in Percy Mackaye’s Washington. COPELAND, Roya S(AMUEL) (1868- 4 Physician and ophthalmologist, and United States Senator from New York. Born in Dex- ter, Mich., he received his M.D. from the Uni- versity of Michigan, 1889, and in 1905 was made ophthalmologist to his alma mater. He moved to New York in 1908 to occupy the same chair and assume the deanship of the New York Homeo- pathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. He began his political career as mayor of Ann Arbor in 1901-03 and was president of the local Board of Education in 1907-08. In 1918, he be- came Commissioner of Public Health and presi- dent of the Board of Health, New York City, resigning in 1923 to assume the duties of sen- ator. In 1906, in collaboration (Copeland and Ibershoff) he published the work Refraction. COPPER. The War naturally had an im- portant effect on the production of copper as this metal was required in large quantities for muni- e COPPER tions. The world’s production in 1913 was 2,181,253,000 pounds, but with the stimulation of the War it began to increase, reaching a maximum of 3,150,552,000 pounds in 1918, when almost 2,000,000,000 pounds were produced in the United States alone. From this time, how- ever, the production dwindled until 1921 when but 1,234,576,000 pounds were produced of which 505,586,098 pounds were the output of smelters in the United States. This was considerably Jess than the annual production for the period of 1916-17-18, but in 1922 the output was larger amounting to 1,851,864,000 pounds, while in 1923 the United States alone had a smelter 330 COPPER WORLD PRODUCTION OF COPPER (In Pounds) UWE on Aes eS Sint On ty MAGeiys 2,181,253,000 BU ss lee aise’ byeith is pete ete ecce 2,054,090,000 DOUG A ou hs ls o's le wieelietele. ce whee 'ele le ty 2,330,886,000 LEN Ke = SR eyo ooo bie pibte lois 3,037,236,000 1) ee oe b's ke eieis 3,150,552,000 OM Sp acc ols «© eieieln ip ie isie alot aie ssise|0.fe)hn 3,148,499,000 LEO E ON (5 PAS Sans Sis oe 2,191,372,000 LO ZOD RS sbeis poyeip efareeto meets ster ker 2,112,007,000 1 Psiky S SIS SSI h ey TH AG ao GSE 1,234,576,000 IO Pmiene s,s a; 2' o's stencne te Casket Rete aie ere 1,851,864,000 America, which, as will appear from the accom- panying table of the world’s production was the source of the greater amount of the copper used in industry. As a consequence the price of this WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF COPPER BY COUNTRIES—(Smelter Output), 1919-1923 « (In metric tons) U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Where no footnotes are given, figures are taken from official publications. For countries from which ore or matte was exported for smelting, official figures have been converted to figures showing the quantity of copper recoverable by the smelters. Country 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 Canadas OWA eRe kee ft ROU. SR hee 34,044 37,014 21,600 19,450 > 39,890 Cuba pe. ion ith ree ee seats we he Cie Shinn ene ¢ 7,500 ¢ 8,400 ° 8,200 ¢ 11,800 ¢ 11,000 Wy oO paren Ae Gitte Ges Suey RO Ay ae 56,172 49,192 15,228 4 26,978 253,372 United = States. trrve csccke Bloke b vetete iets teem ce 583,516 548,426 229,332 431,047 650,912 North. ptAmericas (iuieweins Seite sesthe Seeds 681,232 643,032 274,360 489,275 OO hee Bolivia ERY bir tee BR OR A Paenien 4 Sud Gueeck Bce ie 9,524 9,982 10,592 5,661 e Obie Bates LE Pe Wate ee ieee eens 79,580 98,952 59,239 129,575 >’ 175,460 PATURtS rR ELE Oe LIEN hone SmI we Reeds Ga lesaihe 39,230 32,982 33,284 36,408 (¢@ LV CNOZUCI A: Hate -eW telcie eich strates olonsa eRe Latest > cece 1188 ¢ 400 ¢ 800 ¢ 1,700 (¢) South#vAmericn e@e\, . wenibe. cit eho ote 128,522 142,316 103,915 173,344 (¢) AUSEYID Wis xtath-en pele Sieh an vtaredalodel ol ebenouscete lc cme iecete 648 1,645 4,277 94,581 (¢) England le jaleteotetata ia cielethic « sttitloteterccen’ tei 146 129 1fG3 104 (¢) Finland aj seek ele. tthe eee een. ¢ 730 ¢ 460 ¢ 200 BF SY 0) (¢) GOLMANY 4a oo tie byw eh oce heen whens Codeine Ort ele 15,861 14,976 19,000 17,000 (¢) TUALY dios overopoee pteyes aLei'ere oie eheie stolecks, ot ele kever<\emcets eye! 635 356 319 310 BN OTR AY. Fe oie kwcd tale’ or. bus Gin apeme ec ete tence Riel Siscthe = 437 556 1,348 80 (¢) Portugal’ wid SS NR ee de Os © 650 ¢ 1,000 © 1.600 +) (¢) RAM Anas Tihisees evel ¢ ek? eae ey ee. caemete sired j14 5165 5108 dg bel (¢) ER TESSIG Bator esc: sie eee eh do, ciate ts es Reb eemeaet saetete (%) BRT OL k 4,668 (*) (¢) Sa lipwrarasict cretes teeters: sccbererereietore eleelices tater speie 23,419 22,458 36,345 25,139 (¢) SWECOMPT ie Calas toledo he wel eee tert tote legetals Rt one 3,558 1,289 Wes i 9 Nal ale eR Ants a (¢) JULO SIA VIS fh jetecede Oe areveie eho yee Wace Teh sweets, ore (t+) 2,436 4,144 5,354 (¢) Wurope of. CR ee OTS eR eS 152.837 49,500 73,268 158,438 (¢) QGhiT Ss ees Ce eS ae, corre ks’ Sats venmacb ate ten> m 554 metro T m 958 Ue as Ws (¢) DAT. date cea tc al Aote lis SuSE thee | ANN eee Fes 78,443 67,792 54,092 54,126 62,100 PAV W EAN Se See een s Gaia, oll ate ne sel ote Ueto ee nate ee te 884 592 ib akeyre (4) (¢) A STADE E Artie ites Libero dtd tolie Ae eee ER. as 79,881 68,575 56,247 155,339 ((2)) PAT Orie ery Soe Ye Uae s Mee: vo. te CEE REME ES Rene ete ae © 60 ¢ 430 ¢ 300 ¢ 430 ¢ 560 Belgians Kono): by. 5 Are kee eieletdets 3S bik 23,019 18,962 30,464 43,362 "56,479 Rhodesia: NORE GI UeAy a.) ss Lous abies tole toe ne Te eieds aes 185 132 200 181 132 SOULHErIL: Mee eek. (cee kre SNES IR RAG e 3% 4 2,782 2,820 2,794 3,074 2,697 Southwest African Protectorate ......-... ° 2,400 ° 4,370 © 7,400 ¢ 3,900 (¢) Union of South Africa ...... J.. Eee ia ra fe'e aoe 1,075 92 665 7,980 Atricn tees Al MON RASS 31,973 27,789 41,250 51,612 (e) Brpatratian al wee...) chia stoke ee sctud 19,491 27,022 11,147 12,040 (¢) Grand?) Total i: @ orem. che oe see | 9947000 958,000 560,000 ™ 840,000 (¢) *Tn addition to countries shown it is reported that Chosen (Korea) produced 2288 metric tons of crude copper in 1919 and 5368 metric tons in 1920. b Preliminary ¢ Estimated by the U. S. Geological Survey. Just what material this “crude copper” includes can not be determined. 4Consulate General of Mexico, Engineering and Mining Journal-Press of Apr. 19, 1924. ¢ Figures not ‘yet available. f Figures from Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau. 9 Consular Report, Nov. 25, 1923. 4 According to the American Bureau of Metal Statistics. is included 7 Figures not yet available, but an estimate is in the total. j For the year ending March 31 following that stated in the heading of the column, k Mining Journal (London) of Apr. 8, 1922. tIncludes estimate for countries for which information is not yet available. m™ Exports of ingots and slabs. production from domestic ores of 1,434,999,962 pounds. For the World’s production in pounds for the years 1913-22 see next column. Naturally with the extensive use of copper for cartridge cases and other munitions of war the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 stimulated activity in the copper industry, especially in 2 "T’Echo de Mines. metal mounted, and in the United States there was great activity both in the mining and in the refining and manufacture of copper. The British government at this time considered ship- ments of copper to neutral countries contraband, on the ground that it was destined for the Central Powers. Accordingly some 45,000,000 COPPER 331 pounds of copper were thus seized. On the other hand the Allies were large consumers of American copper. By March, 1917, a maximum price of 37 cents a pound was secured in the United States, and when the American government entered the War it received adequate supplies of copper from the producers, though the question of price was de- ferred. On September 6th the War Industries Board of the United States bought about 77,000 pounds of copper for the Allies which advanced the price, but finally a price of 231% cents was fixed hy agreement between the War Industries Board and the copper producers. There were strikes in Montana and Arizona at this time which curtailed production, but these were ad- justed and during the War copper in adequate amount was forthcoming. With the great demand due to the War, pro- duction of copper by the United States was car- ried on at an extraordinary rate. Naturally with the termination of hostilities there was no further call for this metal for munitions, and at the beginning of 1919 the copper producers held some 839,510,000 pounds of unsold metal. In addition the allied governments at the same time held over a billion pounds of virgin copper bought for war purposes but not required after the Armistice. Furthermore there was twice that amount of scrap copper and held copper ac- cumulated by various war manufacturing plants. Such conditions naturally had their effect on the industry which was slow in adjusting itself. However, conditions improved very slowly through 1921, and during 1922 the world’s sur- plus stock of copper was being slowly absorbed. At the end of 1922 secondary copper stocks were so far reduced that they ceased to be considered as a menace to the industry, and new produc- tion was entered into on a much larger scale. Copper mining in 1922 in the United States em- ployed approximately 100,000 men. The in- dustry during the year improved as in connec- tion with the refining of copper; gold and silver were also recovered. During 1923 the smelter production of pri- mary copper from domestic sources in the United States amounted to 1,434,999,962 pounds, an in- crease of approximately 51 per cent over 1922. The value of smelter production increased ap- proximately 64 per cent in 1923 over 1922, this increase in value being mainly due to the high prices prevailing during the first quarter of the year, for at the end of the year prices were at a lower level than the average for 1922. The average price of 2,404,768,102 pounds of copper delivered during the year, as reported to the Geological Survey by selling agencies, was 14.71 cents a pound, as against 13.5 cents in 1922. Smelter production of copper in Arizona in- creased from 428,200,624 pounds in 1922 to 615,493,561 pounds in 1923; in Montana from 165,341,414 pounds to 224,353,764 pounds; and in Utah from 79,665,563 pounds to 210,118,291 pounds. Most of the large companies in 1923 and 1924 were maintaining production at a rate somewhat below capacity, which they stated was because they did not wish to reduce their re- serves at prices which do not yield an adequate return. In 1922-23 the Calumet & Hecla, the Ahmeek, the Allouez, the Centennial, and the Osceola companies formed the Calumet & Hecla Consolidated Copper Co., and the Kennecott Cop- per Corporation absorbed the Utah Copper Co. Domestic production of new refined copper COPPER from domestic and foreign sources, in 1923 was at a higher rate than that maintained during any previous year, except the abnormal years of 1916, 1917, and 1918. Domestic consumption also kept pace with production and except for the years mentioned was also at the highest rate, but because of unfavorable conditions in Europe, which had retarded consumption in the important consuming countries there, and the increased production in South America and Africa, which tended to increase competition in European and other markets, stocks by 1924 had increased, and prices were below what the pro- ducers had confidently expected they would be. The American producers sought to offset the low selling price of copper, so far as they were able, by decreased costs of production. These de- creases were obtained by increased efficiency of operation, by improved labor, by consolidation of mining companies, and by closer codperation between producers and manufacturers. COPPER PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES FROM DOMESTIC ORES, 1923 (Smelter output, in pounds fine) State 1923 Alaskaweas tetas ae tes ee als 68,648,368 ATIZON AP Me et ee es Os Se ee Catron 615,493,561 Calivorwiataes strate tates Seer Ske eae ee 27,042,835 Colorg doe eee Re i a ILE 4,343,418 BOT Pah ie aes eee es eine 40's TR ah elie. (a) hen See CAME ee? aS DOAN OMe sae eet ae eat eee etre eaters 3,664,079 INMETCDT ATG vette ete Pa ole en Meee erate 137,691,306 MASSON Il Mee ees cee tie byes mercy ae Sea ties 217,449 IP OITCAT aye ne ee ea Se eos ek enya ov es 224,353,764 Nevada Glee Ueno tie anes See ee teens 63,495,928 New. SMexicouss Saas 47 Ses Pe ae, BW Sele Wl NOt Carolus! Waser ae cic, ene teeta 61,913 Ore ron te ty ee wean gece ae. 2) ee ae 1,182,437 PSNTUSVIVATIA sree tee cleo ote fete reteset a laa 29 WSS ic South Dakota rer. rae aie tae seme nats AT MENDESSCO DER EMEateh etree ieee kena ae eat ehieee 6 18,721,932 TGR AS MM RaNs copie cai Silay Siete ee eater ate fate 4,216 HO erdet | tS bP oe PRA le re LS Mee KAA ALAS A a Or 210,118,291 WidsSitime tore aerate often atcrctonene ts see 839,254 Wiy OMAR aol Pete ep ohie! o areey » Wetcmeietta so etle 87,686 Unidistributedhyn see fe cicero seasiaie. ot saene 390,734 TOGA Lear erccer iat ote rete soca ce teeta oes 1,434,999,962 In the above table the production is apportioned to the States in which the copper was mined. The figures represent the content of fine copper in the blister produced, the smelter output of ingot, and anode copper from Michigan. It was realized that additional uses for cop- per could be developed with advantage to pro- ducers and manufacturers, and in 1921 the Cop- per and Brass Research Association was organ- ized to promote a more general knowledge of the availability of copper for various purposes. This body made a survey of dwelling house con- struction and found that in this field alone 150,- 000,000 pounds of copper were used, and more would be required with the resumption of active building construction. Accordingly a campaign was put under way to increase the use of cop- per in this field. In the period under consideration there had been heavy investments of American capital in South America in copper properties, particularly in Chile where the mines at Chuquicamata, Raicagua and elsewhere were receiving the at- tention of well organized and financed com- panies. Likewise an important development with a con- siderable bearing on the copper situation of the world was the opening and exploitation of the copper deposits in the Katanga region of the Belgian Congo Free State owned by the Union Miniére du Haut Katanga, said to be the largest in the world. This was a Belgian COPPER 332 CORELLI SOME SALIENT COMPARATIVE FIGURES OF THE COPPER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 1913-1923 (In pounds) U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Refinery production of Withdrawn Smelter primary copper Exports from total Year production ' (domestic Imports (un- of metallic supply on (domestic ores) and foreign manufactured) copper domestic ac- sources ) count (new) HOLS: Firs weer hae 1,224,484,098 1,615,000,000 409,000,000 926,000,000 812,000,000 DO ea ee ie isis Reks 1,150,137,192 1,533,800,000 306,000,000 840,000,000 702,000,000 OS rere ec tc res eee 1,388,009,527 1,634,200,000 316,000,000 682,000,000 1,137,000,000 TOU GSS LA ees 1,927,850,548 2,259,400,000 462,000,000 784,000,000 1,479,000,000 LOTT CA SMe eee 1,886,120,721 2,422,000,000 556,000,000 1,126,000,000 1,395,000,000 ao Pent Np ale R: 1,908,533,595 2,394,000,000 576,000,000 744,000,000 1,662,000,000 LODO sate atsters ce cehere 6 1,286,419,329 1,770,000,000 429,000,000 516,000,000 914,000,000 1920 OARS Se a 1,209,061,040 1,526,000,000 486,000,000 623,000,000 1,054,000,000 LOST og. See Ley ot 3. 505,586,098 951,000,000 350,000,000 628,000,000 611,000,000 DOD staat eee aie as 950,285,947 1,256,000,000 541,000,000 743,000,000 897,000,000 ODS uc teastnatesteks. 4 sues 1,434,999,962 1,980,000,000 676,000,000 829,000,000 1,300,000,000 STATISTICS OF, THE OOPPER INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES IN “1922 AND 1923 U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Summary of features of the copper industry in the United States in 1922 and 1923 Production of copper: 1922 1923 SmelteriMmout pus Move <:dearcuctate taney: eae vende) io) olevelisiieesh ele rsiet ay MG pounds... 950,285,947 1,434,999,962 Mise. Tt prOd UCtON Ny ors io ctve le ee nede ile o) shee ftckad te Meekereks rear esc anin COMero tts 964,583,894 (2) Refinery production of new copper Wlectrolytic: i c-. tye sect sie ey He edeh bceeaete Coates apels legebeneuMetele cits eSeee OTe sees 766,944,836 1,302,454,492 Tas de@y poles, dfn incl Soak oh oe ioe teks sete, ep hee ral prone eas SCRE ORT, dose icste 122,545,126 137,691,306 GAaSting; (ANG Digwi ne wid. themtbse bere =) Gc sascsne ale SMM aeteas che ols eons GOs . cre T1380 (23 24,019,197 Total sd OMEStiGi tains, he his: eeehaaes oes Us onic crete aye Bake PENe Lado eaeae tte dows. : 904,670,685 1,464,164,995 Totaly GOMeStYC And * LOTCILD Ate csts: oie och serch berate rok epiars oe manent ete CLO Shs 1,255,515,959 1,979,835,616 TotalgnieywiwanGd Old) sCOPDeLs ote sites ors cur, cretene dendievetd siriislerenrbetane CLO Genchore 1,927,000,000 2,802,000,000 Ore produced: CWOPPOE ONE: Kore hc chester ehe tote clots covet Sbce ates aise short tons. . 26,898, eH (4) AV EHAZOWLVIClG LOLs COPDELymeie 4 bictepepstesets slehe slsacuemactnesstereye per cent.. (#) Otherw Ore yield in SMCOPPEL Mes. v-screderen- saksuedete’ eh ous lett) ouster short tons. . bie 370 (2) FAVELA le apEICEL Der epOUNdiers, teopetedene cue elevebevalin che SR horaielt ce redone! oo Cents... 13.5 1457 Imports (CUNDIANULACTUYEC) wry -ceunerehoie: cre siskorsin isl clot eh mabcus Reve nn otsmere pounds... 541,013,220 676,473,338 taxporisy of metallic copper? ss. web ks spispemtoings aurie ¢, es eee dork, FE 742,755,957 828,854,827 Withdrawn from total supply on domestic accounts: Tate, LL eNO Wie COD DCT uma s uels tele lots onal pepere mac iaatie saiele Teste os pounds 896,633,833 1,300,473,331 Wotal un Cwiandy O1Os COD DEM Atcha oisaens ich eliet sis 2 eetonenste cols et eee ren Cow:® 1,568,000,000 2,122,000,000 Stockss#ofiereninedicoppernc. Ui iemicie)epsiess ermicce consielts censuchepe tates o) Une bes kane ag) Sea 216,000,000 264,000,000 Stockstfof blister) and ‘materials in’ “solution\e, sprees 2 - ne cheats ee cv erence 361,000,000 432,000,000 Viahremots production, INuethew NITCOUESLATES » eqisgctul pediiel eellelc to. « tetipaaneny «ile $128,289,000 $210,945,000 Worldisks production any crepe) cess sicus) ele ch clebe ohersbehe ke memonntal ak italetn pounds 1,851,864,000 (*) @¥Figures not available when table was compiled. > Total exports of copper, ¢ At the end of the year. company in which the Tanganyika Concessions, a British corporation, owned a 39 per cent inter- est. With its mines, local smelters and refiner- ies the Union Company was the largest copper producer in the world in 1921, with an output of 67,012,000 pounds, which was exceeded in 1922 when the production was estimated at 92,400,- 000 pounds. The official estimate of the ore re- serves at the 12 great mines of the eastern group of the Union Miniére was 2,800,000 tons of copper contained in 6-per cent ore aggregat- ing some 49,000,000 tons. The other group of mines under development by this corporation was said to include 1,700,000 tons of metal in 8- to 9-per cent ore. Large refining and reducing works have been erected in proximity to the mines, and hydro- electric power from the Lufira and Lualaba rivers was to be installed, inasmuch as other copper deposits have been found in Katanga, as well as elsewhere in Africa, the advent of which into the world’s copper production was an im- portant factor. The rapid development of the copper industry in the Belgian Congo by 1923 had reached a point where the production amounted to some 57,000 metric tons as compared with 43,362 tons in 1922. The leading copper mines under opera- tion were the Star of the Congo, Kambove, Likasi exclusive of ore, concentrates, material, which can not be separated from ore and concentrates. and composition metal, and for 1923, unrefined and Luishia. The Star of the Congo had been exhausted three times, but in 1922 large re- serves of ore were found. A smelter at Lum- bumbashi handled the ore and concentrates, some of which were prepared at the mines. There were reverberatory furnaces and electrocathodes were produced. The copper was sent to Europe by way of Beira ordinarily, but in 1923 some went out by Dar-es-Salaam, as the cost of. trans- portation was slightly less. Half of the black copper produced in the Belgian Congo was shipped to America for refining, while the rest was treated in Europe, but there was under construction an eloctrolytic refinery to handle this ore near Antwerp. CORAL REEF FORMATION. See Geror- oGy. CORBIN, Joun (1870- ). An American dramatic critic and author (see Vor. VI). He wrote The Edge (1915) and until 1916 was secretary of the Drama Society of New York. From 1917 to 1919, he was dramatic critic of the New York Times and after 1919 editorial writer for the same paper. He produced Shake- speare’s Tempest (with full text in the Eliza- bethan manner) in 1916, ai.d in 1922 published The Return of the Middle Class. CORELLI, Marte (1864-1924). novelist (see Vor. VI). An English Her later publications ee ee aa ee es ee ae 2 ee ee Se ee ee _ the same period was as follows: COREY include: Innocent, Her Fancy and His Fact (1914, 1921) ; The Young Diana (1917); My Lit- tle Bit, a Record of War Work (1919); The Love of Long Ago (1920); The Secret Power (1921), and The Treasure of Heaven: a Ro- mance of Riches (1921). COREY, WILLIAM ELuis (1866— ). An American capitalist, born in Braddock, Pa. He was educated in the public schools and at Duft’s College, Pittsburgh. He entered the Edgar Thompson Steel Works at the age of 16, and he- came superintendent of the plate mill at the Homestead Steel Works in 1899. He succeeded Charles M. Schwab as general superintendent at these works in 1897. From 1901 to 1903, he was president of tle Carnegie Steel Company, and from that year to 1911 was president of the United States Steel Corporation. In the latter year he resigned this post to ‘become chairman of the board of the Midvale Steel and Ordnance Company. He was a director and of- ficial in many important financial institutions. CORFU DECLARATION. See J UGO- SLAVIA. , CORFU GOVERNMENT. See Sersra. CORFU INCIDENT. See ALBANIA; GREECE; ITALY. CORN. According to the census of 1920, corn was produced on three-fourths of the farms in the United States. The average annual pro- duction of the country for the years 1914-23, in- elusive, was 2,883,000,000 bushels. The average annual production of the leading corn states for Towa 402,000,- 000 bushels, Illinois 320,000,000 bushels, and Nebraska 205,000,000 bushels. The average acre yield in the United States increased from 24.1 bushels for the ten-year period 1890-99 to 26.1 bushels for the ten-year period 1910-19. It was estimated that 40 per cent of the corn crop was fed to swine on farms, 20 per cent to horses on farms, 15 per cent to cattle on farms, and 10 per cent was used for human food. About 4,- 000,000 acres of corn each year were made into silage, over 2,500,000 acres were cut for fodder and more than 2,000,000 acres were pastured off with hogs. About four years after the War, corn production in southeastern Europe had practically regained its pre-war status. The corn area of Russia in 1923 was 3,548,000 acres, as compared with 2,223,000 acres in 1913. Largely as a result of the War, corn production in Argentina was increased to a considerable ex- tent, although the yield in 1923 was below the average for the years 1909-13, which was 174,- 502,000 bushels. The average annual total value of the corn crop of the United States for the five-year period 1910-14 was $1.577,000,000, but the higher price of corn from 1916 to 1919 raised the value for that period to $3,024,000,000. The 1920 crop was the largest ever harvested, but prices were receding and its total value was only $2,150,000,- 000, while in 1921, with a yield only 4 per cent under the crop of 1920, prices had dropped so low that the total value was only $1,303,000,000, or only 43 per cent of the annual value during the war period and about 16 per cent less than the pre-war value although the crop was 10 per cent larger than the pre-war average. During the war the average farm price of corn rose above $1.90 per bushel; but the price began to decline in 1920 and reached the low point at the end of 1921, reducing the purchasing power of corn far below that of any other year. A marked 333 CORNELL rise in the cost of production occurred from 1914 to 1920, and the rise in price was even greater and more rapid. The cost of production was far from declining in the same proportion as the price of corn, and this was one of the principal factors leading to the agricultural economic crisis beginning in 1920 and continuing for sev- eral years. The United States Grain Standards Act of Aug. 11, 1916, required that in all interstate buying and selling of corn the grades used shall be the Federal grades established by the Secre- tary of Agriculture. According to these grades, based on condition and quality, the best corn is graded Number One and corn lower in quality is given numerical grades down to and including Number Six, while a “sample grade” is added for corn too low in quality for the numbered grades. To the insect pests attacking the corn crop in the United States was added the European corn borer. This insect, first reported within the United States near Boston in 1917, became es- tablished during the following six years in east- ern New York and in a narrow strip along the shores of Lake Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. By that time the insect infested, in Ontario, Canada, an area extending from Lake Erie northward and equal to the area infested in the United States. Quarantine regulations were put in force to prevent its spread and Congress appropriated money for its control. The diseases of corn which have become troublesome in recent years are the brown spot disease, characterized by brown spots usually on the leaf, the leaf sheath and the stalk, and root rot of corn which results in the partial or total decay of the root system causing the plant to lodge, and which at- tacks also the stalk and the ear. Corn Oil. Corn oil, derived largely from the germ in the corn kernel and produced economi- cally only in connection with the manufacture of corn products from which the germ is ex- cluded, is of growing importance. Formerly used mainly in the manufacture of soaps and paints, it is now refined and used for food in the form of lard and butter substitutes, salad and cooking oils, shortening, and other similar substances. With the increase in the manufac- ture of corn products during the War, due in part to flour substitute regulations, the annual production of corn oil rose to 118,000,000 pounds but later receded to about 90,000,000 pounds. Corn oil is used also in making rubber substi- tutes. Corn cobs are utilized in paper-making, the production of adhesives, the manufacture of fibre board and wall board, and for other simi- lar purposes. In some of the manufacturing processes employed, furfurol, a compound used for technical purposes and also as a germicide and fungicide, is recovered as a_ by-product. Consult United States: Department of Agricul- ture Yearbook, 1921. See AGRICULTURE. CORN BORER, EUROPEAN. See ENrTo- MOLOGY, ECONOMIC. CORNELL, KATHARINE (2 ). An American actress who made her first appearance in 1916 with the Washington Square Players in Bushido and remained with that company some time, playing The Death of Tintagiles, Plots and Playwrights, ete. In 1918, she was with the Jessie Bonstelle stock company at Buf- falo and subsequently toured in Cheating Cheat- ers and The Man Who Came Back. In 1919, she played Jo in Little Women in London and the next year toured in The Man Outside. One of CORNELL UNIVERSITY 334 her best characterizations in New York was the part of Eileen Baxter-Jones in Nice People (1921). CORNELL UNIVERSITY. A _ nonsectar- ian, coeducational institution at Ithaca, N. Y., established in 1865. The university’s annual in- come available for current expenses increased during the decade between 1914 and 1923-24 from $3,000,000 to $4,500,000. Besides aug- mented income from invested funds, somewhat higher tuition fees, and increased State appro- priation for the State College of Agriculture and Veterinary College, this increment included some $100,000 given annually by alumni, $100,000 from rents of new residential halls, and $200,- 000 from the United States for research and ex- tension instruction in agriculture. A cam- paign for new endowment, begun in 1919, yielded subscriptions of more than $6,000,000, mainly for increased salaries for faculty members. The enrollment of students in 1923-24 was 5153, as compared with 5015 in 1914, and the faculty numbered 949, an increase of 199 over 1914. The number of volumes in the library was multi- plied by almost one-half. The Baker Laboratory of Chemistry, for which George F. Baker gave $1,500,000, and a $400,000 State building for the department of dairy industry, were completed in 1923. Gifts received within the decade were $500,000 from August Heckscher to endow re- search, $50,000 from Mrs. Sarah Manning Sage for medical research, and an anonymous gift of $200,000 for pediatrics. The library received from Charles W. Wason a collection relating to China, with a $50,000 endowment. Col. Oliver H. Payne’s bequest of $4,500,000 to endow the medical college, which is situated in New York City, became available in 1914. The New York State Drill Hall was completed in 1917 and was used during the War by an army school of mili- tary aéronautics. Livingston Farrand succeeded Jacob Gould Schurman as president in 1921. CORPS. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZA- _ TION. CORTISSOZ, RoyaL (?- ). An Ameri- can journalist, born in New York City. For many years he was literary and art editor of the New York Tribune, and was a frequent con- tributor to magazines on art subjects and also lectured much on art. He was the author of Augustus St. Gaudens (1907); John LaFarge (1911), and Art and Common Sense (1913). He edited many classics, including Don Quixote and The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini. He also edited Whitelaw Reid’s American and Eng- lish Studies. He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. COSGRAVE, WILLIAM THomAs (1880- ). An Irish statesman, born at Dublin. He was educated at the Christian Brothers’ Schools, and, engaging in business in Dublin, amassed a for- tune. He was a member of the secret revolu- tionary organization called the Irish Republican Brotherhood. In 1909, he was elected to the Dublin City Council. He was a leader in the Sinn Fein ranks, and on May 5, 1916, he was arrested, brought to trial, and sentenced to death. His sentence was changed to imprison- ment for life, but he was released in the general amnesty of 1917. In the fall of 1917, he was elected to Parliament, but because of his Sinn Fein principles, did not take his seat. In May, 1918, he was again arrested and taken to Eng- land. He returned in 1919, was again arrested and deported. Upon his return to Dublin this COSTA RICA last time, he became minister of loeal govern- ment in the Dail Eireann. In January, 1922, he put through a plan to spend £1,000,000 on housing within the year. On the death of Ar- thur Griffith and of Michael Collins, Cosgrave became head of the Provisional Government. The constitution of the Free State was ratified, and in December, 1922, the Provisional Government came to an end. Timothy M. Healy became the first governor-general of the Irish Free State, and Cosgrave was elected president of the Execu- tive Council. He also became Minister of Fi- nance. COSMOGONY. See ASTRONOMY. COSTA RICA. A Central American re- public situated between Nicaragua and Pana- ma. Its area, variously estimated at 18,- 691 to 23,000 square miles, seated in 1922 an estimated population of 576,581 (population in 1911, 388,266). Immigration in 1920 was 6040 (1911, 9537) and the emigration, 5280 (1911, 8170). The populations of the largest cities, as estimated in 1920, were: San José, with sub- urbs, 51,395; Cartago, 17,402; Heredia, 13,885; Alajuela, 11,908, Limon, 10,231. Industry and Finance. Agriculture con- tinued to prosper. The coffee planters in 1922 had the best year in the history of their indus- try. In 1913, exports totaled 13,019,059 kilos, at a value of $3,605,930; in 1922, 18,616,803 kilos, at $6,677,762. Exports for 1923 and 1924 were large and commanded excellent prices. The 1924 crop was very good. In 1913, Great Brit- ain took 82 per cent of the total; the United States, 6 per cent. During the War the United States displaced Great Britain from her com- manding position, only to be compelled to yield up first place once more in 1922, when she bought 34 per cent, and Great Britain, 59. The sugar industry showed great advances. In 1913, production was 2,869,429 kilos with only an in- significant amount exported. In 1920, the ex- port was 5,107,251 kilos, and in 1922, 2,608,678 kilos. Production in 1923-24 was placed at 19,- 000,000 pounds. The banana industry, worked for the most part by the United Fruit Company, ranked second in importance in point of export value. In 1912, the number of bunches shipped was 10,647,702; in 1922, 7,671,619, (with a value of $5,003,455). Production was decreased some- what in 1923 by blight. Cacao production as- sumed economic importance during the decade. . Exports in 1913 were 845,931 pounds; in 1922, 7,236,378. Mining, on the other hand, decreased because of the exhaustion of the known ore bodies. Exports of gold and silver bullion for 1905-14 were worth an annual average of $706,- 457; in 1922, $491,188. Commerce over the whole period showed imports of $8,687,280 for 1913; for 1922, $8,344,670; exports for 1913 and 1922, $10,234,149 and $14,224,332. In 1912, 46 per cent of the imports came from the United States; in 1922, 61 per cent. Exports to the United States increased from 55 per cent to 56 per cent in 1922. They had reached 68 per cent in 1921. Government accounts fluctuated over the period. The year 1922 was the first to show a surplus since 1912. Expenditures in 1913 were 10,184,261 colones; in 1922, 17,311,165 co- lones. Revenues for the same years were 9,612,- 533 and 18,971,023 colones. Largely as a result of the deficits, the internal debt increased from 3,829,783 to 40,050,901 colones. The external debt increased in the same period from $7,869,- 295 to $13,635,852. The par value of the colon eh, Sy COST OF LIVING is $0.465 (2.15 colones to the dollar). In 1922 the colon was worth 4.4 to the dollar, so that the government was compelled to fix the legal rate of exchange, in October, 1922, at 4 colones. Dur- ing 1923 there was a fluctuation in value, the colon going as high as 454 to the dollar, but the exceptionally good coffee crop and high prices of 1924 increased the gold exchange and made possible the regulation of the rate at 4 colones again. History. President Alfredo Gonzalez, elected in 1914, was confronted by serious disturbances in 1917 on his attempt to inaugurate a radical financial programme and was compelled to relin- quish his office. His successor, Federico Tinoco, leader of the revolutionists, was refused the recognition of the United States, with the result that his waning influence ended with his over- throw in 1919 at the hands of Julio Acosta Garcia. The latter served as president, 1920-24, and during his administration the country re- gained the stability for which it had formerly been celebrated in Spanish America. Under a small and satisfied land-owning class, prosperity prevailed. In 1917 Costa Rica severed relations with Germany and in 1918 assumed the role of an Associate Power on the side of the Allies. In 1920 the suffrage was extended to women. In 1921 the administration was thwarted in its attempt to join the newly-formed Central Amer- ican Union by the negative vote of the National Assembly. (See CENTRAL AMERICAN UNION). In 1923 Secretary of State Hughes announced that it was the intention of the United States to recognize Costa Rica’s rights in the use of the San Juan River for the Nicaraguan Canal route. The question had arisen out of Costa Rica’s pro- test against the Bryan-Chamorro treaty of 1916 and her subsequent suit before the Central Amer- ican Court of Justice, on the ground that the route, in being run through the San Juan River, alienated her territorial rights. For the presi- dential term 1924-28 Ricardo Jiminez was elected in May, 1924. 7 COST OF LIVING IN THE UNITED STATES. The cost of living index numbers given by the United States Bureau of Labor Sta- tistics show the changes in the cost of living throughout the United States during 1914-24 in comparison with the average cost in 1913. Retail prices of food are secured directly from 15 to 25 dealers in each of 51 cities, and prices are also secured for coal, wood, gas, electricity, and kerosene from dealers in a number .of cities. Other data on retail prices are secured by spe- cial agents. Rental figures are for 400 to 2000 houses and apartments in each city, according to its population. The costs of clothing, furniture, and miscellaneous items are determined from four quotations from each city on each of a large number of items; in Greater New York five quotations were secured instead of four. In the calculation of the index number the prices for the different articles of food are weighted according to the relative values shown in the budgets of over 12,000 families secured by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics in its investigation during 1918-19. The dif- ferent types of expenditure are weighted accord- ing to their relative values in total expenditure, as shown also in this budget investigation, but prices within the budget divisions are not weighted except for food. The following weights are used for the different budget divisions in the calculation of the cost-of-living index num- 12 335 COST OF LIVING ber for the United States: food, 38.2; clothing, 16.6; housing, 13.4; fuel and light, 53; furni- ture and furnishings 5.1; and miscellaneous, 21.3. As shown by the figures given above, there were marked differences in the rate of increase, in 1913-24, in the six budget divisions. Food costs increased rapidly and also decreased rapidly; food costs after May, 1921, were nearer the cost level of 1913 than any of the other budget divisions. The cost of housing increased but slowly and was still showing a tendency to increase, and the cost of house and furnishing goods was also rising during the lat- ter few years, after a rapid decrease from its peak in 1920. The cost of clothing remained well above the level of 1913, as did also the cost of fuel and light and the cost of miscellaneous items. The total cost of living shows amounts of change quite different from those indicated by any of the budget divisions separately. In addition to the cost-of-living index num- ber for the United States, the Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes data on the change in the cost of living in 32 cities. In 19 of these cities comparison is made with prices prevailing in December, 1914; in 13, with prices prevailing in December, 1917. Each of these index numbers is weighted according to the proportionate ex- penditure for the different budget divisions shown by the budgets collected in the city dur- ing the 1918-19 investigation. The food ex- penditure, however, is weighted according to the average expenditure shown in all budgets col- lected in the geographical division in which the city is located, rather than according to that shown in the budgets secured in the particular city. As will be seen by reference to the accom- panying table, there is considerable variation among the cities in the amount of change in the total cost of living, variation being partly from differences in weights and partly from differences in retail prices. In all instances, however, liv- ing costs increased slowly at first, and then more rapidly until the highest point was reached in June, 1920. The decrease was fairly rapid until March, 1922, and since then there has been a tendency in some instances toward a slight de- crease and in others toward a slight increase. Monthly prices for 43 articles of food are secured by the Bureau in 51 cities and are published at quarterly intervals in the Monthly Labor Ke- view, separately for each article in each city, and also combined to show the change in the cost of food for a family, the same system of weighting being used as in the calculation of the cost-of-living index numbers. There is also quarterly publication of retail prices of coal, gas, and electricity, and until November, 19238, of retail prices of dry goods. Other index num- bers of the cost of living are those of the Na- tional Industrial Conference Board and the Mas- sachusetts Commission on the Necessaries of Life, the first based on data on prices from all sections of the United States and the second on price data secured in Massachusetts. Two interesting index numbers for the period 1909-19 were prepared by the National Bureau of Economie Research in connection with the study of income in the United States (Income in the United States: Its Amount and Iistribu- tion, 1909-1919, vol. ii). It was felt that an index number of the cost of living based on the goods and proportionate expenditure of families with small incomes might not measure accurate- COST OF LIVING 336 COST OF LIVING "6T6T “AOQWOAON o “616T ‘[dyq: ‘es¥eteq » 6_6¢ 3&9 6°39 6°09 68 6S 6'OS 9°L¢ 89g 0°E9 699 TL9 8°L8 SOL 9L80 @The 88h S LV ORES OL Se, 0 mel ‘HOPSULYSE A 99 $89 ¥'389 v99 6°19 L°99 g°99 0'L9 ¥ LO QTL ooL 6°08 V6 GOTT L216 6°9L 6°69 LEG yo OST a 8 oa ee car SPs va 6 SS B9g 9°Sg O°LG 8°9¢ Oo= 2s 6°9G G99 € TL LL 1°86 POOL L386 8°6L OSL 67S Oo Ro BS a ee Sie Se SYRUNUARA 08S LT G9 v'09 9°LG g°9g¢ 88g Lg 8°9¢G GL 9°69 9°79 1°99 Ss 0°96 8°48 9°99 8°Lg 9°86 €8 dakg PMSIARO™ BUS nOvsoeesT- Tes 6 Sg 8 Lg ¥-9S od ee! 94S bog GUS TGs 6 GG 6'°8G g°09 G69 €°08 vOOT 2€8 69 a v9 ots £9 Loe. a ae 0 ‘PuUB[}1og T V9 6°99 8°S9 69 v.49 T V9 oT9 L°6S L°09 @ 69 OGL GL T66 9 LOT 9°T6 ae a GGL 0'88= 8ST 2 hel Boe eS ie OTS puriwo dg 6TL Lvl GPL TGL 8°69. 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VG8 g°L8 €LOL €O0GT 286 oLL VtL ©-CP2 BGT, (PLS A ae Paar OSL Léb GEL 9°69 0°89 0°89 9°99 0°S9 £9 ESL SSL VSL GaGs *O FL SO00TL oS es GGL BeBe -GE O'S ee ee a Oa) 1°74 9°8L 68h TPL GGL 6 EL OTL 9°89 GIGI 8.0) VSL 6°08 L’TOE GIcr L°cOt 328 6°08 Dee Seg mee SC a NS Ss” a oe OTRO Se 9°99 ¥ 69 6°L9 s°¢9 69 ES9 6°09 9°6S a T9 @ OL BSL VTL VL6 L°OTT -€°36 8°oL 9°0L EBS eo POC eS eas” Soe t eSOISO EF 6TL 8 rh LvL OGL GOL 6°0L a L9 9°L9 6°L9 GEL GOL PLL 8°96 SvIlt 7°86 0°78 L’¥8 Gs ES Sa kgs ee ee ee ee AIOE YVo6L- S26 ~ 0-0c- -2°F ONT: <.. a ee ee ee ee as _ a SS ee ee ee ee Oe ee — ee ee eS ee Cl ee ee OEE CZECHO-SLOVAKIA fiation, disorganized economic life, and wide- spread unemployment. Whereas the crown in 1918 was worth about $.01, it had gone up to $.015 in January, 1922, and by January, 1923, it had reached $.03125. Retail prices fell, too. Based on the index number 100 for 1914, neces- sities, ie. foodstuffs, fuel, and clothing, were at 2488 in January, 1921; at 1760 in January, 1922; at 1029 in December, 1922; and at 972 in May, 1923. On tke other hand, wages ranged between 9 and 121% times the pre-war rate. From 1919 to 1921 unemployment regu- larly dropped, falling from 260,000 to 100,000. However, the industrial crisis of the ensuing year raised the total of men out of work to 490,000, so that by February, 1923, 200,000 men were receiving unemployment doles. The reaction was due to the setback which indus- tries supplying foreign markets received with the appreciation of the currency. ). An Anglo-American author (see Vout. VI). He joined the Canadian Army at the front in 1916, and continued in service until the end of the War. After having been wounded, he came twice to the United States (1917, 1918) on lecture tours. In 1918, he in- vestigated, for the British Ministry of Infor- mation, American military preparedness in France. In 1919, he went to England to study European reconstruction problems, and _subse- quently lectured on the subject of the United States. He also visited and reported on the devas- tated regions of Central and Eastern Europe at the request of Herbert Hoover. His recent works include: Florence on a Certain Night (1914); The Raft (1914); Slaves of Freedom (1916); The Seventh Christmas (1917, 1921); Carry On (1917); The Glory of the Trenches (1918); Out To Win (1918); Living Bayonets (1919); The Test of Scarlet (1919); The Little House (1920), It Might Have Happened to You (1921); The Kingdom Round the Corner (1921, 1923), and Christmas Outside Eden (1922). He also edited, with W. J. Dawson (q.v.), Best Short Stories (1923). DAWSON, Mires MENANDER (1863- yh An American lawyer (see Vor. VI). He was adviser to the Governor of New York and the commission regarding workmen’s compensation in 1914. He was special counsel for the United States in the tax litigation in 1915 and 1917. In 1917 and 1921 he was adviser to the War Risk Bureau, and in 1918-19, special attorney examiner for the United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation. In the. latter year, he was also counsel and actuary for the commission to investigate the New York. State DEAN Insurance Fund. He is the author of The Eth- ics of Confucius (1915), and the translator of ad a poetical tragedy, by Henrik Ibsen (1916). DAWSON, WirtiAm JAmeEs (1854— if An English clergyman and author (see VOL. VI). He is the author of: Robert Shenstone (novel, 1917) ; The Father of a Soldier (1917) ; The War Eagle (1918); Chalmers Comes Back (1919), and The Borrowdale Tragedy (1920). Me edited, with Coningsby Dawson (q.v.), Best Short Stories (1923). Dey se, CLAVE. (181 i ). An American university professor (see VoLt. VI). He was chief of the Balkan Division of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace (Paris, 1918- 19). He published a revised and enlarged edi- tion of his History of Commerce (1922) and The Question of the Balkans, a_ brochure, (1920). DAY, Hotman Francis (1865— | Pheagab a1 (American author (see Vor. VI). Among his lat- er works are: The Landloper (1915); Along Came Ruth (play produced in New York, 1914); Blow the Man Down (1916); Where Your Treasure Is (1917); Kavanagh’s Clare (1917); The Rider of the King Log (1919); When Egypt Went Broke (1920); All Wool Morrison (1921). DAY, JAMES Roscozk (1845-1923). An American educator (see Vout. VI). In 1922, he became chancellor emeritus of Syracuse Uni- versity. He was famous as a defender of “big business.” During and after the War he -criti- cized the Wilson administration and the League of Nations unsparingly. He published My Neighbor the Workingman, and at the time of his death was about to start on an autobiog- raphy. He died at Atlantic City on Jan. 13, 1923. DAYTON. A city of Ohio. The population rose from 116,577 in 1910 to 152,559 in 1920, and to 165,530, by estimate of the Bureau of the Census, for 1923. A _ flood prevention works, which was considered one of the world’s greatest engineering projects, was begun immediately after the flood of 1913 and completed in 1923, at a cost of $35,000,000. Five aviation fields were established at and near Dayton, which came to the fore as a centre of aviation. .The United States government aviation experiment laboratories were located at McCook Field, and a supply dépot and airplane manufacturing plant at Wilbur Wright Field, which was expanded to 5000 acres by a gift of the people of Dayton to the government. Early in 1924 a city planning and zoning commission was appointed. DEALEY, JAMES QUAYLE (1861- ). An American university professor (see Vor. VI). He was president of the American Sociological Association in 1920, and in 1921 went to China as exchange professor and lecturer. He is au- thor of The Growth of State Constitutions (1915); Sociology—Its Development and Appli- cations (1920); and State and Government (1921). DEAN, ArtHur LyMANn (1878- ). An American chemist, born at Southwick, Mass. He was graduated at Harvard in 1900 and re- ceived his Ph.D. from Yale in 1902. During 1902-07, he taught plant physiology at Shef- field Scientific School, Yale, and was also a Carnegie research assistant during 1904-05 as well as chief of the section of wood chemistry DEARBORN in the United States Forest Service during 1905-07. He had charge of the chemical labor- atory of A. D. Little in Boston during 1907-08, but at the close of the year returned to the Sheffield Scientific School, being assistant pro- fessor until 1914 when he was called to the presidency of the University of Hawaii in Hon- olulu. His original investigations have in- cluded studies on inulin, proteolytic enzymes, creosote oils, and chaulmoogra oil in treatment of leprosy, on all of which he has published valuable papers. DEARBORN, GEORGE VAN NEss (1869- ). An American psychologist and surgeon, born at Nashua, N. H. He was edu- cated at Dartmouth College and received his medical degree from the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, in 1893. He then devoted himself to graduate study in psychology at Harvard and Columbia Univer- sities, and following his doctorate he became a professor of psychology and education. The greater part of his career was spent at the Sargent Normal School, Cambridge, Mass. Besides various contributions to professional journals, he is the author of a number of books on psychology and hygiene, the more impor- tant of which are the following: The Emotion of Joy (1899); Textbook of Human Physiology (1908); Motor-Sensory Development (1910), and Physiology and Hygiene (1921). DEARBORN, WALTER FENNO (1878— . An American psychologist and educator born at Marblehead, Mass. He was educated at Wes- leyan and Columbia Universities, receiving his degree of Ph.D. from the latter institution in 1905. He pursued medical studies in German at the University of Munich. He taught edu- cational psychology at the University of Wis- consin, and in 1909 was called to the faculty of Harvard University. One of the leading au- thorities in educational psychology, Professor Dearborn has contributed numerous papers on the psychology of reading, the practice experi- ment in learning, intelligence tests, mental hy- giene, and school training. DEATH. See ZooLoey. DEAVER, JoHn Buarr (1855— ye ATL American surgeon, who received his medical de- gree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1878, and after holding several other teaching and hospital positions was appointed Barton professor of surgery in his alma mater and chief surgeon to the University Hospital. His major publications include: Treatise on Ap- pendicitis (1896), which was expanded in its fourth edition (1913); Surgical Anatomy, 3 vols. (1889-93); Hnlargement of the Prostate (1905); Surgery of the Upper Abdomen, in col- laboration with Ashhurst, 2 vols. (1909, 19138) ; Surgical Anatomy of the Head and Neck (1912); The Breast, in collaboration with McFarland (1917); Hacursions into Surgical Subjects, with Reimann (1923). DE BLOIS, AusTeEN KENNEDY (1866— ue A Canadian clergyman, born at Wolfville, N. S., educated at Brown University, and at Berlin and Leipzig, Germany. He became president of Shurtleff College, Alton, Ill, in 1894. During 1900-01, he traveled in Europe and Africa, and on returning to the United States became pas- tor of several Baptist churches successively. He wrote: Bible Study in American Colleges (1899); The Pioneer School (1900); Imperial- ism and Democracy (1901); History of the 366 DE LA GORCE First Baptist Church in Boston, 1665-1915 (1916); Life of John Mason Peck, Prophet of the Prairies (1917); The Message of Wisdom: Studies in the Book of Proverbs (1920). DEBS, Eucene Victor (1855— ).» An American labor organizer (see Vor. VI). He was convicted of violation of the espionage act in September, 1918, and was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment in the penitentiary. The decision was sustained by the Supreme Court of the United States on Mar. 10, 1919, and he went to prison on Apr. 13, 1919. He was par- doned by President Harding on Dec. 24, 1921, but his political rights were not restored. DEBT, PusLic. See FINANCE AND BANKING. DEFLATION. See AGRICULTURE. DE FOREST, Lee (1873— ). An Ameri- can inventor (see Vor. VI). In 1915, he was awarded a gold medal by the San Francisco Ex- position for radio telephone. In 1919, he had taken out over 120 patents on radio devices, the most important being the “Audion,” a detecter, oscillator and amplifier which made _ possible telephone service both by wire and’ wireless across the continent. DEISSMANN, Gustav ADotr (1866-___). A German New Testament scholar, professor at the University of Berlin, Geheimkonsistorial- rat (1916- ), member of the Brandenburg Provincial Synod and of the Prussian General Synod from 1914 on (see Vout. VI). He deliv- ered a course of lectures for the clergymen in 1916-17 in Warsaw, Vilna, and Brussels. In 1918, he was for the second time Olaus-Petri Lecturer at the University of Upsala, and the following year became a member of the German Evangelical Synod in Dresden. His works pub- lished since 1913 include: Der Lehrstoff fiir Religiongeschichte (1914); Der Krieg und die Religion (1914); Deutscher Schwertsegen (1915. 28th ed., 1916); Inneres Aufgebot (1st to 3d ed., 1915); Hvangelischer Wochenbrief (1914-21). DELACHENAL, JEAN PIERRE FRANCOIS RoLanp (1854-1923). A French historian. He was born at Lyons, Apr. 5, 1854, and entered in 1879 the French paleographic institute, the Ecole des Cartes. In 1885, he published a learned Histoire des Avocats du Parlement de Paris. His monumental work on Charles V oc- cupied 25 years of labor; three volumes were published from 1897 to 1916, and at his death two additional volumes remained unpublished. Delachenal was also the author of the Grandes Chroniques de France (1910-1916-1920). A member of the Academy of Inscriptions (1920), Delachenal was affiliated with a number of learned bodies, including the French historical society and the Royal Society of England, of which he was a foreign correspondent. He died in Paris on Jan. 31, 1923. DELAGOA BAY. See PorTUGuESE EAst AFRICA. DE LA GORCEH, PirrRE-FRANGCOIS-GUSTAVE (1846- ). A French historian, born at Vannes and educated at the Institution Saint Jean (Douai) and the University of Paris. He began his career in 1872, at Rocroi, as juge suppléant, and held positions subsequently at various places, but he resigned in 1880, finding that he could not follow his conscience in judg- ing cases. He then practiced law for several years, but finally gave that up, too, and devoted himself thereafter to historical studies. In 1895, he was awarded the pria Alfred Née by DELAND the French Academy, and in 1900 the grand prix Gobert. In 1907, he was admitted to the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, and in 1914 was elected to the French Academy, being received in 1917. He belongs to the “classic” school of historians, that is, his writ- ings, while based on solid study, are not an- notated. They are literary, and he does not hesitate to express personal opinions. He writes from the point of view of a Roman Cath- olic and a conservative. His works include, be- sides contributions to periodicals: Histoire de la seconde République francaise, 2 vols. (1887) ; Histoire du second Empire, 7 vols. (1894-1905) ; Histoire religieuse de la Révolution frangaise, vols. i and ii (1909-12). DELAND, Margaret WADE (1857-— yi. An American author (see Vout. VI). She is the author of: The Hands of Esau (1914); Around Old Chester (1915); The Rising Tide (1916, 1918); Old Chester Tales (1919. Introduction by Vida D. Scudder); Promises of Alice (1919); Small Things (1919); Old Chester Se- cret (1920); °*The Vehement Flame (1922). DELANO, EpiItH BARNARD (?- po. fAn American author, born at Washington. She wrote: Zebedee V (1912); The Land of Con- tent (19138); The Colonel’s Experiment (1913) ; Rags (1915); The White Pearl (1916); June (1916); To-morrow Morning (1917); Two Alike (1918). She also wrote feature photo- plays, and contributed to many magazines. DELANO, FReperRic ApDRIAN (1863- ie An American railroad president (see Vor. VI). He was appointed by President Wilson to the Federal Reserve Board in 1914, but resigned in June, 1918, to join the army. He was commis- sioned major of the Engineering Corps and as- signed to the staff of General Atterbury, direc- tor general of transportation at Tours, France. He was promoted to be colonel of the transpor- tation corps in May, 1919, and discharged on Oct. 25, 1919. He was appointed receiver for the Supreme Court of the United States in the Red River Boundary Case. DELANO, Lyman (1883- ). An Ameri- ean railway official, born in Newburgh, N. Y. He graduated from Harvard in 1906, and began his railway career in 1909 with the A.C. L. R.R., eventually becoming the executive vice- president. He was an official and director in many other railroads and terminal companies. During the period of the War, he was Federal manager for the A. C. L. and other railroads. DELANO, Wu.tam ApdAms_ (1874— \e An American architect, born in New York City and educated at Yale University and at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. He began prac- tice in New York in 1903, and from that time until 1910 was professor of design in Columbia University. He collaborated on the plans for the Knickerbocker, Colony and India House club buildings in New York. DELAWARE. Delaware is the forty-seventh of the United States in.size, 2370 square miles, and the forty-sixth in population; capital, Do- ver. - The total population increased from 202,- 322 in 1910 to 223,003 in 1920, a gain of 10.2 per cent. The white population rose from 171,- 102 to 192,615, while the number of negroes fell from 31,181 to 30,335. The native white pop- ulation increased from 153,682 to 172,805; the foreign-born whites from 17,420 to 19,810. The urban population grew from 97,085 to 120,767, while the rural population decreased from 105,- 13 367 DELAWARE 237 to 102,236. The only large city in the State is Wilmington (q.v.), with a population of 110,- 168 in 1920 as compared with 87,411 in 1910. Agriculture. While the population of the State showed an increase of 10.2 per cent in the decade 1910-20, the number of farms decreased 6.4 per cent, from 10,836 to 10,140, and the acreage from 1,038,866 to 944,511. The total value of farm property showed an apparent in- crease from $63,179,201 to $80,137,614, and the average value per farm from $5830 to $7903. In interpreting statements of comparative val- ues for the decade 1914-24, the inflation of cur- rency in the latter part of the period is to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The total percentage of land used for ag- ricultural purposes in 1920 was 75.1, compared with 82.6 in 1910. The percentage of improved farm land increased from 68.7 to 69.1. Of the total of 10,140 farms in 1920, 6010 were worked by owners, compared with 6178 in 1910; 144 by managers, compared with 123; 3986 by ten- ants, compared with 4535. The white farmers in 1920 numbered 9268, compared with 9914 in 1910; native-born white, 8905, compared with 9504; foreign-born white, 363, compared with 410; Negro, 872, compared with 922. The to- tal number of dairy cows in 1920 was 37,878; 35,708 in 1910. The number of sheep decreased from 4415 to 3220. The estimated production of the chief farm crops in 1923 was: corn, 6143 bushels; wheat, 1,908,000; oats, 176,000; pota- toes, 724,000; sweet potatoes, 934,000; and hay, 82,000 tons. Comparative figures for 1913 are corn, 6,206,000 bushels; wheat, 1,638,000; oats, 122,000; potatoes, 957,000; and hay, 94,000 tons. In 1923, the apple and peach crops were estimated at 859,000 and 203,000 bushels, re- spectively. Mining. Delaware has no important min- eral resources. Those produced include clay products, sand, gravel, and stone, to a total value between $350,000 and $400,000 per year. In 1921 the figure was $379,785, compared with $288,516 in 1914. Manufactures. Delaware is not an im- portant industrial State. The only city of more than 10,000 inhabitants is Wilmington, and the industries of the State are to a large extent concentrated here. This city had 73.3 per cent of the value of manufactured products in 1919. In 1909 there were 726 manufacturing estab- lishments; in 1914, 808; and in 1919, 668. Per- sons engaged in manufacture in 1909 numbered 23,984; in 1914, 25,533, and in 1919, 32,972. The capital invested increased from $60,905,671 in 1909 to $69,323,927 in 1914, and $148,207,598 in 1919. The total value of products apparent- ly increased from $52,839,619 in 1909 to $56,- 034,966 in 1914, and $165,073,009 in 1919; but this abnormal increase is due largely to the change in industrial conditions caused by the War, and these figures cannot be used to meas- ure the growth of manufactures between the industrial census of 1914 and 1919. It will be noted that the number of establishments de- creased to a large extent in 1919. The most important industries in point of value of prod- ucts are those connected with the manufacture and tanning of leather. These were valued at $12,079,000 in 1909; $9,183,000 in 1914; and $50,138,000 in 1919. Pulp goods rank second, with a product valued at $1,032,000 in 1909; DELAWARE 368 1914, $2,145,000; and 1919, $9,385,000. Car construction and repair products in 1909 were valued at $3,251,000; 1914, $3,551,000, and 1919, $7,687,000; and the products of iron and steel, steel work and rolling mills in 1909 at $1,715,- 000; in 1914, $1,669,000; in 1919, $7,115,000. Wilmington had, in 1909, 261 establishments, with a product valued at $38,069,000; 1914, 319, with a product of $39,403,000; and in 1919, 262, with a product of $121,040,000. Education. The development of education in Delaware in the decade 1913-23 was slow but steady. As in other southern States the mix- ture of whites and Negroes in the population adds to the difficulty of educational advance- ment. In 1919 a new school code was put into effect. A school law, passed by the legislature in 1920 and modified by the Legislature of 1921, provided for a bi-partisan State Board of Edu- cation; for improved methods for raising funds for school purposes; consolidation of school dis- tricts by referendum vote of the districts in- volved; continuation of vocational training in agriculture and home economics, and State sup- port of high schools. Sixty scholarships for the training of teachers in the University of Delaware were provided in 1919 by Pierre S. Du Pont and other members of the Du Pont family. The period showed great improvement in the supervision of rural schools and in the provision of industrial training in the colored schools. The enrollment in the public schools increased from 36,000 in 1913 to 39,000 in 1921- 22, In the elementary white schools in the lat- ter year 28,278 were enrolled, and in the white high schools 4479, a total of 32,757. In the colored elementary schools 6227 were enrolled; in the colored high schools, 158. The total ex- penditure for public schools for the year ending June 20, 1922, was $2,189,032, of which $1,338,- 149 was paid to special districts and the re- mainder expended by the State Board of Edu- cation. The percentage of illiteracy in Dela- ware decreased from 10 in 1910 to 7.4 in 1920; among the native whites, from 4.2 to 2.6; among the foreign-born whites, from 19.7 to 18.2; and among the Negroes, from 32.9 to 24.6. Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES, Political and Other Events. Political con- trol in Delaware, in the decade 1914-24, fluctu- ated between the Republican and Democratic parties. In 1914 elections were held for a rep- resentative in Congress and for State Treasurer and Auditor. A Republican candidate for the House of Representatives, Thomas W. Miller, was elected. Great industrial prosperity was brought about by the War. Some of the larg- est ammunition factories in America are locat- ed in the State; they received large orders from the warring countries. Several serious explo- sions occurred in ammunition factories during 1915. In 1916 Josiah Wolcott, Democratic can- didate, was elected to the United States Senate, defeating Senator Du Pont, while John G. Townsend, Republican candidate for governor, was elected. In the presidential election of this year Charles E. Hughes received 26,011 votes; Woodrow Wilson, 24,753. In 1918 no elections for State officers were held; L. Heisler Ball, Re- publican, was elected Senator. Elections were held in 1920 for governor and other State of- ficers. William D. Denny, Republican, won the governorship. In the presidential election of this year, Warren G. Harding received 52,858 votes and James M. Cox, 39,897. In 1922, DELITZSCH Thomas F. Bayard, Democrat, was elected to the United States Senate, defeating Henry A. Du_ Pont. Legislation. The most important activities of the State Legislature, which meets biennially, were as follows during the decade 1914-1924. In 1915 an agricultural commission was cre- ated. In 1917 the Jaws relating to the admin- istration of the State government were amend- ed, and so were the child labor laws. A work- men’s compensation act was passed, and meas- ures were enacted looking toward the preven- tion of monopolies and unfair discrimination in the buying and selling of commodities. A com- mission was appointed to study the educational system of the State and make recommendations for necessary changes. The Legislature of 1919 created a banking department, passed several “new school laws, and amended the criminal law of the State. In 1921 the Legislature imposed an income tax for school purposes, amended the law in respect to alien land ownership, provid- ed a tax on shares of banking corporations, es- tablished a child welfare commission, amended the laws relating to compulsory school attend- ance, and adopted legislation for carrying out the educational programme of 1920. This work for education by the Legislature was greatly augmented by gifts worth millions of dollars from Pierre S. Du Pont in university, high school, and graded school buildings and equip- ment. DELBET, Pierre Louis Ernest ‘(1861— ye One of the leading surgeons of France. His chief hospital connection was with the Hotel- Dieu, and his principal works are: Dw traite- ment des aneurysmes externes (1889); Des sup- purations pelviennes chez la femme (1891) ; Legons de clinique chirurgicale faites a l’Hotel- Dieu (1899); Grands procés morbides (1907); Méthode de traitement des fractures (1916). In collaboration, he published: Affections chir- urgicales des artéres (1911, with Moquot) ; Mal- adies de Vanus et du rectum (1916, with Brechot) ;Biologie de la plaie de guerre (1918, with Fiessinger) ; Nouveau traité de chirurgie, with Le Dentu, which came out serially, the first volume in 1907. DELBRUCK, Hans D. L. (1848-_). Professor of history at the University of Berlin, Geheimregierungsrat (see VoL. VI). In 1920, he became a member of the Historical Committee for the Imperial Archives. His works pub- lished since 1913 include: Regierung und Volkswille (1914, 1920); Bismarcks Erbe (1915); Krieg und Politik, 3 vols. (1919); Geschichte der Kriegskunst, 4th vol. (1920) ; Kautsky und Harden (1920); Ludendorff, Tir- pitz, Falckenhayn (1920); Ludendorffs Selbst- portrdt (1922). DELCASSE, TufopHite (1852-1923). A French statesman. In 1913-14 he served as Ambassador at Petrograd, and from 1914 to 1915 was Minister of Foreign Affairs. He had previously served iti this capacity in 1912. He Was recognized as one of the most eminent of French statesmen, and was best known as the founder of the Entente. DELITZSCH, FrieprRicH (1850—- hes see German Assyriologist (see VoL. VI) professor at the University of Berlin, member of the Akademie der Wissenschaften. His works pub- lished since 1913 include: Swmerische Gram- matik (1914); Sumerisches Glossar (1914) ; Die Grosse Tduschung (1920; Part 2, 1921, - DELL 369 1922); Lese-und Schreibfehler im Alien Testa- ment (1920). DELL, FLoyp (1887- ). An American novelist and critic, born at Barry, Ill. He en- tered the field of journalism at, the age of 18 and in six years was the literary editor of the Chicago Evening Post. In 1914, he went to New York to associate himself with Max Fast- man in the publication of The Masses, a period- ical with a radical economic policy and an ex- cellent literary department. Early attempts at writing did not reveal his true métier, but the, publication of his novel Mooncalf (1920) proved him a fictionist of the highest rank. He followed the success of this work with The Briary-Bush (1921). These together made a full-length portrait of the American youth of the period: ambitious, curious, esthetically- minded, but thwarted by the hostility of his en- vironment and his own sentimental heritage. Janet March (1923) was a less successful at- tempt to do the same thing for the young Amer- ican woman. Other books included: Were You Ever a Child? (1919); Looking at Life (1924). DELORME, Epmonp (1847- ). A French surgeon, surgeon-general of France before and during the recent War. Many years before the outbreak of hostilities he published his great work Traité de chirurgie de guerre in two vol- umes (1888-1893). When war was declared in 1914, he promptly issued his manual, Précis de chirurgie de guerre, which was translated into English for the British Army in 1915. In the midst of the War, he published Chirurgie de guerre—fractures (1917); and at the close of the War, Les enseignements chirurgicales de la grand guerre (1919). DEMILLE, Cecit B(LountT) (1881- ). An American actor and motion-picture producer, educated at the Pennsylvania Military - College and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. After being successively playwright, actor and theatrical producer, after 1914 he devoted him- self entirely to production for the moving pic- tures. His best work includes: Girl of the Golden West; The Warrens of Virginia; Car- men; Joan of Arc; The Dream Girl; The Woman God Forgot; The Devil Stone; The Whispering Chorus; Don’t Change Your Husband; For Better, For Worse; Male and Female; Why Change Your Wife; Something to Think About; The Affairs of Anatol; Fool’s Paradise; Manslaughter; The Ten Commandments, and Triumph. DE MORGAN, WILLIAM FREND (1839-1917). An English novelist (see Vou. VI). The Old Madhouse was published posthumously in 1919, and The Old Man’s Youth, De Morgan’s incom- pleted novel, was published, with additions by his widow, in 1921. DEMPSEY, Jack (1896- ). World’s heavyweight boxing champion, born as William Harrison at Manassa, Colo. He began his pug- ilistic career in 1915 and four years later de- feated Jess Willard for the world’s title at Toledo, Ohio. He has since successfully de- fended his laurels against many aspirers to the pugilistic throne, including Georges Carpentier, Tom Gibbons and Luis Firpo. He knocked out Carpentier in the fourth round of a scheduled 15-round bout at Boyle’s Thirty Acres, New Jersey, in 1921 and won on a decision from Gibbons at Shelby, Montana, in 1923. His most spectacular battle was with Firpo at the Polo Grounds, New York City, which also oc- DENIS curred in 1923, Dempsey winning by a knock- out in the second round after having been knocked from the ring himself by his opponent in the first round. DE MUYTER, Ernest ( ?- ). A Bel- gian airman, contestant for the Gordon Bennett International Balloon Cup for several years. He won the Balloon race and the Cup in 1922 and again dn 1923, DENBY, Epwin (1870- ). An American lawyer, born at Evansville, Ind. As a boy he went to Pekin with his father, then minister to China, and served in the Maritime Customs Service during 1887-94. He then returned to the United States, was graduated in law at the University of Michigan in 1896, and was ad- mitted to practice in the same year. In 1903, he was a member of the Michigan House of Representatives, then was elected from the First Michigan District to Congress, serving during 1905-11. During the war with Spain, he was a gunner’s mate on the Yosemite, and when the United States entered the recent war, he enlisted as a private in the United States Marine Corps, becoming a major on the Re- serves’ list in that corps.. By appointment of President Harding, he became Secretary of the Navy in March, 1921, but in response to a re- quest from Congress to President Coolidge, he resigned from his office in March, 1924, and re- turned to Detroit, where he resumed the prac- tice of his profession. DENGEL, PuiLtipep IGNaz (1874— ie German philosopher and professor of general history at the University of Innsbruck. He was born at Elbigenalp in the Tirol, and stud- ied at the universities of Innsbruck and Berlin. He was elected member of the Austrian Histor- ical Institute of Rome and specialized on Ital- ian history and politics. His principal works are: Geschichte des Palazzo di San Marco in Rom bekannt als Palazzo di Venezia (1909); Die verschollene Mappa mundi im Palazzo di Venezia (1912); Der italienische Irredentismus (1912); Palast und Basilica di San Marco (1913) ; Die Siidgrenze Deutsch-Tirols (1919); Italien auf falschem Wege (1919); Sidtirol im Lichte des italienischen Irredentismus, Nation- alismus und Imperialismus (1919). DENIKIN, ANTON (1872- ). A Rus- sian soldier. After years of service in the Rus- Sian armies, he was Chief of the General Staff under Generals Alexeiey and Brussilov during the War. Following the Russian revolution, he was placed in command of the western front, succeeding General Gourko in June, 1917. He was commander of the southwestern front dur- ing the advance of General Kornilov against Kerensky, in September, 1917, and following the death of the latter took command of the volunteer force, which in Mar. 26, 1918, cap- tured Kuban. He assembled an army against the Soviet government, which included about 100,000 men. In February, 1919, he took the offensive, and by November had established a fighting front from which he advanced a con- siderable distance in the interior of Russia. In February, 1920, he was completely defeated by the Soviet army and his forces were dispersed. DENIS, Maurice (1870- ). A French painter born at Granville, Manche, who was to become one of the so-called Symbolists. He studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts and was strongly influenced by Paul Serusier, who fa- vored synthesis and the use of form and color DENISON UNIVERSITY to express subjective states of mind. He was also one with the Rose Croix group who favored idealist decorative art rather than realism. In 1894, a visit to Italy impressed him with the value of Italian quattrocento art and _ influ- enced his work to a large extent. He found the subjects for most of his important murals in religious pieces and classical mythology. Be- sides murals, he has executed many easel pic- tures and has illustrated books and contributed to art reviews. In 1902, he was made a full member of the Société Nationale and in 1910 he became Chevalier de la Légion d’Honneur. His most important pieces have been exhibited at the Salon des Indépendents and the Salon d’Automne, and he is also represented in the Luxembourg, Paris. DENISON UNIVERSITY. A coeducation- al Baptist institution founded in 1830 at Gran- ville, Ohio. The student enrollment increased from 575 in 1914 to 978 in 1924, and the num- ber of members in the faculty from 43 to 69. The productive endowment in 1924 amounted to $2,250,000. Marsh Hall, which was partially destroyed by fire in 1918, was fully recon- structed; Swasey Chapel, seating 1300, was partly built in 1924, and funds were in hand for the construction of the Helen Arnett Whis- tler Memorial Hospital. Col. Edward A. Deeds gave a large tract of land to enlarge the campus and built the Deeds athletic field with its con- crete stadium seating 6000 persons and _ field house equipped with dressing rooms, showers, ete. President, Clark W. Chamberlain, Ph.D., LL.D. DENMARK. The smallest of the Scandina- vian countries, whose area, by the accession of North Schleswig (q.v.) in 1920, was increased to 16,604 square miles, and whose population, by the census of Feb. 1, 1921, was 3,267,831. The increase in population over the last census period was distributed evenly between the rural and urban centres. The population of the cap- ital, Copenhagen, was 561,344, in 1921. Other large towns are Aarhus, 74,256; Odense, 49,- 469; Aalborg, 71,613; Horsens, 27,588; and Randers, 26,495. The population growth was 370 DENMARK dependent on its export trade in dairy prod- ucts and pork particularly. After the War re- covery was rapid, though no advance was dis- cernible up to 1924 over the pre-war years. In 1922 there were 575,773 horses, 2,525,348 cattle, 441,875 sheep, 1,899,019 swine, and 19,100,000 hens; in 1910, 535,018 horses, 2,253,982 cattle, 726,829 sheep, 1,467,822 swine, and about 15,- 000,000 hens. In 1922, 237,180 acres were un- der wheat, 546,660 rye, 666,217 barley, 1,117,- 902 oats, and 204,206 potatoes. Though har- vests were large, the drop in prices following the depression of 1921 reacted unfavorably on every branch of industry. Grains were selling in December, 1922, for 50 per cent less than the December, 1920, figures. The same drop was to be traced all along the line. Industry. Small plants were the rule. In 1914 factories numbered 82,442; in 1906, 85,- 242. Here were employeed in 1912 346,000 hands; in 1906, 317,086. Because.of the de- mands of belligerents during the War, manu- facturing activity increased considerably, but the world-wide depression of 1921 brought the country back to its pre-war status. The pro- duction of margarine, one of the most impor- tant industries, increased somewhat; in 1921 the output was 55,740 tons, compared with a 1911 output of 35,400 tons. Commerce. The trade record for typical years follows, in millions of kroner; value, $.268: ao eA eee Dine ae ee Average Year Imports Exports exchange rate ih We a te eee 795 867 $0.2625 1 Of ee dco eee Be vec ie 1,082 1,065 .2959 LOZ 0. Pe Rey. bees eet cea 3,142 1,814 1577 gM tard ed Ses Se Shs A 1,697 1,564 1779 do PPM RSS. vice Sanne DE Wr 1,448 1,173 -2095 EN GAEIRY Mile Ss SCA ee SS ad In 1922, animals to the value of 47,270,000 kroner were exported; provisions to the value of 917,439,000 kroner; and cereals to the value of 379,000 kroner. Exports and imports by countries for typical years, in thousands of kroner, were: IMPORTS EXPORTS Country 1912 1920 1921 Country 1912 1920 1921 mitedassinedome..c ee 135,887 = 887,549 305,360") United “Kingdoms a1. 37,312 671,981 825,552 Germany nt 2. lor ooh eee 314,246 °5382,219° "461,748 \Germanyy as... ceisler 181,646 326,471 211,187 Swedeny iss iieeeh. . 1. OA 69,060 189,904 O7989. Sweden h. yeh be 33,352 358,270. 189,351 FR ULSSUA ME Re Copeis ie sytketsy a) saci eaeas DG sss.) UL esrkk. sus Bede ABEL eos Russia %.. om aie epics © ee 16,347). Athen mes eae United states o-¢.. caoe 58,830. 753,666) 342.597 United States) Se... .- 10,568 . 90,719 42,761 about 1 per cent annually. Emigration was chiefly to the United States, 6300, in 1920; in 1921, 5309; in 1922, 4300. The pre-war yearly average was 9000. North Schleswig has an area of 1538 square miles and a population of 164,500. The Faeroe Islands count 21,364 in- habitants and an area of 540 square miles. Agriculture. A movement from the land to the cities was shown in Denmark, the tillers of the soil dropping from 40 per cent of the to- tal population in 1900 to less than 35 per cent in 1921. The movement toward the creation of small holdings continued; the law of 1919, in particular, aimed at the parcelling up of large estates held in entail. Intensive cultivation and dairy farming made continued headway through the initiative of the codperative socie- ties. The War of course dealt Denmark’s agri- culture a severe blow, for its prosperity was In March, 1923, 2082 vessels of 1,070,218 tons were flying the Danish flag; 628 of these were steamers. During the War official figures put the shipping losses due to submarine attacks and mines at almost 150 ships, of 230,000 tons. In 1920, 23,038 vessels of 3,269,268 tons entered Danish ports and 23,944 vessels of 1,030,954 tons cleared. A sign of renewed activity was the fact that in 1922, 13,700 vessels of 3,850,- 000 tons entered Copenhagen alone. Important maritime activities included the opening of the Odense Canal in 1921 and the commencement in 1922 of the Drogden, a channel for larger ships between the North Sea and the Baltic. Communications. At the end of 1920 the country had 4713 miles of road, with 23,654 miles of by-ways. Railways totaled 2662 miles. The length of state telegraph lines was 9531 miles. By means of radio-telegraph stations at se ‘rates on Danish goods. fallen to 30,000. DENMARK 371 Lyngby, Blaavand, Copenhagen, and Amager, Denmark is in touch with ships at sea and with the United States. Finance. The 1923-24 budget carried 399,900,680 kroner for revenue and 362,147,031 kroner for expenditure. Of the latter, 53,397,- 554 kroner went toward meeting the interest and expenses on the state debt. In 1922 the total debt stood at 1,235,317,000 kroner; the 1913 figure was 348,040,923 kroner. History. The cost of living as measured by retail prices gradually rose so that in 1921 it more than doubled that of the last pre-war year. Based on prices for 1913 considered as 100, the index number for October, 1920, reached 403, but by October of the next year it had fallen back to 202. Wages, too, kept pace with prices up to 1921. The high degree of organization of both employers and employees in industry, about 280,000 workers belonging to the Combined Trade Unions made up of factory and agricultural workers, accounted for the marked stability. In the years following the War considerable unrest appeared among the transport workers, but this abated after 1921. Denmark followed in the wake of other countries of northern Europe in establishing elaborate agencies for social insurance in indus- try. Illness and unemployment pensions and old-age pensions were either in whole or in part state aided. The budget of 1923 carried 15,- 346,000 kroner for pension charges alone. A comprehensive compensation act was passed in 1916. The state contributed to the unemploy- ment fund of the trade unions. During the War, because of her proximity to the belligerents, Denmark’s position was pre- carious. Early in August, 1914, it was found necessary to fix prices and regulate exports to prove the country’s desire for a real neutrality. In the War atmosphere parties quickly came to terms, and the revision to the constitution which had long been agitated was agreed on. On June 5, 1915, the new constitution was signed by the King, and amendments were pro- mulgated on Sept. 10, 1920. Voting is univer- sal; proportional representation is employed; and the King may not declare war without the consent of Parliament. The sovereign power is vested in the King through his ministers. The tightening of the submarine campaign in 1917 brought renewed hardships to the Danish population. Rationing was resorted to, and state and local agencies contributed extensively to poor and unemployment relief. Large sums had to be spent on military defense as well. The result was that the government was com- pelled to resort to loans to make up deficits appearing annually in the budget. The Danish pe- riod of reconstruction did not escape the diffi- culties which other countries experienced. The demobilization of the troops and the break in the foreign market augmented unrest. German com- petition, made possible by the low value of the mark, naturally added to the uncertain econom- ic conditions. The country’s foreign trade re- ceived a severe blow in 1922 when the United States emergency tariff imposed prohibitive By 1922, agriculture had almost reached the normal; eggs, butter, and bacon showed a remarkable recovery. Late in August, 1922, the figure of unemployed had But that the country was not to weather the depression of 1921-22 easily was shown when the Danish Landmandsbank, the DENNERT most important Danish banking institution, suddenly collapsed in September, 1922. Its in- terest in business built on the high price levels of the preceding years worked its undoing, with the result that it became incumbent on the goy- ernment to effect a reorganization. Ninety mil- lion kroner of the outstanding capital had to be written off, while the Danish National Bank was called on to contribute 30,000,000 kroner toward the bank’s new surplus. The result was that public confidence was diverted more and more from private banking and centred in the Danish National Bank. Of a piece with the economic distress was the renewed interest in emigration schemes. Plans were launched in 1922 for the settlement of Danish colonies in Madagascar, Lithuania, and Central and South America. After a bitter political contest, a plebiscite in December, 1916, approved the sale of the Danish West Indies or Virgin Islands to the United States for $25,000,000. A further dim- inution of the Danish Empire took place in 1918 when Iceland (q.v.) was granted its in- dependence; thenceforth Iceland and Denmark were connected only by a personal union under the Danish King. Greenland (q.v.) alone re- mained a colonial possession. In 1920 Den- mark regained part of the province of Schleswig which had been wrested from her by Prussia in 1864. The Peace Treaty provided for two pleb- iscites in North and Central Schleswig respec- tively, and under an international administra- tion they were held in February and March, 1920. The result was favorable for Denmark in North Schleswig, the vote being 75,000 for union, and 25,000 against; while in the Central district the natives decided by a vote of 51,000 to 12,000 to remain a part of Germany. On Sept. 21, 1920, citizens of Schleswig took part in the Danish general elections for the first time. The parties returned to the lower house numbered 52 Liberals, representing the farm- ers; 18 Radicals, representing the small land- holders; 48 Socialists, representing the city workers; 27 Conservatives, sitting for the mid- dle class; 3 Trade party; 1 Schleswig (German party). The ministry therefore was formed by the Liberals. The Liberal Premier Neergaard, supported by a parliamentary bloc, remained in power during the troublesome reconstruction years, and was not overthrown until 1924, when parliamentary elections gave victory to the La- bor party despite the inclusion of a capital levy plank in its platform. After the Labor victory at the polls, a Labor Cabinet was formed under the premiership of Theodore Stauning. See ScANDINAVIAN LITERATURE; EXPLORATION; NaAv- IES OF THE WORLD. DENNERT, Eseryarp (1861- ). A Ger- man writer on nature and popular philosophy, who was born at Putzerlin near Staargard, Pomerania. He studied at the universities of Marburg and Bonn, and was successively assis- tant at the Botanical Institute of Marburg, di- rector of the Keplerbund, and editor of the na- ture department of the Deutsche Encyclopédie. Among his numerous works are: Moses oder Darwin (1907); Haeckels Weltanschauung nat- urwissenschaftlich beleuchtet (1908); Die Zelle ein Wunderwerk (1909); Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Descendenztheorie (1910); Die Welt fiir sich und die Welt mit Gott (1913); Mehr Naturfreude fiir die Jugend (1914); Gibt es ein Leben nach dem Tode? DENNETT 372 (1915); Gott, Seele, Geist, Jenseits (1916); Not und Mangel im Lichte der Entwicklung (1916); Der Staat als lebendiger Organismus (1920). DENNETT, Tyrer (1883- ). An Amer- ican author, born at Spencer, Wis., and edu- cated at Bates College and at Williams College. From 1914 to 1916, he was associate editor of The World Outlook. He directed the publicity of the Methodist centenary (1916-18), and in 1919-20 held the same position in the Inter- Church world movement. He is also known as a lecturer on Asia, having traveled widely in the Orient and in Africa. He is author of The Democratic Movement in Asia (1918) and of A Better World (1920). DENNIS, Atrrep P. (1869- ). An Amer- ican diplomat, born in Worcester Co., Md., and educated at Princeton University. During the period 1894-1907, he was professor of history at Wesleyan University (Conn.) and at Smith College. In the latter year, he resigned because of ill health, and became engaged in the mer- cantile business. In 1918, he was commercial attaché at the American Embassy at Rome, and in 1921 held the same post in London. As a representative of the Department of Com- merce, he made investigations for Herbert Hoover in Central and Eastern Europe (1922). A student of political history and economics, he has made frequent contributions on those subjects to the Atlantic Monthly, the Yale Re- view, International Journal, Saturday Evening Post, ete. DE NOAILLES, Countess Anna (1876- ib: A French poet and novelist. She was born Princess de Brancovan, and married Count Matthieu de Noailles. Her poetry is character- ized by romantic naturalism, and she earned the title “Muse of the Gardens.” As a novelist also she is the apostle of sentiment and sensa- tion. Her poetic works include Le Coeur In- nombrable, L’Ombre des Jours, Les Vivants et les Morts, Les Eblouissements, and Les Forces Eternelles; her works of prose include three novels, La Nouvelle Espérance, La Domination, and Le Visage Eternel. DENTISTRY, Mopern. See RHEUMATISM, CHRONIC. DENVER. The capital of Colorado and the largest city between the Missouri River and the Pacific Ocean. The population rose from 213,- 381 in 1910 to 256,491 in 1920 and to 272,031 by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923. In 1916, after three years’ trial of the commission form of government, Denver went back to the mayor and council form. The new charter provided for a small council of nine men, and assigned wide powers of appointment and removal to the mayor. The library system was extended during the decade by the addition of branch libraries. After years of struggle be- tween the city and the Denver Union Water Company and its predecessors over franchises, rates and valuation, and projects for building municipally owned works, an agreement for purchase was made between the company and the city in 1918, and ratified by pop- ular vote. Zoning and city planning provisions were beinys put through in 1924, and a pro- gramme of paving carried on within the city and connecting Denver with all of the principal towns in a radius of several miles. The value of manufacturing increased from about $70,- 500,000 in 1913 to $125,411,000 in 1924, and DERBY the number of establishments from 738 to 1147. According to the census figures of 1920 there were On an average 16,635 wage earners, an in- crease of 50 per cent over the figures for five years earlier. The value of the packing busi- ness increased during the 10 years by 234 per cent. DENVER, University or. An institution at Denver, Colo., under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, founded in 1864. The enrollment of the university practically doubled between 1913, when it was 1159, and the year 1923-24, when it was 2188. The fac- ulty increased from 132 in 1918 to 150 in 1923- 24, and the library from 38,000 to 50,000 vol- umes. Henry A. Buchtel, D.D., LL.D., was chancellor until 1921, and Heber Reece Harper became chancellor in 1922. During the interim Wilber D. Engle was acting chancellor. DEPAUW UNIVERSITY. A coeducation- al institution at Greencastle, Ind., under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, founded in 1837. DePauw grew steadily dur- ing the decade 1913-1923, increasing its student body from 1000 in 1913 to 1485 in the year 1923-24, with 196 in the summer school of 1923; it added 10,880 volumes to its library and thereby brought the total number of vol- umes in 1923 up to 58,880. The faculty was enlarged from 50 to 68. The equipment of the university was augmented by the erection of Rector Hall, a dormitory for women, and the Clem Studebaker Memorial Administration Building. The productive funds were increased from $1,300,000 to $3,930,000, and a campaign to add $1,000,000 more for endowment and $500,000 for increased equipment was nearing completion in 1924, President, George Rich- mond Grose, D.D., LL.D. DEPENDENTS, DEFECTIVES, DELIN- QUENTS. See Cuitp WELFARE; MOTHERS’ PENSIONS; and JUVENILE CoUuRTS. DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL (1834— ee An American politician (see Vout. VI). In 1914, he was in favor of the repeal of the Pana- ma Canal tolls bill. He was violently opposed to pacifism from the outbreak of the War, and in 1915, on the occasion of the sinking of the Lusitania, urged drastic measures against Ger- many. After 1913 he published Some Views on the Threshold of Fourscore (1914), and Speeches and Literary Contributions at Fourscore and Four (1918). DEPTH BOMB. See Boms, DEPTH. DERBY, EpwaArp GrorGE VILLIERS STANLEY, seventeenth EArL or (1865- ). An Eng- lish statesman born in London. He was edu- cated at Wellington College, and later received valuable experience as lieutenant grenadier of the Guards during the period 1865-95, and as aide de camp to the Governor-General of Can- ada. He was a Lord of the Treasury (1895- 1900), chief press censor in South Africa (1900), Financial Secretary to the War Office (1900-03), Postmaster-General (1903-05), mem- ber of Parliament from West Houghton Divi- sion of Lancashire (1892-1906), and Director- General of Recruiting (1915-16). During the War he had an admirable scheme for recruiting on the basis of voluntary service, but as the number of volunteers did not equal expecta- tions, the plan was abandoned. In February, 1916, he became chairman of the military air service joint committee, from which office he resigned two months later, and in July of the er. ee ee ee eee eee ss: DERCUM 373 same year, upon the formation of Lloyd George’s government, he accepted the secretary- ship of War. In 1918, he was appointed am- bassador to France, from which post he resigned in 1920. DERCUM, Francis XAVIER (1856- tis An American neurologist (see Vor. VI). He published Hysteria and Accident Compensa- tion (1916); An Essay on the Biology of Mind (1922); The Biology of Internal Secretions (1924). DESCAMPS, Baron Epovuarp (1847- iA A Belgian jurist (see Vor. VI). After 1913, he published, with others: Recewil interna- tional des traités du 19e siécle, vol. i, 1801-25 (1914); Recewil international des traités du 20e siécle, vol. vi, 1906 (1914). DESCAVES, Lucien (1861- ). A French. man of letters (see Vou. VI). His recent works include: Biribi (1911); Ateliers @ aveugles (1912); Philémon (1914); La Matson anawieuse (1916); Dans Paris bombardé (1919) ; La Saignée. DESCHAMPS, Apert. See PSYCHOLOGY, ABNORMAL. DESCHANEL, Pavut (Evuctne Lovis) (1856-1922). A French statesman and author (see Vor. VI). In January, 1920, he was elected President of France, but his health soon began to fail, and in May a singular accident happened when he was on a train near Mon- targis. He fell from the window, and though his physical injuries were not serious, he never recovered from the nervous shock, and fi- nally was obliged to resign the Presidency. Though he afterwards appeared in the Sen- ate for a short time, his career was practically over. DES MOINES. The capital of Iowa. The population increased approximately 46 per cent, from 86,368 in 1910 to 126,468 in 1920, and to 140,923, by estimate of the Bureau of the Cen- sus, for 1923. Between 1914 and 1924, the State Capitol park was increased from 18 to 83 acres by the razing of several city blocks, and a new municipal court and public safety building was erected on the river front civic centre. A diagonal boulevard, Keosauqua Way, was constructed, connecting the business dis- trict with the nortlwest residential section, and Fifth Avenue was widened and graded, at a cost for the two projects of more than $1,000,- 000. Locations for new units of the public school system were purchased and a building programme was partially completed, involving a final cost of approximately $7,000,000. The city bought the water plant in 1919. Twenty- six banks reported clearings of $568,487,000 for 1923; 400 factories, capitalized at $50,000,000, employed 10,000 persons and turned out $80,- 000,000 worth of merchandise. D’ESPEREY, Louis FRANcHET (1856— ie A French marshal, born in Motaganem. He saw service in North Africa and elsewhere, and in 1914 was given command of the lst Corps in the 5th French Army. Here he did distin- guished service in attempting to hold back the German advance in the retreat from Mons, in September, 1914, and succeeded General Lan- zarae in command of the 5th Army before the first battle of the Marne. In this battle, he performed brilliant services. In 1916 he was given command of the group of Eastern armies in France. In 1917 he commanded the group of Northern armies, and in 1918 was made DETROIT commander-in-chief of the Allied Forces in Sa- lonica. He organized, with great skill, a gen- eral attack of the armies, and on December 15 carried this out with success. This was fol- lowed by the surrender of Bulgaria. He was in charge of the Allied Forces in Eastern Turkey and the Balkans in 1919, and in 1921 was created marshal. : DESSOIR, Max (1867- ). A German psychologist, born at Berlin. He was educated in the German universities and passed through the academic cursus honorum, becoming profes- sor at the University of Berlin in 1920. As editor of the Zeitschrift fiir Msthetik und al- Igemeine Kunstwissenschaft, he was one of the leaders in the empirical study of the principles of taste. He was also interested in the vari- ous phases of abnormal psychology and psychi- eal research, and published his findings in a volume on Jenseits der Seele (On the Other Side of the Soul, 1920). His Geschichte der Psychologie (1911) was translated into Eng- lish under the title of History of Modern Psy- chology. Among his other works are Hine Bib- liographie des moderen Hypnotismus (1890), Das Doppel-Ich (1896), Geschichte der neueren deutschen Psychologie (1903), sthetik und allegmeine Kunstwissenschaft (1906), and Phi- losophisches Lesebuch (1911). DESTROYER. See VesseL, NAVAL. DETLEFSEN, Joun A. (1883- ES cae American zoélogist born at Norwich, Conn. He was educated at Dartmouth and at Harvard. He was Austin teaching fellow of Harvard (1908-12) and was at the University of Illinois as assistant professor of genetics (1912-18), associate professor (1918-19) and_ profes- sor (1919- ). Professor Detlefsen wrote on genetics, especially in domesticated ani- mals. DETONATORS. See EXPLOSIVES. DETROIT. The 1914 area of the incorpo- rated city of Detroit in Michigan was 41.76 miles. In 1924 it was 92.66 miles; 10 extra square miles of area were in process of annexa- tion. Within the city and entirely inclosed by the corporate limits are two independently in- corporated cities, Highland Park with a popula- tion of 56,000 and Hamtramck with a popula- tion of 75,000. ‘The Federal census of 1910 gave Detroit a population of 465,766 Highland Park, 46,499, and Hamtramck, 3559. The Federal census of 1920 gave Detroit 993,729; Highland Park, 46,499, and Hamtrack, 48,615. Growth during the four years since the Federal census was taken has been fully as rapid. The figures for 1924 are based on estimates made by the Water Board, the gas company, and the R. L. Polk Directory Company, which makes a thorough canvass of the cities each year. The estimated population of Detroit in 1924 was 1,250,000. The village of Oakwood had been annexed. Adjoining the corporate limits of the city were the following independent municipali- ties, all within 12 miles of the city hall: Grosse Pointe Park, 3000 population; Ecorces, 5500; River Rouge, 14,500; Ferndale, 12,000; Spring- wells, 8000; Lincoln Park, 7000; Pleasant Ridge, 1500; Redford, 5500; Royal Oak, 12,5003) Dearborn, 4500; and Brightmoor, 4000. Among many public works constructed since 1914 are the new Belle Isle Bridge, costing $3,000,000; the nev public library, $3,000,000; and the Detroit Institute of Arts, now under construction, to cost about $3,000,000. From DETROIT 1914. to 1924 the pumping capacity of the city water works was practically doubled, and a general installation of meters led to a more considerate and economical use of water. In 1914 there were 917 miles of water mains; the 1924 mileage is 1943 miles. During 1923 a new filtration plant was put in operation, with a capacity of 180,000,000 gallons daily, at a cost of $4,500,000. The per capita water con- sumption in 1923 was 141 gallons per day. On July 1, 1923, the Water Board estimated that it was supplying 1,248,900 persons with water. In 1914 the public works department reported 227 miles of public sewers and 565 miles of lateral sewers. On Aug. 1, 1924, there were 1169 miles of public sewers and 1924 miles of laterals. The police department was provided with a new headquarters building at a cost of $1,700,000. In 1914 the department had 1125 uniformed men and 112 others in service. In 1924 the uniformed force numbered 2387 and the office staff 138. The fire department in 1914 employed 729 men; in 1924 the fire-fighting force numbered 1261; the total foree, 1467. Detroit had 51 public parks containing 1990 acres; 59 playgrounds containing 219 acres; 66 street playgrounds; 16 swimming centres; 46 public tennis courts; 31 baseball diamonds; 15 football fields, and other recreation facilities. The River Rouge improvements, including dredg- ing and new bridges, cost about $10,000,000. The first big freighter, with a cargo of iron, passed up to the Ford plant on July 2, 1923. The total value of Detroit’s manufactured products in 1914 was $400,348,000. In 1919 the total value of the manufactures.of Detroit proper was $1,234,519,842. The total value of manufactures in the metropolitan district was $1,803,728,219. The total value of Detroit prod- ucts in 1923 was a little over $2,000,000,000. The metropolitan district includes the two cities of Hamtramck and Highland Park. In 1919 there were 2176 manufacturing plants in the city proper, with a capital investment of $788,- 329,200; 167,016 wage earners; 29,639 salaried officials, receiving salaries and wages aggregat- ing $297,884,461. In the metropolitan district there were 2256 establishments with capital of $1,230,470,739; salaried officials, 34,928; em- ployees 231,645, receiving $419,774,189 in sal- aries and wages. The banks of Detroit in 1914 had aggregated capital and surplus to the amount of $30,030,000 and savings deposits of $88,704,876. On June 30, 1924, the combined capital of State and National banks of the City was $33,950,000; sur- plus, $32,042,000; savings deposits, $308,568,- 738; total deposits, $586,473,338; total re- sources, $713,766,686; total clearances of banks associated in clearing house in 1923, $6,691,- 595,579. In April, 1922, the city of Detroit voted an authorization of the purchase of the street rail- way lines of the Detroit United Railway Com- pany for $19,850,000, with the full understand- ing that the price was excessive, but that the termination of 30 years’ dissatisfaction would be worth it. The city began operation of the lines on May 1. The traclage purchased was 311 miles, and considerable valuable real estate and plant went with the purchase. The city added 72 miles of new line to the system, and service in 1924 was furnished by 1594 cars and 6,463 employees. Paying $500,000,000 of the purchase price every six months, the city had 374 =, DE VALERA paid $4,700,000 of this debt up to the middle of 1924, The assessed valuation of property in the city of Detroit in 1914 was $525,856,000; tax levy of 1914, $10,267,999; tax rate, $19.69 per $1000. Assessed valuation in 1924, $2,455,327,680; tax levy, + $51,476,676; tax rate, $20.96 per $1000. Bonded debt of 1914, $16,656,000; bonded debt of 1924, $157,428,430. In 1914, 7884 buildings were erected, valued at $28,427,140; 1915, 9006 buildings, $32,235,- 550; 1916, 16,490 buildings, $51,067,110; 1917, 12,108 buildings, $39,676,690; 1918, 7010 build- ings, $18,201,707; 1919, 21,473 buildings, $82,- 995,071; 1920, 19,412 buildings, $77,737,365; 1921, 17,615 buildings, $58,087,081; 1922, 25,460 buildings, value, $94,615,093; 1923, 35,234 buildings, $129,719,731. For the first six months of 1924, building permits for 25,620 buildings aggregating $99,299,884. Summary for 10 years: 197,312 buildings; aggregate cost, $712,062,422. The census of persons of school age from 5 to 20 years, inclusive, in the city of Detroit proper in 1914 was 133,339; the registration in the public schools was 69,086. In 1924 the school census gave 284,693 persons of school age, and the registration in the public schools was 162,807. From 1914 to 1924 the Board of Education erected 36 elementary schools, 8 intermediate schools, and 5 high schools. The total increase of public schools since 1914 is 67 elementary schools, 5 intermedi- ate schools, and 4 High schools. The total cost of new school buildings and additions, 1914-24, was $30,454,903. The public expenditures for school purposes in 1914 amounted to $4,186,864; in 1924, $20,290,999. The value of the public school plant in 1914 was $9,325,673; in 1924, $54,729,427. DETROIT, UNIverRSity or. An institution under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church, founded in 1875 at Detroit, Mich. The enrollment of the university increased rapidly, from 792 in 1918 to 1500 in the college and technical schools and 500 in the high school in the year 1923-24. The faculty was correspond- ingly increased from 69 to 165 members and the library from 18,000 to 38,000 volumes. A day school of commerce and finance, as well as night courses in journalism, short story writing and social service work, were added in 1922. The institution is conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, whose services, as well as those of several lay professors, are given gratis. About $350,000 toward a building fund had been gathered by the trustees at the end of 1923. John P. MecNichols, S.J., Ph.D., suc- ceeded the Rev. William T. Doran, 8.J., as pres- ident in 1921. DEUSSEN, PaAux (1845-1919). A German philosopher and Orientalist (see VoLt. VI). He completed his Allgemeine Geschichte der Phi- losophie in 1917. His autobiography was pub- lished posthumously in 1922 by his widow, Erika Rosenthal-Deussen. DE VALERA, EDWARD (EAMONN ) (1882- ). An Irish Republican leader born in Charleville, County Cork, Ireland, and edu- eated at the Christian Brothers’ School (Charle- ville), Blackrock College, and the Royal Uni- versity of Ireland. He taught mathematics and languages at several of the Catholic Colleges of Ireland, and was generally well liked. In 1916, three years after the founding of the Irish ane: DEVINE Volunteers, De Valera, always deeply interested in the cause of Irish freedom, threw himself whole-heartedly into the movement, and in the rebellion of that year commanded the insur- gents at Boland’s bakery, Dublin. Orders com- pelled him to surrender on April 30, and he was sentenced to death, but the sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment. He was released, however, in the general amnesty of June 15, 1917. What importance he _ had achieved as the surviving leader of the Easter Rebellion, as it was called, became recognizable in the large majority he received in his elec- tion for East Clare. Henceforth De Valera de- voted his entire time to the Sinn Feiners and at the convention of October, 1917, was elected President of the Irish Republic. In the follow- ing spring he was rearrested for the part taken in the agitation against “conscription” and in a plot for another rebellion coupled with a Ger- man invasion. In February of 1919, he escaped from the prison at Lincoln, England, and final- ly made his way to the United States, where he enlisted much sympathy from many of the Roman Catholic Irish and in German-American centres. He returned to Ireland in 1921, and negotiations for an Irish settlement were be- gun with the British government. In the same year, he became chancellor of the National Uni- versity of Ireland. See JRELAND, History. DEVINE, Epwarp Tuomas’ (1867—- y; An American leader in social work (see VoL. VI). In 1916, he was special agent at the American Embassy in Petrograd. Recent books published by him include: The Normal Life (1915), Disabled Soldiers and Sailors (1919), and Social Work (1921). DEVONPORT, Hupson EWBANKE KEARLEY, first Viscount (1856- ). An English poli- tician and business man, born at Uxbridge, and educated at Cranleigh School. He entered the firm of Kearley and Tonge, subsequently becom- ing a senior partner. In 1892, he entered Par- liament as Liberal member for Devonport (1892-1910). He was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Trade (1905-09), was chairman of the Port of London Authority (1909), first Food Controller (1916), and Secretary to the Sugar Commission (1917). He was created a baronet in 1908, was raised to the peerage in 1910, and in 1917 was created a viscount. DEVONSHIRE, Victor CuristiAn WILLIAM CAVENDISH, ninth DUKE or (1868- ReLA British statesman educated at Cambridge. He entered Parliament in 1891. He was civil lord of the Admiralty in 1915-16, and Governor-Gen- eral of Canada 1916-21, and in 1922, he be- came Secretary of State for the Colonies. DEVORE, DANIEL BRApForD (1860— y An American soldier, born in Monroe Co., Ohio. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1885, and was commissioned 2d lieutenant in the same year. He served during the Spanish-American War as captain of yolun- teers and was commissioned captain of the Reg- ular Army in 1899. He rose to the rank of colonel in 1916 and in the following year was appointed brigadier-general. _He had charge of the training of troops in Illinois and com- manded the 167th Brigade in France, in 1918. In the following year he was commander of Camp Logan, Houston, Texas, and in 1920-21 commanded the 10th Infantry at Camp Sher- man. From the latter date he was adjutant- general at Governor’s Island, at New York Har- er 375 DEWEY bor. His career included service in the Philip- pines, Panama Canal Zone, and as a member of the faculty of the United States Military Academy. DEWAR, Sir James (1842-1923). : Ger- man theologian and historian born at Dresden. He specialized on the literature and history of primitive Christianity and other religions. He studied at the universities of Neuchatel, Leip- zig, Tiibingen and Berlin and was professor of theology in Berlin from 1910 to 1915, later be- coming professor of New Testament theology at Heidelberg. His principal works are: Die Lade Jahwes (1906); Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des Paulus (1909); Urchristliche Ueberlieferung von Johannes dem Téufer (1911); Isitswethe bei Apulejus (1917); Formgeschichte der Evangel- fi (1919); Kommentar zum Jakobusbriefe 1921). DIBELIUS, WILHELM (1876- ). A Ger- man philologist who specializes on English language and literature, born in Berlin. He successively held professorships in Posen, Ham- burg, and other cities before retiring to Godes- berg on the Rhine His principal works are John Copgrave und die englische Schiftsprache (1899), Englische Romankunst (1910), and an exhaustive study of Charles Dickens (1916). versity of Wisconsin. 377 DIESCH-KAULFUSS DICKINSON, Asa Don (1876- ). An American librarian and editor, born at Detroit, Mich. He studied at the Columbia University Law School and the State Library School at Albany, N. Y. In the period 1903-12, he was successively connected with the Brooklyn Public Library, Union College Library (Schenectady, N. Y.), Washington State College Library, and others. In 1912-15 and 1916-18, he was on the editorial staff of Doubleday, Page and Com- pany, and later in the war service department of the American Library Association at Ho- boken, N. J., and Paris, France (1918-19). His work organizing the Punjab libraries for the Indian government was followed up by the publication of Punjab Library Primer, in 1917. Mr. Dickinson also published Europe at War (1914), The Kaiser (1914), and several chil- dren’s publications along a patriotic vein. DICKINSON, Hopart CurTier (1875- ). An American physicist, born at Bangor, Me. He was educated at Williams College and later gained the Ph.D. degree at Clark University. During 1900-01 he was an assistant at Wil- liams, but in 1903, entered the service of the United States Bureau of Standards, where in 1916 he became chief of the division of heat and power. His original studies have included papers on thermometry, calorimetry, specific heats of liquids, heats of combustion and fu- sion, thermal properties of refrigerants, ther- mal conductivities, and internal combustion engines, DICKINSON, THomAs HERBERT (1877—- he An American writer, born at Randolph, Char- lotte County, Va. He studied at Ohio State University, Columbia University, and the Uni- During the War he was a member of the United States Food Adminis- tration (1917-18), and the American Relief Ad- ministration, Paris and New York (1919-22). He edited The Play-Book (1913-15), and sev- eral books on the drama. In addition to arti- cles in magazines, he has published The Case of American Drama (1915), Contemporary Drama a pt (1917), and The Insurgent Theatre O17). DICKINSON COLLEGE. An institution at Carlisle, Pa., founded in 1783. The number of students enrolled in the college increased from 292 in 1914 to 523 in 1924, the number of teaching members of the faculty from 16 to 27, and the number of volumes in the library from 30,000 to 33,000. The productive funds in- creased from $245,000 to $550,000 and the total income from $43,050 to $147,500. There was also a law school connected with the college which increased in membership from 119 to 218 and in the size of its faculty from 7 to 10 mem- bers. President, J. H. Morgan. DICKSON, LEoNARD EUGENE (1874- y An American mathematician (see Von. VI). Among his later writings are: Algebraic In- variants (1915); Finite Groups (1916); His- tory of the Theory of Numbers (1919; vol. ii, 1920); Trigonometry with Practical Applica- tions (1921); First Course in the Theory of Hquations (1921). DIESCH-KAULFUSS, Cart H., (1880- ). A German librarian, born in Sorau. He stud- ied at the universities of Tiibingen and Leipzig and was especially interested in modern litera- ture, the historv of the stage and the Reforma- tion. He is librarian of the state library of Berlin. Among his principal works are: Buch DIESEL ENGINE 378 der Reformation (1917), and Deutsche Dich- - tung im Strome des Lebens (1921). DIESEL ENGINE. See INTERNAL-COMBUS- TION ENGINES; SHIPBUILDING, Propelling Machinery. DIET. Within the decade 1914-24 the dis- covery of the vitamines and other advances add- ed greatly to knowledge of dietetics. Some en- thusiast stated that nearly all ills of the body might be produced and cured by diet. If we include in the term everything introduced into the stomach, the statement is approximately correct. It is no longer possible to distinguish between food and drugs, for the end products of protein digestion are closely related chemically to certain active drugs. Some of the amino- acids are known to be stimulants of growth; they agree to this extent with growth-vitamines. The hormones at times present in the diet are of the same nature as those manufactured in the body itself and have the status of drugs. Some of the amino-acids formed in protein di- gestion are of no nutritive value when given alone. Gelatine has no food value as a substi- tute for the albumins, but it may be utilized in certain combinations. While autointoxication is still imperfectly un- derstood, we know that the action of intestinal bacteria on food can give rise to certain poison- ous products, and we can surmise that the be- havior known as conjugation, in which the split products of digestion may lose their poisonous properties by uniting with one another, may sometimes fail to take place. Surgeons attrib- ute many ills to intestinal stagnation from purely mechanical causes, and it is true that a short fast is of material benefit in many ill- nesses; the improvement which follows the use of a light or monotonous diet is still more ap- parent. If it is kept up too long, a diet poor in calories, vitamines, protein, mineral matter, etc., will lead to the development of numerous diseases. A disease may sometimes be con- trolled by diametrically opposite plans of diet; everything depends on the individual case. Ty- phoid fever, often the result of impure and germ-infested drinking water, has often been beneficially treated by semistarvation; at the other extreme, supposing of course that the di- gestive processes have not been greatly im- paired, equally good results have resulted from stuffing the patient with highly concentrated food. The latter course counteracts the great tendency to lose weight. The dietetic treatment of diabetes (q.v.) was revolutionized, and the application of the Allen fasting treatment has justly been regarded as a great triumph in therapeutics. In this resource the short fast has been followed by the use of a very light diet slowly increased in nutritive value. The introduction of insulin into the therapeutics of diabetes made possible the use of a more liberal diet. Acidosis, a form of autointoxication which is not to be confused with intestinal self-poison- ing, was shown to play an extraordinary part in the causation of disease. The readiness with which it can now be controlled by diet is one of the greatest recent advances in medicine. The condition develops in actual starvation and im diabetes, in which the carbon of the diet is im- perfectly utilized; it may also follow dietetic errors of excess. Acidosis, with its lowering of the normal alkaline reserves of the body, fol- lows on a diet consisting largely of so-called DILLON acid forming foods, some of which have always been regarded as staples. The use of a diet in which alkali formers predominate and even the addition of alkalies to ordinary diet often leads to great improvement. The beneficial results of the so-called basic diet, from which acid formers are largely omit- ted, are seen especially in the middle-aged and elderly, and such chronie conditions as high blood pressure and affections usually ascribed to excess of uric acid or slowing up of nutri- tion with accumulation of waste products in the body, respond remarkably well. In any ease of chronic disease or ill health of obscure origin in which there is reason to suspect the presence of diminished alkaline reserves, the basic diet, which entails no trouble or discom- fort, may forestall expensive cures at distant resorts and surgical intervention for the sup- posed results of focal infection. See Foop AND NUTRITION; VITAMINE OR VITAMINES. DIETRICH, Jomn HASSLER (1878— * An American clergyman, born at Chambers- burg, Pa., and educated at Franklin and Mar- shall College and at the Reformed Theological Seminary at Lancaster, Pa. He was ordained in the ministry of the Reformed Church in 1905, but before this he held various positions such as private secretary and manager of Life’s Fresh Air Fund. From 1905 to 1916, he held various pastorates, becoming in the latter year pastor of the First Unitarian Society in Minne- apolis. He is the author of: The Gain for Re- ligion in Modern Thought (1908); The Religion of a Sceptie (1911); Substitutes for the Old Be- liefs (1914); From Stardust to Soul (1916); The Religion of Evolution (1917); The Religion of Humanity (1919). DIFFENDORFER, RartpuH EvuGene (1879- ). An American clergyman, born at Hayes- ville, Ohio, and educated at Ohio Wes- leyan University, Drew Theological Seminary and Union Theological Seminary. He was as- sistant secretary of the Epworth League from 1902 to 1904, and from 1904 to 1916 was secre- tary of the Missionary Education Movement in the United States and Canada. The following year (1916-17), he was educational secretary of the Board of Home Missions and Church Ex- tension and of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was associate secretary of the Centenary Commis- sion of the Board of Home Missions and Church Extension in 1918, and in 1919-20 served as director of the Home Missions Survey of the Inter-church world movement. In 1920, he was appointed secretary of the department of edu- cation of the Committee on Conservation and Advance of the Methodist Episcopal Chureh in Chicago. He is the author of: Ohild Life in Mission Lands (1904); Junior Studies in the Life of Christ (1904); A Modern Disciple of Jesus Ohrist—David Livingstone (1913) ; Thy Kingdom Come (1914); Missionary Education in Home and School (1917); The Church and the Community (1920). DIFFUSION OF GASES. See Cnuemistry. DILLON, Jonn (1851- ). An Trish pol- iticlan and agitator (see Vor. VII). In 1918, he succeeded Mr. Redmond as head of the Irish Nationalist party and was very bitter in de- nouncing England’s methods in coercing the Irish. During the War he was among those who favored Ireland’s share in the conflict, al- though he was opposed to compulsory service ti i itis eel DILNOT 379 and the Munitions Department, and was not kindly disposed toward Lloyd George’s sugges- tions for settling the Irish question. ~DILNOT, FRANK (1875- ). An English author and journalist, born in Hampshire. He was educated privately and began as a news- paper reporter in 1900 on the staff of the Cen- tral News, London, which he left two years later for the Daily Mail (1902-10). He was editor of the Daily Citizen, a British labor organ (1912-15), and thereafter was a correspondent for the Chronicle to investigate social and eco- nomic conditions in England. In 1916-19, he was president of the Association of Foreign Correspondents in America, and in the latter year, editor of the Globe. His publications, the majority of which give evidence of thorough in- sight into social and economic conditions in England, include: The Old Order Changeth: the Passing of Power from the House of Lords (1911), Lloyd George the Man (1917), The New America (1919), and England after the War (1920). His Lloyd George the Man had a second edition with three supplementary chap- ters in 1923 under the title Lloyd George. The undiscriminating admiration of the first edition has distinetly ebbed in the supplementary chap- ters. DINGLER, Huco ALBertT EMMANUEL HER- MANN (1881- ). A German mathematician and physicist, born in Munich and educated at the high school of Aschaffenburg and at the universities of Erlangen, Géttingen and Munich. He became. a member of the faculty of the Uni- versity of Munich in 1912. His works include: The Foundations for a Critique of the Exact Sciences (1907); The Boundaries and Aims of Science (1910); The Bases of Natural Phil- osophy (1913); The Elements of Physics (1920); Remarks on the. Theory of Relatiwity (1921). DINSMORE, CHARLES ALLEN (1860- a An American clergyman and Dante scholar (see Vou. VII). In 1920, Dr. Dinsmore gave up his pastorate at Waterbury, Conn., and became pro- fessor of spiritual interpretation of literature at the Yale Divinity School. In 1920, he was Carew lecturer at the Harvard Theological Sem- inary. His Life of Dante was published in 1919. DINWIDDIE, Atsert BLEDSOE (1871- ). An American university president, born at Lex- ington, Ky., and educated at the University of Virginia and the University of Gottingen, Ger- many. He began his career with a teaching licentiate in the University of Virginia, in 1888, and held various teaching positions, principally in secondary schools, until 1896, when he was appointed professor of mathematics in South- western Presbyterian University. In 1906, he was called to Tulane University as assistant professor of applied mathematics and astrono- my. He was made associate professor in 1908 and full professor in 1910. He was dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, director of the summer school from 1910 to 1918, and in 1918 became president. He was also elected presi- dent of the American Association of University Professors, the Louisiana Council of Education, and other educational associations. DINWIDDIE, Epwin CouRTLAND ). An American temperance (see Vor. VII). He directed the national campaign for the Constitutional Amendment for the prohibition of the liquor traffic in 1917, (1867- advocate © DISCIPLES OF CHRIST and was president of the International Congress against Alcoholism in 1920-21. DIPHTHERIA. The greatest advance since 1914 in knowledge of this plague is contained in the application of the Schick test to school children, to determine the relative susceptibil- ity or immunity to infection. Many facts have come to light which contradict popular belief. Diphtheria has commonly been regarded as a disease of the tenement population, while scar- let fever. was believed to attack both social ex- tremes indifferently. The Schick test shows plainly that the prosperous enjoy no immunity from diphtheria and that the susceptibility to the infection among the well-to-do is about three times as great as among the indigent. This is offset by the recognition among the prosperous of the importance of segregation. The Schick test has also shown that heredity is a factor. In any case susceptibility and immunity are not lasting, and tests have to be repeated at comparatively short intervals. Susceptibility is apt to disappear after the age of two or three years. The Negro child is much more suscep- tible to the disease than some of the whites, e.g. the Italians. Immunization tests are suc- cessful in a proportion varying from 70 to 93 per cent. Reports of results of the application of the Schick test vary much with the locality. Diphtheria was responsible for 20,000 deaths annually in the United States. Susceptibility exists in 85 per cent of all children tested. DIPLOMACY OF THE WAR. See War, DIPLOMACY OF THE. DIRIGIBLES. See ARONAUTICS, ‘DIRIGIBLES, In Warrare. See STRATEGY AND TACTICS. DISARMAMENT. See WASHINGTON CoNn- FERENCE, and PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES. DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE. See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. The fifth largest Protestant communion in the United States, congregational in organization. It was first in percentage of growth in 19238, reporting 4.2 per cent. It seeks to restore the union of the churches through a return to the plan outlined in the New Testament without human addition of creeds and formulas. The number of com- municants increased from 1,362,711 in 1914 to 1,383,247 in 1923; the number of churches from 9076 to 9533; the number of ministers from 5592 to 6150; and the number of pupils en- rolled in the Sunday schools from 900,000 to 1,- 170,148. In addition to varied types of home mission work among Negroes, Indians, Orient- als, Mexican-Americans, and immigrants, for- eign missions were maintained throughout the decade in Africa, China, India, Jamaica, Japan, Mexico, the Philippines, Porto Rico, South America (Argentina and Paraguay), and Tibet. The communion maintained 25 colleges in the United States, codperating through a board of education. The Men and Millions Movement was started in 1913 to secure $6,300,000 to equip mission stations and increase the endow- ment of the educational and benevolent institu- tions of the communion, to enlist 1000 workers for the mission field, and to start “every mem- ber” canvasses as the best plan for securing regular offerings for missions. The Movement was completed in 1918. In 1920 the six mis- sionary boards of the communion united under the title of the United Christian Missionary DISEASES OF PLANTS 380 Society, with headquarters at St. Louis, Mo. DISEASES OF PLANTS. See PLANTs, DISEASES OF. DITRICHSTEIN, Leo (1867- ). Ag actor-playwright, born in Temesvar, Austria- Hungary. He was educated in Vienna and was naturalized as an American citizen in 1897. He made his New York début in Die Ehre, 1890. This was followed by: Mr. Wilkinson’s Widows, Trilby, Are You a Mason? and other plays. He is the author of numerous plays, among which are: Gossip (with Clyde Fitch, 1895); A Southern Romance (1897); The Last Appeal (1901); What's the Matter with Susan? (1904); The Ambitious Mrs. Susan (1907); The Million (from the French, 1911); The Con- cert (1911); Temperamental Journey (1912) 3 The Great Lover (1915). DIVING SHELL. See ProJEcTILE. DIVISION. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGAN- IZATION. DIVORCE. Whether because of some gen- eral demoralization or because of an awakening sense of what marriage ought to be, the strik- ing increase in divorcement during these years was not peculiar to any one country. In Eng- land, notwithstanding the narrow restriction of grounds and the prohibitive cost, the number of absolute divorces rose from 546 in 1906 to 972 in 1916, and to 1629 in 1919, while the number of petitions for divorce, even more significant of the general trend, rose from 767 to 1163 and to 5085. In Germany the increase in the number of divorces from 1918 to 1920 was from 13,344 to 36,542; in Switzerland, from 1699 to 2241. In Sweden the number rose from 1098 in 1918 to 1455 in 1922. Norway seemed to be the one exception to the rule, the number of divorces in 1922 falling slightly below the figure for 1918, 594, In France the ratio of divorces to mar- riages had become about 1 to 5: 7851 divorces in 1918-19, 11,514 in 1919-20. Japan was still conceded first place among the nations with a high divorce rate. As for the United States, the number of decrees rose from 72,062 for 1906 to 112,036 for 1916, from a ratio of 84 per 100,000 population to 112. This ratio rose by 1922, according to the Department of Com- merce, to 136; while the number of marriages per 100,000 population fell from 1055 in 1916 to 1033 in 1922. In 1916, desertion and cruelty accounted for 65.1 per cent of all divorces granted. In 1922 there was one divorce to every 7.6 marriages. United States. That phase of the divorce problem which received particular attention in the United States during the decade 1914-24 was the need for uniformity of legislation. The various States, left to their own resources, had developed a confusing diversity of divorce leg- islation. In South Carolina, divorce was not allowed; in New Hampshire there were 14 rec- ognized grounds for a decree. Counting cer- tain duplications, there were in the United States 363 causes for divorce: in one State, New York, unfaithfulness alone; in others, for varied reasons down to mere bad temper. And the legal complications ensuing on. the remar- riage of divorced persons were correspondingly abundant and confusing: a marriage legal in one State was bigamy in others, and a child legitimate in one State was illegitimate in an- other. Recognition of the need for some meas- ure of uniformity in the divorce laws of the United States grew steadily. In 1913 at a con- DIVORCE ference of governors the movement to secure uniform divorce legislation was endorsed; and throughout the decade by many organizations in convention. But the question of State’s rights impeded action. In 1924, however, there was introduced in the Senate, a Federal bill calling for uniform regulation of marriage and divorce. In this, five causes: for absolute di- vorce were fixed: Adultery, cruel and inhu- man treatment, abandonment or failure to pro- vide, incurable insanity, and conviction for in- famous crime. The measure was referred to committee to await action at the next session of Congress. Other Countries. The tendency abroad dur- ing the period was markedly toward liberali- zation of divorce provisions. Spain and Italy (both predominantly Catholic countries), where divorce was not allowed, were in striking con- trast. In England, the report of the Royal Di- vorce Commission, presented in 1912, had rec- ommended an increase of both the causes of divorce and facilities for divorcement. Al- though this was steadily opposed by the Church of England, and several bills on the subject were defeated during the period, in 1923 a measure was got through by which the terms for a decree, infidelity, were at least made identical for men and women (previously, for women, cruelty or desertion as well as in- fidelity had been necessary). The prohibitive cost of divorce in England had been some- what eased by a Poor Persons’ Act, under which, if an individual did not object to be so classed, a decree might be obtained at a cheaper rate; but up to 1924 only one divorce court (in London) had been established and this condi- tion added greatly to the expense of securing a decree. On the continent there was an unmis- takable drift toward’ the adoption of mutual desire as a reason for the dissolution of mar- riage. In Austria and Russia this had been le- gal for Jews; in Holland, the principle was evident in a provision for divorce after five years of judicial separation; Belgium recog- nized as grounds “mutual and unwavering con- sent”; and in Portugal and Rumania mutual consent was accepted, subject to provisions. The new German, Austrian, and Russian legis- lation on the subject, in adopting mutual con- sent as a cause, endeavored specifically to pro- vide against an irresponsible attitude toward children or wife. The Scandinavian experiment was most noteworthy. As a result of a com- prehensive study of Scandinavian social legisla- tion, 1910-18, divorce legislation was adopted in Sweden in 1915, in Norway in 1918, and in Denmark in 1922, which definitely recognized mutual consent as the fundamental reason for the dissolution of marriage. Separation for a year, however, was required before the granting of the decree. Both parents were required to contribute to the support of children. The question of custody was left to be settled by the parents where possible and where there was in- volved no danger to the welfare of the child. For cases where divorce was desired by only one party, the grounds were liberal, including such as flagrant neglect, misuse of intoxicants, ete. The statistics previously given show that _ there was no increase from 1918 to 1922 in Norway under the new legislation, and in Sweden no greater than in other countries. The expedient adopted in Latvia, Lithuania, Czecho-Slovakia, and Jugo-Slavia, to stem the Ys } 4 —— DIX increase in divorce, was to make it more diffi- cult to marry and to grant dissolution of mar- riage for the asking; but that this was no sgolu-. tion seemed evident from the marked increase in the number of divorces in France under sim- ilar laws. DIX, Kurr WALTER (1878— ). A Ger- man pedagogue and writer on subjects of edu- cation, born in Greiz. He studied at the uni- versities of Dresden and Jena and has devoted himself to teaching and studying child psychol- ogy, child hygiene, ete. Among his works are: LHrziehung und Nervésitét im Kindesalter (1909); Kérperliche und geistige Entwicklung eines Kindes (1911-12); Kindeskunde (1911) ; Entwicklung der Denkakte (1921). DIXON, AmziI CLARENCE (1854— yo American clergyman and author (see Vor. VII). His later works include: Reconstruction (1919); The Birth of Christ, the Incarnation of God (1919); Why I Am a Christian (1921); High- er Critic Myths and Moths (1921). DIXON, JAMES Main (1856- yer An American teacher and author (see Von. VII). In 1920, he wrote, The Spiritual Meaning of Tennyson's “In Memoriam,” and Manual of Modern Scots. DIXON, RoLtanp BurracE (1875— yee An American anthropologist (see Vor. VII). He was professor at Harvard after 1916 and mem- ber of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace (1916-18) in Paris. He is a contributor to anthropological and ethnological journals and his most recent works include Oceanic Mythology (Myths of the Idonesian, Oceanian, Australian region, published in 1915), and The Racial History of Man (1923). DIXON, Roya (1885-— ). An American author, born at Huntsville, Tex., and educated at the Sam Houston Normal Institute and as a special student at the University of Chicago. After spending five years with the department of botany at the Field Museum of Chicago, he entered the literary field as a member of the Houston Chronicle staff. He has been a special contributor to the leading newspapers of New York, where he has lectured for the Board of Education. His interest and attention have been directed to immigration, as a director of publicity of the Commission of Immigrants in America, and as managing editor of The Immi- grants in America Review. His works. in- clude: The Human Side of Plants (1914); Americanization (1916); The Human Side of Animals (1918); Hidden Children (1922). DIXON, THomas (1864— ). An Ameri- can novelist and playwright (see Vou. VII). His photoplay, The Birth of a Nation, appeared in 1915, and he published Fall of a Nation (1916), The Way of a Man (1918), A Man of the People (1920), and The Man in Gray (1921). DIJIEMAL PASHA (AHMAD DJEMAL) (1875- ). A Turkish soldier and politician, born at Bagdad. After an excellent French ed- ucation, he entered the Turkish army, and soon became lieutenant-colonel. He acquainted himself with the Young Turkish Movement and was criticized for his obvious support. In 1911, after serving at Adana in Cilicia, he was made governor of his native town of Bagdad, and shortly after became Vali of Constantinople. About this time he resigned as commander of the Ist Corps at Constantinople, and devoted himself to politics, becoming Minister of Public 381 DOCKS Works and shortly afterwards Minister of Ma- rine. These political activities brought upon him the personal antagonism of Enver Pasha. Djemal was opposed to any combination that included both Turkey and Germany; he became distinctly pro-French at the outbreak of the War. Thus it was because of his political be- liefs and influence that Enver Pasha sent him to Syria as commander-in-chief of the 4th Army. Upon being recalled in 1917, he was made commander-in-chief of all the troops ex- cept those at the Sinai front, an exception which immediately led to friction; as a result, Djemal, losing interest, abandoned military op- erations. In 1917, he returned to Constantino- ple and resumed his duties as Minister of Ma- rine, but opportunities for military and politi- cal power did not come his way, and on the downfall of Turkey in 1918, he fled to Germany and thence to Switzerland. Three years later he became miltary adviser to the amir of Af- ghanistan. DOBRUDJA. See BuLGARIA; RUMANIA. DOCKS. The construction of large merchant steamers and vessels of war in the period be- tween 1914 and 1924 developed the need for drydocks or, as they are sometimes called, grav- ing docks, of increased size and capacity. Un- der normal circumstances there would have been no such need but with the outbreak of the War in 1914 the necessity for such facilities was appreciated, particularly in the United States. Before the United States entered the War there was naturally an increase in its commerce, and at the same time the officers of the United States Navy appreciated that the construction of suitable drydocks was an essen- tial element in any scheme of naval prepared- ness. Accordingly as early as 1914 plans were discussed for additional drydocks locat- ed at various naval stations, while at the Panama Canal, and at certain leading ports, docks were constructed intended primarily for merchant shipping. When the United States actively joined the Allies in the War and took over for its transport service the former Gerntan liner, the Vaterland, renamed Levi- athan, it was apparent that no drydock in the United States was large enough for that vessel. Pearl Harbor Drydock. As early as 1908 the United States Navy began the construction of a drydock at Pearl Harbor, Hawaiian Is- lands, which was completed and flooded on Aug. 21, 1919. The plans for developing a small naval station located at this point involved the construction of a graving dock 589 feet long, but with the completion of the Panama Canal and the increased size of ships navigating the Pa- cific Ocean it was determined to increase its dimensions. Accordingly the dock was built 1022 feet long, 138 feet wide at the coping and 3914 feet in effective depth, there being 43% feet depth from top of coping to floor. This gave a clear water basin 1010 feet long and 1010 feet wide at the bottom clearance. In 1913 a seismic disturbance caused the collapse of the work under way, and after a technical investigation a modified plan of construction was adopted in 1915, and finished in 1919. A full report of this drydock, the history of its early construction, as well as the adoption of the new design is contained in the J’ransaction of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol, lxx, page 223, 1916. DOCKS 382 Norfolk Navy Yard Drydock. The United States Navy Yard at Portsmouth, Virginia, had its facilities increased by the construction of a drydock 1011 feet long, 144 feet wide at the cop- ing and 40 feet deep, which was opened in April, 1919, after having been under construction since February, 1917. This work involved the exca- vation of 625,000 cubic yards and the placing of a total yardage of concrete of 185,000. The Norfolk Navy Yard also contained two dry- docks, built through the coéperation and finan- cial assistance of the United States Shipping Board during the War, which were completed in 1919, and formally inaugurated on October 31, of that year, by the Queen of the Belgians. Commonwealth Drydock. In 1915 active work was begun on a large drydock at South Boston built by the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts which was an important element in the port and harbor development of Boston. This dock at the time of its completion was the larg- est in the United States, being 1176 feet long and 149 feet, 9 inches wide. It could take care of a ship of 1150 feet in length with a beam of 115 feet and 45 feet draft. It had a capacity of 55,000,000 gallons, and was unwatered by three electric pumps, requiring about two hours for the operation. This dock cost the Common- wealth of Massachusetts over $3,000,000, and was purchased by the United States government under authority from Congress for $4,100,000, being formally taken over by the United States Navy and put in commission on Dec. 22, 1919, the battleship Virginia being the first vessel to use the dock. Balboa Drydock. In 1916 the new drydock at Balboa, at the Pacific terminal of the Pan- ama Canal zone, was completed with a length of 1000 feet, a width of 110 feet and a depth of 35 feet over the blocks at mean tide. This structure was one of the important works con- nected with the shipping facilities of the Pan- ama Canal, and made possible the docking and repair of steamers of considerable size. St. John, N. B., Drydock. The St. John Drydock and Shipbuilding Company in Novem- ber, 1923, opened its new drydock at St. John, N. B. This new dock was the largest of its kind in the world, having an extreme length of 1225 feet and length over the blocks of 1150 feet. It was so arranged that it could be used in two independent sections, one 650 feet long and the other 500 feet long. There was a pat- ent slipway 720 feet in length and a cradle 240 feet long. The depth over the sill at high tide was 42 feet. The dock was provided with a 70- ton fixed crane and a 20-ton traveling crane. Drydock at Quebec. The Champlain dry- dock at Quebee, which had been under construc- tion since 1914, was completed in August, 1918. Situated on the south side of the St. Lawrence, and with a length of 1150 feet, a width of 120 feet and depth over the sill of 34 feet at neap tide, and 40 feet at high water at spring tide, it was at the time of its completion one of the largest drydocks in the world, being able to ac- commodate the largest ships for which the port of Quebec had adequate deep water berths. This dock was divided into two compartments with an inner chamber 650 feet in length and an outer one 500 feet in length, the latter being closed by a rolling caisson, while the middle entrance was formed by a floating caisson. For emptying the dock three main pumps of the horizontal centrifugal type, designed to deliver DODD 63,000 gallons a minute against the total head of 25 feet, were provided. These were operat- ed by electric power and could empty the dock in about two and a half hours. Floating Docks. In the period between 1914 and 1924 there was also an increase in the size and capacity of floating docks which, it will be recalled, could be used at any convenient loca- tion, and could be moved from place to place if so desired. At the close of the War two large floating docks owned by Germany, and at the time the largest structures of the kind, passed into the possession of the British. Each of these had an overall length of about 700 feet and a lift of some 40,000 tons. The British Admiralty, however, decided that there was need of a still larger floating dock, and in No- vember, 1922, one was put under construction with a length of 960 feet, and a lifting capacity of 60,000 tons. This was built at the Walker Shipyard of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Company, and was designed for the port of Southampton. This dock which, at the time of its completion, in 1924, was the world’s largest floating dock, was of the double sided, self- docking sectional box type, and consisted of pontoon and two parallel walls divided trans- versely by seven sections. When in position at Southampton it was moored by four steel booms 110 feet long, hinged at one end to the dock and at the other extremity to four dolphins of re- enforced concrete. When submerged the dock contains some 80,000 tons of water to pump out which 14 motor driven centrifugal pumps were provided and with all in operation some four hours were required to remove the water. The British Government accordingly had with the Southampton and the two German docks three floating docks, each of which was capable of taking a large battleship, such as the Hood, and a distinct strategic and maintenance advan- tage was gained by the fact that all of these docks could be passed through the Suez Canal. It was rumored in 1924 that one of these float- ing docks was to be sent to Singapore, another to Malta, but no confirmation was available of such disposition. American Built Docks in France. At the mouth of the Loire River in France, during the War, engineers of the American Army con- structed a notable timber dock system which provided new berths for 10 vessels in addition to an existing series of docks adjoining, pre- viously constructed by the French. These docks were built of timber supported by wooden piles and were located on mud fiats. On their shore side were built long low classification sheds, and further inland a receiving yard, a departure yard for the handling of freight cars. There was provided specially designed timber rigging for the handling of ships’ cargoes, and heavy steel gantry cranes were erected also. DODD, LEE WILson (1879- ). An Amer- ican author and playwright, born at Franklin, Pa., and educated at Yale. He studied law at the New York Law School and was admitted to the bar in 1902, but gave up law five years later for literature, in which he made distinct accom- plishment, but has been criticized as being over novelistic. He is author of A Modern AIl- chemist (1906); The Return of Eve (1909) ; Speed (1911); The Middle Miles (1915); His Majesty Bunker Bean (1915); Pals First; The Book of Susan (1920) and Lilia Chenoworth (1922). / f ee DODD DODD, WILLIAM Epwarp (1869- ) 4 tAn American historian, born at Clayton, N. C., and educated at Virginia Polytechnical Institute and the University of Leipzig. While succes- sively holding the chairs of history at Randolph- Macon College (1900-08) and at the University of Chicago (1908- ), he wrote: Jeffersons Riickkehr zur Politik, 1796 (1900) ; Life of Na- thaniel Macon (1903); Life of Jefferson Davis (1907); Statesmen of the Old South (1911); and Woodrow Wilson and His Work (1920). In addition, he was editor and joint author of the Riverside History of the United States (1915) and of The Cotton Kingdom (in Chron- icles of America series), and co-translator of Lamprecht’s What Is History? (1905). DODECANESE. A_ group of 12° small islands, the Sporades, off the southwest coast of Asia Minor, among which, politically, Rhodes was included. Most of them, barren rocks, are uninhabited. Of their total population, 100,198 in 1917, the greater part were Greek sponge fishermen inhabiting Rhodes and Cos. During the Libyan War between Italy and Turkey, the Italians occupied the islands, and by the Treaty of Lausanne of 1912, Italy was permitted to continue occupation only as a guarantee toward Turkish evacuation of ‘Tripoli. The Turks claimed to have fulfilled their obligations, but the Italians stayed on. After the War the question of the Dodecanese became a test of the sincerity of the Allies’ idealistic pretensions. On the one hand was the plain fact of the Greek nationality of the population; on the other, the Italian claim, frankly imperialistic, based on actual possession and on the recogni- tion of this possession in the secret Treaty of London in 1915, by which the Italian govern- ment had been induced to enter the War. In 1919 the Greek Premier, Venizelos, effected a bargain with Tittoni, Italian foreign minister, by which the Dodecanese were to be turned over to Greece and Rhodes to Italy. The dis- position of the latter the Italians promised to submit to a plebiscite when Great Britain should promise to do similarly in the case of Cyprus. The Peace Treaty of Sévres in 1920 transferred the islands from Turkish to Italian sovereignty, while a separate Greco-Italian treaty signed on the same day in accordance with the Venizelos-Tittoni agreement promised all except Rhodes, where a plebiscite was to be held, to Greece. Despite this pledge, Italy con- tinued in occupation of the disputed territory, and shortly afterward repudiated the agree- ment, on the ground that the Sévres Treaty had not been ratified. Events of the succeeding years once more brought the Dodecanese ques- tion before the attention of the world. The overthrow of Venizelos, the defeat of Greece in its Asia Minor adventure, and the rise of Ital- ian chauvinism under Mussolini, gave substance to the belief that Venizelos’ settlement was only too ephemeral and that Italy rather than Greece was to control the eastern Mediterra- nean. The soundness of these conjectures was confirmed when, regardless of self-determina- tion and the principle of nationalism, and in a spirit typical of the old diplomacy, the Great Powers in 1923 confirmed Italy’s hold on the islands. By article 15 of the Treaty of Lau- sanne, Turkey renounced all rights over the Dodecanese, Rhodes, and the island of Castel- lorizzo in favor of Italy. No mention was made of a plebiscite. See GREECE; ITALY. 383 DOHERTY DODGE, RAymonp (1871-— ). An Amer- ican experimental psychologist. He was edu- cated at Williams College and the University of Halle (Germany). In 1896, he was appointed professor of philosophy at Ursinus College, and the following year became associated with Wes- leyan University, and was made full professor in 1902. He was selected to conduct experi- ments on the psychology of nutrition at the Carnegie Institute laboratory (1913-14), and became the editor of the Journal of Haperimen- tal Psychology (1916) and of the Journal of Comparative, Psychology (1921). He is the au- thor of numerous scientific monographs and pa- pers on the psychology of language, vision, eye movement, and dynamic psychology in general. DODGE, WitLiAMmM DE Lertwicn (1867- Y An American artist born at Liberty, Va., who studied in Paris and Munich and entered first place in the examination for the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Mr. Dodge’s work as a mural painter is represented in New York by his deco- rations of the Empire Theatre, of the Waldorf- Astoria Hotel, and of other theatres and hotels. Among his principal works were the decora- tions of the Café de l’Opéra, Paris, The Folies Bergéres Theatre, murals for the Panama-Pa- cific International Exposition, and for the Flag Room at the capitol at Albany, mosaics for the Hall of Records, New York, “Signing of the Peace,” at Versailles, and “Taking of the Fort de Vaux.” DOFLEIN, Franz J. T. (1873- aes. German zodlogist born in Paris. He traveled extensively in the United States, West Indies and Mexico. He succeeded Weismann as _ pro- fessor of zodlogy at the University of Munich, in 1912, and became professor at Breslau in 1918. Professor Doflein’s published works were on the protozoa, animal biology, and psy- chology. DOHENY, Epwarp LAURENCE (1856- F An American capitalist and oil producer, born at Fond du Lac, Wis., who spent his early years prospecting for gold with varying — success. Stranded in Los Angeles in 1892, he noticed a wagonload of pitch passing along the street and investigated the hole from which it was taken. He obtained a lease of a lot near-by, and at 225 feet struck a gusher which started the Los An- geles oil field. After finding several other fields, and gaining several fortunes, he went to, Mexico in 1900 and organized the Mexican Pe- troleum Company with $10,000,000 capital, and obtained leases on about 1,000,000 acres of bar- ren land near Tampico. In four or five years, Tampico was a world oil centre. The control of such vast enterprises inevitably led Doheny into political activity. In Mexico, he was charged with being responsible for several rev- olutions, and he was a large factor in Califor- nia politics. He was prominent in the transac- tions in regard to the United States naval oil reserves, and was called to Washington to testi- fy before the investigating committee early in 1924. His testimony revealed that he had lent to former Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall $100,000, and that a number of ex-cabinet members and other government officials had been employed by him in connection with the oil leases. DOHERTY, PuiLip JOSEPH - (1856- ).2 An American lawyer, born at Charlestown, Mass., and educated at the School of Law, Bos- ton University. He practiced in Boston. from DOHSE 384 1877 to 1908; in the latter year, he became at- torney to the division of safety of the Inter- state Commerce Commission; and in 1913, chief attorney. Beginning in 1884, he held various political offices, including member of the Mas- sachusetts House of Representatives, delegate to the Democratic National Convention, and chairman of the Democratic State Convention (1897). In 1896, he was Democratic candidate for Congress. He was appointed special assis- tant to the United States District Attorney in cases having to do with certain industrial ques- tions, and in 1909 served as special assistant to the ae General in the Mondou-N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. case. In 1914, he was on the commission to investigate the finances of the New Haven Railroad. In 1918, he was ap- pointed manager of the Property Protection Section of the United States Railroad Adminis- tration, and the following year became attor- ney to the Valuation Bureau of the Interstate Commerce Commission. He is the author of The Liability of Railroads to Interstate Hm- ployees (1911). DOHSE, RicHarp (1875- ). A German historian, born at Lubz, Mecklenburg. He stud- ied at the universities of Munich, Marburg, Geneva and Rostock, specializing on modern languages and history. He traveled in France and Spain and was journalist, correspondent and editor of various papers. His principal works are: Colley Oibbers Bearbeitung von Shakespeare’s Richard III (1897); a volume of verse, Aus stillen Stunden (1902); Kunst fur die Jugend (1902); several books of verse in Low German (1902-14); Moderne deutsche Lit- eratur (1920); Deutsche Literatur von Anfang bis Hebbel (1921); and Das Niederdeutsche Drama (1921). DOISY, PELLETIER ( ?- ). A French airman who with Sergeant Besin flew from Par- is to Peking (1924) and has made some sensa- tional flights in the Orient. He also made a world’s record for altitude with 1500 kilograms of useful load for seaplanes. DOMBROWSKI, Ericn FrANz (1882- ae A German student of theoretical and practical economy, born in Danzig. He became a well known traveler and editor, and a lecturer at Danzig, Kiel, Berlin and Leipzig. He is the author of Zehn Jahre deutscher Kulturentwick- lung vor dem Kriege (1915), Das alte und neue System (1919), and Politische Képfe Deutsch- lands (1920). DOMINIAN, Leon (1880- ). An Amer- ican geographer, born at Constantinople, Tur- key. He was graduated at Robert College in 1898 and during 1898-1900 studied at Liége. After two years of travel in Turkey, he came to the United States, and became an assistant on the United States Geological Survey in the Southwest, also serving as an instructor in the New Mexico School of Mines during 1904, after which he spent two years in Mexico. In 1907, he settled in New York City and devoted him- self to research and writing, but in 1912 went to Washington as a writer of geographical ar- ticles for the National Geographic Magacine. He became connected with the Department of State in 1918, serving it on various technical matters, especially with the American Peace Conference in France during 1919. Since 1921, he has been United States Consul in Rome. He served as a delegate to the 12th International Geographical Congress in Toronto in 1913 and DOUGHERTY to the 2d Pan-American Scientific Congress held in Washington in 1915. He is the author of The Frontiers of Language and Nationality in Hurope (1917). DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. See Santo DomInoo. DONAI.. See War IN Europe, Western Front. DONNAY, MaAvrice (1859- ). A French dramatic author (see Vor. VII), whose recent work includes: Alfred de Musset (1914); La Parisienne et la guerre (1916); L’Impromptu du paquetage (1916); Le Thédtre aux armies (1916). Premiéres impressions (1917); Lettres a la dame Blanche (1917); Pendant qwils sont a Noyon (1917); La Chasse &@ Vhomme (1919). DORGELES, ROLAND (1886- LEA French novelist, who came to the front with the publication of his war novels, Les Croix de Bois and Le Cabaret de la Belle Femme. In spite of the intensity of his subject, his style is that of a sober realism, which is in many ways the equal of the melodramatic pages of Barbusse’s Under Fire. His other works are: La Machine a finir la guerre (in collaboration with Régis Gignoux, 1916); La Boule les Ailes (1921); Saint Magloire (1921); Sous les Ailes de mon moulin (1922); Le Réveil des morts (1923). Les Croiw de Bois and Saint-Magloire were translated into English. DORR, RuEtTa CHILE (?- ). An Amer- ican author and social worker (see VoL. VII). She was war correspondent for a syndicate of 21 newspapers during 1917-18, and became for- eign correspondent with headquarters at Prague in 1920. Her later books include Inside the Russian Revolution (1917), The Soldier’s Moth- er in France (1918), and Czecho-Slovakia (1921). DORSEY, Noaun Ernest (1873- ). An American physicist, born at Annapolis Junction, Md. He was graduated in 1893 from Johns Hopkins, where he was a fellow during 1896- 97 and received his Ph.D. After serving as a research fellow at the Yerkes Observatory dur- ing 1899 he returned to Johns Hopkins and was an associate in physics until 1901, when he en- tered the service of the government as phys- icist to the Bureau of Soils in the Department of Agriculture. In 1903, he transferred to the Bureau of Standards, in which he attained the rank of physicist in 1917. In 1921, he as- sumed a consulting relation with the Bureau in addition to his private practice. His prin- cipal investigations have included the physics of the soil, absolute measurements in electricity and physics of the medical sciences, including applications of X-rays. Besides many articles contributed to scientific journals, he is the au- thor of Physics or Radioactivity (1921). DOTTIN, HENRI GeEorRGES (1863- A French philologist (see Vor. VII). His most recent works are Les anciens peuples de lEu- rope (1916) and La langue gauloise (1920). DOUGALL, Lity (18538- ). A Canadian novelist (see Vout. VII). Among her recent works are The Practice of Christianity (1914), and The Christian Doctrine of Health (1916). She was part author of Concerning Prayer (1916); Immortahty (1917); “The Spirt (1919); God and the Struggle for Ewmistence (1919); Arcades Ambo (1919), a volume of poems, and The Lord of Thought (1922). DOUGHERTY, Pavt = (1877- VexpAn American marine painter, born in Brooklyn, a DOUGHTY N. Y. He was graduated from the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute and the New York Law School and studied art in Europe, spending much of his time in London, Paris, Florence, Venice and Munich. In 1906, he was elected an Associate of the National Academy and the next year he was made a full member. He is also a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Mr. Dougherty’s marine paintings have been exhibited all over the United States and in many parts of Europe and include: “October Seas”; “The Road to Cayey”; “Lake Louise” (Metropolitan Museum, N. Y.); “Sun and Storm” (National Gallery, Washington); “Flood Tide” (Carnegie Insti- tute, Pittsburgh) ; “Storm Quiet” (Chicago Art Institute); “The Land and the Sea” (Corcoran Gallery, Washington) ; “Autumn Oaks” (Brook- lyn Institute Museum). Among Mr. Dougher- ty’s awards was the gold medal from the Pan- ama-Pacific International Exposition in 1915. DOUGHTY, ArTHUR GEORGE (1860- Ne A Canadian historian and archivist (see Vou. VII). In 1917, Doughty was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force War Archives Survey and in 1919 he accompanied the Prince of Wales as historian on his Canadian tour. Among his later works appear The Acadian Ea- iles (1915), A Daughter of New France (1916), and Notes on the History of Canada Prepared for the Visit of the Prince of Wales (1919). DOUGHTY, CHARLES MONTAGUE (1843- i An English explorer (see Vou. VII). His work in the period under review was devoted almost entirely to the writing of poetry and_ poetic drama. The Titans appeared in 1916 and Man- soul, or the Riddle of the World in 1920. DOUGHTY, Howarp WATERS (1871- if An American chemist, born at Baltimore, Md. He was educated at Johns Hopkins University, where he received his Ph.D. in 1905. During 1905-06, he was instructor of chemistry at Mis- souri and during 1907-08, at Wisconsin, after which he went to Amherst, where he became full professor in 1913. His original investiga- tions have been chiefly in the field of organic chemistry, notably on derivatives of trimethyl- paraconiec and camphoronic acids and on the re- actions with various metals of compounds con- taining the trihalogen methyl group. DOUGLAS, Rozsert LANnctTon (1864- Ve An English art critic, lecturer, and author (see Vout. VII). Enlisting in the new army in 1914, he became staff captain, War Office, 1916- 17. After 1916, he was director of the Nation- al Gallery, Ireland. To the literature of Sie- nese art, as an authority on which he was best known, he contributed in 1914 an edition (sec- ond) of Histoire de Sienne. DOUMER, PaAuL (1857- ). A French statesman (see Vor. VII). He became minis- ter of state in 1917, and was minister of fi- nance during 1921-22. DOUMERGUE, Gaston’ (1863- i K glips' French statesman (see Vout. VII). He held the portfolio for the colonies through the minis- tries of Viviani and Briand until the Ribot Ministry of March, 1917, when he was sent to Russia to persuade the Kerensky government not to make a separate peace with Germany and Austria. He was elected the twelfth Pres- ident of France on June 13, 1924, the first Protestant to hold that office. DOURINE. See VetTEeRINARY MEDICINE. D’OVIDIO, Francesco (1843- ). An 385 DRAKE Italian philologist (see Vor. VII). He has published, within the last years, L’avversione di Ruggiero Bonght alla triplice allianza (1915), Lrorigine della presente guerra (1915), and Benvenuto da Imola e la legenda vergiliana (1916). DOWLING, AUSTIN (1868- jee ea American archbishop, born in New York City. He graduated from Manhattan College in 1887, and after studying at St. Jolin’s Seminary and the Catholic University, was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1891. He served as pastor in Warren, R. I., and from 1905 to 1912 was pastor of Saints Peter and Paul Ca- thedral. He was consecrated Bishop of Des Moines in 1912 and Archbishop of St. Paul in 1910; DOWNS, LAwrencE ALoystius (1872- j An American railway official, born in Greencas- tle, Ind. He graduated from Purdue Universi- ty in 1894 and in the following year began his railroad career with the Vandalia road. He occupied many important positions with the II- ‘ linois Central Railroad until 1920, when he was elected vice-president and general manager of the Central of Georgia Railroad. He was the author of Development of Banking in Illinois (1914). DOYLE, Sir Artnur Conan (1859- y; A British novelist and spiritualist (see VoL. VII). After 1913, Sir Arthur lengthened his already long list of works with: The Case of Oscar Slater (1914); The Valley of Fear (1915); A Visit to Three Fronts (1916); His- tory of the British Campaign in France and Flanders, vols. i and ii (1915-20); Danger (1918); His Last Bow (1918); The Guards Came Through (1920). A New Revelation (1918); The Vital Message (1920), and The Wanderings of a Spiritualist (1921), were written in connection with his studies in the field of spiritualism. He lectured and debated on the subject of spiritualism in Europe and America, DRAFT ACT. See Unitep Srates, History. DRAFT TREATY OF MUTUAL AS- SISTANCE. See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE. DRAGE, GEOFFREY (1860- ). An Eng- lish sociologist (see Vor. VII). He was active during the War as a member of the Depart- mental Committees National Register (1915), vice-president of the Royal Statistical Society (1916-18), chairman of the Denison House Committee on Public Assistance (1916), and chairman of the Official Statistics Committee (1919). In 1916, he was attached to the War Office in the Military Intelligence Section, and in the following year was director of the In- vestigation Board of Agriculture. Among his later works may be mentioned: Ephemera (1915); Reorganization of Official Statistics and a Central Statistical Office (1916); Pre- war Statistics of Poland and Lithuania (1918), and The Cost of Public Assistance (1921). DRAINAGE RECLAMATION. See ReEc- LAMATION, DRAKE, Durant (1878- ). An Ameri- ean professor of philosophy. He was born at Hartford, and was educated at Harvard and Columbia Universities. In 1912, he joined the faculty of Wesleyan University, and in 1915 became professor at Vassar. He was one of a group of seven who published the Essays on Critical Realism (1920). Among his other writings are: The Problem of Things in Them- DRAKE UNIVERSITY 386 selves (1911); Problems of Conduct (1914); Problems of Religion (1916); America Faces the Future (1922). ; DRAKE UNIVERSITY. An institution a Des Moines, Iowa, founded in 1881. The stu- dent enrollment in 1913 was 1594, compared with 1750 in the year 1923-24, with 532 in the summer school of 1923. The faculty in 1913 numbered 80, against 78 in the later year; this figure is exclusive of 19 officers of administra- tion. The library increased from 26,000 to 35,- 000 volumes. Drake University Municipal Ob- servatory was built by the city of Des Moines in Waverland Park in 1921. Arthur Holmes, Ph.D., succeeded Hill M. Bell as president in 1918 and was in turn succeeded by Daniel W. Morehouse, Ph.D., in 1922. DREIER, Mary ELizAspetH (1875- 3 An American social worker, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., and educated in private schools, at home, and at the New York School of Philanthropy. From 1906 to 1915, she was president of the Woman’s Trade Union League, subsequently serving on the Executive Committee. From 1911 to 1915, she was a member of the New York State Factory Investigating Commission, and in 1915 was appointed to the Board of Edu- cation by Mayor Mitchel. She resigned in or- der to give all her time to suffrage work, becom- ing chairman of the Industrial Section of the New York State Woman’s Suffrage Party and of the Americanization Committee of the New York State and New York City Woman’s Suf- frage Party, until 1918. In 1918, she was made chairman of the New York State Committee on Women in Industry of the Advisory Commis- sion of the Council of National Defense and of the Women’s Joint Legislative Conference. In 1921, she also became a member of the Indus- trial Committee of the National Board of the Y. W. C. A., and of the Executive Committee of the New York State Council for the Limita- tion of Armament. DREISER, THEODORE (1871- Please American author and journalist (see Vou. VIT). His most important later works are: The T1- tan (1914); The Genius (1915); Plays of the Natural and Supernatural (1916); A Hoosier Holiday (1916); The Hand of the Potter (1919); Hey Rub-a-Dub-Dub, a book of essays and philosophy. From his first novel, he has, with each new book, been accused of immoral- ity. His works show a mind of titanic force dealing with dispassionate insight and compas- sion with the motives and forces that surround mankind. His extended newspaper work gave him an acute understanding of men and life, and also accounts for his careless, loose style of writing. DRESEL, Etiis Lorine (1865- ). An American diplomatist, born at Boston, Mass., and educated in private schools in the United States, Switzerland and Germany, and at Har- vard University. He practiced law in Boston from 1892 to 1915, then went to Berlin as at- taché of the American Embassy, and until 1917 was special representative of the State Depart- ment there. On the declaration of war by the United States, he was sent to Berne in the same capacity. He organized the Central Committee for American Prisoners, and was the _ repre- sentative in Switzerland of the American Red Cross and of the War Trade Board. He became first secretary of the Legation in 1918, and in the same year, attaché to the Peace Conference DRINKWATER in Paris. He was named honorary counselor to the American Embassy in 1919, but did not enter upon his duties, being appointed Ameri- can commissioner to Germany in the autumn of the same year. As plenipotentiary of the United States government, he signed the peace treaty with Germany on Aug. 25, 1921. In No- vember of the same year, he became chargé d’ affaires in Berlin. DRESSER, Horatio Wirtis (1866- yi An American author prominent in the New Thought movement. He was born at Yar- mouth, Maine, and educated at Harvard Uni- versity. He began his career in 1879 as tele- graph operator and railroad agent in Califor- nia. He returned to Boston, however, and tried a variety of occupations, finally becoming, in 1896, editor and publisher of the Journal of Practical Metaphysics, and, in 1899, of the periodical entitled The Higher Law. His writ- ings, which are mostly philosophical, include: The Power of Silence (1895); The Perfect Whole (1896); In Search of a Soul (1897) ’ . Methods and Problems of Spiritual Healing (1899); Education and the Philosophical Ideal (1900); A Book of Secrets (1902); Health and the Inner Life (1906); A Physician to the Soul (1908); A Message to the Well (F010); Human Efficiency (1912); The Religion of the Spirit in Modern Life (1914); Handbook of the New Thought (1917), and The Victorious Faith (1917). He edited On the Threshold of the Spirit World (1919); A History of the New Thought Movement (1919); The Open Vision (1920); The Quimby Manuscripts (1921), ete. DRESSLER, Witty Osxar_ (1876- Ne A German writer on art and interior decora- tion, born in Berlin. His principal works are: Mobel im Zimmer der Neuzeit (1901); Moderne Silbergerdte (1902); Geschichte des Porzellans (1904); Kunstgewerbe oder angewandte Kunst in Beziehung zur kiinstlerischen Kultur (1910) ; Neugestaltung der Verwaltung der Kunstange- legenheiten im Reich und in den Bundesstaaten (1917); Der Eckstein in der Wirtschaft von den Werkleuten vergessen! (1921). DRIESCH, Hans A. §S. (1867- yoeeeoy German biologist and philosopher (see Vot. VII). In 1921, he became professor at the University of Leipzig. His. writings after the War were largely concerned with speculative and metaphysical problems. Professor Driesch was also very much interested in psychical re- search and served on committees investigat- ing various spiritistic mediums. His published works after 1914 include Leib und Seele (1916) Wirklichkeitslehre (1917), und Denken (1920). DRINKWATER, JoHN (1882- }s5 can English poet, playwright, and critic, born at Leytonstone, Essex. He was educated at the Oxford High School and served for 12 years as insurance clerk. He then turned his attention to theatrical enterprises and became manager and producer to the Pilgrim Players, who later developed into the Birmingham Repertory The- atre Company. His first volume of poems ap- peared in 1908 and his first play, Cophetua (in verse), in 1911. After several volumes of verse, he published studies in criticism, among them Critical Studies of William Morris (1912); Swinburne (1913). Since then he has devoted himself to the writing of plays of which Abraham Lincoln (1918), is the best ? and Wissenschaft ee DROP BOMBS known to Americans. It is a chronicle play and shows sympathetic insight into the personality of the great American. Other plays are Loyal- ties (1919); Mary Stuart (1921); Seeds of Time (1921); Oliver Cromwell (1921); Pre- Iludes (1922), and Robert E. Lee (1923). The last mentioned play was viewed as a comple- ment to his Abraham Lincoln, but was not so successful. DROP BOMBS. See Bomprna or VESSELS BY AIRCRAFT; ORDNANCE. DRUMMOND, Sir Eric. See LEAGUE or NATIONS. DRURY, FRANCIS KEESE WYNKOOP (1878- ). An American librarian, born at Ghent, N. Y., and educated at Rutgers College and the University of Illinois. From 1899 to 1903, he was assistant librarian at the Gard- ner A. Sage library at New Brunswick, N. J.; then went to the University of Illinois library, becoming acting librarian in 1907 and assistant librarian in 1909. In 1919, he was appointed assistant librarian in Brown University library, and became assistant professor in the same uni- versity in 1920. In 1918 and 1919, he was em- ployed in the American Library Association War Service. He is known as a compiler and editor. Following are his published works (compilations): List of Serials in the Univer- sity of Illinois Library (1911); Technical and Scientific Serials in the Library of Providence (1920); Some of the Best Dramas (1917); Plays of To-Day (1921). DRURY COLLEGE. A nonsectarian college founded at Springfield, Mo., in 1873. The num- ber of students increased from 276 in 1914 to 411 in 1924, the faculty from 21 to 25, and volumes in the library from 30,000 to 33,000. The productive funds rose from $258,165 to $850,000, and the annual income from $51,550 to $85,535. Thomas W. Nadel succeeded James G. McMurtry as president. DRYDOCKS. See Docks. DUAL NATIONALITY. See Japan, His- tory. DUANE, Wittram (1872- ). An Amer- ican physicist, born at Philadelphia, Pa. He was graduated at Pennsylvania in 1892; and received his Ph.D. at Harvard in 1897. During 1907-13, he worked as an investigator at the Curie radium laboratory in Paris, then re- turned to Harvard, where in 1917 he became professor of biophysics. His principal investi- gations have been studies on the velocity of chemical reactions, short electrical waves, ra- dium emanations and induced activity, alpha rays of radium, heat effects of radioactive sub- stances, ionization, and absorption and emission spectra of X-rays, on all of which topics he has published valuable papers. During the War, he was chairman of the committee on X-rays in the Section on Physical Sciences of the National Research Council. DUBOIS, CuARLeS GILBERT (1870- dW American banker and business man, born in New York City, and educated at Dartmouth. Upon leaving college he entered business with the Western Electric Company in New York and within a little over a decade became secre- tary and supervisor of the company’s branch houses; and in 1919, became president. He was comptroller of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (1907-18) and of the American Red Cross, Washington, D. C. (1917- 18). He has held the presidency or director- 387 DUGGAR ship of many leading trust companies and bank- ing corporations in the United States. DUBOIS, LOUIS ERNEST, CARDINAL (1856- ). A French ecclesiastical prelate. He was born at Saint Calais, Sarthe, and was ordained priest in 1879. He was curate at Saint-Benoit du Mans in 1895, and passed rapid- ly through the various grades of the Catholic hierarchy. He was Bishop of Verdun in 1901, Archbishop of Bourges in 1909, Archbishop of Rouen in 1916, and Archbishop of Paris in 1920. He became Cardinal in 1916. Cardinal Dubois was a Knight of the Holy Sepulchre and a member of the Academy of St. Thomas Aqui- nas. His writings included a number of biog- raphies and historical chronicles. DU BOIS, Wittram Epwarp BurRGHARDT (1868- ). An American editor and author, born at Great Barrington, Mass., and educated at Harvard and the University of Berlin. Dur- ing the period 1896-1910, he was editor of the Crisis and has since given indication of his keen interest in the advancement of the Negro, in his writings: The Suppression of the Slave Trade (1896); The Philadelphia Negro (1899) ; Quest of the Silver Fleece (1911); The Negro (1915); Darkwater (1920). He edited the Atlanta University Studies of the Negro Prob- lem (1897-1911). DU BOSE, Horacze MELLARD (1858— We An American Methodist Episcopal bishop, born in Choctaw County, Ala., and educated at Waynesboro Academy, Mississippi, and with private tutors. He was licensed to preach in the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1876, and three years later was ordained. He was a member of the Mississippi Conference from 1877 to 1880, and held various pastorates from 1881 to 1890. From 1890 to 1894, he was edi- tor of the Pacific Methodist Advocate in San- Francisco; served in various pastorates for the next three years, and became secretary of the Epworth League and editor of the Epworth Era in 1898. From 1910 to 1915, he was again pas- tor, and from 1915 to 1918 was book editor for the Methodist Episcopal Church of the South, and editor of the Methodist Quarterly Review in Nashville. He was elected bishop in 1918, being stationed at Berkeley, Cal. He was a member of the Lcumenical Conference which took place in 1901. DUGGAN, STEPHEN PIERCE (1870- P. An American author and political scientist, ‘born in New York City and educated at the College of the City of New York and Columbia University. He was associate professor and professor of political science at the College of the City of New York (1896- ); and director of the Institute of International Education (1919- ), the National Commission for Men- tal Hygiene, and the Council on Foreign Rela- tions. He published The Eastern Question—A Study in Diplomacy (1902), A History of Edu- cation (1916), and The League of Nations (1919). DUGGAR, BENJAMIN MINGE (1872- ). An American educator (see VoL. VII). From 1917 to 1919, he was acting professor of biolog- ical chemistry at the Washington University Medical School. He edited the department of physiology in Botanical Abstracts for 1917, and was editor for the Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden from 1913. Professor Dug- gar wrote Mushroom Growing (1915), and con- tributed many articles to botanical magazines. DUGUIT 388 DUGUIT, PirrReE (1859- ). A French jurist, born at Libourne, and educated at the law faculty of the University of Bordeaux. He remained in the uni,ersity as a member of the faculty, and achieved an international reputa- tion as a sociological jurist. He was the au- thor of a number of books and articles on pub- lic and private law, of which the most notable is the Traité de Droit constitutionnel (3 vols, 2d. ed., 1924). DUHAMEL, GEORGES (1894— ey aA French man of letters, born in Paris. A man of prolific talent, he revealed his capacities quite early. With Jules Romains and Charles Vildrac, he represented what has been called the “unanimist” school; that is to say, a con- ception of literature analogous to the collectiv- ism of a Durkheim in philosophy. Duhamel’s Civilisation won the Prix Goncourt in 1919. His works. include: L’Homme en Téte; Selon ma Loi; La Lumiére; Des Légendes; Notes sur la Technique poétique; Propos critiques; Com- pagnons; Paul Claudel; Le Combat; La Vie des Martyres (1918); Dans VOmbre des statues; Civilisation (1918); Les Poétes et la poésie; La Recherche de la grace; La Possession du Monde; Entretiens dans le tumulte; Les Hommes abandonnés; La Miason des athlétes ; La Journée des Aveux. DULUTH. A city and lake port in Min- nesota. The population rose from 78,466 in 1910 to 98,917 by the census of 1920 and to 106,289 by estimate of the Bureau of the Cen- sus for 1923. Morgan Park, a model city for workmen, was built during the 10 years be- tween 1914 and 1924 by the Minnesota Steel Company for its employees, within. the lmits of Duluth. It was served by complete sewer and water systems and concrete paved roads, and had a central playground and hospital. A plan was made for the establishment of primary and secondary civic centres near the lake front, and the cutting of several diagonal streets. McDougall Terminal warehouse opened new lines of lake traffic served by special refrigera- tor carriers, DUMAS, GEorcES (1866- ). A French psychologist, born at Ledignan (Dept. of Gard), and educated in Paris at the Ecole Normale. He passed both the aggrégation and the doc- torate in philosophy, and took the degree of doctor of medicine. He taught philosophy at the college of Chaptal and later became lec- turer on psychology at the Sorbonne as well as chief of the psychological laboratory in the Fac- ulty of Medicine. He was a frequent contribu- tor to the Journal de Psychologie, the Revue Philosophique, and the Revue de Paris. On the death of Ribot he took over the editing of the long projected Traité de Psychologie. The first volume of this treatise, with contributions from 30 leading psychologists, appeared in 1923. Professor Dumas’s chief interests were in the psychology of affective states. His published works include: Tolstoi et la Philosophie de Vamour; Les Etats intellectuels dans la mélan- colie; La Tristesse et la Joie; Psychologie de deux Messies positivistes (August Comte et St. Simon); Le Sourire; Névrose et psychose de guerre chez les Austro-Allemands (1918). DU MAURIER, Geratp (1873- ) FAD English actor born at Hampstead, and educated at Harrow. His first stage appearance was at the age of 20 at the Garrick Theatre, London. Two years later he joined Herbert Tree in DUNLAP Shakespearean repertory and also in his fath- er’s play Jrilby. Among his successes are his parts in Peter Pan; The Admirable Crichton; Little Mary; What Every Woman Knows, and his leading parts in Conan Doyle’s Raffles and McCutcheon’s Brewster’s Millions. He wrote the play, A Royal Rival, produced by Lewis Waller; also Charles I and Charles IT, with the coéperation of his brother, Guy Louis Busson du Maurier, and The Dancers which was pro- duced in New York during the 1923-24 season. DUMUR, Lovis (1864— y. PAST MTrencn novelist, born at Geneva, Switzerland and edu- cated at the University of Geneva and at the Sorbonne. His earlier works contained amus- ing descriptions of Genevese Calvinism. After the War, he developed a patriotic war novel with recitals of German atrocities. His works include Un Coco de génie (1902); Les trois Demoiselles du pére Maire (1909); Le Cen- tenaire de Jean-Jacques (1910); L’Ecole du dimanche (1911); Nach Paris! (1919); Le Boucher de Verdun (1921); Les Défaitistes (1923). DUNAJEC RIVER. See War IN EUROPE, Eastern Front. DUNCAN, GeorcE BRAND (1861-— ya pat American soldier, born in Lexington, Ky. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1886 and was commissioned 2d lieutenant in the same year. During the Span- ish-American- War he served as captain of volunteers. He was appointed captain in 1899. He rose through the successive grades, becom- ing colonel in 1916. In the following year he was appointed brigadier-general N. A., major- general in 1918, and brigadier-general U. 8S. A. in 1920. He served in the Philippines as a member of the General Staff from 1914 to 1917. From the latter year to 1919 he was with the American Expeditionary Forces in France as commander successively of the 26th Infantry, Ist Division, and the Ist Brigade, Ist Division. He commanded the 77th Division from May to August, 1918, and the 82d Division during the Meuse-Argonne offensive. He was awarded dec- orations by the British and French governments. DUNHAM, James Henry (1870- in American clergyman and educator, born at Bed- minster, N. J., and educated at Princeton Uni- versity, Princeton Theological Seminary, the University of Berlin and the University of Pennsylvania. He was ordained in the Pres- byterian ministry in 1896, and until 1912 was pastor of the First Church at Mt. Holly. In 1914, he began his work as educator, teaching in the Haverford (Pa.) School and holding the position of professor of ethics in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Temple Univer- sity, Philadelphia, in 1914-15. In 1920, he was appointed student counsellor on the Federal Board of Vocational Education. He is the au- thor of Freedom and Purpose—The Psychology of Spinoza (1916), and John Fourteen (1917). DUNKERS, or DUNKARDS. See Bretu- REN, CHURCH OF THE. DUNLAP, KnicutT (1875- ). One of the leading American experimental psychologists. He was born at Diamond Spring, Cal., and was educated at the University of California. In 1906, he joined the faculty of Johns Hopkins University, becoming full professor in 1916. He was president of the American Psychologi- cal Association for the year 1922. His works include: A System of Psychology (1912); 7 DUNN Outline of Psycho-biology (1914); Personal Beauty and Racial Betterment (1920); Alysti- cism, Freudianism and Scientific Psychology (1920); Outlines of Psychology (1923). DUNN, Artruur WILLIAM (1868-— Des: Am American educator, born at Galesburg, Ill., and educated at Knox College and the University of Chicago. He began his career as instructor in English and lecturer in sociology at the Uni- versity of Cincinnati (1896-98). He was also extension lecturer from 1896 to 1900, and from the latter year until 1910 headed the depart- ment of history and civics in the Shortridge High School, Indianapolis. From 1906 to 1910 he was director of civic education in the public schools in the same city; in 1910-11, he was civic secretary of the City Club of Philadel- phia; in 1911-14, he served as executive secre- tary of the Public Education Association, New York City; and from 1914 to 1921, he held the office of specialist in civic education in the United States Bureau of Education. In 1920, he was appointed special] adviser to the United States Navy in the civic education of men on shipboard, becoming, in the following year, as- sociate national director of the Junior Red Cross, and being advanced to the position of national director in 1921. He is the author of: The Community and the Citizen (1907); The Teaching of Community Civics (with oth- ers; 1915); Social Studies in Secondary Edu- cation (1916); Citizenship in School and Out (with Hannah Margaret Norris; 1920); Com- munity Civics and Rural Life (1920); Com- munity Civics for City Schools (1921). DUNN, SamvurEt OraAcE (1877- ieee) American transportation specialist (see VoL. VII). He wrote American Transportation Ques- tion (1912); Government Ownership of Rail- ways (1913); Railway Regulation or Owner- ship? (1918). He also contributed articles to periodicals and lectured frequently on transpor- tation subjects. DUNNING, Witt1Am ARCHIBALD (1858- 1922). An American educator and_ political scientist (see Vor. VI1). He published The British Empire and the United States (1914), and a History of Political Theories (3 vols., 1902-20). DUNSANY, Epwarp JoHn Moreton Drax PLUNKETT, eighteenth Baron (1878- leno Irish author and playwright, born in London and educated at Eton and Sandhurst. He served in the South African War with the Cold- stream Guards. In the recent War, he was Captain of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and was wounded in 1916. Many of Dunsany’s works are laid in the Golden Age of Spain and are saturated with the romantic spirit of me- dieval gloom and colored adventure. Though apparently ‘approved of by the public, he has been characterized by sceptical critics as too volatile and entirely wanting in genuine na- tional spiritedness. His publications include: The Gods of Pegana (1905); Time and the Gods (1906); The Sword of Welleran (1908) ; A Dreamer’s Tales (1910); Tales of War (1918); Unhappy Far-off Things (1919); Tales of Three Hemispheres (1920); The Chron- icles of Rodriguez (1922). Among his plays are: The Glittering Gate (1909); King Argi- menes (1911); The Gods of the Mountain (1911); The Golden Doom (1912); The Tents of the Arabs (1914); A Night at an Inn; If (1921). 389 DURKHEIM DUPRE, Marcen (1886- ). A famous French organist, born at Rouen. Under his father’s instruction, his progress was so rapid that at the age of 12 he became the regular or- ganist at St. Vivien. Later he entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he carried off the first prize for piano in 1905. In 1914, he won the Prix de Rome with the cantata Psyché. His meteoric rise to fame began in 1916, when he took Vierne’s place at Notre Dame during the latter’s protracted illness. In 1920, he created a sensation by playing from memory, in 10 recitals, all the organ works of Bach. Im- mediately after that event he made a sensation- ally successful tour of England. On Nov. 18, 1921, he made his American début with the inauguration of the great organ in the Wana- maker Auditorium in New York, exhibiting at the same time his marvelous powers of im- provisation, DURALUMIN. An alloy of Aluminium and Magnesium. See ALUMINIUM; Moror VE- HICLES. DURAND, E. Dana (1871- ). An Amer- ican statistician (see Vou. VII). He was em- ployed by the United States Food Administra- tion from 1917 to 1919, and was adviser to the food minister of Poland from 1919 to 1921. In 1921, he was chief of the Eastern European Di- vision of the United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. He contributed arti- cles on economic and political subjects to many economic journals, and in 1915 published The Trust Problem. DURAND, Ettas Jupan (1870-1922). An American botanist, born at Canandaigua, N. Y. He graduated from Cornell University in 1893 and was assistant botanist in the experiment station at that university (1895-96) and in- structor in botany from 1896 to 1910. In the latter year, he was appointed assistant profes- sor of botany at the University of Missouri, and during the years from 1918 to 1922 was professor of botany at the University of Min- nesota. DURHAM, HENRY WELLES (1874— i An American civil engineer, born in Chicago. He graduated from the School of Mines at Co- lumbia University in 1895, and was engaged on surveys with the United States Geological Sur- vey, and with the United States Nicaragua Canal Commission and with the Isthmian Canal Commission. From 1900 to 1904, he was as- sistant engineer in charge of construction of the New York subway, and was resident engi- neer in charge of municipal improvements in Panama, from 1904 to 1907. From the latter date to 1912, he was in charge of the surveys and construction of the Cape Cod Canal, and from 1912 to 1915 was chief engineer of high- ways for Manhattan Borough. He was a mem- ber of the New York National Guard and served on the Mexican border in 1916. He was appointed major of engineers in 1917 and was given command of the 4lst Engineers, which he commanded in France. For a time he was in charge of forestry operations in France and later was in charge of road maintenance. He was honorably discharged in October, 1919. In 1920-21 he was engaged in making plans for the sanitation of several cities in Peru. He wrote Street Paving and Maintenance in Euro- pean Cities (1915). DURKHEIM, Emie (1858-1916). philosopher (see VoL. VII). A French He published a DUSE 390 number of brochures on the War and was hon- ored by the French government with the cross of the Legion of Honor. He died in 1916, grief- stricken by the killing of his son at the front. The sociological method of approaching phil- osophic problems, which he founded, was con- tinued by a host of disciples, among whom may be mentioned Bougle, Hubert and Mauss. DUSE, ELronora (1859-1924). An Italian actress (see Vout. VII). While on an Ameri- can tour which began in the latter part of 1923, she became seriously ill with a cold and general nervous breakdown, and died at Pitts- burgh, Apr. 21, 1924. Her last appearance at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York was an ovation, every seat and all the standing room being occupied. Not only was great grief caused by her death in her native land, Italy, but artistic circles throughout the world mourned and paid tribute to probably the great- est actress of her time. DUST EXPLOSIONS. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. DUTCH EAST INDIES’ (NETHERLANDS InpIA). The Dutch possessions in the Malay Archipelago. They have a total area of 733,- 642 square miles, and a population, by the cen- sus of 1920, of 49,350,834. The 1905 census fig- ure was 38,070,782. In 1920 there were 169,355 Europeans, 48,112,706 natives, and 878,986 oth- er Orientals, mostly Chinese and Arabs. By administrative divisions, the 1920 population was divided among Java and Madura (34,984,- 171), and the Outer Possessions, ite. the Island of Sumatra (5,852,135), Riau-Lingga Archipel- ago (223,122), Banea (154,141), Billiton (68,- 582), Borneo, West Coast (605,402), Borneo, South and East Districts (1,020,599), Island of Celebes (3,108,337), Molucca Islands (622,671), Timor Archipelago (1,146,660), Bali and Lom- bok (1,565,014). New Guinea was _ included. Populations of the leading cities in 1920 were Batavia, 2,787,000; Soerabaya, 2,460,000; Sem- arang, 2,737,000. The great mass of the na- tives were Mohammedan in faith. Education made steady advances. In 1922 there were 508 public and private schools serving Europeans and people associated with them. Total atten- dance was 89,382, and expenditure on educa- tion amounted to 14,186,399 guilders, a guilder equaling $.40. There were also 13,138 native schools, with an attendance of 947,015, main- tained at a cost of 19,594,992 guilders. Industry. The majority of the population worked on the land. Total area in use for pri- vate agriculture in the whole territory in 1920 was 7,576,000 acres, of which 3,010,000 were in Java; 1,358,900 acres were in lease and 1,651,- 000 privately owned. Europeans held most of the land leases in Java. Sugar remained the crop of greatest economic importance, and in 1920, 183 factories were serving the industry. The following table indicates the condition of native activities before and after the War as shown in exports, in metric tons: 1913 1918 1921 1922 pupare lots. 1,471,423 1,540,100 1,677,137 1,435,808 Colfee ..... 26,019 7,300 43,683 57,360 AUTO. @ Se 26,548 29,958 35,863 41,552 Tobacco 87,832 8,050 46,214 52,087 Rubber 7,087 44,096 73,505 104,942 Gopra son). :- 229,339 68,578 311,571 339,465 Tor Paste atiaty: 6 2,153 11,584 13,547 15,457 Native cultures were rice, maize, cassava, pota- toes, coconuts. The live stock industry also DUVENECK flourished. The government largely controlled the mines. In 1921, the principal coal mines in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo yielded 1,212,665 tons; the tin mines yielded 27,700 tons; and the principal mineral oils, 2,361,509 tons. The oil fields were controlled by the Royal Dutch and Shell Companies. Gold was worked in Sum- atra and diamonds in Borneo. Trade. Total imports, both government and private, exclusive of specie, for the years 1913, 1921, and 1922, were 463,702,000, 1,192,963,000, and 756,391,000 guilders. Exports, similarly, for 1913, 1921, and 1922, were 671,434,000, 1,- 190,799,000, and 1,142,217,000 guilders. The 1920 export amounted to 2,263,447,000 guilders. The Dutch East Indies’ great importance as a market for manufactured goods and a source of raw materials was being recognized by for- eign commercial houses. In particular, British, Japanese, Swedish, Belgian, Danish, and Ger- man interests were active. Imports from the United States for 1913, 1920, and 1923 were valued at $3,358,164, $59,018,190, and $12,089,- 786. Exports to the United*States were valued at $4,995,150, $167,416,000, and $54,889,400. Shipping entered in 1913 was 6253 steamers of 5,046,000 tons and 2664 sailing vessels of 192,- 000 tons; in 1921, 9603 steamers of 5,359,737 tons and 6656 sailing vessels of 371,896 tons. Chief ports were Tanjong Priok (for Batavia), Soerabaya, Semarang, Cheribon, and Tegal in Java; Padang and Belwan Deli -in Sumatra; Balikpapan in Borneo, Macassar in Celebes. Communications. In January, 1921, there were 1989 miles of railway both state owned and private; 1721 miles in 1913. Of the for- mer, 1690 were in Java and 299 in Sumatra. Government telegraph and cable lines were 14,- 748 miles, compared with 12,319 in 1913. Government. Superior administration was in the hands of the governor-general. A coun- cil of five with power of a legislative and ad- visory nature sat for the whole territory. In 1917 a Volksraad or people’s council was erected, with powers to discuss the budget and advise the government. Made up of some 40 members, it included Europeans, natives, and foreign Orientals. The 1913 and 1923 budgets showed revenues of 305,573,000 and 614,080,000 guilders and expenditures of 317,810,000 and 806,942,000 guilders. Deficits were covered by loans. The public debt on Jan. 1, 1923, was 761,683,000 guilders. Extraordinary expendi- tures of the decade 1913-23 went toward the improvement of the Outer Possessions and the encouragement of industries. Revenues came largely from sales of opium in India, import, export, and excise duties, land revenues, coal, and income taxes. The Dutch East Indies con- tinued peaceful during the decade and Dutch neutrality during the War assured the colony an unchecked prosperity. Progress was steady in the development of the Outer Possessions. DUTCH NATIONALISTS. See Sovurn AFRICA, UNION oF. DUTCH REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, CHURCH. See DUVENECK, FRANK (1848-1919). An American painter, sculptor, and etcher (see Vout. VII). Known as one of the finest tech- nical painters of the United States, he was, up to the time of his death, Jan. 3, 1919, an active figure in American and English art circles. During his later years, after a long period of study and of teaching in Florence, he served ee — DVORSKY 391 as instructor in the Art Academy of Cincin- nati. His ‘Whistling Boy,’ reminiscent of Hals, and “Forget-me-not Girl,” after the man- ner of Rembrandt, also his “Portrait of Pro- fessor Loeffts,’ were generally held to be his finest works. DVORSKY, Micuet. See HOFMANN, JOSEF. DYER, WALTER ALDEN (1878- ). An American author and journalist, born at Ros- lindale, Mass., and educated at Amherst Col- lege. He began on the staff of the Springfield Union (Mass.) in 1901, and for the next six years edited various publications, subsequently becoming managing editor of Country Life in America (1906-14). He has contributed innum- erable articles to magazines, and has written DYNAMOS many publications which include: The Lure of the Antique (1910); The Richer Life (1911); Pierrot, Dog of Belgium (1915); Creators of Decorative Styles (1917); Handbook of Furniture Styles (1918); Sons of Liberty (1920). DYER, Sir WILLIAM TuRNER THISTLETON (1843- ). An English botanist (see VoL. VII). From 1908 to 1916, he was representa- tive of the University of Oxford at the Glouces- tershire Education Committee, and from 1909 was a member of the University of Bristol. DYES. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC. DYNAMIC GEOLOGY. See Gronoey. DYNAMOS. See ELectric POWER STATIONS AND GENERATING APPARATUS. EK ARLHAM COLLEGE. A_ coedu- cational institution at Richmond, Ind., founded in 1859. The student enrollment increased from 413 in 1914 to 510 at the beginning of 1924, the faculty from 32 to 42 members, and the number of volumes in the library from 19,000 to 30,000. The yearly in- come increased likewise from $25,118 in 1914 to $108,537 in 1924. President, David M. Edwards, Ph.D. EARTH, Acer or. See GEOLOGY; -PHySICcs. EARTH INDUCTION COMPASS. See NAVIGATION. EARTHQUAKE, JAPANESE. See JAPAN, . Effects of Harthquake, and History. See also EARTHQUAKES. EARTHQUAKES. About noon on Sept. 1, 1923, Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, and many vil- lages and pleasure .resorts of Japan were al- most entirely wiped out, in the greatest earth- quake disaster of history. Earthquake, fire, and sea-wave took a toll of 200,000 lives and hundreds of millions of dollars in property over an area of about one square degree dwarfing into insig- nificance each of the long list of similar disas- ters in the past for which Japan, the most seismic region of the globe, is noted. The Japanese Islands lie in a series of island festoons fringing the Asiatic Continent, with their convexities facing the Pacific. Outside these festoons, and not far from them, are long narrow troughs in the sea floor, running parallel to the trend of the island groups. The troughs are the downward, and the island festoons the upward, curves of great folds in the crust of the earth; in many cases the folding movement is still going on. Stresses accumulate until suddenly relieved by faulting. The convex side of the festoon slopes more steeply than the other. The Japan Sea to the West is shallow, but on the Pacific side, between the Japan coast and the Kurile Islands, the earth’s crust in one place plunges down into the great Tuscarora Deep nearly 27,000 feet, within 110 to 240 miles of the coast. The earthquakes of Japan follow a rule which is general in such cases: they are most numerous and violent on this steep slope. The epicentre of the 1923 quake appears to have been under Sagami Bay, the floor of which underwent great changes, or in the Uraga Channel; the focus was probably shallow. The first and greatest shock came at 11.58.44 A.M.; there were no foreshocks to give warning. An unusually large number of aftershocks were recorded, 1039 in the five days following the quake, implying that the faulting movement had a pronounced vertical component. The greatest aftershocks were those on Sept. 2, 1923, and Jan. 14, 1924. In Tokyo, 12 square miles were swept by the fire that followed the quake. Modern reinforced concrete structures especially designed to withstand earthquakes came through with a fine showing; the better constructed brick buildings also survived both quake and fire, although in general the brick buildings proved unusually dangerous. From 1914 to 1921, 199 earthquakes, some semi-destructive, originated around Tokyo, but the immediate neighborhood of Tokyo was quiet. This fact led Omori to forecast a commencement of seismic activity in the latter district after the others had become quiet, since they are all in the same seismic zone; in 1922 he predicted the occur- rence of severe shocks within six years. An earthquake of truly appalling magnitude took place on Dec. 16, 1920, near Pingliang, Kansu, China. The region was thickly popu- lated; many of the people lived in caves in the hillsides, and were buried alive by the land- slides; others slept on clay platforms under which fires were kept burning, and such of these as escaped being dropped into the fires were left to die of the cold. The estimates of deaths vary from 100,000 to 1,000,000. The tremor was felt in Tokyo, 1000 kilometers away. In the diastrous shock in Central Italy, Jan. 13, 1915, the ratio of deaths to population was the highest ever recorded. Thirty thousand people perished, including 97 per cent of the population of Lapelle, and 90 per cent of the 11,000 inhabitants of Avezzano. Yet the shock was by no means of the first order of magni- tude, and the destruction was chiefly due to the faulty construction of buildings. A strong tec- tonic quake, registered all over the globe, was associated with the eruption of Sakura-jima, Jan. 12, 1914; the epicentre was near the vol- cano, and the quake was of a character entirely different from that of the usual local volcanic quake. The more important of the great number of other earthquakes which occurred during the decade 1914-24 were: 1914, May 9, Sicily; 100 lives lost; Linera_ totally wrecked. 1916, Alaska, a severe quake, but the region af- fected was almost entirely uninhabited. 1917, June 7, San Salvador nearly destroyed; Dec. 25-29, Guatemala laid in ruins. 1918, Feb. 13, Swatow, China, several hundred perished; Oct. 11 and 22, Porto Rico, 150 lives lost, and a great deal of property destroyed; Apr. 21-23, considerable damage to property in southern California. 1919, Apr. 28, San Salvador partly destroyed; Nov. 27, several villages destroyed in western Asia Minor, and many lives lost; June 29, Central Italy shaken. 1920, May 14, heavy damage in Central Italy; Sept. 7, Carrara and surrounding territory suffered heavily, with 100 towns damaged or destroyed, and hundreds perished; January, southern Mexico; February, Transcaucasia, many villages destroyed; June 22, Los Angeles, Cal., consid- erable property damage. 1922, Jan. 31, a severe shock occurred off the California coast, result- ing in minor damage at several points; Nov. 11 and afterward, Chile, many lives and much property lost. 1923, near Lou-ho-hien, China, 1000 lives lost; May and Sept., Persia; disas- trous shocks, Dec., Columbia and Ecuador; Sept., Calcutta, little damage. 1924, Mar. 14~ 15, five Costa Rican towns destroyed, with con- 392 EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE 393 siderable loss of life; Apr. 14, southeast of Mindanao, a severe quake. During 1915-23, inclusive, the average annual number of earthquakes reported from the con- tinental United States was 106. Many of these, particularly in the Mississippi Valley region, were widespread, but little or no damage re- sulted from any of them. See SEISMOLOGY and GEOLOGY. EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE. See Kenya Coiony. EAST PRUSSIA. See Hastern Front. EASTON, FLoreEnNcE (1884— ye A OBrit- ish dramatic soprano, born at Middles- brough-on-Tees, Yorkshire. She was educated in Toronto, Canada, where, at the age of 10, she made her first public appearance as a pianist. Subsequently she studied singing at the Royal Academy of Music in London and with E. Haslam in Paris. In 1903, she made her début as Cio Cio San with the Moody- Manners Opera Company at Covent Garden. The next year Savage engaged her to sing Kundry for his production of Parsifal (in Eng- lish), which he took on an extended tour of the United States, and in 1906-07 she returned under the same ‘manager, singing in Madame Butterfly. From 1907 to 19138, she sang lead- ing roles at the Royal Opera in Berlin and from 1913 to 1915 at the Stadtheater in Ham- burg. At the same time, she appeared at Co- vent Garden in the Wagner and Strauss per- formances. From 1915 to 1917, she was a member of the Chicago Opera Company, and then went to the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, where she immediately became one of the prime favorites. In 1904, she married Francis Maclen- nan, the tenor. EATON, JAMES SuIrRLEY (1868- yur An American railway specialist, born in Nashville, Tenn. He graduated from Marietta College in 1889 and for several years was traveling audi- tor of the Southern Railway. He served as ex- pert in the adaptation of the electric tabulating machines for railroad accounting, and from 1899 to 1903 was statistician for the Lehigh Valley Railroad. After serving as railroad edi- tor for the Wall Street Journal, he became rail- way statistician. He lectured in the Tuck School at Dartmouth and on railroad trans- portation at New York University. He wrote Railroad Operation (1900); Education for Effi- ciency in Railroad Service (1910); Railroad Ex- pense Handbook (1911). From 1917 to 1920, he was examiner for the Federal Trade Commission. EATON, WALTER PricHARD- (1878— yi An American author and critic, born at Malden, WAR IN EUROPE, Mass., and educated at Harvard. During the — period 1900-08, he was successively reporter on the Boston Journal, a member of the dramatic department of the New York Tribune, and dramatic critic of the New York Sun. He was dramatic critic of the American Magazine (1909-18), and instructor at the School of Journalism of Columbia University. He is the author of many juvenile stories and publications on the theatre, which include: The American Stage of To-Day (1908); At the New Theatre and Others (1910); Barn Doors and Byways (1913); Plays and Players (1916); In Berk- shire Fields (1919); On the Edge of the Wilder- mess (1920). EBERLE, ABASTENIA St. LEcER (1878- 2 An American sculptor, born in Webster City, ECKERT La. She studied modeling with Frank Vogan in Canton, Ohio, and at the Art Students’ League, New York, with George Grey Barnard. She was elected an Associate of the National Academy in 1921. Her first sculptures were copies of old gravestones in the cemetery at Canton. In New York, she found her inspira- tion in the life of the East Side, which she has interpreted with a great deal of sympathy. Some of her sculptures, “The Girl on Roller Skates” and “Mowgli,” are in the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y. “Little Mother’ is in the Chicago Art Institute. Others are at the Worcester Art Museum, Carnegie Institute and other centres. She has exhibited in Europe with success. EBERLE, Epwarp WALTER (1864— ty An American naval officer, born at Denton, Texas, and graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1885. He served on the Oregon in the Spanish-American War, in the Philippine insurrection in 1899, and commanded the Atlantic torpedo fleet from 1911 to 1913. He was superintendent of the United States Naval Academy from 1915 to 1919, and prac- tically rebuilt its general organization and edu- cational system. During 1921 and 1922 he was commander in chief of the Pacific fleet, with rank of admiral, and the administrative ability which he showed in this post, as well as in the many other important places which he had filled throughout his career, led to his appointment in 1923 as Chief of Naval Operations in the United States Department at Washington. EBERT, Friepricu (1871—‘' ). A Ger- man statesman, born at Heidelberg. After an elementary education, he learned the saddler’s trade, became a journeyman, and finally settled in Bremen. He was actively interested in the Social Democratic party, edited the Bremer Volkszeitung in 1893,and was trade-union secre- tary to the Bremen Burgerschaft in 1900. It was not till 1905, when he was appointed to the Executive Committee of the Social Democratic party, that he became widely prominent in poli- tics. He was sent to the Reichstag in 1912, and was an influential member of his group. He strong advocated that the working people should defend their country, and tried to ob- tain a concerted action of all Socialists. He also tried to reconcile the German and Russian interests, but failed. He attended the confer- ence of Socialists at Stockholm in 1918. A strong opponent of the Spartacists, Bolshevists and Communists, he did more perhaps than any one else to restore order to the country and to suppress insurrections during the revolution in 1918. He was elected first president of the Reich on Nov. 12, 1919, and his term of office was afterwards extended to 1925. He had a strong influence on the intellectual leaders of Germany, many of them becoming converted to the republican idea through contact with him. ECKERT, Curistian L. M. (1874- yee German economist, born at Mainz and educated at the universities of Munich, Berlin and Gies- sen. In 1900, he became law assistant; in 1901, he was called to the University of Berlin as lecturer in political science. The same year he was appointed to fill a similar position in the Handelshochschule (School of Commerce) in Cologne, and in the following year he was made professor of political science in Cologne. In 1904, he was called to the University of Bonn. In 1917, he was made Geheimer Regierungs- ECKLES Rat (Privy Councillor), and in 1919-20, first director of the University of Cologne, which had just been founded His numerous works in- elude: Der Fronbote im Mittel-Alter (1897) ; John Ruskin (in Schmollers Jahrbuch XXVI1; 1902); Deutsche Seefahrten nach Siidamerika (in Schmollers Jahrbuch; 1904); Peter Corne- lius (1906); Bildungsfrage des Journalisten- standes (1913); Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des Wehrbeitrages, Recht und Wirtschaft (1914) ; Wirtschaftliche und financielle Folgen des Frie- dens von Versailles (1921). He contributed many scholarly articles to leading periodicals, and edited Rothschilds Taschenbuch fur Kauf- leute (58th ed., 1920). ECKLES, CLARENCE HENRY (1875- ): An American professor of dairy husbandry, born in Marshall Co., Ia. He graduated from the Iowa State College in 1895, and took post- graduate courses at the University of Wisconsin and in Germany and Switzerland. After a year as assistant in dairy husbandry in the Iowa State College, he became professor of dairy husbandry at the University of Missouri, re- maining there until 1919, when he was ap- pointed chief of the dairy husbandry division of the University of Minnesota. He wrote Dairy Cattle and Milk Production (1911), Dairy Farming (1916), and also wrote many bulletins on agricultural subjects and lectured on these subjects in many States. ECOLOGY. See BoTAny;: ZooLoey ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. See MOLOGY, ECONOMIC. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. See GEoLoey. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY. Sce Zobdxoey. ECUADOR. A South American Republic on the northwest coast between Colombia on the north and Peru on the south. Its area is estimated at 116,000 square miles, but because of still unsettled boundary disputes it cannot be definitely fixed. A maximum claim put the area as high as 276,000 square miles. The estimated population was 2,000,000. Quito, the capital city, had 80,000 inhabitants. Other large cities, with their populations, were Guayaquil, 96,000; Cuenca, 30,000, and Riobamba, 10,000. Industry. Cacao was the principle crop; the total number of trees was between 80,000,000 and 100,000,000, with an annual yield of 42,000 metric tons. Exports of cacao beans in 1922 amounted to 45,018 metric tons compared with 38,224 metric tons in 1912. Coffee was increas- ing in importance, with an annual production from 6,000 to 10,000 metric tons. The exporta- tion of tropical fruits such as oranges, bananas, and pineapples to the countries to the south was also important. The production of cotton, len- tils, rice, sugar, and tobacco was increasing; ivory nuts and rubber were important forest products, although the output of lumber showed a great decrease toward the end of the period 1914-24, Annual exports of Panama hats were valued about $600,000. The only mining of importance was carried on by one gold mining company whose output in 1922 was $877,646 in the form of concentrates. The oil fields of Santa Elena, worked by British companies, were producing 50,000 barrels by 1922 and even more in 1923. In 1922 exports were $12,033,904 and imports $8,726,594; the United States took 40 per cent of the exports and furnished 46 per cent of the imports. Cacao constituted 76 per cent of all exports. Principal imports were textiles, foodstuffs, and hardware. Ecuador in 1924 ENTO- 394 ECUADOR was still suffering from economic depression aft- er the inflation of 1920, and its foreign trade showed little permanent gain during 1914-24. Total exports in 1912 were $13,689,696 and im- ports $10,354,564. The country had only a few small manufacturing plants. Communications. Little building of rail- ways was done in the period 1914-24. Several short lines were projected and partially com- pleted, notably those from Ambato to Curaray and from Quito to Esmeraldas. In 19238, 400 miles were in operation and 200 miles more were under construction. Wireless telegraph stations were erected at Quito, Guayaquil, and Esmeraldas. Education. After 1915 the educational organization underwent a series of changes. New curricula were introduced in the primary schools in 1916 and in the normal schools in 1917. In 1922, the 1718 schools in operation were attended by 108,920 pupils as compared with 70,000 in 1911. There were secondary schools in all the provinces but Esmeraldas, and universities at Cuenca, Guayaquil, and Quito Finance. The government budget continued to show annual deficits, so that in Dec. 31, 1922, the public dept was 70,101,412 sucres as compared with 40,625,000 sucres in 1914. The budget for 1913 carried revenues and expendi- tures at $9,921,000; in 1921, revenues were $7, 927,697, and expenditures $10,437,720. Interest and amortization of the foreign debt were steadily accumulating because of the fall in revenues. There was serious talk in 1922 of accepting the United States Standard Oil Company’s offer of a loan of $23,000,000. In 1923, the government accepted an English syndicate’s loan of $18,- 000,000. This was to be guaranteed by customs receipts and was to be applied to the payment of the government’s indebtedness of 17,579,393 sucres to the local banks in 1922 and for the interest due on railway bonds. Up to 1914, exchange was maintained at par (1 sucre= $0.487). The outbreak of the War caused the suspension of the gold conversion of paper, and with the continuing unfavorable trade balance, the value of the sucre steadily fell. From 1917 on, the government attempted to fix a legal ex- change rate but an open-market rate prevailed In December, 1923, the official rate was 4.0 sucres to the dollar, and the street rate, 5.9 sucres. History. Internal affairs were turbulent well into 1915 under President Plaza. Under President Baquerizo, 1916-20, the administra- tion was busied with fiscal affairs, in which the demands of the Guayaquil & Quito Railroad Com- pany, the leading holder of the foreign debt, played a prominent part; the country was also involved in difficulties with the belligerent na- tions. The Allies protested against Germany’s use of the Galapagos Islands as coaling stations, and in spite of official disclaimers Ecuador’s neutrality was questioned. In 1917, however, diplomatic relations with Germany were severed and Ecuador thus technically became a member of the Allied and Associate Powers. Up to 1924 it had not joined the League of Nations. By the treaty of 1916, a boundary commission was appointed to adjust the frontier between Ecuador and Colombia; the work was finished in 1919. The work which was commenced under General Plaza in the cleaning up of Guayaquil in 1913 was renewed in 1918 under Colonel Gorgas and came to a satisfactory conclusion two years ——— . school. EDDY later. In 1920 it was officially reported that the danger of yellow fever had been eliminated not only in Gnayaquil but in several adjacent provinces. In 1920 an unsuccessful attempt was made by a British company to purchase the Galapagos Islands with a view to exploiting their valuable guano deposits. The president of Ecuador for 1920-24 was Dr. José L. Tamayo; for the term 1924-28, Dr. Gonzalo 8. Cordoba. EDDY, SuERwoop (1871- ). An Ameri- can author and a secretary of the Young Men’s Christian Association, born at Leavenworth, Kan., and educated at Yale. As a national sec- retary of the Y. M. C. A., he worked in an honorary capacity among students in Japan, Korea, China, India, the Near East and Russia. Besides works published in England and India, he wrote: The Awakening of India (1911); The New Era in Asia (1913); The Students of Asia (1915); Suffering and the War (1916); With Our Soldiers in France (1917); Hvery- body’s World (1920). EDGAR, WILLIAM CROWELL (1856- Fs An American editor and publisher, born at La- Crosse, Wis., and educated at a St. Louis high He became manager (1882) and editor (1886) of the Northwestern Miller, and subse- quently president of the Miller Publishing Com- pany. For his part in the relief given to Rus- sian peasants in 1891, he was decorated by the Emperor of Russia. During the War he assisted in the Belgian Relief movement and aided Her- bert Hoover in the organization of the American milling industry. His publications include: Story of a Grain of Wheat (1903); Brief in Be- half of American Millers (1913); Food Control and Food Fallacies (1917); England During the Last Months of the War (1918); Rhymes of a Doggerel Bard (1921). EDISON, Tuomas AtLvaA (1847- pPosAn American electrician and inventor. His work in the decade was devoted chiefly to the perfection and improvement of inventions already made. At the outbreak of the War he designed, built and operated successfully benzol plants, carbolic acid plants, and plants for the making of aniline salt and other products. In July, 1915, he was appointed president of the Naval Consulting Board, and in this capacity performed valuable service to the government, for which he made many more inventions. He created lively in- terest and discussion, in 1923, by the publica- tion of a questionnaire which he was accustomed to submit to college students who applied to him for employment. It comprised questions of wide scope on almost every possible subject, and was designed to test the general knowledge of the applicants. Its usefulness as such a test was much discussed in the public press. EDMUNDSON, GEorGE (1848- ys OA English clergyman and historian (see VOL. VII). In 1922, he published A History of Hol- land (Cambridge Historical Series), and The Journal, Travels, and Labours of Father Samuel Fritz, in the River Amazon, 1686-1723. The latter was translated and edited from the orig- inal Spanish manuscript for the Hakluyt So- ciety. EDSON, KATHERINE Puinips (Mrs. CHARLES FARWELL Epson) (1870- ). An American social worker and feminist, born at Kenton, Ohio, and educated in private schools. She de- voted her life to problems of public health and industry, and to woman’s rights. From 1910 to 1916, she was a member of the State Board 395 EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES of the California Federation of Women’s Clubs. In 1912, she served on the Charter Revision Commission of Los Angeles, and in the same year became a member of the Progressive party’s State Central Committee of California, serving for four years. Well known as an arbiter in labor disputes, she was responsible for the Min- imum Wage Bill which the California Legisla- ture passed in 1913. From 1916 to 1920, she was a member of the executive committee of the Republican State Committee, and subsequently a delegate to the Republican National Conven- tion (1920), and a member (1920-24) of the executive committee of the Republican National Committee. In 1921, she became a member of the advisory committee of the Conference on the Limitation of Armaments. She has also been member of the executive committee of the National League for Woman’s Service, and executive officer of the Industrial Welfare Com- mission. EDSTROM, Davin (1873- yo A BCU DtOT. writer, lecturer and teacher who came to the United States in 1880 from Hvetlanda, Sweden, where he was born. At 21 he decided to study art, and worked his way to Stockholm, where he attended the technical schools and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts as a pupil of Borjison. He then went to Florence and Paris, where he studied with Injalbert. He has exhibited in most of the leading cities of the United States and Europe and is best known for his meta- physical sculptures, “Fear,” ‘Pride,’ “Envy,” CCalihany.) tne. Cry> of * Poverty. 7. An )argist of versatile moods, .Edstrom always shows in his work the psychic character of his subject. He has made portrait busts of many important persons. EDUCATION. See EHpucATION IN THE UNITED STATES; paragraphs on Hducation in the articles on the separate states and on for- eign countries; and UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL. See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. The report of the United States Commissioner of Education published in 1923 gives the sta- tistics of attendance in elementary schools for 1919-20. The enrollment in public kindergar- tens was 481,266 and in private kindergartens 29,683, making a total of 510,949. In the elementary schools including the primary and grammar grades there were 18,897,661 pupils in the public schools and 1,485,561 in the private schools, totaling 20,383,222. Of those who at- tended the public schools, 21.8 per cent were in the first grade, 13.8 in the second grade, and only 8.2 in the eighth grade. The statistics for the last few years of the decade 1914-24 showed that the public elementary schools were making it possible for pupils to progress more uniformly than previously. In 1911, the en- rollment in the first grade had been 23.5 per cent of the total, and only 6.4 were in the eighth grade. The average number of days that schools were in session in 1919-20 was 161.9. This is an inerease of more than 17 days over 1900. The average number of days that each pupil attended in 1919-20 was 121.2; in 1900, 99. The average child therefore was in school 22 days more in 1920 than in 1900. The per cent of children 5 to 18 years of age enrolled in school in 1919-20 was 77.8. This was an in- crease of nearly 5.5 per cent since 1900. At- EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 396 tendance in 1920 was more general among chil- dren 11 years of age than among those of any other age. About 94 per cent of all children 11 years old were in school in 1920, against 63 per cent of those 6 years old. The revenue receipts were income from permanent funds and lands, $26,486,735; local taxes and appropria- tions, $758,896,451; State taxes and appropria- tions, $134,278,753; and from all other sources, $50,908,896; making a total revenue of $970,- 570,835. The total expenditure per capita of population in 1920 was $9.80. In 1910 the per capita expenditure was $4.64; in 1900, $2.84. The total expenditure per pupil in average at- tendance in 1920 was $64.16. In 1910 it was $33.26 and in 1900 $20.21. The average total expenditure per day for each pupil attending in 1920 was $.396. In. 1910. it was $211; in 1900 $.14. The average annual salary of teach- ers in 1920 was $871. In 1910 it was $485, and in 1900, $325. Attendance in Secondary Schools. During the school year 1919-20, 186,862 students were enrolled in public high schools and 184,153 in private high schools and academies; total, 2,371,- 015. There was also a total of 59,309 students enrolled in the preparatory departments of high- er institutions. In 1920 over ten per cent of those who were enrolled in school were in the high school, while in 1900 only 3.3 per cent were in the high schools. The per cents in the various classes in high school were for the first year, 41.6; second year, 26.0; third year, 17.9, and fourth year, 14.5. These proportions between the four classes had remained almost constant from 1912. Teachers in the Public Schools. The teachers in the public elementary schools in 1920 included 63,024 men and 513,222 women, a total of 576,246. It is estimated that the private schools employed as teachers 6322 men and 38,977 women, totaling 45,299. The public high schools employed 32,386 men and 69,572 women, totaling 101,958. The private high schools employed 5698 men and 9248 women, totaling 14,946. Costs of Elementary and Secondary Schools. The expenditures for school sites, buildings, furniture, libraries and apparatus in 1920 was $153,542,852. ‘The salaries for super- intendents, principals and teachers was $613,- 404,578. For all other purposes the expenditure was $269,203,779. This made a total of $1,036,- 151,209. American Education Week. From 1919 one week each year was designated as American Education Week. The President issued a proc- lamation which was printed in full or in part by practically every newspaper in the country. The purpose was to arouse and consolidate the sentiment of the American people on their re- sponsibility toward the children. Evidence was collected by the United States Bureau of Ed- ucation and the National Education Association indicating that more than 1,000,000 sermons and addresses were delivered on the various subjects suggested for consideration during the week. Clubs of all kinds made education a part of their programme. The American Legion furnished speakers at many civic meetings, and motion picture houses throughout the country gave ac- tive support to the movement. [Extensive use was also made of the radio. One feature of Education Week was the invitation extended to parents to see the school in action. Thousands EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES of foreign-born parents thus had their first glimpse of the American schoolroom. In many cities evening sessions of the school were held so that parents might come directly from office or factory. Educational Investigations and Surveys. During the period between 1914 and 1924 many educational investigations and surveys were conducted by States, cities, townships, and pri- vate institutions. The first to attract wide at- tention was conducted in the City of Baltimore in 1911. Before this, legislative bodies had from time to time examined the schools for the purpose of determining the effectiveness of legal provisions. The Baltimore Survey made use of investigators trained in the field of education. The report concerned itself with the evaluation of existing educational methods within the city and also attempted to suggest remedial meas- ures. Later experience effected a vast improve- ment in the methods of investigation. Stand- ards were set, and it became possible to rate many features of a school system in terms which could be verified. A list of investigations would be very lengthy. Their significance is indicated by the fact that such surveys were conducted in Vermont, Maryland, Delaware, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Texas. Other States investigated phases of their work. Among these were an in- vestigation of rural schools in the State of New York; teacher-training in the State of Missouri; and higher education in Colorado. Among the cities surveyed were New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cleveland, Salt Lake City, and Port- land, Ore. Investigations were conducted by the Carnegie Foundation, the General Education Board, the United States Bureau of Education, and various other agencies. The staffs for such work consisted largely of staff members of teachers’ colleges and normal schools. The earlier surveys were almost invariably the outcome of dissatisfaction on the part of those interested in the schools. Results were not entirely desirable. Later investigations were concerned with the educational policies to be adopted by either State or city. The out- comes of some of them were remarkable. Busi- ness methods of boards of education were im- proved, school building programmes adopted, and more effective financial and educational methods for the conduct of the schools approved. One important outcome was a demand for more definite knowledge concerning the various el- ements of cost in the public school systems. Various subjects in the school had been en- riched and,new studies and departments added with no adequate knowledge of what these changes meant in the way of increased financial responsibilities. Cities added kindergartens and junior high schools to their elementary schools and regular high schools without know- ing what these additions would cost. States had in some cases undertaken to guarantee to every one who was qualified an education be- ginning with the grades and ending with the college and university. The mounting costs of education caused school officials no end of anx- iety. Each year saw increasing indebtedness, and in the later years it became more difficult to raise additional funds. Some cities had to re- sort to the expedient of paying current expenses by means of long term bonds. School officials, facing these difficulties, found themselves without the detailed information necessary for an answer. In 1921 a group of 3 E ; 4 | | ee ee EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES 397 persons interested in educational research ap- pointed a committee to draw up a plan and ask support for an educational finance inquiry. As, an outcome of the work of this committee the American Council on Education received con- tributions from the Commonwealth Fund, the General Education Board, the Carnegie Corpora- tion and the Milbank Memorial Fund. The Council then appointed an Educational Finance Inquiry Commission which was given full respon- sibility for the conduct of the inquiry and whose chairman was Prof. George D. Strayer of Teach- ers College, Columbia University. The com- mission was composed of prominent educators. This body employed a staff of investigators. The report of the commission is contained in fifteen volumes published by the Macmillan Com- pany, New York City. It indicates that in the ten-year period ending in 1920 the total educa- tional expenditures of the entire country nearly doubled for capital outlay, nearly trebled for interest, and increased about two and one-half times for current expenses. It was stated that in spite of its rapidly mounting cost, education was receiving a noticeably smaller proportion of total government expenses than formerly. To- tal government funds devoted to education de- creased about one-third; national, about one- fourth, and State, about one-fifth. On the other hand, the total local educational expenditures increased about one-ninth. The report stated that educational expenditures for the country as a whole each year exceeded the educational revenues, leaving a deficit which was 3 per cent of these revenues in 1910, and 5 per cent in 1920. Large numbers of school districts were bonded for approximately the full value of their school property. The average ratio of such debt to school property, however, was well under 50 per cent, although rising rapidly. In the State of New York the commission studied the costs of instruction in various sub- jects. The cost in a sample city will suffice to show the character of the work undertaken. In this city the English in grade one cost $34.43; health instruction, $4.52, and fine and practical arts, $9.74. In grade four English cost $20.48; arithmetic, $8.90; social sciences, including his- tory and geography, $8.90; health education, $6.59; and fine and practical arts, $8.55. For the first six years the total cost of teaching English was $158.08, while the total cost per pupil for all instruction in these six grades was $349.04. The expenses for the seventh and eighth year increased the total expense to $481.40. If the cost of instruction and super- vision in the special subjects be added to the class room teaching, the total expense for the first six years is $395.32, and for the eight years. of the elementary course, $570.67. The total cost per pupil of kindergartens in New York City was $74.75; for the ungraded classes, $133.40, Illiteracy. No subject connected with edu- eation received more attention in the later years of the decade than that of illiteracy. It was first brought to the attention of the Amer- ican people in a pronounced way by the illiteracy statistics for the army. These were much higher than the figures given in the 1910 cen- sus. The 1920 census showed an improvement of 1.7 per cent in the illiteracy situation. This, however, is not consoling when it is remembered that there were more than 5,500,000 persons in our population 10 years of age or over who EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES could neither read nor write. The census re- port showed that 1,242,572 native whites were illiterate. This was 2 per cent of the total native white population. Of the foreign-born whites 1,763,740 were illiterate, or 13 per cent of the total foreign-born white population. Of the Negroes, 1,842,161 were illiterate; this was 22.9 per cent of the total Negro population. In Texas 33.8 per cent of the foreign-born white population were illiterate, and of the Negro population in Louisiana 38.5 per cent. The illiterate population represented 6.0 per cent of the total 10 years of age and over in 1920, the corresponding percentages for the last four pre- ceding census years being 7.7 in 1910, 10.7 in 1900, 13.3 in 1890, and 17.0 in 1880. Connecti- cut was the only State showing an increase in the proportion as well as the number of illit- erates. Five States, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, and Washington, and the District of Columbia had only three-tenths of 1 per cent illiteracy. New Departures in Elementary Education. It would be difficult to predict the extent to which some of the innovations in elementary education will influence the schools of the fu- ture. Four changes in educational procedure in the decade 1914—24 seemed to have won a foot- hold. Junior High Schools. Studies of school at- tendance beginning in 1907 called attention to the remarkable dropping off of students between the elementary and high school and in the first year of the high school. A study of the reasons for this led to the belief that the lack of codr- dination between the elementary school and the high school was largely responsible for this con- dition. Almost none of the subjects studied in the elementary school were continued in the high school. Between the two institutions was a sharp cleavage in organization as well as in teaching methods. The last year of the elemen- tary school was largely devoted to a review of the work of the school. These and other con- siderations led school officials to formulate plans for the organization of a new element in the school system, which came to be known under various names, most commonly junior high school. This school usually cares for the chil- dren of the seventh, eighth and ninth elemen- tary school years. The effort is made to have the courses of study include a wider range of subjects than under the other form of organiza- tion. This is for the purpose of giving boys and girls the opportunity to explore various fields and to determine their fitness for such work as will follow in the high school, which under this plan is known as the senior high school. The junior high school, or intermediate school as some prefer to call it, had fulfilled reasonable expectations. Increasing numbers of such schools were organized, and most cities were making provisions for them in their new build- ing programme. The Platoon School Organization. This form of school organization was designed to meet the newer conditions which exist especially in the larger cities. It was extensively employed in the schools of Detroit. Typical platoon schools have 20 to 28 sections or classes of 40 pupils each. The buildings provide a gymnasium, an auditorium, open air play rooms, special rooms for music, art, literature, science, and library, and “home rooms” which correspond to the usual class rooms. The standard school day is EDUCATION IN UNITED STATES six hours long, a three-hour session in the morn- ing and a three-hour session in the afternoon. The usual morning session is from 8.30 to 11.30, and the afternoon session from 12.30 to 3.30. Some schools have a somewhat longer noon hour. With the exception of pupils of the first grade and those especially excused, all pupils remain in school six hours and are busy during this entire period. The school membership is di- vided into two groups or platoons. While one group is engaged in the “home room” or reg- ular room, the other group is attending classes is the special rooms. Thus half of the pupils are in the “home rooms” at any given time and the other half are engaged in special activities. For ‘Shome room” activities the school day of 6 hours is divided into four periods of 90 minutes each. Each platoon has “home room” work for 90 minutes in the morning and 90 minutes in°the afternoon. For special room activities, the 6-hour day is divided into twelve 30-minute periods. Each platoon is engaged in special activities during 6 of these twelve 30-minute periods each day. Each pupil spends 90 minutes of the morning in the “home room” under the control of the “home room” teacher and the remaining 90 min- utes of the morning in the special activities, 50 minutes in 3 separate special rooms. In the afternoon, he again spends 90 minutes in the “home room” and the remaining 90 minutes in 3 special rooms. The number of special room activities possible in a platoon school is determined by the number of classes or groups of pupils involved. If there are 20 classes, the school must house 800 pupils, or 400 in each platoon. This requires 10 “home rooms” to care for 400 pupils. The remaining 400 pupils may be provided for in special rooms. The cost of buildings for the platoon schools is somewhat greater per pupil in the 20-section schools and a little less in the 28-section schools than in the traditional schools. The capacity of the school building is increased by more than 40 per cent by the platoon organization. The per capita cost of instruction is about the same in both types of schools. The Dalton Laboratory Plan. Following 1890 many efforts were made to provide individ- ual instruction in the class room. Some of these plans were widely advertised and were intro- duced into various school systems. Jn 1924 scarcely an evidence existed of the earlier at- tempts. Greatest attention was given the Dal- ton Plan. The originator of this plan, so far as it applies to public school work, is Helen Park- hurst. It was first tried with a group of crip- pled children in 1919. The next year it was introduced in the Dalton, Mass., High School. Miss Parkhurst spent the summer of 1921 in England, where she conducted a model school according to the “Dalton Laboratory Plan,” and her lectures were published. From that time Miss Parkhurst’s plan received increasing at- _ tention throughout England, and a large num- ber of the schools there were in 1924 organized in accordance with her ideals. In New York City Miss Parkhurst was conducting a school called the Children’s University School. 46--9- on microg \ Xx \/ / = <5: | | ! x , sey | \/ / 7/Approx. | | ace | KPOKPOO Oe ew ew oe oe oe we oe we ew owe one mere esee XX , ica | eceee Pa Fe te Boy fp oe mea ee Denn nnn nn 2 = nn ee nn o-- ene ennnn nn ee 97 -----50' Clearance ----- Ke | | | Elevation of a high tension line tower with strings of in- sulators, ring shields, and con- ductors. Transmission Lines. The most important accomplishment of the period in transmission engineering was the adoption of 220,000 volts as a working potential for transmission lines and the practical operation of two such lines. Pre- viously 165,000 was the highest potential used in regular practice. The two lines installed were both in California. The Southern Cal- ifornia Edison Company had a line 240 miles long installed and planned in 1924 to extend it. Incidental to the use of 220,000 volts as a work- ing potential, the manufacturing companies built transformers for 1,000,000 volts for lab- oratory purposes to test out the apparatus to be used in the 22,000 volt lines. Transformers in sizes up to 16,000 kva., built for commercial purposes, were arranged with 130,000 volt high- tension windings for a Y connection on 220,000 volts with the neutral grounded. The line -it- self used large steel towers, eight to the mile, carrying the three conductors in a horizontal ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION plane, hanging from strings of suspension in- sulators. Each string of insulators was pro- tected by a static shield consisting of a metal ring surrounding and concentric with the in- sulators. This ring was connected to the con- ductor and reduced the potential strain on the insulators by giving the electrostatic field a more uniform distribution. Authorities dis- agreed as to whether an overhead ground wire or lightning arresters were of any benefit on lines of this high potential. In the Southern California line the conductors were 0.95 inch in diameter, were stranded aluminium cable with a steel core, and were spaced 210 inches apart. Experimental research indicated that with con- ductors of about 1 inch in diameter the loss from corona would not be important. The duplicate lines of 6 conductors were carried on 2 lines of steel towers so that the minimum clearance above ground was 30 feet. The in- sulators were of the disc suspension type, 13 in each string, and shielded with rings. The outdoor type of switching station became usual rather than exceptional. With the in- crease in the potential used the space required for the switches, circuit breakers, and lightning arresters became so great that it was expensive to put them in a building, and they could all be made water-proof. Oil-cooled transformers and water-cooled oil-insulated transformers con- tinued to lead the air-cooled in number of ap- plications and were improved by the addition of a device known as the oil conservator, a reservoir attached to the oil tank and above it so that the transformer tank proper was al- ways full and completely sealed from the at- mosphere. This reduced oxidation of the oil, moisture in the oil and the danger of explosive gases. The increase in length of transmission lines raised a serious problem in the regulation of the voltage and the power factor of the sys- tem. This was met by the use of synchronous condensers with relays controlling the field ex- citation to hold the voltage and power factor at predetermined values. In a 220,000 volt line it was proposed to place such a device in circuit every 100 miles. Single units of this character of 30,000 kva. were placed in service. The use of the static condenser for alternating current distribution circuits grew considerably. These were oil-insulated static condensers connected to the end of a distribution system to improve the power factor and voltage regulation of the system. They operated at about 2200 volts, and if the voltage of the system were much less than this, auto-transformers were used to step up the voltage. The oxide film lightning arrester was brought into quite general use. It consists of a num- ber of units in series, depending on the voltage of the system, each unit constructed of two con- ducting plates separated by a short space filled with oxide of lead in the form of a powder, paste or pellets. Ordinarily this material is non-conducting, but an excess potential breaks through and allows a discharge current. This current heats the material in the small area through which it flows, and this heat changes the character of the material at that particular point into an insulator, thereby healing up the punctured spot. These are used for voltages up to 135,000. The transmission of energy by underground cables, as in large cities, was improved by the use of improved insulating materials, resulting ELECTRIC RAILWAYS in the successful operation of cables at much higher potentials. In 1914 the highest voltage was 13,000, but in 1924 three conductor cables for 33,000 volts had been installed and single conductor cables for 44,000 and 66,000 volts were in use. See ELectTRIc SUBSTATIONS. Bibliography. Consult Baum, Atlas of the United States of America Power Industry (New York); Meyer, Underground Transmission and Distribution (New York); Peek, Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering (New York) ; Reyneau and Seelye, Economics of Elec- trical Distribution (New York). ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. In 1914 the New York Central; the New York, New Haven, and Hartford; the Northern, the Butte, Anacon- da and Pacific, and the New York terminal of the Pennsylvania Railroad were the outstanding accomplishments In the succeeding 10 years were added to this list the Norfolk and Western, 1915; Pennsylvania Railroad (Philadelphia), 1915; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 1916; Bethlehem (Chili), 1918; Paulista (Brazil), 1920, and the Vera Cruz-Mexico City, under con- struction in 1924. These were equipped by American manufacturers, and so were the Paris- Orléans in France and the Spanish Northern. Numerous roads of lesser importance were also equipped with electric locomotives. The ma- jority of these installations were fitted with the high voltage (2400 or 3000) direct current system; the Norfolk: and Western and _ the Pennsylvania used the alternating current system. The Norfolk and Western is typical of the alternating current roads. This covers the di- vision from Bluefield, W. Va., to East Vivian; the service consists of hauling coal trains of 3250 tons up a 1.25 per cent grade at a speed of 14 miles per hour, requiring 3200 h.p. at the locomotive. Twelve electric locomotives of 264 tons replaced 33 steam locomotives of the Mal- let type. The electric locomotives take current at 11,000 volts, 25 cycles, single-phase, from an overhead trolley. This is converted to three- phase currents by a phase converter on the lo- comotive and supplied as such, at a suitable voltage, to the three-phase induction motors which drive the locomotive. The merit of the combination was that the three-phase motors are more efficient than single-phase motors; they are constant speed motors which will regenerate power on down-grades automatically at a def- inite speed and thus act as brakes; finally, by means of this converter a single overhead trol- ley may be used to supply three-phase motors. The St. Paul Railway put into operation a sec- tion of 440 miles in Montana in 1917 and a second section of 220 miles in Washington in 1920. The first includes the heavy mountain grades of 2 per cent an;overhead trolley operating at 3000 volts di- rect current, from which the electric locomotives of 290 tons take current. These locomotives are capable of hauling trains of 2500 tons up the grades at 16 miles per hour, giving 3000 h.p. continuously, and each locomotive makes the entire run of 440 miles without change or lay-off. The train crews are changed in the middle of the run. The locomotives also use regenerative electric braking when descending grades; that is, the electric motors act as gen erators, hold the train at a desired speed, and return the energy of the descending train to the line to be used elsewhere This railroad 414 Both are equipped with: ELECTRIC SHIP PROPULSION takes its electric energy from existing public utility companies, which in turn derive it main- ly from water power. In Norway and Sweden the single-phase system was considerably ex- tended, and in Italy the three-phase system was further developed and extended. Among .urban street railways the rapid and general adoption of the light weight or one-man safety car was the outstanding feature. This is a very light car of moderate passenger capac- ity, usually having two motors of 20 h.p. The — car doors are arranged to open and close auto- matically, interlocking with the control of the motors so that the car cannot be started until all. doors are safely closed. With this pre-.| caution it is safe for one man to act both as motorman and conductor; this reduces the cost of labor, and the light weight reduces the power required. | The development of the automatic substation was an achievement of the period, and the in- crease in its use was phenomenal. It was em- ployed in many applications and industries, but its most general and important field was the electric railway. This is a substation for the conversion of the high-voltage alternating-cur- rent power of the transmission line to the low- voltage direct-current power of the trolley or third rail. The station contains transformers, converters, and switches, operated by relays so that the machinery is started up just when it is needed and shut down when the demand has ceased, without the intervention of any human labor. The relay controls all the operations. An inspection of a few minutes each day is all the human attention the station requires. See ELECTRIC SUBSTATIONS. Some interesting tests were made at Erie, Pa., in the fall of 1923 to determine the maximum current which can be collected from an overhead trolley and the limit to the power of a locomo- tive on such a system. Currents of 4000 to 5000 amperes were collected at speeds of 50 to 60 miles per hour from two No. 000 wires by one pantograph trolley pressing upward at a pres- sure of 35 to 40 pounds. With 3000 volts on the trolley this is equivalent to about 20,000 h.p. per locomotive. Consult Morison, Railroad Electrification (New York); Richey, in Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (New York) ; General Electric Review (Schenectady) ; Electric Railway Handbook, (New York). See RAPID TRANSIT. ELECTRIC SHIP PROPULSION. The art of propelling ships by electric motors had practically its entire development since 1913, when the first vessel so equipped, the American collier Jupiter, was put into commission. She had two 3000 h.p. three-phase induction motors on twin propeller shafts deriving their power from one steam turbo-generator of 5450 kilo- watts At the time of the Naval Disarmament Conference, the United States had built and under construction 20 electrically propelled ves- sels, mostly of the largest size, 30,000 tons each. Many of these were discontinued, but the U.S.S. New Mexico, Tennessee, California, Maryland, Colorado, and West Virginia were completed. These battleships were in commission in 1924. Each of them had four propeller shafts and four motors aggregating 32,000 h.p. Under construc- tion were some airplane carriers having 180,000 h.p, of electric: motors per ship. The battleships ali use changeable pole induction motors capable *2A0Ge UMOUS SE S|99YM SUIALAP BY} UO JOR BALIP pod pue Suisvas jo suvaw Aq asayy ‘Siojow uoljyonpul aseyd-d|duls JO SJEUIWI9} BUY} J S}]OA OGG O} ABWAOJSUeA] L Aq umop paddajs si yoIumM *S}]IOA OOO‘IL Je Aajjoa} PEAYABAO BY} WOA}J JUDAAND S9HL} BAIJOUIODO| 914}99]9 Ayioedeo-ysiy siy} ‘SxY4OM BAIJOWODOF UIMP|eg 94} puev “OH Bulanjoejpnuel] Y 914}99) 4 PSNOySuljsaAA 9y} Aq yng GVYOUTIVY NYZLS3M GNV YIOSYON JHL NO SNIVYL JOVNNOL-AAVSH ONIIGNVH YO4 SAILOWODOT 9181939714 SAVMITIVY OINLOAJIS / }UdAUND YOSAIP $}}OA OOOE }¥ Suljesado pue Auvdwog 914399;q |esausy ayy Aq ying AVM1IVY TNWd “LS GNV 3SNNVMIIW ‘ODVOIHO 3HL 4O 3AILOWOOOT LHDIFSYS O1ULOZIS SAVMTIVY Seer, ~ ELECTRIC SHOVELS 415 of operating at two different speeds, usually 16 and 21 knots. As an example, the Maryland had two electric generators of 13,000 kilowatts each, driven by steam turbines at 2000 revolu- tions per minute. Her four propeller shafts were each driven by an induction motor rated at 7000 h.p. at 175 r.p.m. with 24 poles for 21 knots speed, and 1700 h.p. at 118 r.p.m with 36 poles for 16 knots. One of the important advantages of electric propulsion for such ves- sels is the ability to reverse any propeller with full power at a second’s notice. Steam turbines alone cannot be reversed so quickly or with so much power. The ability to operate convenient- ly and efficiently at two different speeds is an- other point in its favor, and the light weight and good efficiency obtained by the use of the high speed turbines is a third. Over 45 ships, ageregating 550,000 h.p., had been equipped for electric drive up to 1924. A development particularly adapted to freight vessels was the use of Diesel engines driving electric generators which in turn drive the mo- tors on the propeller shafts. The Diesel engine is difficult to start, to reverse and to build in large sizes. With the electric system any num- ber of units may be used, connected into an electric system, and the engines may run con- tinuously in-the same direction, the stopping and reversing being done at the motors. ELECTRIC SHOVELS. See ELectric Mo- TORS IN INDUSTRY. ELECTRIC SUBSTATIONS. The develop- ment of apparatus for substations kept pace with other advances. Synchronous converters were built, of larger capacity and for higher speeds, and the weight per kilowatt decreased. The improvement in 60-cycle converters was notable; by 1924 there could hardly be any prejudice against them. The substation for converters or motor-generator sets was revolu- tionized; it was made independent of all labor for attendance. By the development of ingen- ious relays, these automatic substations start up when needed; the machines are brought up to speed, synchronized with the supply system, and connected to the load circuit. This idea was first put into effect in 1916, and in 1924 hundreds of such stations were in operation, in sizes up to 4000 kilowatts and for voltages up to 3000 on the direct current side. This idea was first introduced in the electric railway sys- tems (see ELEcTRIC RAILWAYS) and was so successful that it was adopted for industries, mines, and even small isolated water power plants forming part of a system. Thus it is possible to place a water power station in some out-of-the-way place where hydraulic develop- ment is cheap, have it feed current into a sys- tem when power is desired, and yet have it re- quire no attendants in the station An inspec- tor visits these stations regularly and tests them out; that is all the attention required. A water power station of this character for 7500 kilowatts capacity was installed near Lit- tle :Falls,-N, Y. ELECTRIC THEORY. See CHEMISTRY. ELECTRIC WELDING. The uses of elec- trie welding became so important during the War that the United States government fostered a special organization to study and develop the art. Under this stimulation research was car- ried on, new methods devised, and new applica- tions found. A large part of the repair work on the German steamers interned in 1914 and ELIOT taken over by the United States in 1917 was done by electric welding. Ships were built in which welding was substituted for riveting. Electric generators were devised which so reg- ulated the current as to give a uniform char- acter of weld. While most of the welding was done with direct current, alternating current could also be used. ELECTROMETALLURGY. See ELeEcrrio FURNACES. f ELECTRON, ELECTRONIC THEORY. See Puysics. ELEMENTS. See CHEMISTRY; PuysICcs. ELEVATED RAILWAYS. See TRANSIT. ELIOT, Str CHARLES EDGECUMBE (1864- }. An English diplomat and Orientalist (see VOL. VII). He was British High Commissioner in Siberia in 1918, and in 1919 was» appointed British Ambassador to Japan. He _ published Hinduism and Buddhism (1921). ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM (1834- yi An American educator (see Vout. VII). He fa- vored the League of Nations and was a strong supporter of President Wilson and his admin- istration. In his writings and lectures he has stressed in particular his condemnation of the standardization of education and industry. He was presented with a medal for distinguished service by the National Council of Civie Reform in 1923. He published The Road Toward Peace (1915), and A Late Harvest (1924). ELIOT, SAMvUEL ATKINS, JR. (1893- SE An American author born in Denver, Colo., and educated at Harvard University. He studied the German and English theatres and went on the stage with Miss Horniman’s Repertory Com- pany in England. In 1914-15, he was play reader and stage manager for Winthrop Ames in New York. In the latter year he joined the Washington Square Players; in 1916-17, direct- ed the Indianapolis Little Theatre and in 1917- 18, the Cincinnati Art Theatre.. He wrote books on the theatre and made many translations from Wedekind. His works include Little Theatre Classics (3 vols., 1918-21), Hrdgeist (1914), Pandora’s Bow (1914), and Tragedies of Sex (1923). The three last are translations. ELIOT, THomMAs STEARNS (1888- ye @tAn American poet and critic, born at St. Louis He studied at Harvard, the Sorbonne and Ox- ford. From 1913 on he made his home in Lon- don. He first attracted attention with his Poems (1920), a thin sheaf of 63 pages contain- ing some of the best pieces of the decade. He was preéminently an ironist and his mocking, possibly only clever, poems stirred and an- tagonized the modern literary world. The Waste ‘Land (1922), a poem of little more than 100 lines, was at first bitterly contested: by some it was put down as an important achievement, by others as a plain hoax. But the former opinion seemed the more nearly cor- rect, for in spite of its obscurities, pedantries, and often perverse symbols, the Waste Land RAPID with its feel. of the essential aridity of the modern life and its fine poetical passages, was a memorable work. Mr. Eliot’s critical studies were considered by some even more noteworthy than his poetry. His Sacred Wood (1920) shows the first English attempt, since Matthew Arnold, to formulate a thoroughgoing esthetic creed applicable to literature and life. In 1922 he became the editor of the Criterion, a finely balanced periodical devoted to the arts. ELISAVETPOL 416 ELISAVETPOL. See AZERBAIJAN. ELIZABETH. A manufacturing and resi- dential city of New Jersey. The population rose from 73,409 in 1910 to 95,783 in 1920, and to 103,947, by estimate of the Bureau of the Census, for 1923. An ordinance was adopted in 1922 zoning the city into three residential, three business, and three industrial districts. A city planning commission was engaged in de- véloping in 1924 a comprehensive plan for fu- ture growth. The city had 238 manufacturing establishments, six banks, and two savings banks in 1924, ELIZALDE, Rarart Hector (1873- )s A South American diplomat, born at Guayaquil, Ecuador, and educated at the National College of San Vicente del Guayas and the University of Guayas. Before being appointed envoy ex- traordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the United States and Cuba in 1916, he served his country at various South American embassies, assisting in the settlement of the boundary line between Ecuador and Colombia. He is the au- thor of Labores Diplomdticas (1912), Organiza- cién de Partidos Politicos (1913), and Riqueza Obliga (1914). ELLIOTT, EDWARD (1874- 7) HAN American lawyer, professor and banker, born at Murfreesboro, Tenn, and educated at the univer- sities of Princeton, Berlin and Heidelberg. From 1898 to 1915 he was successively instruc- tor in Latin and jurisprudence, preceptor in the department of history, politics and econom- ics, and professor of politics at Princeton Uni- versity. He was also dean of the college from 1909 to 1912. In 1913, he went to the Univer- sity of California as lecturer on international law, and from 1916 to 1920 was professor there. From 1917 to 1920, he was director of the Fed- eral Reserve Bank of San Francisco, and in 1921 became vice-president of the Security Trust and Savings Bank of Los Angeles. He is the author of the following works: Die Staatslehre John C. Calhouns (1903); The Biographical Story of the Constitution (1910); Selected Documents in International Law (1914); American Govern- ment and Majority Rule (1915); State Bank Membership in the Federal Reserve System (1919). He also contributed articles to -pe- riodicals. ELLIOTT, Howarp (1860- ). An Ameri- can railway official (see Vor. VII). In 1913, he was appointed president of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company, serving until 1917, when he resigned and was appointed chairman of the Commission on In- tercorporate Relations for that road. In 1918, he was appointed president of the Northern Pa- cifie Railway, serving until 1920, when’ he was appointed chairman of the board of directors. During the War, he was a member of the spe- cial committee on national defense of the Amer- ican Railway Association. He was a member of the executive committee of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and was a member of the American Railway Association and other asso- ciations and societies. ELLIS, Henry MHavetock (1859- ): An English psychologist and author (see VoL. VIT). Among his later works are: The World of Dreams (1911); The Task of Social Hygiene (1912); Impressions and Comments (1914. Second series, 1920); Hssays in. War-time (1916); The Philosophy of Conflict and Other Essays (1919); Little Essays of Love and Vir- EMMET tue (1922); Kanga Creek, an Australian Idyll (1922); The Dance of Life (1923). ELLIS, WILLIAM THOMAS’ (1873- ). An American journalist and author (see Vou. VII). In 1917, he spent six months in Russia and in the year following was correspondent on the Persian, Caucasus, Rumanian and French fronts He was special correspondent of the New York Herald and associated newspapers in the Balkans (1919) and represented the Chicago Daily News and associated newspapers at the Conference on Limitation of Armament at Washington, D. C. (1921-22). ELLWOOD, CHartes ABRAM (1873- VK An American sociologist (see Vout. VII). He published The Social Problem (1915, 1919), An Introduction into Social Psychology (1917), and The Reconstruction of Religion: A Sociolog- acal View (1922). ELMIRA COLLEGE. An institution for women at Elmira, N. Y., founded in 1855. It practically doubled in size during the decade 1914-24. The student enrollment increased from 234 to 500, the teaching staff from 22 to 43, and the library from 11,000 to 20,000 vol- umes. The endowment grew from $134,572 to $776,644 and the annual income from $76,635 to $265,650. Ten new buildings were erected, including one large and several smaller dormi- tories, a large dining commons, a faculty house, and a dean’s house. The campus was enlarged, and a library building, the first unit of which was to cost $150,000, was in course of construc- tion in 1924. Frederick Lent, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D., succeeded A. Cameron MacKenzie, D.D., LL.D., as president. EMBRYOLOGY. See Zod Loey. EMERGENCY FLEET CORPORATION. See SHIPBUILDING; SHIPPING. EMERSON, Joun (1874- ). An Ameri- ican playwright and producer born at Sandusky, Ohio, and educated in Chicago and New York. He acted and produced plays for Daniel Froh- man, William Harris, the Shuberts, Clyde Fitch and others until 1910. He wrote and played in The Conspiracy (1912) and Step Lively (1913). He wrote and produced motion pictures for D. W. Griffith, Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pick- ford, Constance Talmadge and others until 1922, and later formed the Emerson-Loos Com- pany, writers and producers of motion pictures. EMERTON, EpuHraim~ (1851- ye0An American historian (see Vor. VII). He became president of the Cambridge Historical Society in 1921. Since 1914 he has published Begin- nings of Modern Europe (1917), The Defensor Pacts of Marsiglio of Padua (1920), and Learning and Living, essays (1921). EMERY, Henry Crospy (1872-1924). An American economist (see Vou. VII). In 1916, he went to Russia to make a study of the com- mercial, industrial and financial conditions there for the Guaranty Trust Company of New York City, and was returning in March, 1918, when he was taken prisoner in the Aland Islands by the Germans. On Oct. 22, 1918, he was re- leased, and arrived in the United States on November 10. In 1921, he was made manager of the Peking, China, branch of the Asia Bank- ing Corporation with headquarters in New York. While on the way to San Francisco from Shang: hai, on board the steamship President Lincoln, he died of pneumonia, Feb. 6, 1924. EMMET, WititiAm LERoy (1859- i} An American electrical engineer and inventor, a —— EMMONS born at New Rochelle, N. Y. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1881, left the navy in 1883, but rejoined it during the Spanish-American War. He was with the General Electric Company from 1892. He made important inventions in steam turbines, re- ceived the Edison medal in 1919, and the Elliott Cresson medal in 1920. He was a member of the Naval Consulting Board in 1915, and chair- man of the committee on submarines. He wrote Alternating Current Wiring and Distribution (1894), and contributed articles to the technical magazines on electrical and mechanical subjects. EMMONS, WitirAm Harvey (1876- ys An American geologist, born at Mexico, Mo. He was graduated at Central College in 1897, and received his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1904, After serving as an aid in the United States Geological Survey during 1904-06, he returned to the University of Chi- cago, where he remained until 1912, having been advanced to the associate professorship of economic geology in 1909. After that time he was professor of geology and head of the de- partment at Minnesota, and director of the Minnesota State Geological Survey. His prin- cipal investigations have been concerning a genetic classification of minerals, the ore de- posits of various mining districts in Nevada, Montana, Colorado, Maine, and New Hamp- shire. He has published important reports in the United States Geological Survey series, on regionally metamorphosed ore deposits and the segregated veins, as well as petroleum geology. He served on the United States Geological Sur- vey as assistant geologist during 1906-10 and as geologist, 1910-15, and was, besides, an associate editor of Hconomic Geology. EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY. See Work- MEN’S COMPENSATION. EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS. See Lapor LEGISLATION. e ENDOCRINOLOGY. See Sercrerions, In- TERNAL. ENELOW, HymMAn Gerson _ (1876- ip A Russo-American rabbi born in Russia, and educated at the universities of Chicago and Cincinnati, and the Hebrew Union College, Cin- cinnati He became rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, New York, in 1912. During the War he served overseas as commander and general field sec- retary of the Jewish Welfare Board (1918-19). Among his works may be mentioned: Aspects of the Bible (1911); The Jewish Life (1915); The Synagogue in Modern Life (1916); The Faith of Israel (1917); The War and the Bible (1918); The Adequacy of Judaism (1920); The Jew and the World (1921). ENEMY ALIENS. See UNITED STATES, History. ENGEL, CAruL (1883- ). An American musicologist and composer, born in Paris. While studying philosophy and literature at the University of Strasbourg, he also pursued the course in music with Professor Jacobsthal. In Munich, he studied composition with L. Thuille and musicology with Professor Sandberger. He came to the United States in 1905, where he soon became known as an ardent advocate and exponent of futurism, contributing to American and English periodicals. From 1909 to 1922 he was editor and musical adviser for the Bos- ton Music Company. In 1922, he succeeded O. G. Sonneck as chief of the Music Division of the Library of Congress. His compositions, all 417 ENGLAND ultra-modern, consist of smaller pieces for piano, piano and violin, and songs. He is the author of Alla Breve: (1921). ENGEL, EpuArp (1875- ). A German writer born at Stolp in Pomerania. He stud- ied Sanskrit and medieval languages at the Uni- versity of Berlin, but later devoted himself to modern literature, especially German. He ed- ited a selection of Byrons Tagebiicher (1904), and wrote on the Shakspeare-Bacon problem, Shakspeare-Ratsel (1904). His later works are: Geschichte der deutschen Literatun (1906) ; Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts und der Gegenwart (1908) ; Goethe, der Mensch und das Werk (1911); Deutsche Stilkunst (1911); Deutsche Meister- prosa (1912); Hin Tagebuch: 1914-19 (1920); Die Weisheit Goethes (1920). He later edited a popular history of German literature and a popular edition of Goethe’s works. ENGELHARDT, Emit (1887- YHA German clergyman and writer who was born in Nundorf. Most of his works are concerned with the cultural position and future of Germany, among them being: Die Zukunft des Auslands- deutschtums (1916); Auf deutschen Vorposten (1916); Fichtes Hrziehungsgedanken und die deutsche Volkshochschule (1918); Tat und Freiheit, ein Fichtebuch (1918); J. G. Fichte, ein deutscher Mensch und Denker (1919); Fich- tes Briefe an Braut und Gattin (1920); Hr- léser Liebe (1920); Minne und Liebe (1920) ; Rabindranath Tagore (1921). ENGERT, T. Joseru (1882- ). A Ger- man professor of philosophy and _ pedagogy. Since his début with Der naturalistische Monis- mus Haeckels (1907), he has written a number of works dealing with religious problems and with the War, among them, Vom Sinn des deutschen Krieges 1916). ENGINE, Stream. See SteAM ENGINES AND TURBINES. ENGINEERING DAMS. ENGINEERS, Mititary. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZATION. ENGINES, Marine. See SHIPBUILDING. ENGLAND. See GREAT BRITAIN, ENGLAND, Cuurcu or. This denomina- tion is represented in the United States by the Protestant Episcopal Church. It is the estab- lished church of England, and the King of Eng- land is the supreme governor, with the right to fill vacant archbishoprics and_ bishoprics. For administrative purposes the country is di- vided into two provinces, the Convocation of York and the Convocation of Canterbury, each under the control of an archbishop. In 1914 Parliament provided for the disestablishment of the church in Wales, which was delayed on ac- count of the War until Mar. 31, 1920. Under the Church Enabling Act of 1919 a National Assembly of the Church was established, to de- liberate on all church matters except its spirit- ual doctrines and the duties of the ministry. The act carried with it the power to establish three houses composed of bishops, clergy, and laity, to which members were elected in 1920. The membership of the church fell from 2,359,- 599 in 1915 to 2,220,194 in 1923, and the num- ber of pupils in the Sunday schools from 2,541,- 000 to 2,233,111. The income from voluntary offerings in 1914 was between £7,000,000 and £8,000,000, as compared with an income in From Bach to Debussy FOUNDATION. See v ENGLAND 1923 of £6,862,948. The number of clergymen remained about the same. A controversy arose in the church during the period, over the action of two African missionary bishops in joining and taking communion with nonconformist mis- sionaries at Kikuyu in 1914. Accusations of heresy were made, but the missionaries were upheld by the report in the following year of the Central Consultative Body of the Church, to which the matter was referred. ENGLAND, GeEorGE ALLAN (1877- ». An American author born at Fort McPherson, Neb. He was graduated from Harvard in 1902, and a year later published Underneath the Bough (1903). Other works of his include: The Story of the Appeal (1914); The Air Trust (1915); The Great Crime (1917); Their Son (1919); The Flying Legion (1920). ENGLISH HISTORY. See GREAT BRITAIN. ENGLISH LITERATURE. See _ LITERA- TURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. ENNEKING, Joun JosepH (1840-1916). An American landscape painter. He was born in Munster, Ohio, and studied in Munich and chiefly with Bonnat and Daubigny in Paris. In 1876 he settled in Boston, where he was closely associated with George Fuller and George Inness. Especially after 1882 his art became increas- ingly subjective. He had a facility in catching and reproducing atmospherie conditions in his canvases. This facility is illustrated in his treatment of November twilights and forest scenes. Ralph Davol said of him, “Enneking was a modern romanticist combining qualities ot the impressionist, luminist and_ tonalist. He divided tones into their primary elements and obtained color vibrations by laying on fresh paint in gentle juicy pounces with a narrow brush, carefully tucking in the edges of his strokes to preserve a delicate, volatile play of light.” He is represented in the Museums of Worcester and Boston and in many New Eng- land private collections. ENTOMOLOGY, Economic. The importance of insect control in the United States and the prevention of the enormous loss which the country pays each year as tribute to insect supremacy was recognized by the Federal and State governments in the making of liberal ap- propriations. Inasmuch as the free productive agricultural land was practically exhausted, the country must depend upon reclamation work for an extension of crop area, on a more intensive agriculture, and on elimination of the loss by insect pests and plant diseases in order that production may keep up with the increase in population. The work in economic entomology has kept pace with the sciences in invention and in the adaptation of scientific knowledge to its use. The chemist, engineer, electrician, and other scientists have been called upon to aid in solving the problems of insect control. The work ac- complished in the United States has laid a firm foundation. To a number of the leading educational institutions of the country, which have given courses that have prepared the stu- dent in the sciences that are fundamental in the work and the technical knowledge, belong much of the credit for what has been accom- plished. The losses caused annually by insect pests in the United States are estimated by entomological authorities to reach the enormous sum of $2,- 000,000,000. While many factors complicate the problem, it is the general conclusion that in an 418 ENTOMOLOGY average year with no unusual attack the loss caused to crops is about one-tenth of the total production. The indirect losses caused by insect-borne diseases reach a large sum. The loss of productive labor in the United States through the sickness and death resulting from malaria is figured at $100,000,000, or more, and from all insect-borne diseases at over $350,- 000,000. With the introduction of new pests from abroad and with the rise and spread of other native insects, this loss may be expected to increase unless the status quo can be main- tained through the application of preventive and control measures by the hand of man. During recent years new pests of vast eco- nomic importance have been unwittingly intro- duced from abroad and become established, in- cluding the pink bollworm, European corn borer, Japanese beetle, Oriental peach moth, pine shoot moth (#vetria buoliana), European earwig, European red mite (Paratetranychus pilosus), satin moth (Stilpnotia salicis L.), and others. A second class, consisting of earlier in- troduced pests which have continued to spread and increase in importance includes the gipsy moth, brown-tail moth, cotton boll weevil, al- falfa leaf weevil, Argentine ant, Mexican bean beetle, pear thrips, and citrus blackfiy. Others, which may be referred to as a third class, have risen and assumed alarming prominence, such as the potato leaf hopper, beet leaf hopper, pea moth, apple red bugs, and camphor thrips, and the fruit-tree leaf roller. To a fourth class be- long untold numbers of pests of no less im- portance that are threatening to enter our bor- ders, of which the Mediterranean fruit fly is the most important. Other pests, such as the codling moth, San José scale, Hessian fly, chinch bug, spring grain aphid, corn rootworm, boll- worm, cotton leaf worm, army worm, the grass- hopper, cabbage worm, Colorado potato beetle, citrus white fly, grain weevil, and others, con- tinue their ravages, and, though they may at times be checked by climatic conditions and nat- ural enemies, necessitate eternal vigilance on the part of the American agriculturist. In combating these pests the entomologists have adopted strategic means of every kind, and the resulting advance in preventive and control measures has been epoch making. Resorting to legislative means, Congress enacted the Federal Plant Quarantine Act of Aug. 20, 1912, which immediately became effective as to certain quarantines, and is administered by the Federal Horticultural Board, consisting of five mem- bers appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. A quarantine against insect pests and diseases of plants from abroad has been established and maintained, inspectors having been stationed at every port of entry by land and sea. It would not be surprising, with the opportunities af- forded, if, in spite of this vigilance, now and then a foreign pest should make its entry un- detected, for they are often exceedingly elusive in the method of their introduction. However, with the exception of the pink bollworm, which gained entrance from Mexico before its lodg- ment there was discovered, no important pest is known to have become established in the United States since the enforcement of the act. Not the least important work of that Board are the quarantines established and maintained within the United States against the spread of a number of our most important pests. The investigational and control work is carried on "a! -” ENTOMOLOGY 419 by the Federal government through the Bureau of Entomology and the Horticultural and In- secticide and Fungicide Boards. In the States the work is conducted by the experiment sta- tions, State entomologists, and, in several in- stances, by crop pest commissions. The Fed- eral Bureau of Entomology, of which Dr. Le- land O. Howard is chief, administers the work through its several divisions. In 1924 it had 83 field stations in 382 States and Territories and three foreign countries. The State experi- ment stations have conducted investigations on hundreds of projects and have maintained vigi- lance and afforded local aid in control. The interstate spread of pests has been prevented to a large extent through State regulations re- quiring that nursery stock be free from infesta- tion, and these are enforced by rigid State inspection. Pink Bollworm. In November, 1916, the oc- currence of the pink bollworm in the Laguna district of Coahuila, Mexico, within 200 miles of the Texas border, was discovered, and an embargo was placed upon the importation of Mexican cotton. It was found the following year that the larve had been introduced in carloads of cotton seed shipped from Mexico be- fore the quarantine in November, 1916, infesta- tions being found at points in several counties in Texas and Louisiana. The infested areas were at once quarantined, and eradication work was pressed with vigor under appropriations by Congress, apparently with success, as the last pink bollworm in the United States, aside from the Mexican border, was found in 1922. In order to prevent its entrance, houses have been erected at ports of entry on the Mexican border for the fumigation of freight cars from Mexico where they may have served as carriers of cotton and cotton seed, and all cotton from abroad has been fumigated in large cylinders with hydrocyanic acid gas in vacuum in order to destroy any larve present. The pest has been introduced into Brazil, as well as Mexico, with seed, it being estimated to have caused a loss of $27,500,000 in Brazil in 1918. It was introduced into the Hawaiian Islands about 1908 and was discovered in Porto Rico in 1921, where it has spread throughout the island. This moth, which originated in India and is now a source of great loss in Egypt, whence it has spread to other cotton-producing countries, and which constitutes one of the greatest menaces that have ever come to the American eotton industry, had not previously been known to occur in America, although prevalent in practically all of the other cotton-producing regions of the world, in all of which it has caused widespread destruction. European Corn Borer. Late in the year 1917 the widely distributed European and Asiatic pest Pyrausta nubilalis Hubn., a moth whose larva is a borer, was discovered to have become established in an area approximating 100 square miles in several counties in eastern Massachusetts, where it caused serious injury to corn and particularly to sweet corn. The in- vestigations which have followed show that the pest had been introduced from Europe in broom corn. This borer attacks all of the corn plant above ground except the leaf blades, its most serious injury being caused by the second brood larve, a large percentage of which, after hatch- ing, immediately enter the ear, their injury re- sembling that of the well-known corn earworm. ENTOMOLOGY The pest winters as a partly grown larva in the stems of plants, finishing its feeding and pupat- ing in its burrow in the spring. In addition to corn, it attacks large-stemmed weeds, dahlias, gladiolus, and other cultivated plants. It has spread from Massachusetts into New Hampshire, and infestations have since been found in the vicinity of Schenectady in the Hudson Valley in New York, in northeastern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York, in Ohio in the vicinity of Lake Erie, and in southern Ontario. The destruction of cornstalks to a point below the ground level is an important measure in checking its ravages. Japanese Beetle. The green beetle Popillia japonica was introduced from Japan with nurs- ery stock and became established near Riverton, . J., where it was discovered in the summer of 1916. The beetle attacks the foliage of many kinds of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, and the larve feed on the roots of plants and on decaying vegetable matter. In- vestigations of its biology and control have been conducted, and a quarantine has been established to aid in preventing its dissemination. It has, however, continued to spread, and by the fall of 1922 an area of 773 square miles had become infested. Oriental Peach Moth. The Oriental peach moth, which attacks the terminal twigs of the peach, plum, and cherry, stunting their growth, and also infests the fruit of the peach, was first discovered in the District of Columbia in 1916 and is known to have spread as far north as Connecticut. It is supposed to have been intro- duced with flowering cherry trees from Japan. Pine Shoot Moth. The destructive pine shoot moth was found in 1914 to have been introduced from Europe and to have become established in 10 localities in three States from Massachusetts to Pennsylvania, and the follow- ing year it was recorded from 20 localities in nine States, in none of which except on Long Island had it lasted for longer than two years. Gipsy Moth. The gipsy moth was _ intro- duced by accident from Europe into Massa- chusetts about 1861. Work against it has been carried on since the early ’90’s, at first by the State of Massachusetts alone and since 1901 by the Federal government and the States, but it has continued its spread. Encouraging results have, however, been obtained in work with native and introduced parasites. Investigations have shown that the natural spread of this moth, the female of which is wingless, is accomplished mainly through young caterpillars’ being car- ried by high winds. The pest in 1914 was en- tering the eastern border of New York State in the course of its spread, and it was proposed to establish a barrier zone some 25 miles wide extending from Long Island Sound northward and up the Hudson Valley to the Canadian bor- der. More recent accidental introductions of the pest on nursery stock have been successfully eradicated, except that of 1910 in New Jersey, where work was under way in 1924. Brown-tail Moth. The brown-tail moth is another defoliating pest which was accidentally introduced into the United States, near Boston, from Europe. Since its introduction, about 1892, it has spread as far north as Nova Scotia and covers practically all of New England. The moth takes its name from the tuft of golden brown hairs at the tip of the abdomen. In the early fall the young caterpillars spin tents at ENTOMOLOGY 420 the end of twigs, incorporating leaves, in which they spend the winter, these tents being very conspicuous after the leaves fall. In the spring the caterpillars leave the tents and feed on the foliage until June, when their development is completed. In addition to its injury from defoliation, it is a source of great annoyance from the .hairs of the caterpillar, which break off at molting time and, being carried through the air, produce a painful rash. Its control is aided by cutting off and removing the tents in winter, by the application of arsenate of lead, and by parasites, many of which also attack the gipsy moth. Cotton Boll Weevil. The boll weevil, which entered Texas in the vicinity of Brownsville about 1892, has continued its spread and by 1924 had occupied practically all of the old cotton- growing area of the United States. Appro- priations made by Congress for investigations and control work with it have amounted to nearly $1,500,000. As a result of extensive in- vestigations for its control, a highly toxic, finely divided calcium arsenate has been prepared, which is applied in a dust with high powered dusting mavhines constructed for the purpose. Its application in a dust is quite generally em- ployed and in molasses to a less extent. A new method developed in Florida which combines dusting and the removal of the squares until the weevils have largely emerged from hiberna- tion, followed by dusting, was being tested in several States. In 1913 it was discovered that a wild cotton-like plant which grows in canyons in Arizona is the host plant of a new variety of the cotton boll weevil. The danger from this form lies in the possibility of its spreading into the cotton fields in the irrigated districts of the vicinity and becoming a destructive pest. Alfalfa Leaf Weevil. This European insect, accidentally introduced into the United States and first discovered in Utah in 1904, continued to spread and by 1924 had become the source of considerable injury in Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming, as well as in Utah. Appropriations by Congress led to control work, in which par- ticular attention was given to the introduction of parasites, as high as 25 per cent of the weevil larve having been killed in 1916 by the increase of parasites introduced from Europe. Argentine Ant. This enemy of field crops, fruits, stored products, household supplies, etc., which was first discovered in the United States at New Orleans in 1891, continued to spread, and colonies were known to be established as far distant as Alabama and Texas. Mexican Bean Beetle. The bean beetle, which originated in Mexico but has occurred endemically in the southwestern United States for 75 years, appeared near Birmingham, Ala., in July, 1920, spread rapidly, and became of great economic importance as an enemy of beans of all kinds through its defoliation of the plants. Pear Thrips. The pear thrips, which for many years has been the source of serious in- jury to deciduous fruits through attacking the blossom, particularly of pears, prunes, and cherries, in the Santa Clara Valley, Cal., and later appeared in British Columbia, was discov- ered in New York State in 1911 and has become of considerable importance in the Hudson River Valley fruit belt. In 1915 it appeared in Maryland and was a source of injury to an orchard in the vicinity of Baltimore. ENTOMOLOGY Mediterranean Fruit Fly. This destructive enemy of no less than 80 different subtropical fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits and particularly the orange, was first discovered in Hawaii on the Island of Oahu in 1910. Since that time it has increased rapidly and spread into other islands. Control work has led to the introduction of a number of parasites, several of which are responsible for a considerable re- duction in its infestation. This fruit fly has been the most serious drawback to fruit growing in the countries where it is established, its in- troduction into Bermuda many years ago having resulted in the destruction of the fruit growing industry of that island. In order to combat and aid in preventing its introduction into the United States on the mainland, several emer- gency appropriations have been made by Con- gress, and all means for prevention are being employed by the inspection service of the Federal Horticultural Board, the Plant Quarantine Act having made it possible to establish and main- tain a quarantine against it. Codling Moth. Investigations of this in- sect, which is responsible for the greater part of our wormy apples and pears, causing a loss estimated at $20,000,000 annually, led to the dis- semination of information as to the proper dates to apply arsenicals. Peach Borer. This destructive borer in the lower trunk of the peach tree in 1924 was being effectively controlled by the use of paradichloro- benzine placed about the trunk and kept covered with soil for several weeks. The gas escaping from the chemical enters their galleries in the tree and destroys the borers. Other Insects. Among other insects which have been introduced or become of great eco- nomic importance are the European red mite, first discovered in Canada in 1915 and a source of injury through its attack upon the leaves of the apple, plum, etc., in the northeastern United States; the European earwig, which first appeared in Rhode Island in 1911 and in Wash- ington State in 1915 and is a source of injury to garden plants and flowers; the popular de- foliating satin moth, from Europe, which was first discovered near Boston, Mass., in July, 1920; the Australian tomato beetle, first ob- served in Mississippi in 1921; the camphor thrips, first discovered in Florida in 1912; the ea moth, which is increasing in importance in Visconsin; the sweet potato weevil, which was: first discovered in this country in 1875 but which began to spread and increased in im- portance about 1920; the fruit-tree leaf roller, which has increased in importance due to its resistance to insecticides; the potato leaf hopper, which causes tipburn of the potato, and others. Control Measures. A notable advance has taken place in the knowledge of biological, in- secticidal, mechanical, and other means of in- sect control. Search has been made and para- sites of a considerable number of pests have been discovered and introduced from foreign lands. New insecticides have been discovered, and others have been adapted for more efficient control. Notable among the new insecticides is paradichlorobenzine, which has been success- fully used in the control of the peach tree borer. The lubricating oils have been found to form emulsions that are highly effective against seale insects on citrus, the San José scale, ete. New forms of arsenicals have been perfected, ee See SS lle eee eee! eee Se ee a ENVER PASHA notably calcium arsenate in dust form, as em- ployed in combating the boll weevil, Bordeaux oil emulsion spray for citrus insects, ete. Nicotin applied in a dust form has proved very effective as a means of control of the walnut aphid and a large number of other pests. Borax has been found to be effective, economical, and practical in the destruction of fly larve in horse manure, and hellebore is also effective for this purpose. Corrosive sublimate has been found to be highly effective against root mag- gots. New methods of preparation and applica- tion of cyanide gas for combating citrus pests have been developed. New mechanical develop- ments include tests of the use of the airplane in applying dusts for control of the boll weevil, gipsy moth, etc. New machines for the applica- tion of sprays and new hand and power dusters have been invented or improved, and numerous mechanical devices have been developed. Apiculture. Investigations of bee diseases, the greatest handicap with which the beekeeper has had to deal, resulted in a number of dis- coveries of great importance. A Ger- man jurist, born in Berlin, and educated at the universities of Leipzig and Berlin. In 1883, he was appointed professor at Lausanne, and was subsequently professor of Roman law in Geneva. He was made honorary professor at Lausanne in 1902, and later at Miinster-in- Westfalen. His written works include contribu- tions to periodicals and the following books: Zur Geschichte der rémischen Quittungen und Solu- tionsakte (1883); La Restitution des frais de proces en droit romain (1852); Servus vicarius, Vesclave de Vesclave romain (1896); Recht und Prator (1903); Bedeutung der Bodenreform fiir eine aufstrebende Stadt (1907); Behandlung der Aktionen in den nachklassischen Rechts- biichern (1908); Grundziige fiir ein Krieger- heimstdtte-Gesetz (1916). ERMATINGER, Emi. (1873 YOM Swiss author and professor at the technical high school of Zurich, born at Schaffhausen. He studied law and philosophy at Swiss uni- versities, but later devoted himself to teaching and writing. He is the author of a volume of verse (1900), and of several novels, among them Weggefdhrten (1902) and Der Weg ins Leben (1909), but he is best known for his critical, biographical and historical works, which are: Antike Lyrik in modernem Gewande (1898) ; Die Weltanschauung des jungen Wieland (1907); Gottfried Kellers Leben, Briefe und Tagebiicher (1915); Die deutsche Lyrik in ihrer ~* geschichtlichen Entwicklung von Herder bis zur Gegenwart (1921). He is also the editor of the complete works of Gottfried Keller. ERNLE, RowLAnp EpMUND PROTHERO, first Baron, (1852- ). An English economist, born at Clifton-on-Teme. He was graduated from Balliol College, Oxford, in 1873, and was connected with that university as fellow and proctor until 1884. In 1913, he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Rail- ways and in 1915-16 was a member of impor- tant committees on the production of food. From 1894 to 1899, he edited the Quarterly Ke- view, and from 1916 to 1919 was president of the Board of Agriculture. His writings include: Pioneers and Progress of English Farming (1887); The Psalms in Human Life (1903); The Pleasant Land of France (1908); English Farming, Past and Present (1912). ERNST, Pavut_ (1866- ). A. German writer of essays, dramas and fiction, born at El- bingen. He studied at the universities of Géttin- gen, Tiibingen, Berne and Berlin. In his first efforts, the one-act plays Luwmpenbagasch and Im chambre separée (1898), he was influenced by the naturalism of Arno Holz, but later found him- self in the volume of poems Polymeter, the two one-act tragedies Wenn die Blitter fallen and Der Tod (1899), and the volume of fiction, Sechs Geschichten (1900). After a sojourn in Italy he published some translations, Altitalienische Novellen (1902), selections from Des Knaben Wunderhorn and a special edition of Arnim’s Isabella von A/gypten (1903). He has since written a number of novels—Die Prinzgessin des ERSKINE Ostens, Der schmale Weg zum Glick (1903), Der Tod des Cosimo (1912); Die Hochzeit (1913); Saat auf Hoffnung (1915), Die Taufe (1916), Der Nobelpreis (1917)—a volume of short stories, Komdéddiantengeschichten (1920), and a drama, Preussengeist (1915) His book of essays, Der Weg eur Form (1906), and Der Zusammenbruch des Idealismus (1919), attracted much attention. ERSKINE, Joun (1879- jacob can university professor of English (see Vot. VIII). He published: The Moral Obligation of the Intelligent, and Other Poems (1915); The Shadowed Hour (1917); Democracy and Ideals (1920); The Kinds of Poetry (1920); The Lit- erary Disciple (1923). In addition, he has ed- ited several publications and held the educational directorship of the American Expeditionary Forces. ERVINE, Sr. JOHN GREER (1883- Vy An English dramatist and novelist, born at Bel- fast, Ireland. His first play, The Magnanimous Lover (1907), possessing a distinctly moral flavor,» was produced at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, in 1913. Two years later he was manager of the same theatre. During the War he was a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers and was wounded (1918) in France He is the writer said by Arnold Bennett to be “probably unequaled by any other playwright” in England, who had in his work “combined great skill, fine ideas and perfect sincerity with immense popular success.” He wrote the following plays, all of them produced either in Dublin, London, or New York: Mixed Marriage (1910), a four-act play; Jane Clegg (1911), produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London, in 1912, and later in New York; John Ferguson (1914); Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, in which Mrs. Fiske appeared in New York in 1923; The Wonderful Visit (with H. G. Wells). Among his other publica- tions are: Four Irish Plays; The Ship; Hight o’Clock, and Other Stories (short stories); four novels, Mrs. Martin’s Man, Alice and a Family, Changing Winds, The Foolish Lovers; a political study, Sir Edward Carson and the Ulster Move- ment, and The Lady of Belmont (1924), a play in five acts. ERZBERGER, Matrnuias (1875-1921). A German politician, born at Butthausen (Wiirt- temberg). He began his career as a_ school- teacher, then was a journalist, becoming a mem- ber of the staff of the Deutsches Volksblatt (Stuttgart) in 1896. His political career be- gan in 1903, when he was elected to the Reichs- tag as representative of the Catholic Centre party. During the War he at first made ex- travagant efforts to increase German annexa- tions, but later became just as active in further- ing peace negotiations. It was he who in- stigated the “Peace Resolutions” drawn up by the Reichstag in 1917; and when, in 1918, he succeeded Bethmann-Hollweg as Secretary of State, he conducted the Armistice negotiations, and signed the agreement on November 11. Upon becoming Finance Minister of the Reich in 1919, his worst troubles began. On account of a legal controversy with Dr. Helfferich, the Na- tionalist leader, he was forced to resign; and, although he was returned to the Reichstag in 1920, he abstained from politics for a time. This same year he published a pamphlet justify- ing his war policy, but this did not overcome the animosity of his opponents, the Conserv- atives and National Liberals who criticized him Ameri- 423 ESTHONIA not so much for his peace negotiations as for his financial policy, which hit capital and landed interests. His supporters were the Catholic working classes. The culmination of the at- tacks upon him was his assassination on Aug. 26, 1921. ESENWEIN, JosepH Bera (1867- iF An American editor, born in Philadelphia, and educated at Albright College, Millersville Normal School, Lafayette College, Richmond Col- lege and the University of Omaha. He was presi- dent of Albright Collegiate Institute in 1895-96, and in the following year held the position of educational director of the Y. M. C. A. at Wash- ington Heights, New York City After a year of foreign travel, he became professor of Eng- lish in the Pennsylvania Military College at Chester, subsequently giving up teaching (1903) to become manager of the Booklovers’ Mag- azine. ‘Two years later he was made editor and manager of Ilippincott’s Magazine, a position which he held until 1914. In 1915 he became editor of The Wmter’s Monthly, Springfield, Mass. He is known both as a lecturer and writer. His published works, besides articles contributed to Charles Dudley Warner’s Library of the World’s Best Literature, include: Songs for feapers (1895); Modern Agnosticism (1896); Feathers for Shafts (1897); Writing the Short Story (1909); Lessons in the Short Story (1910); Short Story Masterpieces (1912) ; Writing the Photoplay (1913. Rev. ed., with Arthur Leeds, 1919); The Art of Public Speak- ing (1915); Writing for the Magazines (1916) ; Children’s Stories and How to Tell Them (1917); Russian Short Story Masterpieces (2 vols., 1919). ESHER, REGINALD BALIOL BRETT, second Viscount (1852- ). An English politician and author, born in London, and educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was a member of Parliament from Penryn and Fal- mouth (1880-85), secretary to the Office of Works (1895-1902), chairman of the War Office Reconstitution Committee (1904), a permanent member of the Committee of Imperial Defense (1905- ), and from 1909 to 1913 was clair- man of the Territorial Force Association of the City of London. King Edward VII appointed him one of the editors of The Correspondence of Queen Victoria (1907). Among his publica- tions are: Footprints of Statesmen (1892); To- ay and To-morrow (1910); Influence of King Edward, Essays (1914); After the War (1918) ; The Tragedy of Lord Kitchener (1921). ESKIMOS. See ArasKa, Natives; ETHNOG- RAPHY, Northern Peoples. ESPERANTIDO. See INTERNATIONAL LAN- GUAGE. ESPERANTO. See GUAGE. ESTHONIA. A republic on the Baltic Sea, made up of the former Russian government of Estland, the northern part of Livland, the is- lands Saaremaa, Hiiumaa, and Muhumaa, and parts of the Petseri district of the Pskov gov- ernment and the Gdowski district of the Petro- grad government, Esthonia became a republic on Feb. 24, 1918, after the Bolshevist coup détat. By treaty with Russia on Feb. 2, 1920, and by an agreement with Latvia, her sister republic to the south, Esthonia’s political borders were ex- tended to coincide with her ethnographic limits. The area is put at 18,000 square’ miles, and the population, according to the census of INTERNATIONAL LAN- ESTHONIA 1922, at 1,110,538. Of these, 95 per cent were Esthonians and the rest Germans, Russians, Jews, Finns, Swedes, and Letts. The capital, Reval, had 160,000 in 1917, and in 1923, 126,- 543 inhabitants. Narva, the chief manufactur- ing centre, was credited with a population of 27,975. . Five-sixths of. the population were Lutherans, and the rest were Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholics. Industry. The great proportion of the pop- ulation was busied on the land. Up to the pas- sage of the land reform bills of 1919, property was concentrated. mostly in the hands of the Baltic barons and the clergy, of German de- scent; native Esthonians were merely farm hands or small peasant proprietors. By the bill of Oct. 10, 1919, an ambitious programme was projected for the almost complete confiscation of these large estates and their allotment among the peasants and soldiers. Some indemnity was 424 ESTHONIA considerable may be adduced from the importa- tion in 1920 of 24,012 long tons, through Reval and Narva, for Russia; 1921, 189,900 long tons; and 1922, 55,271 tons. These importations in- cluded salt, leather, paper, ironware, lead and copper goods, coal, and chemicals and drugs, mainly from Germany and Sweden. During 1922, 3172 vessels of 223,114 tons entered the Esthonian ports of Reval, Narva, Pernau, Port Baltic, Hapsal, Kunda, Arensburg, Loksa, and Rohukala. The total length of railways in 1922 was 971 miles, including 605 miles of Russian broad gauge and 366 miles of narrow gauge. Education. Elementary education was free. In 1922 there were 1221 elementary schools, 221 higher schools, 70 gymnasia, several normal schools, a technical school at Reval, and a state university at Dorpat. The last, reopened in 1919, had, in 1921, 2775 students. The minor- ity nationals, Germans, Russians, Swedes, and provided for, but the basis was not to be the Letts, were guaranteed instruction in their real value but the size of the land tax. By 1922 mother tongues. the report was that 22,000 additional small Finances. In 1922, expenditures were 5,510,- farms had been created, averaging 40 to 55 acres. Lack of capital for buildings and dete- rioration of farm stocks imposed almost in- superable difficulties on the realization of the programme. Of the total area of 10,851,500 acres, forest land, owned by the state, comprised 20.1 per cent; fields, 22.9; meadows, 24.5; pas- tures, 17.5; untillable land, 15. The acreage under various crops and the harvests of 1922 and 1923, compared with the average for five pre-war years, 1910-14, are given as follows: PRINCIPAL CROPS 300,000 Esthonian marks and the revenues 5,065,300,000 Esthonian marks. In 1923 the budget deficit was estimated at 700,000,000 Esthonian marks or about 10 per cent of the total expenditures of 6,775,000,000 marks; for 1924 it was estimated at 423,000,000 marks or 6 per cent of expenditures, which included 435,-_ 000,000 marks, about $1,250,000 for payment of foreign debts. The Esthonian mark was worth 371 to the dollar in December, 1923. The for- eign debt was about $19,600,000, end of 1923, the United States holding $13,800,000 of Esthonia’s bonds, France 10,000,000 francs, and ree Baek 2 EpeOuCHOD Wath OU sear Great Britain £251,000. The internal debt was 1922 19238 1910-14 1922 1923 $300,000. (average) History. The Russian Revolution brought Rye .... 892,000 426,100 6,702 5.079 6,808 with it a state of uncertainty in Esthonia which Oats . peHri Oe Bin BOP pet Aba Herat was not dispelled until late in 1920. Some BAUS hie HES on 34's potas iene tae? sentiment inclined toward the Allies; the Baltic tee 186,600 178,600 27,701 25,932 24,659 lords were openly friendly to Germany. A ax an flaxseed 59,200 75,600 25,400 # 17,400 @ 18,300 @ 4 Metric tons. Live stock in the country in 1922 numbered 192,200 horses, 505,810 heads of cattle, 261,- 040 swine, and 530,290 sheep and goats. There were textile, hemp and rope, paper, metal, and shipbuilding works, but up to 1923 these were languishing because of deterioration and lack of capital. Trade. The following table shows that trade was improving. In 1920, exports were valued at $17,544,278 and imports at $19,931,218. The figures for 1922 and 1923 in detail were: republican government, proclaimed on Feb. 24, 1918, enjoyed but a brief career before it was put to flight by the German troops who entered the country as a result of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, captured Reval from the Bolshevists, and restored the Baltic land barons under Ger- man protection. A provisional government, set up by the native moderate elements, was dis- regarded, and German occupation continued un- til the end of the year. During May, 1918, the Esthonian National Council was accorded pro- visional de facto recognition by Great Britain, France, and Italy. By the Russo-German treaty of August, 1918, Esthonia’s independence was IMPORTS AND EXPORTS (Thousands of dollars) Imports Exports 1922 1923 1922 1923 Noodstufts spe «cee ein cit ieee 4,509 6,5 7.Geetoodstufis ica. ane eee cet ae ha pierce 3,822 3,008 Textiles cube ee eee. chteni ee 2,064 GUcommllax and coon wane. eee 4,589 6,438 Machinery and metals .......... 1,467 GEO SOMEWVIOOd LOCUS an tenets oie miert ene emcee 2,549 4,049 Coagl¥ Aore eT BaSeSiee marae ete bebe 0 S02 1,182 2720 Paper “industry? 26. USE a 1,169 ab ira bak Ghemicals*andearig sar pave weieecieny-,° 382 1:93) Gestone, earth? tot.nndere teehee e eee 290 281 Allee OtHEPS Sy. whit oe elena ieee eiLeeaas sos. 6,834 Zea OO meal OGHELS . veya ie le iassks Reichel Ree 1,698 653 Total ‘sass cel Se eke eietete le 0A ais 16,438 26,700 Total aee7eee tie ORS eee 14,117 16,140 Principal countries of origin of imports 41; United States, 3.7: Sweden, 3.2 Britain, 34.1 per cent; Germany, 10.7; Sweden, 10.0; Latvia, (1923): Germany, 51.0 per cent; Great Britain, 19 7; Russia, Principal countries of destination of exports (1923): Great 8.1; Russia, 6.7; United States, 1.3. By the Russo-Ksthonian treaty, goods in transit for Russia were to be admitted unhampered by an import or transit duty. That this trade was recognized, but when the Germans withdrew their troops after the Armistice of November, 1918, Soviet forces once more poured in, to be ETHICS driven out by local troops with Finnish and British aid. The exiled KEsthonian leaders re- turned to their wWar-ridden country, and on May 19, 1919, the National Assembly declared Esthonia a sovereign and independent nation. Hostilities with Russia continued until Dee. 31, 1919. Affairs were complicated by the threat of a German movement on the Baltic states and by the intervention of Allied armies on the northwest coast of Russia in the autumn of 1919. The United States, in an endeavor to gain Esthonia’s support against the Bolsheviks, offered the country a loan of $50,000,000, a con- siderable portion of which was taken. The Rus- sian succession states, Finland, Lithuania, Lat- via, and Esthonia, wearied of the contlict, and an armistice was signed at Dorpat on Dec. 31, 1919. The Russo-Esthonian treaty of Feb. 2, 1920, put an end to hostilities. The terms were remarkably favorable to Esthonia. The coun- try’s independence was unreservedly recognized and guaranteed by Russia; Esthonia received 15,000,000 gold rubles, all Russian public prop- erty in Esthonia, and exemption from any share in Russian debts. A Constituent Assembly on June 15, 1920, prepared the country’s new con- stitution. A single house, popularly elected on the basis of proportional representation and controlled by the initiative and referendum, was set up. The cabinet, whose premier was designated the State Head, was to be elected by and responsible to the Assembly. The State Court of Justice was to be elected by the As- sembly too. The Assembly, in 1921, had 22 rep- resentatives of the Labor party, 29 of Socialist parties, and 5 Communists, together constitut- ing the majority bloc; 21 Agrarians, and the rest Populists, Christians, Balts, and Russians. By the Land Act, the church was separated from the state and its extensive holdings con- fiscated. On June 26, 1921, the Supreme Coun- cil of the League of Nations accorded the coun- try de jure recognition; shortly afterward, on September 22, it was admitted to the League; recognition by the United States was delayed un- til July 27, 1922. In May, 1923, the election of the second parliament returned a majority bloc of the bourgeois and peasant parties with the result that M. Paetz, leader of the Peasants’ League, was entrusted with the formation of a government. Russia’s consistently friendly policy toward her succession states was further evinced by the series of discussions among the Baltic: States, including Esthonia, in October and November, 1921, and March and December, 1922. These meetings agreed on arbitration of disputes, con- firmation of existing frontiers, agreement on customs, consular, and economic matters; a common economic policy toward Russia, and radical disarmament plans involving the cutting of the Russian Red army to 200,000. In 1923, it appeared for a time that Esthonia was pre- pared to join with Finland and Poland in an alliance aimed at Russia. But peace was main- tained, so that all energies, in 1923 and 1924, were devoted to the solution of domestic prob- lems. An indication of stability was the near- ly balanced budget of 1924 and the payment of an interest charge of 262,538,500 marks on the United States debt. ETHICS. From many sources we are per- suaded that the story of the ten years 1914- 1924 will be incorporated in history as the crisis of the industrial revolution. This means 425 ETHICS that it was a time of great moral struggle for those who. were alive to the issues. It is not surprising then that ethical theory was in con- fusion, and further that genuine insights were awaiting intellectual formulation. The present writing can only be an inventory of these in- sights with as much clarification as “leaps to the eye.” The moral struggle was a continuation and interpretation of the efforts of human minds to bring intellectual clarity to focus on the two ever-present aspects of the ethical problem, the theoretical and the practical. The theoretical problem had arisen from the conflict of science and the cultural tradition, first evidenced in the controversy between religion and science which continued throughout the last century. These ten years showed a decisive reformulation of the problem Dogmatic religion had split into two parties, one of which had fraternized with science and the other of which had found its place in the subject matters of scientific disci- plines such as psychology and anthropology. Free religion, the engendering faith and guard- ian of human culture still faced the old prob- lem. Partly artist, partly prophet, and partly saint of an intelligent mysticism, it still de- manded credentials of the invading scientist. A new religion, if it came, as some claimed it would, must announce doctrines which could stand independent but tolerant of the scientific spirit. This pointed out the station and duty of ethics: To abstract and judge the issue be- tween these two. Very little that was new could be pointed out as the product of any such activity, but there were beginnings in the shape of demands for a formal ethics at once rigor- istic and comprehensive enough to command the respect of the parties to the dispute. Per- haps the best evidence of such a demand was the body of writings on the theory of value or Werttheorie in America and in Germany. Value was a new term in philosophic literature. It was indicative of two movements not wholly unrelated to the crisis of the industrial revolu- tion One was a tendency away from the older moralistic tradition which used the term “good.” This was seen to carry with it too much out- worn and inapplicable connotation. It was practically abandoned. The new term came, significantly enough, from economics. It was generalized and combined with a _ concept, “worth,” which still retained respect because or in spite of its moral significance. The felic- ity of the combination of “value” and “worth” was largely due to its fitness to symbolize ob- jective rigor and concrete immediacy. Austrian and German writers like Meinong, Rickert and Husserl emphasized its objective aspect; hence their label Werttheorie, while American writers such as Urban, Perry, Picard and Prall, stressed the aspect of concreteness and variety so well symbolized in the term “value.” There was something of the speculative and critical in the temper of this sort of endeavor, and esthetics, social science, and ethics might hope for clari- fication and consequent advantage from this source. However, the formulations were more promising than productive of understanding. The body of theory arising from the practical problem set by the industrial revolution was voluminous and varied. It was concerned with political, economic, and _ social programmes. Owing to the work of social and artistic move- ETHICS 426 ments such as the pre-Raphaelites, industry had been recognized as something like a cancerous growth in the body politic, and the search for an attitude with which to confront it had led to practical plans on a small scale like the pre- scriptions of a physician. A peculiar form of social service had been named the case method; social diagnosis and therapeutics were applied. But the malignant growth assumed larger pro- portions and the plans became the programmes of the social engineer. Physicians’ prescriptions gave way to blue prints of society, theories like Graham Wallas’ The Great Society. Now this sort of attitude and thought is what an older generation called material ethics, In so far as it is ethics, it is the conversion of scientific law into hypothetical commands, or the use of ‘natural and social conditions” as means to a human end, the good life. Its aim is the pru- dential control of affairs. As is apparent, it draws on science. Especially it demands and encourages work in the humanistic sciences, an- thropology, psychology, social geography, eco- nomics, and political science, and these are not lacking, at least nominally. They may be lumped together as sociology or theories of human nature. Their technique was copied from the older physics with entities selected from the flux of human experience and projected on a vast canvas, which had been prepared by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, the panorama of Man in a State of Nature. The economic man and the noble savage of the seventeenth and eighteenth century literature were the points of reference. Impulses, instincts, unit charac- ters, institutions, nations and races were enti- tized as individuals with purposive drives need- ing organization, authority and sovereign gov- ernments to make them civilized. These elab- orations had reached their maximum in these ten years and were the stage scenery of our drama of social life. Some of these sources of the structural ele- ment and the uses to which they were put are interesting. Freud’s suppressed ideas, atoms of human nature in the psychic vortex, were renovated and transposed to physiological sys- tems, and we thus had theories of sublimation in esthetics, in penology, and in the analysis of social revolutions. It was then claimed that a behavioristic ethics was complete, the Ethics of Hercules. Then we had another section of social background coming from anthropology; Levy-Bruhl, Hobhouse, and Westermarck item- ized the mores and customs of primitive societies and by analogy found the right and wrong of conduct formulable in terms of conformity or non-conformity with contemporary accepted ta- boos and restrictions. Marxian doctrines, the economic interpretation of history in particular, had led to both a new evaluation of history and the promulgation of utopian schemes for the reorganization of society. A reaction to this last had combined a great many other fragmentary intuitions of human progress de- rived from Darwinian and Bergsonian evolu- tionary theories-into a far-reaching ethics of development closely allied to the traditional self- realization ethics of fifty years ago. All these, as was pointed out above, were blue prints for social engineers. Perhaps the hardest approach to an intellectual vantage point from which to envisage them was made by the pragmatists who were frankly preaching an ethics of expediency Blue prints for them were ETHNOGRAPHY modes of analysis to be referred to in concrete situations as aids in organizing and finding a way through the practical problems of an in- dustrial society. None of them were absolute but relative to the particular end which an in- dividual or community took seriously. If one asked what was the criterion of end, how one could choose between rival purposes, the prag- matists answered with Aristotle that a good man would know; though in other connections a biologico-psychological doctrine of survival and sublimation of complexes was the answer to the query. The pragmatic ethics influenced the theory of law more perhaps than any other field —social expediency would be the apology of the prince for the laws which he sanctioned, and the professor of jurisprudence would criticize ex- isting laws from that hasis.. One can see how this conclusion would not be satisfactory as a solution of the problem. It was leading to the restating of the question which only a formal ethics could answer. pp? © 73-108); “but these awaited confirmation. A useful distribu- tion map was given by H. Haberlandt in the second edition of Buschan’s IJllustrierte Vélker- kunde (1922). A considerable amount of ex- cellent material was brought together in the five volumes of the Harvard African Studies founded by Orie Bates and edited by E. A. Hooton. Among the longer papers published may be men- tioned H. S. Stannus’s description of the Wayao, E. Cerulli’s collection of Galla folk-literature, including poetry as well as prose, and C. G. Seligmann’s account of the camel-nomad Arabs known as the Kababish. B. Ankermann’s ‘‘Verbreitung und Formen des Totemismus in Afrika” (Zeitschift fiir Hthnol- ogie, 1915, pp. 114-180) was a model study and established some significant conclusions, such as the independence of totemism and exogamy in the area examined, the patrilineal descent of the totem irrespective of other coéxisting rules of descent, and the probable lack of genuine totemism in ancient Egypt. lL. Frobenius once more appeared with a startling theory in Das Unbekannte Afrika. He differentiated an Ethi- opie and a Hamitic culture, the former charac- terized by age-grades, belief in reincarnation, patrilineal descent and agriculture; the latter, by maternal descent and pastoral conditions. F. von Luschan’s monumental work on Die Alter- tiimer von Benin (1920) pleaded for the vir- tually independent character of Benin art in some respects, yet suggested an ancient connec- tion between southern Europe and the western Sudan. N. W. Thomas’s Anthropological Re- port on the Ibo-speaking Peoples and subject re- ports on neighboring tribes supplemented our knowledge of the western Sudanese, while The Lango by J. H. Driberg provided a study of a Nilotie tribe in Uganda exhibiting the joint in- fluence of Bantu and Sudanese features. The Bantu also became better known. E. W. Smith and A. M. Dale published a standard work on The Ila-speaking People of Northern Rhodesia (1920), who differ in their matrilineal and exogamous customs from their paternally 430 ETHNOGRAPHY and rather loosely organized congeners to thie southeast. J. Roscoe added to his earlier work on The Baganda one on The Northern Bantu (1915) and other books. In The Northern Bantu he presented a singularly clear picture of the development of definite castes through the conquest of a horticultural people by a numer- ically weaker but better organized pastoral group. The rise of such an aristocracy was also well brought out in J. Czekanowki’s For- schungen im Nil-Kongo Zwischengebiet ; in this region a third caste is constituted by the under- sized hunting tribe called Batwa, who strangely combine the status of pariahs, potters and rain wizards. Oceania and Australia. Linguistically the earlier synthesis of W. Schmidt, who connected Malayo-Polynesian with certain languages of In- dia and Farther India was extended by A. Con- rady (Anthropos, vol. xii-xiii, p. 702 et seq.), who arrived at the conclusion that Schmidt’s “Austric” stock is genetically related to all Far- ther Indian languages, as well as to Tibetan and Chinese. This finding could not of course be accepted without further inquiry. Australian languages were investigated and classified by W. Schmidt. Ethnographically a number of , significant works were published. B. Spencer in his Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia described a very atypical group of natives, es- pecially the Kakadu, and the Melville and Bathurst Islanders. Thus, the rites of subin- cision and circumcision are lacking, and women are permitted to witness the boys’ initiation. Tree-burial is unknown, interment being al- ways practiced. The realistic drawings on bark and on rocks are likewise utterly un-Australian and suggest some foreign influence. West Aus- tralia also no longer continued a terra incognita, thanks to Prof. A. R. Brown, whose “Notes on the Social Organization of Australian Tribes” (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xlvilil, p. 222 et seq.) supplemented his ear- lier studies among the Kariera and their neigh- bors. New Guinea and Melanesia likewise fared well. R. Thurnwald’s memoir on Banaro Society (1917) gave a detailed account of the intricate social and kinship system of a Papuan people; P. Wirz in Die Marind-anim von Holldndisch- Siid-Neu-Guinea (1922) described the tribe otherwise known as Tugeri; and the elaborate economic conceptions, marked by ritualistic ramifications, of another New Guinea group were set forth in B. Malinowski’s The Argo- nauts of the West Pacific (1922). A _ prelimi- nary account of Melanesians was published by F. Sarasin under the caption of Neu-Caledonien und die Loyalty Inseln (1918). Mr. and Mrs. W. S. Routledge’s The Mystery of Easter Island (1920), with its authentic account of the famous statues and the elaborate bird-cult of this east- ernmost Polynesian group, evoked considerable interest, and Rivers interpreted the huge figures described as resting-places for the souls of the dead. “The Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai” (Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1920) was a re-publication of the original text with a translation and numerous explanatory notes by M. W. Beckwith, who thus provided one of the most interesting documents for the study of primitive literature. P. A. Erdland’s paper on Die Marshall-Insulaner is a valuable monograph on a Micronesian tribe, with exog- ETHNOLOGY 431 amy, matrilineal descent, cross-cousin marriage, and a kinship system strongly suggestive of the Hawaiian type. Many useful papers also ap- peared in the technical journals and the pub- lications of the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. The historical interpretation of Oceanian data was powerfully influenced by the two schemes alluded to; that of F. Griibner’s Methode der Ethnologie, with the emendations supplied by W. Schmidt, and the system of W. H. R. Rivers’s The History of Melanesian Society (1914). See ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOLOGY. ETHNOLOGY. Following the publication of F. Griibner’s Methode der Ethnologie (1911), theoretical discussion was largely concerned with the interpretation of similarities in culture, and the most notable phenomenon to be recorded was the reaction against the formerly regnant theories of psychic unity, parallelism and uni- linear evolution. The catchword opposed to these shibboleths of an earlier day was diffusion, and it was less as to the occurrence of borrow- ing than as to its extent and the paths of cul- tural dissemination that scholars remained at loggerheads. For convenience’ sake three main anti-evolutionist schools, opposed to unilinear evolution, may be distinguished: the British, the German, and the American. The British and German schools were at one in emphatically repudiating the likelihood of in- dependent invention for the same cultural fea- ture, but their schemes otherwise differed funda- mentally. Characteristic of the British school were certain principles evolved by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers and applied by Prof. G. Elliot Smith and W. E. Perry to the proposition that much, nay, most of the culture hitherto ascribed to primi- tive peoples is neither primitive nor primeval but represents the débris of archaic Egyptian civilization, as diffused after the Sixth Dynasty. The possibility of such dissemination was con- sidered established by Rivers’s paper, The Con- tact of Peoples, in which the suggestion was thrown out that a very small number of im- migrants could impress their culture upon a large native population, provided only their superiority in the arts of life were manifest. Further, the criterion formerly required as evi- dence of diffusion, to wit, continuous distribu- tion, was rejected as a result of Rivers’s proof that in several instances even useful arts have fallen into desuetude. It was argued, then, that from Egypt as a centre such crafts as stonevork and pottery, such beliefs as the sun-cult and animism, and a series of other traits grouped together as “the archaic civilization,’ were diffused to the four corners of the globe; and that the geographical lacune in the distribution were the result of degeneration. The consistent application of these ideas led not only to such conclusions as that American Indian civilization in its higher forms was wholly an alien product engrafted upon an extremely slender stock of indigenous customs and modes of life; but even to the as- sertion that the totemism and magic of the Aus- tralians represented deteriorated elements of the old Egyptian complex. Rivers contented him- self with laying the theoretical base for this structure and applying the principles to Ocean- ian developments in The History of Melanesian Society (1914). The emphasis upon Egypt was due to G. Elliot Smith, whose Primitive Man (1916), The Evolution of the Dragon (1919), and other essays, discussed both the psycho- 15 ETHNOLOGY logical and the historical aspects of the prob- lem. A complete exposition of the scheme, with special attention to America, was offered by W. E. Perry in The Children of the Sun (1923). The German point of view, originally set forth in two lectures by F. Griibner and B. Anker- mann (Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, 1905), and later codified in Griibner’s Methode, did not as- eribe to Egypt nor to any other single area an absolute hegemony in cultural development. In both its original and its amended forms this theory postulated a primeval culture best rep- resented in recent times by the Tasmanians and Pygmies. From this common starting-point evolved two (Griibner) or three (W. Schmidt) divergent primary cultures, each displaying a characteristic combination of traits. Thus, in Father Schmidt’s amended scheme as expounded by himself and his disciple, Father Koppers, in various articles of their journal Anthropos, and by Koppers in a book on Die Anfiénge des Menschlichen Gemeinschaftslebens (1921), were three distinct cultural spheres (Kulturkreise) : a horticultural one with matrilineal descent and exogamy; an industrial hunting culture with patrilineal descent, totemism, and exogamy; and a pastoral non-exogamous culture with paternal descent. All other cultures were the result of blendings of these primary cultures, and the final product of such amalgamation was the germ of higher Mediterranean civilizations. The traces of these primary cultures were diligently sought in all continents, including America, and the New World culture was traced, not indeed to Egypt, as by the British diffu- sionists, but to southeastern Asia. In striking contrast to the world-spanning schemes of both the British and the Germans stood the American diffusionists. Their posi- tion was outlined in F. Boas’s “The Methods of Ethnology” (American Anthropologist, 1920, pp. 311-320), where the work of Kroeber, Parsons and Spier in the Southwest and of Lowie on the Plains Indian age-societies was cited as rep- resentative. Contrary to the allegation of the European diffusionists, this school did not set up a Monroe Doctrine barring the occurrence of extraneous influences on the New World ab- origines. On the contrary, these influences were explicitly admitted, with references to such ele- ments as the composite bow and various mytho- logical tales; what was denied was the neces- sity for evoking foreign contact to account for the development of the more complex civiliza- tions of Peru and Mexico. Altogether, less em- phasis was placed on the tracing of historical connections between remote areas, though as shown in Kroeber’s Anthropology their demon- stration was by no means eschewed on principle. The essential thing, however, was on the one hand to reconstruct the actual culture-history of a limited area by an intensive study, with a minimum of pure speculation; and, above all, the mere establishment of historical relations was considered not the be-all and end-all of research but rather a starting-point for the in- vestigation of the psychology of diffusion, the reasons for the selection of some elements while others were spurned; in short, the dynamics of cultural change. To this important subject several interesting contributions were made. Noteworthy among them was P. Radin’s essay on the spread and growth of the Peyote cult in his monograph on The Winnebago Indians (37th ETHNOLOGY 432 Annual Report of the Bureau of American Eth- nology). While the stressing of this aspect of the problem was undoubtedly a striking charac- teristic of the American school, it would be un- fair to deny that similar tendencies were dis- cernible elsewhere. Dr. R. R Marett, inde- pendently of any school, suggested, if he did not himself cultivate, similar lines of research in his Psychology and Folk-Lore (1921). Rivers, a psychologist and physiologist by early training, devoted some papers to this subject, though al- most uniformly with a definite bias, ie. in the interests of his special scheme rather than of cultural dynamics generally. F. C. Bartlett, a British psychologist, offered a book on Psychol- ogy and Primitive Culture (1923), in which he not only concentrated attention on the processes incident to cultural borrowing but presented for the first time the spectacle of a European writer taking adequate cognizance of American theories and facts. The logic of historical reconstruc- tion was suggestively discussed in E. Sapir’s Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Cul- ture (1916) which was also noteworthy for the utilization of linguistic evidence. One of the fields jointly cultivated by psychol- ogy and anthropology was that of racial dif- ferences. With the emphasis on the study of individual mental variability it was inevitable that the tests applied in psychological labo- ratories should be extended to other than Cau- casian stocks for the purpose of ascertaining possible group differences. The earlier work of Rivers on Torres Straits Islanders and of Wood- worth on the several distinct stocks exhibited at the St. Louis Fair failed to reveal far-reach- ing differences but within the decade 1914-24 the subject was vigorously attacked anew. In the United States especially the presence of a large Negro group and the influx of a new type of immigrants stimulated a scrutiny of the constituents entering into the general popula- tion, and the tests on army recruits of different extraction as reported in the Memoirs of the Na- tional Academy of Sciences, vol. xv (1921), were widely quoted and popularized. Charac- teristic of some of the work attempted was T. R. Garth’s “Comparison of the Intelligence of’ Mexican and Mixed and Full Blood Indian Chil- dren” (Psychological Review, 1923, p. 388 et seq.). The author found positive differences, the mixed-bloods ranking highest, the Mexicans next, and various Indian groups following in definite tribal sequence; but he admitted his inability to control the environmental factor. Some writers, however, who did not make such reservations, sank to the level of propagandists of the lowest type, rationalizing or even glorify- ing their traditional prejudices Such char- latanism is unfortunately bound to throw dis- credit on a perfectly legitimate branch of inquiry. Of the sincere investigators some were pre- disposed to assume mental differences because the observed biological differences seemed to them necessarily correlated with those of men- tality; in a very moderate form this is likewise the position of F. Boas with reference to Negroes and Caucasians. Cultural anthropologists gen- erally did not maintain the existence of racial differences in the extreme form popular -with their biologically oriented colleagues. Two posi- tions were held. Some were impressed with the very great differences observable in grade of cul- tere and explained them by inborn mental dif- ETHNOLOGY ferences between the bearers of these cultures; others denied that cultural differences consti- tuted a cogent argument, since the history of the Caucasians or Nordies exhibits enormous cultural differences Within a period so brief that innate variation is excluded so that environ- mental factors must be taken into account. The former point of view was that of C. Wissler’s Man and Culture and R. B. Dixon’s The Racial History of Man; the latter was advocated in A. L. Kroeber’s Anthropology and R. H. Lowie’s article on “Psychology, Anthropology and Race” (American Anthropologist, 1923, pp. 291-303). Kroeber and Lowie, it should be noted, did not deny racial differences but rejected the evidence formerly advanced as lacking in cogency. Lowie proposed a programme by which relatively pure anthropological groups could be isolated and studied comparatively. In the earlier years of the decade 1914-24 an- thropologists were particularly eager to assert their complete independence of psychology and to explain culture exclusively in cultural terms, while latterly more cordial relations were as- sumed toward the sister science by the very men who formerly spurned her services. Thus, Kroeber, who in his article on The Super-organic (American Anthropologist, 1917, pp. 163-213) tended to divorce historical from psychological inquiry, came to look toward psychology for an ultimate explanation; and a similar shift- ing might be demonstrated in the case of Wiss- ler, Rivers, and Lowie. A first tentative essay toward a synthesis of psychological principles as displayed in the ethnographic field was pre- sented by R. Thurnwald in his Psychologie des Primitiven Menschen (1922). In part the rap- prochement was due to the influence of Freudian theories, though ethnologists generally repudi- ated the incursions of psychoanalysts into their own domain. Freud himself attempted to apply the principles of psychoanalysis to an inter- pretation of Totem and Taboo (1918), while his followers traced connections between primitive myth and the ideation of their mentally de- ranged patients. W. H. R. Rivers, himself a psychoanalytic practitioner, offered several sug- gestions for the elucidation of ethnological prob- lems, as in his presidential address on Conserv- atism and Plasticity (Folk-Lore, 1921, pp. 10- 27). Here the attitude of the individual Me- lanesian towards the cguncil of elders was brought under the concept of the father-complex, which was thus made to account for the prim- itive tendency to conservatism, while the pos- sibility of a change was ascribed to a transfer of regard to the representatives of an alien cul- ture. W. Wundt’s monumental Vélkerpsychol- ogie, while psychological in orientation, con- tained much of interest to anthropologists. Anthropological research into philology was outlined in its broader psychological as well as historical aspects in E. Sapir’s Language (1922), one of the outstanding synthetic works of the period. It presented a wholly novel scheme of classification. Primitive music was system- atically studied in Germany and America. In the former country E. von Hornbostel examined the records brought by explorers from different parts of the world and was at work on a sci- entific method of transcription. In America, Frances Densmore published a series of tribal studies on the Ojibwa, Sioux, Shoshoneans, Mandan and Hidatsa in the Bulletins of the Bu- reau of American Ethnology, while Helen H. ETHNOLOGY Roberts advanced the subject by reviews and articles in the Journal of American Folk-Lore and the American Anthropologist. The applica- tion of exact measurements to the study of primitive art along the lines of G. T. Fechner was advocated in Lowie’s A Note on disthetics (American Anthropologist, 1921, p 170 et seq.) ; and following suggestions of F. Boas, G. A. Reichard published an essay on The Compleaity of Rhythm in Decorative Art (American An- thropologist, 1922, p. 183 et seq.). P. Radin’s Literary Aspects of North American Mythology (1915) directed attention to the purely stylistic element otten neglected in the study of prim- itive prose literature. The traditional views on social organization popularized by L. H. Morgan, especially regard- ing the question of descent, were expounded in E. §. Hartland’s Matrilineal Kinship and the Question of its Priority (1917) and his Prim- itive Society (1921). A brief outline of the development of sociat life as conceived by Father Schmidt was presented in the book by Koppers cited above. A significant point of difference from the older theory lay in the idea that mater- nal and paternal descent belong to different lines of evolution, so that the question of their respect- ive priority is made futile. R. H. Lowie’s Prim- itive Society (1920) likewise denied the neces- sary priority of either maternal or paternal de- scent: either method was represented as grow- ing naturally from a loose organization through the stressing of either the father’s or the mother’s kin as a consequence of modes of resi- dence or of transmitting property. Another in- tegral part of the classical doctrine attacked by Lowie related to the absence of individual prop- erty, which in one form or another was shown to exist even on the plane of the simplest peo- ples. Again, this author maintained against Maine and Morgan that germs of political or- ganization appear even in very rude tribes, the blood-bond between kinsmen being supplemented by a territorial bond partly established by the ° clubs, fraternities, and other associations so fre- quently found among illiterate peoples. Rivers’s booklet on Kinship and Social Or- ganization (1914), vindicated the correlation be- tween social usage, especially marriage customs, and relationship terms. More particularly, he contended for a connection between exogamy and the classificatory system of relationship. This publication proved highly stimulating to Amer- ican scholars. Lowie established the general validity of this correlation for the region north of Mexico and summarized the results in Prim- itive Society; Kroeber, E. C. Parsons, and Lowie systematically collected Southwestern kinship systems, some of which were published in Kroeb- ner’s Zuni Kin and Clan and several minor com- munications to the American Anthropologist by E. C. Parsons; and E. W. Gifford amassed a wealth of relevant information in California (Californian Kinship Systems, University of California Publications, 1922). Totemism continued to arouse interest, and for several years Father Schmidt issued an in- ternational symposium on the subject in his journal Anthropos A model study of the data within a circumscribed area was furnished by B. Ankermann in his Verbreitung und Formen des Totemismus in Afrika (Zeitschrift fiir Eth- nologie, 1915). This work proved that in Africa the totem, irrespective of other rules of descent, is transmitted from father to child. Anker- 433 ETHNOLOGY mann is not convinced that genuine totemism oc- curred in ancient Egypt. This is a conclusion of some importance, since G. Elliot Smith and Per- ry traced even Australian totemism to an Kgyp- tian source. A. A. Goldenweiser did not con- sistently adhere to the negative attitude of his Totemism: an Analytical Study (1910), but later argued in several essays and in his book on Harly Civilization (1922) for an organic union of totems and exogamy. In the field of religion attention should be called to Hastings’s completed Entyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Though including much other material as well, it was of great impor- tance in the present connection, since many ar- ticles were written by anthropologists and in some instances presented not only brief sum- maries by experts but even information other- wise quite inaccessible. W. D. Wallis’s Mes- siahs: Christian and Pagan (1919) contained much valuable description and duly emphasized the problem of the individual’s relation to so- ciety in the religious domain. The one-volume edition of J. G. Frazer’s The Golden Bough (1923) offered a mass of interesting raw mate- rial and also the historically important discus- sion of the relations between religion and magic. A general survey of modern theories of religion was presented in Goldenweiser’s Early Civiliza- tion (1922) where such closely associated topics as primitive mentality were likewise considered. Summarizing some of the points of general in- terest on this subject, it may be said that G. Elliot Smith’s school stood alone in tracing all religious customs and beliefs of primitive peo- ples, even animism, to ancient Egypt. Father Schmidt, from a comparison of the rudest tribes, inferred that Lang was right in credit- ing to an archaic stage a relatively pure mono- theism, a theory set forth in the reviews of Anthropos and in Kopper’s above-mentioned book. Archbishop N. Séderblom in Das Werden des Gottesglaubens (1916) accepted belief in the existence of a creator on the most primitive levels, but regarded Schmidt’s and Lang’s de- scription of his ethical perfection as exaggerated. He furthermore advanced the interesting theory that even more basic in religion than the idea of divinity or spirit is that of holiness, a view adopted in R. Thurnwald’s Psychologie des Prim- itiven Menschen. Somewhat comparable views had been voiced by R. R. Marett in The Threshold of Religion. American scholars for the most part were content to give theoretical interpreta- tions of specific aspects of religion. Thus, F. Boas in Mythology and Folk Tales of North American Indians (Journal of American Folk- Lore, 1914) discussed the relations of myth and tale; P. Radin (ibid.) surveyed the Religion of the North American Indian on its subjective side; and R. H Lowie’s Ceremonialism in North America (American Anthropologist, 1914) con- sidered the objective side of religion and con- nected it with esthetic impulses. ' In the general subject of culture-history no comprehensive work appeared, but two special studies merited attention. W. Koppers gave a convenient survey of the investigations hitherto made of the economic life of savages (Die Eth- nologische Wirtschaftsforschung, Anthropos, vol. x-xi, pp. 611-651 and 971-1079). In B. Laufer’s The Reindeer and its Domestication sinological and ethnographic research were com- bined to determine time and place of the first ETTLINGER 434 domestication of this species, which seemed to have occurred about the beginning of our era in the vicinity of Lake Baikal. For notices of other papers by Laufer of a culture-historical nature, see ETHNOGRAPHY, section Asia; also ANTHROPOLOGY. ETTLINGER, Karu (1882- ). One of the foremost humorists of Germany, born in Frankfort. On leaving college he was succes- sively engaged in banking and printing, and finally became editor of the magazine founded by the late Georg Hirth, Jugend. Among his numerous works are: Der neue Martial (1905) ; Ovids Liebeskunst (1905); Das Tagebuch eines gliicklich Verheirateten (1906); Unsere Donna (1907); Der neue Juvenal (1907); In Freiheit dressirt (1908); Streifziige eines Kreuzverg- niigten (1910); Die Hydra, a comedy (1911) ; Scherzo, a one-act play (1913); Mister Galgen- strick (1915); Aus frohem Herzen (1915); Benno Stehkragen (1917); a volume of war verse, Lieder eines Landsturmmamnes (1919) ; Das Verhidltniss (1920); Die duldsame Hva (1921). EUCKEN, Rupotr CHRISTOPH (1846- is A German philosopher (see Vor. VIII). After 1914, he published Geistuge Forderungen der Gegenwart (1918), Der Sozialismus und seine Lebensgestaltung (1920), and his autobiography, Lebenserinnerungen, ein Stiick deutschen Lebens (1921). All three works were translated into English. EUGENE, ARCHDUKE (1863- ). An Aus- trian soldier, born in Moravia. In his earlier years he served in the army, but retired on ac- count of ill health. At the outbreak of the War he again entered the service, and after the Aus- trian retreat in Serbia in 1914, was given com- mand of a portion of the Austrian troops. After the entrance of Italy in the War, he com- manded the southwestern front, and achieved great success at Isonzo and elsewhere. He re- tired from active service in January, 1918. EUGENICS. The term eugenics has come into common usage and as usually understood means applied human genetics. Genetics (see HEREDITY and ZoOLoGy) is primarily concerned with heredity as a biological phenomenon and is a true experimental science, but, since for ob- vious social reasons experiments in human breeding are impossible, geneticists give the problems of human heredity little attention. Several organizations and a few institutions have devoted themselves to the consideration of the results obtained by the study of heredity in general, in the effort to apply them to man, or at least to point the way to the betterment of human stock. This conception constitutes the eugenic ideal, which in its modern scientific form arose in England where Francis Galton did more than any one else to crystallize it. Him- self a great student of heredity and a firm be- liever in man’s ability to improve his own stock, he left a bequest to the University of London in 1910 for the support of a eugenics laboratory, with the objective of “a study of the agencies under human control which may improve or impair the racial faculties of future generations physically and mentally.” About the same time the Eugenics Record Of- fice was established at Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y., and the Eugenics Education Society of Eng- land was founded under the leadership of Leon- ard Darwin. These initial movements led to the successive organization of societies and in- ‘Spain, New Zealand, and elsewhere. EUGENICS stitutions in all English-speaking countries, as well as among the nations of western Europe. Following the War, interest was renewed in the eugenic question. The movement spread to China, Japan, and Latin America. Thus the eugenic movement became international, but even as early as 1912 an International Eugenics Congress was held in London. The War pre- vented a reconvening of this congress until 1921, when it assembled in New York. For this occasion many of the world’s foremost biologists gathered. The scientific contributions to this congress were published in two large volumes under the title of Eugenics in Race and State. The congress also presented an exhibition of ma- terials, methods, and results of research in heredity in general and the human problem in particular. To understand the eugenic movement fully one should note the large part medicine, criminol- ogy, and education have taken in preparing its background. Medical and social students have long realized that while environment is a large factor in determining the fate of the individual, it could not do everything for him. He must bring with him a normal and efficient organism. Long ago the hereditary nature of a few types of mental and bodily inadequacy were recog- nized and measures taken to prevent the prop- agation of these abnormalities. Criminologists, running down the family histories of delin- quents, revealed a greater tendency for a repeti- tion of these offenses in their offspring than among the offspring of non-offenders. Conse- quently, in the United States, health boards and charity commissions began to advocate legis- lation for the segregation and also the steriliza- tion of the incompetent and the delinquent. Laws were passed in 1913 authorizing the sterilization of the unfit in North Dakota, Mich- igan, Kansas, Oregon, Wisconsin, California, and Iowa. During the same year legislation restricting marriages was enacted in England, In the United States, fifteen states had passed such laws by 1924, though much of this legislation was inoperative. The greatest stimulus to the general consid- eration of eugenics was the Wisconsin marriage law of 1913; which required medical certifica- tion for all who applied for licenses. This brought on a nation-wide discussion and at- tempts at similar legislation in other States. In the United States there are two active or- ganizations, the Eugenics Research Association and the Eugenics Society of the United States of America. The effort of these organizations is, in the main, to stimulate research in human heredity and the effects of early surroundings. Although, as already stated, the basic concep- tion of eugenics is the improvement of the hu- man stock, these organizations have not only stimulated scientific research in the laws of heredity, but have taken a hand in problems of social delinquency. All organized charitable and corrective agencies now critically study their cases and are using the technique devel- oped by the eugenicists for gathering family histories and other data bearing upon the cases of inadequacy and delinquency with which they have to deal. In this way were brought about such studies as that of the Tribe of Ishmael in Indiana, for example. The eugenicists have also stimulated the scientific study of families in the United States. ie ——s EULENBERG 435 At the meeting of the International Commis- sion in Sweden in September, 1923, representa- tives of England, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Holland, Switzerland, and the United States were present. In all these countries provision was made for searching studies of the popula- tion. An understanding of the biological ele- ments entering into national heritages was sought as a basis for a sound policy of con- serving and strengthening the quality of their respective citizenries. Sweden was the first nation to set up an in- stitute for the study of race-biology. In 1918 the University of Upsala subsidized the research of Professor Lundborg into the lineage of peasant families, and he also received small grants from the government. Professor Lund- borg’s researches were so promising that the Swedish Parliament appointed a commission in 1920 to consider the needs of a national insti- tute for the study of race-biology, which re- ported favorably. Consequently such an _ in- stitute was founded and located at Upsala. Professor Lundborg was its director. This in- stitute inaugurated an intensive study of the nation’s population, province by province. See ABORTION. EULENBERG, FRANz (1867- ). A Ger- man economist, born and educated in Berlin. He began teaching in Leipzig in 1899. From there he went to Aachen, and in 1919 became professor of political economy and statistics in the University of Kiel. His works include: The Possibility and Results of a Social Psychol- ogy (1900); Society and Nature (1905); The Modern Philosophy of History (1907); The In- ternational Money Market (1908); The Rise in Prices during the Last Ten Years (1912); Money in War (1915); The New Industry (1919), and numerous magazine articles. EUPEN, MALMEDY, and MORESNET. To satisfy Belgian demands for protection and for reparations, Articles 34-39 of the Treaty of Versailles provided for the cession to Belgium by Germany of the frontier districts of Eupen (area 68 square miles; population, 26,156), Malmédy (area 314 square miles, population 34,768), and the disputed neutral district of Moresnet (area 2 ‘square miles; population, 3038), together with a small portion of Prus- sian Moresnet. The regions in question had undergone steady Germanization since their ac- quisition by Prussia in 1815, so that the end of the War saw the original Walloon population so reduced that only one-sixth of the population could speak French. In fact, in Eupen the French-speakers were insignificant, though in the town of Malmédy 94 per cent. spoke French. Likewise, in Moresnet, 48 per cent of the in- habitants were French-speakers, but it is to be noted that only 2 per cent spoke French ex- clusively. To the Peace Commissioners, other con- siderations were weightier than the question of language, which made the transfer of territory justifiable. Aside from the strategic argument, it was maintained that the orientation of the districts was toward Belgium, that there were profound historical ties, and that the necessity for compensating Belgium for the forests de- stroyed during the War favored the decision. For this last reason, too, Germany was com- pelled to turn over to Belgium the domanial and communal woods of Prussian Moresnet. Germany protested that the wishes of the popu- lation had not been consulted and that the EUROPE method provided by the Treaty for ascertaining the popular will with regard to the maintenance of German sovereignty, i.e. through the signing of open registers under the surveillance of the Belgian authorities, implied a bald negation of the principle of self-determination. Subsequent events lent some color of truth to this conten- tion, for in the six months allowed by the Treaty only a few hundred persons dared to register openly their belief that the districts ought to be returned to Germany. Belgium, therefore, took final possession, despite plainly expressed German disapproval. EUROPE. The Great War (1914-1918) and the revolutions in Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany which attended it led to a profound metamorphosis in European political geography. The cataclysmic changes registered in the peace settlement of Paris (1919-1920) with subsequent modifications and supplementary arrangements, surpassed in scope and significance such stages in the evolution of the modern state-system as were signalized by the Treaties of Westphalia (1648), the Peace of Utrecht (1713-1714), and the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). The ter- ritorial readjustments consummated during the period 1918-1924 involved directly or indirectly every state in Europe except Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland. Western Europe, where the first truly national states had emerged cen- turies before, where political democracy had early achieved conspicuous successes, where the main bloc of the victorious Entente Powers was situated and where political revolutions did not sweep away long established institutions, was little transformed, the most notable exceptions being Alsace-Lorraine and Ireland (q.v.). Cen- tral and Eastern Europe, on the other hand, were almost completely reorganized on a nation- al basis and to a large extent republicanized and democratized. The three great non-national- istic empires of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany (qq.v.) were dismembered and_ the diminutive state of Montenegro disappeared. A solid belt of eight new national states emerged in Central Europe, viz:—Austria, Hungary, Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Es- thonia and Finland (qq.v.), while contempo- raneously the respective national unifications of Italy, of Serbia, of Rumania, and of Greece were virtually completed and the nationalistic griey- ances of France and Denmark adequately re- dressed through the restitution of Alsace- Lorraine and Northern Schleswig (qq.v.). Such in broad outlines, was the territorial resettle- ment of Europe. The age-long movement for home-rule for Ire- land eventuated (1921-1922) in the establish- ment of a new self-governing, democratic Brit- ish dominion—the Irish Free State—with a spe- cial status for six Protestant counties of Ulster under the Act of 1920. On the continent of Europe the abasement of Germany’s power and prestige correspondingly exalted the democratic republic of France to a position as foremost military state. Her eastern boundary was defi- nitely rectified through the retrocession of Al- sace-Lorraine. In addition the French exercised virtual control over the inter-Allied civil com- mission supervising the occupation of the Left Bank of the Rhine, enjoyed a special economic status in the Saar Valley (q.v.) which was politically separated from Germany for 15 years ‘and placed under a League of Nations Commis- sion dominated by the ‘French, and finally, EUROPE through the forcible seizure of the Ruhr (Janu- ary, 1923), greatly though temporarily aug- mented the area of German territory actually controlled by France. The kingdom of Belgium was liberated from the permanent and interna- tional guaranteed neutralized status imposed upon her by the settlement of 1839. She also acquired from Germany the diminutive districts of Eupen, Malmédy and Moresnet (q.v.). An attempt to secure the annexation of the Left Bank of the Scheldt from neutral Holland failed, but in 1920 a special convention freed Belgian navigation on that waterway from onerous Dutch restrictions. By a subsequent arrangement (May, 1921) the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg though retaining political independence prom- ised henceforth to conform its tariff, coinage, and railways to those of Belgium. Germany emerged from the Great War and from her political revolution a democratic re- publican national state somewhat diminished in size and subjected to burdensome penalties by the Treaty of Versailles, but nevertheless popu- lous and potentially strong. In addition to her loss of territory in the west to Belgium and to France, and in the north to Denmark, she was obliged to cede the greater part of Posen, West Prussia and Upper Silesia (q.v.) to Poland, to relinquish the Baltic port of Memel (q.v.) for eventual assignment to Lithuania (1923) and to consent to the internationalization of the port of Danzig (q.v.) under League of Nations aus- pices and the accordance of a specially privileged status therein to Poland. Even more striking than the partial dis- memberment and political regeneration of Ger- many was the complete disintegration of the ~ great Dual-Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Aft- er the revolution of 1918 and the Treaty of St. Germain of 1919 Austria constituted but a small land-locked German state on the Danube with an area of less than 33,000 square miles, whereas Hungary, by a similar process of revolution and the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, shrank to be a minor Magyar realm of some 36,000 square miles immediately to the east. The other regions in erstwhile subjection to the Habsburg sceptre were either assigned to victorious neighbors— Italy, Serbia, and Rumania—or incorporated in the newly recreated states of Poland and Czecho-Slovakia. Italy acquired Trentino, Tri- este, part of Austrian Tirol (q.v.), Gorizia and Gradisca, Istria, Fiume (q.v.), Zara and certain Dalmatian Islands. Slovenia, Croatia-Slavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and the western Banat (q.v.), together with certain small Bul- garian districts, were united with Serbia and Montenegro under the Serbian monarch to form the unitary kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slov- enes (Jugo-Slavia). The principality of Albania successfully asserted and maintained its inde- pendence against both Jugo-Slav and Italian en- croachments, but its exact boundaries long re- mained undefined. In addition to slight recti- fications of her boundary with Jugo-Slavia on the west, prescribed by the Treaty of Neuilly (1919), the kingdom of Bulgaria was obliged to cede a substantial portion of Thrace (q.v.) to Greece, being thereby rendered non-contiguous with the ASgean Sea. Greece not only gained Bulgarian Thrace, but also part of Turkish Thrace, Smyrna, Gallipoli, and the Dodecanese by the Sévres settlement of 1920 only to be | forced to relinquish these latter regions as a re- sult of her military débécle in the war with Tur- 436 EVANGELICAL CHURCH key and the humiliating Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which was in no small degree responsible for her republicanization in 1924. The Turkish Empire was definitely debarred from Europe by the Treaty of Sévres only to be nationalized, re- publicanized, and democratized by the regenera- tive movement under Mustapha Kemal Pasha and make a triumphal reéntry into the European family of nations through the reacquisition of Adrianople and Thrace by the Treaty of Lau- sanne (1923). To the kingdom of Rumania were annexed the eastern Banat, the whole of Transylvania and the Russian province of Bes- sarabia (qq.v.). The ancient kingdom of Bo- hemia reappeared in the form of the Republic of Czecho-Slovakia in which were embraced not only Bohemia, Moravia and part of Austrian Silesia, but also the region of Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia long merged in the king- dom of Hungary, part of German Upper Silesia and parts of Teschen, Zips and Orava (q.v.) as shared with Poland. Poland, grievously partitioned” by powerful neighbors in the late eighteenth century, was re- born under a republican régime at the end of the Great War, thanks to the Russian Revolu- tion and the defeat of the Central Powers. To her territorial resurrection, Germany, Austria- Hungary and Russia all made substantial con- tributions. The Russo-Polish frontier remained uncertain during several years of hostilities (1919-1920) -but was definitely demarcated by the Treaty of Riga (1921). To the north of Poland had been established (1918-1920) a fringe of small states on Russia’s western bor- der, namely the republics of Lithuania, Latvia, Esthonia, and Finland (qq.v.). With Lithu- ania, Poland had a protracted dispute over the eity of Vilna (q.v.) and vicinity which finally terminated in Poland’s favor with the annexa- tion of the whole southwestern half of Lithuania. Lithuania, however, successfully thwarted (1923) the Franco-Polish attempt to forestall her acquisition of the Baltic port of Memel as contemplated in the Versailles set- tlement with Germany. Finland, emancipated from Russia after a long struggle for autonomy and independence, was temporarily embroiled in a dispute with Sweden over the possession of the Aland islarids (q.v.) in the Baltie Sea. Norway, granting independence to Iceland (q.v.) in 1918, which nevertheless retained the Nor- wegian king as its monarch, was compensated for this diminution of area by a treaty signed at Paris in 1920 assigning her the Arctic archi- pelago of Spitzbergen (q.v.), comprising some 25,000 square miles. Russia, losing territory all along her western border, and renouncing imperialistic ambitions in Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and China, was gradually reconstructed by the Soviet govern- ment on the basis of a federation of autonomous Socialist republics—Ukrainia, Transcaucasia, White Russia and Great Russia. See War IN EUROPE. EUROPEAN CORN BORER. See ENTo- MOLOGY, ECONOMIC. EUROPEAN WAR, 1914-1918. See War IN EUROPE. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. See EVANGELICAL CHURCH. EVANGELICAL CHURCH. Established Oct. 14, 1922, by union of the Evangelical As- sociation and the United Evangelical Church. The Evangelical Association was the outgrowth + THE LipRaRy Pe Pee ie 2 9F tHe eee A 2S. Comcast or ings F a i~ > -Dramme = : w Peery Christiansantg N “ep re (iey) ae . of eBonifacz, =X > 52 eel Sissi yi N. q WO mane =e 9 aplesa » tae { ALY RR ENR VCORE SG x4 a rs q SE | me LIPARi + > MALTA (To Gr. Brit.) -L.POATES ENGR’G CO.,N.Y. Longitude G Nort h Cap 1, Sp ac imer sess oa le 4 hn Vat AD Sige os ee 5 ~ = \ Ao HEDSINGEA Of of. intone Plo seutart es BASS ee wy, ~ —— r Greenwich of Lee Poe lS Tcot Ls ° Dab J Jo. v (=) - 2 > Sem s ) = a dd, Des : oS @ ; SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 100 200 ~=—-300 400 500 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Important towns are shown In heavy face type Canals Imporant Railroads -————— 1 THE LIGRARY OF IHE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS EVANGELICAL CHURCH of a religious movement started in Pennsylvania in 1800 by the followers of Jacob Albright. After many years, differences arose in the church which culminated in 1891 in a division, a considerable number of ministers and members organizing themselves in 1892 into the denomina- tion known as the United Evangelical Church. At the end of the second decade of separation the growing conviction that the two churches should be reunited began to find articulate ex- pression. The act of merger was the consum- mation of 12 years of negotiation. The Evangelical Association increased in num- ber of communicants from 150,380 in 1914 to 167,416 at the time of merging, in number of pupils in the Sunday schools from 227,820 to 271,758, and in the valuation of its churches and parsonages from $11,699,452 to $16,281,011. Similarly, the membership of the United Evan- gelical Church was increased from 79,292 in 1914 to 92,001 at the time of merging, and the total value of chureh property from $5,476,602 to $9,515,328. In 1923 the Evangelical Church had 244,072 church members and 391,207 pupils in the Sunday schools, 2663 churches, 1878 itin- erant ministers, and 562 local ministers; and church property in the United States and Can- ada valued at $23,917,585. It carried on mis- sion work in 31 States, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, Latvia, France, China, Japan, and Africa. EVANGELICAL CHURCH, UNITED. EVANGELICAL CHURCH. EVANS, Epwarp RADCLIFFE GARTH RUSSELL (188l1-: ). A British explorer (see Vot. VIII). In 1914, he commanded the Mohawk in the bombardment of the right wing of the Ger- See man army on the Belgian coast and in 1917. took command of the Broke. He was awarded the Royal Humane Society’s silver medal in 1921, and has been honored and decorated by many other societies. He published Keeping the Seas Down (1920), South with Scott (1921), and others. EVANS, RuputpeH (1878- ). An Amer- ican sculptor born at Washington, D. C. He studied at the Corcoran Art School, Washington, the Art Students’ League, New York, Julien’s Academy and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He was a pupil of Falguiére and Rodin and was elected Associate of the National Academy in 1919, when he won the Watrous gold medal. His best known sculpture is the “Golden Hour,” the original of which is in F. A. Vanderlip’s gar- den at Scarborough, N. Y., a copy in the Luxem- bourg Museum, and a marble replica in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. Mr. Evans has the capacity to catch in his portraits the aloofness of childhood. Besides portraits of young people, he has made monuments and por- trait busts of financiers, including Frank A. Vanderlip, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and Thomas F. Ryan. His superb “Boy and Panther” was exhibited in 1923. EVANS, WILLIAM (1870- ). An Ameri- ean theologian, born at Liverpool, England, and educated in private schools in England and at the Moody Bible Institute (Chicago), the Chi- cago Lutheran Theological Seminary, and the Theological Seminary of the University of Chi- cago. He was ordained in the Congregational ministry in 1894, and was appointed to his first pastorate in the following year. In 1901, he be- came director of the Bible course at the Moody Bible Institute, where he remained until he was 437 _ books include: EWART appointed associate dean (1915) of the Bible Institute in Los Angeles. He resigned this posi- tion in 1918, becoming director of Bible con- ferences for the United States and Canada. He is the author of: Zhe Book of Books (1902) ; How to Memorize (1909); Outline Studies in Bible Books (1909); Personal Soul-Winning (1910); Studies in the Life of the Christian (1911); The Great Doctrine: of the Bible (1912, 1920); How to Prepare Sermons (1913); Through the Bible—Series of 10 Volumes on Bible Exposition (1916-18; incomplete); The Book Method of Bible Study (1915); Epochs in the Life of Christ (1916); The Shepherd’s Psalm: a Meditation (1921); The Coming King: the World’s Next Great Crisis (1923). EVARTS, Hat G. (1887- ). An Ameri- can author born at Topeka, Kan. After a va- ried career as rancher, trapper and_ licensed guide, he turned to writing. He published: The Cross Bull (1920); The Bald Face (1921) ; Passing of the Old West (1921); The Yellow Horde (1921); Tumbleweeds (1922); Fur Sign (1923). EVE, ArtTHUR STEWART (1862- } (A Canadian physicist, born at Silsoe, Bedford- shire, England. He was educated at Cambridge, and in 1903 became Macdonald professor of physics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. He commanded the 148th Overseas Battalion in the War, and was director of research, Ad- miralty Experimental Station, Harwich, 1917-18. In 1919, he became director of physics at Mc- Gill University. He has published various pa- pers on radioactivity and ionization. EVERWIJN, JAN CHARLES AUGUST (1873- ). A Dutch diplomat born at Noor- wijk, Holland. He studied law at Leiden Uni- versity, and was.a lawyer at The Hague (1897). Among his government posts have been: vice- president of the commission of the Netherlands, participation at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco (1913); various economic negotiations (1914-19) ; president of the Nether- land Organization for the International Cham- ber of Commerce (1920); delegate at the Paris Conference (1920); envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary from the Netherlands to the United States (1921- EVJEN, Joun OLur (1874-. ). An American educator, born at Ishpeming, Mich., and educated at Augsburg Seminary (Minne- apolis), the University of Minnesota and the University of Leipzig. In 1903, he was or- dained in the Lutheran ministry. From 1909 to 1919, he held the position of professor of the- ology at Augsburg Seminary and in the latter year became president of the State Normal School at Mayville, N. D. Becides contributing to periodicals and encyclopedias, both German and American, he is author of the following: Die Staatsumwdlzung in Dinemark im Jahre 1660 (1903); Scandinavia and the Book of Con- cord (1905) ; En Boganmeldelse (1910); Et Kap- atel fra Symbolforpligtelsens Historie (1911); Lutheran Germany and the Book of Concord (1911); Scandinavian Immigrants in New York, 1630-1674 (1916); Naadegaverne og Embedet (1920) ; The Teachers’ College—Its Place in the Educational System (1920). EVOLUTION. See ANTHROPOLOGY; BOTANY; HEREDITY; ZOOLOGY. EWART, JAMES CossaR_ (1851- Aes: Seottish naturalist (see Vor. VIII). His later Domestic Sheep and Their Wild EWELL 438 Ancestors (1913); Development of the Horse (1915) ; Mounting of the King Penguin; Nest- ling Feathers of the Mallard (1921). EWELL, ARTHUR WOOLSEY (1873- ). An American physicist (see Vor. VIII). He was appointed commanding captain of the United States Reserves on Dec. 15, 1917, and head of the bomb unit of the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Forces. After the Armistice, he was placed in charge of the experimental de- velopment and tests of bombs. EWING, James (1866- ). An American pathologist (see Vor. VIII). In 1919 Dr. Ewing brought out his monumental work on tumors, entitled Neoplastic Diseases. EXCESS PROFITS TAX. See TAXATION IN THE UNITED STATES. EXCHANGE, ForriaN. See FINANCE AND BANKING. EXPERIMENT STATIONS, AcGricuLTURAL. See AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. See CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE UNCONSCIOUS. EXPLORATION. With the changed condi- tions which arose among tle nations in 1914—- 24 came new methods and special aims in ex- ploration. Apart from the enormous unvisited areas of glacier-covered Antarctica and the un- known regions of the Arctic Ocean, no lands of extent remained in 1924, and such as there were could be easily reached by airplane. Except by Americans, new exploration ceased during the War, but later it revived. With the accession of new territories by mandate, the victorious na- tions diligently applied themselves to ascertain- ing the extent and variety of natural resources suitable for exploitation. Climate, fauna, flora, minerals, and soil conditions, needed study in order to foster emigration or to increase essen- tial raw materials. Such considerations largely controlled explorations by Europeans. Amer- ican expeditions were sent forth for the in- crease of knowledge and the advancement of science. Institutions of learning and progres- sive museums applied their energies to re- searches to enlarge their representative ex- hibits and so make them more useful for sci- entific study and public edification. American research, especially in the later years, was en- gaged in the accumulation of data, archeologi- eal and geological, which might enable scien- tists to write the story of prehistoric races definitely and to trace the methods of biological evolution. Africa. See Arrica, Explorations. Asia. The most important researches were those in the Mongolian deserts, which were explored geologically, as well as with respect to geography, physiography, and paleontology. Fossil vertebrates were discovered in large numbers and varieties. Berkey stated that the geologic core of Asia is now known, and Osborn looks to the elucidation of man’s origin by later research. The Swedish expedition made extensive biological explorations in Kamchatka. Stein’s expeditions, 1913-16, covered large in- terior areas, especially along the Persian-Afghan- istan border, a ruined Bhuddist monastery fur- nishing interesting archeological data. Brit- ish explorers twice crossed the interior deserts of Arabia, and twice failed to attain the summit of Everest, and also Mt. Raeburn, the third highest peak. On Everest an elevation of 27,- 300 feet was reached, within 1700 of the sum- mit; this was the highest point ever attained. EXPLORATION The Palestine Exploration Fund, under Macalis- ter, continued excavation of the City of David, whose history extends back more than 2000 years. The British Archeological School excavated a Phenician City. Italians made anthropological researches in Eritrea and among the Bhuddist antiquities of Afghanistan. Arabia. See AraBia, Explorations. Australia. Extended explorations in Western Australia threw new light on the vast areas of thousands of square miles hitherto classed as deserts incapable of economic utilization. Much of the region was said to have a fertile soil, watered by a scanty rainfall. Irrigation, con- serving the rain by reservoirs, should make it a region fit for agriculture. Oil resources were indicated. Europe. Excavations in France and Italy disclosed ancient ruins of unknown periods. Ethnographic researches were made in southern France and northern Spain. The construction of a war railway to the Murman Coast brought scientific knowledge of the hitherto unknown region of the Kola Peninsula. North America. Canada. The Ministry of the Interior continued its researches into the resources of the Dominion. A water power inventory placed the resources at 32,000,000 horse power. The Arctic archipelago was ex- plored and police, customs, and postal service established. In the Mackenzie district, bitumen, coal, copper, gold, and oil were located and exploited. National parks (one for _ bison) were surveyed; their total area was over 6,000,- 000 acres. Forest reserves cover 36,000 square miles. The movements of the magnetic north pole and correlated phenomena were scientifically determined. At the University of Toronto ex- tended researches were carried on with the helium gas of western Alberta. See also PoLAR RESEARCH. United States. Scientific field research was annually pursued by scores of American uni- versities and scientific societies. Space does not permit even brief allusion to their extensive ad- ditions to human knowledge. A few may be mentioned whose work was of international in- terest. Chicago Field Museum. Under Director Dav- ies about 30 field parties were sent forth, cov- ering all continents except Europe. The nome work in 10 States was principally botanical and zoological. Researches were made in the fauna and flora of 10 of the countries of South Amer- ica, birds and mammals were particularly studied. In China and India the work covered ethnology, in Mesopotamia archeology, and in Canada and Argentina paleontology. American Indian Heye Foundation. Its unearthing of two of the fabled Seven Cit- ies of Cibola yielded information on_prehis- toric Indian life, which, preceding the Zufi period, was thought to extend backward 1000 years. American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Osborn continued the supervision of its research work covering most regions of the northern hem- isphere. Most important were the biological surveys of eastern Asia (Burma, China, and Mongolia), and northern South America (Bra- zil, Chile, and Ecuador). In this work Andrews, Anthony, Chapman, Cherrie, Faunthorpe, Miller, Tate, and Vernay won distinction. Very no- table and promising in its results was the dis- covery and exploitation of the wonderful fossil EXPLORATION mammals, cretaceous and tertiary fossils, ete. Akeley and Lang’s African mammals were also important. Pennsylvania University Museum. Under Gordon, its field work largely consisted of ar- chological researches which met with marked success. In Egypt Fisher’s excavations at Giza, Memphis, and Thebes revealed papyri and other articles of historic value. Woolley, co- operating with the British Museum in Mesopo- tamia, at and near Ur explored ruins extend- ing back 6400 years; they added 1000 years to Babylonie history. Fisher’s excavations at Beth Shean in Palestine disclosed eight super- imposed cities, Arabic, Byzantine, Crusader, Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, and Scythian. These periods cover about 4000 years of history. Far- rabee’s years of research in the watershed of the upper Amazon made valuable ethnological and archeological contributions. Especially im- portant were those relating to the Carib and other tribes along the borderland of Guiana and in Chile and southern Peru. Carnegie Institute. This organization main- tained its research activities in astronomy, chem- istry, embryology, genetics, geophysics, history, and magnetism. Notable were the study of the Maya civilization and the astronomical work through the 100-inch telescope on Mt. Wilson. Most important were the survey cruises of the Carnegie, including codperative work, which brought the total of magnetic stations to about 10,000 in hitherto unexplored regions. A new analysis of the earth’s magnetic field for 1922 disclosed three magnetic systems, internal, ex- ternal, and non-potential, the first constituting 94 per cent of the total and the last two about 3 per cent each; it also disclosed a decrease of 5 per cent, during the past 80 years, and an annual loss of one part in 1500. Continued in- vestigations of atmospheric electricity on land and sea showed that for a large component of the daily variation the maximum and minimum occur, roughly, simultaneously. Comprehensive programmes were inaugurated for the investiga- tion of correlations between terrestrial magnet- ism, atmospheric electricity, and earth cur- rents. National Geographic Society. Researches were extended and successful. In Peru, Bingham un- earthed the lost city of Machu Picchu, of the prehistoric period. In Alaska, five expeditions under Griggs surveyed the volcanic Mt. Katmai region, devastated by the most violent eruption in modern times; it has been proclaimed a na- tional monument. In New Mexico, Judd ex- cavated the communal dwelling of the Bouitas, thought to be prehistoric Indian people. Smithsonian Institution. Organized for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men, the Institution with its eight bureaus, includ- ing the Bureau of Ethnology and the National Museum, uninterruptedly ‘earried on extensive field work and scientific research. The Institu- tion covered by its scientific surveys the less known regions of Africa, Asia, North America, South America, and Oceania, with the adjacent islands. Fauna, flora, archeology and ethnol- ogy were the principal subjects, although as- tronomy, geology, and other physical sciences were studied. The Bureau of Ethnology largely applied its researches, with marked success, to the ethnology of the American Indian, present and prehistoric. 439 fields of Mongolia, with their rich yield of | EXPLOSIVES Oceanography. Besides currents, depths, and deposits, research turned to marine biology, especially to the breeding, growth, and migra- tion of edible fish. The United States thus in- vestigated its coast waters, and European sci- entists—British, Danish, French and Swedish— explored the North Sea, the Mediterranean, and Atlantic waters from the English Channel to Madeira. Great Britain was studying the bi- ology of the whales, etc., of the waters of the Falkland Island Dependency. After 1914 an American ice patrol located and warned ship- ping of dangerous ice in the North Atlantic. Miscellaneous. Under a tropical expert, Beebe, a biological survey was made of the Galapagos Islands. EXPLOSIVES. Such developments of the War as the tremendous increase in the expendi- ture of artillery ammunition for preliminary bombardment of objectives, in barrage fire for protection of infantry waves advancing to the attack, in harassing fire directed on enemy back-areas, in counter-battery work, in putting up aérial barrages to fend off enemy airplanes, and the enormous increase in the employment of machine guns in lieu of the slower-firing shoulder rifle, all magnified the role of explosives. Progress in their manufacture was mainly to- ward quicker manufacture, greater safety in handling, storage, and transportation, slower deterioration after manufacture, and_ substi- tution of more abundant raw materials for those found to exist in quantities too small for ready conversion on a hitherto unprecedented scale. Propellants. Smokeless powder in various forms was in universal use prior to the War, and except for the substitution of wood pulp for cotton linters in the manufacture of nitro- cellulose and the development of a water-drying process which was much quicker than the former air-drying process, no outstanding improvements in its manufaeture were achieved during the War. Probably the most important development work carried on in 1924 was on a smokeless, flashless, non-hygroscopic powder. Immediately after the Armistice, demands were made for a new type of propellant powder to meet such con- ditions as those of the War. The particular ob- jection to the service powder fof the United States army was that it was hygroscopic and must be kept in waterproof containers up to the time of use. Another very important factor was that it was a solvent powder, requiring con- siderable time for drying, even making use of the so-called water-drying process developed during the War. Several experimental powders of varying composition and granulation passed satisfactory tests. In order to obtain necessary ballistic properties and yet avoid the use of solvents, nitroglycerine in very small amounts was incorporated with the other ingredients. This powder can be fired within 48 hours after manufacture but greater uniformity is obtained by allowing it to age for several days. It is completely non-hygroscopic; samples have been fired immediately after submersion in water for 24 hours. Bursting Charges. Just prior to the War, trinitrotoluol (TNT) was considered the most satisfactory bursting charge for mobile artillery shells. Because of the scarcity of TNT during the War, a fairly satisfactory substitute was developed and used, 8% amatol, a mixture of EXPLOSIVES 80 parts of ammonium nitrate and 20 parts of TNT. Small-caliber shells were filled largely with 504) amatol, but at best this was a tempo- rary expedient; the standard practice in 1924 was to use TNT without dilution. The 80%) amatol was prepared by crushing and drying ammonium nitrate,. melting TNT in steam- jacketed kettles, and mixing the two components in the required proportions in a steam-jacketed mixer. The resulting product resembled soft brown sugar and might be tamped into the shell cavity by hammer and mallet or, as was done during the War, by means of the screw shell- filling machine, which consists of a hopper to hold the amatol in bulk and a sleeve contain- ing a rotating worm. The shell to be filled was mounted horizontally on a wheel carriage placed so that the worm and sleeve entered it within a few inches of the bottom of the shell cavity. The amatol was fed into the shell by the rotat- ing worm until the resistance to the entrance of more amatol caused the carriage and shell to back off from the hopper, when the worm was automatically stopped, since the cavity had been filled to a predetermined point. The remain- ing cavity left by the sleeve and worm was filled with liquid TNT except for a small cavity to take the booster. See Coxe. Ammonium picrate, called explosive D in the United States Service, is used for bursting charges of armor-piercing projectiles, since TNT is not sufficiently insensitive to shock to with- stand.passage through armor plate on impact without exploding. Ammonium picrate will do this and still be in condition to give effective fragmentation on perforation of heavy armor plate. In loading ammonium picrate in armor- piercing projectiles, small quantities of the crystalline explosive are given a preliminary amount of tamping in the nose of the shell, fol- lowed by hydraulically pressing successive in- crements as needed to fill the shell cavity com- pletely and with proper density. The bursting charge for shrapnel continued to be black pow- der, according to standard practice prior to the War. The ammunition used with trench mortars developed during the War was filled with a nitrostarch explosive for the smaller calibers and either 80) or 5%, amatol for the larger calibers. Hand) grenades were loaded princi- pally with nitrostarch, and rifle grenades with compressed TNT. Aircraft bombs were loaded 440 EYRE with °%o0 amatol during the War; 1924 practice was to use TNT without dilution. Booster Charges. During the War attempts were made to load boosters with tetryl around the fuse socket, filling the remainder of the booster with TNT. This was abandoned in favor of completely filling the booster with tetryl. This practice was standard in 1924. Detonators. In the decade 1914-24, mer- cury fulminate maintained its position as the premier military detonator. It is manufactured by dissolving mercury in nitric acid, pouring the solution into grain alcohol, and removing and washing the gray crystals of mercury fulminate thus precipitated. Mercury fulminate is the most sensitive, most powerful, and most ex- pensive of military explosives. It costs more than twice as much as tetryl and about five times'as much as TNT. The bursting of an ar- tillery shell is in reality a series of explosions. On impact with the ground the firing mechanism of the fuse delivers a minute flash to the mer- ecury fulminate detonator. It detonates and transmits the explosive wave to the tetryl of the booster charge surrounding it. The booster in turn causes the detonation of the TNT in the main bursting charge of the shell. By utilizing this step-up method, small quantities of ex- pensive and highly sensitive explosives are used to set off successively larger quantities of less sensitive explosives. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC; also ORDNANCE. EXTENSION TEACHING IN AGRICUL- TURE. See AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK. EYDE, SAMUEL (1866- ). A famous Norwegian engineer (see Vor. VIII). He or- ganized, in 1916, a company for the manufacture of fertilizer out of saltpetre and in 1917 founded the Norsk Spraengstofindustrie. EYRE, LAURENCE ( ?- ). An American actor and playwright born in Chester, Pa. He made his début with the Castle stock company in Boston in 1907, played with Julia Marlowe, and also leadiag characters with the Ben Greet company. His best known plays include: The Things That Count (1914); Sazus Matazus (first full length play dealing entirely with Negro life, in which all the characters are colored, to be produced in America) produced at Atlantic City (1916); Driftwood (1917); Mis’ Nellie of N’Orleans (1919); Martinique (1920). Mis’ Nelly of N’Orleans was also produced by Dion Boucicault later in London. AESI, ROBERT (1873- ae: Swiss poet, essayist and dramatist, born in Zurich. He studied at the universities of Zurich and Berlin. After some years of travel in France, Italy, Russia, and England, he re- turned to Zurich and published Zuricher Idylle (1908), Odysseus und Nausikaa, a_ tragedy (1911), and Die offene Tiir, a comedy (1912). He wrote a volume of verse, Aus der Brandung: Zeitgedichte aus der Schweiz (1917), and compiled an anthology of Swiss poetry under the title Gestalten und Wandlungen (1920). His most important critical works are Paul Ernst und die Neueren Bestrebungen im Drama (1913), Karl Spitteler (1917), and Rainer Maria Rilke (1919) FAHEY, Joun H. (1873- ). An Ameri- can banker and newspaper publisher, born at Manchester, N. H. After receiving a high school education he became a reporter in Man- chester. He was editor and publisher of the Boston Traveler 1903-10, finally becoming presi- dent of the Boston Traveler Company and of the State Publishing Company. He was also president and publisher of the Worcester Post. In 1919-20, he was chairman of the organizing committee of the International Chamber of Commerce, and in the following year American director of the same body. In the same period he was a member of the Senior Council of the United States Chamber of Commerce. Other offices held by him include membership in the United States section of the inter-American high commission, member of the American Chamber of Commerce in Paris, and _ honor- ary member of the Bolsa de Commercio of Buenos Aires. In 1920 he was made Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor and Commander of the Italian Order of the Crown. FAHRENKROG, Lupwia (CAr~L WILHELM) (1867-— ). A German poet-painter, born in Rendsburg. He studied at the art academies of Hamburg and Berlin and spent some years in Italy. His mural paintings soon attracted at- tention, among them “Youth as the Golden Age”’ in the Girls’ High School of Barmen, a “Cruci- fixion” in Mulheim and a “Descent of Christ to Hell” in Kiel. He made a sensation at the Munich Exhibition of 1902 with his “Christ Preaching,” in which he presented a beardless Christ, an innovation which he subsequently justified in his writings. He has since become better known as an author. His literary works are Geschichte Meines Glaubens (1906); the dramas Baldur (1908), Wéland (1914), Norne- gast (1921), and Die Godentochter (1921); the poems Lucifer (1917) and Das Goldene Tor (1921), the latter illustrated by himself: and a history of God-lore, Gott im Wandel der Zeiten (1921). F. A. I. (FépfRATION ALRONAUTIQUE IN- TERNATIONALE). See AERONAUTICS, FAILURES OF DAMS. See DAms, FAIRBANKS, CHARLES WARREN’ (1852- 1918). An American politician, Vice President 441 FR of the United States, 1904-09 (see Von. VIII). In 1914 he was chairman of the Indiana Repub- lican State Convention for the third time. In 1916 he was again nominated for the Vice- Presidency by the Republican national conven- tion but was defeated in the campaign. He died in 1918. FAIRBANKS, Doverias (1883- in eAn American actor, born in Denver, Colo. He first appeared on the stage in New York in 1901. On the legitimate stage he played in Hawthorne of the U. 8. A., Frenzied Finance, All For a Girl, A Gentleman of Leisure, Henrietta, The Show Shop, and others. After 1916 he headed his own motion picture productions. His chief successes include His Majesty the American, When the Clouds Roll By, The Mollycoddle, The Mark of Zorro, The Nut, The Three Musketeers, Robin Hood, and The Thief of Bagdad. FAIRCHILD, BLAIR (1877- yo} An American composer, born at Belmont, Mass. Simultaneously with his academic studies at Harvard University, he took courses in composi- tion under J. K. Paine and W. R. Spalding; later he studied piano with G. Buonamici in Florence. In deference to his father’s wish he returned to America and entered business, but went to Constantinople in 1901 as a member of the American Legation and thence to Persia, Finding that Persian music interested him more than his diplomatic duties, he decided to devote himself entirely to music and went to Paris in 1903 for further study under Widor and Gan- naye. His style is a combination of French impressionism and Oriental elements. Among his works are a ballet pantomime, Dame Libel- lule (Paris, 1921); the symphonic poems, Hast and West, Zal, Shah Feridoun; a sketch for orchestra, Tamineh; Légende and Etude Sym- phonique for violin and orchestra; a _ violin sonata; two piano trios; a string quartet; a piano quintet; six Psalms for soloists and chorus & cappella; two fugues for organ; and many songs, almost all on Oriental themes. FAISAL (1885- ). King of Iraq, third surviving son of Hussein, King of the Hedjaz, born at Taif, Turkey. He received a modern education at Mecca and Constantinople and later took an active part in the Turkish government. On the restoration of his father to the emirate of Mecca in 1908, Faisal commanded the Arab contingent in the operations of the Turks against the Idrisi (1911-13). He was elected deputy for Jidda in the Turkish Parliament (1914), commanded the rebels at Medina in the Arab revolt against Ottoman (1916), commanded the northern forces of the Arabs (1917), and sup- ported the Egyptian Expeditionary Force of the Allies. After the Armistice he set up a tempo- rary government in eastern Syria and _ repre- sented the Arabian cause at the Paris Peace Conference (1919). In March of the following year, he was proclaimed King of Syria by the Syrian national government, but the plan was overturned by the entry of the French troops into Damascus. The British government recog- FALKENHAYN 442 nized him as King of Iraq and head of the new state under its mandate of August, 1921. See MESOPOTAMIA. FALKENHAYN, EricH von (1853- 1s A Prussian general, born at Burg Belchau, in Thorn. He entered the army in his youth, and became military attaché to the legation at Paris in 1887. In 1889 he acted as military instructor and favorite of the Crown Prince of Germany and Prince Eitel Friedrich. He served in China during the Boxer Rebellion. He was promoted to lieutenant-general and was made Prussian Min- ister of War in 1913. In 1914 he became chief of the general staff of the army, and later gen- eral of the. infantry. He upheld the officers whose conduct in Alsace resulted in the Zabern disorders. He received the credit for the break- ing through of the Russian lines at Gorlice- Tarnow in 1915, and also planned the successful Russian and Serbian campaigns of the same year. The unsuccessful attack at Verdun of 1916 caused his removal as chief of the general staff, Hindenburg taking his place. He was given the leadership of the Ninth army in its fighting at Hermannstadt, and in 1917 of the Asiatic Corps. In 1918 and 1919 the Tenth army was commanded by him. He wrote: Die oberste Heeresleitung in ihren wichtigsten Ent- schliessungen 1914-16 (1919), giving an account of the German conduct of the War. FALKLAND ISLANDS, DEPENDENCY oF. The creation of this dependency completed, in the western hemisphere, the accession of Ant- arctic regions initiated by Great Britain a cen- tury before. In 1832, she took possession of the Falkland Islands to protect her interests in the southern fisheries. By proclamation of July, 1908, this dependency was created as a distinct entity. It includes all lands and in- closed seas of that region southward from the Falkland Islands to the Antarctie Pole. In its limits are Caird, Coates and Leopold coasts, Graham Land, the Sandwich group, South Georgia, the South Orkneys and the South Shet- lands. Argentina occupies its meteorological station on the South Orkneys by British permit, and the use of land stations for fisheries is possible only under licenses. The whale fishery of these seas is the most extensive in the world, and the eatch of 1920-21 produced 435,000 bar- rels of oil, mostly taken by Norwegians. The British government began in 1923 an economic study of the food supply, habits, migration, etc., of the whales, and of other productive marine life in these waters. See Ross DEPENDENCY. FALL, ALBERT BACON (1861- yo aA American public official (see Vor. VIII). He was reélected to the United States Senate for the term 1919-25, but resigned in 1921 to be- come Secretary of the Interior at the request of President Harding. In June, 1921, the naval oil reserves were transferred to the Department of the Interior, and in 1922 Secretary Fall signed a long pending lease of the Teapot Dome oil dis- trict in Wyoming to the Sinclair oil interests, and also a lease of the resérves in California to KE. M. Doheny, an oil magnate. Only about one- third of the oil was heli for use of the navy. Later Fall resigned his secretaryship. In 1924 an investigation was begun by the Public Lands Committee of the Senate, and Fall ap- peared before a subcommittee and denied that he had received any money from Sinclair or Doheny, but on January 24, Doheny testified be- fore the Committee that he had “lent” Fall FARM INSTITUTES $100,000 without security or interest. On July 15 he was indicted on three counts, the first and third relating to the alleged $100,000 payment, the second charging conspiracy with Harry F. Sinclair in regard to the Wyoming or Teapot see leases, and entering into contracts without ids... : FALLA, MANUEL DE (1876- ). A Span- ish composer, born at Cadiz. He studied at the Madrid Conservatory under Tragé (piano) and Pedrell (composition), and while still a student wrote several zarzuelas which he offered to the managers in vain. Unable to obtain a hearing in his native land, he went to Paris in 1907, where, after some hard years, Debussy and Dukas became interested in him. After his first opera, La Vida Breve, written in 1904, had been successful in Nice (1913) and -Paris (1914), it was brought out in several cities of Spain and won recognition for the composer. De Falla then settled in Granada. Although not a pro- lific writer, he is the acknowledged leader of Spanish futurists. His other works are the ballets, El Amor Brujo (Madrid, 1915), El Sombrero de Tres Picos (London, 1919), and El Retablo del Maese Pedro (Madrid, 1923) ; three pieces for orchestra, Noches en los Jar- dines de Espana, En el Generalife, and Danza Lejana; and piano pieces and songs. FALL RIVER. A port of entry of Massa- chusetts, and the largest cotton manufacturing centre of the United States. The population rose from 119,295 in 1910 to 120,485 in 1920, to 120,912 by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923, and to 130,800 by local esti- mate for 1924. The city in 1923 adopted the report of the city-planning board issued on its survey of the city begun in 1920. The number of persons employed in the cotton mills of the city increased from 35,000 in 1914 to approxi- mately 40,000 in 1924, and the investment from $34,000,000 to $100,000,000. The largest fuel- oil refinery in New England, of 1,000,000 barrels monthly capacity, was built in 1922; in 1924, the first unit was begun of a power plant that would ultimately produce 275,000 horse power. FARABEE, WILLIAM Curtis (1865- i An American anthropologist who was born in Washington, Pa. He was in charge of the de Milhaud Harvard expedition, 1913-16, and curator of the Museum of Philadelphia. Be- sides his numerous contributions to anthropolog- ical and geographical magazines, he published The Central Arawaks (1918). FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC. See Srperra AND FAR EASTERN REPUBLIC; RUSSIA; JAPAN. FARMAN, Henri (1874—- ). A French designer of aircraft who was the first man in Europe to accomplish a flight of a mile. He is best known for his inventions based on the Voisin machine from which he evolved the air- plane bearing his name. He followed the lines of the Voisin type fairly closely but altered the controls and the design of the undercarriage. He reduced the weight and supporting area. This machine was prominent in the famous Lon- don to Manchester flight. FARM BUREAUS. See AcricuLTurAL Ex- TENSION Work. FARM COOPERATION. Sce AGRICULTURAL LIT. FARMING. See AGRICULTURE. FARM INSTITUTES. See EDUCATION. AGRICULTRAL, FARM TRACTOR FARM TRACTOR. The tractor is a me- chanically propelled prime mover having as its source of self-contained power usually either a steam or internal-combustion engine. ‘The sig- nificance of the tractor in agriculture is its util- ity as a source of tractive energy for field and hauling operations and as a source of belt power for stationary mechanical farm operations. The earlier tractors were large, heavy, and powerful machines actuated by steam engines. They were used almost exclusively for heavy hauling, heavy drawbar work such as the pulling of very large gang plows in the breaking of virgin prairie lands on a large scale, and for heavy farm belt work such as the operation of threshers, usually on custom work. Steam tractors are still used in agriculture occasionally for operations re- quiring higher power. They are also used, par- ticularly in Europe, for the operation of cable- drawn plowing and cultivating outfits. In this the tractor itself is stationary and actuates a drum and cable which draws the plowing and cultivating apparatus back and forth across the field. Such outfits are especially adapted to swampy or other soil conditions which will not permit the operation of a heavy tractor in direct traction and where cultivation is necessary for the production of crops. The internal-combustion engine tractor is a more recent development and has now largely supplanted the steam tractor for use in agri- culture. There are a large number of types and sizes of internal-combustion engine tractors. In a broad general way this variation corresponds to distinct types of agricultural service. For example, the small garden tractor weighing about 500 pounds rated at 1.25—4 horse power, is adapted only to certain light garden drawbar op- erations and belt operations requiring a low maximum power. On the other hand, the ex- tremely large tractor weighing 30,000 pounds rated at 70-120 horse power, is adapted only to the heaviest of drawbar and belt operations. A great variety of types and sizes of tractors ex- ists between these two extremes. When it is considered that in 1922 there were over 300 dif- ferent types and sizes on the market, it would seem that the variation is due much more to lack of standardization than to the variation in the requirements of agricultural processes. As a rule, the general characteristics of a tractor for agricultural use are _ governed largely by the number and size of plows it can pull through average soil at an average depth and speed. While tractors are designed and built to run at speeds varying up to five miles or more per hour on actual drawbar work, a plowing speed of about 214 miles per hour for tractors of 15 drawbar horse power or less is generally considered to be the most efficient speed under average conditions. Small plats usually require only a small garden tractor of 1.25-4 horse power which will pull a 12-inch plow. Truck farming will require a tractor ca- pable of pulling one 14-inch plow. Farms up to 160 acres in size will require a tractor capable of pulling at least two plows, while large farms of 300 acres or more will require a tractor ca- pable of pulling three or more plows. As a very general average, and depending upon the soil, about eight drawbar horse power are re- quired to pull two 12-inch plows, 10 horse power for two 14-inch plows, 15 to 20 horse power for three to five 14-inch plows, 22 to 30 horse power for five or six 14-inch plows, and 30 to 45 horse 443 FARM TRACTOR power for from six to twelve 14-inch plows. It is to be noted that there is a wide variety of tractors to choose from when from 12 to 20 drawbar horse power are required. The propulsion requirements in drawbar work govern the characteristics of the driving mech- anism and ground-gripping devices of tractors. Tractors divide, broadly, into wheel and crawler or self-tracklaying types. In the wheel type tractor, propulsion results from the action of two large drive wheels equipped with ground- gripping lugs and actuated by means of the engine through the medium of gears, clutches, and shafts. The majority of wheel tractors are steered with ordinary steering gear attached to two wheels independent of the drive wheels, although in some special types steering is done with the drive wheels. The majority of tractors are of the wheel type. Experience has shown that the drawbar requirements of most farms with favorable conditions of soil and topography ean be more effectively and economically met with wheel tractors than with crawler tractors, especially where the light or medium weight tractor is required. Considerable experience and care are necessary in the operation of wheel tractors, especially when drawing cultivating machinery, since the sudden and severe resist- ances occurring in cultivation emphasize the rotating tendency of the tractor around its drive wheel axles and frequently result in ac- cidents and damage. The crawler or tracklaying tractor is adapted especially for conditions where drawbar work is very heavy or where soil and topographic conditions will not permit the operation of a wheel tractor. Such a tractor consists of an engine and frame mounted on and propelled by a combination of large geared wheels and very broad, heavy endless chains. The power for propulsion is transmitted from the engine to the large gear wheels over which the endless chain passes, laying several links at a time on the ground as the tractor proceeds. These chains are wide and large enough so that the weight of the tractor is distributed over quite a broad area, resulting in a very low pressure on the soil per unit area. This permits the crawler tractor to operate with ease over soil in which a wheel tractor would sink. Since the chain tread extends the entire length of the tractor and on both sides thereof, the frictional con- tact of the soil-gripping devices is relatively very great and its propulsive energy is at a maximum. The crawler tractor is thus a very powerful unit. In addition, the large area of contact of the treads with the soil permits op- eration over ditches and land with rough topog- raphy. The crawler tractor has been found well adapted to the breaking of virgin swamp and cut-over lands in the United States and to rice land cultivation, especially in India. Ow- ing to its rather limited practical agricultural utility as compared to wheel tractors. the crawler is usually a heavy, high-powered unit of relatively high cost. About the hardest cgricultural belt work for which a tractor is adapted is operating the thresher. Such work will require from 10 to 80 horse power, varying with the type of ma- chine and grain, but under most conditions the threshing of wheat and oats will require only from 20 to 30 belt horse power. Other of the larger belt power applications of the tractor are corn husking and shredding, hay baling, ensilage FARRAND cutting and blowing, corn shelling and _ feed grinding, all of which usually require less power than threshing. While there is considerable controversy as to the extent of the actual utility of the tractor in agriculture, obviously it has become a factor of considerable importance in farming operations. Its capability cf perform- ing timely field operations quickly and on a large scale was officially recognized by the French, British, and Italian governments in their efforts to increase food production during the War. It was extensively used in the United States for belt and drawbar operations on farms even prior to 1917. As evidence of the continued and increased belef in its utility on farms, especially under conditions where time- liness in the performance of belt and field op- erations is an important factor, a conservative estimate indicates that there were approximately 325,000 internal-combustion tractors on farms in the United States on Jan. 1, 1923, and ap- proximately 400,000 on Jan. 1, 1924, represent- ing an actual increase of 100,000 and a discard of 25,000 in one year. The conditions and re- quirements of service for different localities and types of farming are so variable as to make it difficult to estimate the average life of a tractor with any accuracy. An estimate of from five to seven years would probably be sufficiently con- servative for the majority of conditions of normal service. Bibliography. Consult: A. FF. Collins, Farm and Garden Tractors (New York, 1920) ; E. F. Hallock, Tractor Engines (Cincinnati, 1920); C. B. Hayward, Gasoline Tractors (Chi- cago, 1919); L. A. Reynoldson, Influence of the Tractor on the Use of Horses (United States Department of eAgriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 1093, 1920); G. Sherwood, The Farm Tractor Handbook (London, 1919); J. H. Stephenson, Traction Farming and Traction Engineering (Chicago, 1917) ; H. R. Tolley and L. M. Church, Tractors on Southern Farms (United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 1278, 1922); H. R. Tolley and L. A. Reynoldson, The Cost and Utilization of Power on Farms Where Tractors Are Owned (United States De- partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 997, 1921). FARRAND, Livineston (1867- ian American educator. In 1914 he became presi- dent of the University of Colorado, and held that position until 1919. During the War he was director in France of the International Health Board, in 1917-18, and from 1919 to 1921 was chairman of the Central Committee of the American Red Cross. In the latter year he was chosen president of Cornell University. He contributed many articles to psychological ' and anthropological publications. FARRAND, MAx (1869- ). An Ameri- can university professor (see Von. VIII). He published Development of the United States (1918) and Fathers of the Constitution (1921). FARRAR, GERALDINE (1882- yeh am American dramatic soprano (see VoL. VIII). At the height of her artistic powers she retired from the operatic stage, appearing for the last time at the Metropolitan Opera House as Zaza, in Leoncavallo’s opera, on -Apr. 22, 1922. After the fall of the curtain, scenes of wild en- thusiasm were enacted inside the house and on the street. For 16 consecutive seasons she had been one of the most popular artists of the com- pany. Since the sensational success of her film production of Carmen, in 1915, she has been in- 444 FASCISM creasingly active in this field. In 1916 she pub- lished an autobiography, Geraldine Farrar (Bos- ton). FARRERE, Ciaupre. Pseudonym of CHARLES BARGONE (q.v.) FARWELL, ARTHUR (1872- ). An American composer, born at St. Paul. He studied with Norris in Boston, Humperdinck in Berlin, and Guilmant in Paris. From 1910 to 1913 he was director of municipal concerts in New York City, and from 1915 to 1918, director of the Music School Settlement there. He then moved to Pasadena, where he devoted much time to community music. He was always deeply interested in the music of the American Indians and at various times visited Indian reservations. In 1901 he established at Newton Centre, Mass., the Wa-Wan Press for the publication of Amer- ican works, especially those based on Indian themes. He was the first recipient of the Com- posers’ Fellowship awarded by the Pasadena Musie and Art Association (1921). In his com- positions he employs chiefly Indian themes. He published collections of Indian melodies and folk-songs of the South and West and was known as a writer on his subject, particularly through his former associate editorship of Musical America. FASCISM. Fascism (Italian, fascismo) denotes an ultranationalistic regenerative move- ment which played a prominent role in the post- bellum development of Italy, 1919-24, and which spread to Spain, Bavaria, and other coun- tries. The central impulse of Fascism was na- tionalism, an ideal generating in turn the de- termination to extricate Italy from chaos, to give her moral unity, to make her a new state, and to make it an axiom and a creed with every one that all social progress must be through and by the nation. Fascism came into power with dramatic suddenness, a movement of emo- tion and action fusing together in the crucible of patriotism the most diverse elements of Ital- ian society: soldiers back from the trenches, business men, peasants, and proletarians. The first groups of Fascisti were formed in March, 1919, at the very moment when Italy’s national- ist claims to Fiume were being disputed at Paris, while within Italy communist agitators were boldly preaching not only social revolution but also antimilitayism and pacifism. The two- fold aim of the original Fascisti was to suppress communism and exalt patriotism. Taking their name from the Latin fasces, the bundle of rods wrapped round an ax to indicate power to pun- ish offenders, the Fascisti assumed the right to enforce order by using violence against socialists and pacifists. Unlike members of the American Ku Klux Klan, the Fascisti did not conceal their identity; but like the Klan, they appreciated the emotional appeal of uniforms, organization, and sonorously titled officers. Each active mem- ber of the Fascist organization wore a black shirt, oftentimes decorated with war medals; for many had fought with distinction in the War. The organization was very elaborate, modeled on the ancient Roman imperial army. Strict discipline bound rank and file to obedi- ence. And at the head of the movement was the forceful Benito Mussolini, a blacksmith’s son, once a socialist, and later editor of the patriotic Popolo d’Italia. During the early stages of the movement, two phases of activity were most notable. First and foremost, the Fascisti, as has been said, —_ ~~ FASCISM 445 were patriots, superpatriots, and they expressed their loyalty to Italy by forcibly suppressing pacifist demonstrations, by conducting prop- -aganda in favor of Italy’s most extreme terri- torial claims, to the Tirol, Istria, Fiume, Dal- matia, Albania, ete.; and by inculeating a spirit of devotion, almost of worship, toward the na- tional state. One very significant manifesta- tion of this nationalist devotion was the scorch- ing criticism which the Fascisti heaped on the “outworn and incapable governments which had become a menace to the development of Italy and under whose rule the authority of the state had fallen into decadence and decay.” Fascist writ- ers and speakers, with this phase of their move- ment in mind, often described Fascism as a “spiritual revolt.” Secondly, Fascism was anti- communist. From 1919 to 1922 it waged a sort of guerrilla warfare against socialism in Italy; Fascisti roughly dispersed Socialist party meet- ings, raided Socialist printing offices and head- quarters, and administered novel and ingenious forms of physical punishment to leading Com- munists. Further, it organized labor unions of its own, found work for the unemployed with Fascist capitalists, and thanks to its success in these directions, soon began to accept the affilia- tion of unions which deserted socialism. To prevent the landless peasants of southern Italy and Sicily from joining forces with the social revolution, the Fascisti took it on themselves in many localities to cut the Gordian knot of the agrarian problem by compelling landlords to subdivide and sell their estates, or by per- suading friendly landowners to offer small plots for sale to peasants. So effective were these measures that communism in Italy was, if not annihilated, at least compelled to work under- ground, and even the more moderate political socialism was reduced to impotence. By 1921, Fascism, in the words of Mussolini himself, was no longer “liberation but tyranny; no longer the safeguard of the nation, but the upholding of private interests and of the most grovelling and unenlightened classes existing in Italy.” Cesare Rossi, one of Mussolini’s chief lieuten- ants, likewise said, “Fascism has become, in truth, an entirely conservative and reactionary movement. ... Jt reacts with foolish and pur- poseless cruelty against everything that tells of progress in the life of to-day... . That very character of petty, overbearing tyranny, of which we used to accuse the Socialist party in the days .. . of their supremacy, has now been transferred to the vory heart of the Fascist movement.” As the organization became more powerful, it entered its political phase. Indeed, now that it embraced workingmen and peasants as well as bourgeois and militarists, it could no longer pursue a clear-cut policy in economic matters, nor could it survive permanently by merely talking about patriotism. Political action was a necessity as well as a logical Consummation of the order’s career. Gradually the Fascisti gained control of many municipalities, using violence where votes would not avail. Then their leaders looked to Rome. Mussolini grew more insistent in his declarations that the ex- isting parliamentary government, headed by a vacillating coalition cabinet, was unrepresenta- tive and unworthy of Italy. Soon he had the temerity to demand for himself and his follow- ers places in the cabinet. Meeting refusal, he became but more ambitious. In October, 1922, FAULHABER he compelled the Ministry to resign and installed a Fascist cabinet. See Iraty, History. The Fascisti preserved their organization as a sort of unofficial militia on which Mussolini could, if need be, rely; at the same time they constituted themselves a political party for parliamentary and electioneering purposes. Though he had denounced the inefficiency and unrepresentative character of parliamentary government, Mussolini utilized Parliament to earry out his own policies, and after he had won a sweeping electoral victory, his adminis- tration became in form at least a responsible government, like its despised predecessors. One marked difference characterizing Fascist rule, however, was the fact that force was relied on as an expedient to be employed if democracy failed. “I declare,” said Mussolini in 1923, “that my desire is to govern, if pos- sible, with the consent of the majority, but in order to obtain, to foster, and to strengthen that consent, I will use all the force at my disposal.” All else failing, “there is always force.” This was the aspect of Fascism that appealed so strongly to ambitious leaders in Spain, Bavaria, Bulgaria, Mexico, and many another country: if votes fail, there is always violence. In economic policy since 1922, the Fascists emphasized chiefly the reform of governmental finance. In reducing expenditures, to balance the budget, they performed fiscal miracles. For labor, they enacted an eight-hour day law and a collective agreements law designed to promote collective bargaining between organized labor and organized capital. This was their sub- stitute, in practice, for the state socialism, the syndicalism, or the communism which radical workers had desired. State monopolies, such as telephone service, matches, etc., were handed over to private companies, in accordance with the Fascist principle of maintaining private en- terprise and combating state socialism. In re- ligion, the Fascisti, in power, were partisans of reconciliation between Catholic and non-Catho- lic; they restored compulsory religious instruc- tion; and they endeavored to establish more cordial relations with the Vatican—all for the sake of that national unity which, to their way of thinking, should transcend all else. This brings us, finally, to the patriotic or nation- alist aspect. In keeping with its ardent na- tionalism, Fascism insisted on improvement of military, naval, and, above all, air forces; it revived interest in the colonies; it persistently cherished irredentist hopes for Fiume until in 1924 Mussolini was able to obtain the coveted city; it was ready to burst into hot flames of chauvinist emotion at any slight to national honor. Such a force, as the Corfu incident only too clearly showed, could be a peril to European peace as well as a temptation to aggression. See ITALy. FATIGUE. See PsycHotocgy, ABNORMAL. FAULHABER, MicHarL von (1869- ya A bishop of Munich, born at Heidenfeld. | He took his degree at the University of Wiirzberg and spent some years in Rome. He is the author of works of timely import, among them Petrus Stirbt Nicht (1903); Die Vesperpsalmen (1906); Schule und Religion (1907); Priester und Volk (1911); Hirtenbriefe (1912); Char- akterbilder aus der Biblischen Frauenwelt (1920); Die Fretheit der Kirche (1913); Waf- fen des Lichtes (1918); Das Schwert der Geis- ter (1918); Trennung von Kirche und Staat FAULKNER 446 (1919); Zeitfragen und Zeitaufgaben (1920) ; and Das Papsttum in Unserer Demokratischen Zeit (1920). FAULKNER, JOHN ALFRED (1857- ye An American church historian (see Vou. VIII). He published Wesley as Sociologist, Theologian, Churchman (1918), Value of Study of Church History (1920), and Modernism and the Chris- tian Faith (1921). FAY, Apert Hitt (1871- ). An Amer- ican mining engineer, born in Appleton City, Mo. He graduated from the Missouri School of Mines in 1902 and took post-graduate courses at Columbia. He was in charge of mining op- erations in Mexico, Alaska and Tennessee until 1908, when he joined the editorial staff of the Engineering and Mining Journal, He served with the Bureau of Mines from 191] to 1920, and from the latter date was valuation en- gineer with the Internal Revenue Bureau. From 1921 he was also head of the natural resources division of that bureau. He wrote Coal Mine Fatalities in the United States, 1870 to 1916 (1916); Glossary of the Mining and Mineral Industry (1920). He also wrote numerous tech- nical bulletins. FAY, Henry (1868-— ). An American chemist, born in Williamsport, Pa. He gradu- ated from Lafayette College in 1889 and took post-graduate courses at Johns Hopkins. He was instructor at that university from 1893 to 1895, and from the latter date to 1920 was a member of the faculty of the Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology, becoming professor of analytical chemistry and metallography in 1920. He was also consulting chemist for sev- eral large corporations and was lecturer at the United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy. He wrote Microscopic Examination of Steel, 1917, and contributed articles on chemistry and metallography to vari- ous journals. FAYANT, Frank H._ (1876- ) eA American publicist, born at Fort Plain, N. Y., and educated at Cornell University. He worked on various newspapers from 1895 to 1900, act- ing as war correspondent for the New York Sun in the West Indies from 1898 to 1900. In the latter year he was London correspondent for the New York Herald and served other Amer- ican magazines and journals until 1911, when he became a member of the editorial staff of the banking and currency reform campaign. He served during the World War in various im- portant capacities and is author of Fools and Their Money (1907), Government and the Rail- roads (1919), To Increase Railroad Efficiency (1922), and other works: FAYOLLE, Marie Emite (1852- JnncA French soldier. He was educated at the Supe- rior School of War and for several years served as instructor at that institution. In 1903 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel and became gen- eral in 1910. In 1914 he commanded the artil- lery brigade of Vincennes, and in the same year was made commander of the 70th Division of Infantry. In the year following he was made commander of the 33d Army Corps, and later of the 6th French Army. He was given command of the French forces in Italy in December, 1917. He greatly distinguished himself in the first French offensive in Lorraine, in 1914, by ener- getic action which held up the German advance. He also performed important service in the bat- tles of Arras. His name is chiefly connected, FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES however, with the battle of Somme, in 1915. Here he commanded the 4th French Army. In 1918 he was given command of a group of armies which included a part of the American Expedi- tionary Force. His efforts in withstanding the movements of the Germans at Amiens in 1918 were especially effective. In 1920 he visited the United States as a representative of General Foch at the convention of the American Legion. FAZY, HENR1 (1842-1920). A Swiss Radical statesman and historian, born at Berne. He studied philosophy and law at Geneva; in 1860, he became a member of the cantonal parliament, and in 1897, a member for the remainder of his life of the cantonal executive. Like his great- uncle, James Fazy, he played a prominent part in Radical politics at Geneva. His proposal to separate the Church and State was not accepted by the Swiss until 1907. He was a member of the Swiss National Council (1896-99, 1902-20), archivist of Geneva, and professor of Swiss his- tory at the University of Geneva (1896-99, 1902-20). Although the Radicals were com- pletely defeated in the election of 1918, he still held his office. His Life of James Fazy ap- peared in 1890, works on the Swiss Government shortly afterward, Histoire de Genéve a VEpoque de lEscalade, 1589-1601 (1902), and Genéve et Charles Emmanuel (1909). FECHTER, Paut (1880- ). A German editor and art-critic. He has been literary and dramatic editor of the Dresdener Neueste Nach- richten, the Vossische Zeitung, and other promi- nent papers, and is the author of Der Expres- sionismus (1914), Frank Wedekind (1920), Das Graphische Werk Max Pechsteins (1920), Die Tragédie der Architektur (1921), and other works. FEDERAL AID ROAD ACT. See Roaps AND PAVEMENTS. FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA. Founded in 1908 by the official action of 30 Protestant denominations in the United States to represent them and act for them in matters of common interest. No control was exercised over the churches; rather it was their own agency for codperation and common expression, directed and controlled by their representatives. Four hundred members elected by the denomina- tional assemblies compose the quadrennial Coun- ceil, which met in 1916 and 1920 and was scheduled to meet in December, 1924. The ex- ecutive committee met annually; the adminis- trative committee, monthly. The activities of the Council during the years between 1914 and 1924 were varied and were carried on through numerous commissions. The commission on international justice and good- will was especially active. It rendered effec- tive service in European relief movements and for several years was of assistance to the Near East Relief. A committee on mercy and relief was appointed, through which, in the summer of 1922, a representative of the Council was sent to Russia to distribute relief, especially to the destitute among the clergy of the Rus- sian church and their dependents; in 1924 it earried on a church campaign for the relief of German children. Through its committee on relations with the Orient a representative of the missionaries of Japan toured the United States in 1924 in the interest of good feeling be- tween this country and the eastern races; in return a Christian embassy was sent to Japan : ; FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES 447 the following year. This Committee made in- vestigations on the Pacific coast of the Japanese problem in the United States and in 1919 started a movement to urge Congress to in- troduce an amendment to the Constitution ad- mitting to citizenship in the United States Chinese and Japanese already in this coun- try, but at the same time in no way affect- ing the Chinese Exclusion Act and other im- migration laws. In 1922-23 a special com- missioner was in the Orient in the interest of furthering a better understanding between the eastern and western worlds. The commission on international justice and goodwill also, when the Disarmament Confer- ence was assembled at Washington, worked through the churches to influence public opin- ion in favor of its proposals. On the suc- cessful completion of the treaties on disarma- ment it continued its activities unabated to secure the participation of the United States in permanent organized codperation for world peace and human welfare. During 1924 it concen- trated attention on the entrance of the United States into the Permanent Court of Interna- tional Justice. In May, 1917, the Federal Council held a special meeting to consider the problems of the churches arising from the entrance of the United States into the War. There was organ- ized, to codrdinate the work of the denomina- tions in behalf of the soldiers and sailors, the general war-time commission of the churches. It also worked with the various relief agencies in Europe. On its dissolution in 1919 it ap- pointed a committee on the War and the re- ligious outlook, made up of a few representa- tives of the larger churches, to study the state of religion as revealed or affected by the War. It issued several volumes setting forth the re- sults of its findings, including The Church and Industrial Reconstruction and Christian Unity: Its Principles and Possibilities. Other commissions took up the relief and reconstruction work of the Council in Europe after the close of the War, assisted the churches in the devastated countries, and were active in initiating and preparing the way for a uni- versal conference of the Church of Christ on life and work, to be held in 1925 for the pur- pose of considering how the churches of the world can bring about a fuller application of the Christian gospel to modern life. The commission on the church and _ social service was actively engaged in efforts to im- prove industrial relations and promote the in- telligent codperation of the churches in commu- nity service and in support of such social move- ments as prison reform and the abolition of child labor. Many of the contacts for this work were formed during the War when the commission codperated with the Red Cross in army and navy centres, industrial centres, and Negro communities. The department of research and education de- voted itself chiefly to bringing together and in- terpreting social data made available by vari- ous research organizations in so far as they bore on the work of organized religion. Cer- tain original studies were made, as in the case of industrial disputes where the human factors were an important element in the situ- ation. The department issued a weekly informa- tion service and occasional bulletins on par- ticular subjects; for example, wages, hours of FEDERN work ete. It maintained, jointly with the Na- tional Catholic Welfare Council and the Cen- tral Conference of American Rabbis, a con- ference on economic factors in international re- lations which in 1924 was preparing educational material for the churches on the economic basis underlying hostile relations between govern- ments. In 1918 the Council introduced carefully prepared lessons in international peace into the Sunday schools and also took up the matter of religious instruction in codperation with the public schools. It developed codperation be- tween the various denominational commissions on evangelism, making available for all those methods which each had found most success- ful; carried on temperance education, through prohibition pamphlets and motion pictures; and made a survey of religious conditions in rural communities throughout Ohio. The committee on the church and race rela- tions was organized in 1921 to bring about fuller codperation between whites and Negroes. There were also permanent committees on army and navy chaplains, on religious work in the Canal Zone, on the interchange of preachers and speakers between the churches of Amer- ica, Great Britain and France, and an edito- rial council of the religious press. The publicity department issued the bi-monthly Federal Coun- cil Bulletin. The presidents of the Council during the period were Dean Shailer Mathews, 1912-16; the Rev. Frank Mason North, 1916- 20; and Dr. Robert E. Speer, 1920-24. FEDERAL FARM LOAN ACT. See Aari- CULTURAL CREDIT. FEDERAL HORTICULTURAL BOARD. See HorTICULTURE. FEDERAL LAND BANKS. See AGRICUL- TURAL CREDIT. FEDERAL POWER COMMISSION. See WATER POWER. FEDERAL RESERVE BANKING SYS- TEM. See FINANCE AND BANKING; AGRICUL- TURAL CREDIT; UNITED STATES, History. FEDERAL TERRITORY. A territory of the Australian commonwealth lying within the state of New South Wales. Area, 940 square miles; population in 1911, 1714; in 1922, 2592. The site for a Federal capital and a _ port was acquired from New South Wales in 1909 and work was begun in 1913 on the construc- tion of the commonwealth’s capital city. An additional area of 28 miles at Jervis Bay was added for the purpose of establishing a naval college. Progress on the work was seriously retarded during the War. By 1922, upwards of $5,000,000 had been spent. FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION. See TRUSTS. FEDERAL WATER POWER ACT. See WATER POWER. FEDERATION INTERALLIEE DES AN- CIENS COMBATTANTS. See Lecion, AMERI- CAN. FEDERATION: OF LABOR, AMERICAN. See Laspor, AMERICAN FEDERATION OF. FEDERN, Kari (1868-— ). An Austrian critic, translator, and authority on Dante. He was born in Vienna. He studied law at the University of Vienna and practiced it before he turned to literature. He traveled in Italy, Eng- land, and France and has written on a great variety of subjects. His earliest works, includ- ing Gedichte (1893) and Kénig Philipps Frau- FELAND 448 en (1894) were poetical, but he soon abandoned verse for prose. His book on the Vita Nuova, Das Neue Leben des Dante Alighieri (1897), was the forerunner of his Dante, a biography (1900), which has been translated into other languages. ‘Two noteworthy books of essays are Essays zur Amerikanischen Litteratur (1899) and Hssays zur Vergleichenden Litteraturge- schichte (1904). Other works are Frauenrecht und Logik (1904) and the book in which he branded the attitude of Italian judges toward women, Der Prozes Bonmartini-Murri (1906), translated into Italian and French. He also wrote some fiction, Zwei Novellen (1899), Rosa Maria (1901), and Die Flamme des Lebens (1906), and edited a collection of the world’s fiction, Hundert Novellen (1912-13). As a stu- dent of seventeenth-century France he wrote Der Chevalier Grammont (1910) and Schriften und Briefe des Herrn St. Hvremond (1912). To the literature of the War he contributed Die Politik der Dreiverbiindeten (1915). He has translated Emerson, Edward Carpenter, Mesnil, Whitman, Croce, and others. FELAND, Logan (1869- ). An Ameri- ean soldier, born in Hopkinsville, Ky. He grad- uated from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology in 1892. He served in the Spanish- American War and in 1899 was appointed first lieutenant in the’ Marine Corps. He was pro- moted to be major in 1916, colonel in 1918, and brigadier-general in 1920. He served in the Philippines, Panama, Cuba and Santo Domingo. He was commander of the 5th Regiment of Marines in 1918 and the 2d Brigade of Marines in Santo Domingo in 1919-20. For distin- guished service in France, he was three times awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm, and was made an Officer of the Legion of Honor. He also received the Army D. 8S. M. and the Navy D. 8S. M. for distinguished service. FELDEN, Emiu J. (1874- ). A German clergyman and author, born at Montigny (near Metz), and educated at the Gymnasium and the University of Strassburg. After serving as vicar and then pastor in various places, he was finally made primate of St. Martini, Bremen, in 1907. In 1904 he was editor of the Elsés- sische Tageblatt of Colmar. He became a mem- ber of the Bremen Biirgerschaft in 1920. Be- sides articles on religion and ethics in news- papers and periodicals, he is the author of nu- merous works, among them Im (Gebirgsdorf, a novel (1899); Die Protestantische Kirche in Deutschland (1902); Kirchlicher Liberalismus und Radikalismus (1908) ; Kénigskinder (1914) ; Kind und Gottesglaube (1915); Grundriss eines Freien Religionsunterricht (1916); Menschen von Morgen (1918); Im Kampf um Frieden (1919); Die WSiinde des Vatikans (1920); Spiritismus und Andere Okkulten Systeme (1920); Sieghafte Menschen (1920), and Die Siinde wider das Volk (1921). He became the editor of the periodical Hs Werde Licht in 1920. FELLOWSHIPS. See COLLEGES. FELTON, Lwuoyp Derr (1885- )aaAn American physician who, having received the de- gree of M.D. from Johns Hopkins, became at- tached to the Laboratory of Bacteriology and Immunology there. He resigned to accept a similar position at Harvard. In 1924, after researches pursued under the auspices of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, he an- UNIVERSITIES AND FERGUSON nounced the discovery of an antipneumonic serum which had already shown the ability to reduce greatly the mortality of that disease and had received the approbation of prominent health officers. Dr. Felton has recently been appointed assistant professor of hygiene and preventive medicine at Harvard. FELTON, SAMvuEL Morse (1853- ). An American railway official (see Von. VIII). He was appointed director-general of military rail- roads by the Secretary of War in 1917 and was chairman of the port and harbor facilities com- mission of the United States Shipping Board in 1918-19 and was acting chairman of the board in 1919. He was president of the West- ern Railway Association and a member of sev- eral engineering and patriotic societies. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for his war-time services and was also awarded the Cross of the Legion of Honor by the French government. FEMINISM. See WoMAN SUFFRAGE; WoMEN IN INDUSTRY; PAINTING, France; AND ScutpTureE, United States. FENCING. See Sports. FENOLLOSA, Mary McNeEru (“SIDNEY Mc Catv”). An American author, born at Mobile, Ala., and educated at Irving Academy in that city. She is the author of entertaining stories, some of them dealing with Japan, where she lived for some years. Her works include A Flight of Verses (1899), The Dragon Paint- er (1906), The Breath of the Gods (1906, 1920), Blossoms from a Japanese Garden (1915), Sunshine Beggars (1918), The Stirrup Latch (1917), Christopher Laird (1919), and others. She edited her husband’s Hpochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. FERBER, Epna (1887—- ). An American novelist and short story writer, born at Kala- mazoo, Mich. After studying at the Appleton (Wis.) High School, she became a reporter on the Appleton Daily Crescent, and was later em- ployed on the Milwaukee Journal and Chicago Tribune. Miss Ferber’s writings are charac- terized by understanding and alertness of thought. She has published Dawn O’Hara (1911), Buttered Side Down (1912), Roast Beef Medium (1913), Personality Plus (1914), Emma McChesney & Co. (1915), Fanny Her- self (1917), Cheerful by Request (1918), Half Portions (1919), The Girls (1921) ; the comedy, Our Mrs. McChesney, in collaboration with George V. Hobart; Gigolo (1922), and So Big (1924). FERDINAND I, Kine or _ BULGARIA (1861- ). (See Vou. VIII.) In 1918 he abdicated in favor of his son Boris and re- tired to Coburg. FERGUSON, Este (1885- ). An Amer- ican actress, born in New York. She made her first appearance at the Madison Square Theatre in Liberty Belles. She starred in The Outcast, Margaret Schiller, and Shirley Kaye. In 1917 she went into motion pictures in Barbary Sheep and later did excellent work in Rose of the World, The Avalanche, The Witness for the De- fense, Footlights, and Peter Ibbetson, She re- turned to the speaking stage in 1920 in Sacred and Profane Love and appeared in The Varyin Shore (1921). FERGUSON, Frank WILLIAM (1861— ‘4 An American architect, born at Portsmouth, N. H., and educated at Dartmouth College. As a member of the firm of Cram and Ferguson he — OE = SO a ee ee” a FERGUSON helped plan buildings at the United States Military Academy at West Point, Saint Thomas’s Church in New York City, Prince- ton University, Richmond College, Williams College, and Rice Institute at Houston, Tex. FERGUSON, JoHN CaALvIN (1866- ). An American in the service of the Chinese sov- ernment (see Vor. VIII). He was counselor in the Chinese Department of State in 1915-17 and became adviser to the President of the Republic of China in 1917. He was a delegate to the Disarmament Conference (1921). FERNALD, Rospert HEywoop (1871-— "4 An American engineer, born at Orono, Me. He studied at the Maine State College and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Case School of Applied Science, and Columbia Uni- versity. For several years he was a member of the faculty of the Case School, and from 1902 to 1907 was professor of mechanical en- gineering at Washington University. From 1907 to 1912 he was professor of mechanical engineering at the Case School, and from 1912 to 1921 was Whitney professor of dynamical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. From the latter date he was director of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at that university. He was a member of many engi- neering societies and was the author of many reports and bulletins relating to the conserva- tion of the fuel resources of the United States. FERNOW, Bernyuarp Epuarp (1851-1923). An American forester and educator (See Vot. VIII). From 1907 to 1919 he was dean of the faculty of forestry at the University of Toron- to and in the latter year was retired as pro- fessor emeritus. FERRAN Y CRUA, Jaime (1852-1919). A Spanish bacteriologist and sanitarian, contem- porary of Koch and said by his fellows to have made some of the latter’s discoveries inde- pendently and to have anticipated many im- portant developments in the prevention of epi- demic diseases. As early as 1885 he wrote on immunization against cholera. In 1893 his work on this subject was translated into French with the title L’Inoculation préventive contre le Cholera. Recently (1921) Fernandez, a Span- iard, published a considerable volume, with a Latin title, Woe to Great Inventors, seeking to show that Ferran had anticipated the methods of immunization practiced successfully in the War by 30 years. Another subject in which Ferran was always deeply interested is tuber- culosis and the possibility of immunization against it. Some of his ideas on the transmis- sion and virulence of this disease are revolu- tionary. FERRI, Enrico (1856— ). An Italian criminologist (see Vor. VIII). After 1914 he published Jl Diritto Staccionata (1916); L’Azi- one di Risarcimento dei Danni dell’ Imputato Assolto contro il Denunziante (1916); Enrico Pessina ed il Pensiero Italiano sulla Giustizia Penale Discorso Commemorativo (1917), and Commissione Reale per la Reforma della Leggi Penali (French, English, German translations; 1921). His Criminal Sociology appeared in a new English translation in 1917. He is the subject of one of the chapters in Giovanni Pa- pini’s Ventiquattro Cervelli; Saggi non Critict (1918). FERRIS, Davin Lincotn (1864- ). An American bishop, born at Peekskill, N. Y., and educated at the Peekskill Military Acadamy, 449 FERTILIZERS the Cayuga Lake Military Academy, Hobart College (Geneva, N. Y.), and the Berkeley Di- vinity School (Middletown, Conn.). He was ordained priest in the Protestant Episcopal Chureh in 1894, having become deacon in the year preceding. He held several pastorates from 1893 to 1920, becoming in the latter year suffragan bishop of the diocese of Western New York. He served on various religious boards and committees and was made a trustee of Hobart College. FERRIS, Wooppripce NATHAN (1853- yi An American educator and public official (see Vou. VIII). He was governor of Michigan, 1913-14 and 1915-16, and was elected United States Senator for 1923-29. FERTILIZERS. The term fertilizer as used in this article includes not only com- mercial fertilizers, but also farm manures and other substances added to the soil to increase its productiveness. It therefore includes ma- terials which not only furnish plant food but perform other functions in correcting soil defi- ciencies and promoting plant growth. During and immediately following the War, the price of commercial fertilizers was prohibitively high, with the result that the use of fertilizers was seriously curtailed to the detriment of the manufacturer and the farmer. The effect of the War upon the production and price of fer- tilizers is strikingly indicated by the fact that there were produced in the United States in 1921, 5,994,179 tons (of 2000 Ib. each) of fer- tilizers valued at $174,878,864, as compared with 8,432,206 tons valued at $153,260,212 in 1914. Fertilizer prices reached their. peak in 1919. Recognizing the need for cheaper fertilizers, the Tariff Act of 1922 exempted from duty all materials used chiefly for fertilizing, as well as sulphuric acid, an essential in the fertilizer industry. Prices in 1924 were about 1913 levels plus the increased cost of labor and freight. It is estimated that freight alone on raw ma- terials and finished product represents 25 to 30 per cent of the average cost of fertilizers to farmers. This emphasizes especially the im- portance of high grade concentrated fertilizers and fully justifies the recent effort which is being made to reduce the number of fertilizer formulas and to encourage the use of only high grade mixtures. The experience of the ten years 1914-24 demonstrated strikingly the precarious nature of the world’s supply of raw materials for _ fertilizers in times of disturbed commerce, par- ticularly that of nitrogen. Nitrogen for fertil- izer purposes is largely drawn from the nitrate deposits of Chile, but these are steadily de- clining in quantity and quality and increasing in cost of mining and delivery to consumers. Moreover, this source of supply may be cut off entirely in times of war or other disturbed con- ditions. The production of sulphate of am- monia as a by-product of coke ovens cannot be expected to meet the world’s needs, and or ganic sources of nitrogen, such as cottonseed meal, slaughterhouse products, and the like, are being more profitably utilized for other pur- poses. Fertilizer nitrogen must therefore come in increasing proportion from other sources. Fixation of the nitrogen of the air by electrical processes offers an inexhaustible supply. The world’s production of fixed nitrogen increased from about 1 to 35 or 40 per cent of the total production of nitrogen fertilizer between FERTILIZERS 1914 and 1924. In 1910 Germany imported 65 per cent of the nitrogen compounds she used. In 1924, largely because of development of. fixa- tion processes, she was practically independent in this respect. A considerable ‘fixed nitrogen industry also was developed in Norway, but practically nothing had been achieved in this direction in the United States up to 1924, al- though, with an appropriation of $20,000,000 carried in the National Defense Act, construc- tion was begun in 1916 at Muscle Shoals, Ala., of a plant estimated to have a capacity of 40,000 tons of fixed nitrogen per year. This plant had not been completed and operated, and President Coolidge recommended to Congress that it be sold, subject to recall in time of war and with a proviso requiring further investi- gation with the object of cheapening the cost of the fertilizer produced. Various offers and proposals were under consideration by Con- gress. (See MusScLE SHOALS.) A Fixed Nitro- gen Laboratory was established in 1919 by the Secretary of War, under the National Defense Act, to aid in developing the industry and espe- cially for perfecting methods. This laboratory, transferred to the Department of Agriculture in 1921, reported the discovery of a catalyst which it was believed would increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of the fixation process. The various products of the fixation processes, in- cluding cyanamide, nitrates, urea, with the pos- sible exception of cyanamide, have shown fer- tilizing effects comparable with those of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia, although some of them are difficult to use because of their hygroscopic nature. Urea has, however, proved to be an effective nitrogen carrier on all types of soils tested. Phosphoric acid is almost universally needed by the soils of the United States, but fortu- nately the natural supply of phosphates is abundant (estimated at over 10,500,000,000 tons), as are the materials necessary for con- verting it into available form. The production of acid phosphate, the form in which phosphate is most commonly used as a fertilizer, was 3,367,220 tons (of 2000 pounds each) in the United States in 1923. The preparation of acid phosphate by the usual method of treat- ment with sulphuric acid requires a high grade of rock phospnate and results in great waste of the lower grades. Effort therefore has been made to find a process which will utilize the low grade phosphates. The Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture has developed such a process. This consists of smelting rock phosphate with silica and carbon and condensing and collecting the volatilized phosphoric anhydride which is used in the preparation of highly concentrated fertilizer compounds. Reduction of rock phosphate by means of sulphur undergoing bacterial oxida- tion, as proposed by Lipman, was one of the newer developments and appeared to have prac- tical possibilities. The necessities of the War led to strenuous efforts to develop a potash industry in this country, utilizing for this purpose especially certain western dry lake deposits, kelp, alunite, and dust of cement works, and blast furnaces; but while the industry prospered with war-time prices and fostering, it did not grow to any great proportions, the annual output never ex- ceeding 50,000 tons, and it practically disap- peared when prices fell and the German potash 450 . Fixation and Utilization of Nitrogen FEVRIER salts were again available. Hope of develop- ing a domestic potash industry has, however, been revived by results of recent studies by the United States Geological Survey, confirming earlier indications of the occurrence of exten- sive and commercially workable deposits of potash in the Permian salt beds of western Texas and eastern New Mexico similar to those of Stassfurt and Alsace. The scarcity and high price of potash fertilizers during and immedi- ately following the War resulted in a great re- duction in the use of such fertilizers, and while this proved to be a distinct disadvantage in some cases, it also indicated other conditions under which potash fertilizers may not give a profitable return. The growing relative scarcity of manure has led to efforts to find an efficient substitute for it. The Rothamsted Experimental Station reported a fair degree of success with an artificial manure consisting of a fermented mixture of straw, chalk, and ammonium sulphate. Attention has also been turned anew to the possibility of greater use of peat and city refuse, to better methods of preserving manure and to steriliza- tion as a means of prolonging the efficient use of manure in greenhouse culture and market gardening, but the most hopeful advance in meeting this situation has probably been made in the direction of showing the large extent to which commercial fertilizers may replace manure. The need for liming is widespread and is often increased by the use of commercial fertil- izers, as is especially evident in the case of continued use of sulphate of ammonia. Lime corrects acidity, creates favorable bacteriological conditions in the soil, and sometimes supplies needed plant food. It appears also to be an efficient means of controlling certain plant dis- eases, as, for example, finger-and-toe disease of cabbage, turnips, and similar plants; but it increases scab in potatoes. The different forms of lime, oxide, carbonate, and hydrate, appear to be about equally effective if equally fine and used in amounts supplying the same amount of lime (CaO). See also PHOSPHATE Rock. Bibliography. S. B. Haskell, Farm Fertility (New York and London, 1923); E. J. Russell, Manuring for Higher Crop Production, 2d ed. (Cambridge, England, 1917); A. C. Girard, Les Engrais, Emploi Raisonné et Lucratif (Paris, 1922); R. Heinrich and O. Nolte, Diinger und Diingen, 8th ed. (Lerlin, 1922); Report on the (United States Department of War, Document 2041) ; W. H. Waggaman et al., Investigations of the Manufacture of Phosphoric Acid by the Volatil- ization Process (United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 1179, December, 1923) ; P. Krische, Das Kal (Stuttgart, 1923); W. H. Ross, A. R. Merz, and C. R. Wagner, The Re- covery of Potash as a By-product in the Ce- ment Industry (United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 572, October, 1917); A. R. Merz and W. H. Ross, The Recovery of Potash as a By-product in the Blast-furnace Industry (United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 1226, March, 1924). FEVRIER, Henri (1875- ). A French dramatic composer, born in Paris. He received his musical education at the Conservatoire under Pugno, Leroux, Fauré and Massenet. His repu- tation rests on the success of a single work, Monna Vanna (Paris, 1909; Boston, 1913). FEWKES 451 In 1919 he visited the United States for the purpose of witnessing the world premiére of his Gismonda by the Chicago Opera Company. Be- sides these operas he wrote Le Roi Aveugle (Paris, 1906) and the operettas Agnés, dame galante (1912), La Princesse et le porcher (1912), and Carmosine (1914), all produced in Paris. FEWKES, JESSE WALTER (1850- ). An American anthropologist (see Vou. VIII). He has contributed largely to anthropological and other magazines and was appointed chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology in 1918. FICKE, ArtHur DaAvipson (1883- yee cAn American author, born at Davenport, lowa, and educated at Harvard and the College of Law of the University of Iowa. He taught English at the latter institution and was admitted to the bar in 1908. Among his recent works are Sonnets of a Portrait Painter (1914), The Man on the Hilltop (1915), Chats on Japanese Prints (1915), An April Elegy (1917), and Spectra, with Witter Bynner (1917). FICTION. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. FIELD, HAMILTON EASTER (1873-1922). An American artist, born at Brooklyn, N. Y. He studied at the Polytechnic Institute, at Colum- bia and Harvard Universities and under Ra- phael Collin and Fantin-Latour at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. Shortly before his death he inaugurated the Salons of America, of which he was the first president. He was editor of Arts and Decoration, editor and owner of The Arts, the Touchstone Magazine, and The Amer- ican Art Student. He was director of the Thurnseoe School of Modern Art, Ogunquit, Me., and the Ardsley School of Modern Art, Brook- lyn. He was also connected with the Ardsley Studio in Brooklyn and at one time was art editor of the Brooklyn Eagle. FIELD, Hersert HavitAnpd (1868-1921). An American zoélogist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., and educated at Harvard. His published papers at Harvard were mostly on the embryology of the frog, but from 1895 he lived in Zurich (Switzerland), where he organized and adminis- tered the Oonciliwm Bibliographicum, an in- ternational catalogue of scientific literature, which aims to give in card-catalogue form the title of every paper on zodlogy published throughout the world. FIELD ARTILLERY. See ArrIvLeERY. FIELDS, Joun CnHarLes (1863- pat HAs Canadian mathematician (see Vor. VIIT). He became a member of the University of Toronto Senate in 1914 and was president of the Royal Canadian Institute from 1919 to 1922. Largely due to his efforts was the cuccess of the meet- ing of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science at Toronto in 1921. He had much to do with the organizing work in connection with the International Mathematical Congress which met in Toronto in 1924. FIJI ISLANDS. See PACIFIC OCEAN ISLANDS. _FILTRE, Srream Line. See CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL. FILTRES. See SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT. FINANCE AND BANKING. The subject of public finance, customarily restricted to in- clude discussion of revenue and expenditure, may also be taken to cover the discussion of pub- lic debt; and in recent years has frequently FINANCE AND BANKING been employed to include within its scope dis- cussion of banking and credit as well. The term finance is here used in the latter broad sense. Finance in its public aspect includes two distinct fields of thought; the first cover- ing the theory of taxation and of public reve- nue in general, as well as the theory and prac- tice of budgetary management on the part of modern nations, the latter including survey of actual results attained as to revenue and expenditure by principal nations. In banking, discussion is usually divided into two more or less distinct fields, the former dealing with the theory and organization of banking institu- tions, the latter with actual banking systems and results of operation. Prior to the War, steady and consistent ef- fort was made by nations to maintain a dis- tinct line of separation between public finance and banking, the principal connection between the two types of activity being afforded by the operation of central banks in the different coun- tries. During the War, public revenues were in no small degree obtained through banking methods, with corresponding effects upon prices, while governments practically took possession of banking systems with a view to controlling supplies of credit, issues of currency and rates of interest. The result has been that, since the close of the War, a very intimate connection has continued to exist between public finance and banking in actual practice, while levels of prices and other aspects of the general economic situ- ation have felt the effects of financial and banking policies compositely, rather than inde- pendently. Therefore, much discussion of pub- lic finance and of banking is to-day carried on jointly, while the bulk of the consideration of public finance implies specified conditions as to banking; and, conversely, statements of theory and practice in banking are based upon speci- fied assumptions as to financial conditions. Relation of Finance and Banking. Bank- ing is the phase of economic organization, or the economic institution, by means of which the credit function is exercised and through which actual wealth is made available as a means of exchange. Public finance is the science or method whereby governments obtain the re- sources they need, and apply them to designated objects. Evidently where governments become large operators of industry, large owners of wealth, or large consumers, they come to occupy a very important relationship to banking, in- asmuch as they require extensive banking serv- ices and must rely largely on banks for the collection and payment of funds as well as for the transfer of wealth from individuals to the government and vice versa, and for the advance- ment of private resources for government use pending the time when the government has col- lected from taxpayers wealth in sufficient quan- tity to meet its requirements. Moreover, the increasing use of paper currency and the haz- ards involved in leaving its issue unrestrictedly in the hands of the banks have led to the establishment of an intimate relationship be- tween the government and the banking mecha- nism with respect to the control of the circu- lating medium. At the same time, the creation and retirement of such medium, coupled with the variations in the volume of bank credit in other forms, have exerted a direct influence on prices, and hence on the volume of taxation required to furnish means for the government’s FINANCE AND BANKING 452 needs as respects the purchase of commodities and services. Trend of Finance 1914-24. The war and post-war period included in the decade 1914-24 is too recent to permit of a very positive judg- ment with respect to the general trend of methods or currents in public finance. It will require a much longer lapse of time to reach definite conclusions as to the probable outcome of the factors which had been set at work as a result of the War; yet there are outstanding tacts which are deserving of special notice from a descriptive standpoint and which supply the basis for inferences with regard to the probable trend to be followed in the future. Generally speaking, the outstanding feature of the decade is found in the enormous growth of public ex- penditure which has carried the outlays of sub- stantially all modern governments, whether bel- ligerent or neutral, up to figures that before the FINANCE AND BANKING This showing is clearly paralleled in the fact that Great Britain, whose conditions are per- haps closer to those of the United States than are those of any other country, has seen her na- tional expenditure rise from £2.31 per capita in 1890 to £3.52 in 1900, followed by a very mod- erate decline to £3.50 in 1910 and an increase toize2aean 1921. Expenditure of Principal Countries. It is worth while to take careful account also of the expenditure of the principal Continental coun- tries, not only because of the inferences that may be drawn from such comparisons as to the causes of growth of public outlay in the dif- ferent countries but also because of the light that is thereby thrown upon the burdens to which the public of the several nations have been subjected. The accompanying table fur- nishes the data necessary for such a comparison during the war and post-war period. NATIONAL EXPENDITURE (000,000 omitted) Countries 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 United States@ . $ 700 ffasik (20m On (12697 18,515 6,1414 5,166 3,372 3,294 Australiae.4.cs. te 23.1 38.1 65.2 S7.O pees iN Bib 0 kg 92.6 (eo 62.3 United Kingdom . oe LO Tb 560.4 “1,559.0 25198.1 (2569622 59 '2:57953 2195)" 1.079 1,079 910 Germany) @ ec) mark 8,654 25,708 27,723 49,098 53,360 45,573 54,867135,315 300,399 352,291 ranee Wake ie cs franc 6,589 22,804 29,536 36,345 39,419 49,793 29,882 23,262 24,687 23,179 USSG a & Gtk he ruble 2,927 2,898 3,021 4,078 AG 706 3215,402 210 we20,076 922 1,418 Ttaly Ces See iy. lire 3,129 59540 (27411 917,146 25329 28,171 387,689 21,759 20,618 20,618 Austrias Hungary, ‘kronen. 5,210.9) 46,048 pap Heel ae 25,612 eats PEW DO, oom Dito as es? JAPAN gee cutis sis yen 574 648 583 602 714 1,808 1,396 1,584 1,482 1,350 Gara ieee scree ee $ 27 197 296 456 522 712, LOG LUem eee 3845 ate 2 Fiscal year. 81913. °¢ Estimated. 347 SHS War would have been considered purely imag- inative. This enormous growth of public ex- penditure was, in the belligerent countries, the natural result of warfare and its cost, but in the neutral countries was only partly brought about as the indirect result of these factors. Many of the smaller countries, especially those bordering on the scene of action, found it neces- sary to mobilize their armies and to keep large bodies of men ready for defense should such a step become necessary. Yet this alone was not a sufficient influence to bring about the tremen- dous growth of outlay. Added to it was the fact that the enormous inflation of credit and currency in the belligerent countries was re- flected in the neutral states, while the world demand for commodities itself tended to raise prices everywhere; the outcome being a great advance in the price level, of which the net result was to necessitate corresponding increases in the amounts of revenue raised for the public service as expressed in terms of money. This state of things, it should be remembered, came into existence at a time when there was already a general drift towards higher levels of expense, which had already made itself apparent not only with respect to absolute amounts but also in proportion to population. The movement, viewed in the aggregate, may be illustrated by the experience of the United States, which was at first a neutral and later a belligerent, its federal expenditure both absolutely and _ per capita moving as follows: eo ls a ee ne AMERICAN FEDERAL PUBLIC EXPENDITURE Total Year (000,000 Per Capita omitted) _ POO OVA RE: » Ghote ccletenelees $520.8 $6.39 71: Ds. Ong reer Res on cos esis: Lage ae 693.6 Tao0 LOT Dire ee ER ot Gil eos Sean pale 760.5 7.26 LODO Pe Artem oh itels cele slate te ts 6,141.7 Bieta VORSPE Bo ASS Meise ASE! é 3,294.7 29.77 Classfication of Expenditure. Almost as important as the gross amount of expenditure, is its classification as between different pur- poses. Before the War there was everywhere a substantial growth toward an undue outlay for military and naval expenditure, which gave rise to much of the demand for a means of obtain- ing international agreements for the mainte- mance of peace. The drift of public expendi- tures during and after the War greatly exag- gerated this tendency toward the growth of military outlay, while at the same time it natu- rally enlarged the proportion of expenditure go- ing to public debt, due to the fact that the War was necessarily (as will be seen later) so ex- tensively financed upon a_ borrowing basis. While some progress was made after the close of the War in diminishing the amounts directly spent for army and navy, it was still true in 1924, if the public debt be primarily regarded as a legacy of post-war outlays, that the total amount payable for military and naval reasons far exceeded any other category and was prob- ably on the increase. The table on page 453 reviews the development of American Federal government outlays at intervals from 1870 down to the situation during the fiscal year ending in 1923. Whether expenditure has proceeded more rapidly than the growth of wealth in recent decades is another point as to which statistics are very much less positive. It would seem in the main that prior to the War wealth was increasing slightly faster than expenditures. War experience makes the question far more debatable. Comparative Revenues. While there is much advantage to be derived from careful com- parison of the revenues of different countries, the same difficulty inheres in any such comparison that has been noted in connection with expendi- FINANCE AND BANKING 453 FINANCE AND BANKING EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS Civil and :. Interest on Year miscella- War Navy Indians Pensions the Public Total neous @ Debt SEMROMRS Pins watéieiress bt 6s © $64.3 $57.6 $21.7 $3.4 $28.3 $129.2 $309.6 Be ES > eae 63.8 41.1 21.4 8.3 29.4 103.0 274.6 1880 ERR, ty ie ae ee 54.4 38.1 u Us | $53 5.9 56.7 95.7 267.6 Us? ¢ Bil ouen ¢ a eee ee 82.9 42.6 16.0 6.5 56.1 51.38 260.2 uchiha ke gi as ot le ee Sea 94.8 44,5 22.0 6.7 106.9 36.0 318.0 Petinay MPa ld yates, oh eg LE A 82.2 51.8 28.7 9.9 141.3 30.9 356.1 CNC Bem 2 Ghat cegts so tA tale Sob 131.6 134.7 55.9 10.1 140.8 40.1 520.8 Le Ube | Petey ae Ope Raat 127.9 126.1 117.5 14,2 141.7 24.5 567.2 MNO MTEL. Ye x etic. c's) s, fF aeew LT 1.5 189.8 123.1 18.5 160.6 21.3 693.6 1912 APR MT Aces pity ve 172.2 184,1 185.5 20.1 153.5 22.6 689.8 Peed os (NSN chee sth te) 21% ch ota este. 5 8,133.1 1,100.9 629.9 40.5 213.3 1,024.0 6,141.7 USS ah) Bee oe ar 2 se A 1,169.5 SOs) 322.5 45.1 264.1 1,055.0 3,244.7 “Exclusive of postal deficiencies. ; he tl —e ee Le Le a a aes sees siesta sss SS UsSninssistsnasnssn tures. Nevertheless, rough general comparison of outlays, particular- ly for recent years, war necessities and negotia- tions having compelled a closer basis of analysis for the purpose of reducing national expendi- tures and receipts to somewhat the same footing in one country as in others. The figures in the accompanying table furnish comparative data de- signed to contrast revenue and expenditure con- ditions in the several countries over the past decade. Local Versus National Finance. In the United States, particularly, great interest has always attached to the distribution of taxation and expenditure between the Federal and local governments. This is due to the fact that under our peculiar system of State and local govern- ment there has been considerable jealousy be- tween the different grades of administration, as well as more or less conflict in their taxing policy. The War and the developments after it materially affected this relative situation while they widely altered the relationship existing between the amount of Federal and local ex- penditure and income. In 1904, the Census Bu- reau, in a first report on the subject, showed that local expenditures were 61.8 per cent of all governmental outlays in the United States. it is possible to afford a United States have been studied by the Census Bureau, which furnishes the following figures: SS 1902 1912 1922 ( (000 omitted) States and territories $189,165 $306,521 $867,470 COUntICH eres ¢¥ 5x 199,119 307,872 745,000 Cities over 25,000 . 424,763 849,971 1,532,435 Cities 800—25,000 TO, LGM pe meeeton 2) 95,100 All other minor civil CLVISLON Sis ae corer: 2B OFS Od ae iets ac. 1s 248,321 Motalwy Tad vst: $1,107,569 $1,464,364 $4,224,616 General revenues are classified as _ follows: 1902 1922 (000 omitted) General property tax ....... 706,660 3,323,166 Special property and business tax 62,327 256,647 OU CAKES te aay ak isn cece ane oie 16,581 29,140 LAgdOre licensest ioe tke hoe a 55,241 408,271 Other licenses and permits ... veaalt Pines taAnderarieltsy «ss... 5). an 7,962 ) Inventions and grants ..... 60,984 | Donations), aNd Pitts y . oe sss ows 2,903 [ 203,392 Alloy others tive wala. aoe. 25027 | Sources of Public Revenue. The theoretical classification of public revenues employed by most writers on public finance, omitting minor or casual sources of income such as fines and gifts, includes: (1) Prices——By this term is meant the revenue arising from the sale of public property such as land and its products, Similar inquiries in Great Britain showed local usually a small proportion of the income of well NATIONAL (GOVERNMENTAL) INCOME 000,000 ay Countries 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 191 1920 1921 1922 1923 United , States.. $ Fe 698 ftehein a bp iB or 38,665 belo 6,695 5,625 4,109 4,007 Australia. = 2A T 22.4 30.8 34.1 86.8 44.7 52.8 65.5 64.9 59.5° United Kingdom £ FOS.20 226-7) wosGoy, to-du ss FOT-2 889 1,339.6 1,425.9 1,124.9 914,20 Germany. mark 2,350.833,400 3,320 4,340 17,332 9200 53,000 149,600 1,091,600 5,640,900 France... frane 1,239 4,113 4,641 5,811 6,987 11,200 21,170 2,330.2 28,381 19,285 Russia ruble eficae 2,079. 0,644... 3,999 . 16,583 48,959 159,604 4,139,900 368 ¢ 1,056 @ pal ys be vae lire sane 265 eek RS Oo othe o 4,645 22,080 ol, 201 23,052 17,497 17,767 ® Austria Hungary kronen 5210 95,724.84) Ue: 28,668 BUD. | "DPE oa Oats 93,325 209,763 +. > ears Japan.... yen 549 509 513 233 714 122 1,396 1,584 1,482 1,350 Canada... 163 133 127 595 26) 310 400 440 380\=2, 3) ee o 4Gold rubles. | 41913. %Estimated. ° Gold rubles for 9 months. — expenditures for 1910 as 55 per cent. While the increase of local expenditure not only here but in England and in other countries has gone on rapidly measured in absolute figures, being augmented by special causes which are perhaps not permanent in their nature, the relative proportion of local outlay has been reduced, due to the fact that national or Federal expenditures have been so vastly enlarged. For 1920-21, Great Britain’s local expenditures were only 18 per cent of her national total while those of the non-Federal grades of government in the United States, in 1922, were 56 per cent of the total. Local Revenues. Local revenues in the developed states; (2) Charges.—By this term is meant the sums exacted for the particular services, largely industrial, rendered by the state, including post office, telegraph, telephone, railroad, gas and electric light and sale of man- ufactured products; (3) Fees. rey this term is meant the sums exacted for services rendered by publie authorities in the course of adminis- tration of business. Included are court fees, licenses and the like. They are charged upon the theory that they represent the return for a special service which is not enjoyed by the en- tire body of the community. Special assess- ments are grouped under the head of fees by FINANCE AND BANKING most writers; (4) Taxes.—By taxes are meant sums levied upon the citizen as a contribution to the general welfare or for the support for the government in the performance of functions which are so broadly applicable to all citizens that they cannot be apportioned or assigned, while their cost is so great that they must be paid for on a common basis regardless, in some measure, of specific advantage to the individual. The characteristic of the decade 1914-24 has been the great growth of the latter revenue source. American Revenues. The following figures furnish a brief survey of principal sources of revenue in the United States since 1900: RECEIPTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS Income and Year Total Customs Int. Rev. profits tax SA OMEN. chelate us $19.5 5,3 Sides Wiehe hed ks iainis heat ete ERS Ch gp eters 52, are ee 30.0 TSW Alok cna eae Ly WR oteie kote TS5OF t . 4 e 43.6 39 TEM stole stens mellisienaiete aS py os tetere stone 65.3 53. OM bet. te cos cea oat Eee LS GOV at heheirs fates DOL LSE PeA Ae ales eB BS (cm SEMIN EN OS NB GS sow e cleusere ell 84.9 S209°5) Sircte <1 vie TSO Wimsxee. te oe 41 2 194.5 1S4°9 . eee cisteia ts LSD 2 eer ke. 288.0 ST fa? 110.0 e LSS Owes s > ores BoOLw 186.5 LDA OU Siietats LSS ie Nate s co date ae Se, Sep RDS, A Sede TSO Oeics eee 567.2 233.2 OD: eae eenete iso POO Dense te, sce 544.2 261.7 LAD Pei ets te re%s LOD ON ics cotane boys 67535 330.6 2 G80 wea evscclo 6 TOW RA hh dane Seah ae 8 692.6 aye hi Bat 293.0 cele eieacnane LO ZO GR eons ee 6,704.4 DeoLy 1,442.2 3,956.9 O23 Moet at caret ee 3,847.0 DOLD 35.6 1,691.0 Reliance on Direct Taxation. Pre-war finances in many countries relied largely on indirect taxation. In the United States the Federal government was collecting in normal years the great bulk of its income from customs duties and internal revenue charges. During the early war years a small income from direct taxation was also obtained. Great Britain had long had the income tax in effect and it was producing substantially at the opening of the War. Nevertheless Great Britain also relied largely on indirect taxes and the same was true of most countries. The war necessities changed all this and hostilities greatly increased the total burden of taxation and made it absolutely necessary, in order to get the required funds, to rely largely on the proceeds of direct levies. Not only, therefore, was the total burden of taxation very greatly added to, but also the amount paid to governments as direct deduc- tions from income not dependent upon purchase or the performance of specified acts was greatly enlarged. The effect of this change in method of taxation was undoubtedly to make the bur- den of the tax loads very much more obvious and to make it seem more serious than would have been true had it been collected entirely through indirect sources. Efforts to reduce budgets after the close of the War did not prove very successful and it was found in almost all cases that indirect taxation had been carried practically to the extreme of its productivity, while the income and excess profits taxes in this country which depended upon these sources of income predominantly had been raised to a point which was interfering with the growth of wealth. This latter consideration seemed to be of peculiar force in Great Britain and in the United States where during the early post-war years there was an obvious decline in the 454 FINANCE AND BANKING amount of saving due to the fact that taxpayers of large income really engaged in business found it a matter of relative indifference whether to increase their business expenses to a point which consumed what might otherwise have been ad- ditional net income or to pay the latter in large part to the government. With rates on incomes running as high as 60 to 70 per cent the induce- ment to saving beyond a specified limit was not strong. Hence most post-war fiscal policies which aimed at budgetary economy sought to bring about such economy by a reduction in the burden of direct taxation. One outgrowth of this movement was the adoption in November, 1921, of the Income Tax Revision Law in the “United States which eliminated the excess prof- its tax, while in Great Britain the budget esti- mates for the year beginning Apr. 1, 1922, abandoned the idea of further debt reduction during the year in question, excess profits taxes having already been repealed in 1921. The post- war taxation on the Continent naturally fol- lowed a somewhat different course because of the fact that during the War so great a re- luctance to further tax increases had been made manifest. The necessities of such countries as France, Germany, and Italy after the War natu- rally dictated the imposition of new rather than the withdrawal of old taxes because of the necessity of providing means which would carry the very heavy interest charges resulting from the borrowing policies of the War. POST-WAR FINANCE Post-war finance, both in the United States and in Europe, has had three principal objects— the reduction or abolition of the enormous tax- ation of the war period, the funding and con- solidation of the debts created during war, and the reduction of government expenditures. Co- incident with these it has been necessary to find a means of beginning the restoration of bank- ing systems to a sound condition in order that foreign exchange rates might be placed upon a more stable basis and the international flow of trade and of investments be correspondingly facilitated. One principal obstacle to success in these undertakings has been the tangle of in- debtedness existing between the various coun- tries. Such indebtedness represented the aid extended by one country to another during the War, but it was early perceived that in the last analysis there was but one great creditor, the United States and one great debtor, Germany. It was recognized accordingly that the key to the restoration of a sound system of post-war finance was probably to be found in the intro- duction of a satisfactory system of reparation payments which should enable the Allied bhel- ligerents to collect from Germany enough to enable them to offset the bulk of the losses to which they had been subjected and at the same time to settle with their external creditors. The Treaty of Versailles had made no definite dis- position of these questions, leaving final settle- ment to the so-called Reparation Commission, which in March, 1920, announced a scheme of reparation payments whereby Germany’s total obligation was fixed at 135,000,000,000 marks (pre-war gold value). Elaborate details con- cerning the payment of this sum were provided and the bulk of the cash proceeds was assigned to France, Belgium, and Italy The Germans, however, failed to pay more than approximately enough to cover the cost of holding the occupied FINANCE AND BANKING German territory which had been taken by the Allies as security for the liquidation of their claims. Accordingly, France and, in a much lesser degree, some of the other countries that relied on the collection of German indemnities as a means of meeting their budget requirements were unable to obtain the funds necessary to settle the budget obligations they incurred in the belief that they would be able to transfer the cost to the Germans. Hence, their budgets failed to balance, and such reductions in taxa- tion as occurred simply cut away the funda- mental basis upon which a restoration of sound- ness would necessarily rest. Great Britain, which did not rely on any considerable re- ceipts from Germany, was able gradually to restore her exporting power, despite some seri- ous industrial obstacles such as the coal strike of 1921. The pressure for reduction of the ter- rible tax load was severe in all countries, but even in those where a cut might have been made, as in the United States, the recurrence of so- cialistic or semi-socialistic antagonism to wealth and capital resulted in the retention of many war taxes as a peace expedient. The Repub- lican party, elected in the autumn .of 1920, largely on a platform of tax reform, adopted in October, 1921, a so-called tax revision measure which, however, cut the burden of taxation but slightly, although technically repealing the ex- cess profits tax. Great Britain likewise did away with the excess profits tax and similar ac- tion was taken in other countries. Nevertheless, in all the problem of rebalancing, the budget was seen to rest more and more upon the restora- tion of sound banking conditions. Progress toward sound budgetary conditions was greatest in the United States and in Eng- land during 1920 and 1921. In the United States ordinary receipts up to November 12, for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1921, ex- ceeded ordinary disbursements by about $155,- 000,000. The British budgetary situation was less satisfactory, showing deficits in 1920-21, although it was steadily improving. It must be remembered, however, that the main factor in tax policy which accounts for this unfavor- able balance was the reduction in receipts from the excess profits tax. Although certain funds were still coming in on this account from ex- cess earnings during earlier years, there was a decrease during the first six months of 1922 of £82,336,000 from the corresponding period of the year before. In most of the Continental countries the budget situation during 1921, on the contrary, showed no real improvement; in fact, the re- verse, although in the case of France and Italy a certain amount of relative advance was scored. In other words, the total amount of outgo of these countries which had to be made, not from the proceeds of taxation, but ether from short- term bank borrowing or the issuing of currency, increased rather than diminished. Figures for Italian finances for the fiscal years ending June, 1921, and June, 1922, were still in the form of estimates, the actual accounts not being avail- able at the latter date. According to the latest estimates, however, it appeared that the deficit for the year would be only about one-half that for the year ending in June, 1921. In other words, the estimated deficit for 1920-21 amounted to 10,300,000,000 lire, while the esti- mated deficit for 1921-22 ‘worked out at 5,000,- 000,000 lire. The French government contem- 455 FINANCE AND BANKING plated an expenditure for 1921 amounting to 42,412,000,000 frances, as contrasted with re- ceipts of 23,312,000,000 frances, thus leaving a deficit of about 19,000,000,000 franes to be pro- cured by the flotation of loans. Of this deficit, about 16,000,000,000 francs was regarded as eventually recoverable from Germany under the terms of the peace treaty. Of the ordinary re- ceipts, 14,558,000,000 franes were expected from indirect taxes and monopolies. During the first half of 1921 the total public debt of France rose from 245,000,000,000 francs to 264,000,000,000 francs, calculating in both instances the foreign debt at par. This figure does not include loans floated by the cities and industries in the dey- astated regions, although the government is responsible for their interest and repayment. In the case of Germany close estimates of the total amount of government expenditures for 1922 were not available. There has been a prevailing belief for a long time past that the principal element in the existing fiscal difficulties of many countries is to be found in their great outlay for war. This statement is true in broad terms, but requires to be qualified and limited in its application. In some countries, such as the United States, the outlay for war, while a very large part of the total outlay, is in large measure an expense which serves to carry the cost of past wars in the form of interest on public debt. While naval and military expenditure is large in such countries, it is a relatively moderate part of the entire budget. In other countries, like France, the current cost of military support still constitutes a very important fraction of the budgetary outgo. It has, therefore, been thought worth while to compile statements designed to show the comparative situation of the budget in several of the principal countries, with a view to ascertaining approximately how each one of them stands in this matter of expenditure for national defense, especially as compared with the pre-war years. Compared with 1913, the last pre-war year, the amounts of money expended for national de- fense by the governments of France, Italy, and Germany show enormous expansion, but it should be remembered that the purchasing power of the currencies of these countries has undergone varying degrees of depreciation, and that the larger amounts for the more recent years, when reduced to 1913 monetary equivalents, will not show the same degree of expansion as is in- dicated in the table. During the war years the proportion of the total expenditures made for war purposes was in excess of 80 per cent in all three of these countries. In 1920, the proportion had declined to 60 per cent in Germany, to about 50 per cent in France, and, according to preliminary figures not included in the table, to less than 40 per cent in Italy; in Great Britain and the United States the proportion for the fiscal year 1921 was 26 and 24 per cent, re- spectively. Nevertheless, the financial burden upon taxpayers of these countries due to mili- tary expenditures was much heavier than be- fore the War, since national production and income had suffered severely, and fiscal require- ments for rehabilitation and _ reconstruction were an additional drain on national resources and income While the proportion of total ex- penditures devoted to military purposes was, according to the fiscal returns, smaller in some countries in 1922 than before the War, these FINANCE AND BANKING 456 FINANCE AND BANKING GREAT BRITAIN (In jae gamnd of pounds sterling) b a (c) (d) Ratanhes Expenditures Public debt Percent Expendituresfor Percent charges (c) to (b) national defense (d) to (b) 1904--U5RY, faces. 143,370 141,956 27,000 19.8 66,055 48.5 ROLSAL or YO... ee ies 165,778 165,598 24,500 14.8 72,436 43.7 fl OF Gs bi sis ce ee 573,427 2,198,113 127,250 5.9 1,302,603 54.0 OVS 219 ious hee aie eee 842,050 2,579,301 269,965 10.6 1,701,545 70.0 aS Pe 7 Bede hes Sse 1,425,984 1,195,427 349,599 30.5 292,288 25.5 LOZIT—22 PERI Oa 1,160,521 1,079,186 332,300 30.0 189,300 18.4 FRANCE (In thousands of francs) LOUD SMe a, Shatter eats uc rae 3,766,346 706,835 Op, Let 34.9 1,143,820 Bia TOTS A roms anc ae cles 5,091,744 5,066,931 1,284,079 27.2 2,070,530 43.9 VOLT Gas. 8h. Bee D,070,045 * 41,679,600 4,863,686 127 34,065,809 81.7 OT 9 Mab sas eh Aeslivn wey eden 11,300,000 4 793,884 7,986,823 16.3 35,811,390 73.0 PRS PAU Nb arc AR ge 21,770,243 29,882,700 119833;174 DPA 26,432,545 91.7 LOA Une Rs. we icddings cae 23,302,584 23,262,969 13,320,000 57.4 5,027,000 23.0 WO 22H EW Bia A et 23,381,334 24,687,958 13,320,000 5451 4,539,000 18,4 LY (In thousands of lire) I OD Paes ach snot realy ci 1,950,620 1,902,822 574,017 37.6 419,200 22.6 MOUS So eres a Lee 2,385,130 3,289,010 593,220 18.2 1,666,660 50.7 OUT), © =.\0a SR WG. Soe 5,170,430 16,971,000 1,348,119 7.2 14,310,680 84.3 102 Ro Be ee RA ee Ree 22,080,185 22,150,100 2,705,200 8.4 26,974,420 83.9 POZO oe ite. eee) ee oak 37,251,018 28,171,296 3,543,024 AD Om) oi cis aihah planters sltenerte AL) Od Bee each eens er 23,052,003 37,689,951 3,712,790 10.9 5,026,038 13.4 BDZ 2 Lethe hephi ken bs die he 17,497,130 2175 9:255 3,708,272 12.2 3,450,000 15.8 GERMANY (In thousands of marks) LaDy Se Ake ae ae 2,215,232 2,208,887 127,556 8.6 1,052,288 48.3 i913 oP Sheers ae 1,957,380 2,024,523 231,176 ai x 1,582,290 78.2 MOLT PG ch e eos sk 2,122,304 27,821,047 2,616,793 9.4 24,920,907 89.5 7910 aL rake, «te 31,589,709 45,513,671 5,914,204 12.6 40,179,143 85.5 VOD O tment 6 eden ce 16,907,025 54,867,028 8,922,692 14.5 37,033,588 60.2 ODT MeO Ley ae ee 135,315,768 135,315,768 12,693,316 9.1 3,007,812 ab Gib 1929 Mee. Ha eee ee 350,099,885 300,399,885 16,121,472 5.3 3,653,896 1.2 “Total expenditures. expenditures undoubtedly constituted a larger proportion of the diminished national incomes and were, therefore, a more crushing load on the financially weakened countries of Europe. The accompanying table exhibits the post-war burden of taxation in some of the chief countries of the world: PER CAPITA TAXATION road operation, which was undertaken on an extensive scale both by Great Britain and the United States, proved an actual source of loss and was discontinued in both countries. The operation of ocean-going ships was equally dis- appointing and state manufacture of various kinds of commodities turned out even more un- successfully than during pre-war years. In- stead of assuming an increasingly important United. (States: e.,ctieraie i): serer. 6 lee $70.80 @ position in budgets, revenue derived from in- STH ie ee ELLA GMA TO le Ga oe dustrial and business occupations has not only Canada... 222222220022 12122212 35!05% come to form a smaller and smaller proportion EEO IANY, brits, wie etek er aie eto 243.42 6 of total income; but, as just stated, it has been ee a ile Aes ora ys ete: obtained under circumstances of such difficulty LAB ATR, SHO Lov?-(s'34 41a Me phidda Aeea BAT. ORe? as to make it clear that it must be regarded @QOn basis of 1923-24. b’On basis of 1920-21. The question whether some adjustment or alleviation of this tremendous burden can_ be devised has occupied the attention of statesmen since the close of the War but has confirmed most in the belief that heavy direct taxes will continue the chief reliance of most countries for a long time to come. Government Activity in Business. The participation of the government in business, which before the War had produced a very con- siderable element in the revenue system of some countries (eg. France, Germany, Austria and others), received a considerable extension in consequence of the War and of necessities at- tendant thereon, but the success obtained has been so slender as to produce a reaction of opinion among those who in former years re- garded public activity of this kind as a probable source of future increase in revenue yield. Rail- as an inadequate reliance for the future. Tariffs and Internal Revenue. Highest productiveness was believed by some to have been reached in the tariff system of the United States prior to the War, with a revenue of about $350,000,000 as a maximum. In Europe, the productiveness of tariff duties had declined as rates increased. During the War, tariff sys- tems fell into disorder and yielded far less than normal returns, owing to the interruption of in- ternational trade or its distortion as a result of war demands. After the War, a new era of tariff taxation set in, based upon the national- istic spirit and essentially intended for protec- tive purposes. The tariff of the United States adopted in 1922 (Fordney-McCumber Act) has been unexpectedly large in its yield, the an- nual income amounting to $560,000,000. Eu- ropean tariffs continued in a tentative condition of development, owing to disturbances of trade during post-war reorganization, but also showed an increased rate of yield. One feature of the o eee ; | : ; : 4 FINANCE AND BANKING tax system of the War was the great extension of internal revenue duties, especially taxes on articles of luxurious consumption. These taxes proved so unpopular that the greater share of FINANCE AND BANKING rience may be described as a universal advance in world indebtedness. The outstanding facts in the situation as affecting the principal countries are reviewed in the accompanying table: 457 DEBTS OF PRINCIPAL NATIONS, AND AGGREGATE FOR ALL NATIONS OF THE WORLD AT VARIOUS DATES (In millions of dollars) ; ; Nether- United United Dates Austria Belgium France Germany Italy lands Russia Kingdom States World SICA Pte aah’ Aes is. > lo4ieczen ite 6k 3,799 825 6,300 1,200 2,852 462 4,500 3,500 1,193 42,940 TRIER WeSC aE N anes a sidite.'s 15, 807/62,902 82.322 39,200 11,900 652. 24,564 28,600 12,248 205,396 Be OM Neren che cede PSs 28,584 1,888 42,700 48,552 15,009 981 24,564 37,221 25,482 295,070 GS ae By et eras Baa ss 15,800 4,900 55,000 80,000 21,200 1,046 24,564 37,000 24,297 382,634 TAPS MEE Ge RP Oe oe ge Re Oe eee Oe 6,708 65,921 1,984,475 22,816 wy.) 247564495 3800903) 22) 350 ori eos them were abolished. The United States elim- inated a large portion of its consumption taxes from and after Jan. 1, 1922. In all countries taxes on tobacco and liquors continued very heavy with increasing returns. In the United States, however, the adoption of the prohibition system largely eliminated the regular yield of the liquor taxes. State and Local Taxation. As a result of war demands, local expenses as well as national greatly increased. Such increase in expenditure was met chiefly through an advance in the rate levied upon already existing objects of taxa- tion. In the United States, however, State in- come and inheritance taxes were given a very considerable development while in some cases surtaxes were added. Real estate taxation be- came much heavier both in the United States and in Europe. Public debts were largely add- ed to among local governments and the tend- ency to increase in that direction was fur- thered by bonus distributions to ex-service men, the borrowing for this purpose being rendered easier through exemption of bonds from taxa- tone? Budget of the United States. In all coun- tries the importance of budgetary control was emphasized as a means of economy. An effort to introduce a budget system into the financial organization of the United States was made early in the administration of President Harding, be- ing recommended in a message to Congress on Dee. 5, 1921. This was the result of about 12 years of discussion beginning during the ad- ministration of President Taft. On June 10, 1921, Congress approved a law providing for a national budget system and a bureau of the budget. Appropriations in Congress, however, continued in the hands of the numerous Congres- sional committees vested with the power of ap- propriation and resulted in preventing the de- velopment of a genuine budget system analo- gous to that of European countries. In fact, on various occasions Congress disregarded the budget estimates and appropriated money ac- cording to its own inclination. On the other hand, savings which were nominally introduced as a result of the budget system turned out to be illusory in some cases, owing to the fact that they were merely due to curtailments of allowances for upkeep which eventually had to be restored although temporarily interrupted. Changes in Public Debt. It follows closely from what has been said with respect to public finance that the decade 1914-24 was notable in its relation to the public debt. Like the growth in public revenue and expenditure, the growth in debt was practically universal in all countries, although not proceeding in the same proportion in all; but in the main the expe- Taxation in France followed a course rather different from that pursued in the United States. The first new impositions adopted in 1914 were made effective in 1916 and applied to incomes in excess of $1000 with excess profits rates running up to 50 per cent. On July 1, 1916, a special war levy was made on all citizens who had not actually served with the troops, and fees and stamp dues as well as taxes on investments were raised all around. In 1917 and 1918 extensive luxury taxes were introduced. After the War, continuous legislation on taxa- tion was proposed but the situation was never taken in hand very vigorously until early in 1924 when the absolute necessity of equaliz- ing the budget became evident. Germany, in the belief that the War would be short, attempted to do without new taxation but in 1915 provided for a substantial increase, applicable largely in the several German states. The Imperial government in 1916 imposed war profits taxes, excess profits taxes and others, be- sides taxes on transactions and various objects of consumption. In 1918, internal revenue duties were extended and the rates on war profits were made heavier. The system, how- ever, continued inadequate and receipts were by no means comparable with outlays. A similar policy of waiting prevailed in Austria, although as the War progressed advances were made from time to time. Italy, on the other hand, recog- nized the necessity of heavier taxation prac- tically from the beginning of the War, but was not very successful until the struggle was nearly over. In 1918, there were great extensions of luxury and consumption taxes and in 1919 a supplementary income tax. In the minor Eu- ropean countries, no general or uniform policy was pursued, some increasing the revenues through taxation while others relied largely on loans and indirect taxes. In the United States, as a result of continu- ous agitation, the administration of President Coolidge obtained from Congress at the session of 1923-24 the adoption of a more thorough plan of tax revision than that adopted in October, 1921, basing the demand upon the presence of an expected surplus in the budget for the fiscal year 1925. Among the minor European coun- tries budgetary progress was slow, while in Germany the unsettlement with regard to repa- rations and the unsatisfactory industrial con- ditions resulted in continuous deficits. As already incidentally noted, this growth in indebtedness is to be ascribed in part to actual military expenditure, in part to the protection of neutral frontiers and in part to the advance of prices and wages. Which one of these factors was predominant in any given country, is pos- sibly a matter of secondary interest. The sig- FINANCE AND BANKING nificant facts relating to the debt situation are, first of all, the actual growth of indebtedness as just surveyed, and secondly the methods by which the debt position at the end of the decade was attained as throwing light upon the prob- lem of reduction. A feature which distinguishes the financial experience of the war period from periods of similar trial in the past relates to methods of public borrowing. During the War, a_prob- ably unprecedented use was made of the short- term obligation, while at the same time the plan of funding the short-term obligations thus incurred into long-term debt was carried to a higher point of development than ever before. The use of this method was practically iden- tical in all of the belligerent countries, but natu- rally was carried on with far greater success in certain of them, owing to the fact that a greater degree of responsiveness on the part of the pub- lic was achieved in some than in others. This method of borrowing, as developed most suc- cessfully in England and the United States, was substantially as follows: A given quantity of revenue having been estimated as _ necessary within a specified period, funds were then ob- tained direct from the banks through the issue of certificates of indebtedness or treasury bills, or the equivalent. These short-term obligations usually ran for only about three months. The intent of every issue was to obtain steadily from the community a proportionate part of its current earnings and thus to make sure of draw- ing off from the general fund of commercial in- come a sufficient amount to provide for public necessities. In placing these certificates with holders, use was usually made of the central banking mechanism, the method being substan- tially the same in Great Britain and in the United States. Certificates issued by the Treasury were placed in the hands of reserve banks which distributed them at first volunta- rily and later by a process of assignment to members. The proceeds were marked up on the books of the subscribing banks as a credit to the 458 FINANCE AND BANKING vanced the practice grew of making a small preliminary payment, borrowing the remainder at the buyer’s bank. The result then was chiefly to convert the obligation of the government into the obligation of the individual citizen, pre- sumably to be paid for out of his income or savings. As the floating debt outstanding in- creased in this way, and as the amount owing by bond buyers to the banks for the purchase of bonds increased, inflation naturally resulted, owing to the fact that bank credit was greatly outrunning in its rate of growth the rate of production of commodities. The effect was very largely the same as that which had been pro- duced in former wars through the issue of ir- redeemable currency. Upon the close of the War, the stronger governments took measures to reduce their outstanding floating indebted- ness, but during the first two or three years after the close of the struggle, the only coun- tries that made any material progress in this direction were Great Britain and the United States. Italy later began to take steps along the same line but other belligerents met with no success. Internal and External Loans. At the opening of the War, much discussion developed in all countries as to the relative advantage of internal or external loans. Embargoes and blockades made it impossible for some to bor- row abroad, but the major belligerents, as the War advanced, tended more and more to draw upon foreign markets. The United States was naturally regarded as a primary source of such loans, although during the early year of the War London houses succeeded in distributing a great many of them. As the War advanced, in- vestors grew more and more hesitant, and it be- came necessary to negotiate not with foreign investors but with foreign governments, either obtaining their permission or when possible in- ducing them to advance the funds themselves. Thus arose the enormous international obliga- tions which assumed a size that was wholly unprecedented and in a very real sense con- government. These deposits were then called stituted a new phase of national finance. The EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL DEBT 24 Approximate value in millions of dollars—conversion at par Ratio of debt to national External Internal Total Pre-war wealth wealth on pre-war basis United ) States #2... cision iS ae $22,400 $22,400 > $204,400 11 United skanedom ey. ..stctens $5,650 31,850 37,500 70,500 53 ADBSELALLD eerie. bie eretone eat e 552 1,408 1,960 8,600 ae ANAC wee eeevauetens: © os lcvens ethers 243 2,074 2,317 14,650 16 Germany seco tik) bia hehiaee dye (¢) 71,500 71,500 80,500 89 OPANCE i aes. Sree Es. 31+ alee edeae 15,000 42,200 57,200 57,900 102 RUSSIA, eins oP PRI co es fe eae 4,500 20,900 25,400 58,400 A2 Ttaly ae Gens hieee aoe este 4,200 11,500 15,000 21,800 66 Japan's MaLesee 2 ite cae ke oes 710 902 1,612 11,200 LS “Debts for which figures are given vary somewhat but are approximately representative of conditions at beginning of 1921. ®End of 1921. when necessary, the government giving as much notice as possible, and also endeavoring to pay out the funds as nearly as possible in the parts of the country from which they were drawn. After a period of some months had elapsed, a general loan was offered to the public and when subscribed, the proceeds were used to redeem the certificates and thus to reimburse to the banks the amounts they had advanced. Suc- cess in the method was dependent upon pay- ment by buyers of the long-term bonds in ac- tual cash or bank credit, but as the War ad- ¢ For Germany’s external debt, see terms of the reparations. table reviews for several of the belligerent coun- tries the situation at about the opening of 1921 (when conditions were most critical) as regards the division of public debts between internal and external obligations. : Inter-Governmental Debts. When the United States entered the War it found nearly all of the Allied powers approaching exhaustion. England had previously made large war loans to the Allies; but could no longer continue them. Advances were accordingly authorized by Congress in 1917 from the Treasury of the a¥ 2 at FINANCE AND BANKING United States. They were steadily made during the remainder of the War and were continued about eight months after the conclusion of the struggle. Thus a total sum of about $9,500,- 000,000 was loaned, the proceeds being used in large measure for buying in the United States commodities that were needed for exports. The debts thus contracted were represented by tempo- rary certificates evidencing the obligations in question and assigned by the representatives of the various borrowing European countries. Eventually the question of “funding,” or pro- viding for their definite payment and for the rate of interest they should bear meanwhile be- came a pressing question. No interest on them had been paid from the time of their issue and Congress eventually passed, on Feb. 9, 1922, the so-called Debt Funding Commission Act in which a commission of five, headed by the Secretary of the Treasury, was directed to make arrangements for settling the obligations of the various countries. These obligations consisted of the following at the time of the adoption of the Act: NET OBLIGATIONS OF FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS, UNDER AUTHORITY OF ACTS APPROVED Mees Ot AND eS Sh PT 247) 19077 AS AMENDED (ON BASIS OF CASH ADVANCES) LOPES free tices chee ts eee cet eyo * $347,691,566.23 MULES POET en ek, eat ot Co avaat | als Mer due ates 8,147,000.00 WZGCHO-SlOVAKI Ree at ctorers. chelen s) Sate Meas 61,256,.206.74 A RTECOUMERS eal ePatada mic cae iee: spec se sts 6 2,950,762,938.19 Cole Litalniee seeks ete sis chee cinch 4,166,318,358.44 MTEC CC COMME ce aura te ner oes «what Sreh Soothe teh ahs 15,000,000.00 TRIN pie Bro tin OOO cy Eee EEOC OE 1,648,034,050.90 Wee DOU See rok a ienel cits a dhsy di ose 6) scat.c) ee sbihe. es: « 26,000.00 ULGT SUG men eheencrate Neve reie sucrehahe sisveele 23,205,819.52 ERIS ume eter once aer as ve the Shaved Slatelateie 187,729,750.00 SOE DUT Maoh co eeic ce saree eidaue lo) euersrehee a) wlichs 265UT 5613922 ROta ee eter ators © cle or wraueteee eta $9,434,346,829.24 Accrued interest on this total was also due, besides some $573,000,000 for surplus war sup- plies sold to various foreign nations. Great Britain, meanwhile, had advanced to Continental countries sums amounting in the aggregate to about $8,500,000,000, a sum nearly as great as that lent by the United States. Some relatively small loans had likewise been made by sundry of the Continental powers to one another, France advancing nearly $2,509,000,000. Out of this situation arose in 1919-22 the demand for in- ternational debt cancellation. German Indemnity. The most _ trouble- some phase of the debt situation produced sby the War grew out of the establishment of an ndemnity or reparation for Germany. (See REPA- RATIONS for an extended treatment of this sub- ject.) Because of the inability of the Powers to hasten a settlement, the questions of interna- tional debts and reparations passed into a wait- ing stage which lasted well into 1924. The only important progress during the period was the funding of the British debt to the United States which was finally effected in January, 1923 (formal agreement June 18, 1923). Great Britain recognized the entire indebtedness and arranged to pay it over a period of about 61 years with an annual interest rate of 3 per cent, rising after 10 years to 3%. As the United States had outstanding the bonds which were issued to provide the funds advanced to Great Britain, and was paying 414 per cent on them, the arrangement with Great Britain was equiv- alent to partial cancellation, although not tech- nically so. 459 FINANCE AND BANKING Change in Revenue Systems. In the en- deavor to avoid unnecessary increase in debt, England and the United States early in the War resorted to heavy taxation, adopting income and excess profits taxes upon a large scale and par- ticularly advancing the rates of surtax up to figures never before thought of. Other coun- tries were slower to resort to heavy taxes be- cause of the reluctance of their own citizens to submit to such control, yet it was practically inevitable that they should eventually do so and in substantially all. countries there was an effort to get away from publie borrowing and shift over to a basis of budgetary balance. Only by so doing, it was recognized, would it be pos- sible to restore a condition of solvency in the principal countries. The result of this neces- sity was to emphasize the finding of new sources of income and hence the reconstruction of fiscal systems. How this change worked may be noted from a comparison of the sources of income in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, shown in the table on page 460. Proportion of Loans to Taxation. Authori- ties on public finance prior to the War had gen- erally taken the view that no public loan should ordinarily be floated without the imposition of taxation in an amount sufficient to provide for interest on the principal thus created and for an amortization or sinking fund sufficient eventu- ally to extinguish the debt. At the opening of the War there was a widespread opinion among theorists both in the United States and Great Britain in favor of restricting loans to not over 50 per cent of total outlay, the balance to be raised by taxation. On the Continent, governments found their populations very restive under taxation and before the War were dis- posed to make use of deficit financiering through public loans because of the already existing bur- den. During the War, both Germany and France relied largely on borrowing. No consist- ent policy of financing in this respect was pur- sued during the War. ‘Debts, Prices and Exchange. The growing proportion of debt both before and in a more striking degree after the War, as compared with the volume. of national wealth, became an alarm- ing feature because of the disproportionate ab- sorption of national income in meeting debt charges. Inasmuch as existing debts were in- curred in units of currency of the pre-war gold value, attempt to pay them in full at the close of the decade would involve an enormously greater transfer of wealth than that which was originally borrowed. Alternative to such a course would be the partial repudiation of the debts, either by “devaluation” (change in the gold equivalence of the currency unit) or by the so-called “capital tax,” which amounts to an appropriation of enough of the wealth of the propertied class to pay the state’s debt to that class. Some settlement of this question would be necessary if the countries were to attempt to restore a sound banking and currency system. The difficulty in the case is particularly marked in those countries which have heavy foreign debts because they must usually settle in terms of gold. Relations with Banks. Owing to the fact that the War took all countries by surprise, bank loans were necessary in nearly every case in order to furnish funds for immediate require- ments. This was an inevitable episode in war finance and was not open to criticism except in FINANCE AND BANKING 460 FINANCE AND BANKING FRANCE In million francs 19i9 1920 1921 1922 ¢ 19232 Directitaxes Ae bib ae Uh eee 1,069 1,620 1,872 21507 2,983 Stamp taxes, »¢.. 4.5 a= fn sh-s.c ee ee 2,195 3,260 3,289 3,516 3,176 (Paxton SeCULILIES . 2Go on sa a See oe 290 568 926 737 821 Salostdaxth it". .otQe Sree eee hie aaa8 269 1,256 1,911 3,058 } 2,513 Gustoms. duties (¢. ..& .$faeceneee oe 1,477 1,596 1,197 2,466 1,923 Indirect: taxes «a5 + #a-cb oe eee ke. 1.759 2,612 2,919 2,927 2,682 SuUrar CAKES so hue ans ack eee eeic rite t( 444 365 543 519 Monopolies! \.c8 25.04 See eee nee 1,052 1,582 J heal? Wl 8 1,802 1,837 Post. Office ihincess deheneeearan st. . 589 921 A OFCL 1,108 — Publics dOmMaln st: bug cae Meee eears a2 es 155 alse | 113 183 176 Miscellanecus oe +. ceeetaen eee Lee ses 455 938 te levies 985 1,420 a Total wordinarys tera asic tee 9,707 14,948 16,547 19,831 18,060 War-Dronts ataxic eee - ati aie 672 3,224 3,169 3,050 1,225 Bale VOL Wate InaALeryal sac 2s cei i YA OMS 1,649 Us Ojak 500 — Total, general budget ..2: 02.4 <1. 11,586 19,821 2121.7 23,381 19,285 SMECIA MDILCOCL 1. ie seaside ite names — — 326 1,310 — Grand stotal pies. ite Pea aie 11,586 19,821 21,543 24,691 19,285 @ Hstimated. GERMANY In billions (milliards) of marks 1919 1920 1921 1922 ¢ 1923 4 Taxes on wealth and exchange: INCOME). purte ce AEeE I adele ieee eae —: 10.2 29.7 350. 450. GOrporation ss i wees te oe eee a 0.1 eG D if Produce (Kapitalertragsteuer) — 0.9 ibys 2 — Emergency levy (Reichsnotopfer) 0.002 9.9 0.8 4 — Property (Vermogensteuer) ..... — — — — 60. Possessions (Besitzsteurer) ...... 0.08 0.01 OvL 0.002 —— InWeritan cepe i: WALES ris stole eee 0.09 0.3 0.6 1.5 aoe Turnover (Umsatzsteuer) ....... 0.8 spel ie L925 500. Real estate purchase (Grunderwerb- Breuer) Woe este ee eee 0.06 0.7 0.7 1.5 1.4 Dividends and interest (Kapital- Wenkelreteuemrvio. Liki aoe eek — == a 35.2 65.8 Motor. Veliclesive of ia. cubis watt cee — a — 0.1 4, ENSUTENCCH NICE Sr nie eee eae — a — 13 1b Rates! andimMotteny hier. sikelele — —- — 0.8 2.2 Stamps cheer wince ROA Kee cea re 0.9 1.7 6.8 2a 4.5 Transportationie. asi ci ee ee ae 0.5 1.4 2.2 34.2 520. Non-recurring war taxes ........ iby 5.6 5.4 — — Motala” ach Wh act capes LAE see te, alee castes Ses Ses 35.7 59.1 614.9 1,617.9 Taxes on commodities: GuStomsies. cca tcer se eas ee ae ee ibs | Qe 5.9 88. 500 Goalie tse iy Me SR hn he PES. 1.6 4.9 7.0 150. 2,750 Other excises stn): feta ye Pee he eT, 4.1 8.3 59.6 189 Otay MEP Y he eaetne ooo eh ree oY, 4.4 tl 22 PAL) 297.6 3,439 Miscellaneous® i... 2ece ei. JR re iN 6.1 6.93 119.1 574 Grange! ofalace. toes c Ge 9.2 53.0 149.6 1,071.6 5,640.9 * Budget estimates, 2 UNITED KINGDOM In millions of £ 1920 1921 1922 1923 19244 OUSCOMS.) 1k oso Fee AES. in Sy. Ae f 149.4 134.0 130.0 123.0 118.5 MXCISG Sy... uae MAT ENE Ce on 133.6 199.8 194.3 123.0 155.7 Motor vehicles Wns meen pie ee ale —— 7.0 wr st 12:2 13.2 Histates#:.. ih. igre eee Sea eS 40.9 47.7 52.2 56.9 52.0 MOLAINLD S| fe caschemea nde Meee eee cinco as 22-0 26.6 19.6 22.2 20.0 anGitax th fois. er Tea MRMe oe oe 0.7 (wey 0.6 12.9 3.0 HOUSE uty NEAL eee tebe ek ef 1.9 1.9 1.9 if 3.0 meome’ tax jidels valet cues eee ean 359.1 396.3 398.8 879.0 328.0 HIXCOSS DT ONS ite .1 ob tokens ee ne ec cole 290.0 218.2 30.5 2.0 12.0 Corporation. Proiits. '.... . sere ees h sh. — 0.7 1705 18.9 20 Wands valuesduties (2). apeteneis o OF 0.1 0.1 — — Totalstax Teveniess +. ute 998.9 DOB 200 856.7 774.7 732.2 INGH-tax.) TEVenUes se. ain Lee 340.7 394,2 268.2 139.3 120.4 Totalprevenues: i. 6d. 64. nt ee eee 1,339.6 1,426.9 1,124.9 914.2 852.7 “The figures are for Great Britain and North Ireland. a ea? Pam age a a a - ee ee a a. = FINANCE AND BANKING 461 so far as it might be adopted as a systematic policy. Fear of popular discontent led a good many countries to continue the short-term financ- ing much longer than they otherwise would, the only countries that possesed the real internal strength to tax severely and effectively during the War being Great Britain and the United States. In falling back upon the -banks, the various governments resorted to metlwds of bor- rowing that had not been tried in previsely the same form during the course of formep!struggles. Relatively small use of legal tendérspaper or “fiat money” was made but the banks were re- quired to take and distribute short-term obliga- tions which were then funded from time to time into longer term loans as circumstances seemed to permit. The fact that the subscribers to these loans were encouraged to borrow from the banks the funds which were necessary in order te enable them to make good their subscriptions naturally tended to produce in all countries a highly inflated condition of prices, together with a steady disappearance of specie, notwith- standing an early embargo:upon movements of coin which took effect in nearly all countries, comparatively early in the struggle although at slightly differing dates. The United States was the last to declare such an embargo, owing to the fact that it did not enter the War until the year 1917 was well advanced. Heavy borrowing at the banks in nearly all countries left these institutions at the close of the War in a very unliquid condition, their government paper hold- ings being “frozen” owing to inability to find buyers for them either at home or abroad due to the deterioration of public credit. But re- liance upon foreign borrowing which was char- acteristic of practically all European countries that had found themselves able to get access to FINANCE AND BANKING other markets, left all of them at the close of the War with tremendous external obligations which they were in no position to liquidate, owing to the fact that as a result of the conflict their productive power had been very greatly decreased. An unavoidable consequence of the drawing off of a large share of the population from economic occupation had been in all a corresponding curtailment of productive effort. The close of the War, therefore, found practical- ly all European countries facing a highly com- plex problem in public finance—that of reducing the cost of their government to such an extent as to make it possible to pay the necessary sums from the proceeds of taxation, thereby avoiding further borrowing while at the same time en- larging their surplus export power sufficiently to provide a balance large enough to furnish the necessary funds abroad with which to pay in- terest and maturing obligations. This latter necessity was the more obvious because of the fact that for one reason or another it had been found necessary to “release” a great deal of gold as the War advanced, thereby reducing the bank reserves and in some cases bringing the specie stock to so low an ebb that it was exceedingly doubtful whether any restoration of gold re- demption could be brought about in the near future. Results of Inflation Policy. The self-con- scious inflation policy which was thus adopted by the belligerent governments soon proved disastrous. It was not only exceedingly dis- turbing to business, but it also defeated the efforts of the governments which resorted to it as a fiscal expedient. Price levels rose rapidly and enormously in nearly all countries, as may be seen from this table of index numbers: INDEX NUMBERS OF WHOLESALE PRICES (ALL COMMODITIES) ¢ France; Bul- Italy; Prof. United United King- letin de la Bachi (38 Germany Sweden; States; Fed- Canada; dom; Board Statistique commodities Statistisches Svensk Han- eral Reserve Department of Trade (150 Générale until1920,76 Reichsamt delstidning Board of Labor (271 commod- (45 commod- during 1921 (38 commod- (47 quota- (90 quota- quotations) 2 ities) ities) ¢ and 100 there- ities) > tions) @ tions) ? after) ® eee TOM SORES asst coy 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 9 TUS Re Wig a esi Heed 101 sey ane 95 110 116 OL Gta ee ey ae 206 217 stil 356 364 420 330 LOZOM ARR es 226 246 307 510 6381 1,486 347 OD Dem, sna ovhays oP 147 182 197 345 578 1,911 211 5 A AWAD ity Roa «h 149 165 159 327 562 34,180 Lez, 4 Oe ete te 156 ae 159 419 Oreo : haath Christiania, Australian Norway; Denmark; Belgium ; Holland ; Common- Japan; Okonomisk Finanstid- Department Switzerland; Central wealth; Bank of Revue ende of Statistics Dr. Lorenz Bureau Bureau of Japan (92 commod- (33 com- (130commod- (71 commod- _ of Statistics Census and for Tokyo ities) @ modities) f ities) ™ ities) * (538 commod- Statistics (56 commod- j ities ? (92 commod- ities ® ities) ° ee EE ai a Rk UU a SS ETD Ce A RR Re ES ORE TLL AL 120 is RE as oO oes ae atte i, Pies 108 bh to, 100 med ba 230) 55 (Shee L145; 100 # 100" 100 109 100 4 95 BO Oe ss. 5. a 322 294 i pone 304 180 235 AS Vali ea Dee’ et ae 382 382 326 292 218 259 ag! Pals Sort Ree coda 298 250 Se. 195 182 167 200 AOD eee. 5 a 238 9 179% 367 168 180 9 54 196 Un V8 et ei, Ee 233 9 201% 201 180 a 170 199 “These figures are taken from the table published *Dec, 31, 1913—June 30, 1914= 100. in the Bulletin of the Federal Reserve Board. + Average for the month. ¢ End of month. @ Middle of month. ¢End of year and end of month. f First of month. 9 July 1, 1913, to June 30, 1914 = 100. + July 1, 1912—June 30, 1914 = 100. a Duly toa: = 100} k Prices as of first of the month. 914 = 100. t Based upon prices of 52 commodities during 1920, 53 during 1921. 1913 = 100. m Average of last half of month. wWAprilvelo)4 = 100. °End of year. FINANCE AND BANKING 462 The effect of this advance in prices, brought about as it was by the practice of borrowing over heavily at banks, was to make commodities and services cost enormously more than they otherwise would. Particularly harmful results Were experienced in the’ case of those countries which found it necessary to apply to foreign markets for munitions and supplies. Nearly all of the European countries had found themselves obliged at an early stage to buy heavily in the United States. Although the American price level had risen considerably even before the United States entered the War the advance had not been comparable to that which occurred at a later date. Federal Reserve System. The war period with its sequel had a peculiarly important relationship to American banking conditions because of the fact that simultaneously with the opening of the War the United States had arranged to organize an entirely new bank- ing system—the so-called Federal Reserve. This banking system had been framed entirely without reference to war necessities but was just on the point of taking effect when the struggle broke out in Europe. During the first two years—1915 and 1916—in which the United States was a neutral, the Federal Reserve Sys- tem was practically in process of organization and the task of installing its various elements was in progress. Its business during that peri- od was small; but with the entry of the United States into the active participation in the strug- gle early in 1917 the Federal Reserve System became a war banking system almost exclusively, and this character it retained until the struggle was over and the great advances made by the United States to European countries had been completed and the Liberty Bond issues largely growing out of them had been financed and di- gested by the banks and the vublic. Thereafter, the Federal Reserve System was able once more to turn its attention to the tasks of peaceful finance and to assist in restoring more normal conditions. Immediately after the inauguration of Pres- ident Wilson in 1913, a bill which had previ- ously been developed under the direction of a sub-committee in the preceding Congress was introduced (June, 1913) and thereafter con- sidered and adopted by the House of Rep- resentatives on September 17. This measure was considerably modified in the Senate but in con- ference committee it was amended back into nearly its original form, becoming a law on Dec. 23, 1913. As thus passed, the act provided for the establishment of a “Federal Reserve” System in which all national banks were obliged to take membership by subscribing 3 per cent of their capital and surplus to the stock of institu- tions to be organized in a number of districts throughout the country and known as Federal Reserve Banks. These banks were corporations chartered for 20 years under Federal authority. receiving deposits only from the government and from their member banks (though subse- quently allowed to receive deposits from other banks under certain conditions), their chief duties being the issuing of notes and the hold- ing of the reserves of their members. Their business consisted primarily of rediscounting paper for their members, although they were also authorized to buy paper (of the same kind that had been made rediscountable) in the open market, should they see fit. In issuing notes the Reserve Banks, as they were popularly FINANCE AND BANKING called, were authorized to deposit eligible redis- counted paper with their chairman (the Federal Reserve Agent), acting as trustee for the govern- ment, who then issued an equal amount of notes to the Reserve Bank. The latter then placed them in circulation by paying them out or hand- ing them.to members who had requested such accommodation By a later amendment, gold might alsol.be deposited with the chairman of the boardsia lieu of eligible paper. These notes were maalasobligations of the United States and receivable for all public dues. An organization committee, created under the act, eventually divided the country into districts and estab- lished twelve banks. Government control of the institutions was provided for by authorizing the Federal Reserve Board to name three out of nine directors for each of the reserve banks, the other six members being required to include three business men and three bankers, one busi- ness man and one banker being selected by banks voting individually, in each of three dis- tinct groups (including the small, medium and larger banks of each district). It was further provided, in order to insure democratic govern- ment of the banks, that each bank should have but one vote regardless of capitalization. With reference to reserves, the act required that the 25 per cent reserve formerly required in central reserve cities be cut to 18 per cent of demand obligations; likewise also the 25 per cent for- merly required in reserve cities was cut to 15 per cent, and the 15 per cent in other places was cut to 12 per cent. Of these reserves 7 per cent was to be placed by central reserve city banks with their reserve bank, 6 per cent by reserve city banks and 5 per cent by all others. Time deposits were made subject to a 5 per cent rate throughout. Federal Reserve Banks were to be authorized to pay 6 per cent cumulative divi- dends, after all expenses and allowances had been provided for, to their stockholders, and their remaining earnings were then to be paid to the government. An important feature of the act on its foreign banking side was found in the authorization granted the larger national institutions to es- tablish branches abroad and in its grant of the power of accepting time bil’s (not over 90 days’ maturity) to national institutions. In its or- dinary rediscount operations the reserve banks were limited to ninety-day paper growing out of commercial, agricultural or industrial transac- tions, speculative paper being barred. The act as thus adopted was subsequently modified by 10 principal enactments. The important features in these amendments were: (1) enlargement of the acceptance power to 100 per cent of capital and surplus; (2) permission to national banks to subscribe to the stock of foreign banking enterprises formed for the pur- pose of establishing branches abroad; (3) ter- mination of the reserve requirements of the original law and substitution therefor of a pro- vision requiring all reserves to be kept in Re- serve Banks, such reserve to consist of 13 per cent of demand deposits for central reserve city banks, 10 per cent for reserve city banks, 7 per cent for all others, with time deposits at 3 per cent; (4) adoption of the so-called Edge Act authorizing the formation of corporations for the purpose of making long-term investments abroad, national banks being permitted to sub- scribe to their stocks; (5) enlargement of amount of loans permitted to be made on the FINANCE AND BANKING strength of Liberty Bonds as collateral; (6) modification of voting arrangements governing the election of directors in Federal Reserve Banks; and a few others. Of these amendments the only one which fundamentally altered the structure and significance of the act was that transferring the entire reserves to the central institutions and the Agricultural Credits Act of 1923 which gave special privileges to paper growing out of farm credits (see AGRICULTURAL CREDIT). As provided for by the Act of 1913 the Fed- eral Reserve System went into operation (pre- liminary details having been arranged by an organization committee) technically on the 10th of August, 1914, the banks themselves being actually opened for business on November 2, while reserves were paid over on November 14 of the same year. The two years 1915-16 were occupied largely in developing methods of dis- counting and establishing new plans of note issue. A constructive piece of work carried through during these years was the establish- ment of the Gold Settlement Fund at Washing- ton whereby the Federal Reserve Banks were enabled to clear on the central set of books con- ducted by the Board the bulk of their obliga- tions against one another, thereby avoiding the shipment of specie. This clearance, at first car- ried on only once each week, was later made a daily clearance, and eventually came to super- sede in large part the work of the local clearing houses. With the entry of the United States into the War early in 1917, a new epoch in the history of the Federal Reserve System and of the banking system of the United States in gen- eral opened. The fundamental problem at the opening of the War was that of finding means to supply the Treasury with necessary funds. This object was temporarily accomplished by direct borrowing from the Federal Reserve Banks on short-term treasury certificates. The system of Liberty Loans was then developed and the Reserve Banks were made the active agents of the Treasury in placing thems The Federal Reserve Act had originally provided for making the banks the fiscal agents of the government and this was now interpreted to include not only sub-treasury functions but also all those relating to the sale and distribution of bonds. The im- portance of the sub-treasuries accordingly was reduced and they were eventually closed in 1920, but during the latter part of the War and the period just after it their activity was purely nominal. With the issuance of the First Liberty Loan in July, 1917, the activity of the Federal Reserve Banks was largely transferred to a war basis including the management of public finance and continued so throughout the ‘temainder of the struggle. War Banking and Finance. From the date of the entry of the United States into the War, the function of the Federal Reserve System became almost exclusively that of financ- ing the process of borrowing from the _ peo- ple. During the years 1917, 1918, and 1919 the government increased the national debt from a little over $1,000,000,000 to a little over $25,000,000,000. These great loans were for the most part placed first through the banks and then with the rank and file of the investing public. It would probably have been impossible to dispose of the enormous quantities of bonds which the government was obliged to sell in 16 463 FINANCE AND BANKING order to provide itself with funds without some kind of special banking aid. Such aid was par- ticularly necessary in view of the fact that it had been determined by the Treasury author- ities to dispose of the bonds at a rate of interest quite materially below the prevailing rate in the market. The first issue of Liberty Bonds was sold at 3% per cent and as subsequent issues were put out the rate was gradually raised until it reached 434 per cent on the fifth, the Victory Loan (1919); although it should be re- membered that the first loan bearing 3% per cent had been wholly exempt from taxation of all classes, while subsequent loans were only par- tially so exempt. That the public might be in- duced to purchase up to the full extent of its saving power, paying for the bonds it thus bought on the installment plan, Federal Reserve Banks were instructed by the government through the Federal Reserve Board to fix a rate for the rediscount of paper equal to the coupon rate on the Liberty Bonds. Commercial banks generally were induced to discount directly for their customers at the same figure. Thus a buy- er of bonds who was unable to pay for them in full, borrowed from his bank the additional amount he needed, the bank carrying it without cost to him since the coupons provided for the borrower’s own interest charge. The bank then rediscounted such paper at the same (coupon) rate with the Federal Reserve Bank of its dis- trict. This policy was very successful in “sta- bilizing” the rate of interest, but it also tended to transfer the principal burden for the time being at least to the banks. The system was perfected through the steady issue of Treasury certificates sometimes as often as twice a month, these certificates running for 90 days as a rule and being funded at the end of that period into the successive issues of Liberty Bonds which were then subscribed for and carried as in- dicated. The burden resting upon Federal Re- serve Banks thus became heavier and _ heavier as the War advanced and as successive issues were sold. Hence the reduction of the reserve ratio (ratio of gold to demand liabilities) of the system, which fell from about 90 per cent before the War to about 52 per cent at the end of 1918, shortly after the Armistice. The fifth Victory Loan, which was floated early in 1919, was sold upon the same general principles that had been pursued in the earlier financing and re- sulted in increasing the burden resting upon the reserve system still further. The successful floating of this loan was followed by a specula- tive development of business and especially of foreign trade, which continued during the year 1919, and although checked early in 1920 did not reach its peak until about the close of the latter year. ° Prices during the War had tended to rise rapidly as a result of a variety of causes. Of these the principal was the tremendous demand exerted by all governments for commodities, coupled with the natural shortage in production which resulted from the withdrawal of a large part of the productive labor of all of the . Western nations for the purposes of war. A contributing cause of the rise in prices, how- ever, was found in the suspension of specie pay- ments and excessive issue of currency which produced the condition of “inflation” reflected in unduly high prices for commodities and services of all classes. This price and wage advance con- tinued steadily up to a peak in May, 1920, at FINANCE AND BANKING 464 which time the index number of prices was. ap- proximately 270 measured from a base in 1913 taken as 100. The check to expansion and wholesale-price advance administered early in 1920 has been variously explained and has been popularly attributed in the United States to the fact that Federal Reserve Banks toward the end of 1919 resolved upon the so-called deflation policy. This deflation policy took form as an advance of interest rates above the low levels that had been established during the Liberty Bond period. It was aided by a more strict interpretation of the eligibility of paper for re- discount, coupled with an effort to induce bor- rowers who had obtained advances on Liberty Bonds as collateral to settle these loans and thus to take them out of the banks. The in- adequacy of this explanation is indicated by the fact that the recession in business and _ prices which set in early in 1920 did not originate in the United States but was first indicated by the collapse of the silk market in Japan, while in most foreign countries no very definite deflation effort was undertaken until after the business recession had begun. Federal Reserve _ dis- counts, as already stated, did not reach their peak until the end of 1920, about eight months after the business decline had started. At that time total assets of the Reserve Banks were ap- proximately $5,000,000,000 while bills discounted were about $2,700,000,000 and currency outstand- ing was about $3,336,000,000. As the decline of business became more pronounced during 1921, the price level gradually sank to approxi- mately 140, or a little more than half its level at the peak, while discounts at Federal Reserve Banks had been reduced by the end of 1921 to less than $1,150,000,000. Notes at the same time receded to about $2,400,000,000, thus con- tracting over one-fourth of their maximum amount. The inability of foreign countries to settle their enormous purchases in the United States had Ied during the War to very heavy advances made by the government to foreign governments and expended almost entirely in the United States. These advances were to be continued until about the middle of 1919, eight months after the Armistice, and amounted to about $9,500,000,000. When they came to a close there ensued a period of trade expansion al- ready noted during which considerable advances were made by American banks and _ business houses for the purpose of carrying foreign buyers as long as possible. As it became more and more evident that foreigners would not be able to liquidate these debts in full, banks and exporters began to withdraw these credits and the large movement of gold into the United States which had been very marked during 1916 and 1917 was resumed. From the opening of the War in 1914 to the close of 1923 the total net im- portations of gold into the United States amounted to about $2,150,000,000 and the total gold holdings of the Federal Reserve Banks rose to about $3,200,000,000. At the same time the ratio of reserve to liability advanced to ap- proximately 78 per cent. One of the noteworthy services of the Reserve Banks during this whole period of unusual trial and strain was seen in the great reduction of bank failures, the total of failures at no time being large and. in some years being practically negligible. The general situation and development of the Federal Reserve System during the two years following the close of the inflation period was | \ FINANCE AND BANKING substantially as follows: Immediately after the completion of the task of readjusting the dis- count rates and business which culminated in the spring of 1921, Federal Reserve Banks en- deavored to return to a basis in which their principal activity would be devoted to com- mercial undertakings while they sought to di- vest themselves so far as they could of govy- ernment obligations and to induce the invest- ment public to take up and hold such securities. The result was a steady decline in their activ- ity, since they had consistently refused to enter into any considerable competition with the larger member banks which held their stock. Coupled with this change of policy was a second remark- able transformation of their position, owing to the steady and great movement of gold into the United States, which resulted in building up enormous specie reserves in the hands of Fed- eral Reserve Banks. The situation of the re- serve system at approximately the close of 1923 may be conveniently reviewed in the table on page 465. Development of Clearing System. The na- tional system of clearance which has consti- tuted one of the most outstanding achievements of the Federal Reserve Board under the manda- tory provisions of the original act had attained only a moderate degree of development prior to the close of the War. It was not put into ef- fect at the outset of the Federal Reserve opera- tions but first took form in a definite way on July 1, 1916, when arrangements were made for collecting checks on member: banks or on non- members which remitted at par without charge for exchange or collection. Credits and debits were entered upon a deferred basis correspond- ing to the amount of time required actually to collect the items. From the time that the system was fully inaugurated the totals trans- ferred by this means rapidly grew, the system largely superseding clearing houses in many parts of the country, a number of the latter be- ing closed in the meantime, as a result. Ow- ing, however, to the fact that as a result of the clearance at par without charge many small banks lost a valued source of income, criticism arose and during the years 1920-23 hostile legis- lation was undertaken in eight southern States and suits were brought against reserve banks for the purpose of having their clearance func- tion declared unconstitutional. In 1924, this litigation was still incomplete, although one or more cases had gone to the Supreme Court. In these the exercise of the clearance function had been upheld, subject to some important reserva- tions. This resulted in reducing somewhat the total number of banks remitting at par, the re-_ maining number being about 28,000. European Banking Development. Eu- ropean banking was in a far more stable and completed condition at the opening of the War than was the banking system of the United States, but the strain to which it was subjected was far more severe, relatively speaking, than that to which the United States was obliged to adjust itself. In a general way, the principal effect of the War was to bring about an ex- tensive redistribution of specie, a great reduc- tion in the bank reserves of some countries, an even larger relative reduction in these re- serves as compared with outstanding obliga- tions and a very material alteration in the character ef the investments held by the banks, this change taking form as a great growth in FINANCE AND BANKING 465 FINANCE AND BANKING FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS N DAK MINN ~ MINNEAPOLIS : AF | 1+ — ae e ip SusbuTe? ‘ e, aly} be iB °K » \o eNashville TENN ARK EE EPs qmemms BOUNDARIES OF FEDERAL RESERVE DISTRICTS BOUNDARIES OF FEDERAL RESERVE BRANCH TERRITORIES @ FEDERAL RESERVE BANK CITIES @ FEDERAL RESERVE BRANCH CITIES © FEDERAL RESERVE BANK AGENCY RESOURCES AND LIABILITIES OF THE TWELVE FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS COMBINED (In thousands of dollars) Resources Gold’ and *Mederal Reserve agents 2. och. wc ee Gold redemption fund with United States Treasury Gold held exclusively against F. R. notes ...... Gold! ‘settlement fund “with EH? “Ri Board is soe. oe. Gold and gold certificates held by banks ........... PSU beet O Mime TESCT VOSS Brora cherata ep oPineic cre clever «ores aya.3.o es Reserves other than gold ..... BIPM ates ick dote elects coe 6 RO tals ESOT VCS ofa i 0el lett hey ola chet! chacicl trae aatel's cote te Non-reserve cash ........e. bP Re EE QO one OOO Bills discounted: Secured by United States government obligations .. Others billsh GISCOUNtCCsi ss dascke dete Reheat ahenbaleye s dre +. otal bills discountedy .''. Gace we ees ee cees ; Pallsspouecht) ingopensmarket) si tis Borges. Wits cide stele Melete’ United States government securities : Es OTM Sante ON Pa a ctans ies taraein 4, ope sia adeee leledis, cies 0.2 saehals |hrace EC ERSU LV OCS Fete, Ret Sie ce ere ee letras telee sc eicke Certificates; ofjindebtednessity.)ccioy 2 Sets PI ORIEL. Total United States government securities ....... All Oth ere Carine assets tists o1aiche ioral hate enteesrctern terete e's T Oth OR Hin tp SSO T Saks Bipst chip deer seta s eh vs tcl Mavaned BO si cre Five per cent redemption fund—F. R. bank ‘notes wintcollecteds.1tem ser Seek te cece Peat th, he dh SS = eee anky Premises: }..4.-. tis oh eeade SFA ake oe a A MOLD EY + TCSOULRCEN 2 4.6, AN. «50s "ss 0 dacete reeeeeas 45,2 May 7, 1924 2,110,776 89,755 2,150,531 601,766 377,309 3,129,606 102,502 3,232,108 51,243 167,556 272,729 440,285 87,287 18,353 232,091 60,438 310,882 51 838,505 28 566,511 56,540 23,730 4,768,665 1,927,027 338 1,953,532 18,381 22,439 1,994,352 500,211 111,231 220,915 14,591 4,768,663 82.4% 21,388 @ Revised figures. Apr. 30, 1924 2,088,317 450,749 42,139,066 “610,622 370,701 3,120,389 102,220 3,222,609 49,811 161,164 286,021 447,185 124,485 19,269 221,771 60,620 301,660 51 873,381 28 586,350 56,494 22,530 4,811,203 1,926,013 343 1,944,952 32,503 27,926 2,005,381 533,466 110,927 220,915 14,158 4,811,203 82.0% 20,505 >Tncluding Victory notes. May 9, 1923 2,005,066 54,435 2,059,501 706,261 323,062 3,088,824 92,557 3,181,381 67,726 358,637 336,380 695,017 266,992 29,573 b 119,387 36,854 185,814 40 1,147,863 191 600,834 50,155 13,811 5,061,961 2,241,780 2,065 1,886,455 22,616 28,599 1,937,670 536,222 109,029 218,369 16,826 5,061,961 16.1% 33,615 FINANCE AND BANKING STATISTICS OF MONEY AND CREDIT IN THE U. 8.—1914-1923 (000 omitted) All banks, national, State, and trust companies General stock Loans and Deposits ofmoneyin discounts United States June, 19142 ... $38,738,288 $15,288,337 $18,517,732 June, 1915@ , 3,989,456 15,722,440 19,135,380 June, 1916¢ ... 4,482,891 17,811,605 22,773,714 June, 1917% ... 5,407,990 20,594,228 26,062,986 June, 1918¢ ... 6,741,072 22,514,828 27,748,471 June, 1919@ , 7,605,366 25,255,171 32,665,286 June, 19202 ... 7,909,998 31,208,142 37,315,123 June, 1921¢ , 8,099,006 28,932,011 34,844,572 June, 1922 8,177,477 27,860,443 37,194,318 June, 1923 8,603,732 30,416,577 40,034,195 June, 1924 $750,765: Oe a CE te @Vigures as of last week in month. the amount of government paper held by the banks and discounted for the several govern- ments with a corresponding (relative) decrease in the amount of paper discounted for private citizens. A brief general survey of the banking situation of certain principal countries as it has developed during the period in question, and as it stands approximately at the end of the decade, is shown in the table on “Financial Statistics” on page 467. Banking in England. Opening the War with a well codrdinated money and banking sys- tem, Great Britain shortly found it necessary to resort to an embargo on gold and an issue of government notes. The result was immediate depreciation of currency, inflation of prices, and disturbance of exchange. This latter gave rise to a “pegging” of the rate as compared with dollars (and at the same time a pegging of francs in relation to sterling and dollars) the funds therefore being first supplied from the British Treasury and later through loans ob- tained from the United States. This situation continued until March, 1919, when the pegging was suspended and exchange left to take its own course, the embargo on gold being retained. Almost immediate reaction occurred in the value of sterling, steady recession taking place until Great Britain had been able in a measure to rectify her international position. The result was a general recovery which brought sterling up to a general level (at the opening of 1924) of about $4.35, varying from day to day but showing substantial ability to maintain itself. The material improvement in the British budget which took place, and.the slight reduction of indebtedness, together with the funding of Great Britain’s debt to the United States, all tended to produce a more stable financial position and brought about a return of confidence in the value of sterling. Like other countries, Great Britain suffered quite materially from the elimi- nation of inflation; and popular dissatisfaction occasionally compelled a suspension of drastic measures. The general situation of banking in England may be inferred from the tabular pres- entation already given but it is enough to say generally that improvement was steady and that if Great Britain could have been assured of a continuously favorable balance of trade it could have restored the gold standard at any time when the British public was willing to per- mit such restoration. On the other hand, there was a feeling among large groups in Great Britain that such action would probably tend to aggravate the depression and unemployment 466 FINANCE AND BANKING in the country at large so that it would prob- ably be well to defer such action until a more complete adjustment of reparations had been ef- fected. This tended to defer action which other- wise might have been feasible looking to the re- tirement of legal tender notes issued during the War and the restoration of the convertibility of Bank of England notes into gold. Little change occurred in the general structure of Great Brit- ain’s banking system as a direct result of the War, although the creation of the Irish Free State separated a portion of the Irish banks from the general British money market, at least in theory, even though they continued to be closely associated with it in fact. Scotch and Irish notes, which had been made legal tender during the War, were deprived of that quality after the Armistice, while it should be remem- bered that the Currency and Bank Notes Act of 1914 providing for legal tender issues was not in form a temporary act, so that it might be said that there is no direct assurance of the restoration of pre-war conditions. There is no certainty how long the war changes in banking and currency, profound as they have been, will continue or when they will be offset by new measures. Meanwhile, the principal obvious mark left by the War upon the British banking system is to be found in the great concentration of banking which has occurred, there being to- day only about 25 banks in the United Kingdom of which by far the more dominating position has been assigned to five or six of the British institutions with headquarters in London. Continental Banking. The outstanding changes in Continental banking which took place during the War were, in theory and effect, very similar to those in Great Britain, although usu- ally assuming a more extreme form. In France, a moratorium was declared shortly after the opening of hostilities, applying to deposits as well as notes. This was soon ended but at no time during or since the War have Bank of France notes been convertible into coin. Large ‘support has been given by the Bank of France to the government in the form of short-term loans, the result being an enormous increase in note circulation, although changes in the actual struc- ture of banking in France have been fewer than in England. Provisions for the official control of exchange and prohibition of the export of capital were early introduced and have continued in effect. In 1924, France’s banking problem was more than ever intimately associated with governmental budget conditions. The decline in exchange which carried the frane down into an ordinary level of about 5 cents soon after the opening of 1924 (a low point of 3.43 cents hay- ing been reached in the late winter of 1924), merely reflected the declining confidence of the foreign public in France and her budget man- agement, due to the continuance of extraordi- nary budgets without provision to meet them, the continued insistence upon reparations at a rate probably out of the question, and the effort to rely upon inflation and short-term loans in lieu of taxation. Conditions became so alarm- ing as to bring about pledges from the Poincaré Ministry in the spring of 1924 bearing upon the reintroduction of budget balances and _ heavier taxation designed to overcome existing evils. No progress in this direction had been made up to the close of spring of 1924, while the coming of the new ministry had left the situation still doubtful. FINANCE AND BANKING 467 FINANCE AND BANKING FINANCIAL STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL FOREIGN COUNTRIES ENGLAND (In millions of pounds) 1923 1922 OCten, NOV. Dec. Dec. Gold and silver, coin and#bullion*o fee 155 Too i Hails 154 Bank notes in circula- Lae eR AS ae ie ete 102 103 106 104 Currency notes and certificates!’ . Fre i0 280 282 299 3801 Totaly deposits. sat. 119 npg 132 133 Nine London clearing banks: Money at call and short notice ..... 101 105 102 106 Discounts and ad- VAlCOS Geert wrasse cee cae Otel 0100 +L. O26 02,030 Tnvestntents Whos SOT. 336 oot 341 860 Total deposits ..... a6 W629) A680 1/685 791,684 Totals, cleaving sits. fara « Sotomeo LO me, 9.4 e247 OO Government floating debt: Treasuryaeb lise Oe: 635 646 652 TA19 Temporary advances 175 158 208 222 Total floating debt 810 804 860 941 Index number of foreign exchange value of the, pounds, sterling, -125.5 pb27.7 ol2702 9925.8 “Less notes in currency note account. ITALY (In millions of lire) 1923 1922 Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov Banks of issue: Gold reserve ....... ao cee See, Poland 1a G Total reserve. 1s a4 > TOM BASS s S53! °2:039 Loans and discounts 9,982 10,421 10,618 9,082 Note circulation for COMMMENCEy MIF) 2 a0 00. 9,274 953887 9,482 ° 9,782 Note circulation for SHOU States te wssss yess THO lina DOP OM 1 GDOM LS 0 15 Total deposits, y.. -.. - Zo LOMO 200 2.250 2.656 Leading private banks: Casha Fach ignites by:sty il. 756 751 EES 781 Loans and discounts® 9,223 8,741 Hreis 5 3485609 Due from correspond- Cnisoo Pe ie 3, 6481983 ;935 3,568 PaTrticipahions GA2 iin 252 252 339 Total. deposits. -a.tya.cs: Neon Alt ons + amet dils.9 60 Index of security prices 161.61 160.05 162.33 111.09 b Including treasury bills. In Germany, the shock to the banking sys- tem caused by the War was fully as severe as that felt elsewhere, but technically produced no great change during the continuance of the struggle. Early in August, 1914, the govern- ment provided for a legal tender currency which was later retired, its place being taken by Reichs- bank notes. All notes and currency were de- clared inconvertible and a special type of ivan banks was established. Partly as a result of strict military control and government regu- lation of prices, it was pcssible to maintain, up to the close of the War, a semblance of solvency. Immediately after the Armistice, this semblance largely disappeared, and rapid de- terioration began, partly due to loss of specie, the restoration of the reserves to foreign banks which had been carried away, the necessity of CANADA (In millions of dollars) 1923 1922 Sept. Oct. Nov. Nov. Chartered banks: Gold coin and bullion # 61 67 54 92 Current loans and dis- COUN tSiee $a los ears [outs Lalor S24 EA 190. tiles Money at call and short? notice’ ’...°) 283 300 825 303 Public and railway Securities ..... 0 417 A434 410 317 Note circulation 184 185 181 170 Individual deposits 1,997 1,990 2,030 2,036 Gold reserve against Dominion notes 114 112 109 96 Dominion note circula- GIO TIOe steels pics dus abet 243 242 241 251 Bank clearings 2)": . 34 123 2,220,910 71,619 *Not including gold held abroad. > Total for month. FRANCE (Amounts in millions of francs) 1923 1922 Oca Gv. Dec. Dec Bank of France: Gold reserve® ...... JIGo po, OKO no OlGnl o1O70 Silver reserve ...... 296 296 297 289 War advances to the . Government ...... 23,400 22,800 23,300 23,600 Note circulation 37,670 37,329 37,905 36,359 Total depositsw aloe sine 2,030 1 poi 2042 oS Ain 2.009 Clearings, daily average of Paris banks 877 919 935 630 Savings banks, excess of deposits (+) or withdrawals (—) . —33 —41 +2 +383 Brice. iof , sihtper) cent perpetual rente 55.601" 54500 1) (53.25) | “39.02 *Not including gold held abroad. JAPAN (In millions of yen) 1923 1922 Oct. Nov. Dee. Dec Bank of Japan: Reserve for notes® .. 1,062 1,061 1,057 1,064 Loans and discounts 499 491 654 3875 Advances on foreign Dillghmiesic servants crate 86 133 207 205 Note circulations .6 3. 1;449 f 1415 “oh 6977741 590 Government deposits 350 416 360 joe Private deposits .. 58 49 63 66 Tokyo banks: Casheony handia aye. 110 131 £33 169 TG tenlie Loa TS epee stele us 222 Ae OL -2eoqlel. 2.04 Tota lide positSig = set < 18 1 Oy ES26" 1879 eel. S69 TOtala GiealrUiGGr laasrelare 1,460 2,003 2,418 3,329 @Gold abroad, gold coin and bullion in Japan. paying for large quantities of raw material abroad and other factors of the same sort. The outcome necessarily was the steady recession of the mark, somewhat aided by apparently in- tentional inflation with shipment of paper marks and mark obligations abroad. Accord- ing to expert Committee No. 2 whose report was rendered to the Reparation Commission in April, 1924, careful investigation showed that Germans had in this way disposed of a total abroad of nearly 8,000,000,000 marks, receiv- ing, of course, goods in exchange to an equal amount, the marks in the meantime becoming practically worthless. Increasing difficulty con- tinued and was greatly emphasized by the in- ability to obtain any balancing of the budget or any adjustment or reparation claims. The re- sult was to drive the mark down to practically FINANCE AND BANKING nothing, the quotation at about the close of 1923 being $0.00000000000022. At this microscopic figure the mark was practically valueless and its place was rapidly being taken by foreign currencies. Decisive deterioration in the quota- tion of the mark had set in about the middle of 1922 and continued more or less steadily from that day onward to the autumn of 1923, when effort was made to obtain a substitute cur- rency by organizing the so-called ‘“Renten- bank.” This was a bank whose obligations were secured by mortgages upon the lands, houses and industrial property of Germany, the unit in which they were expressed being designated as the ‘“‘Rentenmark,” presumably equivalent to the gold mark. During the winter of 1923-24, there was also gradually brought into existence under the supervision of Dr. Schacht, the sc- called “Gold Diskont Bank,” whose purpose it was to finance foreign transactions. This “gold” bank was such only in name as its capital was largely derived from English sources in sterling while its foreign payments were made in sterl- ing, it being thus really a sterling bank rather than a gold bank. The reparation committee’s plan called for a governmentally controlled bank which would supersede both of these emergency establishments as well as the Reichsbank and would reéstablish a gold currency in Germany with corresponding stability in foreign exchange based upon the idea of conversion of outstand- ing currency at demand either into actual gold or into the gold currency of other countries at a specified rate of exchange. In the autumn of 1924, preliminary arrangements relating to this plan had only just been concluded. German banking had not changed greatly in its external form, but the same tendency to consolidation apparent in England was felt also in Germany and resulted in a reduction in the number of independent banks, accompanied by some in- crease in the degree of their dependence upon the Reichsbank. In other European countries where central banking systems were in operation practically upon the same general basis as in England or France at the opening of the War, very much the same war changes were experienced. Prac- tically all introduced gold embargoes which were continued after the close of the War and in most of them attempts were made, usually with but little success, to control the direction of foreign exchange. In Russia, practically the entire pre-war stock of specie was taken from the banks and eventually exported. Austria, too, lost her entire reserve of coin and was obliged to submit to a reorganization of her finance under the auspices of the League of Na- tions with a gold loan based upon or gua.anteed by the Allies themselves. In Italy, conditions more closely resembled those of France, and the restoration of governmental frugality under Mussolini had the effect of stabilizing the lira and curtailing bank inflation. Among the so- called neutral countries such as Switzerland, Holland and Scandinavian nations, conditions varied somewhat, but the general drift was to- ward increase of gold owing to payments made by belligerents for supplies that they needed. The result generally was to bring about an over- expansion of gold reserves with a corresponding tendency to inflation in bank obligations. Alto- gether, therefore, the tendency was somewhat parallel to conditions among the belligerents al- though for different reasons. Subsequent to the 468 FINANCE AND BANKING War this whole group of countries found itself better able to resume the free payment and movement of specie than before the struggle, yet disinclined to do it because of the fact that the principal customers were themselves on a paper basis. Efforts to bring about a “monetary union” between them, Great Britain and the United States, were not successful because of the fears in regard to the effect of such action on the competitive position. “Colonial’’ and Oriental Banking. Condi- tions in the colonies of the various principal powers, prior to the War, had been generally de- pendent upon the situation in the parent coun- tries. The War for the most part threw their systems of money and banking out of gear, partly by cutting off regular trade movement between them end the parent country, partly by leading them to declare embargoes, as in Can- ada and Australia, in the fear that otherwise they might lose their specie, as well as out of a sense of loyalty to the colonizing nation itself. As a result of these conditions abnormal dif- ficulties were encountered in those parts of the world where the so-called gold exchange stand- ard had been established, e.g. in India, the ef- fort being there to bring about a conservation of specie and a fair stability of value. After the close of the War these difficulties disappeared in some measure, still leaving the dependencies, such as Australia, Canada, and others, inclined to move parallel to the currency of the parent country. In Japan, where an independent gold standard system had existed for many years, the embargo on gold early established during the War was maintained, notwithstanaing that the stock of metal there was large and foreign trade in a fairly satisfactory condition. No serious changes in the structure of banking took place in the colonial or Oriental countries upon any considerable scale during the post-war peri- od, perhaps the outstanding development being the creation of a reserve bank, closely modeled upon the Federal Reserve system, in South Africa. In other countries effort was made to popularize the banking systems and so far as possible rather to diminish the power of central oversight so far as practicable. Price move- ments in these economically dependent countries were naturally governed to no small extent by the price movements in the parent country, as may be seen by consulting the table of prices printed earlier in this article. War Changes in Foreign Banking. The War naturally affected the banking systems of all nations very profoundly, resulting in most countries in an enormous expansion of credit both in the form of notes and of deposits, while practically everywhere the banks of the several countries became overloaded with government securities of various kinds either purchased for their own account or taken as collateral be- hind paper which had been left with them by customers for the purpose of carrying these bonds pending gradual liquidation of subscriptions to them. After the close of the War, the general development of banking in most countries passed through considerable changes of volume and character of transactions but the alteration in banking structure was comparatively slight. The general effect of the War, as noted above, was to tend toward concentration of banks— England, for example, reducing the number of institutions from upward of 100 to only about 25, of which five were of preponderating im- FINANCE AND BANKING portance. In France, the drift toward concentra- tion was not so strong because France had already reached a highly concentrated posi- tion in banking prior to the War. The War, therefore, found conditions ready to hand for the exercise of strong government control, while on the other hand such control did not produce the effect that was witnessed in England and elsewhere in drawing banks closer to the gov- ernment because they were already very di- rectly affiliated with and under the control of the public powers. In Germany, the Reichsbank became little more than a tool in the hands of the government, being used there for the pur- pose of floating short-term loans and_ later of issuing paper currency in almost unlimited volume to care for the needs of the govern- ment and avoid the necessity for heavier taxa- tion. Another phase of post-war banking was seen in the fact that the portfolios of practically all European institutions changed greatly. In lieu of the short-term paper which formerly occu- pied so nearly exclusive a place, the primacy was taken by government obligations and _ so- called short-term notes, ‘‘direct advances to the state,’ and other types of public obligations. The result was the maintenance of an inflated and unsatisfactory condition throughout the entire banking structure, solvency continuing to be entirely dependent on the condition of af- fairs in the public treasury, while prices were not able to react toward normal because of the continued inflationary influence to which they were subjected in consequence of the status of affairs in government relations with the banks. Still a third important change in the situation after the War was seen in the fact that so many banks and banking institutions were either driven into failure or obliged to go out of busi- ness or to amalgamate with others because they had become overburdened with non-liquid paper. The banks in such cases frequently were found to have ventured a good deal of their funds in foreign trade operations of one kind or another and there was great mortality and severe losses among the foreign banks of the world at large. In the United States there was a rapid, but not very successful, development of foreign banking during the War, owing to the fact that foreign, and especially English, in- stitutions were so seriously crippled, and hence so little able to take care of the necessities of foreign trade. As a result the United States en- joyed an unequaled opportunity for the develop- ment of its foreign banking system and _ busi- ness, but it never succeeded in gaining a strong foothold; and after the reaction of 1920-21 when foreign trade showed such extensive and serious net losses, there began a movement to disestablish foreign banks which, numerically speaking, went very much further than in any other country, while at the same time the seri- ous losses, which had to be recognized and writ- ten off as a result of the shrinkage of prices, became very pronounced. This, taken in con- junction with the readjustment of foreign trade, was perhaps the most striking economico-finan- cial development of the entire post-war period in the business and credit world. Banking, Prices, and Finance. The prob- lem of banking, prices, and finance thus became unusually closely intertwined as a result of dis- turbance to revenue systems and to bank reserve holdings during the War and there was a dis- 469 ‘ Costs of the Great FINANCE AND BANKING position towards the end of the decade to treat the whole situation as essentially a large problem of public concern in which a restoration to soundness could be brought about only through the direct invocation of government assistance coupled with legislation. It was generally ad- mitted that permanent recovery from the ef- fects of war finance and restoration of stability in currency would involve certain standardized and fairly definite elements. Conspicuous among these was the restoration of a budgetary bal- ance designed to bring about freedom for the central banks from constant demands on the part of government short-term borrowing. At the same time the necessity of bringing about, so far as possible, a uniform condition of the monetary standard in all countries trading with one another was recognized. It was thought that this might not necessitate the actual re- distribution of gold coin, opinions differing as to the advisability of such a step, pending the time of full restoration of commercial and eco- nomic soundness; but it did imply the restora- tion of currency and banking convertibility into foreign standards of. recognized stability and strength and in so doing it rendered the interna- tional monetary problem practically a uniform matter subject only to variations of local atti- tude growing out of the varying amounts of specie that were held, the varying conditions of public debt, budgetary balance and the like. Finally, it was recognized that in some way it would be necessary to bring about a scaling down or cancelation of international indebted- ness on a fairly large scale, since without such cancelation, it would be practically impossible to develop a situation in which the various countries could meet their foreign obligations and provide the interest essential to keeping them alive. Not only budgets but international debt and exchange conditions as well as the distribution of specie among the several countries were thus (in 1924) in a highly transitional condition in which the development of stability or a return to soundness must depend upon measures still to be taken, some of them of an international nature. Nothing could be expected for some time, owing to the fact that political condi- tions in the various countries and the persistence of race and national prejudice following after the War prevented the discussion of the eco- nomic problems presented upon a business basis. Bibliography. The principal sources of in- formation of war finance are still (1924) the financial reports of the various countries. For the United States the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury and the annual reports of the Federal Reserve Board give the most complete and authentic information. The League of Na- tions published, preliminary to the interna- tional financial conference at Paris, a series of documents which deal at great length with public finances during the War. Volume IV is perhaps the most useful of these publications. The following works are also of service in this same connection: Bogart, Direct and Indirect World War; Anderson, Effects of the War on Money, Credit, and Bank- ing in France and the United States; Gottlieb, L. R., Financial Status of the Belligerents and , Post-War Finance (a series of four monographs issued by the Bankers’ Statistics Corporation, New York, 1920-21); Benson, State Credit and Banking during the War and After; Seligman, FINLAND Currency Inflation and Public Debts (Equitable Trust Company, New York, 1922); Hollander, War Borrowing. Fisk, Inter-Ally Debts (New York, 1924); Reports of the National Monetary Commission (Washington, 1910-11); Reports of the Comptroller of the Currency; Kirkbride, Sterrett and Willis, Modern Trust Company (New York, 1921); Willis and Edwards, Bank- ing and Business (New York, 1922); Reports of Federal Reserve Board, 1914-21; Currencies After the War (London, 1920). See TARIFF; TAXATION; AGRICULTURAL CREDIT, etc,; also paragraphs on Finance in articles on countries; and the article STATE FINANCES. FINLAND. Formerly a grand duchy of the Russian Empire, but since Dec. 9, 1917, an in- dependent republic, situated in the northeastern part of Europe on the gulfs of Finland and Bothnia. Area, 149,639 square miles, of which 17,100 square miles are under water; popula- tion (census of 1922), 3,105,103, as against 3,364,807 in 1920. The 1920 count was a gain (for the same area) of 224,399 over the last decennial period, or 7.2 per cent. The gain for the decade of 1900-10 had been 14.8 per cent. The population was preponderantly rural though with the twentieth century the urban popula- tion steadily increased. In 1900, 12.5 per cent of the population lived in towns; in 1910, 14.6 per cent; in 1920, 16.3 per cent. In 1920, there were 1026 females to 1000 males. Racially, the population was divided into Finns, 88.7 per cent; Swedes, 11 per cent; Russians, 1 per cent; Germans, 0.8 per cent; Lapps, 0.5 per cent. The National Church was Evangelical Lutheran, but liberty of conscience was guaranteed. At the end of 1920, there were 3,300,520 Lutherans, 54,791 Greek Catholics and Raskolnics, 404 Roman Catholics, 6614 Baptists, and 1618 Jews. During 1916-20 inclusive, emigrants numbered 16,678 of whom 16,597 went to Amer- ica. In 1921, emigrants numbered 3557. The principal towns, with their populations in 1910 and 1922, were: Helsingfors, the capital, 200,- RECORD OF CROPS ( Official Hagures) 1 14 1919 Hectolitres Hectolitres WWACAT ANG te ccs, at havea aoe coenne 69,211 92,299 FEV Ore ie ee: SNA SHAPE Cees Sie 3,978,946 3,050,434 Barley te tei. iia = eb sai 1,521,039 1,648,262 OSH AAS tA os. 2| Scie eee 6,897,155 7,148,721 WOLRHOGES EE) ced cde). = totes eee 6,602,533 Y Os l261 TTEEITEDS Metege ee eee's tus. skede A whee 2,779,486 1,989,799 208 (1910, 147,218); Abo, 58,694 (1910, 49,- 691); Tammerfors, 48,475 borg, 30,748 (1910, 27,508). Agriculture. The census of 1920 listed oc- cupations as follows: agriculture, 65 per cent; industry, 14.8 per cent; communications, 3.4 per cent; commerce, 3.4 per cent; others 13.3 (1910, 45,442); Vi- per cent. Only 9.9 per cent of the land was un- der cultivation (4,959,568 acres), worked in small holdings mainly. There were 250,748 farms in 1920 (284,188 in 1910) of which only 14,891 (5.9 per cent) were 62 acres and over. Cereals and root crops were raised for home Item 1914 Niimber"or enterprises: sols areietetei srt. ss 5,024 Numbengot workers; 3500.) > eeeeciane . 106,097 Gross value of output, 1000 marks ..... Exchange rate Value in American dollars eo ‘aioe ees bie & ww Oe PD ielene Bie 6 ie consumption and by 1919 the yields reached the pre-war stability (see table). Before the War, 470 FINLAND Finland imported about 30 per cent of her cereals, mainly from Russia, but during the years 1914-16 this trade fell off about a fourth and from 1917 on it decreased to about 3 per cent of its former quantity. The necessity for stringent regulation at once became evident and food-cards had to be resorted to. From 1919 on, large quantities of grain were imported from the United States. In 1913, cereal imports totaled $17,505,100; in 1918, imports were only $2,861,658; by 1921, they had reached $13,756,- 740, and in 1923, $19,904,850. The manufacture of dairy products, a thriving industry before the War, steadily declined during 1914-18 and by 1919 had not yet recovered. In 1914, there were 651 creameries; in 1919, only 431; in 1921, 462. In 1911-15, an average of 13,013,000 kilo- grams of butter were produced; in 1916-20, 8,803,000 kilograms; in 1921, 9,449,000; in 1914, 2,462,000 kilograms of cheese were produced; in 1919, 1,016,000; in 1921, 3,292,000. The same was true in the case of domestic animals. Not until 1920 did Finland succeed in making up the losses suffered during the War. In 1921, horses numbered 392,558 (294,264 in 1914); cattle, 1,791,947 in 1921 (1,167,112 in 1914) ; sheep, 1,- 572,444; swine, 374,636. The necessity for in- creasing the land-holding class was a concern of major importance in the country and from 1919 on the government consistently applied itself to that end. In 1919, 1920, 1921, state subven- tions were made for the purchase of new lands, and by the law of 1922, provision was made for the increase of small holdings created out of State and Communal property. The decision, by the law of 1919, to permit the tenant to pay for his rental in money instead of labor, was significant and pointed to the eventual de- struction of the large estates through the elimination of cheap labor. The country’s chief wealth lay in its forests and its water power. The forests of pine, spruce, and birch covered more than half the country, and the state for- ests alone included 33 per cent of the country’s area. These yielded a considerable revenue, as may be seen from the fact that for 1920 the maintenance cost was 64,117,327 marks and the income derived, 130,625,765 marks. In 1913, wood and wood products (including pulp and paper) formed 75 per cent of the exports of the country. By 1921, these had increased to 79 per cent and in 1923, to 89 per cent. It was estimated that there were 3,000,000 horse power available in Finland’s water courses, but these as yet had been tapped only slightly, as was in- dicated by the fact that only 100,000 were in use in 1920. Mining. Mineral resources were still in- considerable for want of capital, copper ore, magnetite, iron, pyrite being mined only in small quantities. In 1923, considerable depos- its of kaolin, useful in the manufacture of por- celain and paper, were discovered near Wart- sila. Manufacturing. The War played havoc with the country’s industries, the cutting off of foreign markets, the unsettled political status, 1920 1921 1922 2,920 3,141 3,294 117,230 120,317 132,707 6,168,031 $0.034 $0.019 $0.021 $209,713,054 $124,141,668 $174,857,000 strikes, etc., bringing conditions to an exceed- ingly low level. With 1920, however, affairs ee FINLAND ant were on the mend, as may be seen from the foregoing table. The most important industries, by number of workers, were, in order: wood industries, iron and mechanical works, textiles, paper, leather, graphic arts, tobacco. By 1921, relations be- tween employers and workers were on a more amicable basis, industrial conflicts in 1921 al- most reaching the low level of 1914. In 1914, there were 37 strikes and lockouts involving 6217 workers and lasting 1300 days; in 1917, the height of unrest was reached with 483 strikes involving 139,812 men and lasting 9383 days; in 1921, the figures were again normal, viz., 76 strikes, 6251 workers, and 1944 days out; in 1923 they fell to 49, affecting 7469 em- ployees. Cost of Living. During the War and well into 1923, the cost of living steadily mounted, adding to the privations of the population. Based on the index figure of 100 for prices as of July, 1914, in December, 1920, prices reached 1,103.2 and in 1923, reached the high figure of 1147. The exchange rate steadily continued un- favorable to Finland, reaching 29 marks to the dollar in 1920, 52 to the dollar in 1921, 46.7 to the dollar in 1922, and 37.4 to the dollar in 1923 (par rate=5.18 marks to the dollar). Commerce. Imports and exports for typical years (based on the American dollar) were: Imports Exports POLSON Pret cle hele ert hehe 2 $96,600,000 $78,100,000 ROS HPs ieee het. 63,076,500 28,355,400 iS PAIS SPS Sy ORC Em oa 125,051,000 100,911,100 a ia teat Metal taaohoTske) el orks 84,700,000 95,600,000 ELS Bane. ote tens ee cnet fens 123,010,000 117,070,000 The year 1922 was the first rf the annals of Finland to show an excess of exports (13 per cent). In 1913, the excess of imports had been 22 per cent while for pre-war years the import excess had ranged from 15 to 40 per cent. On the basis of 1913 prices, exports in 1922 were 93.4 per cent of those in 1913, and imports were 74.4 per cent of those in 1913. Nothing can indicate more plainly than these figures how rapidly Finland was approaching its normal status. Principal imports were in order of val- ue: textiles; cereals; coffee, tea, sugar; metals; machinery; oils and fats. Principal exports in order of value were: timber; pulp and paper; animal products, mostly butter; hides and leather; animals; matches; gums, tar, ete. In 1913, the following countries figured in goods sent into Finland, in order of importance: Ger- many, Russia, Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, Belgium. The United States was fif- teenth with $712. In 1923, the order was: Ger- many, Great Britain, United States ($15,600,- 000), Sweden, Holland, Denmark. In 1913 the following were countries of destination of Fin- nish exports, by order of value: Russia, Great (Britain, Germany, France, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark. Nothing was reported for the United States. In 1923, the order was: Great Britain, France, United States ($9,200,000), Holland, Belgium, and Germany. Communications. In 1911, there were 2332 miles of railway; in 1923, the mileage was 2765, all but 184 miles of which belonged to the state. In 1921, there were 2525 post offices, 10,517 miles of telegraph, and 3230. miles of telephone wires. In 1913, 11,901 vessels entered Finnish ports, with cargo 1,668,000 tons, in ballast 2,028,000 tons; 11,937 cleared, of which with FINLAND cargo 3,374,000 tons, in ballast 255,000 tons. In 1923, a total of 7647 vessels entered, with cargo 1,696,000 tons, in ballast 1,763,000 tons; 7450 vessels cleared, with cargo 3,266,000 tons, in ballast 193,000 tons. In 1923, the Finnish merchant marine consisted of 683 sailing vessels of 102,111 tons, 781 steamers of 92,032 tons, 124 motor-driven ships of 18,649 tons. Finance. On Dec. 31, 1923, there were 1,352,400,000 marks of the Bank of Finland in circulation. This was equal to $33,400,000 at the current conversion rate. In 1914, there were 141,724,000 marks or $27,352,732. Revenues in 1914 totaled 169,692,000 marks ($32,777,556) ; in 1921, 2,887,179,000 marks ($44,260,000); in 1923, 3,913,526,545 ($104,491,170). Expendi- tures in 1914 were 185,987,000 ($35,895,491) ; in 1921, 2,698,135,000 ($51,887,211); in 1923, 3,497,446,804 ($93,381,800). In 1914, the total debt was 171,186,038 marks ($33,038,905). At the end of 1923, it was $86,600,000, at current rates of exchange, including $63,500,000 of for- eign debt and $23,100,000 of internal debt. In 1923, a loan of $10,000,000 was floated in the United States while arrangements were made for floating Finland’s debt to America. Education. In 1922, there were three uni- versities, the Swedish university at Abo being opened in 1919 and the Finnish university at Abo in 1922. There was a total of 2819 stu- dents. For secondary education there were 85 lyceums, 31 middle schools, 26 girls’ colleges, with a total student body of 28,839. There were in all (1921) 7214 elementary schools with 531,393 pupils. Besides, the educational system included schools for the teaching of navigation, commerce, arts and crafts, agricul- ture, forestry, ete. In 1921, there were 254 newspapers and reviews in Finnish, 87 in Swed- ish, 10 in Finnish and Swedish, and 5 in other languages. Defense. The army and coast defense were recruited on the basis of universal service. In 1922, the class called up for service numbered 18,000. An integral part of the defense was the voluntary Civie Protective Guards Organ- ization, which in 1922 numbered 98,319. By 1924, Finland had no battleships. The army and navy budget for 1922 amounted to 12.5 per cent of the total material expenditures. History. The War brought Finland relief from the Russification policy which had been carried on with an increased intensity during the decade preceding the outbreak of hostilities. The years 1914-17 witnessed an abatement of the Russian programme, with the result that though Finns received no new political liberties their industrial growth was considerable. The manufacture of war materials was prosecuted advantageously, so that the cities grew affluent while the countryside, deserted by labor flock- ing to the cities, steadily declined. It could not be said that the Finns hoped ardently for a Rus- sian victory, for enlistments were surprisingly few. Yet the Russian Revolution of March, 1917, was hailed with mixed feelings. The erowing industrial activity had increased the size of the Social Democratic party and acces- sions to the workers’ ranks had been made from Russia in which the workers had been im- pregnated with revolutionary ideas. The bour- geois classes feared as much the dominance of this group as they had the former Russian autocracy. One of the first steps of the Keren- sky government was to restore representative FINLAND government to Finland. The Diet met on Apr. 5, 1917, and it was immediately evident that the Social Democrats were in control. At- tempts were made by the radicals to set up an independent Finland, at least politically and economically, and altercations went on with the Russian government until the advent of the Bolsheviks. Affairs were further complicated by the epidemic of strikes which broke out in 1917, and the threatening famine due to the breakdown of agriculture. In the new Diet, elected Oct. 2, 1917, a bour- geois bloc forced out the Social Democrats and, fearing the collapse of Russia with the attend- ant economic ruin, immediately issued a declara- tion of independence (Dec. 5, 1917). The Bol- shevik government finally gave its assent on Jan. 9, 1918, and this was followed by recog- nition on the part of Sweden, Norway, France, Spain, Denmark, and Germany. The following year was a tragic one. The Social Democrats were averse to breaking relations with Russia, for such a connection meant the extension of communism into Finland. The bourgeois ele- ments, on the other hand, fearing for the new- found wealth that had come from war manu- factures, desired a connection with either Sweden or Germany. The result was the ap- pearance of “White Guards” and “Red Guards,” the latter being augmented by the influx of Russian soldiers. War broke out everywhere, beginning with the seizure of Helsingfors in January, 1918, by the “Red Guards,” the estab- lishment of a soldiers’ and workers’ council, and the inauguration of a Red Terror. The ready success of the Bolshevik forces and the inability of General Mannerheim, leader of the “White Guards,” to cope with the situation led the government to appeal to Sweden and Ger- many for aid. Sweden very wisely declined, re- fusing to be embroiled in the War; Germany, however, was very quick to embark’on the ad- . venture. The treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed Mar. 3, 1918. On Mar. 7, 1918, the Finno- German treaty was signed, and to all intents and purposes Finland was a German vassal. General von der Goltz, head of the German forces, im- mediately landed on the Aland Islands and thus was able to take the Red forces in the rear. Victories by von der Goltz and Mannerheim immediately followed; Helsingfors was retaken; and by May, 1918, the revolution was crushed. The White Terror that was inaugurated ac- counted for from 15,000 to 20,000 victims, and almost 100,000 men and women were thrown into jail. The reactionary government that followed, un- der the dictatorship of Senator Svinhufvud, was completely under the control of von der Goltz, and attempted to erect a monarchy under a German prince, Frederick Charles of Hesse It became plain that it was von der Goltz’s inten- tion to employ Finnish codperation in a mili- tary movement on the Murman coast but the turn of events on the Western front made the plan impracticable. Fortunately the Armistice intervened to save Finland. In December, Svinhufvud, because of his pro-German tenden- cles, resigned, and Mannerheim, whose sympa- thies were monarchistic, was installed as Regent. During 1919, Manne:heim attempted unsuccess- fully to ally Finland with the Entente powers in their adventure on the Murmansk front, but the reaction had swung in and from 1919 on Finland applied itself exclusively to its internal 472 FIORE problems. The Diet of Mar. 1, 1919, organized by a bloc of the Progressive-Agrarian parties (though the Social Democrats had a plurality), decided for a republic and on July 25, Prof. Kaarlo Juho Stahlberg was elected first presi- dent over General Mannerheim, for a six year term. The republican government received in- ternational recognition, and, after signing a treaty for the protection of minorities, Finland was admitted to the League of Nations, Dec. 16, 1920. One of Finland’s leading aspirations was realized, when, on Oct. 14, 1920, by the Treaty of Dorpat with Soviet Russia, she re- ceived the Pechenga region on the Arctic Ocean. The significance of this port lies in the fact that it is open to navigation during the winter months because of the presence of the Gulf Stream, Eastern Karelia, on the other hand, was granted autonomy under Russia. During 1921, a local uprising in Karelia tended to alienate Russia and Finland, the former accus- ing Finland of complicity. Finland endeavored to carry the controversy into the World Court, but was thwarted by Russian opposition. The difficulty had not been adjusted by 1924 and hard feeling still prevailed. Another question of in- ternational importance was the disposition of the Aland Islands, claimed by Sweden on _ ethno- graphical grounds and by Finland because the islands were necessary for her national exist- ence, being located as they were at the entrance to the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The mat- ter was referred to the League of Nations in June, 1920, and a year later, the islands were granted to Finland. (See ALAND ISLANDS). Under the moderate coalition which continued in power after the election of 1922, the country made rapid strides toward regaining its stabil- ity and earned thereby the approbation of Euro- pean powers and the United States. By the election of 1922, the Social-Democratie group was further whittled away and the government was formed by the Agrarian-Progressive bloc as heretofore. But a crisis was precipitated to- ward the end of 1923, largely as a result of the drastic measures taken against the Communist party. The cabinet fell from power, Jan. 16, 1924, and was succeeded by an interim govern- ment. New elections were announced for April, 1924. FINLEY, Joun Huston (1863- Den pot American educator and editor (see Vou. VIII). He was a member of the American Army Edu- cational Commission (1918), commander of the American Red Cross for Palestine and the Near East (1918-19), editor of Nelson’s eincyclopedia, and associate editor of the New York Times (1921= ). In 1923 he was appointed exchange lecturer to Scandinavian countries under the auspices of the Scandinavian-American Founda- tion. Among his later works are French Schools in War Times (1917), A Pilgrim in Palestine (1918), and The Debt Eternal (1923). FIORE, PASQUALE (1837- ). An Italian jurist (see Vor. VIII). Revised and enlarged editions of two of his important works on in- ternational law appeared after 1914, [1 Diritto Internazionale Oodificato e la sua Sanzione Giuridica: Studi (1915), which contains in an appendix a summary of the most important in- ternational treaties from 1525 (English trans- lation, 1918, New York) ; and Trattato di Dirit- to Internazionale Pubblico (1916), which con- tains (vol. iii) a discussion of war and its general effects, and of the rights and duties of FIRE APPARATUS belligerents. He is the editor of Jl Diritto Civile Italiano Secondo la Dottrina e la Giurispru- denza (1918). Pasquale Fiore is the subject of a discussion by Josef Miiller in Volksbildung, vol. xix, under the title of “Die Stellung des Menschen im Volkerrecht nach der Theorie Pas- quale Fiores” (1921). FIRE APPARATUS. See Moror VEHICLES. FIRE FLY. See ZodLoey, Physiology. FIRE FLY, Licut or. See Puysics. FIRE PROTECTION. It was a somewhat striking commentary on the progress of civiliza- tion that, with the various means of safeguard- ing life and property, the losses due to fire in the United States and Canada increased rather than diminished in the period from 1914 to 1924. In fact the annual destruction by fire and conflagration fairly could be compared with that of war, yet it was impossible to arouse adequate public sentiment to deal effectively with this great menace. However, there were certain advances to be recorded in securing more adequate fire protection, and a hopeful move- ment towards fire prevention which was becom- ing more general. It was realized that much of the work of a municipal fire department should be in the field of fire protection and securing the enactment and enforcement of adequate regulations in the interests of public safety The National Board of Fire Underwriters con- tinued their inspection of municipal fire depart- ments and water supplies, and from time to time made valuable recommendations which were car- ried into effect and reacted to the benefit of the citizens by more favorable insurance rates. The decade under consideration witnessed the prac- tical disappearance of horse-drawn fire ap- paratus in favor of motorized equipment which had reached a point where for speed and relia- bility, as well as for economy, it was able to function satisfactorily. By the elimination of the cost of maintenance for the food and care of horses it was possible to provide more adequate protection to the smaller cities and towns, and the increased speed of travel on the road and capability of achieving greater distances made possible codperative action by the fire depart- ments of adjoining towns. In some of the larger cities, particularly those on the coasts and the Great Lakes, independent high pressure services were installed or extended, and with the tall buildings of modern construction such _ inde- pendent high pressure mains were considered absolutely essential. In the fire departments themselves it was interesting to note that along with the increase of technical interest and training, there was a marked advance in the spread of the fire pre- vention spirit and campaign. It was clearly evident there was a passing of the old type of fire fighter whose method and pleasure appar- ently was the throwing of vast quantities of water. The reduction of the number of fire alarms rather than the number of fires extin- cuished was beginning to mark the efficiency of a fire department and its chief, who was becom- ing both a public conservation officer and educa- tor. Chief O’Brien of the Indianapolis Fire De- partment, who had to deal with an average of five or six fires a day from sparks on shingle roofs, made it a practice as soon as he had such a fire under control to deliver a lecture on the wooden shingle hazard to the crowd of men and women attracted by the fire. 473 FIRE PROTECTION For the protection of water fronts large and more powerful fire boats were being built with modern centrifugal and other pumps, and these were valuable adjuncts to most of the large cities with warehouse piers and other harbor facilities, as their pumping facilities could be brought to bear on fires not too far distant from the water front either through hose lines or per- manent pipe systems. In Europe where greater care ordinarily is exercised than in America there were not the same fire losses, and in England, in particular, there was a steady improvement in fire appa- ratus which manufacturers of motor equipment are turning out constantly on a more efficient basis. In Japan, in connection with the earth- quake of 1923, the district including the cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, suffered from fire in- volving a loss in the former city alone of 184,103 residence buildings and 4488 other buildings, or about 74 per cent of the total outlay of build- ing in the city was destroyed, while in Yoko- hama the destruction was even more complete. Of course the earthquake was responsible for much of this destruction, and it would be im- possible to settle the damage done by the pri- mary cause and that resulting from fire, but it was a very serious element in this disaster. Showing the widespread distribution of Amer- ican cities in which the fire losses exceeded five dollars per capita in 1923, as reported by the An- nual Board of Fire Underwriters, the accom- panying table is of interest, and when it is realized that a number of these cities have fig- ured on a corresponding list for more than one year out of five the seriousness of the situa- tion may be appreciated. UNITED STATES CITIES IN WHICH FIRE LOSS EXCEEDED $5.00 PER CAPITA 1923 Chicago Heights, Wichita, Kans. $6.77 THATS OS: 28.95 @Durham, N. C. . 6.73 2 Jackson, Miss. .. 27.83 Key West, Fla. . 6.72 Hagerstown, Md. 18.33 Louisville, Ky. .. 6.69 4 Montgomery, Ala. 1503 %Nashville, Tenn. 6.55 > Oharlotte, N. OC. 14.81 ¢ Savannah, Ga... 6.52 Muskegon, Mich. 13.31 Duluth, Minn. .. 6.52 @ Marion. «lindas 410.00. 2 Pine JBluft,, Avk 6.47 > Garfield, N. J. .. 12.63 Vicksburg, Miss. 6.46 Omaha, Neb. ... 11.43 % Springfield, Ill. 6.21 ¢ Concord, N., H.).) 11.14 , Norwalk, Conn. . 6.2 Plainfield, N. J. 10.82 % Springfield, Mass. 6.14 @ Chelsea, Mass. .. 10.61 Burlington, Iowa 6.13 @ Stockton, Cal. .. 10.55 %Shreveport, La. . 6.08 5 Charleston, W. Va. 10.52 ° Memphis, Tenn. . 6.04 Dallas Texwy errs 10.06 Danville, Ill. ... 5.92 Duquesne. Pa. .. 10.00 ®Moline, Ill. .. 5.73 Springfield, Mo. . 9.85 Revere, Mass. .. 5.67 > Oshkosh, Wis. 9.78 Baton Rouge, La. 5.63 Leominster, Mass. 9.45 *New London, Riverside, Cal. .. 9.11 GOs tance: 5.60 Lancaster, Pa... 8.94 % Ottumwa, Iowa . 5.56 ¢ Haverhill, Mass. 8.56: *La Crosse, Wis. . iss byl New Albany, Ind. 8.36 *Sedalia, Mo. . 5.48 ® Boston, Mass. .. 8.18 Lowell, Mass. 5.44 ¢ Fort Smith, Ark. 8.05 * Battle Creek, @ Grand Rapids, Mich. ck ere 5.44 Mich iapees = fae 8.03 * Wilmington, N. C. 5.40 @Fau Claire, Wis. 7.44 ®Oswego, N. Y. .. 53:7 Asheville, N. ©. 7.22 Niagara Falls, Providence, R. I. Tou ot Mee wt ee 5.36 @ Alton’ Tile eee: 7.18 %Kokomo, Ind. 5.34 ¢ Kansas City, Mo. 7.18 %Lexington. Ky. . 5.28 Everett, Mass. .. 7.14 Buftaloy Novy. ee 5.24 Ogden, Utah ... 6.86 *Columbus, Ga. . 5.14 @ Winona, Minn. . 6.79 ®St. Paul, Minn. . 5.13 Utica: Nicky. 5.01 «These cities in this class in two of the five years. >In this class three of the five years. ¢In this class four of the five years. @In this class five years. In the ten years from 1913 to 1923 the an- nual fire losses in the United States have con- tinually mounted, reaching in 1923 the stu- FIRE PROTECTION pendous figure of over half a billion dollars, and falling but $10,000,000 short of the record prop- erty loss of 1906, the year of the San Francisco conflagration, when the destruction of property totaled $518,611,800. The figures by years for the period under review are given in the follow- ing table, COMPARATIVE FIRE LOSSES, UNITED STATES 1 913-1923 Per Population Total Loss Capita 1913— Whole country 97,163,330 * $203,763,550 2.10 298 cities 33,281,804 674,876,608 2.25 1914— Whole country 98,781,824 4% 221,439,350 2.24 298 cities 40,213,230 >’ 93,368,795 2.32 1915— Whole country 100,399,318 %*%172,033,200 il fal 333 cities 35,161,266 b 68,386,218 1.94 1916— Whole country 102,017,812 4%214,530,995 2.10 329 cities 36,055,568 b’ 79,440,658 2.20 1917— Whole country 103,635,606 9% 250,753,640 2.42 327 cities BG.oD 1, OleL > 89,483,398 2.45 1918— Whole country 105,253,300 %290,959,885 2.76 328 cities 38,079,781 b 95,365,412 2.50 Whole country 106,871,294 %320,540,399 2.99 326 cities 89,898,869 %103,028,235 2.58 1920— Whole country 105,683,108 4% 447,886,677 eo 370 cities 39,636,748 %151,120,951 3.81 1921— Whole country 108,540,838 *495,406,012 4.56 370 cities 40,324,918 %141,406,007 3.01 1922— Whole country 109,955,947 %506,541,001 4.61 366 cities 88,821,476 %120,964,112 SOi7. 1923— Whole country 111,715,242 4% 508,000,000 4.55 372 cities 42,946,639 %147,102,119 3.42 @Wstimated from Records of the Actuarial Bureau, National Board of Fire Underwriters. > Actual figures reported. The same table shows the comparative fire losses for the whole country on the basis of population and for certain selected cities for which actual figures were reported to the Actua- rial Bureau of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. It must be considered, however, in connection with these statements of fire losses that in the ten year period the burnable values had materially increased, and it was a source of some encouragement to fire underwriters that the proportion of fire losses to burnable values had shown a decrease. This was claimed to be the result of fire prevention efforts of various kinds but much more needed to be done to make such efforts effective. The United States was suffering a vast drain on its total resources and the fire losses were vastly greater, both in amount and per capita than in Europe. This is indicated by the ac- companying comparison of fire losses in the United States for three years in comparison with the corresponding figures for Great Britain: Year Great Britain United States OD Oona Walesetexe cle (cen eene $42,445,000 $447,886,677 ODA ho. as where « etemaenene 38,820,000 495,406,012 MOY DA. ONES oS eens 30,812,000 521,860,000 The population of Great Britain in 1922 was approximately 43,000,000 people, and the popu- lation of the United States for the same year was about 111,000,000. Consequently the per capita loss in Great Britain in 1922 was 72 cents as compared with $4.75 for the United States. These figures indicated a continued decrease in the British fire loss, and a marked increase in losses in the United States. See INSURANCE; also Forestry, section Forest Fires. 474 FISHER FISCHER, Evcen (1881- ). A German writer, born at Balingen, Wiirttemberg, and edu- cated at the University of Tiibingen. After teaching in the University of Berlin, he became a free lance writer, specializing in articles on the responsibility for the War. He was made press secretary of the Reichstag commission in- quiring into pre-war history. Besides newspaper articles on cultural and political subjects, he is the author of Der Kampf um Gott, Das Reich des Lebens, an historical novel; Woodrow Wil- sons Entschluss, political scenes; etc. FISCHER, Martin HENRy (1879- ‘es A German-American physiologist and _ pathol- ogist, born at Kiel, Germany. He came to the United States in 1885 and took a degree at Rush Medical College. Having held sub- ordinate positions in the department of physi- ology in the Universities of Chicago and California, he became full professor in the University of Cincinnati in 1910. He is known especially for his original research into the nature of nephritis and has been instru- mental in bringing the subject of focal infection before the German medical men; he has also made a number of German works on physical chemistry available to English readers by his translations. In addition to many articles in periodicals he has published The Physiology of Alimentation (1907), Gdema (1910), Nephritis (1911), and has translated Cohen’s Physical Chemistry (1903), Pauli’s Physical Chemistry (1906), Ostwald’s Handbook of Colloidal Chem- istry (1915), and Ostwald’s Introduction to Col- loidal Chemistry (1917). FISH, Cart Rvssett (1876— jon = American historian, born at Central Falls, R. L., and educated at Brown and Harvard Universi- ties. In 1900 he became professor of history at the University of Wisconsin, and was research associate at the Carnegie Institution in 1908-09 and director of the British branch of Historical Service, 1917-20. His works include Develop- ment of American Nationality (1913), Amer- ican Diplomacy (1915), The Path of Empire (1919), Guide to the Study of American Diplom- acy (1919), and many articles on educational and historical subjects. FISHBERG, Maurice (1872- ). A Rus- sian-American physician and anthropologist, born in Russia. Having migrated to the United States in 1890, he took his medical degree at the University of New York in 1897. He is clinical professor of medicine at the New York Uni- versity and Bellevue Hospital Medical College and physician to the Montefiore Home and Bed- ford Sanitarium and is a member of the Amer- ican Anthropological Association. In 1897 he made a tour of Europe for the Bureau of Emi- gration; his report was published by the Govern- ment. He is one of the leading authorities on tuberculosis; most of his papers for the period- ical press have been devoted to that subject. His major publications are The Jew: a Study of Race and Environment (1911); Die Rassenmerk- male der Juden (1913), and A Treatise on Tuberculosis (1916). He translated Gley’s work on internal secretions from the French in 1917. FISHER, Anprew (1862- ). An Aus- tralian statesman (see Vor. VIII). He was again Prime Minister of Australia in 1914-15 and was High Commissioner of Australia in England, 1916-21. FISHER, DorotHy CANFIELD (1879- fe An American author, born at Lawrence, Kan., FISHER and educated at the Ohio State University and at Columbia University. In 1907 she married John Redwood Fisher of New York, and made her home on a farm near Arlington, Vt., and in New York City. In 1911-12 she and her hus- band went to Rome, where she made the ac- quaintance of Madame Montessori and helped translate her book about her pedagogical sys- tem. From this experience resulted her own book, A Montessori Mother (1913), which was translated into five foreign languages. Dur- ing the War Mrs. Fisher edited a magazine for soldiers blinded in battle, cared for children from the evacuated portions of France, and managed the cooking and bought supplies for a large training camp for ambulance drivers. Her books include The Squirrel Cage (1912), Mothers and Children (1914), The Bent Twig (1915), Hillsboro People (1916), The Real Mo- tive (1917), Understood Betsy (1917), Home Fires in France (1918), The Day of Glory (1919), The Brimming Cup (1921), Rough-Hewn (1922), Raw Material (1923), and The Home- maker (1924). She translated Papini’s Life of Christ (1921). FISHER, FrRep (ERICK) B(oHN (1882- fe An American Methodist Episcopal bishop, born at Greencastle, Pa., and educated at Asbury College (Wilmore, Ky.), Boston University, and Harvard University. He was ordained in the Methodist ministry in 1903 and in the next year went to India as a missionary, returning in 1906. From 1908 to 1910 he was pastor of the First Church in Boston and in 1910-20, served on the Board of Foreign Missions and in the Laymen’s Missionary Movement. In 1920 he was elected bishop. He is the author of The Way to Win (1915), Gifts from the Desert (1916), India’s Silent Revolution, in collabora- tion with Gertrude M. Williams (1919), and Garments of Power (1920). FISHER, HERBERT ALBERT LAURENS (1865-— ). An English historian and edu- eator (see Vor. VIII). He received honorary degrees from Edinburgh University (1913), Sheffield (1918), Manchester (1919), and Cam- bridge (1920). In 1915 he was a member of the government committee on alleged German outrages. Two of his later works are Studies in History and Politics (1920) and Internation- al Experiment (1921). FISHER, Irvine (1867- ). An Ameri- ican economist (see Vou. VIII). He was an officer of many organizations for the advance- ment of the public health. His later writings include Why Is the Dollar Shrinking? (1914); How to Live, with Dr. E. L. Fisk and others (1915); and Stabilizing the Dollar (1919). His views on the means of insuring a stable medium of exchange were the subject of wide discussion. FISHER, SYDNEy GEORGE (1856- yalf An American lawyer and writer (see Von. VIIT). He wrote American Education (1917) and The Quaker’ Colonies (1918). FISHER, WALTER KENDRICK (1878- ile An American zodlogist, born at Ossining, N. Y., and educated at Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity. He was special field naturalist for the United States Biological Survey (1897-1901) ; and Assistant (1902-05), acting instructor (1905-07), instructor (1907-09), assistant pro- fessor (1909-20), and associate professor (1920— ) at Stanford. Professor Fisher was director of the Hopkins Marine Laboratory 475 FISHERIES (1917- ). His published work was largely on the ecinoderms of the Pacific Ocean. FISHERIES. A term of varied application but used here to designate organized governmen- tal agencies which have to do with the collection of information concerning food supplies ob- tained from oceanic or inland waters and the application of this information to the problem of increasing or making these supplies more available to the citizens. In all countries where fishing industries are important, it has been the experience that there occur periods when there are noticeable decreases in the amount of these supplies to be obtained from the waters and this decrease is usually laid to injudicious fishing. As a result, a large part of the’ work of a fisheries bureau is to devise methods for increasing the supply, and legisla- tion governing the methods to be employed in taking it. In Great Britain, the plaice and herring in- dustries have received most attention from this ‘point of view, plaice investigations having been begun in 1908. MeIntosh, an eminent Scottish zoologist, has argued strongly against the desirability of spending public funds for in- vestigations of this kind, on the ground that so small an area of oceanic waters can be covered by fishermen that it is impossible that any de- crease in the supply can be caused by fishing. He argues that seasonal variations in the num- ber of fish are caused by climatic or other agencies beyond man’s control and have been known to occur for hundreds of years. These criticisms by McIntosh are directed especially against the work of the International Council for the Study of the Sea, composed of represent- atives of all the countries bordering on the North Sea, in so far as the work of this Council is directed at repopulating by artificial means the waters under their control. This Council was organized in 1901 and was functioning suc- cessfully when interrupted by the War. After the War, it resumed operations, the first meet- ing later than 1913 having been held in 1920. Statistics covering the herring and plaice in- dustries have appeared in its reports. An in- teresting development from the work of this Council has been the discovery of the breeding place of the eel. Grassi discovered, as early as 1897, that the eel does not breed in fresh water but its exact breeding place was un- known. It has now been determined that this breeding place lies between 20° and 30° of north latitude and 50° to 60° west longitude, or a region southeast of Bermuda. From there it migrates to the continents and goes up rivers to the localities where it is commonly found. In the United States, the Bureau of Fisheries (originally the United States Fish Commission but now a Bureau under the Department of Commerce) has general supervision over the marine and fresh-water fisheries in United States territory as well as the fur seal, rein- deer and fox industries in Alaska. Under its control are four main laboratories; at Woods Hole, Mass.; Beaufort, N. C.; Key West, Fla.; and Fairport, Iowa. In all of these it has been the policy of the Bureau to encourage abstract scientific investigation as well as researches having more immediate practical application. At the Woods Hole station formerly there were hatched each year large numbers of lobsters which were set free in the neighboring waters; but as it seemed impossible to enlist the co- FISHERIES 476 operation of the fishermen in the attempt to prevent the catching of the “short” or immature lobsters, the supply decreased so that it was difficult to get enough eggs for this work and it was discontinued in 1919. In this case, it would appear that McIntosh’s position is not well taken, due perhaps to the fact that the lobster has a very limited range of distribution and is not an open-sea animal. Invention of machinery making commercially profitable the manufacture of buttons from the shells of fresh-water mussels led to the estab- lishment of the laboratory at Fairport, where much attention has been given to the problem of the propagation of mussels and of the fishes upon which the young mussels are parasitic for a period during their immature stage. The latest reports of the Commissioner indicate that owing to lack of funds the laboratories at Beaufort and Key West have done very little research work in recent years. At these stations, and at many hatching stations, the Bureau hatches large numbers of fish annually and distributes them to appropriate localities. During the year ending June, 1922, it distributed 4,925,981,320 eggs, fry and older fish in this fashion. According to the latest report available in 1924, a period of extreme depression in the fish- ing industries, which was more severe in Europe than in the United States but very noticeable in the latter country, followed the War. This depression showed itself in a marked decrease in the amount of fish taken as well as in the prices obtained; it continued for some years, though by 1922 a slight improvement was noted. A large part of the work of the United States Bureau of Fisheries consists of the collection of statistics relating to the fisheries, including the Alaska fur industries, and the reports of the Commissioner as well as the occasional Sta- tistical Bulletins should be consulted for this information, which is too varied and voluminous to be summarized here. These statistics cover not only data relating to fish properly so called, but relate to a wide range of aquatic products covering oysters and clams, lobsters, shrimps and crabs, and sponges, as well as by-products such as whale and fish oil, shark and porpoise hides, agar-agar, shark fins, whale skeletons and oyster shells ground up for use as lime and poultry grits. Much of the recent work of the Bureau has been extended to cover determination of im- proved methods for merchandising fishery prod- ucts as well as the consideration of better pres- ervation procedures in connection with canning and freezing, thus broadening the scope of its operations so as to include the final distribu- tion of the products as well as encouraging their increase. In Alaska, the predominant fishery interests have been connected with the salmon, but hal- ibut, herring, cod and shrimps form an impor- tant part of the total catch. The peculiar spawning habits of the salmon make them es- pecially easy to catch but this also leads to overfishing, with consequent depletion of the supply, another case where MclIntosh’s reason- ing seems at fault, and this situation calls for constant legislative supervision. The taking of skins of the fur seals is now under strict super- vision, it being decided annually how many should be taken. This has resulted in a desirable increase in the size of the herds and the estab- lishment of the industry on a more durable FITE basis. For the year 1921-22, the total value of the sealskins taken (as determined by the prices paid at auction for them at St. Louis) was $722,060. Blue-fox skins taken from herds kept on the Pribilof Islands for the year 1920-21 had a value, determined in the same way, of $109,398. See ALASKA. FISK, Evucene Lyman _ (1867- ). UAn American physician and cofounder of the Life Extension Institute, born at Brooklyn, N. Y., and educated at the medical college of New York University. In 1898 he joined the med- ical department of the Equitable Life Insurance Company and later became medical director of the Provident Savings Life Insurance Company. In 1910 he accepted a like position in the Postal Life Insurance Company and in 1913 became the medical head of the Life Extension Institute. In collaboration (Fisher and Fisk) he wrote How to Live (1916) and Health for Soldier and Sailor. He is the author of Alcohol: Its Re- lation to Efficiency and Longevity (1917) and Health Building and Life Extension (1923). FISKE, Brapitey ALLEN (1854— ). An American naval officer (see Vou. VIII). He was awarded a gold medal by the Aéro Club of America for the invention of the torpedoplane in 1919. His later writings include The Navy as a Fighting Machine (1917, 2d ed., 1918) ; From Midshipman to Rear Admiral (1919); ae Art of Fighting (1920), and Invention (1927): : FISK UNIVERSITY. A coeducational in- stitution for negroes at Nashville, Tenn., found- ed in 1868. Dormitory limitations prevented much variation in attendance, which was 516 in 1914 and 517 in 1923-24, exclusive of the summer registration. For its rigid emphasis on high standards in all departments it was aided during the decade by the General Edu- cation Board, the Carnegie Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation, the Phelps-Stokes Fund, the Slater Fund, the American Missionary As- sociation, the Harmon Foundation and the Juillard Foundation. Fisk received, chiefly from the General Education Board and the Carnegie Corporation, the sum of $150,000 in 1917; in 1920 the General Education Board of- fered to give $500,000 on condition that the University raise $1,000,000. The faculty in 1923-24 numbered 71. President Fayette Avery McKenzie, Ph.D., was inaugurated in 1915. FITCH, ALBERT PARKER (1877-— j2eAn American educator, born in Boston, and educated at Harvard University and Union Theological Seminary. He was ordained in the Congrega- tional ministry in 1903, subsequently holding various pastorates, and becoming president of Andover Theological Seminary at Cambridge in 1909. In 1917 he resigned to accept the profes- sorship of the history of religion at Amherst College, where he was one of those who with- drew from the faculty on the resignation of President Meiklejohn in 1923. In 1919-20 he was Beecher lecturer at Yale University He is the author of The College Course and the Prep- aration for Life (1914), Religion and the Under- graduate, Can the Church Survive the Changing Order? (1920), and Preaching and Paganism (1920). FITE, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1869- 1s An American educator, born in Marion, Ohio. He studied at Hillsdale College and took post- graduate work at Cornell. After teaching mathematics in the Academy, he served on the FITZGERALD faculty of Cornell as instructor and assistant professor in mathematics until 1910, when he was appointed professor of mathematics at Co- lumbia. He wrote College Algebra and First and Second Courses in Algebra. FITZGERALD, F(RaANcIs) (1896-— ). An American author, born at St. Paul, Minn. He left Princeton University in 1917 to join the American forces and served as aide-de-camp to Gen. John F. O’Ryan (1918- 19). Written with refreshing verve and promis- ing talent, his books on the younger generation include This Side of Paradise (1920), Flappers and Philosophers (1920), The Beautiful and the Damned (1921), and a play, The Vegetable (1923). FITZ-GERALD, Joun DrIscoLt, (1875-__). An American philologist (see Vor. VIII). He is professor of Spanish at the University of Illinois. His most recent work was a trans- lation with Thatcher Howland Guild, A New Drama by Manuel Thona y_ Baus (1915). FITZMAURICE-KELLY, JAmeES- (1858- 1923). An English writer and Spanish schol- ar (see Vou. VIII). From 1909 to 1916 he was professor of Spanish language and literature at the University of Liverpool and in 1916 gave a special course at Cambridge. He was the editor of the Romance section of the Modern Language Review, 1913-20, and one of the lead- ers in his field in his own and other countries. Among his later works are Cervantes and Shakespeare (1916); Gongora (1918); Fray Luis de Leon (1921); and Spanish Literature Primer (1922). He edited The Oxford Book of Spanish Verse (1913), Samaniego’s Fabulas en verso (1917), Iriarte’s Fabulas Literarias (1917), Garcilaso de la Vega’s Eglogas (1918), Poesias varias (1918), Complete Works of Mig- uel de Cervantes Saavedra, and Cambridge Read- ings in Spanish Literature (1920). He also contributed to the Cambridge Modern History, Encyclopedia Britannica, Homenaie a Menen- dez y Pelayo, ete. FITZPATRICK, EDWARD AUGUSTUS 1884— ). American educator and author, born in New York, and educated at the New York Training School for Teachers and Colum- bia University. He taught in the public schools of New York (1903-12) and later identified himself in that city with training schools for public service. In 1919 he became secretary of the State Board of Education in Wisconsin. He has published Educational Views and In- fluence of De Witt Clinton (1911), Budget- making in a Democracy (1918), and Public Ad- ministration and the Public Welfare in Freed- man’s America and the New Era (1920). FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY .. The drawing of the boundary line between Italy and Jugo-Slavia was perhaps the most difficult problem before the Peace Conference, and con- tinued to be a cause for dissension in Europe long after the peace treaties were signed. The territories in dispute were: Gorizia and Gra- disea, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia (all former parts of Austria), and Fiume (formerly belong- ing to Hungary). These lands, in the main, are separated from Jugo-Slavia by chains of mountains; in climate, economic, and cultural activities, with some exceptions, their orienta- tion is plainly toward the west. While the Slavs made up the majority of the population, the Italians predominated in many of the towns, Scott (Kerry) 477 FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY and it was for sentimental, historical, and strategic, as well as economic reasons that Italian aspirations envisaged the acquisition of these territories. The nationalistic trend of the nineteenth century had made the region the scene of bitter struggles. In accordance with the Austro-Hungarian principle of ‘divide and rule,” Slovene and Croatian hopes had been encouraged, as against the Italian, in the Aus- trian provinces; Hungary, on the other hand, had played off the Italians against the Southern Slavs in Fiume. Therefore, whereas an Italian irredentism was strong in the Austrian territo- ries, it was correspondingly weak in the Hun- garian. Because of these confused purposes there were no clear-cut programmes that either the [talians or the Southern Slavs could present at the outbreak of the War. It was natural, therefore, that the Italian claims, recognized by the secret Treaty of London (Apr. 26, 1915), were, in a sense, confusing. Italy gained the promise of Allied support to an Italian frontier which included Gorizia, Trieste, Istria, North- ern Dalmatia and some islands to the south; Fiume was to remain in Croatia, on the sup- position, evidently, that it was to continue to form a part of Hungary. The execution of this agreement would have meant turning over about 800,000 Jugo-Slavs to Italy. On geographical and cultural grounds there was indeed some justification for this. Gorizia, Trieste, and Is- tria (making up Venetia Julia), presented no real difficulty, for though in 1910 there were here 417,000 Jugo-Slavs and 356,000 Italians, the Slavic cultural and ethnical complexities were so many that the Italians were clearly the dominant group. As proof, the fact was urged that out of the 17 deputies in the Austrian Reichsrat for the three provinces, 10 were Ital- ians. Dalmatia and Fiume involved other con- siderations. Dalmatia had 611,000 Jugo-Slavs in 1910 and only 18,000 Italians; and the Jugo- Slavs, politically, controlled every commune in the province but one. Italians, putting aside questions of ethnography, emphasized its alleged geographical unity with the west and its strate- gical importance, its long affinity with the Latin race and Italian culture, and the bitter fight which the communes of the province had fought with Austrian officials for the preservation of the Italian language in schools and administra- tion (though by 1914 only one city, Zara, haa succeeded in remaining Italian). On both sides there soon manifested itself a willingness to compromise these two points: Italy to get Venetia Julia, the Jugo-Slavs to get Dalmatia. Fiume furnished the basis of the real struggle. Fiume (together with its suburb SuSak) had a population distributed as follows: 22,488 Ital- ians and 13,351 Jugo-Slavs in Fiume; 1500 Italians and 11,000 Jugo-Slavs in SuSak. The Fiumani had been encouraged in their inde- pendent spirit by the Hungarians and had de- rived great benefit from the Hungarian con- nection in that their city had served as the chief entrepot of the Hungarian Adriatic trade. Italian nationalists, eager to obtain complete commercial and naval domination in the Adri- atic, coveted Fiume not only because its upper class was Italian but also because it might rival Italy’s newly acquired seaport of Trieste. The Jugo-Slav position depended on other factors. If the suburbs were included, Fiume was not Italian, but predominantly Jugo-Slav. More- over, in order to connect Fiume with Italy, FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY large blocks of indisputably Jugo-Slav territory would have to be placed under alien sovereignty. Furthermore, the commercial hinterland of the city included Croatia, and Italian control of Fiume would mean the economic subservience of Jugo-Slavia, for Fiume was the only adequate outlet for Jugo-Slavia on the west. (In con- nection with this factor it must be borne in mind that perhaps one of the reasons why the settlement was such a tardy one was that the Fiume question was agitated only by the Croats and Slovenes while the more important Serbs manifested only a slight interest in the western frontier, for their natural. trade outlets were the Danube and the Vardar.) So much for underlying considerations. On Oct. 29, 1918, Italian troops, at the behest of the Fiumani, occupied the town. The Allies, in their turn, protested on the ground that Fiume had not been assigned to Italy, with the result that an inter-Allied army took possession. The course of events before the Peace Conference was char- acterized by a bitter struggle that terminated in a deadlock. The Italians took their stand on the Treaty of London line, claiming Fiume as well on the ground that the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy had entirely changed the situation. The Jugo-Slavs found a champion in President Wilson, who stubborn- ly contested the Italian claims on the eastern boundary and supported a frontier which ran on the north along the London line to Tarvis and then dipped south along the centre of the Istrian peninsula. tionalized though left within the Jugo-Slav eustoms union. (This was the well known “Wilson Line” presented Apr. 14, 1919.) That the Italians should be embittered was natural: they had entered the War largely as a result of the Treaty of London; they had the support of their allies in their claims; they demanded the territories for important strategical and cultural reasons. The failure to reach a com- promise prompted President Wilson to issue his famous appeal of April 23 to the Italian people over the heads of their delegation. (See PEACE CONFERENCE AND TREATIES.) But the state- ment acted as a boomerang, for instead of win- ning over the Italian people it completely estranged them, with the result that Orlando’s government, on June 19, was defeated in the Italian Parliament. All chances for a settle- ment, at least as far as the Peace Conference was concerned, had thus gone aglimmering. Meanwhile affairs in Fiume had steadily grown desperate. The Fiumani and the French sol- diers in occupation fell out and rioting oc- curred; the disorganized economie life was pro- ducing real want among the population. Hence, When Premier Nitti showed a disposition to sacrifice Italian nationalistic claims in the in- terest of peace, Italian chauvinists took matters into their own hands. It was no wonder, there- fore, that when on September 12 the _ poet- militarist D’Annunzio, at the head of a band of volunteers and Italian regulars, marched into Fiume, his coup de main should be received with such exuberant Italian approval. Italian sol- diers and sailors in the port flocked to his standard and such eminent Italians as Profes- sor Pantaleoni and General Ceccherini hastened to join him. The Supreme Council was spurred into action and during the next few months concerned itself with various programmes. The scheme proposed on Dec. 9, 1919, called for the 478 Fiume was to be interna- — FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY creation of a Fiume buffer state (for by this time Italy had dropped Dalmatia), which Italy, however, refused to support; a subsequent com- bined Italian-English-French proposal, Jan. 14, 1920, called for the assignment of Fiume to Italy with League control of its port and ter- minal connections, but to this both Jugo-Slavs and Wilson objected. Thenceforth the struggle became localized, and with the withdrawal of the United States from world affairs, the de- clining interest of Great Britain and France in the Adriatic, and the imminent defeat of the Democratic party in the American elections of 1920, it appeared evident to both disputants that only a spirit of conciliation would serve their best interests. In June, 1920, the Italians finally evacuated their last strongholds in Mon- tenegro and Southern Dalmatia. On November 12, a treaty was signed by Italy and Jugo- Slavia at Rapallo which showed how much both had yielded. Italy was to annex part of Carniola and all Istria and push her frontier east to the confines of Fiume; Fiume was to be created an independent state though SuSak was to go to Jugo-Slavia; Italian claims to Dalma- tia (except Zara) and almost all the islands (excepting Cherso, Lussin, and Unie) were re- nounced. Ratifications were exchanged Feb. 2, 1921, and the vexing business seemed on the verge of settlement when it leaked out that the Italian \government privately had promised to turn over Porto Barros, a portion of the Fiume port, to Jugo-Slavia. Again the Italian public was aroused and again Fiume became the bone of contention. Meanwhile the D’Annunzio tan- gle had been straightened out. On Sept. 8, 1920, he had promulgated a singularly uncon- ventional constitution, and this, with his con- tinued impractical and flamboyant conduct, served to alienate the more serious elements which had joined him. In December he was ordered by the Italian government to evacuate the town, and on his refusal to do so, the signal was given to attack (December 24). Realizing the hopeless nature of his position, four days later he handed over his powers to the town council, and by Jan. 2, 1921, the Italian reg- ulars were in contro]. D’Annunzio was ejected and steps were taken to establish the independ- ent government provided for by the Treaty of Rapallo. Elections were held in April, 1921, for a Constituent Assembly, but the Italian na- tionalists, being defeated, destroyed the returns, and violence again prevailed. The Fascisti, who had organized themselves in sympathy with Italian Fascism (see IrAty), seized the city government and established a Fascist Directory. Difficulties engendered in Italian evacuation of the Northern Dalmatian zone necessitated the negotiation of the supplementary convention of Santa Margherita (October, 1922) between Italy and Jugo-Slavia, though even this did not much expedite matters, in particular as far as Fiume was concerned. In November, 1922, the Fascisti government came into power in Italy and Mussolini at once indicated that it was his intention to hasten a settlement. Independent local government in Fiume had proved itself a failure, though this may have been due to the in- terference of the Fascisti; economic life also was completely disorganized. In 1923, Mussolini ex- changed a series of notes with the Jugo-Slav government relative to the status of the dis- puted city. As his demands for revision of the Rapallo Treaty and assignment of Fiume to FIVE-POWER NAVAL TREATY Italy were made in the peremptory style in which he had been accustomed to address the Italian Parliament, rather than with diplomatic suavity, the negotiations became increasingly acrimonious. When an Italian military force under General Giardino seized the city, a rup- ture of diplomatic relations and perhaps even graver consequences seemed imminent, but se- cret bargaining between Belgrade and Rome ultimately averted armed conflict. In January, 1924, it was announced that an agreement had been reached. ‘The treaty, signed at Rome, three days later, ceded the city and port of Fiume to Italy, recognized Jugo-Slav sovereignty over Porto Barros, leased to Jugo-Slavia a port in the Fiume harbor, and made the Fiume rail- way station an international frontier station. Additional conventions signed at the same time recognized Jugo-Slav sovereignty over Dalmatia and Italian sovereignty over Venetia Julia. More significant than this settlement, momen- tous as it was, and clearly indicative of the Jugo-Slav attitude, was the treaty of friendship and alliance signed, by which Italy and Jugo- Slavia each pledged itself to maintain the “or- der of things established by the treaties of peace” and to remain neutral in the event of a war engaged in by either. It appeared, in 1924, to be a great forward step in the maintenance of European peace, and that the treaty was re- ceived with approval in Jugo-Slavia as well as in Italy indicated how general was the satisfac- tion. FIVE-POWER NAVAL TREATY. See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE, and NAVIES OF THE WORLD. FIXATION OF NITROGEN. See CHEMIs- TRY, and FERTILIZERS. FLAMMARION, CAMILLE (1842-— j rN French astronomer (see Vor. VIII). Among his later writings are Death and Its Mystery, in three parts (1920, 1921, 1922), and Haunted Houses (1924). FLANAGAN, JOHN (1865- joey AD American sculptor (see Vor. VIII). Although his work included such sculptures as the bronze memorial portrait of Samuel Pierpont Langley, Smithsonian Institution, and the Bulkley Memo- rial, Actna Life Insurance Building, Hartford, he was active chiefly as a medallist, especially during the War. He executed the “Médaille de Verdun,” voted by Congress and presented to that city by the President. The fine realism of his portraiture and his subtle handling of lights and shadows made him preéminent in low relief. FLANDERS, BaTrLes IN. See WAR IN EuRoPE, Western Front. FLEMING, DANieEL JoHNnson (1877- ve An American clergyman, born at Xenia, Ohio, and educated at Wooster University, Union Theological Seminary, and Columbia, Chicago, and Punjab universities. He was ordained in the Presbyterian ministry in 1903 and went to India in 1904 as professor of physics and di- rector of Forman Christian College at Lahore. He remained there until 1913. In 1915 he was appointed organizing director of the department of foreign service at Union Theological Sem- inary, and in 1918, professor of missions. In 1919-20 he was a member of the International Commission on Indian Village Education. He is the author of Social Study, Service and Eza- hibits (1913), Devolution in Mission Admin- istration (1916), and Marks of a World Chris- tian (1919). He _ collaborated in Village 479 FLETCHER Education wm India (1920) and Schools with a Message in India (1921). FLEMING, Joun ApAm (1877- ). An American magnetician, born in Cincinnati. He graduated from the University of Cincinnati in 1889 and from that year to 1910 was with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. From 1904 he was chief magnetician of the De- partment of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Car- negie Institution, and from 1919 was chief of the Magnetic Survey Division. He was a member of several scientific societies and wrote reports on terrestrial magnetism and other sub- jects for the Carnegie Institution. He also con- tributed numerous articles to reviews and magazines. FLEMING, WaAtter LyNwoop (1874- Vis! An American historian, born at Brundidge, Ala., and educated at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute and Columbia University. From 1903 to 1907, he was professor of history in West Virginia University, and from 1907 to 1917, in Louisiana State University. In the latter year he was called to a similar position at Vander- bilt University in Nashville, Tenn. He was one of the editors of the Historians’ History of the World and edited Lester and Wilson’s History of the Ku Klux Klan (1905), Documentary History of the Reconstruction, 2 vols. (1906, 1907), Section Six of The South in the Building of the Nation, 12 vols., and the Mississippi Val- ley Historical Review. Besides being a con- tributor to numerous periodicals and encyclo- pedias, as well as to the Photographic History of the Civil War, he is the author of Reconstruc- tion of the Seceded States (1905), The Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (1905), William Tecumseh Sherman as College President (1912), The Sequel of Appomatox (1919), and Biography of Jefferson Davis and a History of the Ku Kluz. FLEMISH MOVEMENT. See BELGIuM. FLENSBURG. See SCHLESWIG. FLERS, RoBert DE (1872- ). A French dramatist, born at Pont l’Eveque, and educated at the Lycée Condorcet in Paris. He devoted himself to drama and diplomacy. Among his theatrical works, which earned him a place in the French Academy, the undisputed master- piece is Le Roi, written with Cavaillet and Aréne. It combined the breeziness of a revue and the biting satire of Beaumarchais. His theatrical works include Le Coeur a Ses Raisons ; Les Sentiers de la Vertu; L’Ange du Foyer; Miquette et sa Mére; La Chance du Mari; Le Montausier; L’Amour Vieille; L’Eventail ; Le Roi; Le Bois Sacré, L’Ane de Buridan; Papa; Primerose; L’Habit Vert; La Belle Aventure; and Monsieur Bretonneau. His operettas and comic operas, written in collaboration with G. de Caillavet, are Les Travaux d’ Hercule: Chonchette; Le Sire de Vergy; Monsieur de la Palisse; Paris, ou le Bon Juge; Fortunio; Béa- trice; Cydalise; Le Retour, and Les Vignes du Seigneur. Among his critical and _ fictional works may be mentioned Vers VOrient; Entre Coeur et Chair; Essais de Critique; Histoire de la Courtisane Taia, and La Petite Table. FLETCHER, FRANK Fripay (1855- ). An American naval officer (see Vout. VIII). He was promoted to the rank of admiral in March, 1915. He was a member of the War Industries Board in 1917 and the general board of the navy, and was awarded a medal of honor for distinguished conduct in battle. FLETCHER 480 FLETCHER, Henry PRATHER (1873- es An American diplomat, born at Green Castle, Pa., and educated at Chambersburg (Pa.) Academy. He was admitted to the bar in 1894 and served with the “Rough Riders” in the Spanish-American War. His diplomatic career began in 1902 when he was secretary of the American Legation in Cuba. After diplomatic service in China, Portugal, Mexico, and South America, he resigned in 1920, and was under- secretary of state from Mar. 8, 1921, to Mar. 6, 1922. On the latter date he accepted the post of Ambassador to Belgium. He headed _ the United States delegation to the Fifth Pan- American Congress at Santiago, Chile, in 1923. FLETCHER, Joun Govutp (1886- )- ~An American author born at Little Rock, Ark., and educated at Phillips Academy (Andover, Mass.) and Harvard. He later made England his home. He has written Fire and Wine (1913), Irradiations—Sand and Spray (1915), Goblins and Pagodas (1916), Japanese Prints (1918), The Tree of Life, (1918), Breakers and Granite (1921), and Paul Gauguin, His Life and Art (1921). He was one of the first to essay free verse successfully and together with Amy Lowell was considered as leading the so-called Imagist school of modern poetry. FLETTNER RUDDER. See NAVIGATION. FLEWELLING, Ravtpey Tyrer (1871- Ne An American philosophy professor, born at De Witt, Mich., and educated at the University of Michigan, Alma College (Mich.), the Garrett Biblical Institute (Evanston, Ill.), and Boston University. He was ordained in the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1896, holding pastorates from 1903 to 1917, and in the latter year becom- ing professor and head of the department of philosophy in the University of Southern Cal- ifornia. In 1918 he was at the Sorbonne, Paris, and was appointed head of the department of philosophy at the American Expeditionary Force University at Beaune, France. He is the author of Christ and the Dramas of Doubt (1913), Personalism and the Problems of Phi- losophy (1915), Philosophy and the War (1918), and Bergson and Personal Realism (1919). He also contributed to the Hastings Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (1917), and founded and edited The Personalist (1920). In 1919-20 he was president of the Celtic Club. FLIGHT. See ARoNAUTICS. FLINT. A manufacturing city of Michigan. Its population increased 137.6 per cent in 10 years, from 38,550 in 1910 to 91,599 in 1920; to 117,968 by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923, and to 135,000 by city estimate in 1924. This rapid expansion necessitated wholesale building operations and _ extensive public improvements. . oc ses 3,792 3,542 13,586 9,534 Stigar™ peetem «4s -- - 577 365 5,939 8,222 494 that level. FRANCE Wine production fluctuated greatly from year to year but the acreage of vines did not change very rapidly. In 1913, the area devoted to vines in France was 3,803,000 acres, and the wine production 1,167,764,000 gallons (an un- usually small production) ; in 1923, the acreage was reduced to 3,506,000 acres while the crop reached 1,509,314,000 gallons. Forage crops in 1913 covered 37,836,000 acres with a production of 96,000,000 metric tons; the area was _ in- creased by the addition of Alsace-Lorraine to 39,064,000 acres in 1921, with a production of only 58,000,000 metric tons. The number of horses in France.on Dee. 31, 1922, was 2,778,- 000 compared with 3,222,000 on Dec. 31, 1913, but represented a considerable recovery from the war-time figure of about 2,250,000. Beef cattle on Dec. 31, 1922, numbered 13,576,000, compared with 14,788,000 on Dec. 31, 1913, but this also was a recovery from the war slump to 12,250,000. Sheep have been gradually de- clining in number for many years; at the end of 1882, there were 16,131,000, and at the end of 1922, only 9,782,000; during the War, how- ever, the number went as low as 8,991,000. Raising of swine was also less important than formerly, but was increasing after the end of the War. On Dec. 31, 1913, there were 7,036,- 000 swine in France; on Dee. 31, 1918, there were 3,980,000; and on Dec. 31, 1922, there were 5,196,000. Milk production in France, while still below pre-war, was gradually approaching In 19138, the total amount of milk produced was 128,072,800 hectolitres (1 hecto- litre equals 26.42 gallons) ; in 1921, it was down to 106,503,550 hectolitres; but increased to 117,038,120 hectolitres in 1923. Milk for feed- ing calves was used to the extent of 28,986,430 hectolitres in 1913 and 25,536,830 hectolitres in 1923. Butter-making consumed 43,639,180 hectolitres in 1913 and 38,972,540 hectolitres in 1923, while cheese consumed 14,589,430 and 22,- 330,270 hectolitres, respectively. Fisheries. The French fishing industry was greatly damaged by the War, not only by the requirement of fishermen for service in the army, but also by the requisitioning of boats and equipment. At the end of 1921, the num- ber of vessels was only 23,301, in spite of in- creases since 1918, as compared with 29,451 in 1912, The number of steam and motor vessels was increasing, but sailing craft still predom- inated. Statistics of the value of the catch were not available for a post-war year. In 1912, the value of fresh fish was about 88,000,- 000 franes, as follows: cod, 26,000,000 francs; herring, 13,000,000 franes; sardines, 9,000,000 frances; mackerel, 7,000,000 franes; tuna fish, 5,000,000 frances; and oysters, about 28,000,000 francs. Food Imports. Imports of foodstuffs, in spite of smaller crops after the War, except in the case of potatoes, did not equal pre-war quantities. See table on page 495 for quantities imported and exported in 1913, 1922, and 1923. Minerals. The leading minerals produced in France were coal, iron, gold, lead, zinc, silver, copper, antimony, manganese, tungsten, bauxite, iron pyrites, mineral oils, salt potash, and stone of various kinds, but not all of these were produced in important quantities. Coal production in 1913 reached 40,844,000 tons, and during the War dropped to hardly more than half that amount. After the War the produc- tion of coal in the Saar Valley (q.v.), which THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINGIg ae aR \ St. Deni Ls aa IZ ie SOV) — \ Villeneuve) : —== i] \ = — PortSuiouth ISLE OF WIGHT 2, —- y (| See ANS FL =) Vir teste BiteNg \ Yon c POatriepxd)\P Yep, | Yuadinigur OP ouare f Torla’ ’ ou , : 6 A = Kimbeceoe 6 baud I Le Con et eG a ; Fs ) 2 re ; | |L-L.POATES, ENGR'G CO., N.Y. fy ae Beaumont-Hagurdy, CHANNEL Flaman lle J GUERNSEY = O nN é. 3 Havré eo i ae oS stot i f gaimrol on. ce) rdrignac si e Fignac Si.) al 2 % aad g Barinaledy" Plou ° ) Loviéy Plouharne)ss Ba Sarzeg : 4A 2 * * a Vilaine RTT? mee Heatiang, Le Palai ; : BELLE iste ie alg Guéra de, Montoif f SNER Le CroisigtNagyire s. Loire - Pte. de Si. Gildas P® Q Bourgneuf en Re Noirmoutie 1, DE NOIRMOUTIE ‘Fromentineg ¥ O- Ff I, qa’ {. DYYEU B Long. FRANCE | | NORTHERN PART. i SCALE OF STATUTE MILES | = = SS So ees | 9 0 10 2 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 51 SCALE OF KILOMETERS SSS = _——— ss ———— ——— -——— ] 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Important towns are shown In heavy face type Railways shown thus Canals ses a eel F, “a ‘ : ar calle aus | [hs Saargemund “s, a er Ye Pk, WT NE obitsch = eidhshofen 5 Worth Saar Union \ Ais Hagenau,, Selz f —~. t Buchweiler 2~Beschw iler = { Strasbourg) Oreck. / Molsheim” ‘ LBB: ( BEhnheim o ay I °o — Layo Ky} o Markife Dies |, WHonlettstad > /*Bergheim - > @ Pont s.Y.%5 Villemauroe L 1) Colmar = 4* oMunster ‘ H aU = so sels 8 601,635 540,097 135,200 «See note regarding exports. The principal classes of commodities in the import trade of France were coal, which occu- pied first rank with a value of 1,925,991,000 francs in 1922, but was in third place in 1913; raw cotton, second in 1922, with a value of 1,710,872,000 francs, and also second in 1913; raw wool, third in 1922 with 1,669,038,000 francs, but in first place in 1913; raw silk, fourth in 1922 with 1,295,176,000 franes and 497 FRANCE fifth in 1913; machinery made of iron and steel, ‘fifth in 1922 with 890,897,000 franes, and sev- enth in 1913. Except the last item, all of the foregoing principal commodities have been the raw materials for French manufactures; the fact that the manufactured product, machinery, which in 1913 came seventh, was in fifth place in 1922, is an indication that in some respects France had not entirely regained her position as a manufacturing nation. In sixth place in 1922 were imports of oilseeds and oil fruit, with a value of 837,336,000 franes, which had been in fourth place in 1913; in seventh place in 1922 were wines, with 798,991,000 frances, eighth in 1913; in eighth place in 1922, crude and refined mineral oils, with 748,575,000 franes, thirteenth in 1913; in ninth place in 1922, coffee, with 636,209,000 francs, tenth in 1913; in tenth place, woods for building, with 602,059,000 franes, eleventh in 1913. Wheat had dropped to twelfth place as an import item, with a value of 443,644,000 francs, whereas it had occupied sixth place with 335,884,000 francs in 1913. The leading commodity in the French export trade in 1922, which was also leading in 1913, but by a much narrower mar- gin, was silk fabrics, with a value of 1,377,847,- 000 francs; second came women’s clothing, with a value of 1,065,000,000 francs, having risen from tenth place in 1913; third were cotton fabrics, with 1,059,521,000 francs, falling from second place in 1913; fourth, pig iron, iron and steel, with 1,003,445,000 francs, rising from rel- ative insignificance in 1913, as a result of the addition of Alsace-Lorraine with its important metallurgical industries; fifth, wool fabrics, with 850,658,000 francs in 1922, falling from fourth place in 1913; sixth, paper and paper manufactures, with 793,034,000 francs, eighth in 1913; seventh, raw wool, with 679,346,000 francs, third in 1913; eighth, machinery with 573,945,000 francs, twelfth in 1913; ninth, man- ufactured rubber (including automobile tires) with 535,928,000 francs, sixteenth in 1913; and tenth, tools and metal goods, with 500,529,000 frances, thirteenth in 1913. The general trend seemed to be toward an even greater concentra- tion of the export trade on manufactured com- modities than before the War. Trade with the United States. Raw cotton continued to be by far the most important com- modity imported by France from the United States, but the percentage of imports of Ameri- can cotton to total French cotton imports de- clined from 79 per cent in 1921 to 69 per cent in 1922 and to 62 per cent in 1923. The value of cotton imports from the United States in 1923 was 1,929,602,000 franes, out of a total im- portation from the United States in that year amounting to 5,049,060,000 franes, or practi- cally two-fifths of the total. The United States was still the chief source of French supplies of crude and refined mineral oils, which formed the second most important item in the trade in 1923. The proportion supplied by the United States rose from 74 per cent in 1921 to 77 per cent in 1922 to 81 per cent in 1923. Im- ports from the United States of copper, the third item in the trade, formed about three- fourths of the total French imports of copper. The share of the United States in the French cereal import trade was constantly diminishing, amounting to only 17 per cent in 1923, com- pared with 30 per cent in 1921, but imports from the United States were still very impor- FRANCE tant, exceeding every other single country ex- cept Argentina. All kinds of machinery were imported from the United States in consider- able quantities. In 1923, coal was also among the leading commodities imported from the United States, but this was abnormal, due to the unsettled conditions in Germany, and the strikes in Engand during a portion of the year which restricted imports of coal from that country. The other commodities of importance among French imports from the United States were sugar, in which, however, the United States was losing ground in favor of the Dutch East Indies; salted and. preserved meats, of which in 1923 the United States sent 66 per cent of the total French importation; raw hides and skins, the United States ranking fourth as supplier; automobiles, of which this country fur- nished nearly 90 per cent of the French imports; and lumber, with our share steadily increasing, yet amounting only to 6 per cent in 1923. French exports to the United States of greatest importance were for the most part those lead- ing in the exports of France to all countries. There was no commodity of such outstanding importance, however, as was cotton in the case of imports. The United States was the second best customer of France for silk and artificial silk fabrics—the most important item in the trade in 1923, with a value of 386,513,000 frances—and next to Great Britain. Ready- made clothing occupied second place with a value of 331,959,000 franes in 1923, and this amount was far from representing the total American purchases of French clothing, as it did not take into account the extensive pur- chases of French clothing made by American tourists in France, and carried home in their trunks. Other leading items in order of their importance in 1923 were published matter, cinema films, ete., raw hides and skins, cotton fabrics, and woolen fabrics, each of which was valued at more than 100,000,000 francs; syn- thetic perfumes and essential oils, articles of leather or artificial leather, and rags, with val- ues over 50,000,000 franes; and chemicals (ex- cluding potash), perfumes and soaps, raw silk and silk floss, seeds for sowing, paper and table fruits, with a value of more than 30,000,000 franes each. Reconstruction. The chief difference be- tween pre-war and post-war France lay in the condition of northern and northeastern France, overrun by the German forces from 1914 to 1918. The extent of the damage and of the reconstruction accomplished and to be accom- plished was dealt with in publications issued by the ministry of the liberated regions, but it was impossible for any statistical publication to convey an idea of the amount of work and expense necessary to restore the region to its former degree of productivity, if indeed com- plete restoration was possible. Outside of the cost of the War itself, no factor was so potent in creating the harassed situation of the French treasury as the cost of reconstruction, which the impossibility of obtaining reparations threw wholly on the shoulders of France. In 1914, the population of the devastated departments of France was 4,690,183; by the Armistice it had dropped to 2,075,067, the population having been largely driven to other sections, thus plac- ing a burden on those sections and on the French government. The reflux of the popula- tion to the devastated provinces was nearly 498 & FRANCE complete, by 1924, if war deaths are taken into account. In January, 1924, the population of the region was 4,253,677. The number of build- ings in the district in 1914 was 1,190,066 and of these 893,792 were damaged or destroyed during the War, comprising 866,844 houses and agricultural structures, 17,616 public edifices, and 9332 industrial establishments, employing at least 10 workmen. About 39 per cent of the buildings were totally destroyed, and 61 per cent damaged to a greater or less degree; the destruction was greatest in the Nord depart- ment, where the important cotton wool textile factories were, and again are, located; 33 per cent of the factories damaged were in this de- partment. To January, 1924, the number of establishments entirely restored was 438,710 (slightly over 50 per cent), of which 423,145 were houses ‘and agricultural structures, 7602 public edifices, and 7963 factories, the latter approaching the nearest to pre-war conditions. Much of the reconstruction was carried out through “Coéperatives of Reconstruction”; ad- vances made to these societies amounted to 2,- 015,559,347 franes in 1921; 2,253,495,517 in 1922, and 2,304,920,000 in 1923. Municipal life was suspended in 3255 communes during the War, and was resumed in 3239, leaving only 69 permanently deleted. The number of public schools (primary, secondary, and advanced) in the devastated regions was actually greater than in 1914, being 7846 on Jan. 1, 1924, com- pared with 7400 in 1914, but the number of pu- pils declined from 668,000 to 497,477; the num- ber of private schools sank from 1060 to 849, and pupils from 131,700 to 88,385. The amount of money allotted by the Republic to refugees and for temporary succor reached a total of 1,161,087,936 frances, and this amount must be considered in addition to all sums spent for reconstruction. Donations received by the French administration from private persons and associations in France were valued at 6,473,- 609 francs, and from foreign sources at 8,484,- 755 francs, besides money gifts of 23,111,311 francs from France and 17,396,874 frances from abroad, making a grand total of 55,466,549. The total amount of the damage to French property was estimated, in January, 1924, at 85,000,000,000 franes, of which 25,420,000,000 covered industrial property, 20,213,599,000 francs farm property, and 39,366,401,000 francs other property. To this total should be added the following: Francs . Interest on the 1914 value of the damage,’ ';. sis Camicecheteds rive SR 3,000,000,000 . Labor, and purchases made directly by the ‘state, “ease see eee 5,500,000,000 - Rebuilding of railways, Reorganization of public services, ASA ee eh. t 2,650,000,000 .2,700,000,000 . Assistance rendered to persons, ....1,400,000,000 . Expenses of administration, ..... 1,200,000,000 Ooo po This brought the total above 100,000,000,000 francs. Up to Jan. 1, 1924, the amount of work actually accomplished was estimated at 52,658,930,313 francs. With this staggering expense to add to the cost of the War, it was scarcely remarkable that the financial situation of the government had become unenviable, or that the failure to receive the reparations de- creed against Germany had caused serious dis- tress, as well as extreme distrust and dislike of the German people. Finance. Before the War, French budgets FRANCE had a practical balance of receipts and expendi- tures, though in some years expenses showed a greater or less excess. The accounts for the “fiscal period” 1913 (i.e. amounts properly at- tributable to the year 1913, whether received or spent in that year or in 1914) showed reve- nues amounting to 5,103,000,000 franes and ex- penses amounting to 5,349,700,000 frances, with an excess of expenses amounting to 246,700,000 francs. The budget for the year 1914 provided for a slight surplus, but war expenses upset the calculations, and initiated the period of large budgets which continued ever since. The table shows expenses from 1914 to 1921, distributed according to their character, whether military expenses, interest and sinking fund on the debt, civil or ordinary expenses, reconstruction ex- penses, and the debit balance of special ac- counts. 499 FRANCE and foreign loans about 20 per cent. The French budget after the War was made up of three main divisions, the general budget (cov- ering ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenses), the annexed budgets (covering the various state monopolies and services), and the special budget of expenses called ‘‘recoverable,” arising from war and_ reconstruction costs, which were chargeable against German repara- tions. It should be noted that in view of the failure to receive reparations due, these “re- coverable” expenses up to 1924 only served to increase the deficit. The general budget for 1922 showed expenses amounting to 24,687,958,- 948 francs and revenues amounting to 24,702,- 059,912 francs, giving a surplus of 14,100,964 frances, while the general budget for 1923 showed expenses of 23,402,487,556 frances and receipts of 23,437,954,832 francs, with a surplus FRENCH EXPENSES FROM 1914 TO 1921 Debit Balance Year Debt Charge Other Civil War Reconstr’n Spec. Accts. Total (values given in millions of francs) Pe on 8 A Tt ee pee 1,360 2,005 6,894 4 108 10,371 EO Me ceva ct teh cn cio o> ssa, 5 Sen's] sooteeae 1,835 2,479 16,594 15 1,197 22,120 TS Coens Pee aN Son .. venesiic os 3,434 2,817 26,348 345 3,904 36,848 LL OM RCer S42 ete Stohr sie. saa tis ieaaie ior fo 4,965 4,129 31,895 689 2,983 44,661 OW SUE ees ek Roee Selec els sua apa siedetetaraie 7,189 5,482 41,370 A495 2,113 56,649 a HES ee ies tr Rae oi eee 8,089 9,758 23,310 9,604 3,387 54,213 BVV SLT CISLO Ciskss auetiete fates 's fe ke outdneila Yarn 26,872 26,670 146,476 VIsto2 13,692 224,862 LG AO Faas att oh keh cease iblela ie Sich suahs-teieus > 15,201 115855 10,286 15,709 5,092 58,143 LO 2 Lemeeettes cist Wa cca tas cds, nica ohne wees gs 16,000 10,778 8,702 13,829 2,714 52,023 IBOStAWA IPE DCTIOG is siditey craictes ot kane ders 31,201 22,633 18,988 29,538 7,806 110,166 CELLO MALO Lalmerenats terete css ie tah eae 15,753,0384,327 bets O73, ieee 2,910,179,748 Miscellaneous budget receipts eMC ay te ue NR SET g Ce i eecreceocestecwee steerer eee eee wee ee eee eee e $00 0 & ROR Ieeae Ieee 24,702,059,912 1922 1923 Francs 17,101,602,616 Francs Bais il i See 183,330,900 236,222,400 SUR ORe) echt)! atars, 797,943,937 805,829,426 soy o 6 no Rees Oye 176,461,000 260,990,100 F< oi stoke oec 4,870,000,000 3,025,000,000 Ficib, Shy:, Sas SEPA 11,110,000 10,332,000 23,437,954,832 centage of metallic cover to note circulation 15%. Transportation. France was well provided with means of communication, internally by means of railways, rivers, and canals, and ex- ternally by the same means and also through harbors and ports and with the help of an ex- tensive merchant marine. The principal rail- way systems of France (pre-war boundaries) were state railways, 5623 miles in 1923; Paris- Lyon-Méditerranée, 6078 miles; Nord, 2380 miles; Orléans, 4641 miles; Est, 3122 miles; and Midi (south), 25386 miles; making a total of 24,430 miles in 1923, compared with 24,417 miles in 1913. The railways of Alsace-Lorraine, 1405 miles in length, should be added, making a total length of 25,835 miles in 1923. Pas- sengers carried numbered 547,886,000 in 1913 and 591,664,000 in 1921, a total distance of 19,410,000,000 kilometers in 1913, and 24,138,- 000,000 kilometers in 1921. The amount of slow freight carried was 208,019,000 tons in 1913 and 23,905,000,000 kilometers in 1921. Statis- tics for local railways were not available after 1912; in that year, their length was 6158 miles and the number of passengers carried 48,170,- 000; tramway lines had a length of 4218 miles and carried 37,143,000 passengers. Car load- ings in 1913 averaged 60,741 daily and in 1923, 56,865 daily. However, the average load was 12 tons per car in 1923 and only 9.1 tons in 1913. On Dee. 31, 1920, the French merchant FRANCE marine comprised 13,292 sailing vessels of 433,- 441 net tons, with crews of 48,449 men, com- pared with 15,824 vessels, 601,983 tons, and 67,453 men on Dec. 31, 1913; and 2246 steam vessels, with 1,084,511 tons, 20,268 seamen, and 13,402 mechanics and stokers in 1920, compared with 1895 vessels, of 980,433 tons, with 18,552 seamen, and 12,725 mechanics and stokers in 1913. The amount of idle tonnage in French ports steadily decreased in 1923 from 530 ves- sels of 845,254 tons on Jan. 15, 1923, to 334 vessels of 448,000 tons on Jan. 15, 1924. The net tonnage entering French ports was 2,979,- 000 in 1922 comnared with 2,876,000 in 1913 and departing tonnage 2199 compared with 2176. Coods tonnage discharged averaged 2,- 383,000 tons per month in 1922 compared with 2.657,000 in 1913, while goods loaded averaged 583,000 tons compared with 868,000. The table shows the cargo traffic of the principal French ports in 1913 and 1923. CARGO TRAFFIC OF FRENCH PORTS Port 1913 1923 Entered Departed Entered Departed (in metric tons) Dunkirk . 2,880,400 1,005,600 4,619,900 522,800 Le Havre . 2,747,900 920,500 3,554,500 929,500 Rouen 5,147,700 449,900 8,550,000 344,800 St. Nazaire 1,490,900 252,200 1,317,700 205,400 Nantes . 1,611,800 352,400 1,887,400 207,600 Bordeaux .. 3,302,900 1,302,500 3,317,900 1,504,500 Marseilles .. 5,886,200 3,052,400 5,327,500 1,907,200 The length of navigable rivers in France was 4211 miles and the length of canals 3280 miles. In 1913, shipping tonnage on the rivers totaled 21,057,000 tons and on the canals 20,840,000 tons; in 1923, river tonnage was 17,799,000 tons and canal 16,085,000, both representing satis- factory increases over 1922 though less than 1913. History. On Dec. 1, 1913, Barthou cabinet was overthrown. The Radi- eal-Socialists who had been most instrumen- tal in forcing Barthou out of office filled seven of the 12 ministerial posts in the new cabinet formed by Gaston Doumergue. Joseph Caillaux, to whom still. attached the stigma of the Morocco settlement of 1911, and who for this reason was impossible as prime minister, became Minister of Finance and was directing genius of the cabinet. Although Pre- mier Doumergue was in fact an active Radical- Socialist he did not, in view of the forthcoming elections, adhere strictly to the principles which the Radical-Socialist Party had recently enun- ciated at its Unification Congress of Pau, and concentrated his attention on the financial pro- posals of Caillaux rather than on the delicate question of the Three Years Law. Nevertheless the impending electoral combat had produced a clear-cut cleavage between the two most power- ful political groups: the Radical-Socialists and the Unified Socialists coéperated toward the re- duction of military service from three to two years, while in opposition to this “pacifist” bloc Barthou, Millerand, and Briand had organized the Federation of the Left with a programme of electors] reform and of national defense based on the Three Years Law. In March, 1914, the cabinet became involved in scandal. The shooting of Gaston Calmette by Madame Cail- laux and the subsequent disclosures revealing an old financial scandal forced both Caillaux and his lieutenant Monis (Minister of Marine) to resign during the latter part of March. 501 the moderate | FRANCE Meanwhile the electoral campaign was on, cen- tring for the most part on the question of the Three Years Law. The elections held in May produced the following line-up in the new Chamber: Unified Socialists 102; Independent and Republican Socialists 30; Unified Radicals 136; Alliance Democratique 100; Independent Radicals and Left Republicans 102; Progress- ists and Republican Federation 54; Action Libérale 34; Right 36; Independents 16. The bloe of the Radicals and Socialists had more than held its own. Nevertheless the Doumer- gue cabinet, in accordance with custom, re- signed before the meeting of the new Chamber. A ministerial deadlock ensued in the course of which a Ribot cabinet was smashed by the Radical-Socialist bloc within 24 hours of its formation. After a fortnight of difficulties René Viviani succeeded in forming a new cab- inet on the basis of a policy of national defense. The success of his policy, faced as it was with strong Radical-Socialist opposition, would have been greatly in doubt had not the revelations as to the unpreparedness of the French army, which were made in the Senate on July 13, suf- ficiently aroused the Chamber to support the Premier and vote the military credits. While the French public was deeply absorbed in the sensational trial of Madame Caillaux during the latter part of July, President Poin- caré, accompanied by Premier Viviani in his ca- pacity as Foreign Minister, set out to visit France’s ally, Russia. The Kronstadt Confer- ence brought a further cementing of the alliance between France and Russia. The French statesmen returned to Paris on July 29, just after the Austrian ultimatum had been deliv- ered to Serbia. When war between Russia and Germany seemed unavoidable the German gov- ernment requested of the French government a definite answer as to the attitude of France in case of a Russo-German conflict. In view of her alliance with Russia, France felt compelled to answer that she ‘‘would consult her inter- ests.” Orders for mobilization were issued in France and Germany on August 1, and two days later war was declared by Germany on France. See WAR IN EUROPE. The French people received the news with patriotic fervor. Their outward calmness was marred, outside of a few minor occurrences, on- ly by the assassination of Jean Jaurés, the great Socialist and pacifist, on July 31 by Raoul Villain, who acted under the influence of the extreme Royalists. Confronted with a sit- uation which called for the greatest efforts and sacrifices, the parliamentary factions abandoned all partisan strife and concluded a truce, known as the “Union Sacrée,” to which even the So- cialists subscribed. The draining of man pow- er from all walks of life took place without friction and a financial panic was averted by a moratorium. Measures were taken to pro- vide for the maintenance of an adequate food supply, and a rigid censorship was imposed. In order to deal more effectively with the un- favorable military situation and to make the government more representative, Premier Vivi- ani resigned on August 26, on the eve of the Battle of the Marne, and formed a new cabinet which was composed of stronger men and in- eluded even Socialists. The first steps of the new government were measures for the defense of Paris, which by this time was _ seriously threatened by the rapid German advance. For FRANCE this purpose General Galliéni, a capable and resolute soldier, was appointed military gov- ernor of Paris. But the military situation be- came so threatening that the government moved to Bordeaux, September 2, and returned to Paris only in December, 1914. When Parliament was re-opened in Paris on Dec. 22, 1914, Premier Viviani in a passionate address outlined the war aims of France, declaring that France would not “lay down her arms until she had avenged outraged right, regained forever the provinces ravished from her by force, restored to heroic Belgium the plenitude of her material prosperity and her independence, and broken down Prussian militarism.” Soon the depu- ties manifested that they wished to be consulted as to the methods of realizing these aims and that they intended also to express freely their criticism of the government’s conduct of the war. The parliamentary attacks were concen- trated on the Ministry of War, which was then in the hands of Alexandre Millerand, and par- ticularly on the Army Medical Service and on munitions supply, which the campaigns of 1914 and the early months of 1915 had proved to be sadly deficient. Millerand, however, with- stood stubbornly all attacks and it was another factor, the failure of the Balkan policy, which caused the fall of the Viviani government on Octs 22, 1915, A new coalition government, with the motto “Peace Through Victory” was formed by Aris- tide Briand who gave ministerial posts to mem- bers of practically all political parties, inclu- sive of the Royalists and the Socialists. Dur- ing the din of the battle raging around Verdun in the spring and summer of 1916 the deputies, acting upon reports of lack of provi- sion in the defense of the fortress, demanded a secret session of Parliament for the discussion of both details regarding effectives and the re- sponsibilities of general officers commanding in the field. Briand was forced to accede to this request and in consequence a very stormy ses- sion was held July 16-22, 1916. The Battle of the Somme and Rumania’s entrance into the War on the Allied side, which was regarded as a great diplomatic success of the Briand cabi- net, served to prolong the life of the gov- ernment. In December, 1916, Briand recon- structed his cabinet by including a number of capable business men and by giving the Minis- try of War to General Lyautey (q.v.), but when the Chamber shortly afterwards drove Lyautey from office and severely criticized Bri- and’s economic policy the cabinet resigned, on Mar. 17, 1917. The succeeding ministry under Ribot differed from the outgoing ministry only in that it contained as Minister of War, a Rad- ical-Socialist, Paul Painlevé, who on May 15, 1917, made important changes in the army com- mand by appointing General Pétain Comman- der-in-Chief in place of General Nivelle and General Foch Chief of Staff at the War Office. During the spring and summer of 1917 the seemingly interminable duration of the War and the terrible losses and sacrifices, coupled with grave economic troubles, seriously affected the morale of the French people and produced Widespread war-weariness. The symptoms of this state of mind were “defeatism,” industrial unrest, and mutinies at the front. Socialists increasingly took a stand of opposition to the War. Caillaux and other Radical-Socialist leaders who had always more or less openly op- 502 FRANCE posed the French war policy were carrying on a campaign for a “White Peace,” ie. a peace without victory. The situation became so crit- ical during the summer of 1917 that immedi- ate energetic action seemed imperative to pre- vent a breakdown. During August Georges Clemenceau made a vehement attack in the Sen- ate on Minister of the Interior Malvy for the way in which he had permitted the spread of defeatism and pacifism. This brought about the fall of Malvy on Aug. 31, 1917, and a week later that of the entire cabinet. Paul Pain- levé, a Radical-Socialist, succeeded Ribot as Premier on September 12 and inherited his troubles. Upon the speedy fall of the Pain- levé Ministry Clemenceau assumed office and began to clean the Augean stable of treason and of neglect. He abandoned coalition and the political dillydallying of his predecessors and declared that he would pursue but one pol- icy, that of vigorously prosecuting the War. In pursuance of this policy he assumed, aside from the Premiership, the Ministry of War as the all-important cabinet post and filled his ministry for the most part with men who had been little before the public eye but stood out for ability and energy and were thoroughly faithful to his policy. He put a speedy end to the defeatist campaign by ordering the arrest of its more important leaders. At the end of 1917 the prosecution of Caillaux was ordered; the arrest of this former Prime Minister and leader of the great Radical-Socialist Party took place on Jan. 14, 1918. A series of treason trials followed now in rapid succession. The first case to come up before the Paris Court- martial was that of Bolo Pasha, an adventurer of low birth and a shady past, who had at- tempted to buy the Journal with German mon- ey and had also invested money in other news- papers for defeatist purposes. The trial re- sulted, Feb. 14, 1918, in a verdict of death for Bolo Pasha and of three years’ imprisonment for his tool Parchére. Two weeks later the Bonnet Rouge trial began. Seven persons, in- cluding Duval, the editor of the Bonnet Rouge, a defeatist newspaper, and Leymarie, Malvy’s secretary, were charged with complicity in com- merce with the enemy. Upon overwhelming evidence Duval was condemned to death and the others to prison terms ranging from two to 10 years. Duval was executed a few days before the opening of public proceedings against Malvy on July 16, 1918. Malvy, a leader of the Radical-Socialist Party and a lieutenant of Caillaux, had been Minister of the Interior from 1914-1917 in five successive cabinets. In this capacity he had assisted Caillaux and his associates in their efforts to obstruct the prose- cution of the War and to bring about an under- standing with Germany. It was charged that by his failure to combat the enemy agents in France he had been guilty of negligence in of- fice and had thus favored the cause of Ger- many and aided in bringing about the formida- ble mutiny which broke out among 118 batta- lions at the front subsequent to Nivelle’s un- successful attack on the Chemin des Dames in 1917. The Senate, sitting as a High Court, dis- missed Daudet’s charge that Malvy had com- municated Nivelle’s plan of attack to the Ger- mans, but found him guilty of having failed as Minister of the Interior to combat the plan to destroy the morale of the country and the dis- cipline of the army, in other words of having FRANCE committed negligence equivalent to treason) The Court condemned him to five years’ exile but without civil degradation. Malvy left im- mediately for Spain, protesting his innocence. Senator Charles Humbert, an influential mem- ber of the Military Committee of the Senate, Pierre Lenoir, and others were brought to trial before the Third Court-martial on Mar. 31, 1919, because of charges in connection with the purchase of the Journal with enemy money. Senator Humbert and Sadoux were acquitted, Lenoir condemned to death, and Desouches sen- tenced to five years’ imprisonment. The final act of the treason drama, the trial of Joseph Caillaux, did not take place till the spring of 1920. Although he seemed to be at the bottom of the defeatist campaign and was suspected of having plotted to seize the government by a coup d’état and conclude peace with Germany, the High Court found Caillaux guilty on Apr. 23, 1920, of having had relations with enemy agents and of having given information of the greatest value to the enemy, but exonerated him of having guilty intentions. Caillaux was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 10 years’ loss of civic rights, and five years’ residence within a district to be designated by the Court. Since he had served his term already, he took up his domicile in the assigned district, where, with consistency and with his admitted bril- liance, he carried on a struggle to recover his former prestige. The importance of the treason trials lies not so much in the sensational disclosures as to the existence of war-weariness, defeatism, and mutiny in France; or in the trial of former premiers, ministers, and senators, as in the fact that they mark the temporary conclusion of a struggle, started long before the War, between two great French policies. The one policy, led by Caillaux, aimed at peace and conciliation with Germany and on this basis at a concert of the continental European nations under French and German leadership. The other policy, led by Clemenceau, stood for a military victory over Germany, an Entente with England, and the fulfilment of French national aspirations, especially on the eastern frontier. Both Cail- laux and Clemenceau were unscrupulous and de- termined in the pursuit of their policies. Cail- laux had been slowly preparing the way for his success ever since the outbreak of the War. The climax came with the war-weariness and the mutinies following Nivelle’s abortive at- tack on the Chemin des Dames early in 1917. It was then that Clemenceau made his great effort for the rooting out of all elements op- posed to the most energetic prosecution of the War. The treason trials mark the victory of Clemenceau’s policy over the Caillaux policy. Having disposed of the anti-war elements Clem- enceau set to work organizing all energy in the country to prosecute the War. He refused to follow his predecessors in the policy of deceiv- ing public opinion and stated to the country the sombre truth as to the military and political situation. He supplied the weakened army with new soldiers by drastically draining of- fices, factories and fields of dispensable man- power. At the same time he instituted rigor- ous measures to ensure an adequate food sup- ply. His rationing system had not, however, the same success which similar measures had in Great Britain and Germany because of the disinclination of the French people to submit 503 FRANCE to strict alimentary discipline. Clemenceau al- so dealt sternly with the Socialist and Syndi- calist opposition which raised its head during the summer of 1918. French morale improved st :adily notwithstanding severe trials, such as the Parisians experienced during the bombard- ment and air raids in the spring and the sum- mer of the last year of the War. If the de- sired end, military victory over Germany, was finally achieved it was in no small measure due to the iron rule of Clemenceau. Immediately after the Armistice the politi- cians made a determined effort to reéstablish the cabinet system and to divest Clemenceau of that one-man power which he had exercised during the War and which had enabled him to hold the country together till the final victory. In opposition to such designs Clemenceau made clear in the debates in the Chamber during No- vember, 1918, that he had no intention of giv- ing up his powers as peace-maker and that, outside of a general outline, he would not take the whole country into his confidence in regard to his peace policy. In this attitude he was sustained by the Chamber by a vote of 398 to 93. Clemenceau conducted the peace negotiations (see PEACE CONFERENCE) in secrecy, aided not by eminent French politicians but by his own faithful and trusted collaborators. This caused considerable resentment in Parliament. More- over, able as Clemenceau had been as War Pre- mier and as peace negotiator, he had failed in his economie and labor policies. Extremist ag- itation and the failure of the government to remedy economic distress, and particularly the high cost of living, brought about a number of serious strikes during the first half of 1919. When the Peace Treaty came up for discussion in the Chamber in September, 1919, the Left censured the spirit of harshness in which it had been conceived, while the Nationalist dep- uties maintained that it did not go far enough in providing France with security, especially since Germany was permitted to retain the left bank of the Rhine. A rejection of the Treaty being out of the question, it was finally rati- fied by 372 votes against 52. Great interest centred in the elections of 1919, the first since 1914. With the aid of Alexandre Millerand, Clemenceau organized an electoral phalanx, the National Bloc, composed of the more conservative parties, to combat So- cialism and Bolshevism. The elections to the Chamber, held on Nov. 16, 1919, resulted in a decisive victory for the National Bloc and in a defeat for the Socialists and the Radical-So- cialists. The balance of power was_ shifted from the Left and the Left Centre to the mod- erate Centre and the conservative Right. More- over, since the two parties which had hitherto opposed anti-clerical legislation, the Progres- sists and the Action Libérale, made the great- est gains, the election signified, for the time at least, a Catholic revival. It was quite evi- dent from the results that the election was an expression of the spirit of the War and not of peace. The most important business before the new Parliament was the election of a successor to Raymond Poincaré as President of the French Republic. Clemenceau, though not ea- ger, was induced to stand for election, but was defeated by Paul Deschanel in the Republican Caucus ballot which was held before the elec- tion. Thereupon the National Assembly chose Deschanel by 734 out of 888 votes on Jan. 17, FRANCE 504 1920. On the following day the Clemenceau Ministry resigned and Alexandre Millerand formed a new cabinet, in the composition of which he followed Clemenceau’s example of choosing men of practical experience rather than brilliant politicians. The new government was soon called upon to deal with very serious strikes which began In Iebruary, 1920. These were caused by extrem- ist sections in the French labor movement and were unpopular with the great mass of the French people; they failed disastrously by the end of May, dealing a severe blow to the Con- fédération Générale du Travail. The chief aim of the Millerand government was the ap- plication of the terms of the Peace Treaty, and toward this end Raymond Poincaré was appointed President of the Reparations Com- mission on February 20. The successive Con- ferences at Boulogne, Spa, and Hythe pro- duced very few results. The unsatisfac- tory trend of the Reparations policy engen- dered no little discontent in Parliament and Millerand might have had to contend with very strong opposition had it not been for the ‘guecess of his labor policy and of his Polish policy. In accordance with the French post- war policy of erecting Poland as a strong “buf- fer” state between Russia and Germany in or- der to prevent a union of interest between these two former Powers the Millerand government during the summer of 1920 gave successful aid to Poland in its struggle with Soviet Russia. The national approval accorded to this policy made, in conjunction with other factors, Mil- lerand the logical candidate for the Presidency when President Deschanel was forced to resign on account of illness on Sept. 16, 1920. Mil- lerand accepted the candidature and issued a statement declaring that, if elected, he would continue the same policy which he had pursued while Premier. He was duly elected on Novem- ber 26 by 695 out of 892 votes and immediately thereafter let it be known that he intended to increase the powers of the presidential office and to assume a greater control over foreign affairs than his predecessors had done. A new ministry was formed by Georges Leygues, but this cabinet was clearly intended as a make- shift and gave way in the middle of January, 1921 to a cabinet under Aristide Briand. The return to power of the parliamentary veteran Briand marked a revival of government by coalition and an attempt to modify the French Reparations policy and above all im- prove the somewhat strained relations with England. Ever since the Peace Conference there had been gradually increasing disagree- ment between France and Great Britain (q.v.) as to the application of the terms of the Treaty. The French interpreted the English counsel for moderation as an attempt to whittle down France’s share after England had been fully indemnified by the German colonies, markets and ships. They reasoned, moreover, that the English could well afford to be lenient with the Germans since England as a result of the Allied victory had been secured against any possible German aggression, while France, sit- uated on the continent, had to reckon with a rapid recovery of a neighbor possessed of great powers of recuperation. Whatever the merits of this contention were, it produced on the part of the French public and government a tenden- FRANCE cy to use the policy of the strong arm in con- tinental European affairs and it brought dis- eord into the Franco-British relations. This estrangement was also fostered by other points of divergence in policy, such as Franco-British differences in the Near East, notably in Syria; the conflict between the French pro-Turkish and the British anti-Turkish policy; the British ne- gotiations for resumption of trade with Soviet Russia and the vehement opposition of the French to Soviet Russia because of the Poles and the Russian debt; the refusal of the British to follow the French in giving unconditional support to the Poles in the Danzig and Upper Silesian questions; ete. Briand made an earn- est effort to remove the diplomatic friction be- tween the two countries but from the outset he encountered the opposition of the conservative elements under the leadership of Poincaré. Further dissatisfaction in France was produced by the results of the Washington Conference at the end of 1921. (See WASHINGTON CONFER- ENCE.) By virtue of the fact that this Con- ference concerned itself chiefly with problems of the Pacific, France was placed at this meet- ing in a position of less importance than either the United States, Great Britain, or Japan. The Agreement on Naval Limitation, subscribed to by Briand was felt to be disadvantageous to France. This discontent delayed the ratifica- tion of the Five Power Naval Treaty by France until July 7,-1923. The hostility toward Bri- and in the Chamber, resulting from what was considered his too conciliatory attitude, reached such intensity after the Cannes Conference, Jan. 6-12, 1922, that he deemed it best to resign (Janek, ee The reaction against Briand’s policy brought Poincaré into office. The new Prime Minister stated from the outset that he preferred strong methods and the old diplomacy to conciliation and conferences and in consequence a distinct change for the worse took place almost imme- diately in Franco-British relations. Poincaré had inherited from his predecessor a pledge to attend the forthcoming Genoa Conference (Apr. 10-May 19, 1922), and, while refusing to go himself, he felt bound, in compliance with the obligation entered into by Briand, to send a delegation which was headed by Louis Barthou, the President of the Reparations Commission, as his personal representative. Owing to Poin- caré’s insistence that neither the Peace Treaty nor Reparations should be subject to discussion at the Conference, the Genoa meeting had at best only a moral effect. The Hague Confer- ence, held in June of the same year, which was intended to be a continuation of the Genoa Conference, likewise ended in failure, since no agreement could be reached with the Soviets. In the Turkish question France found herself during 1922 often in a rather embarrassing op- position to Great Britain and it was only after the sweeping Turkish victory in August, 1922, that the two Powers recognized the harmful ef- fects of their disagreement and arrived at more effective codperation in regard to Turkey. But the Reparations problem, and the connected problems of the inter-Allied debts and of se- curity for France, tended more and more to produce serious divergence of opinion between France and Great Britain, all the more so in view of Poincaré’s reversion to strong methods at the close of 1922. At the conference with FRANCE Great Britain, held in Paris during the open- ing days of 1923, Poincaré announced his in- tention of seizing from Germany productive guarantees with the view of holding them till Germany fulfilled her obligations under the Peace Treaty. Accordingly French troops were ordered on Jan. 10, 1923, to occupy the Ruhr. (See REPARATIONS.) This action not only caused anger abroad and among France’s allies, but also evoked protests from the Left groups in the French Chamber. When it came to a showdown, however, the Chamber, with the exception of the Communists and some of the Socialists, supported Poincaré in his venture. The Ruhr occupation involved a heavy drain on French resources and complicated still fur- ther the already very serious French finanei- al situation. During his premiership Poincaré strove with zeal to consolidate French military supremacy by encouraging the afterward dis- credited Separatist movement in the Rhineland and by cementing France’s relations with the Little Entente (q.v.). The French policy to- ward the latter aimed at the building up of a wall of defense for France out of the succession states which had been constructed by the Peace Conference on the ruins of the former three great Powers of the European continent. By rendering political, military, and financial as- sistance to these new states France bound them to her in close alliance and thereby sought to prevent the possible rise of these former Pow- ers in challenge to her own hegemony on the European continent. Meanwhile the failure of Poincaré’s Ruhr and Rhineland ventures and the comparative isolation of France among the Powers resulting from his policy had greatly diminished his popularity at home. Already during the summer of 1923 a number of by- elections had gone against the government and the Radical-Socialists and the Unified Socialists had formed the “Bloc des Gauches” for the’ pur- pose of offering a compact political organiza- tion in the forthcoming elections in opposition to Poincaré’s and Millerand’s “Bloc National.” Moreover the Prime Minister was seriously em- barrassed in the early spring of 1924 by a do- mestic crisis due to the dwindling of the value of the france and the increase in the cost of liv- ing. Poincaré’s proposal to meet the critical financial situation by an increase in the taxes amounting to 20 per cent, while a credit to his courage, did not improve his chances in the im- pending elections. In the face of strong oppo- sition the government’s tax bill was carried on Feb. 22, 1924. Poincaré took drastic measures to stop the continued fall of the france but the currency crisis was not remedied until Morgan and Company stepped into the breach with a loan. All tuese measures were used by the op- position against Poincaré in the Chamber and in the constituencies. When defeated on March 26 on an unimportant issue Poincaré resigned but resumed office two days later with a recon- structed cabinet. In regard to the Dawes Re- port of Experts Poincaré after some hesitation signified his approval, but raised and left open the all-important question of “sanctions” in case of German default. He also refused to de- clare his willingness to evacuate the Ruhr. His attitude was, however, of less importance than formerly in view of the results of the elections on May 11, 1924, which indicated a defeat of the “Bloc National” by the “Bloc des 595 FRANCE Gauches.” The composition of the new Cham- ber was as follows: Conservatives 11; Repub- lican Entente 137; Left Republicans 92; Na- tional Radicals 34; Radical Socialists 127; In- dependent Socialists 39; Unified Socialists 101; Communists 29. The government strength was roughly 274, while tie opposition was able to muster at least 296. . The radical opposition immediately brought strong pressure to bear against Poincaré and Millerand. They aimed not only at the fall of the Poincaré government, which was a foregone conclusion, but at the resignation of President Millerand as well. They charged the President with having gone outside the non- partisan sphere within which the President of the French Republic is confined by tradition and the spirit of Republican French govern- ment. The chief reason for their opposition to Millerand was, however, the fact that the lat- ter was, in conjunction with Poincaré, the mainstay of the nationalist policy inaugurated by Clemenceau during the War. Upon the as- sembling of the Chamber on June 1 the Poin- caré government stepped out of office. Deter- mined opposition, however, was encountered from President Millerand, who was not willing to relinquish his office without a serious fight. A tense parliamentary crisis ensued in conse- quence. Millerand attempted to gain time by appointing the stop-gap cabinet of Francois- Marsal, on June 8, but the radical opposition, which numbered by this time 307 deputies, would have no relations with it and forced it out on June 10. A message of the President was met by a vote of 329 to 214 in the Cham- ber and of 154 to 144 in the Senate in favor of the technical motion to adjourn all discussion of the message, whereupon President Millerand resigned his office on June 11. On June 12 the moderate Radical-Socialist Doumergue, Presi- dent of the Senate was elected President by 515 votes against 309 for the more advanced Radi- cal-Socialist Painlevé, President of the Cham- ber, and two days later Herriot formed a Radi- cal-Socialist cabinet. Since the Radical-Social- ist Party, the Party of Caillaux, was now in power, supported by the Socialists, and since the new Premier had been Caillaux’s successor as the leader of this party, the change in the French government may reasonably be regarded as a step in the direction of the policy of Cail- laux. This development was signified by the immediate passage of an Amnesty Bill with specific clauses granting amnesty to Caillaux and Malvy. Any rapid and complete overturn of French policy in consequence of the Kaleido- scopic events in French parliamentary affairs during the late spring and the early summer was precluded, however, by the rather precari- ous position of the new government. Its ma- jority depended entirely on the whole-hearted support of the Socialists and even with the aid of the latter its majority was a very narrow one in face of the large Nationalist Bloc in the Chamber. As a result the Herriot government had to take into consideration the wishes of the Nationalists and could not at once abandon the Poincaré policy entirely. On the whole the “Bloc des Gauches” stood for complete accord with England, a betterment of Franco-German relations through conciliatory methods on the part of France, for international action as over against isolated French action in regard to FRANCE Reparations, and against the occupation of the Ruhr.1 The dependence of the government on the Nationalists was amply manifested by the Premier’s attitude in his conferences with Pre- mier Macdonald and during the London Con- ference in July, 1924, which deliberated on the application of the Dawes Report. Under pres- sure from the Nationalists Herriot, in spite of his admitted conciliatory attitude, defended the French claim to impose “sanctions” in case of German default, opposed the admission of German delegates on an equal basis with the Allies and the immediate evacuation, military and economic, of the Ruhr, and reaffirmed the contention of former Premiers Briand and Poin- caré that the 15 year period of occupation in the Rhineland could not be considered to have begun until the Germans had made substan- tial payments on Reparation accounts. His stand on these questions was, however, gener- ally interpreted as being a temporary conces- sion to the large Nationalist minority in the Chamber. At the end of July it was reported that the London Conference had reached a thorough understanding on the questions of the application of the Dawes Report and that a compromise had been effected between the French and Anglo-American viewpoints where- by adequate machinery would be provided to deal with a possible German default. This re- port, if substantiated, would indicate that in the future isolated French action against Ger- many will be superseded by common action on the part of the Powers, and in the last analy- sis it would mean a victory of the French mod- erates over the intransigents led by Clemenceau, Poincaré, and Millerand. See also the follow- ing articles: FRENCH LITERATURE; SCULPTURE; NAVIES OF THE WorRLD; RHINELAND; SAAR BASIN; PEACE CONFERENCE AND TREATIES. FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844-1924). A French novelist (see VoL. IX). In 1914 he published La Révolte des Anges (The Revolt of the An- gels) and later Ce que Disent Nos Morts (1916), On Life and Letters, Series IV (1924), and The Latin Genius (1924), translated by Wilfrid Jackson. In October, 1920, he married Mlle. Emma Leprévotte. He received the Nobel Prize in literature in 1921. FRANCIS, Davip RowLanp (1850-— ). An American merchant (see VoL. IX). He be- came United States Ambassador to Russia in 1916, but returned to the United States when the Bolsheviks overthrew the Czar’s government. FRANCK, Harry ALVERSON (1881- ya An American traveler and author, born at Munger, Mich. He studied at Michigan, Co- lumbia, and Harvard Universities in this coun- try and did graduate work abroad. His trav- els, interrupted now and then by periods of teaching, have taken him to South America (1911-15), the West Indies (1919-20), and the Orient (1922-— ). He is the author of A Vagabond Journey around the World (1910), Four Months Afoot in Spain (1911), Tramp- ing through Mexico, Guatemala, and Hon- duras (1916), Vagabonding down the Andes (1917), Vagabonding through Changing Ger- many (1919), Working North from Patagonia (1921), and others. FRANCKE, Kuno (1885- ). A German- American .scholar and author (see Von. IX). 1In internal affairs it favored chiefly reduction of the taxes and of military service and a resumption of anti-clerical legislation. 506 FRANKLIN He became professor emeritus and honorary curator at Harvard in 1917 and was president of the Modern Language Association of America (1917). He wrote A German-American Con- fession of Faith (1915); The German Spirit (1916); Personality in German Literature be- fore Luther (1916); Die Kulturwerte der Deut- scher Litteratur von der Reformation bis zur Aufkldrung (1922); and Die Kulturwerke der Deutschen Litteratur in Ihrer Geschictlichen Entwicklung (1923). FRANK, GLENN (1887— ). An American author and editor, born at Queen City, Mo., and educated at Kirkeville State Normal School and at Northwestern University (1912). In 1921 he became editor-in-chief of the Century Magazine. He published The Politics of Industry (1919) and is co-author of The Stakes of the War (1918), and The League of Nations—The Prin- ciple and the Practice (1919). FRANK, REINHARD (1860- ). A Ger- man jurist and Privy Councilor, born at Red- dighiiuser Hammer, and educated at the univer- sities of Marburg, Munich, and Kiel. In 1887 he became lecturer at Marburg, and subsequent- ly held professorships at Giessen (1890), Halle (1900), Tiibingen (1902), and Munich (1914). In 1920-21 he was rector of the University of Munich. His numerous publications include Wollfsche Strafrechtsphilosophie und ihr Ver- héltnis zur Kriminalpolitischen Aufklirung im Achtzehnten Jahrunderts (1887); Naturrecht, Geschaftliches Recht und WSoziales Recht (1891); Strafrechtliche Fille zu Akademis- chem Gebrauch, 5th ed. (1912); Schutestrafe und Vergeltungstrafe (1908); Die Belgische Neutralitét (1915); Kann Wilhelm IT Ausgelie- fert Werden? (1919); and Sinn und Tragweite des Auslieferunggesetzes (1920). He became editor of the Vergleichende Darstellung des Deutschen und Ausléindischen Strafrechts and the Pitaval der Gegenwart. He was also made a member of the Kommission fiir das Strafge- setzbrauch. FRANKFURTER, Fetrx (1882- ). An American lawyer and educator, born in Vienna, Austria. He came to the United States in 1894 and in 1902 graduated from the College of the City of New York. He studied law at Harvard and from 1906 to 1910 was United States Attorney of the Southern District of New York. From 1914 he was professor of law at the Harvard Law School. During the War he acted as major and judge-advocate, and as secretary and counsel of the President’s media- tion commission. In 1918 he was appointed chairman of the War Labor Policies Board. He was also a member of the board of directors of the Institute for Government Research, and was the author of Cases Under the Interstate Commerce Act. FRANKLIN-BOUILLON. See Turkey. FRANKLIN, Epwarp Curtis (1862-— by An American chemist, born at Geary City, Kan., and educated at the University of Kansas, in Boston, and at Johns Hopkins. He was an as- sistant in chemistry at Kansas, where in 1899 he attained the chair of physical chemistry. In 1903 he was called to the associate profes- sorship of organic chemistry in Leland Stan- ford Junior University, where in 1906 he be- came full professor. Dr. Franklin has had oth- er scientific connections, notably that of pro- fessor of chemistry with the hygienic labora- tory of the United States Public Health Serv- FRANKLIN COLLEGE ice (1911-13), physical chemist of the Bureau of Standards (1918), and similar posts with other government advisory boards. His origi- nal investigations have had to do with liquid ammonia as an electrolytic solvent, the ammo- nia system of acids, bases, and salts, and vari- ous other preparations of which ammonia is an important constituent. These for the most part have been published in the American Chemical Journal or the Journal of the Ameri- can Ohemical Society. He was chosen presi- dent of the American Chemical Society in 1923, FRANKLIN COLLEGE. An institution at Franklin, Ind., founded in 1834. The number of students increased from 206 in 1914 to 400 in 1924, the faculty rose from 14 to 27 mem- bers, and the library increased from 19,100 to 26,048 volumes. The endowment increased from $312,500 to $800,000 during the same period, and the total income from $49,498 to $155,970. Departments of Biblical literature, sociology and economies, and art were established. A campaign was begun to raise $250,000 for build- ings. C. E. Goodell succeeded E. A. Hanley as president. FRANZ, SHEPHERD Ivory (1874- J. An American psychopathologist (see Vor. IX) attached to the United States Government Hos- pital for the Insane. After 1914 he edited the Psychological Bulletin and was associate editor of Psychobiology. He was appointed member of the psychology committee of the National Research Council in 1917 and served as presi- dent of the American Psychological Association for the year 1920. FRANZ, WILHELM (1859- ). A. Ger- man professor of English philology at Jena and Tiibingen. His works include Die Grund- zuge der Sprache Shakspeares (1902), Orthog- raphie, Lautgebung und Wortbildung in den Werken Shakspeares (1905), Shakspeares Gram- matik (1909), Die Treibende Kraft im Werden der Englischen Sprache (1906), Der Wert der Englischen Kultur fiir Deutschlands Entwick- lung (1913), Britanien und der Krieg (1915), Shakspeare als Kulturkraft in Deutschland und England (1916), Die Feindschaft der Angel- sachsen (1917), and Deutsche Empfindung im Kampf mit Angelsichsischem Kriegswillen (1918). FRAZER, Sir JAMES GeEoRGE (1854- }. A British anthropologist and folklorist (see Vor. IX). His work, The Golden Bough, orig- inally published in 2 volumes in 1890, rewritten and expanded to 12 volumes (1911-15), was re- published in an abridged edition in 1922. He is also the author of Folklore in the Old Testa- ment (1918); and Sir Roger de Coverley and Other Literary Pieces (1920). He _ pub- lished Apollodorus, with an English translation (1921). FRAZER, JoSePH CHRISTIE WHITNEY (1875- ). An American chemist and edu- eator, born at Lexington, Ky. He graduated from the Kentucky State University in 1897 and took postgraduate courses at Johns Hop- kins. From 1901 to 1907 he was assistant and associate in chemistry at that university, and from 1907 to 1911 was chemist at the United States Bureau of Mines. From the latter date he was professor of chemistry at Johns Hop- kins, and from 1921 was also B. N. Baker professor. FREDERICK, Pavutine (Mrs. C. A. RUTH- 5°7 FRENCH ERFORD) (1885— ). An born in Boston. She made her début in New York in 1902. She played in many Broadway productions including Innocent and Don’t Shoot and made her screen début in Mrs. Dean’s Defense. She later appeared in film versions of Zaza, Tosca, The Woman on the Indea, Bonds of Love, The Paliser Case, Madame X, and The Glory of Clementina. FREDERICQ, PAu (1850-1920). A Flem- ish historian (see Vout. IX). The German gov- ernment exiled him from Belgium during the War because of his activity in strengthening the morale of the Belgians. After the Armi- stice he was appointed rector of Ghent Univer- sity, but weakness from imprisonment caused his death. He was g member of the Académie Royale de Belgique and the Académie des Pays- Bas. FREE BAPTISTS. See BAprTists, FREE. FREE VERSE. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. FREEMAN, Epwarp Monroe (1875— }. An American botanist, born at St. Paul. He graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1898 and did graduate work there and at Cambridge. He became professor of botany and plant pathology at the University of Minnesota in 1908 and has been dean of the College of Agriculture, Forestry and Home Economics at that university. Professor Freeman is the au- thor of Minnesota Plant Diseases. FREEMAN, LEwis RANSOME (1878— p. An American author, born at Genoa Junction, Wis., and educated at Leland Stanford Junior University. He has spent much of his time in traveling and as foreign war correspondent, with the British, French, and Italian armies (1915-17) and in Germany (1918). He wrote Many Fronts (1918), Stories of the Ships (1919), Sea Hounds (1919), To Kiel in the Hercules (1919), In the Tracks of the Trades (1920), Hell’’s Hatches (1921), The Yellow- stone to New Orleans (1922), When Cassi Blooms (1922), and other books. FREEMAN, ROBERT (1878- yas An American clergyman, born in Edinburgh, Scot- land. After engaging in mission work in Penn- sylvania and New York for four years, he was ordained in the Baptist ministry in 1900; thereafter he held various pastorates until 1910. He was moderator of the Synod of California in 1920-21. During the War he directed the first expeditionary division of the Y. M. C. A. and in 1917-18 was director of religious work in France: Other offices which he has filled are director of the San Francisco Theological Sem- inary and trustee of Occidental College. He is author of The Hour of Prayer (1914) and The Land I Live In (1921). FRENCH, Daniet Cuester (1850- y. An American sculptor (see Vor. IX). He was awarded a medal of honor at the Panama Pa- cific Exposition, in 1915, and a gold medal of honor by the National Institute of Arts and Letters, in 1918. From 1910 to 1915 he was a member of the National Commission of Fine Arts. His output during 1914-24 was as aston- ishing in quality as in quantity. It includes “Sculpture” (marble, St. Louis Museum) ; fig- ures symbolic of Manhattan and Brooklyn on Manhattan Bridge; “Memory” (marble, Metro- politan Museum, New York City), his finest fe- male nude; a statue of Lafayette, Easton, Penna.; the Dupont fountain, Washington, D. American actress, FRENCH C.; and especially, a colossal bronze Lincoln for the Lincoln Memorial at Washington. FRENCH, JOHN DENTON PINKSTONE (1852-— ). A British field-marshal (see VoL. IX). He commanded the English forces in France from the beginning of the War till the end of 1915. His operations were ham- pered until the last three months by lack of artillery ammunition. He resigned in Decem- ber, 1915, and was made Viscount French of Ypres and High Lake. He was then made com- mander-in-chief of the United Kingdom, hold- ing that post till May, 1918, when he was ap- pointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He re- signed in 1921 and was made an earl on return- ing to England. See War IN EvurRopE, Western Front. FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA. A French possession in west central Africa com- prising the colonies of Gabun, Middle Congo, Ubangi-Shari, and Chad. Its area is estimated by the French at 982,049 square miles, exclud- ing the Cameroon (q.v), of 166,489 square miles, which forms a separate colony joined to Equatorial Africa. By the census of 1921 it had a population of 2,845,936, of whom 1932 were whites. The largest cities had the following populations: Libreville, 20,000; Brazzaville, 40,000; Fort Lamy, 10,000. The tropical prod- ucts continued the sources of economic wealth. Caoutchouc, lumber, ivory, palm kernels, palm oil, were the principal exports in 1921. Coffee and cacao were beginning to receive attention. Large herds of cattle, sheep, camels, horses, and ostriches were the property of the natives, but the lack of transportation eliminated them from the export trade. In 1920, total exports were 23,524,154 frances as compared with 21,181,768 francs in 1913. Imports in 1920 were 8,807,- 612 frances as compared with 21,181,768 francs in 1913. The fall of the franc after the War made the actual decrease in trade greater. The territory still lacked railroad communication in 1921. In February, 1921, a line was com- menced from Brazzaville to the Atlantic ocean (300 miles). The general budget in 1922 called for an expenditure of 9,358,542 francs. The four colonial budgets included expenditures of 15,673,000 frances. Deficits were characteris- tic of the period 1912-22, in 1922 a subvention of 4,000,000 frances being necessary for admin- istrative purposes. Colonization continued tar- dy “because of the difficulties of transport. To hasten the country’s settlement, the French Chamber passed, in 1920, a measure calling for the expenditure of 171,000,000 francs on rail- way, port, road, telegraph, and river develop- ments. FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN INDIA. Five provinces in India belonging to the French empire. These were Pondicherry (170,785 inhabitants in 1921), Karikal (53,583 population), Chandernagore (25,119 popula- tion), Mahé (11,218 population), Yanam (4683 population). Total area, 196 square miles; to- tal population, 265,388. Chief towns were: Pondicherry (46,605), Oulgaret (22,307), Vil- lenour (21,033). Principal products were rice, sugar cane, cotton, manioc, cacao, coffee, ground- nuts. Imports in 1920 were 25,583,190 frances; in 1913, 10,837,115 franes. Exports for 1913, 1920, 1921, were 43,720,095 francs, 24,554,280 francs, 23,805,649 francs. The budget for 1922 was 2,630,170 rupees. FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN 508 FRENCH INDO-CHINA OCEANIA. See Paciric OcEAN ISLANDS, Society Islands. FRENCH INDO-CHINA. The _ general name for the French possessions in southeast Asia. It is made up of the following units: (1) Colony of Cochin-China, 22,000 square miles; population in 1921, 3,795,613, of which 7469 were Europeans; largest city, Cholon, 93,- 947 population; (2) Protectorate of Annam, 39,758 square miles; population in 1921, 5,637,- 751, of which 1642 were Europeans; largest city, Binh-Dinh, 74,400 population; (3) Pro- tectorate of Cambodia, 57,900 square miles; population in 1921, 2,462,585, of which 1368 were Europeans; largest city, Pném-Penh, 74,- 643 population; (4) Protectorate of Tonking, 40,530 square miles; population in 1921, 6,850,- 453, of which 6332 were Europeans; largest city, Hanoi, 73,948 population (5) Protectorate of Laos, 96,500 square miles; population in 1921, 818,755; largest city, Vien-Tiane; (6) Kwangchow Wan territory, 190 square miles; population, 182,371; (7) Territory around Bat- tambang, population 500,000. Total area, 256,- 878 square miles; total population in 1921, 19,- 747,528 (18,000,000 estimated in 1914); num- ber of Europeans, 23,700. The activities were largely agricultural, the country being one of the most important rice districts in the world. Cinnamon, sugar, and tea were also grown in central Annam. Minerals mined were coal and lignite, antimony, tin, wolfram, iron, and zinc. Cotton was becoming important in Cambodia. In 1922, total exports were $115,700,000 of which 80 per cent was rice; other exports were fish, pepper, hides, coal (almost 1,000,000 met- ric tons in 1922), cotton, rubber, and sugar. Exports in 1913 totaled $69,051,800 (conver- sions made at current rate; the franc was worth $0.09 in 1922). Imports in 1922 were $96,900,- 000 as against $61,247,600 in 1913. Leading imports were cotton tissues, cotton thread, iron and steel, machinery, and mineral oils. Im- ports in 1922 were furnished in the following proportions: France, 40.5 per cent; Hongkong, 29 per cent; Singapore, 6 per cent; England, 3 per cent; China, 3.6 per cent; United States, 1.7 per cent; India, 10 per cent. Exports in 1922 were taken in the following proportions: France, 17.3 per cent, Hongkong, 40 per cent; Dutch East Indies, 12 per cent; Singapore, 7 per cent. It was evident that for the first time France was approaching the British Empire in the question of trade. The United States, the Philippines, and Cuba were large purchasers of rice. In 1922, 775 ships of 1,576,287 metric tons entered the port of Saigon, Cochin-China. Other ports, though of less importance, were Tourane (Annam), Haiphong (Tonking) and Kwangchow Wan. Railways in 1922: 1293 miles (no building since 1914). The general budget for 1921 balanced at 54,878,400 piastres (1 piastre = $0.52), though excesses, never less than 7,000,000 piastres, occurred annually. The debt of Indo-China in July, 1922, was 383,494,- 000 francs. Local budgets for the separate areas totaled 71,647,310 piastres in 1923. Money in circulation Sept. 30, 1923, 89,562,408 piastres. The French colonial policy was consistently enlightened. In 1918 and 1920, new codes of law were promulgated while educational prog- ress steadily made headway. In 1917, the vari- ous technical and professional schools were FRENCH LITERATURE united to form the University of Indo-China and in 1918, a European college was opened at Hanoi. During the War, France was able to draw upon the region for troops, money, boats, provisions, and raw materials. FRENCH LITERATURE. The changes in the field of French Literature during the decade 1914 to 1924 can be concretely illustrated by the following tables. In 1911, V. Giraud, in his Maitres de UV Heure, mentions these eight leaders of French thought: Loti, Brunetiére, | Faguet, de Vogiié, Bourget, Lemaitre, Rod, France. One must add Maeter- lineck and Bergson. In 1914: drop Rod (inherited from time of realism), Vogiié (identified with Russian liter- ature invasion); Faguet loses, Bruneti¢érism is absorbed by others; France is practically out. Retain Loti (Exotism), Lemaitre (National- ism), Bourget (Catholic philosophy); Bergson and Maeterlineck (Intuitionism). Add: Barres and Maurras; Péguy and Psichari; Claudel and Jammes; Régnier and Verhaeren; Romain Rol- land; André Gide; and, if you consider the quantity of readers, Henri Bordeaux. In 1918: drop Faguet, Lemaitre (dead), Loti, Psichari; Bergson and Maeterlinck. Keep: Bourget, Barrés, Maurras; Péguy, Claudel, Jammes (all, with variations, being traditionalists); Romain Rolland, plus Bar- busse (who won notice by his impracticable pacifism): André Gide, plus Riviere and Thibaudet (adogmatic intellectualists) ; H. Bor- deaux. Add no one. In 1924: drop Romain Rolland, Barbusse. Keep Barrés, Bourget, Maurras; Péguy, Claudel, Jammes; Gide, Rivére, Thibaudet, and Bowientish Add: Proust; Dorgelés; Carco; Giraudoux (?); Morand (?); Tasserre CPs Benjamin Crémieux (the solid critic of the Nouvelles Littéraires). From this, it is easy to see that Varillaud and Rambaud’s Enquéte sur les Maitres de la jeune Littérature (1923), which turns in favor of Bourget, Barrés and Maurras, is not representa- tive; at the same time it shows the persistence of the ideas represented by those three men; the two last are brothers in arms (and so is H. Bordeaux) of Bourget who still remains from the list of 1911. Now let us enter in- to some details. There are three periods to study: the pre-war, the war, and the post-war period. Pre-War Period. Seven months only, dur- ing which the movement started during the pre- ceding decade continued normally, namely: away from dilettantism, estheticism, skepticism and cynicism, towards social reform, national traditionalism, and Catholicism. The follow- ing books might be remembered as particularly telling. In poetry Ch. Péguy’s Hve. In prose M. Barrés’s Grande Pitié des Eglises de France; and in prose fiction: Juliette Adam’s Chrétienne —to refute her own Paienne of some years be- fore; E. Bauman’s Le Baptéme de Pauline Ar- del. Pierre Hamp continues his series Pete des Hommes by Enquéte (about the various trades in France). Lichtenberger’s Le Sang Nouveau,—the blood of those who are going to win the war. J. des Gfichons, Vive la Vie! On the stage Claudel scores once more, with L’Otage, of the most consistent Catholicism; while Curel, Devant le Miroir, and Croisset in L’Epervier describe the hypersensitive soul of the generation. Sacha Guitry cultivates the 5°9 FRENCH LITERATURE tone of indifference still dear to some then, and which he is going to keep up all through the War. War Period. It will start at once on Aug. 3, 1914, but will not stop altogether in 1918; indeed war publications were coming in even in 1924 and promising to continue indefinitely. With the first cannon shot all literature, includ- ing periodical literature, stopped for several weeks except only the Revue des Deua Mondes, L’Illustration, and Revue Hebdomadaire (the latter in form of a newspaper); and Le Temps, Les Débats, Le Matin, L’Echo de Paris—but they contained articles from the pens of mas- ters, like Barrés (Echo de Paris), Maeterlinck, Lavedan, Doumic, Gourmont, Maurras, Masson- Forestier, ete. Promptly, as soon as the rear was somewhat reorganized, this war prose came out in book form. Some of the most noteworthy of these collections of articles are: Barrés, the series L’Ame Francaise et la Guerre (Union sacrée, Saints de France, Croix de Cuerre, etc.) ; Lave- dan, Grandes Heures; A. France, Sur la Voix Glorieuse; Loti, La Grande Barbarie; Maeter- linck, Débris de Guerre; P. Adam, Maurras, Abbé Wetterlé; the Socialist Hervé (Aprés la Marne, La Patrie en Danger). Tinayre, La Veillée des Armes will remain as one of the fine books of the great first hours of the War. Then in 1915 Romain Rolland published in book form his much resented Au-Dessus de la Mélée, of Tolstoian inspiration. In the course of the year 1915, the first soldier diaries began to ap- pear, preceded by the gallant, but hardly. very trustworthy volume of fiction Gaspard, by René Benjamin. One after the other they came out, especially in 1916, these books which will re- main as a stirring testimonial to the horrors of the great War: Paul Lintier, Ma _ Piéce (followed by Tub: 1233); Lettres @un Soldat (by the painter Lemercier, but published anon- ymously); Rédier, Méditations dans la Tran- chée ; Gerievoix, Sous Verdun; Dupont, En Cam- pagne; Major Henches, ete. Hugues LeRoux published the story of his son Aw Champ d’Hon- neur. The year 1917 is again very rich: Jean des Vignes Rouges’s Bourruw, Soldat de Vau- quois is one of the notable war books, and the same year the much discussed Le Feu came out, written by Barbusse. (The chief objection to it in France was that it was spreading discour- agement at a time when all needed so much courage.) M. Berger, Le Miracle du Few will also remain as one of the best war books; and even more so Adrien Bertrand’s Appel du Sol (which was awarded the Prix Goncourt— awarded also to R. Benjamin and to Barbusse). Marcel Nadaud’s Chignole is a remarkably alert account of military aviation. The year 1917 was also the year of Duhamel’s Vie des Martyrs (later followed by Possession du Monde, the Goncourt prize for 1918); the author tells of the heart-breaking scenes he witnessed as a major in hospitals near the firing line. As the struggle lasts the diaries become - more pathetic, more shocking, sometimes harder in their moral appreciations of events. We will just give a few names here and refer for titles to the bib- liographies named below: Dieterlen, Péricard, Le Bail, Dupont, Tuffrau, Belmont (Lettres) Erlande, Milan, Franconi, Binet-Valmer, Grim- auty, Julia, Grandvilliers, Malherbe (Goncourt prize 1917 for Flamme au Poing), Fribourg (Croire), Giraudoux, Fonck, Pirenne, a_ Bel- FRENCH LITERATURE gian (Vainqueurs de VYser). The volumes of the Brothers Tharaud, La Reléve and Randon- née de Samba Disuff, deserve a special mention here; so does Y. (Larrouy)’s Odyssée dun Transport torpillé. The fourth year of the war is at hand, and the diaries become less numer- ous, but often more bitter, eg. Léon Werth (Clavel soldat), M. Berger (Jean Darboise, auxiliaire), Barbusse (Clarté); and, after the Armistice, what in the opinion of many remains the best war book: Dorgelés, Croix de Bois. Some sad stories are told by Zavie, Prisonnier en Allemagne, Hennebois, Journal Wun Grand Blessé, Blanche, En Représailles, Max, Mes Sia Evasions. Here must be added a reconstitution of the phases of the war by Dumur, in his triology in Zola style: Nach Paris, Boucher de Verdun, Les Défaitistes. Books not dealing directly with the War and the army, and yet remarkable, are: Isabelle Rimbaud, Dans les remous de la bataille; Donnay, Lettres a@ une Dame Blanche (Red Cross); Géraldy, La Guerre, Ma- dame... (one of the most widely read for some time): Blanche, Cahiers dun Artiste (a diary at the rear). Pierre Hamp will tell us of Les Métiers Blessés in consequence of the ruthless destructions by the enemy. In 1818, the poet H. Ghéon gave the story of his con- version in L’Homme né de la Guerre. A witty picture of the English in France during the War was given by André Maurois, Les Silences du Colonel Bramble. Among the books which relate war achieve- ments and which betray distinct literary value a few must be retained here: Le Goffic, a series of volumes the first of which is Dixmude, un chapitre de VHistoire des Fusiliers marins; H. Bordeaux, Les Derniers jours du Fort de Vaua, and Les Prisonniers délivrés. Jean de Pierre- feu (who gave out the daily war bulletins), Au G.Q.G@. (Grand Quartier Général); M. A. Leblond, Galliéni; then Bédier’s sober and im- Eien ye DEffort Francais, and Madelin’s Ver- un. Of books of more recent years, and which con- tinued to stir the public, let us mention: in 1920, Parmentier’s L’Ouragan; in 1921, Cl. Anet’s Quand la Terre trembla; and in 1923 R. Dorgelés’s Le Réveil des Morts which contribut- ed much to call attention to the improvements that could be made in the work of reconstruc- tion in the devastated regions. Of the novels which without depicting actual war episodes, take the War as _ background, these are a few samples: Prévost, Adjutant Benoit; Rosny, L’Enigme de Givreuse (a case of double personality in a soldier); Bazin, Les Nouveaux Oberlé; Estaunié, L’Appel de la route; Romain Rolland, Clérembault. From minor authors: Villetard, Monsieur Bille dans la Tourmente; Ch. de Rouve, Francaise du Rhin; Foley, Sylvette et son Blessé; Jeanne Landre, L’Ecole des Marraines; Colette Yver, Mirabelle de Pampelune (and other stories), Les Cousins Riches (the Americans); Marcel Boulenger, Charlotte en guerre. Some humor- ous stories: De la Foucardiére, Scipion Pégou- lade (a sort of Tartarin de Tarascon); M. Prévost, Mon cher Tommy; Boissiére, L’Eatrav- agant Teddy de la Croix Rouge anglaise ; Deko- bra, Sammy, Volontaire Américain; Valmy- Baisse, Le Retour @Ulysse. Short stories were published in fabulous number: Contes véridiques des Tranchées, by 510 FRENCH LITERATURE many “poilus”; Bazin, Bordeaux, Farrére, Mille, ete., ete. The theatre of the war period is not extreme- ly important. At first, old plays exalting de- votion to the mother-country provided what was needed: Corneille’s Horace, Sophocles’s Gidipe roi, Bornier’s Fille de Roland, Sardou’s Patrie, Kistemaeker’s Flambée, Lavedan’s Ser- vir. Then early in 1915 new plays began to appear: Fronson’s Kommandantur, depicting the invasion of Belgium (Fronson is a _ Bel- gian); Donnay’s charming Impromptu du Pa- quetage; Claudel’s Nuit de Noél; E. Morand’s Les Cathédrales, spectacular mourning over es- pecially Rheims and Strasbourg. In 1916, Ba- taille gave an unpleasant description of the ef- fect of war on women in L’Amazone; while’ Hennique and Veber offered a cheerful two-act vaudeville Le Poilu. In 1917 came Bernstein’s Elévation, hailed by many even down to 1924 as the best war play produced; Porto-Riche gave his realistic Marchand dEstampe; F. Porché, his ingenious and very successful alle- gorical Les Butors et la Finette; Farrére and Népoty offered La Veillée des Armes. In 1918, there were two good plays again: Kistemaeker, Un Soir au front, and Maeterlinck, Bourgeois de Stilemonde (which was first represented in America). In 1920, the exquisite Maison de Diew by Fleg; the opportune (or inopportune) Les Américains, by Brieux; and the two plays —hboth painful for different reasons—Donnay, Chasse @ Vhomme, and Méré’s Les Captives. In 1922, F. de Curel scored with Terre Inhu- maine. In the domain of poetry again relatively few collections can be recorded as absolutely above par. It would not be right to leave unnoticed Botrel’s Chants de Rosalie (“Rosalie” was the bayonet), Chants du Bivouac, Chants de Route ; he was called the “bard” of the trenches. Then: Claudel, Trois Poémes de Guerre. In 1916, Bataille, La Divine Tragédie; Zamacois L’Inéffacable; Paul Fort, Poémes de France; and especially Verhaeren, Les Ailes Rouges de la Guerre. In 1917 the exquisite Couronne douloureuse, by H. Ghéon; and two of the most popular productions—rightly so—L. Mercier, Priéres de la Tranchée, and the instantly fa- mous jewel La Passion de notre Frére le Porlu. Champsaur’s L’Assassin Innombrable is quite extraordinary; and even more so is, in 1918, Apollinaire’s Calligrammes, Poemes de Paix et de Guerre. The same year came out the very striking poems, Nous ...de la Guerre, by Henry-Jacques; and Mme. Delarue Madrus, Souffles de Tempéte. In 1919, Rostand’s Vol de la Marseillaise; and J. Suberville’s strong Fifre de Bernadouw, and Fosse aux Lions. In 1921, F. Porehé republished with other poems his L’Arrét sur la Marne (in the collection Commandements du Destin), and Suberville, Le Soldat Inconnu, which won for the author the Grand Prix de Poésie. In 1922, Henry- Jacques had another collection of his original poems Symphonie Héroique. See the anthology of the war poets, Prévost and Dornier, Le Vivre épique. Yor bibliography on the literature of the War, see: Baldensperger, Avant-guerre dans la Inttérature; Jean Vic, La Littérature de la Guerre; Albert Schinz, French Literature of the Great War (New York, N. Y.). For mili- tary slang, the best book is Esnault, Le Poilu then collections by Arnoux, Gus-Bofa, Frapié, FRENCH LITERATURE tel quon le Parle. Bearing on the question of language in post-war Europe, see Meillet, Langues de VEurope nouvelle (1918). Post-War Period. Just as the war litera- ture did not stop on Nov. 11, 1918, so did the post-war literature not begin at this date ex- actly; as early as 1917 there is a distinct tend- ency on the part of some writers to ignore the monstrous accident of the war. Poetry. Some volumes from 1917 to the end of 1923 which cannot be passed without mention, if it were only on account of the fame of the authors, are: Rostand, Cantique de VAigle (posthumous) ; Gérard Rosemonde (Ma- dame Rostand), Pipeawx (crowned by the French Academy); H. de Régnier, Vestigia Flamme; Comtesse de Noailles, Forces Eter- nelles; Claudel, Messe de La-Bas; Fr. Jammes, La Vierge et les Sonnets; Paul Fort, Ballades Francaises (continuation); Jules Romains, Europe, and Puissances de Paris. Among the best known of the poets of the new generations are Paul Vallery, Binerviclle. To get an idea of the extra-modern poetry, see Paul Morand, Lampes @ Arc; and the cubists and dadaists, Blaise Cendras, Du Monde entier; A. Salmon, Prikaz; Cocteau, Poésies. Drama. In the theatre we witness at first an attempt to go back to pre-war subjects: Claudel is continuing the series of Annonce faite d@ Marie, and L’Otage, by Le pain dur; Bataille gives Scur d’Amour; Zamacois, César- in, Ecrivain Public; Saint-George Bouhélier, Vie @une Femme. In 1920, pre-war standards still obtain with Curel, L’Ame en Folie; Bern- stein, L’Animateur; Saint George Bouhélier, Esclaves; DuBois, L’Hérodienne. But attempts at renewal are made successfully by M. Magre, La Mort Enchainée; Pierre Frondaie, L’Appas- sionata; Lenormand, Les Ratés; perhaps Vild- rac, Paquebot Tenacity; Cocteau scores with a disconcerting farce, Boeuf sur le toit. In 1921-23, the hold of the younger genera- tion asserts itself. Besides Brieux (L’Avocat, L’Enfant), Curel (Comédie du génie), Bataille (Chair Humaine), Bernstein (Judith), and the three revivers of Don Juan, Rostand (posthu- mous), Bataille, and H. de Régnier, there are those who belong to what may be called an in- termediate generation, like P. Fort (Louis XJ, Homme Curieux), Géraldy (Aimer), Porché (Dauphine and Chevalier de Colomb), Ghéon (Pauvre sous VHEscalier). The younger group claims attention aggressively: Lenormand (Man- geurs de Réves); Simoun (Dent rouge); Nat- anson (Hnfant Truqué, Amants Saugrenus) ; Pierre Frondaie (L’Insoumise, Le Reflet); J. J. Bernard (Feu qui Prend Mal); Sarment (Mar- adage de Hamlet, Pécheurs Wombres); Crome- lynk (Cocu Magnifique); Cocteau (Mariés sur la Tour Hiffel); Régis et Veynes (Bastos le Hardy). The most famous theatres open to the young authors in 1924 were: L’Cuvre, Le Vieux Colombier, L’Atelier, La Chimére, La Flamme, with such men as directors as Lugne Poé, Copeau, Dullin, Pitoeff, Baty. The Novel. Reaching the chapter of the novel since the War, we face such a deluge of works of interest that nothing can be done with- in the space allotted us except to group the va- rious tendencies, give the names of the most im- portant writers in each group and refer for all details to the New International Year Books, 1914-24 (and perhaps to the article “Le Kko- man Francais depuis la Guerre,” by Albert 511 FRENCH LITERATURE Schinz, in Modern Language Journal, 1923). Authors representing the great classical lit- erary style, and aiming to create works of last- ing beauty: Ch. Géniaux, Estaunié, A. de Chateaubriant (Grand Prix du Roman in 1923, for La Briére). Catholics: Bourget, H. Bor- deaux, Ardel, Bauman, Mauriac, Renaitour. Novelists dealing with the world beyond: Mar- celle Tinayre (Priscille Séverac), H. Bordeaux (Fantéme de la Rue Michel-Ange), Pérochon (Les Ombres). Provincial and regional novel- ists: Bazin, Pérochon (Néne, Prix Goncourt, 1920), J. de Pesquidoux, Bordeu, H. Pourrat, R. Escholier (Cantegril), J. des Gachons, and the most famous of them all, L. Hémon, author of the Canadian novel, Maria Chapdelaine. Psychologists: André Gide, J. Romains, Mar- cel Proust (Prix Goncourt, 1919), who had a tremendous following which, however, was al- ready subsiding when he died in 1922; Char- donne (L’Epithalame); Lavedan, Martin Du Gard (Les Thibaut); Benda, Riviére; Lucien Fabre (Rabevel, Prix Goncourt, 1923). Novel- ists of deep gloom and sentimentality: Ar- noux, Jaloux, Chéreau, Josepivici, t’Serstevens; and three women, André Corthis (Grand Prix du Roman, 1921, for Pour Moi Seule), Machard, Vioux. Pictures of moral disequilibrium in consequence chiefly of the War: Marcel Pré- vost (Don Juanes), Rosny, Margueritte, Mme. Colette. Novelists depicting the life of char- acters outside regular society: Careo (Grand Prix du Roman, in 1922, for L’Homme traqué), Mac Orlan, Cl. Anet, Berger, Kessel. The “In- différents” to use the name chosen by one of them, i.e. who take the attitude of interested and amused, sometimes cynical, observers of our present nerve-wrecked world: H. de Rég- nier, Fr. de Miomandre, Giraudoux, Paul Mo- rand (most before the public eye in 1924 for his two collections of stories Ouvert la nuit and Fermé la nuit). Young Cocteau belongs either here, or to a group of extreme modernists, some of whom had adopted the flag of Dadaism, like Aragon, Ph. Soupault, Delteil. Humorists would be: Duvernois, H. Béraud (Prix Gon- court for Le Martyre de VObése, 1922), Bil- lotey. The great king of the roman d’aventure is Pierre Benoit, author of L’Atlantide; Rou- quette, Exotism: Loti, Farrére, Rhais, and later Barrés (Jardin sur lVOronte); Bordeaux (Yamilé sous les Cédres). A very special place belongs to the Brothers Tharaud with their re- markable knowledge of the Near Eastern, large- ly Semitic, countries (A VOmbre de la Croix is their masterpiece). Historical Novels: Louis Bertrand, Tan- créde, Martel; H. Béraul (Vitriole de Lune crowned by the Goncourt in 1922). Pre-histor- ical novels: Rosny, Forbin, Jean d’Esme. Other Literary Genres. The most impor- tant during the period under consideration was that of personal recollections arranged with a special purpose, and at times with poet- ical evocations of the past, like A. France’s Petit Pierre, Loti’s Prime Jeunesse, Jammes, A. Gide, Willy; or many diaries of young au- thors who wrote about their years of forma- tion so as to present a picture of their whole generation, or classes at least of their genera- May, tion. The following claimed attention most: Oudart (Ma Jeunesse); L. Werth (Dia-neuf Ans); Cazin (Décadi); A. Obey, Chadourne (Inquiéte Adolescence); Benj. Crémieux (Pre- FRENCH LITERATURE 512 mier de la Classe); Gilbert des Voisins (L’Hn- fant prit Peur); and the sad Diable aw corps, —written by Radiguet when he was 17 (it is said). He died in 1924. Another genre is the literary biography, brilliantly represented by A. Maurois’s Ariel, Vie de Shelley, and by H. Bordeaux, Amours du_ passé. Accounts of travel have been raised to the level of art in Chadourne’s Pot au Noir. Again we must men- tion the Brothers Tharaud with their remark- able descriptions of the Near-Eastern nations of Europe. Then Pierre Hamp continues his series of beautiful books on French trades and industries. The (so far two) series of the famous barrister Me. Henri-Robert, Les Grands Procés de lHistoire, have been much read. History of Literature and Literary Events. As the year 1924 opened, the first volume of Bédier and Hazard, Histoire de la Littérature Frangaise illustrée came from the press—in ev- ery way a remarkable achievement. Simulta- neously an illustrated edition of Lanson’s well known History of French Literature was pub- lished serially. Most worthy of mention are al- so the volumes XII and XIII of Hanotaux’s Histoire de la Nation Frangaise, in 15 volumes (they are called Histoire des Lettres). Vol. XII, Des Origines a@ Ronsard, is by Picavet, Jeanroy, and Bédier; Vol. XIII, De Ronsard ad nos Jours, is by F. Strowski. In America, Nitze and Dargan, of the University of Chicago, published an English History of French Litera- ture. For modern times there was Le Goffic, La Littérature Francaise au XIX* et aw XX°* Siécle. A very valuable serial publication con- cerning contemporary writers is Vingt-Cing Ans de Littérature Frangaise, de 1895 a@ 1920, under the direction of E. Monfort. Not quite satisfactory is Lalou’s little book on Histoire de la littérature Francaise Contemporaine, de 1870 ad nos jours. Mostly an accumulation of names and titles is found in F. Parmentier, Littérature Frangaise de 1885 a nos jours; in America, French Literature of the Last Half Century, by Cunliffe and de Bacourt. Pierre Vaillant and H. Rambaud’s Enquéte sur les Maitres de la Jeune Littérature (Bourget, Bar- rés, Maurras, 1923), has been mentioned al- ready as having failed to inquire from all quar- ters, which impeaches their findings. A work on a great scale which led the author to the Academy even before the completion is Abbé H. Brémond’s Histoire du Sentiment Religieux dans la Littérature depuis le XVII° Siécle. Other important works that space allows us to mention are: Thieme, of the University of Michigan, Essai sur UHistoire du Vers Fran- cais; P. Champion, Hist. de la Poésie au XV® et au XV°* Siécle; Nolhac, Ronsard et VHu- manisme; Ducros, Rousseau (3 vols.) ; Pierre Kohler, Madame de Staél; Vincent, Georges Sand (4 vols.) ; Arbelet, Stendhal (2 vols., in connection with the new edition of Stendhal’s works); J. Larat, Tradition et Exotisme dans UVGuvre de Nodier; H. Girard, Emile Des- champs (2 -ols.); Estéve, Leconte de L’Isle; Ibrovaec, José-Maria de Hérédia; Antoine, Sou- venirs du Théatre Libre. New valuable edi- tions which render the study of great French authors more and more profitable are: Villon, Ronsard, Montaigne, Paseal, Stendhal, Lamar- tine (Lanson, Méditations), Hugo (Béré, Lé- gende des Siécles, Vianey, Contemplations). As to language: another volume by Brunot FRENCH WEST AFRICA came out, Le Frangais en France et hors de France au XVII*° Siécle (Brunot has also made an attempt at reviving interest in the teaching of grammar in a large volume La Pensée et la Langue), and there was Bonaffé, Anglicismes et Américanismes dans la Langue Francaise. A time has never been in France without lit- erary quarrels of some sort. During the War there was the Barbusse episode, many maintain- ing that the book had been dishonestly used for pacifist propaganda; in 1919, Pierre Louys startled the world in ascribing to Corneille some of the best of Moliére’s plays; in 1920, the accusation was brought against P. Benoit that he had plagiarized Sir Rider Haggard’s She, for his Atlantide; the same year the epi- sode of Dadaism came to a climax in the ar- tistic and literary world; in 1922, it was the shock of Margueritte’s Gargonne; in 1922-23, the “querelle des manuels littéraires” (well sum- marized in Chronique des Lettres Francaises, January, 1923). Among the innumerable literary prizes, some are of real importance. Let us recall a very few: Grand Prix de Littérature went to Mme. Gérard d’Houville (1918), the Brothers Tha- raud (1919), E. Jaloux (1920), Mme. de No- ailles (1921), P. Lasserre (1922), F. Porché (1923). The Grand Prix du Roman went to Camille Mayran (1918), Ch. Géniaux (1919), André Corthis (1920), Villetard (1921), F. Careco (1922), A. de Chateaubriant (1923). The Prix Goncourt went to: Benjamin (1915), A. Bertrand and Barbusse (1914 and 1916), Malherbe (1917), Duhamel (1918), Proust (1919), Pérochon (1920), R. Maran (1921), Béraud (1922), L. Fabre (1923). The Prix de la Vie Heureuse, or Prix Femina went to: Dorgelés (1918), (1919), E. Goyon, a_ poet (1920), Escholier (1921), Lacretelle (1922), Jeanne Galzy (1923). Many jubilees were celebrated; with peculiar splendor those of Moliére, Pasteur (not only a man of science but also a member of the French Academy), Renan and Pascal. Many deaths occurred in the decade: in 1914, Le- maitre, Masson-Forestier, Mistral, L. Séché, Ch. Péguy; 1915, Hervieu, R. de Gourmont, Stuart Merril, J. H. Fabre (the entomologist), Lafon, Paul Acker, Rob. d’Humiéres; 1916, Faguet, de Ségur, de Vogiié, Verhaeren, Clermont; 1917, A. Bertrand; 1918, G. Ohnet, Rostand, Péladan, Guill. Apollinaire; 1919, Tailhade, Ch. Morice; 1920, P. Adam, Lintilhac; 1921, Montesquiou; 1922, Bataille, Boutroux, Capus, Lavisse; 1923, Aieard, Loti, Barrés. FRENCH SOMALI COAST. See Somatrr- LAND. FRENCH WEST AFRICA. A. single administrative unit of the French colonial em- pire since Jan. 1, 1921, comprising the follow- ing colonies: Senegal, area 74,112 square miles, population in 1921, 1,225,523 (4321 non- African); Guinea, 95,218 square miles, popu- lation, 1,875,996 (1357 non-African); Ivory Coast, 121,976 square miles, population, 1,545,- 680 (835 non-African) ; Dahomey, 42,460 square miles, population, 261,746 (214 non-African) ; French Sudan, 617,600 square miles, popula- tion, 2,474,589 (983 non-African) ; Upper Volta, 154,400 square miles, population, 2,974,142 (191 non-African) ; Mauretania, 347,400 square miles, population, 261,746 (214 non-African) ; Niger Territory, 347,400 square miles, popula- a oe ——————— er eee, hm eee FREUD tion, 1,084,043 (216 non-African). Total, 1,- 800,566 square miles, with a population of 12,- 283,962, of whom 6829 were French and 1826 other non-Africans. Dakar, the seat of the administration and the leading port, had 32,440 inhabitants in 1921, of whom 2331 were French. Other towns were: Saint Louis, 18,117 (620 French) ; Rufisque, 11,307 (168 French); Bam- ako, 14,496; Kayes, 11,322; Conakry, 8850. Forest and agricultural products were of great- est economic importance. In Senegal, the Su- dan, and Guinea the groundnut was of leading importance. In 1920, from Senegal alone 286,- 777 tons were exported. Cotton culture, worked by natives, figured largely in Senegal, the Su- dan, Dahomey, and the Ivory Coast. The total production in 1918 was 854,000 kilos. Other important activities, as reflected in the foreign trade, were palm kernels, palm oil, logs, gum arabic, hides and skins, and caoutchouc. Agri- cultural experiments indicated that the follow- ing were possible of development: cacao and coffee in Dahomey and the Ivory Coast, tobac- co, vegetables, etc. Gold and salt were worked in paying quantities. Exports for the whole government in 1920 and 1921 were 588,694,000 francs and 259,764,000 francs, as compared with 118,567,000 franes in 1912. Imports for the years 1912, 1920, 1921, were 134,782,000 francs, 653,910,700 franes and 372,497,000 francs. In 1920, 8629 vessels of 5,109,573 tons entered the ports of French West Africa, while 8462 ves- sels of 5,080,965 tons cleared. This compares with the 2431 vessels of 4,172,000 tons which entered in 1911. Communications were facili- tated by the navigability of the Senegal] and the Niger Rivers. In 1920, 2658 kilometers of railway were in operation. The principal sys- tems included: Dakar-Saint Louis (263 kilo- meters), Thiés-Kayes (444 kilometers), Kayes- Niger (555 kilometers), Guinea railways (662 kilometers), Ivory Coast railways (316 kilo- meters), Dahomey railways (375 kilometers). Besides, roads fit for motor traffic totaled 5400 kilometers. Kilometers of telegraph lines in 1922 were 23,278. The general budget for the whole administration was, for 1923, 72,142,000 francs, as compared with 56,250,000 franes in 1911. In 1922, the local budgets for the sep- arate colonies totaled 172,500,000 frances. At Dakar, the governor-general, assisted by a council of native chiefs, administered the af- tairs of the whole government. Lieutenant- governors were in charge of the individual colonies. FREUD, Siecmunp (1856- ). An Aus- trian physician (see Vor. IX) and originator of the psycho-analytic method for the treatment of neuroses. The international reputation of Freud increased after the War, and his works obtained a vogue even in such countries as France, where psycho-analysis had been pre- viously regarded as too extravagant in its claims. The pathological cases in the armies during the War put Freud’s theories to some- thing like an empirical test, and it was _ rec- ognized by Freud’s own disciples that sex was not the controlling factor. Freud himself in his writings after 1914 tended to make less use of the principle of sexual symbolism and relied more on the direct intuitions afforded by the psychological situations. The conception of the libido continued to play an important rdéle but without complete identification with con- crete sex experience. See CONSCIOUSNESS AND 513 FRIES THE UNCONSCIOUS; AXSTHETICS; PSYCHOL- oGy, ABNORMAL, AND PsYCHOANALYSIS; PER- CEPTION. Freud’s works after 1914 include Totem and Taboo (1915); Wit and Its Relation to the Un- conscious (1916); Leonardo da Vinci (1916); Delusion and Dream (1917); The History of the Psycho-analytic Movement (1917); Reflec- tions upon War and Death (1918) ; Massenpsy- chologie und Ichanalyse (1921; English trans- lation, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 1922), and General Introduction to Psycho-analysis (1921). FREY, Emit (1838-1922). A Swiss states- man and former president of the Swiss Con- federation (see VoL. IX), who died near Basel, Switzerland, in 1922. After the War he was one of the technical experts attached to the Swiss delegation at the Genoa Conference. FRIDAY, Davi (1876- ). An Ameri- can economist and educator, born at Coloma, Mich. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1908, and was a member of the fac- ulty of that university from 1908 to 1916, when he was appointed professor of economics at New York University. In 1918 he was head of the department. From 1919 he was professor of political economy at the University of Mich- igan. He served as statistician and expert to many important commissions, and was also ad- viser to several governmental departments and boards. He was a member of several learned societies and was the author of Problems in Accounting, 1915; Readings in Economics, 1915; Profits, Wages and Prices, 1920. FRIENDS, ReEwLicious Society or. The Friends, commonly known as Quakers, are com- posed of four branches: the Society of Friends (Orthodox), Society of Friends (Hicksite), Or- thodox Conservative Friends (Wilburite) and Friends (Primitive). The Orthodox branch, which is by far the largest, decreased from 98,- 356 members in 1914 to 85,612 according to fig- ures supplied in 1923, and the number of meet- ing houses from 775 to 714, and the number of ministers from 1315 to 1252. During the war the Friends, whose tradition is for non-resis- tance, were very active in relief work in France, Germany, Holland, Poland and Russia. In 1919 the denomination had 650 relief work- ers in France, about half of them being Amer- ican, and half British. They conducted eight general hospitals, one maternity hospital, two convalescent hospitals, a tuberculosis hospital and tuberculosis village, a home for old women and several children’s homes. The maternity hospital after the War was presented to the French government. The society also took en- tire charge of the reconstruction work between Verdun and the Argonne Forest. In 1919 and 1920 there were 15 workers in Serbia and 90 doctors and nurses fighting the typhus in Po- land. After January, 1920, the Society took complete charge of the relief work in Germany. Altogether under their auspices over’ 5,000,000 received one warm meal a day for a greater or less length of time. Relief work was also maintained on an extensive scale in Poland and in Russia. FRIES, ARcHIBALD (1864- ). An Ameri- can railway official, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was educated in the public schools of that city and began his railroad employ in a clerical capacity with the Ohio and Mississippi Rail- road. For several years he was employed in FRIESEKE various important capacities by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and served as general traffic manager of the Eastern Lines, 1916-18. His jurisdiction was extended over the entire sys- tem. During the War he served as traffic man- ager to the Railroad Administration. FRIESEKE, FReperick Cari (1874- F An American painter (see Vor. IX). Among other recognitions received by him during the period, were a grand prize at the Panama-Pa- cific Exposition, in 1915, also the Palmer Gold Medal, Art Institute of Chicago, in 1920; and a gold medal, Philadelphia Art Club, in 1922. In his later works, among them “The Blue Gown,” “Golden Locket,’ ‘Lady in Rose,’ he was still decidedly the impressionist chiefly in- terested in representing female figures and the nude. FRISCHEISEN-KOHLER, Max (1878- ). A professor of philosophy and _ peda- gogy. His works include Probleme des Hwig- en Friedens (1915), Grenzen der Eaxperiment- alen Methode (1918), and Simmel (1919); he edited Ueberweg’s History of Philosophy and translated Shaftesbury and Hobbes. FRITCH, Louis CHARLTON (1869- ti. An American engineer, born in Springfield, Ill. He took an engineering course at the Univer- sity of Cincinnati and was division engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in that city until 1899, when he became superintendent. He acted successively as assistant to the gen- eral manager, assistant to the president, and consulting engineer for the Illinois Central Railroad until 1909, when he became chief engi- neer of the Chicago Great Western Railroad. From 1914 to 1917 he was general manager for the Canadian Northern Railway and was gen- eral manager for the S. A. L. Railway, Nor- folk, Va., and vice-president of the C. R. I. & P. R. R. from 1918. He was president also of the R. I. and Oklahoma Railway Company and was president of several important corporations. FROST, Roperr (1875— ). An Ameri- can poet born in San Francisco and educated at Dartmouth and Harvard. After teaching English in the Pinkerton Academy (Derry, N. H.) and teaching psychology (1911-12) at the New Hampshire Normal School, he went to England and published there his first two vol- umes of prose. On his return to America he did some active farming at Derry, Conn., and culled therefrom a knowledge of rural life in New England, as was illustrated in his North of Boston (1914), which immediately placed him in the front rank of contemporary Ameri- can poets. In most cases his pictures of Yankee shyness prove an intimate understand- ing and love of his neighbors which could come only through close contact. And in his hands the folk speech of these people possesses a beau- tiful and melancholy dignity. In 1916-20, he was professor of English at Amherst College; then was poet in residence at the University of Michigan; and in 1923 returned to the faculty of Amherst. He has also written A Boy’s Will (1913), Mountain Interval (1916), New Hamp- shire (1923), and many poems for the maga- zines. FROTHINGHAM, PAUL REVERE (1864- ). An American clergyman, born at Jamaica Plain, Mass., and educated at Har- vard University. After preaching for some years at New Bedford, Mass., he became min- ister of the Arlington Street (Unitarian) 514 FURMAN Church in Boston in 1900. He was preacher to Harvard University at various periods between 1899 and 1921. He is the author of William Ellery Channing; His Messages from the Spirit (1907); A Confusion of Tongues (1917); We Believe (1917); and Our Debt to Great Britain (1919). FRUIT. See HORTICULTURE. FRYATT, CHARLES (1872-1916). A _ Brit- ish sea-captain, born near Harwich, Essex. In 1904 he became chief officer in the service of vessels of the Great Eastern Railway Company. During the first two years of the War he cap- tained the Brussels between Harwich and Rot- terdam. In July of 1916 word was received in England that Captain Fryatt’s ship had been captured by the Germans and that he had been arrested and was to be tried by court martial on a charge of having attempted to ram a Ger- man submarine. Almost immediately after the execution had been carried out at Bruges on July 28, 1916, an order was received from Ber- lin to postpone sentence. Great indignation was felt by the British, who considered this another act of treacherous murder on the part of the Germans. FUAD I (AHMED FUAD PASHA) (1868 King of Egypt, son of the late Khedive Ismail Pasha. He became Sultan on Oct. 9, 1917, and after the termination of the British Protector- ate over Egypt in February, 1922, he was pro- claimed king (March 16). King Fuad is the eighth ruler of the dynasty of Muhammad Ali, who made himself absolute ruler of Egypt by force of arms in 1805. FUCHS, Emin (1866- ). An Austrian sculptor, painter and medallist. He was born in Vienna and studied under Tilgner and later in the academies of Vienna and Berlin. In 1890 he won a traveling scholarship and spent five years in Rome. In 1896 he won the gold medal at Munich with the group “Mother Love.” He then went to London, where he executed a series of important commissions for the royal family, portraits, sculptures, and medals, and became very popular. In the United States he designed medals for the Hudson-Fulton Celebration and Hispanic and Numismatic Societies and the J. Pierpont Morgan Memorial Medal, and painted a number of portraits of distinguished men and of society women. His work is pleasing rather than powerful. An important exhibition of his works was held in New York in 1921. FUERTES, Louis Agassiz (1874— ) An American illustrator and mural painter (see VoL. IX). In his specialized field, bird and animal life, he illustrated several series for the National Geographic Magazine, 1914-19, Burgess’s Bird Book for Children (1917), and Burgess’s Animal Book for Children (1920); and executed paintings for the New York Zo- ological Society. FULLERTON, Georce Stuart (1859- ) An American professor of philosophy (see VoL. IX). His works after 1914 include Germany of To-day, a defense (1915), and a Handbook of Ethical Theory (1922). FUNCTIONALISM. See BEHAVIORISM. FUNDAMENTALISM. See ReEticious Con- TROVERSIES. FURMAN, FRANKLIN DERONDE (1870- . An American engineer and educator, born in Ridgely, Md. He graduated from the Stevens Institute of Technology in 1893, and from the same year was professor of mechanism and ma- — FURNESS 515 chine design at that institution. He was a member of several engineering societies and wrote History of the Stevens Family of HEngi- neers; History of Stevens Institute of Tech- nology; Questions and Problems in Machine De- sign; Questions in Hngimeering Drawing. He also contributed articles to magazines. FURNESS, CAROLINE ELLEN (1869- js An American astronomer and educator, born in Cleveland, Ohio. She graduated from Vassar College in 1891 and took postgraduate courses at Columbia. She became a member of the fac- ulty of Vassar College and from 1915 was Maria Mitchell Professor. She performed re- search work at the Yerkes Observatory and in Europe, and was a member of several scientific and other societies. She was the author of sev- eral star catalogues and Introduction to the Study of Variable Stars (1915). She also con- tributed articles to American and European journals. FURNISS, Harry (1854— ). A British earicaturist, artist, author and lecturer (see Vout. IX). Among his later works were Our Lady Cinema (1914); More about How to Draw in Pen and Ink (1915); Deceit (1917); Stig- gins (1920). He has been characterized as vig- orous, versatile, brilliant in draftsmanship, fac- ile in execution. During this period he also gave numerous humorous lectures throughout England, and wrote many scenarios. FURSE, DAME KATHARINE (1875- ). An English woman, born at Bristol, the daugh- ter of John Addington Symonds. In 1914 she founded and directed the Voluntary Aid De- tachment, a department under the Red Cross in France. She was director of the Women’s Roy- al Naval Service, 1917-19. In recognition of her admirable work, she received the Order of the Royal Red Cross (1916) and the Order of the British Empire (1917). FURTH, HENRIETTE (1861- ). Identified with child welfare work at Frankfort. She was a student of labor problems, especially those connected with factory work of women FYFE and with sex reforms. She is the author of Die Frauen im Kriege (1917) and Zur Sozial- isirung der Oeffentlichen Wolfahrtspflege (1920). FURTWANGLER, WitHEtM (1886- 7; A noted German orchestral conductor, born in Berlin. Having completed his studies in Mun- ich under Beer-Walbrunn, Rheinberger and Schillings, he began his career in Zurich. From 1911 to 1914 he was principal conductor at the Opera in Liibeck, directing also the con- certs of the Verein der Musikfreunde. In 1915 he succeeded Bodanzky in Mannheim, where he remained four years and established a reputa- tion which brought him invitations for guest- appearances with the foremost German and Austrian orchestras. He was regular condue- tor of the Vienna Tonkiinstlerorchester (1919- 20) and of the symphony concerts of the Ber- lin Staatsoper (1920-22), succeeding Richard Strauss. In 1922 he was chosen Nikisch’s suc- cessor as conductor of the famous Gewandhaus concerts in Leipzig and of the Philaharmo- nische Gesellschaft in Berlin. In 1923 he aroused great enthusiasm in London. FUTURISM. See PaInTING, SCULPTURE, AND Music. FYFE, H. HAMILTON (1869 ). An Eng- lish author and journalist, born in London and educated at Fettes College in Edinburgh. His career in journalism started as a reporter in 1889, and after approximately 13 years of hold- ing various positions as reviewer, dramatic crit- ic, ete., he edited the Morning Advertiser (1902- 03), subsequently becoming dramatic critic for The World (1905-10), eorrespondent of the Daily Mail (1907-18), lecturer in Spain and Portugal (1917), attaché in the British War Mission to the United States (1917), ete. He has published many books and plays, which in- clude The Real Mexico (1914); The Meaning of the World Revolution (1919); The King- dom, the Power, and the Glory: A Morality (1920); The Widow’s Cruse (1920); The Mak- ing of an Optimist (1921), and The Fruit of the Tree (1921). SG: ABRILOVITCH, Ossie (1878- ). A Russian pianist (see VOL. IX). Besides being recognized as one of the greatest pianists of his day, he won fame as an orchestral conductor. From 1910 to 1914 he was conductor of the Konzertverein in Munich, but he did not abandon his career as a pianist During 1912-13 he won veritable triumphs in several European capitals with his series of six historical concerts illustrating the development of the piano-concerto from Bach to Rachmaninov. After the outbreak of the War he came to the United States, giving the same cycle and arous- ing the same enthusiasm. In 1918 he became conductor of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, which under him won a place among the premier orchestras of the country. GAILOR, Tuomas FRANK (1856- ys An American Protestant Episcopal bishop (see VoL. IX). He became chairman of the House of Bishons of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1916, and president of the Presiding Bishop and Council in 1919. He has received honor- ary degrees from Oxford (1920) and Oglethorpe University (1921). GALE, Zona (1874— ). An «american writer (see Vor. IX). She wrote Neighbor- hood Stories (1914); Heart’s Kindred (1915); A Daughter of To-Morrow (1917); Birth (1918); Peace in Friendship Village (1919) ; The Secret Way (1921); The Neighbors, a one- act play; and Miss Lulu Bett, the dramatic version of which received the Pulitzer Prize of $1000 as the best play of the year produced in New York (1920). Mister Pitt, a dramatized peplon of Birth, was produced in New York in 924, GALICIA, East. In the determination of the southeastern boundary of Poland, and in particular the disposition of the former Aus- trian province of Galicia, the Peace Conference was confronted by one of its most vexing prob- lems. In fact it was not until March, 1923, that the matter could be considered as settled, and then only after a fashion. The question of West Galicia roused little controversy; the dis- trict was solidly Polish, and’the Supreme Coun- cil, in assigning it to Poland by the “Certain Frontiers” Treaty of Aug. 10, 1920, was clear- ly recognizing Polish historical and ethnical rights. But the eastern two-thirds of the prov- ince raised other questions. In East Galicia the majority of the inhabitants were Rutheni- ans, i.e. Ukrainians; the 1910 census showed a population made up of 59 per cent of Ruthenians, 27 per cent Poles, and 13 per cent Jews. Be- sides the question of race, religious and cultur- al antipathies existed. The Poles are Roman Catholic; the Ruthenians, Greek Orthodox Uni- ate. From 1867 on, when Galicia became a single province, the Poles were the leading force in Galician affairs, for they lived in the towns and headed the professions and the trades, while 91 per cent of the Ruthenians were de- pendent on agriculture. In fact, by 1910, 62 per cent of the Ruthenians were illiterate, against only 23 per cent of the Poles. In spite of these differences the two groups lived fairly amicably side by side until 1880, when a Ukrainian movement, aided to some extent by Austria, appeared among the Ruthenians and roused fanatical nationalistic animosities. Part of this movement sought the creation of an in- dependent Ukrainia, another part union with the people of the Russian Ukraine in Russia, Ruthenian interest centred in the question of race, while the Poles, in addition to their cul- tural and commercial dominance, sought East Galicia for military and economic reasons. They stressed the necessity for a common fron- tier with Rumania and a united front against Soviet Russia; a junction with Rumania would mean Polish control of the headwaters of the Dniester and thus facilitate Polish trade in the Black Sea area; Poles pointed out that they needed the great oil fields of Galicia for the economic well-being of their new state. With the collapse of Austria, the so-called Re- public of the West Ukraine was set up and an attempt was made to incorporate the whole of East Galicia in a Ukrainian state. The Poles naturally objected and bitter fighting between irregular troops went on until May, 1919, with the important city of Lemberg as the chief point of contention. In May large Polish con- tingents appeared in the country; by June the Ruthenian resistance had broken down, and Po- land was in possession of the whole as far east as the Zbrucz. The Peace Conference had up to this time tried valiantly to cope with the problem. Undoubtedly, as the British con- tended, the Ruthenians were entitled to some sort of self-determination, and it was manifest- ly unfair to cede the territory to Poland out- right. No group, however, seemed willingly to consider a transfer of East Galicia east of the Lemberg-Drohobyez line to Russia. But the Poles presented the delegations with a fait ac- compli, and it was no doubt with relief that on June 19 the Poles were authorized to con- tinue their military occupation of the whole country. Plain justice, nevertheless, demanded a consideration of Ruthenian claims, and to the end of 1919 the Supreme Council concerned it- self with plans for the guarantee of Ruthenian autonomy. But the French succeeded in block- ing all these attempts, so that up to 1923 the province remained legally, according to the Treaty of St. Germain, in the hands of the Al- lies, while the Poles maintained their de facto possession. Undoubtedly the just disposition of the province had presented almost insuper- | able obstacles; the League of Nations could not handle the task in 1919, for it was not yet func- tioning, while none of the European powers was in a position to take up the onerous duty of protection and srdministration in a_ region where hatreds were so implacable. Something might have been done, commentators agreed, nonetheless, to safeguard the interests of the Ruthenians. As things were, 4,500,000 Ruth- enians were under the domination of a Polish minority, with no provision for the protection of their liberties or the ascertainment of their wishes. On Mar. 14, 1923, the capstone was 516 GALLAGHER placed on the situation when the Council of Ambassadors, in definitively laying down the boundaries of Poland, assigned East Galicia to Poland. It was evident that the seeds of a new irredentism had been planted to trouble ultimately the peace of Europe. See PoLAnn, History; War IN Europe, Fastern I’ront. GALLAGHER, MicHarxt JAMES (1866-— ye A Roman Catholic bishop, born at Auburn, Mich., and educated at Mungret College, Lim- erick, Ireland, and at the University of Inns- bruck, Austria. He was ordained priest in 1893, and after filling several pastorates and holding various offices he became bishop of Grand Rapids in 1916. In 1918 he was trans- ferred to Detroit. GALLI-CURCI, Ametitra (1889- lace brilliant Italian coloratura soprano, born at Milan. Among the world’s great singers, pres- ent or past, her case is without parallel as the only example of an artist achieving distinction without technical training under a_ teacher. While studying at the Conservatory in Milan she devoted herself exclusively to the piano, un- der Appiani, with the ambition of becoming a pianist, and with such success that in 1903 she won the first prize. Later, on discovering that she was gifted with a fine natural voice, she began a unique system of self-instruction. She had records made of her voice, and these she studied carefully, her exceptionally keen ear enabling her to discover and remedy imperfec- tions. However, she acknowledged her indebt- edness to Mascagni and William Thorner for advice. In 1909 she made her début as Gilda in Rigoletto at the Teatro Costanzi, in Rome, winning instantaneous success, which secured her appearances at several important Italian opera houses during the same year. The next year she made her first tour of South America, after which she sang again in Italy. In 1912 she was again in South America; in 1914 she made her first tour of Spain, and in 1915 she sang in Havana. Then came her sensational success with the Chicago Opera Association (Nov. 18, 1916), of which she was a regular member until 1924. But all these triumphs were eclipsed by the ovations she received at her first appearance in New York (Jan. 28, 1918), when the Chicago company visited the metropolis for a four weeks’ season. These visits were repeated annually till 1922. Be- ginning with 1923 Galli-Curci appeared every season as guest artist at the Metropolitan Onera House. Strange to say, London did not hear her till the fall of 1924. She was married in 1910 to the painter Luigi Curci, whom she divorced in 1920. In 1921 she married Homer Samuels, her accompanist. GALLIENI, Josepu Simon A French general and statesman. Europe, Western Front. GALLIPOLI. See Wark IN Evropr, Turkish Front. GALLOWAY, BEverLy THOMAS (1863- he An American botanist (see Vor. IX). In 1913-14 he was Assistant Secretary of Agricul- ture, and in 1914-16, dean of the State College of Agriculture of Cornell University. From the latter date he was pathologist of the office of seed and plant introduction for the United States Denartment of Agriculture. GALLOWAY, Crartes WILLIAM (1868— ). An American railway official, born in Baltimore, Md. He began his railway career (1849-1916). See WAR IN 517 GALSWORTHY as a messenger in the telegraph department of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1883. He served that road in various capacities and became superintendent of transportation in Baltimore in 1906. He served as general man- ager of the Baltimore and Ohio from 1912 to 1916 and as vice-president and general manager of the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern from 1916 to 1918. He was Federal manager for the western lines of several railways during the War, and from 1920 he was vice-president in charge of operation and maintenance for the Baltimore and Ohio system. GALLSTONE DISEASE. During the dec- ade 1914-24 new methods of diagnosis and treat- ment of gallstone disease were introduced by Dr. Lyon of Philadelphia and his disciples which were incorporated in his large monograph on non-surgical drainage. By means of the duo- denal sound it is possible to obtain bile under all kinds of circumstances and subject it to analysis. The discovery that the bile in gall- stone disease may be entirely normal is con- trary to the old belief that stones cannot form in the presence of healthy bile. The cholagogue action of various substances can be studied by introducing them into the duodenum through the stomach and watching their action on the flow of bile. It becomes evident that the em- pirically recognized cholagogue substances are scientifically justified, for magnesium sulphate, olive oil, sodium phosphate and a number of others all appear to possess this property of ex- pelling bile from the gall bladder into the duo- denum. It is also possible by means of any one of these substances introduced into the duodenum to cause the escape of stones, or what is better, to prevent their formation by occasional resort to the sound. The claim that the use of the latter may sometimes precipitate a severe attack of gall- stone colic in a patient in whom the stones might never have caused trouble if left alone may be viewed from various angles. Thus we may entirely disbelieve in this possibility in the absence of complete proofs, or we may look on it as a rare event of little practical impor- tance to the public at large; finally, we may regard the expulsion of a quiescent stone as a good thing. Dr. Hedinger of Basel has fur- nished considerable evidence in support of the belief that gallstones are really amenable to so- lution, or at least to a partial solution, in their own bile. To what extent therapeutics will profit by such a discovery is at present prob- lematical. GALLWITZ, Max C. W. von (1873- }e A German artillery general, born at Breslau, and educated at the Gymnasium and military academy. He entered the artillery service in 1870 and was progressively promoted until he became lieutenant-colonel in 1896. He was made department chief in the War Ministry the following year. His promotions continued, and he became major-general in 1902. In 1903 he had the direction of the army in the war min- istry; in 1906 he was made commander of the 15th division; and in 1911, general of artillery and inspector of field artillery. During the en- tire period of the War he was artillery corps commander. In 1918 he was made commander- in-chiéf of several armies. He was raised to the nobility in 1913. GALSWORTHY, Joun_ (1867- ). ‘An English author (see Vout. IX). Among his lat- GAMBIA er works are The Little Man and Other Satires (1915); The Freelands (1915); A Sheaf (vol. i, 1916); Beyond (1917); Five Tales (1918) ; A WSheaf (vol. ii, 1919); WSam#’s Progress (1919); Addresses in America (1919); Tatter- demalion (1920); The Forsyte Saga (1922); and the plays, The Mob (1914); A Bit o’ Love (1915); The Skin Game (1920); Sia Short Plays (1921); A Family Man (1921); Loyalties (1922), and Windows (1922). In all his later works appear the author’s usual intellectual fineness and careful and thoughtful weaving. GAMBIA. A British colony and protectorate at the mouth of the River Gambia in West Africa. Area of colony proper, 4 square miles, (population, 9000); area of the protectorate 4130 square miles (population in 1921, 200,- 000). The chief export from Gambia was groundnuts, with a total of 64,178 tons in 1923, compared with 66,000 tons in 1914. This made up 96 per cent of the total shipments. Other exports were palm kernels and _ hides. Total exports for 1923, £884,309 as compared with £926,127 in 1914. The British Empire took 49 per cent of the exports in 1923, France 39 per cent, and Germany 7 per cent. Imports for 1923 were £709,013 as compared with £688,- 007 in 1914. The British Empire supplied 69 per cent, France 13 per cent, Germany 7 per cent, and the United States 5 per cent in 1923. Most of the sugar imported was from France, and the tobacco from the United States. Kola- nuts and cotton goods were other imports. In 1913, 625,132 tons entered and cleared; in 1923, 1,052,982 ‘tons. Revenues in 1913 were £124,- 990; 1920, £268,788; 1922, £204,244. Expendi- ures in 1913 were £95,210; 1920, £171,160; 1922, £430,312. The last figure included £200,000 in- curred by the demonetization of the five-frane pieces which had so depreciated during and after the War that it was necessary to collect them for shipment to England to be melted down. The United States, during and after the War, sup- planted Germany in the Gambian import trade. In 1919 American shipments rose to $900,000. The natives persisted in devoting themselves exclusively to the groundnut industry to the neglect of food crops. During the War this caused a real food stringency because of the lack of shipping. GANDHI, MonanpsAs KARAMCHAND 1869- ). An Indian nationalist leader, born at Porbander, India. He went to London in 1888 to study law. After careful observa- tion of Christianity and western civilization, he returned to India in 1893, but soon after- ward went to South Africa to practice law. He was brutally mistreated by the white men in South Africa, but he bore his burden by de- veloping a philosophy of passive resistance. On the outbreak of the War he raised a vol- unteer ambulance corps in London of the resi- dents there and in 1917 was active in raising a corps of Indian recruits in Kheda. He went into retreat in 1916 at Ahmedabad and there came under the influence of the teachings of Tolstoi. On the passing of the Rowlatt Act, he encouraged the “noncodperative” movement and agitation against the British Government and so had much to do with the Punjab disturbance of 1919. Through the union of the Hindus and Mohammedans, Gandhi promised to effect an impregnable native opposition to the British and eventually the demolition of their govern- ment in India. When the All-India Congress 518 GARBAGE AND REFUSE met on Dec. 24, 1921, at Ahmedabad, he was ap- pointed sole executive, and thus virtual dictator of the noncodéperative forces. For his part in the Punjab and other dis- turbances, he was tried in March, 1922, and sentenced to prison for six years. While many looked on and feared a gigantic uprising in India in defense of the man whom the Indians looked on not only as a reformer but as a saint, Gandhi admonished them not to resort to arms, but to get out their spinning wheels and spin. He went to rae cheerfully, and no disturb- ance occurred. During his imprisonment, re- ports from India were that Gandhi’s economic policies and philosophical teachings were being discredited. In the early part of February, 1924, Gandhi was released unconditionally by order of the British government. See InpIa. GANS VON LUDASZY, Jurtus (1838— 1923). A prominent Austrian journalist and popular author, born in Vienna. He studied law and medicine, but practiced neither. His becoming a contributor to Vienna newspapers led eventually to his becoming editor of the Wiener Neue Freie Presse, a position which he held from 1902 to 1915. His first work was a thesis, Die Wirtschaftliche Energie: System der Oekonomistischen Methodologie (1893). He later published Also Sprach Confucius (1900). Thereafter he devoted himself to drama and fiction. Among his plays, most of which were produced in Vienna, are Bessere Leute (1902), Der Sonnenstaat (1904), and Die Trennende Briicke (1913); among his stories, Die Heilige Schlange (1912), Die Macht der Schatten (1914), Die Grosse Siinde (1915), Der Tan- zende Stern (1917), and Der Turm der Liebe (1920). GANT, SAMUEL GoopWIN (1869- ). An American surgeon and proctologist, born at Knoxville, Mo., and educated at the Missouri Medical College. He practiced for some years in Kansas City, Mo. In 1899 he removed to New York City to become professor of surgery (proctology) in the New York Postgraduate School of Medicine, succeeding Professor Kel- sey. For some years he conducted private sur- gical hospitals and joined the staff of Broad Street Hospital. He has published numerous works covering diseases of the colon, rectum, and intestinal tract as a whole: Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases of the Rectum (1896; rev. 1902); Constipation and Intestinal Ob- struction (1909), reissued in 1916 in revised form as Constipation, Obstipation, and Intesti- nal Stasis; Diarrheal, Inflammatory, Obstruc- tive, and Parasitic Diseases of the Gastro- intestinal Tract (1915); and Diseases of the Rectum, Anus and Colon (3 vols., 1923). GANZ, Rvupotr (1877- ). A Swiss pianist (see Vor. IX). In 1921 he transferred his main activity from the field of piano play- ing to that of conducting, when he accepted the conductorship of the St. Louis Symphony Or- chestra. GARBAGE AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. The net changes in garbage and refuse disposal between 1914 and 1924 left the various proc- esses in much the same relation to each other as at the beginning of the period, although per- haps with some shifting as to preferences shown by the different cities for one method or another and certainly with some marked changes in the processes themselves. In Europe the War resulted in almost complete cessation of this GARBAGE AND REFUSE municipal service in many cities or else in ma- terial changes of method. In the United States and Canada the garbage and refuse collection ’ service was not affected in any such degree as it was in Europe, but notable shifts were made in methods of disposal. The latter were de- signed more particularly to effect the recovery of material from the garbage and refuse, espe- cially food values usable for feeding to hogs. In the many army camps, besides hog feeding through contract service, there was a remark- able salvage of all sorts of camp waste, both that generally associated with municipal refuse and other waste materials peculiar to army camps. Stimulated by the United States Food Ad- ministration, by rigid demands for municipal economy, and by the willingness of contractors to take municipal garbage for utilization, sev- eral American municipalities either materially increased the amount of garbage already being disposed of by feeding to hogs or else took up that method of disposal systematically for the first time. Of the latter, notable instances were Newark, N. J., Baltimore, Md., and Buf- falo, N. Y. This was due both to the size of the cities and the nature of the contracts en- tered into, which was characterized at the time as “taking the gamble out of garbage.” These contracts provided that the contractor would pay the city for the garbage as delivered to him at a price per ton of garbage based on the wholesale price of hogs on the Chicago market. In England, hog feeding was somewhat resorted to, but apparently not so far as in the United States. United States Food Administration Statis- tics. The most extensive statistics on gar- bage and refuse collection and disposal ever made available in the United States were gath- ered by the United States Food Administration in 1917. They covered, as far as_ possible, places of 10,000 population and over. Of 779 of these places for which data were presented, 526 had a systematic collection, 171 had no collection service, and 82 places were not re- ported. Of 524 cities reporting whether the refuse was collected by the city, by contract, or privately, 84 reported collection by the city alone, 96 by contractors, 36 privately; that is, without contract and presumably with little supervision by the city; 308 had a mixed sys- tem of collection. Disposal methods were re- ported for 698 places with a population total- ing nearly 44,000,000. Of these, 345, with a population over 11,000,000, reported disposal by feeding, doubtless mostly to hogs; 102 places with a population of 7,000,000 reported incin- eration; 37 places with a population of 18,500,- 000 reported disposal by reduction, or the re- covery of grease and fertilizer base; and 214 places with 7,000,000 population gave the meth- od of disposal as burning, burying, or dumping, the former probably meaning for the most part burning waste paper and other combustible ma- terial on dumps. It should be understood that these figures are for the total populations of the cities in each class and not the populations actually served by the several methods enumer- ated, which would probably be very much less. The gross total population of the cities re- porting utilization by either reduction or feeding was about 30,000,000. These figures cannot be accepted as even approximate for methods of disposal. in 1924, even after al- 519 GARBAGE AND REFUSE lowing for increases in population. After the War some reduction plants were closed, there was probably a material net reduction in the population from which garbage is fed to hogs, and some of the incinerating plants closed during the War were reopened, some closed, and others built. The basic data col- lected by the Food Administration and reported by cities and States was printed in tabular form in the Hngineering News-Record for Oct. 17, 1918. In the United States, probably in much lesser degree in other countries, garbage and refuse disposal is in many respects the most unsatis- factory of the various municipal services. In Europe, work in this field is on a more perma- nent and generally satisfactory basis than in the United States. It is not so much the col- lection service that is bad in America, although that is incomplete in a large percentage of municipalities and often poor, as it is the final means of disposal. The incompleteness of the American service, both as to collection and dis- posal, is in part due to the variety and extent of the demands on American municipal treasur- ies, but the poorness of the service performed and the constant shifting from one method of disposal to another and the very frequent aban- donment or at best the very poor operation of disposal plants is due most of all to the failure of American cities to regard the garbage and refuse disposal service, and for that matter the collection service as well, as essentially an en- gineering problem. Shift from one method of disposal to another, utterly inadequate oper- ating. service of disposal plants, and the aban- donment of plants representing large capital in- vestments are common; together they result in the waste of very large sums of money. So sel- dom does a city turn to an engineer experienced in garbage collection and disposal for prelim- inary studies to determine the best method to be adopted, for the preparation of plans and specifications, and for supervision of contracts, that there are very few engineers specializing in garbage disposal, compared with the large number of water-works and sewerage special- ists. Methods of Disposal Outlined. The chief methods of garbage disposal in use in various parts of the world in 1924 were dumping on land or into water; earth burial or covering with ashes instead of with dirt; incineration, with or without attempts at heat utilization; reduction, for the recovery of grease and fer- tilizer base, or in rare cases, for the conversion of garbage into stock food, which must still be considered as in the experimental stage; and fermentation, the end product to be used as a fertilizer, a new method introduced in several Italian cities and tried in a small way in the United States. Although no exact figures are available, it is probable that throughout the world more garbave and other municipal refuse are disposed of by dumping in land or in water than by any other method. Water dumping was long the chief method of disposal practiced by New York City; it was then given up for disposal by reduction for some years but was returned to with a political change in admin- istration for a considerable part of the city. In Richmond and Queens Boroughs most of the New York garbage is disposed of by incinera- tion and early in 1924 a 300-ton incinerating plant was put in use in Manhattan Borough; GARBAGE AND REFUSE vga0 at the same time another large plant was under construction, and presumably others were pro- jected for that borough. The land dumping of garbage and refuse, if little or no attempt is made to take the proper care of the dumps, is likely to give offense from odors, from scatter- ing papers, and from smoldering fires on the dumps, but it is possible so to handle the dumps as to keep them from being much of a nuisance. Earth burial or the depositing of garbage in relatively shallow layers and covering it with a few inches of earth, or covering it instead with ashes, may be an eminently sanitary and satis- factory method of garbage disposal. It has been in use for some years at Seattle, Wash., after the abandonment of three refuse destruc- tors or incinerators, and similarly at Ottawa, Canada, and in other places. The change from incineration to dumping and covering with earth or ashes at Seattle was made by the Health Department and was called the sanitary fill method of disposal. Incineration was for several decades the chief method of disposing of mixed refuse in Eng- land, where anything but dumping was used, but much British refuse was worked into the soil for its physical improvement and for such fertilizing value as the refuse might contain. Following the War a marked change was made in British incinerating or refuse destructor practice; instead of sending all the garbage, ashes, and other refuse through the furnaces, the ashes and garbage were screened out for utilization on land; such low grade commercial materials as paper, rags, etc., were picked out on movable belts, and only the coarser clinker and unburned coal was passed for burning. The same general method was practiced for sev- eral years at Paris in some degree and was being extended on a large scale to cover the mixed refuse of the entire city. Municipal Methods. Collectors gather the Paris mixed refuse in a fleet of 700 motor trucks and deliver it to sorting, screening, grinding, and destructor plants operated by an- other company. The disposal company pro- duces fertilizer and brick from the refuse and utilizes heat from the destructors for the gen- eration of electricity, the latter being sold to the city and utilized to drive pumps of water and sewage pumping stations. The four sepa- rate disposal stations were being enlarged in 1923 to a destructor capacity of 122 metric tons an hour and a projected further increase in ca- pacity will bring the latter up to 160 metric tons an hour (see Engineering News-Record, Nov. 22, 1923). Tests on the refuse of Munich made by the Bavarian State Institute for the Growth and Protection of Plants led to the con- clusion that it would be wasteful to use for fuel the finer portions of refuse having low calorific value but rich in fertilizing material. It was concluded that the most economical use of refuse where soil deficient in humus is at hand is to devote sifted fine refuse to agricultural purposes and to send the remaining refuse only to the destructor (Zeitschrift des Bayerischen Revisionsvereins, Nos. 7 and 8, 1921). Reduction as a means of garbage disposal has been confined almost wholly to the United States, where the method was employed during a considerable number of years in most of the larger cities of the country which have what might be called improved means of garbage dis- posal. Originally all these reduction works were built and operated by private companies GARBAGE AND REFUSE under municipal contracts, but for some years, one after another was taken over by the city or else, in a few cases, municipal plants were built de novo or to replace the old privately built plants. In 1924 there were municipally owned reduction plants in New Bedford, Mass.; Schenectady, Syracuse, and Rochester, N. Y.; Philadelphia and Washington; Cleveland, Col- umbus, and Dayton, Ohio; Indianapolis, Ind., and Chicago. The Syracuse plant was leased for operation for a few years to the contractor who built it. Other cities where the garbage was being disposed of by reduction in 1924 were Boston, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, and Detroit. Where reduction is practised, only garbage, not mixed refuse, can be disposed of. The same is almost as true of disposal by feeding to hogs, although these animals will do much sorting over of mixed refuse. Hog feeding as a method of garbage disposal was still in use in Newark and Buffalo in 1924; the Buffalo piggery had been taken over by the city a few years earlier, and the city was under a court injunction brought by the town in which the piggery was located, to close the piggery. The matter of actual closing was in the courts for some time pending investigations and negotiations by Buffalo for a site for dis- posal by some method not yet decided on up te May 1, 1924; the choice presumably lay between another piggery and incineration. Hog feed- ing is the general means of garbage dis- posal throughout New England; it was long practiced at Providence, R. I., and Worcester, Mass. Fermentation by the Beccart system, named after an Italian, was practised in Florence and some other Italian cities for several years. A demonstration plant was built by American promoters of the process at Paterson in 1921. Late in 1923 a working-scale Beccari plant was put in operation by the village of Scarsdale, N. Y. It consists of four covered concrete cells, each about 8x9 feet in plan and 10 feet high, into which the garbage is dumped through open- ings in the top. A tower or chimney common to the four cells contains overlapping shelves on which is placed material designed to absorb the gases given out by the fermentation process, with a view to recovering any fertilizing value they may contain. The moisture in the gar- bage is drained out through a false bottom. Means are provided for introducing air to pass through the cells. Reports from the Italian plants are that after the garbage has remained in them for 30 days or so, it has been con- verted by fermentation to a substance similar to garden soil or humus, with a high fertilizing value. For a description of the Beccari system as used in Italy, see Engineering News-Record, Feb. 15, 1923, and for a description of the plant at Florence, see The American City, Feb- ruary, 1923. Collection of mixed refuse generally costs more than the final disposal of the material; for economical service both of collection and of disposal, the, two should be carefully correlated after engineering studies, which should be con- tinuous in order to make readjustments neces- sary for economy and efficiency. Increasingly, motor-drawn vehicles are being used for collec- tion, especially where there is a long haul after loading is completed. Theoretically refuse col- lection districts should be so laid out that the material collected could be hauled to a central disposal plant in each district; this would ma- ; : | a GARBER terially reduce the haul as compared with that entailed by the use of only one disposal plant. Great practical difficulty is experienced in American cities when an attempt is made to locate district disposal plants; the people resid- ing or doing business in the immediate vicinity usually protest that the plant will be a nui- sance. The arguments advanced may be fal- lacious, but when brought to bear on the coun- cilmen they are likely to be effective, as was shown by experiences at Philadelphia, Minne- apolis, and St. Louis. Most disposal plants in America are located in the outskirts of the city or beyond the municipal boundary lines. In some cases the disposal plant is so remote that special transportation after house-to-house col- lection has been effected is required, making use either of trailers or even of railway trans- portation, steam or electric. The latest and most comprehensive book on this whole subject is Hering and Greeley’s Collection and Disposal of Municipal Refuse (New York City, 1921). GARBER, DaAniet (1880- ). An Ameri- can painter (see Vor. IX). Among his later awards were the first Altman prize for figure painting, 1917, and the first Clark prize and gold medal, 1921. In “Buds and Blossoms,” “A. Summer Phantasy,” and “The Hawk’s Nest,” he showed a continuance of interest in nature in her brighter and sunlit moods. GARDEN, Mary (1877- ). An Ameri- can soprano (see VoL. IX). In January, 1921, she was appointed director-general of the Chi- cago Opera Association. She assumed control under most unfavorable circumstances, when the company was suffering from complications re- sulting from a dual directorship with divided responsibilities. That in the one year of her administration she failed to reconcile the war- ring factions and bring order out of the finan- cial chaos is not surprising. In spite of all handicaps, she maintained the high standard of the performances and even added to the glory of the company with a tour which was an unequivocal artistic success, though it re- sulted in financial disaster. During her term as director she continued to appear in her usual roles. When the new Chicago Civic Opera Company was organized in 1922, she was en- gaged as one of the principal artists. GARDNER, EDMUND GARRATT (1869- he An English writer (see VoL. IX). Among his later works are The Book of St. Bernard on the Love of God (1916) and The National Idea of Italian Literature (1921). GARFIELD, Harry Avuaustus (1863- . An American educator, born at Hiram, Portage County, Ohio, the son of President James A. Garfield. He taught Latin and law and prac- ticed law from 1888 to 1903 in Cleveland, Ohio. Subsequently he became professor of politics at Princeton University (1903-08) and president of Williams College (1908 ). President Wilson appointed him United States Fuel Ad- ministrator in August, 1917. In this position Garfield did not receive the entire support of the public, because he did not favor public own- ership of coal mines but asked for a fair chance for both capital and labor. The coal strike set- tlement did not receive his approbation, and in 1919 he resigned. GARIBALDI, Giuseppe (1879- yeitAn Italian soldier, son of the great Garibaldi, born in Melbourne, Australia. He took part in the Greco-Turkish War in 1897 and afterwards 521 GARRETT fought with the revolutionists in Venezuela. Here he was imprisoned by Castro but escaped. After serving on the Panama Canal under Gen- eral Goethals, he entered the service of Madero in Mexico and was made chief of staff. He served in the Balkan Wars of 1912, and at the outbreak of the War raised an Italian legion of 14,000, which fought with the Allied troops in France. When Italy entered the war, he joined the Italian army and served with great distinction. He was created brigadier-general in June, 1918, and retired from the army in June, 1919. GARLAND, HAMLIN (1860-— ). An American poet and writer (see Vou. IX). Among his publications are A Son of the Middle Border (1914) and A Daughter of the Middle Border (1921). He became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1918. GARNER, JAMES WILFrorD’ (1871- h An American professor of political science (see Vout. IX). Among his later writings are Civil Government for Indian Students (1920), Idées et Institutions Politiques Américaines (1921), International Law and the World War, 2 vols. (1920). He edited Hssays on Southern History and Politics (1914). He was Hyde lecturer in the French universities (1921) and Tagore lec- turer in the University of Calcutta (1922). GARNETT, Porter (1871- ). A writer, critic and play producer, born in San Francisco, who has contributed to several San Francisco papers and literary and dramatic periodicals. He edited the Grove Plays of the Bohemian Club in 1918 and has published The Bohenian Jinks, A Pageant of May, Descriptions of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, and Stately Homes of California. He became asso- ciate professor of graphic arts at Carnegie In- stitute of Technology in 1922 and established there in 1923 the Laboratory Press, the first private press devoted to educational purposes. GAROFALO, RAFFAELE, BARoNn (1852— fe An Italian jurist (see Vor. VIII). His pub- lications after 1913, many of them speeches be- fore the Senate, include Sull’ Ordinamento Giudiziario (1914); Le Aggressioni alla Forza Pubblica e «1 Delinquenti Abituali (1914); La Neutralita dell’ Italia (1914); Per VAssicura- zione Obbligatoria contro gl’Infortuni sul Lavoro in Agricoltura (1917); ‘Enrico Pessina, Filo- sofo e Legislatore” (in vol. xlv of the Atti della Reale Accademia di Scienze Morali e Politiche, 1918); and I Deliquenti Abituali, gli Sciopert, il Bolscevismo (1919). His Oriminology was translated into English in 1914 as the seventh volume of Modern Criminal Science. GARRETT, ALEXANDER CHARLES (1832- 1924). An American Protestant Episcopal bishop (see Vou. IX), who died at Dallas, Tex., on Feb. 18, 1924. On the death of Daniel Syl- vester Tuttle in April, 1923, the Rt. Rev. Alex- ander Garrett became presiding bishop. At that time he was 91 years old and totally blind. GARRETT, Garer (1878-— ). An Ameri- can economist and journalist, born at Pana, III. He was financial writer on the New York Sun (1903-05), New York Times (1906-07), Wall Street Journal (1907-08), New York Hvening Post (1909-12), editor of the New York Times Annalist (1912-14), assistant editor of the New York Tribune (1916-19), and _ financial writer of the New York Evening Post (1919- ). He has written Where the Money Grows (1911), An Empire Beleaguered (1916), GARRISON 522 The Blue Wound (1920), The Driver (1921), The Mad Dollar (1921), and many essays of an economic and political nature. Mr. Garrett has been described as a writer of stories with action and the freshness of bare facts. He contribut- ed regularly to the Saturday Evening Post and other magazines. GARRISON, FIeLp1Ing Hupson (1870- ). An American physician, known especially as a historian, librarian, and editor, born in Wash- ington, D.C., and educated at Johns Hopkins and Georgetown Universities. He entered the army medical service. Having already served in that capacity in his student days, he was made an assistant librarian in the Surgeon- General’s Library. On the retirement of Dr. Billings he sueceeded him as head librarian. In 1903 he became editor of the Index Medicus. His chief publications comprise An Introduc- tion to the History of Medicine (1913), a work of which it is impossible to speak too highly; John Shaw Billings, a biography (1915), and Notes on the History of Military Medicine (1922). GARVIE, ALFRED ERNEST (1861- Ve Vine British Congregational theologian (see VOL. IX). He added to his numerous publications The Missionary Obligation (1914), The Evan- gelical Type of Christianity (1915), The Pur- pose of God in Christ (1919), The Christian Preacher (1920), The Old Testament in the Sunday School (1921), and other volumes. GARVIN, JAmes Louis (1868- diy hiAn English journalist and Imperialist, born at Birkenhead, Cheshire. By his writings for the Newcastle Chronicle, the EHastern Morning News, the London Daily Telegraph, and the Fortnightly Review, he made himself popular as a brilliant publicist. He was editor of the weekly Outlook (1905-12), the evening Pall Mall Gazette (1912-15), and The Observer (1908). The circulation and prestige of the latter increased enormously with his editorship. He has published Imperial Reciprocity (1903), Compatriot Club Lectures (1906), Tariff or Budget (1909), The Economic Foundation of Peace (1919), and other books, the majority of them giving proof of his affinity with the Un- ionist party. In 1920 he was appointed to write the official biography of Joseph Chamber- lain, whom he had supported since the latter’s colonial secretaryship in 1895. GARY, Expert Henry (1846- ) bapAgi American corporation official (see Von. IX). In 1917 he was appointed a member of the United States section of the international high commission. He later resigned from this posi- tion. GARY, Hampson (1873- ). An Ameri- can lawyer and diplomat, born at Tyler, Tex., and educated at the University of Virginia. In 1894 he was admitted to the bar and engaged in private practice and politics. In 1913-14 he was standing master in chancery in the United States District Court, and in the latter year be- came connected with the Department of State as a special war counsel. From 1917 to 1919 he was in Egypt as diplomatic agent and consul general, with the rank of minister resident. In 1919 he was in Paris with the American Com- mission to Negotiate Peace and in the following year was made Envoy Extraordinary and Minis- ter Plenipotentiary to Switzerland. After 1921 he practiced law in Washington, D.C. GASES, INERT, See CHEMISTRY. GAYLORD GAS, ry WARFARE. See CHEMICAL WAR- FARE; STRATEGY AND TACTICS. GAS, Natrurat. See NatrurAL GAS, GAS ENGINES. See INTERNAL CoMBUS- TION ENGINES, GAS LAW. See CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL. GASOLINE. See PETROLEUM. GAS TURBINE. See INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES. GAS WORKS. See MUNIcIPAL OWNERSHIP. GAULT, Ropert HArvEy (1875— Fale Wa American psychologist, born at Ellsworth, Ohio., Nov. 3, 1875, and educated at Cornell and Clark Universities. He has been a member of the faculty of Northwestern University since 1905. In 1911 he became the editor of The Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology. After 1914 he also edited Crim- inal Science Monographs. He was part author and editor of the report of the Chicago Council for the Investigation of Crime (1915). GAUTIER, (CHARLES) LUCIEN (1850- _). A Swiss theologian (see VoL. IX). He was president of the Pastorale Suisse (1916-17), central president of the Société Suisse des Vieux Zofingiens (1915-19), and president of the board of delegates of the South African Swiss Mission (1918-20). In 1919 he became a member of the International Committee of the Red Cross. One of his later publications was Le Prophéte Jérémie (1916). GAUVAIN, AUGUSTE (1861- pie: French editor and publicist, born at Vesoul, and educated in law at the University of Paris and the Ecole des Sciences Politiques. After edit- ing a professional legal journal, he became in 1908 foreign editor of the powerful and con- servative Journal des Débats. His political ar- ticles were widely quoted on both sides of the Atlantic. During the War he was honored by the French government with the cross of the Legion of Honor; he also received honorary decorations from a number of foreign orders. A member of the Academy of Moral and Politi- eal Science, Gauvain was a prolific writer on questions of current politics. The list of his writings ineludes Les Origines de la Guerre Européenne (1915), L’Europe avant la Guerre (1917), L’Affaire Grecque (1917), La Question Yougo-Slave (1918), L’Encerclement de VAlle- magne (1919), and L’Hurope au Jour le Jour (12 vols., six of which were crowned by the Institute). Gauvain also wrote Books I and III of the ninth volume of the Histoire Contem- poraine de France and frequently contributed to the French periodical press. GAYLEY, CuHartes Mirrts§ (1858- ): An American author (see Von. IX). He was dean of the faculties (1918-20) and adminis- trator (1919) of the University of California. Among his later works are Shakespeare and the Founders of American Liberty (1917) and, in collaboration, Lyric, Epic and Allied Forms of Poetry (1919). GAYLORD, FRANKLIN AUGUSTUS (1856— ). An American clergyman and so- cial worker, born at Yonkers, N. Y., and edu- eated at Yale University, Union Theological Seminary, and the Collége de France. In 1887- 93, he was general secretary of the Young Men’s Christian Association at Paris, France. In 1894 he was ordained to the Presbyterian min- istry, and from 1895 to 1899, he held the pas- torate of Trinity Congregational Church in New York City. He was in St. Petersburg as 4 GEDDES the general secretary of the Russian Y.M.C. A. (1899-1911), and in 1911 he was made director of the Russian Society for Moral and Physical Development of Young Men. In 1916 he was secretary of the American Hospital for Wound- ed Russian Soldiers, and in 1918-19, secretary of the International Committee of the Y. M.C.A., which he also represented in Odessa, Russia (1919-20), and other cities. He is the author of English translations of Russian verse. GEDDES, SIR AUCKLAND CAMPBELL (1879- ). A British scientist and diplomat, educated at Edinburgh University. He was professor of anatomy at Edinburgh, Dublin, and Montreal (McGill University). He served in the South African War, and in the war of 1914- 18, he was a brigadier-general in the Territorial Force. Appointed minister of national service in 1917, he showed great efficiency in utilizing the services of the whole nation in the prosecu- tion of the War. In 1919 he was made presi- dent of the Board of Trade. In 1920 he was British ambassador at Washington. He _ re- signed from this post in December, 1923. GEDDES, Sir Eric CAMPBELL (1875- ). A British politician, born in India, and educat- ed at Oxford Military College and Merchiston Castle School in Edinburgh. He first acquaint- ed himself with railways in the United States (Baltimore and Ohio system) and later in Eng- land became manager (1906) of the Northeast- ern Railway Company, of which he was general manager on the outbreak of the War in 1914. After that time he was deputy and director general of munitions supply (1915-16), direc- tor general of military railways, and inspector general of transportation. The credit for the efficiency of British communication in France was attributed to him. Lloyd George, wholly ignoring the fact of Sir Eric Geddes’ non-par- liamentary experience, appointed him to suc- ceed Sir Edward Carson as First Lord of the Admiralty. After the Armistice he was charged with the demobilization of many government departments, and on the formation in 1919 of a new Ministry of Transport, he left the Admi- ralty to preside over it. He was much criti- cized (1920-21) for his apparent lack of econ- omy in the new ministry, in the contemplated government return of the railways to the orig- inal companies. In the spring of 1921 he in- troduced a bill for reorganizing the railways, and in the following August he was appointed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer adviser on all questions of national expenditure (August, 1921—March, 1922). Sir Erie was knighted in 1916 and in 1917 was created K.C.B. and G.B.E. In 1923 he was a member of the British War Cabinet and head of the British tire and rub- ber industry. GEIKIE, Str ARCHIBALD (1835- ). A British geologist (see Vor. IX). Among his later writings are The Birds of Shakespeare (1916), Annals of the Royal Society Club in the. Highteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (1917), and John Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., of Queen’s College, Cambridge (1724-93) (1918). GEIL, WILLIAM EpDGAR (? }e An American explorer and author, born at Doyles- town, Pa., and educated at Lafayette College. He made journeys into Western Asia, China, and Africa, penetrating as far as Mt. Douglas, to study primitive races. He lectured on his observations in Australia, Japan, China, India, Great Britain, and the United States. In 1919- 523 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 20 he explored the five sacred mountains of China. Among his works may be mentioned The Great Wall of China (1911) and Adven- tures in the African Jungle Hunting Pygmies (1917). GELERT, Grere Meriset-Hess (1879-1922). A distinct personality among the women writ- ers of Germany and Austria. She was born at Prague. Five years were spent at the universi- ty of Vienna in the study of philosophy, sociol- ogy, and biology; she was also a pupil of Freud. Her first works were novels, Fanny Roth, Annie Bianca, and Die Stimme (1907), and although they were later followed by Die Intellektuellen (1911), a picture of German intellectuals, and a volume of stories of the occult, Geister (1913), her reputation rests on her works on the sex problem, on woman, and marriage. They are Die Sexuelle Krise (1909), which has been translated into English; Betrachtungen zur Frauenfrage (1914); Krieg und Ehe (1916); Das Wesen der Geschlechtlichkeit (1916) ; Die Bedeutung der Monogamie (1917) ; and Die Ehe als Erlebniss (1919). GELS. See PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD. See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. GENERAL STAFF. See ARMIES’ AND ARMY ORGANIZATION. GENERATORS, Etecrric. See ELECTRIC PoWER STATIONS AND GENERATING APPARATUS. GENETICS. See HEReEpITY. GENOA CONFERENCE. See PEACE Con- FERENCE AND TREATIES; REPARATIONS. See also Russia, History. | GEOGNOSY. See GEOLoeyY. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN. A society established in 1852 for the dissemina- tion of geographical information. From No- vember, 1917, to December, 1918, it was the headquarters of a body of experts known as the Inquiry, which studied conditions in Europe during the War under the direction of the De- partment of State; later the director of the So- ciety and some of these experts attended the Peace Conference where they served on various territorial and economic commissions. In 1919 the Society conducted a survey of the boundary between Guatemala and Honduras, at the re- quest of the governments concerned, to be used as the basis for the recommendation of the Sec- retary of State of the United States for a final boundary in the disputed region. In the fol- lowing year the Society inaugurated a_ pro- gramme of research in the geography of His- panic America, the results of which were pub- lished in a map of Hispanic America on the scale of 1: 1,000,000 accompanied by a series of explanatory monographs and articles. Plans adopted in 1921 for the foundation of a school to train men in modern methods of survey- ing were well advanced in 1924. The course, opened to qualified students, would require eighteen months; shorter courses would be ar- ranged for students desiring to take them. The Society in 1921 assisted the Department of Justice in the study of the Red River Boundary in dispute between Oklahoma and Texas and in the same year sent W. L. G. Joerg on a mission to Europe for the purpose of studying the status of geography in European universities and geographical institutions. In 1916 the Geographical Review (monthly 1916-1921; quarterly since 1921) superseded the Bulletin of the American Geographical So- GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 524 ciety as the organ of the Society. In 1916 a new series of publications in book and pam- phlet form was begun; of these an average of more than one volume a year was_ published. The Society’s library and map collection, which were considerably enlarged during the past decade, formed probably the most complete collections in America devoted exclusively to the subject of geography. In 1916 John Greenough succeeded Archer M. Huntington as president; Dr. Isaiah Bowman was director after 1915. GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, Narionar. An organization founded in 1888 for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge. Prob- ably the most important of its activities be- tween 1914 and 1924 was its investigation of the circumstances of the eruption of Mt. Kat- mai in Alaska, one of the greatest in modern times. Six expeditions sent out under Dr. Robert F. Griggs discovered the huge new cra- ter of the volcano, eight miles in circumference, nearly large enough to engulf Vesuvius, and the remarkable Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, the greatest fumarole region known. Besides investigating and mapping the valley, the ex- pedition mapped a hundred miles of uncharted or erroneously charted coastline and discovered a new harbor and four large lakes. Collections of incrustations, gases, and lavas were brought back and studied in the laboratory, and the processes of reforestation of the ash-devastated area were studied by botanists. Through these researches it was hoped that new light might be thrown on the composition and condition of the materials in the earth’s interior and the problems of vulcanology. As a result of the Society’s activities, the region about Katmai was made a national monument by presidential proclamation. An archeological expedition under Dr. Hiram Bingham was sent in 1914-15 to Machu Picchu, the ancient capital of the Incas, high in the Andes of Peru. The expedition unearthed a number of buried highways, towns, temples, etc., and showed that the region about the city was probably the most densely populated of the New World in pre-Columbian times. They discov- ered that the Incas made pottery resembling that of early Greece, performed surgical oper- ations, built wonderful staircase forms, domes- ticated 80-odd species of plants, including po- tatoes and corn, and laid stones weighing tons with the utmost nicety. Over 12,000 photo- graphs were taken showing Peruvian types and Tuins, as well as geologic, topographic, and physiographic features of the Andes. Another expedition was sent to Chaco Canyon, N. M., to excavate Pueblo Bonito, a colossal apartment house at least 1000 years old, with 300 rooms on the first floor, and probably five stories high. Portions of the fourth story walls were still standing. Cross sections of the beams discov- ered there were expected to furnish much in- formation concerning the age, history, and geo- graphical position of the forests which supplied building materials used in the dwellings. A biological expedition was sent to the in- terior of China to make a survey and especially to find a specimen of the largest nonanthropoid species of monkey known, the rhinopithecus brelichi, of which only one skin was extant. Other explorers, going to the Burma-Tibet fron- tier in search of plants, were especially success- ful in bringing to the United States blight- GEOLOGY resisting chestnuts. They also hoped to find how Indian corn was transplanted into China in pre-Columbian times, when it was known as imperial wheat. The Society participated in an expedition to the islands off the coast of Lower California, collecting marine fossils, plants, fishes, and rare forms of animal life, and in one to Labrador, which mapped a large and previously unknown area and collected bio- logical specimens. Early in 1924, the Society dispatched an expedition to southern Mexico under the leadership of Prof. Byron Cummings to investigate and unearth the ruins of Cuicuil- co beneath the Pedregal lava flow. It was be- lieved that these excavations would disclose evidences of a civilization in America antedat- ing that of the Pharaohs in Egypt. The membership of the Society increased from °300,000 in 1914 to 900,000 in 1924. To fulfill its purpose of diffusing knowledge it published, besides its monthly magazine sent to all mem- bers, daily and weekly bulletins for the press, bulletins for schools and Sunday schools, and scientific monographs on the discoveries of the Katmai expeditions. The president and editor- in-chief in 1924 was Gilbert Grosvenor; vice- presidents, Henry White and John Oliver La- Gorce; secretary, O. P. Austin. Headquarters were in Washington, D. C. GEOLOGY. Progress in this science during 1914-24 was substantial, representing the ef- forts of many workers in the different depart- ments rather than a few signal discoveries or researches. If anything may be described as distinctive in the general trend of studies, it was undoubtedly the emphasis on the practical phases, economic or political geology, for which the War may be held responsible. This tend- ency still may be discerned in the output of most public surveys, which were inclined to give less attention to subjects of theoretical in- terest than they formerly did and was further illustrated by the growing participation of geol- ogists in industrial undertakings, chiefly oil and natural gas production and-~ mining. In contrast with its stimulative influence on work in this field, the War was accountable for much that was wholly regrettable, including the sus- pension of codperative effort on the preparation of a world map and other plans of international scope, as well as for the partial or complete demoralization of scientific activities in some of the European countries. General Geology. Geognosy. The effects of radio-active energy on the cooling of the earth have been given a quantitative expres- sion; they put a new aspect on estimates of geological time. The presence of radio-active substances in all the constituents of the crust may be regarded as definitely established by the work of Strutt and others. The heat given off in this way would appear to counter- balance almost completely the loss by conduc- tion and radiation of the original stored heat; perhaps it exceeds such loss under certain con- ‘ditions, so that the cooling process is very slow. Lord Kelvin’s classic studies, made before the discovery of radium, indicated a maximum of 40,000,000 years for the age of the earth; that is, the time required for it to have cooled to its existing state, an estimate which geologists for the most part accepted, even though a more lib- eral figure would have accorded better with their own data. On the new basis the period of earth evolution would be lengthened to many SS ee Eee OO ———— ae GEOLOGY times that amount, and 1,000,000,000 years is regarded as not improbable. Arthur Holmes ealeulated from radium ratios that the oldest igneous rocks exposed at the surface, largely granites, probably originated — 1,500,000,000 years ago. The fossiliferous rocks extending back to Cambrian time, which is the span of historie geology, were accumulated in a mini- mum of 550,000,000 and a maximum of 700,- 000,000 years, according to Barrell, who would assign a period of similar magnitude for the Pre-Cambrian formations. That the earth as a whole has a high degree of rigidity comparable to steel, and is likewise extremely viscous, was deduced by Michelson from experimental observations of tidal move- ments in the solid rocks. The old theory of a thin envelope about a fluid body would appear untenable on a physical basis. It is probable that the interior is very hot, sufficiently so to melt any rock material under atmospheric con- ditions, but’ the pressure produces a degree of immobility approaching a solid for the body as a whole. Other indications of deep-seated con- ditions are found in the study of earthquake tremors, the heaviest of which are world-wide in their travels but do not pass directly through the earth in the shortest paths. They indicate a zonal structure. Oldham inferred that three concentric layers exist, of which the crust or lithosphere is the thinnest, not more than 40 miles in depth. The next layer, asthe- nosphere, is possibly 2000 miles thick and is rigid under stress of short duration so as to transmit vibrations from distant sources. The innermost layer, the core, is likewise very thick and seems to deflect tremors, indicative of a vis- cous condition rather than of a rigid solid. The temperature gradient calculated from ob- servations made in deep shafts and borings af- fords a method of estimating the thickness of the crust. Daly collected data from Europe and America on which he based the conclusion that 40 kilometers (roundly 25 miles) is the most likely figure for the outer layer. Experimentation with mineral melts analog- ous in composition to some of the simpler igne- ous rocks has provided some new information about the erystallization of these materials. One of the problems that has been given atten- tion is the cause of variation in igneous intru- sions, the process of magmatic differentiation, so-called. An original mass or magma of unl- form composition may split during consolida- tion into several types of variant textures and mineral ingredients. Bowen would explain these effects as a result of the crystallizing process, itself a natural inherent influence in all magmas. The process may be considered as occurring in two stages, an early stage when erystal settling is the main feature, and a lat- er stage in which pressure acts to compress the crystal mass and to squeeze out the residual liquid which is later cooled to the crystallizing point. The one or the other agency, or their combined operation, serves to explain magmat- ic differentiation. From theoretical considera- tions purely, other writers have argued in favor of the effects of liquid immiscibility, convection currents, and inmelting of foreign materials; and it is recognized that the subject is still open to investigation. : The structure of coral reefs, about which Darwin’s theories have been generally accepted as most satisfactory, was given renewed consid- 525 a GEOLOGY eration by several geologists. Daly remarked certain features of atolls, for example the flat floors that characterize some of the basins en- closed by the rings of coral, which seem incon- sistent with reefs built around subsiding vol- eanic islands. He suggested that the corals may have built upward on relatively flat plat- forms produced by wave cutting at a time when the sea was at a lower level than now. The water stored up in the form of ice during the Pleistocene period may have caused a lowering of tidal waters by as much as 150-300 feet, when waves could have eroded benches and plat- forms well below the present range of their activity. On them the corals started their op- erations anew as soon as the waters reached a favorable temperature. According to Davis, the flat floors of atoll lagoons can be explained by the leveling effects of sedimentation in periods of intermittent subsidence of the islands; coral reefs also oc- cur on many of the Pacific islands that bear no marks of a cessation of growth that would be expected if the seas had been lowered and cooled during Pleistocene time. Borings on the Funafuti atoll were interpreted by Skeats as evidencing a slow, progressive, upward growth, without any breaks in the succession of coral rock corresponding to the estimated position of a glacial platform. Most of the coral species found at depth still exist in the vicinity. The evidence from that locality supports Darwin’s conclusions. In the West Indies and Florida, Vaughan found that all offshore reefs have grown on recently depressed platforms and that there are no instances of long-continued sub- mergence of coral areas or of the development of barrier reefs from fringing reefs The work of corals as constructional agents is not of first importance in that region; other organisms like bacteria, foraminifera, and mollusks con- tribute more to rock formation by abstraction of calcium carbonate from sea water. Dynamic Geology. Isostasy has acquired rank as a working principle among most of the American geologists, apparently, who have giv- en attention to the problem of slow crustal movements. The work of Hayford and later of Bowie, both of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, has given strong support to the theory. Accurate gravity determinations were assembled by Bowie from the United States, Canada, India, and other countries, rep- resenting all conditions of topographic relief, and they were found to fall in line with previ- ous deductions. Isostasy, it may be explained, assumes that every variation of topographic re- lief is accompanied by a variation of density of the underlying rock column down to a uniform level, that of isostatic compensation. Thus, mountain areas are deficient in density, while oceanic depths are of relatively high rock den- sity. Denudation of an elevated surface causes or is compensated for by a rising of the area, whereas loading of a depression is accompanied by sinking. Bowie regards the compensation as practically complete at a depth about 60 kil- ometers for the United States as a whole; in mountain regions the depth is greater, 95-111 kilometers. Compensation is effected by a flow of material at the mentioned depths, in ac- cordance with the fluctuating load at the sur- face. Exemplification of the broad crustal swings both up and down that seem to call for expla- GEOLOGY 526 nation by the isostatic principle is to be found in the changes of level in northeastern North America during Pleistocene time. At the _ be- ginning of the ice invasion the region was high- er than it has been at any subsequent period, although the exact relation of the surface with reference to sea level can be stated only in gen- eral terms. Over this surface, which was per- haps from 1000 to 5000 feet higher than now, spread a thick mantle of ice which collected first in the Labrador and Laurentian highlands and moved gradually to the south and south- west, finally covering an area of several hun- dred thousand square miles to an extreme depth of perhaps 5000 feet. Following the maximum ice accumulation, the land surface began to sink under the weight, the movement continu- ing until the ice had retreated from the south- ern part of the region and until a considerable area had been depressed nearly to sea-level and marine waters invaded a smaller portion of it. The general withdrawal of the ice from the whole region so lishtened the crust that an adjustment by reélevation took place. This. last movement has reached a maximum, accord- ing to Fairchild, of 1000 feet in the area_be- tween the St. Lawrence River and James Bay, the measurement being based on the altitudes of marine deltas formed by streams that flowed into the sea at the time of maximum depres- sion. The elevation increased from south to north. The relation of folds and faults to isostatic adjustment remains an outstanding problem, about which opinion, as yet, has found little common ground. The view that they represent the effects of stored-up stresses finding sudden relief is in apparent conflict with the evidences for a relatively thin crust that responds easily to variations of load. Folds and _ overthrust faults represent the effort of the crust to ad- just itself to a shrinking circumference. R. T. Chamberlin, in a study of the Colorado Rockies, found that the amount of shortening was 8 miles in a distance of 140 miles across the axis of the main uplift. The depth to which the rocks were affected by disturbance ranged from 13 miles minimum to 107 miles maximum. In the Coast and Sierra Nevada ranges adjust- ments occurred mostly by faulting, according to Willis. The faults, which are high-angle thrusts, resulted from compression that brought about rotation of the mountain blocks along the fault planes. The cause of rotation was stress, set up by erosion and sedimentation, not suf- ficient to involve isostatic adjustment. Kober explained mountain-making as an ef- fect of compressive forces, which have their source in continued contraction of the earth. Adjustments have taken place by thrusting and folding in restricted zones, whereas the larger masses or plates of continental extent have be- haved as rigid units. The zones of folding may receive an excess of material so as to be over- loaded, when isostasy comes into play and the zones subside, possibly to an extent that brings them into the range of sedimentation. With a heavy accumulation of sediments the isogeo- therms eventually begin to rise, and the in- crease of temperature sets in play chemical re- actions and causes expansion, thereby upsetting equilibrium, which leads to adjustment by fold- ing or thrusting. Crustal movements, in the view of T. C. Chamberlin, have not effected widespread interchanges of land and sea. The GEOLOGY continents and oceans are fixed in position, al- though migrations of shore-line have taken place frequently and are now in progress. Ex- amples may be found of the engulfing of crustal blocks and folds, or of the upraising of the ocean floor into land, but they are isolated. The Antillean region, by its position between the two Americas and the two great ocean ba- sins, has been particularly unstable, as_ in- stanced by the occurrence of deep-sea deposits on Barbados and other islands. Metamorphism as an influence in the forma- tion of mineral deposits is a subject to which practical students of geology have devoted much attention, with some important contribu- tions to theory. One of the more significant re- sults has been the broader recognition of the part played by igneous rocks in producing changes. Their field of operation, it is now regarded, may extend over such areas as are comparable to those of pressure or regional metamorphism, if, in fact, they have not been responsible for effects generally assigned in the past to the latter agency. Regions in which igneous rocks do not appear at the sur- face may still have been under their influence, for there is every reason to suppose that many deep-seated intrusions, like granite batholiths, are buried in the sedimentary layers out of sight. The heat, gases, and mineralizing solu- tions emanating from such bodies in the crys- tallizing stages would reach over extended zones, effecting those chemical and _ physical changes often ascribed to regional metamor- phism. For the réle of the igneous rocks in the formation of ores and valuable mineral depos- its, see Hconomic Ceology. Stratigraphic Geology. The classification of the Pre-Cambrian formations in their order of sequence constitutes one of the outstanding problems of geology, about which a great deal of discussion has centred in late years, with many solutions proposed. Practically all stu- dents of the subject agree that the old idea of a dual division into Laurentian and Huronian or Archean and Algonkian, based on the thesis that there exists an earlier group of igneous rocks, chiefly granite, on which rests the altered sedimentary Algonkian or MHuronian group, does not reflect the real conditions. Ac- tually, the succession is much more complex than that, for sediments seem to have been laid down at recurrent intervals all through the Pre-Cambrian, and there are igneous forma- tions of several different periods of intrusion. The sequence varies, also, between one region and another, and it is doubtful if any classifi- cation can be made, adapted to meet all con- ditions. The tendency now is to apply such methods and terminology as corresponds best with the local features and not to attempt to correlate the formations of one area, like that of Lake Superior, for example, with the Pre- Cambrian of Great Britain or Scandinavia. For the arrangement given in the article Ge- ology, in the 1915 Edition of the New INTERNA- TIONAL ENCYCLOP&DIA, may be substituted the following scheme, which is fairly representa- tive of the later research in the Pre-Cambrian areas of the eastern United States and Canada. The formations are named in order of age, the oldest being at the bottom: 6. Keweenawan. Continental sediments and lavas. _ 5, Animikian, Marine sediments. Iron ore forma- tions of Lake Superior. te a GEOLOGY 4, Huronian. 8. Algoman. 2. Sudburyan. Marine and continental beds. Later Laurentian granites. Marine deposits. 1. Basement Complex. Includes first granites. Grenville schists and _ limestones, greenstones, and Coutchicing schists. undetermined. Laurentian Keewatin Sequence still The climate of past ages may be inferred, ac- cording to Schuchert, from the character of the sediments and of the fossils contained in them. Life forms have always been responsive to cli- matie influences, just as they are now. There is evidence of widespread glacial climates dur- ing at least four periods; two of them occur in the Pre-Cambrian and two in later periods. In the lower part of the Huronian of Canada are found slate conglomerates, which represent hardened bowlder clays. In the later Pre-Cam- brian, glacial conditions are indicated by the tillites of Norway and southern Australia. The Permian period contains evidences of ex- tensive glaciation in the equatorial and south temperate zones, notably in South Africa, Bra- zil, India, and other countries. The Pleisto- cene was the last of the great glacial periods. Changes of land surface are mainly responsible for the wide variations of climate; other causes are the variable supply of heat stored in the oceans and the fluctuating content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In many parts of America the Cretaceous system shows no well-defined natural bounda- ries between the Jurassic system below~and the Tertiary system above. It appears that no general unconformability reflecting a wide- spread earth movement exists at the close of the Jurassic, but sedimentation seems to have been continuous in one area or another. Thus, the Morrison formation of the Rocky Mountain region has been considered by some geologists to be of upper Jurassic age, by others lower Cretaceous, and by still others as containing members of each of the two systems. Correla- tion with the European Cretaceous is suggested by Osborn as the best method of settling the difficulty; he would place most value on the evidence of fossils. On the question of draw- ing a line between the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems, the consensus of opinion is to make the close of the Cretaceous coincident with the passing of the age of reptiles, indicated by the extinction of the great families of terrestrial dinosaurs. This view accords with the classi- fication adopted by European geologists. As applied to the formations of the west, the plan is to draw the limits at the top of the Lance formation and to place the Puerco and Torrejon beds containing the remains of the oldest mam- mals in the Tertiary system. Structural Geology. Can the varied ele- ments of earth structure be fitted into a broad plan expressive of the origin and history of the separate features? This is the problem that underlies the more interesting or signifi- cant studies in the recent literature of struc- tural geology, for which the notable contribu- tions of Eduard Suess have been both incentive and guide. A later work is Kober’s Der Baw der Erde (1921), which develops the theory that there are two fundamental units of crustal structure, great rigid plates serving as_ but- tresses to movement and narrow elongated zones, separating the plates, of weak or labile nature. The latter serve for relief of defor- mative forces set up by the shrinkage of the crust; they define the position of geosynclines 18 527 GEOLOGY and of the great mountain systems, shifted somewhat in the course of geological time. Such zones, or orogens, are frequently defined by two parallel mountain systems with folds overturned away from each other toward the adjacent rigid plates. Between the parallel systems are broad intermontane regions of lit- tle folding. A cross-section of an orogen is more or less symmetrical, although each moun- tain system by itself has the asymmetrical structure so well described by Suess. The Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Balkans, and Cau- casus make up one parallel system, and the Apennines, Dinaric Alps, the Hellenic, Taurus, and Iranian mountains make up the other, the former overthrown to the north and the latter to the south. Kober believes a similar orogen may be found in the Rocky Mountains on the one side and the Sierras and Coast ranges on the other; also in the Andes as the eastern member of a zone of which the western part has foundered and disappeared in the Pacific. The existence of westward overfolding in the Appalachians is regarded as indicative of an eastern submerged member, now a part of the continental shelf. Detailed studies of the structure and history of the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain sys- tems were presented before the Geological So- ciety of America (Bulletin, June, 1923). Al- though written for the specialist, the papers contain summaries of interest to the general student. Observations in regard to the levels of marine beaches in northeastern North America have practically demonstrated a widespread uplift of the land surface since glacial time. Fair- child found that the rise between the St. Law- rence River and James Bay amounted to as much as 1000 feet. There has been a differen- tial warping of the surface, the elevation in- creasing from south to north, with an uparch- ing into a dome south of James Bay. Raised beaches on the west coast of Greenland and in Ellesmere Land, according to Ekblaw, may be assigned to a similar uplift since the glacial period, the maximum being about 650 feet. Economic Geology. This department felt the effects of intensive activities in nearly all its branches, mining geology, oil geology, and underground waters and engineering phases of geology. One of the economic sequels of the War was an increased public and national in- terest in mineral resources, and there was a general stock-taking in these possessions all over the world. The control of the undeveloped oil fields became a matter of especial concern among the larger nations, with the realization that they were certain to play a considerable part in future commercial and naval operations. The location and development of petroleum fields had become almost a distinct department of geology, with its own technic and practi- tioners, who had extended their operations into the remote corners of the globe. Out of the great volume of contributions on economic subjects, a few only may be selected for mention in this review. In the group of general works may be named the Atlas of Eco- nomic Geology (1921), published by the United States Geological Survey. It is a study of the geographic distribution of the valuable miner- als and brings out clearly the political aspects of the world’s supplies. It will be noted that the United States is well endowed in most of GEOLOGY the basic materials like coal, iron ore, copper, lead, zine, and oil, but still has no adequate re- sources of potash or nitrate and is absolutely dependent on other countries for nickel, plati- num, and tin. Great Britain with its colonies and its strong commercial position in other countries controls the precious metals and in the future is likely to dominate the oil situa- tion. Political and Commercial Geology and the World’s Mineral Resources (1920) is a compendium of statistics and special articles on the important minerals by American writers. In the same category is a series of short mono- graphs by various British authorities, on the mineral resources of the Empire, which have appeared from time to time. In the list of textbooks for students, prom- inent place should be given to the translation of Beyschlag, Krusch, and Vogt’s comprehen- sive treatise, of which the English version, The Deposits of the Useful Minerals and Rocks: Their Oriain, Form, and Content (1916), was made by Truscott. Leith’s Economic Aspects of Geology (1921) and Emmons’ General EKco- nomic Geology (1922) also were intended for students. Grabau’s Principles of Salt Deposits (1920) was the most important contribution of recent date on the salines; potash, soda, and magnesia salts.. Lindgren’s Mineral Deposits appeared in a second edition (1919). Works on oil geology include American Petroleum In- dustry (1916) by Bacon and Hamor, and Prac- tical Oil Geology by Hager (1916). Both of these cover such technical matters as mapping, drilling, and oil production, as well as_ the study of the occurrence and distribution of petroleum. The control of geological structure on the ac- cumulation of oil-pools has been worked out so completely that it is now a well established principle, which is directing the search in all new fields. Less is known about the motive force that impels the oil in its travels under- ground. McCoy has sought to explain this by capillary action, on the basis that water has a greater capillary force in small openings than oil has and consequently drives the latter ahead of it into the larger openings, which are found under domes. Other geologists have sought ex- planation in hydrostatic pressure and in gravy- ity; in any event it is well known that in most accumulations underground waters have an im- portant bearing on the localization of the oil. Another direction pursued by recent investiga- tion is the relation between the character of oil and the degree of alteration or metamorphism of the enclosing rocks. Strata that have been much altered by compression or heat have lost their oil. An indication of the possibilities in this regard may be obtained, according to David White, by estimation of the fixed carbon ratios in the shale or coal that overlies the oil hori- zon; if the ratio exceeds 75 per cent of the total carbon there is little likelihood of a productive pool. Formations with a relatively high fixed carbon yield oils of the lowest gravity and most commercial value. Formations with lignitic beds are characterized by the lowest grade oils of all. It would appear that as organic matter is altered into substances having progressively higher carbon, through the elimination of oxy- gen, nitrogen, and a portion of the carbon, the distillates in the rocks become progressively higher in hydrogen. . For the study of ore deposits the most sig- 528 GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY nificant feature in the contributions of the last decade has been the general trend toward the igneous or magmatic theories of vein origin, as pppoe to the explanation by meteoric (atmos- pheric) waters which once received wide accept- ance. Although nearly all writers are agreed that the intrusive rocks have supplied the ma- terials out of which veins were formed, there is not the same unanimity of opinion about the methods by which the minerals have been trans- ported and finally arranged in the veins and lodes. It is recognized, however, that certain kinds of ores, magnetite, for example, may orig- inate by direct cleavage or differentiation of the igneous rock during the crystallizing stage. These occur in their original environment. On the other hand many deposits, like those of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc, are often found at some distance from any intrusion that can be regarded as source and in formations distinctly older than the deposits themselves. For such it is obvious that the ores must have been transported in fluid or molten condition out of the parent magma. The ageney may have been highly heated waters and gases evolved by the intrusion in cooling, the fluids passing upward and outward from regions of high pressure to those of low pressure; this is the view commonly accepted. With the gradual cooling and relief of pressure of the mineralized solutions as they move away from their source, the dissolved substances are deposited in the reverse order of solubility, and there results a general zonal arrangement which is frequently illustrated by the change of the mineral con- tents of veins in passing downward from the surface or outward from the igneous mass. This is the barest outline of the prevalent theo- ries. A more detailed presentation will be found in the textbooks on mineral deposits al- ready enumerated, and in the recent work by Spurr, The Ore Magmas (1923). GEORGE, Grace (1880- ). An Ameri- can actress (see Vou. IX). She established the Playhouse Company in repertoire in 1915 and starred in The New York Idea. WUer later starring vehicles included Major Barbara, The Earth, Captain Brassbound’s Conversion (1915—- 16), Eve’s Daughter (1917), L’Elévation (1917- 18), She Would and She Did (1919), Quick Work (1919), The Ruined Lady (1920), The New Morality (1921), Marie Antoinette, To Love, The Exquisite Hour, and All Alone Susie. GEORGE V (GrorGE FREDERICK ERNEST ALBERT) (1865— ). King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the Dominions beyond the Seas and Emperor of India (see Vou. IX). During the War, King George set an inspiring example by cutting down his personal expenses and by contributing freely from his private purse to relief work. In 1917 he renounced all German titles. GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY. A coeducational nonsectarian institution at Washington, D. C., founded in 1821. The uni- versity increased its enrollment from 1347 in 1913 to 4652 in 1923-24. The faculty was in- creased from 234 in 1916 to 321 in 1923-24 and the productive funds from $104,670 to $554,052. During the decade there were four different presidents; Charles Herbert Stockton, Ph.D., was succeeded in 1918 by William Miller Col- lier, L.H.D., LL.D., who held office until 1921, when Howard Lincoln Hodgkins, Ph.D., became president pro tempore and was succeeded in GEORGIA 1923 by William Mather Lewis. A law school building was bought and equipped in 1920, three lots were bought in 1919, and a large bequest of real estate was left to the university in 1921 by Gen. Maxwell Van Zandt Woodhull. A fund for the education of Filipinos was estab- lished in 1918 by Mrs. Larz Anderson. GEORGIA. Georgia is the twentieth State in size, covering 59,265 square miles, and the twelfth in population; capitol, Atlanta. The population increased from 2,609,121 in 1910 to 2,895,832 in 1920, a gain of 11 per cent. The white population increased from 1,431,802 to 1,689,114; Negro, from 1,176,987 to 1,206,- 365; native white, from 1,416,730 to 1,672,928; and foreign born, from 15,072 to 16,186. The urban population of the State showed an _ in- crease of from 538,650 to 727,859; the rural, from 2,070,471 to 2,167,973. The growth of the principal cities was as follows: Atlanta (q.v.), from 154,839 to 200,616; Savannah, from 65,064 to 83,252; Macon, from 40,665 to 52,995; and Augusta, from 41,040 to 52,548. griculture. As Georgia is one of the lead- ing cotton-producing States, the ravages of the boll weevil during the decade 1914-24 greatly affected agricultural conditions. The pest had practically covered the State by 1916. Its ef- fect will be indicated by a comparison of acre- age and production for various years during this period: in 1913, 5,318,000 acres and 2,317,- 000 bales; in 1917, 5,195,000 and 1,884,000; in 1919, 5,220,000 and 1,660,000; in 1921, 4,172,000 acres and 787,000 bales. In 1923 the estimated production was 700,000 bales. In the southern part of the State the yield in 1922 reached a record low mark. For the general effects of the boll weevil on agriculture during the decade see the articles BoLL WEEVIL and COTTON. While the population of the State increased 11 per cent in the decade, the number of farms increased by 6.8 per cent (from 291,027 in 1910 to 310,732 in 1920). In 1910 the total acreage of land in farms was 26,953,413, as compared with 25,441,061 in 1920. The improved land in farms increased from 12,298,017 acres in 1910 to 13,055,209 acres in 1920. While the total percentage of land in farms declined from 71.7 per cent in 1910 to 67.7 in 1920, the percentage of improved land increased from 45.6 to 51.3. The total value of farm property in the State showed an apparent increase, from $580,546,381 in 1910 to $1,356,685,196 in 1920; and the aver- age value of farm property from $1995 to $4366. In interpreting these values, however, and, indeed, all comparative values in the de- cade 1914-24, the inflation of currency. in the latter part of that period is to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. Of the 310,732 farms in 1920, 102,123 were operated by their owners, as compared with 98,- 628 in 1910; 1655 by managers, as compared with 1419; 206,954 by tenants, as compared with 190,980. The white farmers in 1920 num- bered 180,545, as compared with 168,468 in 1910; colored farmers, almost entirely Negroes, 130,187, compared with 122,559. Farms free from mortgage in 1920 numbered 64,061; in 1910, 78,004. Those under mortgage numbered 23,135 and 18,257 in 1920 and 1910, respective- ly. The number of dairy cows increased from 405,710 to 484,122; “beef cows,” from 245,303 to 282,067; mules, from 294,985 to 406,351 in 529 GEORGIA 1920; while sheep decreased from 153,250 to 72,173. The number of swine rose from 1,836,- 246 in 1910 to 2,178,914 in 1920, this increased production of pork being typical of a change to more diversified farming, with a larger produe- tion of food used in the State. The estimated production of the chief farm crops in 1923 was as follows: corn, 50,828,000 bushels; wheat, 1,- 739,000; oats, 9,042,000; potatoes, 1,558,000; sweet potatoes, 11,598,000; tobacco, 12,067,000 pounds; hay, 513,000 tons; and peaches, 5,716,- 000 bushels. Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 63,023,000 bushels; wheat, 1,708,000; oats, 9,240,000; potatoes, 972,000; hay, 350,000 tons; and tobacco, 1,800,000 pounds. Mining. Georgia is not important as a mineral-producing State. It has practically no metal mining, and of the non-metals, the most important are clay products, stone, fuller’s earth, and cement. There is also produced a small quantity of coal, a considerable amount of bauxite, mineral waters, iron ore, and mica. The comparative value of the clay products and other minerals in the decade 1914-24 will be seen in the following figures. In 1914: clay products, $2,263,034; stone, $2,238,789; coal, 166,498 tons. In 1917: clay products, $2,426,- 671; stone, $1,797,098; coal, 119,028 tons. In 1920: clay products, $5,572,999; stone, $3,- 651,415; coal, 50,156 tons. In 1922, clay prod- ucts, $4,157,601; stone, 3,349,293; coal, 60,636 tons. The total value of the mineral produc- tion in 1921 was $8,650,003; in 1920, $12,178,- 695; in 1919, $9,429,972; in 1918, $8,312,051; and $5,704,856 in 1914. Manufactures. Georgia has shown a steady increase in the value of its industrial products in the last three census periods. In 1919, 12 cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants, forming 18 per cent of the total population, reported 45.7 per cent of the value of the State’s manu- factured products. There were in the State in 1909, 4792 manufacturing establishments; in 1914, 4639; and in 1919, 4803. The persons en- gaged in manufacture numbered 118,036, 118,- 565, and 141,012; and the capital invested in those years amounted to $202,777,665, $258,325,- 811, and $448,700,194, respectively. The value of the products rose from $202,863,262 in 1909 to $253,270,511 in 1914, and in 1919 to $693,237,- 097; but this increase was in great measure due to changes in industrial conditions brought about by the War. The increase shown in the average number of wage earners, however, in- dicates a considerable growth in the manufac- turing activity of the State. The most impor- tant industry in point of value of products is the manufacture of cotton goods, the value of which in 1909 was $48,037,000; 1914, $59,982,- 000; 1919, $192,186,000. Cottonseed oil and cake rank second, with products valued in 1909, at $23,641,000; 1914, $32,715,000, and 1919, $99,320,000. Fertilizers, in third place, amounted in 1909 to $16,800,000; 1914, $29,- 046,000, and 1919, $47,480,000. Lumber and timber products were fourth: in 1909, $24,632.- 000, 1914, $22,115,000; and 1919, $43,066,000. The chief manufacturing city of the State is Atlanta, where in 1909 were 483 manufacturing establishments; in 1914, 423, and in 1919, 503, with products valued at $33,038,000, $41,279,- 000, and $113,992,000, respectively. Savannah, ranking second in industrial importance, had 135 establishments in 1909, with a product val- ued at $6,540,000; in 1914, 128 with $6,343,- GEORGIA 000; and in 1919, 146 with $18,087,000. In Macon there were 79 establishments in 1909, 70 in 1914, and 135 in 1919, with products valued at $10,052,000, $18,867,000, and $57,721,000 in those years. Education. The development of education in the State in the decade 1914-24 was marked. A notable aid in this was the passage by the Legislature of 1918 of an act codifying the school laws of the State; providing for a State Superintendent of Schools, a State Board of Education, and a State Board for Vocational Education. Laws for the consolidation of schools were passed by a later Legislature. In 1920 an act was passed providing for the physi- cal education and training of pupils; so was a compulsory school attendance law; and in the same year the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Law, giving Federal assistance to the States for vocational education, were accepted. The Leg- islature of 1922 conferred on several counties of the State authority to levy taxes for vocation- al purposes; provided for the employment and pay of county agents and home administration agents, and for the employment and payment of agricultural teachers and home economics teachers in vocational high schools. The total enrollment in the schools of the State in 1913 was 590,808; in the white schools, 360,554; and in the colored, 230,254. The total enroll- ment in the white schools in 1922-23 was 470,242; in the colored schools, 275,193. In that year the total number in the primary and elemen- tary grades was: in the white schools 411,744; in the colored schools, 272,072; a total of 683,- 816. In the white high schools were enrolled 58,498, and in the colored high schools 3121: a total of 61,619. In 1919-20, according to the census of the Bureau of Education, there were enrolled in the elementary and _ kindergarten schools 645,790; in the secondary schools, 45,- 128. No school census had been taken in the State later than 1918. The percentage of illit- eracy in the State decreased from 24.1 in 1910 to 18.4 in 1920; among the native white popu- lation, from 9.2 per cent to 6.7; among the foreign born whites, from 5.9 to 5.6; among the colored, from 43.8 to 35.8. Finance. See STATE FINANCES. Political and Other Events. Georgia re- mained strongly Democratic in politics in the decade 1914-24. “Within that period there were spirited conflicts between different factions which contributed considerable political activ- ity and excitement. In 1914, following the death of Senator Bacon, William S. West was appointed to serve out his unexpired term. The latter’s death and the expiration of the term of Senator Hoke Smith in March, 1915, made it necessary to. elect two senators in 1914. Senator Smith was reélected and Thom- as W. Hardwick, a representative in Congress, was elected to fill the term of Senator Bacon. Nathaniel E. Harris was elected governor. Po- litical events in 1915 were subordinated to the agitation in the case of Leo M. Frank, a man- ufacturer, who in 1914 was tried and convicted of the murder of a young girl in Atlanta. He was sentenced to be hanged on June 22, but an appeal was taken by his counsel to the United States Supreme Court, which refused to inter- fere, declining to order a writ of habeas cor- pus. Petitions were circulated throughout the State and other parts of the country for com- mutation of sentence, and hearings were held 530 GEORGIA by the State Prison Commission. This body de- clined to recommend the commutation of the death sentence. Disregarding this action, Gov- ernor Slaton commuted Frank’s sentence to life imprisonment. For several days the governor’s home was threatened by mobs. On June 26 he retired from office and was succeeded by Na- thaniel E. Harris. On August 16, Frank was seized in prison by a band of men, carried to an isolated spot, and hanged. This act was de- nounced by the officials of the State and by Governor Harris. The Grand Jury carried on investigations, but no clew to the instigators of the deed was found. The activities of 1916 cen- tred about the election of a governor. Hugh M. Dorsey, who had acted as prosecutor in the ease of Leo M. Frank, received the nomination and was elected. In the presidential election of this year, President Wilson received 125,831 ° votes and Charles E. Hughes 11,225 votes. The Prohibtion laws of the State were upheld by the court on Jan. 12, 1916, and on May 1 these laws went into effect, making the selling of liquor much more difficult than under the form- er law. On Mar. 22, 1916, a serious fire swept over a large area in Augusta and destroyed many business blocks and residences. The loss was over $5,000,000. In 1917 an investigation of the lynching evil was carried on by a com- mission appointed by the governor. The report of the commission declared that the number of lynchings in the State was grossly exagge- rated. On Mar. 21, 1917, a disastrous fire in Atlanta destroyed a considerable portion of the city and caused a property loss of about $5,500,- 000. Elections were held in 1918 for United States senator. Senator Hardwick was de- feated for renomination by William J. Harris, who was later elected. In the presidential vot- ing of this year, James M. Cox received 107,- 162 votes and Warren G. Harding 42,730. In 1920 Mr. Hardwick was elected governor. He took office on June 25 and promised to “vindi- cate the majesty and impartiality of the law.” In 1922 Governor Hardwick was defeated for the renomination by Clifford L. Walker, who was elected. On Oct. 3, 1922, Mrs. W. H. Fel- ton was appointed United States senator to succeed Thomas E. Watson, deceased. She was the first woman to hold such a position. The appointment was purely honorary, as the elec- tion was held for senator within a few days, and Walter F. George, former judge of the State Supreme Court, was elected, defeating former Gov. Thomas W. Hardwick and two oth- er candidates. The presidential primary elec- tions were held in the State in March, 1924. The Democratic candidates were Senator Oscar W. Underwood and William G. McAdoo, the latter winning a majority of the votes and be- ing thus assured of the 28 votes of Georgia in the Democratic convention. Mr. McAdoo was born in Georgia. Legislation. The Legislature of Georgia meets biennially, in even years. In 1918 the Legislature of June 26 ratified the Federal Prohibition Amendment, authorized the codifi- cation of school laws, provided a budget system, and passed measures providing for aid to re- turned soldiers. Departments of warehouses and archives and history were created. In 1922 the Legislature amended the motor-vehicle law, increased the tax on gasoline to $0.03, cre- ated a committee to consider tax measures, and GEORGIA amended the school laws to provide for Bible reading in the schools. GEORGIA, Soviet REPUBLIC OF. One of the three Transcaucasian republics that emerged in 1917. It is made up of the former Russian governments of Tiflis and Kutais and the dis- tricts of Batum and Artuin. Its boundaries enclose an area of 25,520 square miles; its pop- ulation in 1920 was put at 2,372,403. The peo- ple were largely Christians and belonged to a distinct racial group called Georgian. The ex- istence of this racial consciousness together with remnants of a certain political solidarity, whose inspiration centred in an 18th century Georgian kingdom, made for an advanced cul- tural outlook. Georgians, speaking a common language and possessing a tradition, looked down on the Armenian traders of the towns and the unruly Tatar mountaineers to the north. The capital, Tiflis, had a population of 346,766 (1915). Other cities were Kutais (85,151), Sukhum (61,974), and Batum (39,000). A university with six faculties was founded at Tiflis in 1918 and in the next year had 45 pro- fessors and 1500 students. Industry and Trade. Agriculture engaged. the attention of 90 per cent of the population, most of whom were a small peasantry as a re- sult of the partition of the large estates. Corn was the most important crop, though other grains received attention. In 1915 all these yielded 30,000,000 poods (1 pood = 36 pounds). Cotton, silk, tobacco, the vine, fruits, were oth- er agricultural products. Because of the prim- itive means of tillage the agricultural possi- bilities of the country were scarcely touched. After the Russian Revolution the disorganized life of the country led to a great dearth of food- stuffs, so that in 1920 the estimated deficit was placed at 21,700,000 poods in Tiflis and Kutais alone. Its economic wealth, however, was estab- lished in its mineral deposits. The greatest manganese deposits in the world, producing 44 per cent of the world’s supply in 1913, were to be found at Chiaturi in the basin of the Kuiril River. Production, which had been about 66,- 000,000 poods annually before the War, fell to 3,300,000 in 1919 but rose to 7,800,000 in 1923. Other minerals were naphtha, copper ore, coal, lead, and iron ore. It was estimated that the country had available for use in industry 4,- 000,000 horse power in its rivers. All the basic industries were nationalized by the Soviet ré- sime and the following were used for purposes of exchange in foreign markets: manganese, timber, tobacco, silk, and copper. There were 970 miles of railways. A through line, extend- ing across the country, connected Batum and Poti on the Black Sea with Baku on the Cas- pian Sea, by way of Tiflis. Branch lines ran to the coal mines of Tkhibuli, the manganese mines of Chiaturi, the mineral springs of Bor- jom, as well as to Signakh, Telavi, and the Armenian frontier. By way of Batum com- munication was possible with the whole Cas- pian country, as well as Asia Minor and Cen- tral Asia. A pipe line connecting Batum with Baku brought Europe into contact with the rich oil fields of Azerbaijan. In 1919 steamers opened regular service between Batum and Mar- seilles, British ports, Italian ports, and New York. History. After the Russian Revolution, representatives of the three Transcaucasian states gathered at Tiflis, Georgia, and there on 531 GEORGIA UNIVERSITY Sept. 20, 1917, founded the federal republic of Transcaucasia. It was inevitable, however, that the three states should go their separate ways. Georgia’s attempt to rule the destinies of the new state, Azerbaijan’s essentially Islamic out- look, and KErivan’s territorial ambitions, were the rocks on which the federal republic foun- dered. On May 26, 1918, with the Bolsheviks in Baku and the Turks in Batum, as a result of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, the federal repub- lic was dissolved. On the same day the Georgi- an National Council prociaimed the indepen- dence of Georgia. Thenceforth, to the conclu- sion of the War, Georgia, because of a compact made with Germany, remained a dependency of the Central Powers, with its ports, mines, and railways in the possession of German and Turkish forces. By the armistice of October 30 the country was cleared of German and Turkish troops, only to find itself policed by British. A British force entered Batum in December, and for presumably strategic reasons, seized the railways of the country. Control was not relin- quished, and evacuation did not come until the summer of 1920. From 1920 until 1922 affairs never remained peaceful for long. In 1919 Georgians had been menaced by General Denikin’s forces; but with the passing of this peril, in the spring of 1920, a Russian Soviet army pushed its way into Transcaucasia. Baku fell and Tiflis must have yielded too, had it not been for the distraction which the opening of the Polish campaign af- forded. Russia for the time granted Georgia peace, even promising the Batum region de- spite the claims of the Turkish Nationalists. But the necessity for a Turco-Russian under- standing with respect to a common frontier again made the region the scene of military operations late in 1920. The Turks invaded Erivan and with much bloodshed subdued the population. The Bolsheviks, following soon aft- er, overthrew the republican government and established a Soviet republic. The procedure in Georgia was very much the same. A Turk- ish army entered the country and _ occupied Batum against practically no resistance, while Russian troops invaded from the opposite di- rection and fostered Bolshevik uprisings in the towns. On Jan. 27, 1921, Georgia received be- lated de jure recognition from the Allies. In the course of a few months, however, the Con- stituent Assembly was dispersed, the Social Democratic government headed by Jordiana was in flight; and supported by Russian arms, a Soviet government, established by Mdvani in March, ruled the country. Batum was restored to Georgia by a Russo-Turkish treaty in March, 1921. In December, 1921, the young republic was incorporated with the Armenian and Azer- baijan Soviet republics into a Transcaucasian federation, with its capital at Tiflis, with Tiflis taking orders from Moscow. Thus by the end of 1921, Russia again dominated the political and economic life of her old Transcaucasian governments. This state of affairs received full legal sanction in the treaty of Dec. 30, 1922, which was signed by Russia, the Ukraine, the three Transcaucasian Soviet republics, Bokhara and Khiva, and which set up the Union of So- cialist Soviet Republics. With the treaty’s pro- mulgation, Georgia’s history as an independent political state ended. See AZERBAIJAN, ARME- NIA, RUSSIA. ; GEORGIA, University or. A State institu- GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY 532 tion at Athens, Ga., founded in 1785. The student enrollment increased from 632 in 1914 to 1618 in 1923-24. The endowment in 1923 was $435,000, and the income was $85,000 from State appropriations and $175,000 from other sources. During the 10-year period about $400,- 000 was spent on the erection of new buildings. The alumni subscribed over $1,000,000 for en- dowment and the building programme. Me- morial Hall, erected in memory of those alumni who fell and those who served in the War, was being completed in 1924 at a cost of $275,000. Chancellor, David C. Barrow, LL.D. GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY. An institution for scientific and technical edu- cation, founded in 1888 at Atlanta, Ga. It forms a part of the University of Georgia. The enrollment of the school increased from 1002 in 1914 to 1865 in the year 1923-24, the faculty from 62 to 138 members, and the li- brary from 13,000 to 17,000 volumes. A power station and engineering laboratory, and an ad- dition to the mechanical engineering building were built in 1920, the building for the depart- ments of physics and architecture was completed in 1923, and plans were approved for a building for the School of Ceramics. A campaign for the improvement of the plant netted over $1,- 000,000 in 1922. Marion Luther Brittain, LL.D., succeeded K. G. Matheson, LL.D., as president in 1922. GERALDY, Paunt (1870- ). ‘A French playwright, best known in America for two works. Aimer was produced. in New York with Grace George in 1922, under the title To Love. The Nest, adapted by Miss George from his Noces @WArgent, was played in New York in 1922. He has written much for periodicals, in- eluding Vanity Fair. GERARD, JAMES Watson’ (1867- a An American lawyer and diplomat (see VoL. IX). In 1917, on the declaration of war by the United States, he was recalled from his post of minister at Berlin and took up the practice of law in New York City. He published My Four Years in Germany (1917) and Face to Face with Kaiserism (1918). GERMAN EAST AFRICA. The largest and most important former colonial possession of Germany. It had an area of 384,170 square miles and a population in 1913 of 7,659,898 na- tives and about 15,000 non-Europeans. Euro- peans, chiefly Germans, numbered 5336. Slav- ery had existed, but in 1914 the Reichstag moved for its abolition. The chief exports were rubber, copra, ivory, vegetable fibre, and coffee and by 1910 were valued at £1,040,269, and in 1913, £1,777,552. The chief imports were pro- visions, textiles, hardware, and iron and by 1910 were valued at £1,932,938, and in 1913, £2,667,925. More than half of the trade was with Germany and was carried almost com- pletely in German bottoms. Trade passed through the ports of Dar-es-Salaam, Bagamoyo, Pangani, Kilva, Lindi, Mikindani, and Tanga, and over the Usumbara Railway (219 miles) and the Tanganyika railway (787 miles). The last budget framed by the German government (1914) called for expenditures of £1,188,500 and revenues of £825,500. Up to 1917, the Ger- man administration continued unhampered and in spite of being cut off from foreign aid main- tained its position with comfort until the Brit- ish and Belgian advances finally compelled it to flee (November, 1917). (See War In Ev- GERMAN LITERATURE ROPE, Colonies.) Governments were set up by Belgium and Great Britain in the territories occupied by their troops, but in May, 1919, the whole of German East Africa was turned over to Great Britain as a mandate territory. By agreement with Belgium (September, 1919) the provinces of Urundi and Ruanda in the north- west were ceded under mandate to the Belgian Congo. In January, 1920, the territory was re- named Tanganyika Territory (q.v.). GERMAN LITERATURE. German litera- ture in the eventful decade 1914—24 offers valu- able material to the student of national psychol- ogy. Love of the fatherland, right or wrong, had been so assiduously fostered in German homes and so methodically drilled into the peo- ple in barracks and universities, that it reached something like an ideal culmination a year be- fore the outbreak of the War, when the cen- tenary of the so-called Wars of Liberation was celebrated all over the country and commem- orated in lyrics, drama, and fiction. It was but a short step from the prevalent sentiment and sentimentality of that year to the emotional frenzy of 1914. In some works which appeared during the first half of the year a trend of thought appears which in the light of the fol- lowing summer could be called prophetic, did not documentary evidence prove that the people expected and approved the government’s plan to expand and enrich the fatherland at the expense of its neighbors. Such a work was the drama Kriegein Tedeum by Carl Hauptmann, the brother of the more famous Gerhart. His poet’s eye saw visions of what might be: in an indefinitely localized milieu a plot of diplomat- ic intrigue and domestic conflict, followed by mobilization, and ending in the horrible wreck- age of war. Some works still echoed the fes- tive patriotic notes of the centenary, as Walter Blém’s Geschichte eines Jungen Freiheitshelden and Franz Adam Beyerlein’s Das Jahr des Erwachens. But with the declaration of war the glorious past gradually gave way to what was considered a glorious present. A flood of war poetry poured forth, some of it contained in the anthology Der Heilige Krieg, which among other violently patriotic outbursts gave wide circulation to Ernst Lissauer’s “Hymn of Hate.” The spirit of the people was more or less truthfully reflected in the literature of this time of turmoil. But it should be remembered that a busy and rigid censorship promptly sup- pressed every voice of protest against the vio- lation of international law and other iniquities of the government. Only very keen observers and students of German literature were aware of the existence of such a publication as Forum, founded by Wilhelm Herzog, to which the gifted Heinrich Mann contributed, but which was quickly confiscated. Fritz von Unruh’s drama, Das Geschlecht, also disappeared from the boards. It is to be regretted that the works of Heinrich Mann, a far more original writer than his brother Thomas, and those of von Unruh, both men who have long ranked high in contemporary German letters, are unknown in America. The dramatic output of the year was unimportant. With the exception of the play by von Unruh, which profoundly stirred its au- diences, and Paul Ernst’s Manfred und Be- atrice, which appeared in book form and was warmly received, no really noteworthy dra- matic event was recorded. In fiction the vet- a ii a GERMAN LITERATURE eran Adam Miiller Guttenbrunn revived mem- ories of the German-Czech conflict in Bohemia in Deutscher Kampf. E. von Keyserling in Abendliche Hiuser gave us a new story of the effete aristocracy, and Carl Hauptmann’s Schicksale dealt with his favorite types of com- plex psychology. The most noteworthy poeti- eal products rising above the voluminous war poetry were Stefan Georg’s Der Stern des Bundes and Anton Wildgans’s Vae_ Victis. Richard Meyer published his Weltlitteratur im Zwangstigsten Jahrhundert. Ricarda Huch’s Der Dreissigjihrige Krieg and Dr. Hermann Onckens’s Historisch-Politische Auféistze were the outstanding additions to history. Nietsche was the subject of Otto Ernst’s Der Falsche Prophet, Fritz Lienhard’s Parsifal und Zara- thustra and Elisabeth Fo6rster-Nietzsche’s trib- ute to her brother, Der Hinsame Nietzsche. The second year saw no decrease of literary activity. A pathetic example of the nationalis- tic frenzy which swept off their feet intellec- tuals, and so-called lower classes as well, was Carl Hauptmann, who in Aus dem Grossen Kriege had the bad taste to make the ruins of a Belgian cathedral the scene of one of these one-act plays. Emil Ludwig’s Kronprinz Fried- rich was a drama dealing with Frederick the Great’s tragic youth. The most popular play was Schoénherr’s Weibsteufel, which subsequent- ly found its way to America. In the unabated flood of war lyrics only the proletarian poet of Vienna, Alfons Petzold, sounded a broadly hu- man note. But the year saw the début of one who has since risen to the foremost rank, Franz Werfel, who published his Hinander. Fiction was represented by Wolzogen, Bartsch, Geissler, Lucka, Felix Salten, and others, among them Carl Bleibtreu, who from his safe retreat in Switzerland sent out his Bismarck, with the bombastic subtitle, “A World-Novel.” The most important purely literary work was Erwin Rohde’s Der Griechische Roman und Seine Vor- léufer. Valuable additions to biography were Ricarda Huch’s Wallenstein and Wilhelm Bode’s ~ Stunden mit Goethe. Prompted by the spirit of the time, Thomas Mann wrote his Friedrich und die Grosse Koalition, Jacob Wassermann his Deutsche Charaktere und Begebenheiten, and Hans von Helmolt began his history, Der Welt- krieg. Houston Stewart Chamberlain and Hans von Wolzogen also took up their pens in defense of the Hohenzollern policy. A voice in this wilderness was that of Annette Kolb, a Ger- man-French writer, who in her essays Wege und Umwege arraigned the German press for sowing hatred among the nations. The anonymously published protest J’accuse was confiscated, and Hermann Fernau’s Gerade weil Ich ein Deut- scher Bin had a similar fate. As the great slaughter continued in the fol- lowing year with no end in sight, literary pro- duction in Germany showed a slight decrease. In drama, concessions to the spirit of the time could be seen in Sudermann’s Die Entgdétterte Welt, Schénherr’s Volk in Not, and Wedekind’s Bismarck. In fiction one novelist, Eduard Stil- gebauer, won the distinction of having his war story, Inferno, confiscated. Helene Bohlau wrote a charming story of the Goethe period, Der Gewiirzige Hund, Gabriele Reuter Das Neue Land, Georg Hermann another story of old Ber- lin, Heinrich Schoen, Jr., Gustav Meyrinck Der Golem, which was later seen in America on the screen, and Max Brod a story of Kepler’s time, 533 GERMAN LITERATURE Tycho Brahes Weg zu Gott. The lyrical war madness continued, but in an anthology of that year, entitled Vom Jiingsten Tage and contain- ing contributions from the youngest generation, a new spirit struggled for expression, and a new personal note was struck by Franz Werfel. Critics and historians seemed to have lost some of the vaunted German NSachlichkeit and objec- tivity, for Dr. Ernst Elster’s Deutschtwm und Dichtung and Dr. Rudolf Eucken’s Die Trdger des Deutschen Idealismus can hardly be ranked among valuable contributions to criticism. The most interesting work in that line was Dr. Heinrich Nohl’s Typische Kunststile in Dich- tung und Musik. Valuable for history of the drama were Ernst Possart’s Erstrebtes und Erlebtes and Dr. Heinrich Stiimcke’s Vor der Rampe. Noteworthy essays were Alexander von Gleichen Russwurm’s Der Narrenturm, Hein- rich Lhotzky’s Vom Heiligen Lachen, and Emil Lucka’s Grenzen der Seele. The aged Ernst Haeckel contributed to war literature Welt- kriegsgedanken wtiber Leben und Tod, and the erratic Polish author Stanislaus Przybyszewski, once identified with the Young Germany of the 1880’s, showed his peculiar attitude in Polen und der Heilige Krieg. Thus literature moved on until the year when America’s entrance into the War was to turn the tide. The spirit of minority of German and Austrian authors manifested itself in the found- ing of Neues Vaterland, a publication which was to continue the policy of the suppressed Forum. Among its contributors were Dr. Ru- dolf Goldscheid; the Viennese economist, Wal- ter Schiicking, and Kurt Eisner; its: pamphlets were widely circulated in Switzerland and wherever the German censor could not inter- fere. Dr. Alfred Fried, the pacifist, published his Kampf um die Vermeidung des Weltkrieges and Annete Kolb her Briefe einer Deutschfran- zosin; Hermann Fernau continued his brave protest against modern German tendencies. The greatest dramatic success of the year, after the suppression of von Unruh’s Das Geschlecht, was Stefan Zweig’s Jeremias. Two ‘younger playwrights, Walter Hasenclever and Georg Kaiser, came into prominence. The fiction out- ut was meagre. But Karin Michaelis, the anish-German writer, published a _ thrilling _story of the wanderings of homeless Polish war victims, Opfer. The poets who had most vocif- erously joined in the war ery before seemed now to have lost their voice. Only Max Pul- ver’s epic Merlin, Walter Hasenclever’s Tod und Auferstehung, and Bruno Frank’s Requiem de- serve mention. Literature, criticism, and his- tory fared no better. It is noteworthy that Wahle in the Goethe Jahrbuch called attention to Goethe’s French sympathies. Ricarda Huch published a study of Jeremias Cotthelf, the vil- lage novelist. Dr. Adolf Stern’s seventh vol- ume of his Geschichte EHuropas appeared, cav- ering the period from 1848 to 1870. Thomas Mann, true to his Prussian sympathies, wrote a new biography of Frederick the Great. The year of the Armistice saw literary pro- duction at its lowest ebb, but it witnessed the publication of such works as Hermann Fernau’s Wie Deutsche Geschichtsschreiber einst Urtei- len Werden, Dr. Wilhelm Miihlon’s Die Ver- heerung Europas, and Prof. G. F. Nicolai’s Bi- ologie des Krieges, which did much to open the eyes of thinking people. No great premiére was recorded on the German stage. The older gen- GERMAN LITERATURE eration was represented by Arthur Schnitzler’s Die Schwestern, founded on an episode in the life of Casanova, and Carl Hauptmann’s trilogy, Die Goldenen Strassen. Of the younger men, Georg Kaiser scored a success with Von Morgen bis Mitternacht, a play in the popular “kino” style, which was given by the Theatre Guild in New York; a performance of Paul Ernst’s Man- fred und Beatrice confirmed his claim to a place among leading German dramatists of the day. The outstanding works of fiction were Gerhart Hauptmann’s Merlin, E. von Keyserling’s vol- ume of stories, Im stillen Winkel, and novels by the Swiss writers Ernst Zahn and J. C. Heer. Little poetry deserved mention except Wilhelm Schmidtbonn’s Der Wunderbaum and Emanuel von Bodmann’s Schicksal und Seele. A collection of the critical writings of Paul Schlenther was the most important publication of its kind. Among the biographies and mem- oirs were Dr. Karl Lamprecht’s Kindheitserin- nerungen; among the volumes of correspond- ence, La Mara’s Letters of Liszt; and among historical works Dr. Alfred Friedjung’s Auf dem Wege zum Weltkrieg. War literature, de- creasing in volume, was represented only by Eberhard Bucher’s Kriegsdokumente. After the Armistice a change of spirit might have been expected. Those who held optimistic views on the subject were disappointed. Self- righteous pride in what Germany had shown the world, although it did not attain the goal of its ambition, became the keynote of an avalanche of war books. Count Czernin’s Im Weltkriege opened the procession. But men like Walter Rathenau were beginning to be heard; his little books, Nach der Flut, Der Kaiser, and Der Neue Staat, reflected a saner spirit. Dr. Kurt Mtih- sam published a book with the significant title, Wie Wir Belogen Wurden. Otherwise the fall of the old régime failed to show any immediate effect. The most important dramatic event of the year was Richard Beer Hofmann’s Jakobs Traum. Sudermann’s Das Héhere Leben added one more to his many recent failures. Schon- herr’s Kénigreich appeared in a new revised and improved edition. Wedekind’s Felia und Galathea and Elins Erweckung,- and Stefan Zweig’s Legende des Lebens made no deep im- pression. The fiction of the year showed the authors’ sudden interest in their neighbors, as in Sudermann’s Lithauische Geschichten. Lien- hard’s Westmark, Skowronnek’s Das _ Schlei- chende Gift, Soyka’s Der Entfesselte Mensch, and others. Schnitzler wrote another Casanova story, Casanovas Heimfahrt; Frenssen wrote Die Briider; Gabriele Reuter, Die Jugend einer Idealistin; and Heinrich Mann, Professor Un- rat. Noteworthy poetical productions were Christian Morgenstern’s Stufen, Schaukal’s Versen, Lissauer’s Die Hwigen Pfingsten, and Walter Heymann’s posthumous, Fahrt und Flug. A work showing the German love of re- search was Max Scherrer’s Kampf und Krieg im Deutschen Drama von Gottsched bis Kleist. War memories were perpetuated in Richard Dehmel’s Kriegstagebuch and Georg Herr- mann’s Randbemerkungen, 1914-17. The last work of the beloved Austrian, Peter Altenberg, bore the title Mein Lebensabend. A history of the Russian Revolution was published by that keen observer, Alfons Paquet. Grete Meisel- Hess concluded her thoroughgoing studies of the sex problem in a two-volume work, Das Wesen der Geschlechtlichkeit. 534 -Beltraffio to Picasso. GERMAN LITERATURE The year 1920 brought more explanations. Hans von Helmolt brought out Hin Vierteljahr- hundert Weltgeschichte, 1894-1919, and when the socialist Karl Kautsky gained access to the government archives and published some _in- criminating documents relating to the War, he attempted to discredit the evidence in Kautsky der Historiker. Literary production assumed almost pre-war proportions, but a change of spirit had not taken place. Works voicing dis- approval of the course pursued in the past or striking a note different from the prevalent self- righteous patriotism, were still rare exceptions. Among the few such can be noted Bernhard Kellermann’s story of Armistice Day, Der Neunte November, and the gruesome picture of ruin and wreckage in Bolshevist Russia, Ararat, by Arnold Ullitz. Heinrich Mann’s Der Ehr- geizige can be classed with this minority. The remaining works of fiction deserving of notice are Carl Hauptmann’s Der Morder und die Lilienweisse Stute; Bruno Wille’s Glasberg, a story of his youth; Johannes Schlaf’s Miele, Jakob Wassermann’s Der Wendepunkt, and Clara Viebig’s Das Rote Meer. In drama Fritz von Unruh created a sensation with the second work of his trilogy Platz, and Heinrich Mann with Der Weg zur Macht. The new plays by Gerhart Hauptmann, Der Weisse Heiland and Hirtenlied which was written long ago, hardly added to his fame. Carl Hauptmann’s love of far-fetched titles was evident in his new work Gaukler, Tod und Juwelier. In the poetry of the year Franz Werfel ap- peared with Der Gerichtshof, and an almost for- gotten poet of the previous generation, Hugo Salus, with Das Neue Buch. Julius Bab com- piled two anthologies Die Deutsch Revolutions- lyrik and Der Deutsche Krieg im Gedicht. Lit- erature and criticism were represented by Emil Ludwig’s volume on Goethe, Etta Federn’s Hebbel, and Dr. Heinrich Mayne’s Fontane, Among biographies and memoirs, the most im- portant was Hermann Oncken’s Ferdinand Las- salle. Gustav Frenssen’s (riibeleien belongs to books of personal reflections and impressions. ° Collections of folktales of South American In- dians, the Caucasus, Russia, and other coun- tries, were numerous during this year, and a few books of travel also rose to literary im- portance, among them Bernhard Kellermann’s Hin Spaziergang in Japan and Stefan Zweig’s Fahrten, Landschaften, und Stddte. Books of a certain ethical import were Hermann Hesse’s Zarathustras Wiederkehr, ein Wort an _ die Deutsche Jugend and Wilhelm Uhde’s singularly interesting work, Die Freude, containing lessons for a new reading of life in quotations from Schiller to Paul Claudel and illustrations from Jakob Schaffner’s Hrlé- sung vom Klassenkampf gives voice to the old socialist creed. Fritz Mauthner’s Der Atheis- mus und Seine Geschichte im Abendlande is an erudite work but hardly of wide appeal. The literature of the last three years of this decade returned to pre-war quantity and qual- ity. The writers who had learned a_ lesson from the terrible calamity brought on the world by the lust for power were still few in number, and their voices were little heeded. No new note was struck in fiction. As the group once identified with what was known as the literary revolution of the 1880’s reached middle age, their work differs little in spirit and form from the literature of the older generation which GERMAN LITERATURE they were fighting 40 years ago. One of the surviving veterans of that older generation, Adam Miiller Guttenbrunn, has written a story about Lenau, Ddmonische Jahre. But of that Young Germany of the 1880’s, only a few are producing works of striking individuality. The latest products of that group are Carl Haupt- mann’s Drei Frauen, Bruno Wille’s Hélderlin und Seine Heimliche Maid, Jakob Wassermann’s Der Wendekreis, and Johannes Schlaf’s Wand- lungen. Gustav Meyrink’s new mystery story, Der Weisse Dominikaner, bids fair to rival Der Golem. Idolde Kurz has published a new vol- ume of short stories, Legenden. Franz Werfel entered the field of fiction with Der Spielhof. The poetical output of these three years was negligible in quality, even if such names ap- peared on the record as Arno Holz, the author of Die Blechschmiede, Gerhart Hauptmann with his epic Anna, and Ciisar Flaischlen with a volume called I.n Schloss der Zeit. Only Stefan Georg’s Drei Gestinge maintains the high stand- ard of his somewhat precious style. Essays and criticism began to flourish as before. A history of Polish literature by A. Bruckner de- serves mention. Goethe and Shakespeare were continually made subjects of research and com- ment. Ejichendorf, Keller, Lenau, and others were also much interpreted. Interesting mem- oirs came from Carl Ludwig Schleich, Rudolf Eucken, and Gabriele Reuter. A work which attracted special attention was a posthumous volume, Aus den Nachgelassenen Schriften eines Friihvollendeten, by Otto Braun, who fell early in the War and is looked on as something of a literary prodigy by German critics. Eduard Fuchs has added to his books on caricature Die Juden in der Karrikatur. Among the many volumes on contemporary history, both the ex- Kaiser’s Gestalten und Hreignisse and the ex- Crown Prince’s Hrinnerungen received more pub- licity than they merited. The same can be said of the explanatory volumes by von Tirpitz, von Ludendorff, von Moltke, and others, which were supplemented by innumerable booklets and pam- phlets of a more or less incendiary and provoca- tive character, describing the future destruction of France, the next war, etc. To this category belongs also the booklet by Hermann Scheffauer, a German-American who took up his residence in Berlin during the War and wrote Blood Money: Woodrow Wilson and the Nobel Prize. In drama alone, German literature of the last three years of the decade shows some signs of a revival. The older generation had no share in it. Gerhart Hauptmann treats an Aztec sub- ject in his Indipohdi; in his Peter Brauer he returns to his former manner. Schonherr, be- coming almost too prolific, followed his grue- some Kindertragédie, which scored a deserved failure in New York, with two plays in lighter vein, Vivat Academie and Maientane. Wede- kind’s posthumous Die Junge Welt and Fulda’s Des Esels Schatten failed to make any profound impression. Anton Wildgans began a trilogy in his Cain, to be followed by Moses and Chris- tus. Trilogies being in order, Sudermann, too, was presenting one under the title of Das Deutsche Schicksal. But not one of these writ- ers seems to have been deeply enough stirred by the great cataclysm to have conceived new ideas about the world and mankind or to have seen the problems of life in a new light. This was reserved for three men who only during these turbulent years came to the fore: Fritz 535 GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA von Unruh, Franz Werfel, and Ernst Toller. Of the older generation, only the Austrian Karl Kraus, who spent his life in fighting the cor- ruption of the Viennese press, dared to expose the dastardly policies of the Central Empires in a tragedy called Die Leteten Tage der Mensch- hett. Fritz von Unruh had made his début about 1910 with a play called Offiziere, which was fol- lowed by Prinz Louis Ferdinand, and the novel Opfergang. Stiirme, a play of his youth, was rewritten. Then followed his trilogy consisting of Das Geschlecht, Platz, and Dietrich, the pro- logue of which, Rosengarten, is a most remark- able piece of writing and proved dramatically effective. The works of von Unruh, with their philosophical outlook and broadly human sym- pathies, found warm admirers among French critics. Franz Werfel, too, proved at the very outset of the War that his vision was not to be dimmed. His early verse and fiction were over- shadowed by the originality and power of his dramas, Spiegelmensch and Bocksgesang. The latest of these remarkable newcomers is Ernst Toller, a young idealist whose participation in the communist uprising in Munich sent him to prison. He at first saw man collectively, as in that stupendous drama Masse Mensch, and also in the Maschinenstiirmer. His next work was Der Entfesselte Wotan, but his latest, Hinke- mann, proves that he does not lack the gift to limn an individual’s tragic fate. The plays of these three men, as also the latest lyrical prod- uct of Franz Werfel, Schwalbenbuch, make them the protagonists of a new spirit in Ger- many. GERMAN NEW GUINEA. A former ter- ritory of the German Empire in the western Pacific. It fell to Australian troops on Sept. 12, 1914. The Treaty of Versailles partitioned the islands of the territory as follows: those north of the equator, the Caroline, Marshall, Pelew, and Ladrone Islands, with the exception of Guam, to Japan under mandate; those south of the equator, the Bismarck Archipelago, the German Solomon Islands, and Kaiser Wilhelms- land (on New Guinea) to Australia; and Ger- man Samoa to New Zealand. See PACIFIC OcEAN ISLANDS and NEw GUINEA. GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH. See PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES. GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA. For- merly the oldest German colony in Africa, but since 1920 a British mandate territory, admin- istered under the name of the Southwest Africa Protectorate, by the Union of South Africa. It had an area of 322,400 square miles, and in 1913, a native population of about 200,000. Whites, mostly Germans, numbered 14,816. The colony was of particular value to Germany because of the ease with which white colonists could be acclimated. Cattle raising, gold, dia- mond, and copper mining were the leading ac- tivities; the exports in 1912 were valued at $7,734,762. The imports, made up of foodstuffs, iron and iron products, textiles, ete., were worth $9,290,330. Trade was exclusively with Germany, the port of Swakopmund being its chief centre. Internal routes of communication were over the Otavi Railway (417 miles), Swa- kopmund-Windhoek Railway (237 miles), Northern Railway (314 miles), and Southern Railway (339 miles). For administrative pur- poses, the budget of 1913 balanced at $7,804,- 258, of which a little less than half, or $3,481,- GERMAN WEST HUNGARY 226, had to be furnished as an imperial subven- tion. Under General Botha, leader of the Un- ion of South Africa forees, the German admin- istration was compelled to flee the country, so that by July, 1915, the British occupation was complete. Germany renounced her sovereignty in the Treaty of Versailles with the result that in May, 1919, the Supreme Council assigned the territory under a mandate to the Union. On Dec. 17, 1920, the League Council approved the transfer. See War IN Europe, Colonies, and SOUTHWEST AFRICA PROTECTORATE. GERMAN WEST HUNGARY. See Bur- GENLAND. GERMANY. A federal republic organized under the constitution of Aug. 11, 1919, embrac- ing territory in Central Europe between France, Belgium, and Holland on the west, and Poland on the east. The Treaty of Versailles redefined Germany’s territorial limits and assigned the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine (q.v.) to France, a small district comprising the towns of Eupen and Malmédy (q.v.) to Belgium, North Schleswig (q.v.) to Denmark, and a large block of territory to Poland (q.v.), including parts of East and West Prussia which were made into the Danzig corridor (q.v.), and some parts of the territory of Upper Silesia (q.v.), which were ceded to Poland in accordance with the decisions of a committee appointed by the League of Nations after a plebiscite held in the district in 1922. The Saar Basin (q.v.) was handed over to the administration of a commis- sion appointed by the League of Nations, and a plebiscite to be held at the end of 15 years was provided for to decide the sovereignty of the territory. According to the figures of the census of 1910, the area and population of Germany were: Inhabi- Area in Number of tants sq. km. inhabitants per sq. km. German pre-war area 542,622 64,925,993 120 Ceded territory 70,588 6,476,200 92 The estimated total of the population of Ger- many on July 1, 1914, was 67,790,000. The census of Oct. 8, 1919, on the basis of territory as of Jan. 1, 1923, showed: Inhabi- Area in Number of _ tants sq. km. inhabitants per sq. km. German present area 472,034 59,852,682 UpAy/ Occupied territories only 36,674 10,710,166 292 The estimated total of the population of Germany on Jan. 1, 1928, was 62,281,000. Overseas emigration from Germany via Ger- man and foreign ports was as follows: 1913, 25.843: 1920, 8548; 1921, 23,451: 1922, 36,527; 1923 (11 months only), 101,320. In pre-war years the rapid industrial expansion tended to prevent the large emigration which had char- acterized the early part of the nineteenth cen- tury. Figures for the year 1923 would seem to indicate a revival of emigration from Ger- many. This was of particular significance as an indication of living conditions within the country. According to the occupation census of 1907, the total number of wage earners was 30,- 232,000, of whom 27,274,000 were in the post- war territory. This included all persons en- gaged in any kind of occupation and those liv- 536 - GERMANY ing on their own means, such as pensioners, pu- pils, institutional inmates, etc. The number of workers in agriculture and forestry for the post-war territory of Germany was 8,554,000; in mining and industry, 10,451,000; in trade and transportation, 3,229,000; in personal serv- ices, 431,000; in government employ, 1,511,000. The number of workers of 1924 in agriculture and forestry was about identical with that of 1907; that in mining and industry increased by about 20 per cent, and in trade and transporta- tion by 20 per cent. A decrease took place in the number of government employees through the abolition of compulsory military service, thus decreasing the army from 800,000 to 100,- 000 men. The total number of persons occu- pied in Germany was, in 1924, about 33,000,000, of whom 16,000,000 were workmen. Agriculture. The total area in 1914 was 94,109,836 hectares. The area of the ceded ter- ritories amounted to 7,021,287 hectares, leaving a post-war area of 47,088,549. The 1924 area, inclusive of the Saar Basin, was divided as fol- lows: arable soil, 21,589,043 hectares; horticul- tural land, 478,586; grass land, 5,358,734; pas- ture, 2,288,984; fruit orchards, 48,885; vine- yards, 70,187. The entire arable land available for agricultural purposes was thus 29,854,419 hectares. Forests amounted to 12,699,875 hectares, and barren area used neither for agriculture nor forestry, to 4,534,255 hectares. The following indicates crops before and after the War (area of cultivated soil in hee- tares) : SS SS SS SR Per cent 1923 1923 Increase Crop Area in Area in or Decrease Wheatid, 01s.. Sahn 1,974,098 1,478,417 -11.8 SpeltPrmepn fe whee 272,493 128,471 -—52.8 Rye bio Geos 6 ae 6,414,143 4,366,481. —17.0 Spring barley!" 22. ; 1,654,020 1,193,350 -13.6 ats SERRE. 2)..ckER.e 4,438,209 3,344,705 -—14.8 Potatoes elas. ite 3,412,201 2,726,859 — 2.7 Supar) sbeets pee eee 569,082 383,557 —17.8 Fodder’) Beets re uae 1 iat oan 756,559 BM, 2 Fodder grass ...... 8,162,055 7,673,467 — 6.7 Crops in Tons Wheat). fitd te on ace 4,655,956 2,896,814 -28.4 Spelt hee cehe olerslee terse 438,469 159,270 -63.6 EVO te AAR ALE. Speed 12,222,394 6,681,622 -—34.1 Total bread grains .. 17,316,819 9,737,706 -—33.4 Spring jbarley “208 3,673,254 2,126,846 -—-—30.0 Wats Gitta hiasicls toe eae 9,713,965 6,106,776 29.1 Potatoes: yi elses ae 54,121,146 32,580,553 —26.0 Sugar) beets VtU2 ke 16,918,782 8,695,722 -37.8 woader. Abeats,” Fi cet wat hs Gene 2LO6GAIO1L4A Teele LAY ties sis bee eee 42,029,032 34,517,991 — 6.4 Crops in Tons per Hectare Autumn wheat 2235 1.97 -18.3 Spring wheat ..... 2.39 1.90 —20.8 Speliny hal AAR eee an abeoyil 124 23.0 Autumn rye ~~ ..... 1.92 1.54 —20.6 ppring’ rye i cit 1.34 1.18 —12.6 Spring barley ..... 2.22 alg —19,1 Oatse its eet ee e 2.19 1.83 -16.8 Potatoes. saree. cpse 15.86 11.95 —23.9 pupar ‘beets hey. tel A. 29i73 22.67 —24.4 Lay: | see ab eee) og 5.15 4.50 —12.3 The following indicates live stock before and after the War: Animals Dec. 1, 1913 Oct. 1, 1923 Horses. we erate 4,558,329 3,650,808 (Dec. 1, 1922) Cattle ()). See 20,994,344 16,652,831 Swine .titwel.: 25.659 940 (17,225;855 Sheep fk has, 6 5,520,737 6,094,022 FOALS fee oe tes 3,548,484 4,658,607 Poultry Vito. 82,163,922 65,204,617 (Dec. 1, 1922) THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 20 40 60 80 100 SCALE OF KILOMETERS 40 80 120 160 Important towns are shownin heavy face type, mn ob fei 4 . : HIDDENSEE? Railways shown thus cccoe Canals as 5 oo : Darsser Ort a ~ Dabrow® \ Ke BZ0W8 09 cs arnot—] ie 1 Pilzno° Botzowo 7 \\Schontliese [ eae Nee Wee (7 BERLIN Pausit 4% Wansdorf Schionware 7 Hanna / Glienicke J AND VICINITY aa H 7 Nek » —_ Lf ws. » wal 4, ranzosich < = al ow Bucholz {ff 5 HE; enper , * piegdort 48 >So I on ae a Dede yd Heh eGhtowll re, yi) ee Fabrlang ~ Fischbeck H AE aes ms AYalibic =~! Kladoy pOvelgonne _—_Eissendo: ON ri QA HAMBURG AND VICINITY SCALE OF 1AILES 2 4 iHE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS GERMANY 537 GERMANY The increase in number of sheep and goats re- Toad sai rane . . cles « ae flected the lowered production of grains for an- @rain and Fodder (in, Hundtedi/kilageame) imal feeding and more especially the decline in WOT? «ni pha\gon e- hd ae 3,525,418 5,395,928 imported animal foodstuffs, such as cottonseed ater See rene ar ae ty 8 ee : .s po cee WAR EAE ASL a io 32,382, 2,670, meal. Sheep and goats require a minimum of Geta eee fie PPO 51050223 905 664 imported animal foodstuffs. The number of CTT at hoi ghey Sb, ogo ahadic 9,186,450 10,854,161 live stock slaughtered showed a considerable de- ML OUMGMET ainte ssi x des 4m Salans 1,390,543 358,624 y 9 ‘ Live stock (number) crease in 1923 as compared with pre-war fig- Tomaatehied. 4 Pt 143.586 44.216 ures. Oxen were slaughtered to the number of Cattlagy aie 1s Mohs Jo, G. eo ker We: clot a ehh ater el iret te fe fet Gs smelting mixed undertakings........... ©, {0 81.09 eo!) Lvir 9.uPi To. (pi ak 10 |e ql patel s se) ee ae ye. oe. 5) ke wee -0| ‘el fe WMS, el ee he Mele elle Prete se oe > aon & io ie) @ Of 6) 0 0 fells 6) % vie lete. + « eda qe pitle 4 bipy Skt # lev es) 5 he ee Gh ole) m6, wm, 0.0 c6 eye. oe obs tis) s Je) ofels be ene ms @l eo) ® siele) elie, Al ine es d jote Foyle 0 ple io ss genults Hop's si 67 odig sa WONG fe! eo OE bag Ad fer sl ce ©. ©, shake @)¢ 8 chdie hs! @ o S¥e eo st fylels o@ « ose, eel el lial’. che 0 ie aE os ee oe! ees ee ak © aos ape re) @) ome, © elite le vei) @ fy 6] 6 Sein © et8 = we S «Teg «fee bb) © ovlede ope (erie B levers Ce © aie fefetic «bis (6) @ hel Pie fs « O60 24,0) 01d oy Oy ON, a) © gee [el ofits ene co. 6) 8) © fe alia ie 5 e Totaly 2G He SPR o8. 2) Rigen. Pe Oa 1913 1923 ; Joint stock Limited Li- Joint stock Limited Li- companies ability-cor- companies ability-cor- porations porations Soghl os tote) aR 4 115 36 401 +. oletenetetewens 21 59 40 119 ety Biche etalk 22 475 369 1,031 St SES OC 38 3 57 23 Bo iat hn oh can 366 2,050 737 3,310 AG Oe 6) 3 cris 172 1,105 670 3,123 sogstah is «aes 618 2,834 1,952 7,641 BM cd 5 eM 172 932 557 2,371 arene nave ys a 157 419 355 1,081 Pane Ais Was oh 382 642 842 1,773 ae 107 374 264 702 eS asetene BUS. c 66 269 237 768 = Ae ust mane 67 769 542 2,576 Meier he 951 2,082 1,549 3,811 dst tons some 20 288 355 1,337 5 97 9 132 Batic 72 1,038 267 2,035 . aR ae 127 1,068 407 3,554 iho uetomelals gs 835 9,409 4,145 30,874 Sg 143 25 462 260 oh Ae ae 500 825 605 1,982 - ' natehere ere 68 Tak) 110 907 SEO A Oars 61 331 71 594 OL onset 311 862 397 2,336 pare as! Boe 5,486 26,790 15,035 72,741 The German mercantile marine, including steam and motor vessels, amounted in 1914 to 2090 ships with 5,134,720 registered gross tons. In 1923, the number of steam and motor vessels was 1745, amounting to 2,509,768 registered gross tons, a decrease of 51.1 per cent. In 1913, 1,181,000 ships were in course of construction in German shipyards for German _ account. These amounted to 1.460,041 tons. For foreign account there were 257 vessels under construc- tion, amounting to 69,926 tons. In 1922, there were under construction for German account, 1253 vessels with a registered gross tonnage of 1,393,225, and 100 vessels with a_ registered gross tonnage of 102,470 for foreign account. GERMANY The number of seagoing vessels entering Ger- man ports in 1913 under all flags was 115,$ 966, of which 26,637 were under foreign flags. "The total tonnage was 34,772,177, of which that un- der foreign flags amounted to 13 ,940,835. Ves- sels clearing amounted to 117,375, of which 26,- 919 were under foreign flags. The tonnage was 34,921,806, of which ‘foreign flags accounted for 13,645,219. In 1922, vessels entering German ports numbered 59,427, of which foreign flags amounted to 12,954. Tonnage was 26,487,601, of which 16,208,403 were under foreign flags. Vessels clearing in 1922 were 61,311, of which foreign flags were 13, 100. Tonnage was 26,349,- 792, of which foreign flags amounted to 16,260,- 488. Commerce. exports and The following gives German imports for 1913 “and 1922 by principal classes (value in millions of gold marks) : 1913 1922 IMPORTS Animale Uvingwl ti 0 Pi eset BL 289.7 81.6 MoodWandhdrink$ 4626 «. sileae. 2,796.5 1,292.9 ae iiee INALCEIOUS ede 7 blake. of ofsiaists 4,997.1 2,829.2 Articles partly manufactured... 1,263.3 986.4 Articles wholly or mainly manufac- Gited Bee nek ee be se SG detec fi 1342231 aR ala lrsey Goldman Silkvens wera. ers aldo ok 437.4 8.7 TOULAISE Pesta te ee eee 11,206.1 Grote EXPORTS Animalsgi livin ews. hs ies errs bes 7.4 12.3 WOOO ATICs OT Keene eta os asc 1,068.7 PAO bE a Wea IOAterigige to eaecions eter ete 1,300.7 SOS Articles partly manufactured 939.8 498.8 Articles wholly or mainly manufac- TANTO CIRM Pha ere, bag er chive const atsa che 2 %a 6,778.3 5,104.7 Goldvandsstlvertc .- this aes oe os Ooad 18.8 Totals ees ee ae. se 10,198.6 6,199.4 A comparison of leading German imports of goods in 1913 and 1922 follows: Per cent increase 1913 1922 or decrease (in thousands of metric tons) Coglmeeet acest ae 10,540.1 12,598.4 + 19.5 Coke Sa eas. 594.5 288.8 — 51.4 TMioniten hlaye 6,987.1 A, Ohbud + 71.2 EOnie OF Oke ssc. 14,024.3 a) ECO a Seve — 21.5 Tron balls and in- OtgeM NISHA 27... 11.0 325.2 + 2,856.4 Pic evronmy ie cols 124.3 294.3 + 136.7 ned ee Aare 4 146.7 + 36,575 Sale aterm rc ore ce 21.4 4 — 99.0 Chile saltpetre 774.3 31.5 — 95.9 Artificial fertilizer 562.1 344.8 ——=. 38 7 CGttO Das ie 477.9 2260 — 47.2 Cotton goods 42.6 83.1 + 95.0 Rye Gees See So2t0 539.6 + 53.1 Wheater sf. cfs hs 2,546.0 1,392.6 — 45.3 Bar leyaartre-l a: sac: 3,238.2 267.0 — 91.8 Oats, sere cr teen 505.0 90.6 — 82.1 Potatoes > Fides. 288 382.1 167.6 — 56.1 Beet sugar ...... at 111.9 + 111,800. 0 Coffee jnizeuiee ks 168.3 36.8 — 78. Fresh herring 129.8 45.5 — 64. Salted herring in barrels i) 3843 1,298.1 931 — 28.3 A similar comparison of German exports for 1913 and 1922 shows a decrease in all items with the exception of salt and salted herrings. Currency and Credit. The circulation of paper money in 1913 amounted to 2,100,000,000 paper marks in Reichbank notes, 110 ,000, 000 in currency notes, and 140,000,000 in private bank notes, a total of 2,400,000.000 marks. Specie in circulation totaled 3,700,000,000 marks; a grand total of specie and paper money of 6,100,- 000,000 marks was in circulation. In 1923 the number of Reichbank notes in circulation was 74,941,738,917,400,000,000. Private bank notes in circulation were 13,063,445,500,000,000 marks, making a total of paper money in circulation 539 GERMANY Per cent in- crease or f 1913 1922 decrease (in ae ands of metric tons) OES A Re Sioa 4,598.4 — 85.4 Comereer sk ck ae 6.438 908.2 — 85.9 Tronttore: )) 65 O00, 2,613.2 LT3e1 — 93.4 igen r Omi: si:s ists seeds 782.9 157.8 — 79.8 Iron balls and ingots 700.8 102.1 — 85.4 Tron girders’... 446.9 38.8 — 91.3 Iron bars and shaped iron ..... ala Ny Gs WE 473.5 — 59.6 FUSIIS\ Ween ee ee eg 300.8 286.1 — 42.9 Balt weet eee. 432.1 963.5 + 123 Sulphate of potash 133.4 85.2 — 36.1 Potash and other Miner seltsiy os. fact 1,676.2 OTS8F1 — 45.5 Artificial fertilizers 1,029.4 19.4 — 98.1 Aniline and aniline VCS min sagehs cls Surhdbons le 39.2 — 45.3 Woolen goods ...... 74.4 33.9 — 54. 4 Cotton ro0ds’) 5.6 85.8 35.6 58.5 DOU oly apes eicud Cie anette 934.5 2 99.8 Wie a tetas crated aia care ee Spo. 4.3 =—- 992 Oatseeeditel irs. «tae 661.7 5.6 — 99.2 Potatoes *? ss ae oe Bo2LD 67.2 — 79.8 Beets isurarrt hoi. os EL0.1 12.5 — 98.9 Fresh sherringsea: aa. . 10.8 8 — 926 Salted herrings in barrels) esi ee Vs: 204.5 + 4,163.6 at the end of December, 1923, of 74,954,802,394,- 900,000,000 marks. The value of this currency in gold marks was calculated as 722,000,000 on Dec. 31, 1922, figure one gold mark as equal to 1,000,000,000 paper marks.’ Average monthly clearings of the Reichbank in 1913 were 6,100,- 000,000 marks. In December, 1923, there were 197,553,153,600,000,000 marks; expressed in gold marks, 1,109,500,000. The circulation of stable currency in Germany on Dee. 31, 1923, expressed in gold marks, was 1,049,100,000 Ren- tenmarks, 240,000,000 gold loan notes, 141,900,- 000 emergency railway notes, and 234,700,000 gold loan emergency currency, or a total of 1,- 665,700,000 stable value currency. The average amount of Treasury bills held by the public in 1922 was 135,400,000,000 paper marks. Priv- ate deposits with the Reichbank average 80,700,- 000,000. The depreciation of the German paper mark was accompanied by a rise in domestic prices; on Jan. 2, 1924, foodstuffs were 1088 times their pre-war price. Industrial goods had increased 1479.1 times in price; domestic goods, 1153.2 times; imported goods, 1579.6 times; the average for all classes of goods was 1224.3 times. The gold mark value on the same classes of goods on Jan. 2, 1924, was as follows: foodstuffs had increased 8.8 per cent above the 1913 level; industrial goods, 47.9 per cent; domestic goods, 15.3 per cent; and im- ported goods, 58 per cent, giving a general aver- age of price increases for all classes of goods of 22.4 per cent over 1913. Retail prices of certain goods in Berlin showed considerable changes from 1913 to 1923. One kilogram of rice worth 26 pfennigs in 1913 was worth 35.64 pfennigs in December, 1923; the percentage of increase was 36.9. A kilogram of yellow peas increased from 40 pfennigs to 96 pfennigs, or 140 per cent; a kilogram of potatoes from 5 pfennigs to 7.6, or 52 per cent; a kilogram of stewing beef from 180 pfennigs to 260, or 4.44 per cent; a kilogram of pork from 160 pfennigs to 320, or 100 per cent; a kilogram of butter from 280 pfennigs to 520, or 85.7 per cent; a kilogram of margarine remained stationary at 140 pfennigs; a kilogram of imported lard in- creased from 140 pfennigs to 168, or 20 per cent; a kilogram of sugar from 50 pfennigs to 90, or 80 per cent; an egg from 9 pfennigs to 21, or 133.3 per cent; a litre of milk from 22 pfennigs to 32, or 45.5 per cent. GERMANY Wages. The weekly wages of skilled labor showed the following changes from 1913 to De- cember, 1923: all workmen, 35.02 marks to 16,- 542,000,000,000 in November, 1923; miners, * from 37.562 to 18,582,000,000,000 in 1923; met- al workers from 36.2 to 29,882,000,000,000; fac- tory hands, from 32.99 to 29,040,000,000,000; typesetters from 32.84 to 25.80 gold marks; workmen in government employ, from 34.56 to 24 gold marks. Unskilled labor showed the changes from 24.31 to 14,231,000,000,000 in No- vember, 1923; miners, from 24.84 to 15,492,000,- 000,000 in November, 1923; metal workers, from 24.44 to 25,245,000,000,000; factory hands, from 26.76 to 26,590,000,000,000; typesetters, from 23.67 to 21.34 gold marks; workmen in government employ, from 23.7 to 18.72. gold marks. The nominal and real weekly wages of skilled and unskilled laborers in Berlin from 1913 to 1923 changed, in the building trades, from 43.46 marks in 1913 to 33.27 gold marks in December, 1923, which had the pre-war pur- chasing power of 29.11 marks. An unskilled laborer received 29.15 marks in 1913, and 29.61 gold marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 25.91 in pre-war currency. Skilled wood- workers received 34 gold marks in 1913 and 32.89 gold marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 28.78 in pre-war currency. Unskilled woodworkers received 24.64 marks in 1913 and 24.84 marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 21.73 marks in pre-war currency. Skilled metal workers received 42.44 marks in 1913 and 31.44 marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 27.47 in pre-war currency. Unskilled metal workers received 30.62 in 1913 and 23.52 gold marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 20- .55 in pre-war currency. Skilled factory hands received 36.18 marks in 1913 and 24.96 marks in 1923, or 21.84 in pre-war currency. Un- skilled factory hands in the chemical industry received 25.47 marks in 1913 and 22.8 marks in 1923 with a purchasing power of 19.95 marks in pre-war currency. Skilled typesetters re- ceived 34.38 marks in 1913 and 27 gold marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 23.57 in pre-war currency. Unskilled typesetters re- ceived 27.03 marks in 1913 and 22.95 marks in 1923, with a purchasing power of 24.04 marks in pre-war currency. Unskilled workmen re- ceived in government employ 34.56 marks in 1913 and 25.57 marks in 1923, with a purchas- ing power of 22.37 marks in pre-war currency. Unskilled workmen received 23.07 marks in 1913 and 19.87 gold marks in 1923, with a pur- chasing power of 17.38 marks in pre-war cur- rency. Finance. The government’s funded debt in 1913 amounted to 4,585,800,000 marks. There were, besides, 220,000,000 marks in treasury bills, making a total of 4,805,800,000 marks. In 1923 the funded debt amounted to 50,126,- 000,000; the premium loan amounted to 3,- 850,000,000; interest-bearing treasury bills amounted to 6,482,000,000. This gave a total funded debt of 60,488,000,000 with gold mark value of $2000. The floating debt (discount treasury bills) arose to 96,874,330,250,000,000 in November, 1923. This amount was all held by the Reichbank. For debts of the German states see table in next column. The revenues and expenditures of the govern- ment for the fiscal year 1922, calculated on a dollar index, were as follows: revenues from 540 GERMANY Prassigiye gsi). 3's eabe'e s ORO hs te 3,400,000,000 Bayaria Pea. ssh). Ste Veber Gt eoe 213,200,000 SORONY Mee cere «9:8 aus fine in Same 622,400,000 WUrttemigereny, 7. . «> -\sio pre es ote 829,800,000 Baden Vee es. od. w late bint tte euereith hice cena PMMnEEEE AR) 1 ThuriInPisiee tiicsic ts ise ase. oe 218,000,000 EL esse es.) oa vant Rb eh eke oes 16,600 000 Hain Divernon «o's t. 1k ob eee te enero eo nites 3,039,200 000 Mecklenburg-Schwerin .............-.- 107,300,000 Older biotin toa oo! dsthcape pe « Btn al ware he 186,500,000 BYU S WHOM ce ce 2 +. afesecgdeasiety anety BEICaES 30,400,000 ADAG ae scot. tc eS 2 eee ener Mere ct eee 65,000 Brémen tages 2. sl NY, ie Sete eet 945,000,000 Lippevieeiieciiets): = os cabins se Ree ene 5,200,000 Li becktaemmeeisr ss <6 .\s coke este ate ee eae 190,600,000 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 0" oS tot ee ae ee tree 2,700,000 Waldeckiigmier rev... SUS ee ete eres 1,100,000 Schaumburngeippe, pynv.-< his ete ers ke! sees eee 4,300,000 PROURLEMC Tiers +s cs bo atmte ere On eIe. ee en 9,877.700,000 taxation, 1,488,100,000 gold marks; revenues from floating debt, 2,442,300,000 gold marks; from sundries, 20,200,000 gold marks; total revenues, 3,950,600,000 gold marks. Expendi- tures were: repayment of funded debt, 35,600,- 000 gold marks; interest on floating debt, 145,- 500,000 gold marks; contribution to railways, 643,700,000 gold marks; execution of Versailles Treaty, 1,498,400,000 gold marks; sundries, 1,627,600,000 gold marks; total expenditures, 3,950,600,000 gold marks. Revenues from tax- ation during the fiscal year 1922 were as follows: income, property and indirect taxes, 1,143,400,000 gold marks; export duties, 162,- 500,000 gold marks; import duties and con- sumption taxes, 449,900,000 gold marks; to- tal, 1,755,800,000 gold marks. Further analy- sis for revenues from taxation for the fiscal year 1920 showed income tax receipts of 1,214,- 600,000 gold marks; emergency contribution, 49,400,000 gold marks; turnover tax, 632,800,- 000 gold marks; other property and indirect taxes, 372,000,000 gold marks; customs, 235,- 100,000 gold marks; coal tax, 411,700,000 gold marks; other taxes on consumption, 251,100,- 000 gold marks; export duties, 344,800,000 gold marks; non-recurrent taxes, 23,700,000 gold marks. This last analysis pf taxation is based on cost of living index and not on the dollar index. On July 23, 1914, the Reichbank gold reserve amounted to 1,356,800,000 gold marks. On Dec. 31, 1923, the gold reserve was 445,700,- 000 gold marks, of which 21,300,000 were de- posited abroad. The most important German government asset was the state railway sys- tem. In 1913-14 working receipts of state rail- ways were 2,992,000,000 marks; working ex- penditures, 2,097,000,000. Total receipts were 2,994,000,000; total expenditures, 2,542,000,000, of which the expenditure for debt was 441,000,- 000; the net surplus was 452,000,000 gold marks. For the first nine months of 1923, the total receipts were 362,262,292,948,000,000 pa- per marks; total expenditures were 1,829,550,- 974,239,000,000 paper marks, leaving a net def- icit of 1,467,288,681,291,000,000 paper marks. The number of persons employed on the rail- ways, exclusive of Alsace-Lorraine, was 740,- 504 in 1913. In 1923 the number was 975,000. The number of train kilometers was 675,975,- 418 in 1913-14 and 519,190,207 in 1923, or 76.81 per cent of the pre-war figure. History. Although the War came on the German people rather unexpectedly and there Were immense popular peace demonstrations, organized by the Socialists, as long as it was only imminent, once the War had become an established fact it swept the German people in- to an orgy of. patriotism and war enthusiasm GERMANY which increased with every new victory re- ported. The great majority of the Germans re- garded the War as a struggle for their national existence, and the manifestoes of the Emperor and the other German sovereigns served to strengthen this belief and the patriotic ardor. Even the great Social Democratic party, con- cealing internal dissension regarding the War, supported the government from the start, and in conjunction with the other German parties, voted on Aug. 4, 1914, for the first war cred- its. On Sept. 9, 1914, the Socialist leaders protested against the anti-war activities of the International Socialist Bureau, and on Decem- ber 2, the Socialists in the Reichstag voted for a second war credit. The government made ef- forts to keep the support of the Socialists and granted certain internal measures for which the Socialists had clamored a long time. This un- divided support of the government on the part of the German people regardless of political opinion continued during the early part of 1915, but with the entrance of Italy in the War on the side of the Entente, in May, signs of a change in the war spirit began to appear. In March two Socialist members of the Reich- stag, Liebknecht and Riihle, had defied their party and refused to vote for the budget. In the same session, Socialists ventured to criti- cise the General Staff. In the August session, on the occasion of the debate on the war credits, the leader of the Socialists made a demand for democratic reforms and expressed the hope that peace would soon be a reality. How the un- questioning faith of the German nation in the government’s conduct of the War had given way to a critical attitude became manifest in December of the same year when Scheidemann, the Socialist leader, interpellated the govern- ment in the Reichstag on _ possible peace terms and a strong Socialist majority protested against the annexationist spirit which was ram- pant in the country. At the same time an un- compromising minority of 18 Socialists voted against the war credits. It was evident now that in wide circles of the German people it was felt that the War had lasted too long al- ready and that peace on moderate terms must be concluded at the earliest possible moment. Germans who had supported the government only because they regarded the War as one of defense on the part of Germany began to grow apprehensive of the steadily increasing appetite of the nationalists for wide annexations. More- over, the internal reforms which the people ex- pected as a compensation for their sufferings and sacrifices were not forthcoming. The most potent factor in the slackening of war enthu- siasm was the food situation, which became more unsatisfactory with every day of the War. The interruption of maritime communica- tions with foreign countries and the ever-tight- ening hold of the Allies’ blockade reduced Ger- many, Which depended on import for most of its raw materials and a large part of its food supply, to a position where stringent measures had to be taken in order to prevent the army from being impeded by lack of war materials and to save the civilian population from starva- tion. (See BLocKADE, ALLIED.) The govern- ment, as a result, set up a rigid system of cen- tralized control in economie affairs. Maximum prices for certain foodstuffs had been fixed shortly after the outbreak of the War, but the prices of food continued to rise, Drastic ac- 541 GERMANY tion soon became necessary to check the two main evils, the extravagance of consumers and the manipulation of the market by speculators. Early in 1915 all grain and flour was confis- , eated by the War Grain Association, and bread cards were introduced allowing each person a limited ration. A number of similar measures enforcing the strictest economy were put into effect during the course of the same year. At the same time provision was made to increase the cultivated area within the Empire and to curb profiteering. On May 22, 1916, a War Food Office was created, and subsequently meat and milk were rationed in the same manner as bread. In spite of these measures the situa- tion grew worse during 1916 and further action became necessary. Meanwhile the shortage of textiles led to the establishment of a War Clothing Office in July, 1916. As for the finan- cial situations, Germany attempted to meet the steadily mounting cost of the War through the issue of long-term war loans. By this system of piling loan on loan the financial indebtedness of Germany rose finally to the incredible amount of 161,000,000,000 marks. At this time little recourse was had to increased taxation, and only in 1916 and 1917 were new taxes im- posed by the Reichstag, which proved, however, quite inadequate. By 1918 German finances were approaching hopeless disorder. The ever-increasing sacrifices demanded of the German people gradually destroyed the pa- triotic harmony which had existed in the first period of the War. The disagreement between the navy department and the civil administra- tion was paralleled by conflicts between the po- litical parties. When in March, 1916, the So- cialists voted for the U-boat resolution, a mi- nority of 18 under Haase dissented and formed a new organization, the Social Democratic Labor Union, which henceforth showed uncompromis- ing opposition to the War. Further friction developed late in 1916 between the military and naval authorities and the civil administration, because Bethmann-Hollweg showed a _ certain sympathy for the democratic reforms demanded by the majority in the Reichstag and was, more- over, not at all in agreement with the military leaders as to war aims and war methods, espe- cially as to unrestricted submarine warfare. Lacking, however, in strength of character, he finally allowed himself to be dominated by the military leaders. Field-Marshal von Hinden- burg, hero of Tannenberg and idol of the popu- lace, and Quartermaster-General Erich von Lu- dendorff, who had become chief of the general staff and quartermaster-general, respectively, at the close of August, 1916, with increasing fre- queney assumed the right to dictate govern- mental policies; indeed, Ludendorff was little less than military dictator of Germany from 1916 to 1918, and his influence was constantly exerted in favor of annexationist war aims and political reaction. The Chancellor’s policy of moderation was supported in the Reichstag by a majority consisting of the Centre, the Pro- gressives, and the Social Democrats. In oppo- sition were a minority of Conservatives and Na- tional Liberals on the Right, and on the Left the small group of ultraradical Socialists. At the end of 1916 the food situation had be- come so serious that further steps had to be taken toward the strictest economy. Condi- tions were aggravated by the bad harvest of the year. Additional restrictions were put on GERMANY a number of articles, and substitutes were in- troduced, which served their purpose only inef- fectively. To offset the shortage of labor the Auxiliary Service Law was enacted on Dec. 2, 1916; it compelled all males between 17 and 60 years of age to work. The stranglehold of the Allied blockade and the resulting economic distress reduced the civilian population to a state of mind where the demand of the nation- alists and the military authorities for the im- mediate application of drastic methods of war- fare, and especially of unrestricted submarine warfare, had a powerful appeal. The great mass of the Germans hoped for a speedy ter- mination of their sufferings from these meas- ures and saw little difference between their own privations and those which the submarine war might inflict on their enemies. Few Germans had any clear conception of the possible effects which America’s entrance into the War might have. Thus public opinion drifted more and more into a spirit of desperate recklessness and swung over to the viewpoint of the General Staff. When the Chancellor, who in spite of his better judgment was by this time complete- ly under the control of the military and naval authorities, announced on Feb. 1, 1917, to the Central Committee of the Reichstag that the government had decided to pursue a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, the _ parties voiced little definite opposition. At the same time the majority maintained its desire for a speedy peace and its distrust of the govern- ment, which became clearly manifest in the great debate on war aims in May, 1917. This sentiment came even more strongly to the fore- ground during the following months because of the disappointing results of the submarine cam- paign, the energetic participation of the United States in the War, the feeling that Germany was facing overwhelming odds, and the reluc- tance of the government to grant electoral re- forms. On July 16, 1917, Erzberger, the leader of the Centre and of the majority, made a sen- sational speech in the Central Committee of the Reichstag, in which he repudiated submarine warfare and demanded immediate steps in the direction of peace. He was supported by the Centre, the Socialists, and the Democrats, the parties constituting the majority, which were now in full opposition to the Chancellor, in whose policy they had lost all faith. The par- ties of the Right were equally strongly opposed to the Chancellor because he did not go far enough to suit their extreme nationalistic tend- encies. Bethmann-Hollweg tried in vain to placate both the Right and the Left, the one by his statement in committee on July 10 that the formula of peace without annexations was not acceptable, and the other by inducing the Emperor on July 11 to issue a declaration promising a franchise reform in Prussia. He was forced to resign on July 14, 1917, and was succeeded by Dr. Michaelis, who also soon found himself in a difficult position in the Reichstag. On July 19 the Centrists, Social- ists, and Democrats carried by a majority of 90 votes a resolution calling for a peace by agreement and rejecting forced annexations and any policy of political, economic, or financial coercion after the War. The resolution de- clared, moreover, that, in case any such peace should be impossible of attainment, the Ger- mans would stand together as one man and carry on a fight for their existence. Michaelis 542 GERMANY stated that he was ready to accept the Peace Resolution “as he understood it.” This latter phrase created immediate antagonism, which developed into open hostility during the fall of the year. A cabinet crisis arose in the early part of October when Michaelis attempted rath- er clumsily, in the course of a debate in the Reichstag, to construe the connections of some of the Independent Socialist leaders with the mutineers in the navy earlier in the year into something akin to treason. This sealed Mich- aelis’s fate, and by October, 1917, all parties ex- cept the Conservatives agreed that he was im- possible. On October 23 they informed the chief of the Emperor’s Civil Cabinet to this effect and Michaelis resigned five days lat- er. His successor was von Hertling, Bavarian Prime Minister and veteran leader of the Cen- tre, who appointed the Progressive leader, Pay- er, as Vice Chancellor in Helfferich’s place. The circumstances which brought about Her- tling’s appointment and the fact that he ac- cepted the Peace Resolution as a basis for his policy led many to regard him as the first par- liamentary chancellor of Germany. Hertling promptly denied the truth of this assumption and proved the bureaucratic character of his of- fice by introducing into the Prussian Diet a franchise bill which was only a tardy step in the direction of electoral reform, and which cir- cumscribed the powers of the Lower House. While the year 1918 opened under rather fa- vorable political circumstances and with great military success, the economic situation gave little cause for rejoicing. Milk, meat, and fats were becoming luxuries. There were now wide- spread transgressions of the food regulations, and profiteering had grown apace. The stead- ily increasing antagonism between town and country made the equitable distribution of food- stuffs very difficult. Likewise the scant supply of fuel, textiles, and other materials was a se- rious problem to the authorities. There could be no denying now that the machinery of bu- reaucratic central control, which had functioned so smoothly in former times, was beginning to break in many places under a pressure which had been too heavy and too long sustained. The military successes of the spring and the benefits accruing from the Bolshevist Revolu- tion, two factors which had brought about a temporary revival of the annexationist spirit, were only a partial compensation for the grave internal situation. The war-weariness of the civilian population advanced rapidly as a re- sult of the economic distress, and with it went a hitherto unknown spirit of dissatisfaction with a government which seemed either unwill- ing or unable to improve matters and abolish abuses. The great strikes in January, 1918, had been a manifestation of this sentiment, and it became further evident through the renewed pressure of the majority in the Reichstag for a peace by diplomacy. Moreover, the behavior of the military leaders in the negotiations with So- viet Russia and the failure of the peace treaties with Russia and Rumania to lead to a general peace undermined confidence in the government still further. Erzberger, who had set himself up as the leader of the peace movement, became in- creasingly hostile to the government in spite of the fact that both he and Hertling were leaders of the same party. How incapable the govern- ment was of grappling with the internal situa- tion was made evident by its only concession GERMANY to the German people at this time, a law en- acted by the Reichstag on June 8, 1918, by which the number of Reichstag deputies for the larger municipal and rural constituencies was increased and proportional representation was provided for the election of these additional deputies. Germany’s military strength had thus far en- abled the government to restrain the movement for peace in the Empire. But in the summer of 1918 military reverses presaged an internal crisis. On June 21, Foreign Secretary Iiihl- mann, in a sensational speech in the Reichstag, declared it was no longer possible to attain peace by force of arms. It is true that the Chancellor repudiated this statement in the next sitting and that Kiihlmann was forced to resign, but during the following month came the final offensive of the Allies on the Western front, and with it the movement for peace in Germany entered its last stage. The aggres- siveness of the Socialists increased with every new German reverse, and with the defection of Bulgaria the Hertling cabinet was forced out of office. Prince Max of Baden formed a new government with a programme of radical demo- cratic reforms and peace on the basis of Presi- dent Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The grim course of events made short work of his plans. After four years of hardship and sacrifice the spirit of revolution had gripped the German people, and in the face of the impending Allied military victory their former discipline had given way to panic and to a naive confidence that by complete surrender a just peace could be obtained. At the same time the Chancellor received frantic requests from the German Gen- eral Staff that immediate application be made for an armistice, since only the cessation of hostilities could save the German army from military disaster. Events followed each other in rapid succession. The Revolution broke out in Kiel in the first days of November. A series of mutinies occurred in the navy, and the Re- public was proclaimed in the principal sea- ports. In Munich, Kurt Eisner set up a red re- public on November 7. Two days later the Revolution had spread to Berlin, and Prince Max turned the government over to Ebert, lead- er of the Socialists. The Emperor fled to Hol- land on the following day, but did not sign the abdication document until November 28. For the account of the course of the diplomacy of the Central Powers during 1914-18, see Avs- TRIA-HUNGARY and WAR DIPLOMACY, The Revolution was now in full swing. In Berlin the overthrow of the Imperial govern- ment took place without armed resistance from the monarchists. Although the revolutionary movement had been actually engineered by the Independent Socialists, and the Majority So- cialists had not taken part until the Revolution was an established fact, the latter now assumed full charge of it and steered it into rather mod- erate channels to forestall the establishment of a Soviet republic. A provisional government was formed in Berlin under the title of the People’s Commissaries, which immediately ap- pointed a cabinet consisting almost entirely of non-Socialists. Thus the machinery of govern- ment was started running and Germany was helped over the dangerous period of disorder which otherwise would have led to the estab- lishment of an ultraradical government. Mean- while revolutionary Workmen’s and Soldiers’ 543 GERMANY Councils had sprung up and assumed power everywhere in the Reich. The chief element of opposition to the provisional government was the Workmen’s Council in Berlin, which claimed supreme legislative authority for the whole Reich. In the full realization of this serious situation the government called a congress of delegates from all the councils. At this con- gress, held in Berlin on Dec. 16, 1918, executive power was delegated to the six People’s Com- missaries, who thereupon issued at once a call for elections for a National Assembly. Thus the Berlin Council as the chief element of op- position was definitely eliminated. Foiled in their designs, the ultraradicals under the lead- ership of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg organized the Spartacus League and attempted by force of arms to seize power and to set up a dictatorship of the proletariat. After minor disturbances the Spartacist Sailors’ Division started a revolt in Berlin on Dec. 23, 1918, which was subdued by the government by means of regular troops. on the following day. Prima- rily as a result of this drastic action of the government, the three Independent Socialist members in the Council of Commissaries, who favored a more revolutionary policy, resigned during the last days of December and were re- placed by Majority Socialists. In January, 1919, a new and more vigorous Spartacist in- surrection occurred which was put down by Noske, the Majority Socialist Minister of Na- tional Defense, only after sanguinary fighting in the streets of Berlin. Renewed uprisings in Berlin during March and in various other cities during April were quelled by the Reichswehr. With the close of these revolts the Majority Socialist government had weathered the threat- ening danger from the Left for the time being. The elections to the National Assembly in January, 1919, showed a great increase in the Socialist vote, although the recruiting strength of the Socialist parties had suffered considera- bly from their internecine strife. The com- bined Socialist vote was 13,750,000, against 16,- 000,000 votes for the bourgeois parties, and the two Socialist parties secured 185 seats in the As- sembly out of a total of 421. The revolutionary transformation which had occurred in Germany, and, paradoxically, the continuity of the new republican régime with the old order, were sig- nificantly exemplified in the metamorphosis of the political parties which entered the Nation- al Assembly. The German National People’s party (popularly, the Nationalists), with their 42 delegates, were simply representatives of the old parties of the Right, ie. the Conservatives and Free Conservatives; they were opposed to democracy, to Socialists and Jews, and to the Treaty; they represented monarchist and mili- tarist reaction. The German People’s party, with 21 delegates, was the emaciated but influ- ential successor of the old National Liberal party, the party of big business, and soon be- came almost a personal faction representing the coal and iron king, Hugo Stinnes.) The Chris- tian People’s party, with 88 representatives, was so clearly recognizable as the quondam Catholic Centre that the old name was used more frequently than the new. The Democratic party, heir to the old Progressive party, showed surprising strength, with its 75 representatives and distinguished leaders, one of whom was to draft the new constitution. With the addition of 10 independents, these bourgeois parties mus- GERMANY tered 236 votes in the new Assembly, as against 163 moderate Social Democrats, i.e. Majority Socialists, and 22 more radical Independent So- cialists. These returns showed clearly that the revolution begun by admirers of Russian Bol- shevism had taken a nonsocialist turn, but the danger of social revolution was not wholly averted. Fearing revolutionary upheavals in the capital, the new Parliament assembled on Feb. 6, 1919, in Weimar instead of Berlin, and elected on February 11 the Socialist Ebert as President of the Reich. Immediately after- ward a coalition cabinet, consisting of Major- ity Socialists, Centrists, and Democrats, was formed by Scheidemann. The Right, composed of the Nationalists and the People’s party, and the extreme Left or Independent Socialists op- posed the new government and did their best to block its measures. It was the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, however, which caused the first cabinet crisis in Republican Germany. Scheidemann, who by previous state- ments had committed himself to non-ratifica- tion of the Treaty, resigned with his cabinet on June 21, in order to leave the President free to take the necessary steps for ratification. After some difficulties the Majority Socialist Bauer formed a new cabinet of Centrists and Social- ists. A majority in the Reichstag, consisting of the Majority Socialists, the Independent So- cialists, the Centre, and some of the Democrats, thereupon authorized the government, on June 23, to sign the Treaty. On June 28 the Ger- man representatives duly affixed their signa- tures, and the Reichstag approved the Treaty on July 9. On July 31, 1919, the new constitution, drafted chiefly by Professor Preuss, was adopted in the Reichstag by 262 votes against 75. While it contained all the characteristic jurid- ical features of any modern constitution, it applied the democratic principle of equal rights with an almost unprecedented thoroughness and included a number of educational, economic, and social provisions which were distinctly nov- el. It was divided into two parts: the compo- sition of the Reich, and the fundamental rights and duties of Germans. The German Reich was declared to be a republic whose sovereignty was to be vested in the people. It was pro- vided that each state should have a liberal constitution and a parliament elected by uni- versal, equal, and secret suffrage. All citizens over 20 years of age were to receive the vote, women as well as men. To avoid any inequal- ity, elections were to accord with the principle of proportional representation, and the same democratic franchise was to govern elections to every German diet and municipality. The Reichstag was to be elected for four years. The President, elected for seven years by a di- rect vote of the people, was to have power to conclude treaties, receive ambassadors, etc., but declarations of war and peace were to be issued by the Reichstag, and treaties with foreign states were to be ratified by it. The Chancel- lor and the ministry were to be nominated by the President, and the former was to direct the foreign policy and to be responsible for the cabinet. The Imperial Council was to be com- posed of the representatives of the states, each of which was to have at least one vote; the votes of the large states were to be proportion- ate to their populations. The laws were to be submitted to a plebiscite if the President de- 544 GERMANY sired. Article 18, permitting the alteration of state boundaries by the national government with the consent of the population of the re- gions concerned, was one of many examples of the strongly national and centralized nature of the new government, as contrasted with the fed- eral constitution of the defunct Empire. This article was later taken advantage of to consoli- date eight Thuringian duchies and principali- ties (Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Al- tenburg, Saxe-Gotha, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, and the two princi- palities of Reuss) into a unified state of Thur- ingia (q.v.), and to unite Saxe-Coburg with Bavaria, thus reducing the number of states in the Reich from 25 to 17. The most important feature of the second part of the constitution was the article providing for the establishment of a system of industrial democracy through works councils and an economic parliament for the Reich. The latter, the Economie Council, ‘ was to give an opinion on all bills of an eco- nomic and social character and was also to have power to propose such measures. The Council, however, was not to be a legislative organ. Im- portant also was the opening provision of ar- ticle 151: “The ordering of economic life must reconcile the principle of economic justice with the aim of a civilized life for everybody.” The most unusual clause, in many respects, pro- vided that in the schools of the Reich every effort must be made to inculcate a spirit of conciliation with the other peoples of the world. In September, 1919, the cabinet was enlarged by the reéntrance of the Democrats. At the same time the Works Councils Bill was passed by the Reichstag. As adopted, the bill repre- sented a compromise and did not by any means embody the radical principles which had been originally proposed, nor was it applied without further moderating compromises, bitterly as the Socialists protested. Another important event of the legislative session was the Socialization Law with reference to the mining industry. Re- publican Germany had taken over a cheerless economic heritage from the imperial system. Aft- er the Revolution, conditions had become more desperate month by month. The debt had risen to 220,000,000,000 marks, the budget amounted ‘to 15,000,000,000 of ordinary expenditure and to 41,000,000,000 of extraordinary expenditure. New sources of revenue had to be found, and with this end in view, Minister of Finance Erzberger proposed an “emergency contribution” which amounted to a partial confiscation of wealth. The measure was passed by the Reichstag on Nov. 17, 1919, by 238 votes against 43. The application of the Peace Treaty, which went into effect on Jan. 10, 1920, caused uni- versal discontent in Germany. The Allies’ de- mands for the extradition of the war criminals, including the foremost military leaders of Ger- many, and for the reduction of the German ar- my in accordance with the treaty, were especial- ly potent in arousing national feeling which re- acted directly against the republican govern- ment. The impotence of the latter in the face of the relentless pressure from the victors served to weaken the Republic, whose position had been none too secure from the beginning. Aside from the dangerous opposition of the revolu- tionary Left, there were powerful nationalist sections which had never become reconciled to the new state of affairs and which were only waiting for an opportune moment to reéstablish GERMANY the old order. Accordingly a counter-revolu- tion broke out in March, 1920. Under the leadership of Dr. von Kapp and General von Liittwitz, the monarchists, together with dissat- isfied troops who were to be disbanded in con- formity with the demands of the Allies, seized Berlin on March 13 and set up a new govern- ment. The Republican government, forced to seek refuge in Stuttgart in Wiirttemberg, ap- pealed to the workers to declare a_ general strike. The entire trade union movement of Germany responded to the call, and the organ- ized hostility of the workers throughout the Reich compelled the counter-revolutionists to evacuate the capital after five days of undis- puted military power. The Kapp Putsch, as the counter-revolutionary attempt was general- ly called, showed clearly the lamentable weak- ness of the republican government. The only reassuring element in the situation was the strength of republican sentiment among the masses of the German people and the power of action manifested by the trade union move- ment. After its return to Berlin the govern- ment was attacked by the radical Socialists and organized labor for its weak conduct and its ignominious flight. Unable to satisfy the de- mands of the trade unions for far-reaching dem- ocratic reforms, the Bauer government fell from power on March 26 and was replaced by a new coalition government under Hermann Miiller, composed of Majority Socialists, Cen- trists, and Democrats. A direct result of the Putsch was the stricter application of demo- cratic principles to the civil service. More se- rious than the Putsch itself, which was in reality a ludicrous attempt at a monarchist revolution on the part of a few reactionaries with very limited political vision, were its in- direct consequences, particularly the revival of radical revolutionary disturbances in the Ruhr, the Vogtland, and other districts. The workers in the Ruhr organized a proletarian army against the monarchists, defeated them, and took possession of the towns and the mines. Because of the revolutionary aspect of the movement, the Berlin government was com- pelled to send troops into the district; after some bloodshed, peace and order were restored. In Bavaria the March insurrection led to the complete consolidation of the reaction which had been steadily marshaling its forces since the overthrow of the Soviet government in April, 1919. Meanwhile France had become alarmed at the presence of large bodies of troops in the Ruhr, which under the treaty had been included in the demilitarized zone, and had retaliated by occupying Frankfurt and the Maingau. Germany appealed to the League of Nations, but without avail. At the Conference of San Remo in April, 1920, the French agreed to withdraw as soon as the German troops in the Ruhr had been reduced to the required strength. The action of the French, however, and especially their firing on civilians in the city of Frankfurt, was a powerful factor in strengthening national feeling throughout the Reich. Another manifestation of the restless- ness prevailing in 1920 was the tragic shooting of demonstrators before the Reichstag building on January 13. The elections for the first German Reichstag on June 6, 1920, were unfavorable to the coal- ition. Both the Right and the Left gained as a result of the year’s events. The representa- 545 GERMANY tion of the various parties in the Reichstag was as follows: Majority Socialists, 110; Independ- ent Socialists, 80; Centrists, 67; Nationalists, 65; German People’s party, 61; Democrats, 45; Christian Federalists, 21; minor parties, 11. In view of the changed parliamentary situation a new coalition cabinet was formed by the Centrist Fehrenbach; it consisted of Centrists, Democrats, and members of the German Peo- ple’s party. The new government soon had to face difficulties in regard to reparations; after considerable wrangling, these ended with the ac- ceptance of the Allies’ demands by the Ger- mans. Each move of coercion on the part of the Allies weakened the none too stable repub- lican government. Nationalist feeling was fur- ther strengthened by the decision of the Am- bassadors’ Conference awarding a small part of the plebiscite area in East Prussia to Poland, although the plebiscite had resulted in an al- most unanimous German vote. Due to the in- sistent demands of the Allies, the Reichstag passed measures in July to bring about the dis- armament of the civilian population, the actual application of which was, however, rather dif- ficult. An important event of the latter part of the year was the disposal of the problem of socialization of mines. Of two proposals pre- sented by the Socialization Commission, the one favoring the mine owners was adopted by the joint committee of the Economic Council and the Coal Council. The measure failed to meet the approval of the miners, and nationalization of mines was abandoned for the time being. Between the Armistice and the end of 1920, the internal situation in the Reich had changed very materially. The Revolution had for the most part spent its force as far as the great mass of the German people were concerned. In place of the old aristocracy a new ruling class had arisen which was amassing vast wealth and was gaining complete control over the means of production. The workers and the middle classes were becoming impoverished as a result of the Peace Treaty and the rise of the new plutocracy. Thus Germany presented the amaz- ing spectacle of a country in which political power was directed by democratic and socialis- tic principles, but in which the real power was wielded by a few all-powerful captains of in- dustry. At the same time large sections of the people were going over to the extreme Right and Left, both of which were hostile to the Republic. Due to the Treaty and the Allies’ policy, nationalist feeling was gaining day by day and communism became more and more a factor with which republican statesmen had to reckon. Late in 1920 the majority of the In- dependent Socialists embraced the doctrine of the Third International and in conjunction with the Communists formed the United Communist party of Germany. At the instigation of this party serious revolutionary risings occurred in Central Germany in March, 1921, which the government was able to quell only after con- siderable difficulties. Meanwhile the reparations policy of the Al- lics took its course with fateful consequences for the German political and industrial situa- tion. When the German statesmen refused to accept the severe demands of the Conferences of Paris, Jan. 24-29, 1921, and of London, Feb. 29, 1921, negotiations were broken off, and the Allies imposed their “sanctions.” At a third conference, in London, May 1-5, 1921, the Allies GERMANY 546 decided on an ultimatum which forced the Fehrenbach government out of office. The new government under Dr. Wirth, consisting of Cen- trists, Socialists, and Democrats, undertook the fulfillment of the Allies’ demands. In this spirit Walter Rathenau, the German Minister of Re- construction, concluded with Louis Loucheur, the French Minister of Reconstruction, the so- called Wiesbaden Agreement providing for the delivery to France of German materials to be credited to the reparations account. The pol- icy of fulfillment, and especially the Wiesbaden Agreement, met with bitter criticism from the nationalists, particularly when the expected re- sults were ultimately not forthcoming. The government’s efforts to pay were seriously im- peded by the cataclysmic fall of the mark, and for this reason the subject of reparations came up again. The position of the government was injured still further through the remonstrances of the Allies concerning disarmament, the dis- banding of secret military organizations, and the inadequacy of the verdicts rendered by Ger- man courts against the so-called war criminals. The intensity of nationalist feeling at this time became clearly apparent through the mur- der of Erzberger by a nationalist zealot on Aug. 26, 1921. The worst blow of the year, however, and the factor which more than any other since 1918 decreased the industrial strength of Ger- many and at the same time served to fan na- tionalist feeling to white heat, was the parti- tion of Upper Silesia. The plebiscite of Mar. 20, 1921, had resulted in a two-thirds vote for Germany, whereupon the Poles, fearing a de- cision unfavorable to them, started an insur- rection. Allied troops interfered only when the German population had been given full oppor- tunity to realize that it was at the mercy of the victor. The final award of the Supreme Council, which was based on the report by a commission of the League of Nations, gave the greater and most valuable part of the Upper Silesian industrial district to Poland. On the official publication of the verdict, the Wirth government resigned, but it resumed office again after a reorganization of the coalition cabinet. (For a full discussion of the problem, see UPPER SILESIA.) The reparations problem, the cause of all un- rest and anxiety, was acute once more at the end of 1921 and assumed an even graver aspect during the following year. The Conference of Genoa in April, 1922, lost much of its signif- icance because France agreed to participate on- ly on the condition that reparations should not be officially discussed. On Easter Sunday, Apr. 16, 1922, the German and Russian delegates concluded at Rapallo a treaty whereby peace was reéstablished between their countries, and both sides waived all claims arising from the War. This pact aroused a storm of indigna- tion at the conference, which no assurance of good faith on the part of the Germans could pacify. Both Germans and Russians denied that the treaty contained any secret clauses working to the prejudice of the Allies. In May a mora- torium for the year 1922 was granted to Ger- many by the Reparations Commission, in re- turn for which the Wirth government promised to take measures toward balancing the budget, provided that an international loan was ar- ranged in due time. Subsequently a loan com- mittee, of which the American banker J. P. Morgan was a member, was formed to study the GERMANY German finances. Any constructive work on the part of the committee was blocked by the refusal of the French government to make a loan dependent on the modification of the French demands. While the reparations prob- lem was thus hanging over Germany like the sword of Damocles the country was sinking ever deeper into the abyss of political hatred and financial and economic disorder. In the sum- mer of 1922 nationalist conspirators made at- tempts to murder Scheidemann and Harden and succeeded in assassinating Walter Rathen- au, the Foreign Minister. This crime cre- ated a violent outburst of popular indignation throughout the Reich, and since it was evident- ly intended to be a blow at the Republic— Rathenau being the outstanding figure in Ger- man political life—a law for the protection of the Republic was enacted. The murder showed clearly the depths of political dissension in Germany. The foes of the Republic made the Revolution and republicanism responsible for all the misery which had descended on Ger- many. Meanwhile the mark had begun its spectacular downward movement, and in Octo- ber, 1922, the dollar exchange had mounted to 3000. The depreciation of the currency pro- voked confusion in public finances and a com- plete revolution in prices with all its disas- trous consequences. Wages and salaries could not keep pace with prices, and terrible suffer- ing befell the population, particularly the mid- dle classes. The only people who profited by this lamentable situation were the industrial- ists, the profiteers, and the farmers. The Wirth government tried vainly to stabilize the mark, and conditions continued to grow worse as the year advanced. At the same time changes had occurred in the parliamentary situation which brought about a cabinet crisis. The Majority and Independent Socialists had re-united at the Unity Conference of Nuremberg, and as a result the United Socialist party had taken a turn to the Left. Chancellor Wirth sought to recon- struct the coalition government by the inclusion of the German People’s party. To this, the United Socialists would not assent, because, not without justification, they regarded the latter party as officially republican, but unofficially and in sentiment as thoroughly monarchist and reactionary. The Wirth government fell there- upon and was succeeded by a business cabinet under Dr. Cuno. This was composed entirely of bourgeois politicians; the German People’s party was its driving force. Although the Cuno government pursued the same reparations policy as its predecessor, a deadlock soon appeared between the Reparation Commission and Germany over a comparatively small default in the delivery of coal, and as a result, the French and Belgians, in January, 1923, occupied the Ruhr industrial district. This action aroused the most bitter resentment and denunciation throughout the Reich. The occupation and the passive resistance of the local population, which was encouraged and actively supported by the German government and peo- ple, led to a revival of patriotic ardor and mon- archist activity. A still more fateful conse- quence was the rapid aggravation of the eco- nomic and financial situation. When the Ruhr, the chief centre of Germany’s economic life, ceased work, production all over the Reich was seriously impeded, and there was an_ unprec- edented increase in unemployment. Moreover, EE ——— GERMANY 547 inflation continued without interruption, because the enormous cost of passive resistance in the Ruhr necessitated an ever-increasing output of paper money. On May 31, 1923, the mark sank below the Austrian crown and collapsed com- pletely during the following months, in spite of all efforts at stabilization. The rapidity of the mark’s decline was equaled only by that of the rise of prices, with which wholesale increases in salaries and wages could not keep pace With the growing depreciation of the mark, the food situation became more alarming, since the farmers were very reluctant to exchange their products for worthless paper money. All faith in the mark vanished completely during the summer and fall, and business and labor began to make loud demands for real money. It seemed indeed as if Germany were headed for the final breakup. All these internal factors brought about the fall of the Cuno cabinet on Aug. 12, 1923; the immediate cause was the withdrawal of Socialist support in the Reichs- tag. Stresemann, the leader of the German People’s party, formed a new coalition from members of his own party, the Centrists, the Socialists, and the Democrats. The new government assumed office with the promise of taking immediate and drastic. steps to untangle the complicated foreign and domestic problems, and with this end in view acknowl- edged defeat in the Ruhr by abandoning pas- sive resistance. Likewise, vigorous action was taken in regard to the critical problems of taxa- tion and finance, and for a brief period hope was revived. But the measures adopted led to renewed difficulties with the nationalists, in- dustrialists, and communists. By means of a modified form of martial law, serious outbreaks of the extreme Right and Left were narrowly averted, but the steady pressure of the moderate Right, which objected primarily to the drastic financial reforms of the radical Socialist Min- ister of Finance, Hilfferding, forced the resig- nation of the Stresemann cabinet on October 3. Since no other chancellor was available at this particular time, the Stresemann coalition re- sumed office after Hilfferding had been replaced by a Centrist. In order to render the govern- ment more stable in the face of the extraor- dinary internal situation, a bill was passed by the Reichstag on October 13 suspending certain constitutional rights and liberties and vesting the government with extraordinary power to is- sue such decrees relative to the financial, eco- nomic, and social conditions as might be war- ranted by the situation. Such drastic meas- ures seemed necessary, indeed, for the misfor- tunes of the year culminated in November in a series of events which came near disrupting the fragile structure of the Republic. In October the Rhenish separatist movement (see RHINE- LAND) had come to a head, and in the closing months of the year the separatists in the Rhine- land and the Palatinate, who were comparatively few in numbers and recruited for the most part from the dregs of the population, succeeded, with the connivance of the French and Belgian au- thorities, in gaining possession of a number of towns. The local population, worn out by the long period of occupation, was cowed by French and Belgian military force. But once the armies of occupation, under pressure from the English and influenced by international pub- lic opinion, withdrew their support, the flimsy structure of the “Rhenish Republic” fell to GERMANY pieces; and the movement petered out in the early months of 1924. Another danger lay in the rising tide of extreme nationalism, which had found a safe haven in reactionary and mon- archist Bavaria. On November 8 the extreme monarchists in Munich under the leadership of Ludendorff and Hitler executed an abortive coup, commonly called the Beer Hall Putsch. Although the coup was easily frustrated and was in itself a rather childish affair, it served to show the extent and boldness of the extreme nationalist movement. More serious was the constant friction between the republican govern- ment of the Reich and the reactionary govern- ment in Munich. It was only through a policy of diplomacy and forbearance that Berlin suc- ceeded in preventing an open break between the Reich and Bavaria. While proceeding in the delicate Bavarian situation with the ut- most caution, the government used coercion against the recalcitrant Communist and radical Socialist governments of Saxony and Thuringia which were removed by use of the federal mil- itary and replaced by moderate Socialist gov- ernments. The summary action against “Red Saxony” and the forbearance of the government against monarchist Bavaria caused the Social- ists to withdraw from the cabinet. These de- velopments, together with Stresemann’s an- nouncement of the abandonment of all assistance to the people in the occupied regions, resulted in a vote of no confidence in the Reichstag and consequently the resignation of the government on Noy. 23, 1923. After a whole week of fruit- less endeavor a new coalition government, con- sisting of the Centre, the Democrats, the Ger- man People’s party, and the Bavarian People’s party, was formed with Dr. Wilhelm Marx as Chancellor. At the request of the new Chan- cellor, the Reichstag, by a vote of 313 to 18, gave the government plenary powers without parlia- mentary sanction for an indefinite period. The chief purpose of this act was to empower the government to take drastic action in regard to the critical social and economic situation. Late in 1923 currency reforms were inaugurated whereby a Rentenbank was established which issued a new currency token, the Rentenmark, to be covered by a hypothecation of the entire wealth of Germany. Alongside it, the old paper mark and the mark of the gold loan in August were temporarily to remain legal tender. When the Rentenmark, which was worth some- what less than a quarter of a dollar, came into circulation it was worth exactly 1,000,000,000 paper marks, but with its appearance the infla- tion of the paper mark came to a halt. As a result of the introduction of a fixed-value cur- rency, prices early in 1924 were put definitely on a gold basis and general confidence in the currency began to return. At the same time the food situation and the condition of the middle and working classes became worse for several reasons, chiefly the fall in wages and the length- ening of working hours. While the stabiliza- tion of the currency had thus been attained through the issue of the Rentenmark, the bal- ancing of the budget remained an open prob- lem. Meanwhile the Dawes Committee of ex- perts had begun its investigation of German finances, and under its indirect influence an im- portant step was taken in the direction of budget reform in January, 1924; this was the temporary repudiation of the public debt until after payment of reparations. Further meas- GERMANY 548 ures aiming at improvement of the financial situation were introduced in the spring of 1924, and as a result there was a continued recovery of Germany during the first half of the year, not only in regard to finances, but also in a general economic sense. While the food situation was still grave and there was by no means cause for rejoicing, yet it was felt that the worst was over. This feeling was strengthened by the Dawes Report (see REPARA- TIONS) and by the results of the French elec- tions in May, 1924. The Dawes Report was re- garded by most Germans as acceptable in the main, not because of its satisfactory conditions, but because it seemed to supply a basis on which in due time an ultimate accord on reparations might be reached, especially as it was backed by the prestige of the United States. Even the nationalists were not outspoken in their opposi- tion to it. The Reichstag, which had been in session for four years, was dissolved on Mar. 138, 1924, and new elections were held on May 4. The results were approximately as follows: Social- ists, 100; German National party, 96; Centrists, 62; Communists, 62; German People’s party, 44; People’s Freedom party, 32; Democrats, 25; Bavarian People’s party, 16; minor parties, 28. The outstanding feature of this election was the strengthening of the extreme Right and Left at the expense of the middle parties support- ing the Republic. It is true that much larger inroads on the republican majority had been expected; yet the coalition upholding the Re- public had been left only a narrow working majority. At the same time the German Peo- ple’s party, the parliamentary tool of the great industrialists, although nominally a member of the republican coalition, was in spirit thor- oughly monarchist. Thus the Republic rested on a more precarious basis than at any other time since its creation, if the line-up of the political parties may be taken as a criterion. As a matter of fact, matters were even worse than the parliamentary situation indicated, for many Germans who had nationalist and mon- archist sympathies voted for republican parties chiefly out of consideration for the Dawes Re- port. Ever since 1919 there had been an unin- terrupted swing to the Right and the Left. After the Armistice the republic was looked on by the great majority of the German people as established, and the monarchy was to all intents and purposes dead. But the Peace Treaty and all its dismal consequences, reparations, the Ruhr occupation, the never-ending national humiliation, and the resulting economic misery, had destroyed faith in the republic and _ in- duced most Germans to seek salvation in mon- archism or communism. In view of the large Nationalist representation the Marx cabinet re- signed after the election, and President Ebert turned to the Nationalists for the formation of a new coalition government, but the latter, who were perhaps not overanxious to assume office at this particular time, advanced such ex- treme conditions, such as the nomination of Admiral Tirpitz as chancellor, that President Ebert fell back on ex-Chancellor Marx. The latter resumed office for the time being with a coalition, consisting of the Centre, the Demo- erats, the German People’s party, and the Bavarian People’s party. With the support of the Socialists, this government had a slight majority in the Reichstag. The attitude of the GIBBONS nationalists was due primarily to their unwill- ingness to take a definite stand for or against the Dawes Report. Early in June, 1924, the Reichstag by a majority of 64 voted in favor of acceptance of the Dawes Report, and im- mediately steps were taken to draft the laws required under the plan. In the latter part of June the government of the Reich showed its willingness to accept military supervision by the Allies. These developments, together with the moderate policy announced by the new French Radical Socialist government, augured well for the gradual solution of Germany’s complicated problems. See BADEN, FREE STATE OF; BAVARIA; PRUSSIA; SAXONY; SCHLESWIG; THURINGIA; WURTTEMBERG; also NAVIES OF THE WoRLD. GEROULD, Gorpon Harti (1877- yi An American philologist, born in Goffstown, N. H. He has been a member of the faculty of Bryn Mawr and after 1916 was professor of English language and literature at Princeton. He is the author of The North England Homily Collection (1902), Sir Guy of Warwick (1905), Selected Essays of Fielding (1905), The Grate- ful Dead: The History of a Folk Story (1908), Saints’ Legends (1916), Peter Sanders, Retired, a novel (1917), Youth in Harley, a novel (1920), and other works. In 1918 he was a captain in the United States army. GEROULD, Joun Hinam (1868— ). An American zodlogist, born at Stoddard N. H., and educated at Dartmouth College and at Harvard. He was instructor in zodlogy at Dartmouth (1894-1915), assistant professor (1915-1918) and professor (1918- ). Professor Gerould published articles in zoédlogical journals on the development of sipunculids and _ holothurians, and on the genetics of butterflies and moths. GEROULD, KATHARINE FULLERTON (1879- ). An American writer, born at Brockton, Mass., and educated at Radcliffe Col- lege. She was a reader in English at Bryn Mawr, 1901-10. In addition to many articles in magazines she published Vain Obligations (1914), The Great Tradition (1915), Hawaii, Scenes and Impressions (1916), A Change of Air (1917); Mlodes and Morals (1919), a col- lection of essavs; Valiant Dust (1923), a collec- tion of short stories; and other volumes. Mrs. Gerould has been criticized as weighing down a distinct literary talent with an unbending con- servatism, which though it does not attract the masses, has a coterie of faithful admirers. GEST, Morris (1881- ). A theatrical producer born in Vilna, Russia. He came to the United States in 1893 and was educated in the public schools of Boston. He began his theatrical business in Boston and since 1905 has been a member of the firm of F. Ray Com- stock and Morris Gest in New York. This firm has produced more than 50 plays. Among its most notable successes are Haperience (1914), The Wanderer (1917), Chu Chin Chow (1918), Aphrodite (1919), and Mecca (1920). Balieff and his Chauve-Souris artists were presented to the American public by this management (1922) and the Moseow Art Theatre (1923). During the 1923-24 season it produced The Miracle under Max Reinhardt’s direction and plays starring Eleonora Duse, and Sir John Harvey. “GESTALT” PSYCHOLOGY. See PERcEP- TION. GIBBONS, FLoyp (PHILLIPS) (1887- ). _—— GIBBONS An American journalist and war correspondent, born at Washington, D. C., and educated at Gonzala College and Georgetown University. In 1907 he entered the newspaper field as a staff member of the Minneapolis+ Daily News, later joining the staff of the Milwaukee Free Press and the Minneapolis Tribune. In 1912 he went over to the Chicago Tribune. In 1917 he was London correspondent for the Chicago T'rib- une and a year later went as war correspondent to France, where he was wounded in the Battle of Chaiteau-Thierry. He was awarded the French and Italian Croix de Guerre. After the Armistice he became foreign director of the Chicago Tribune and editor of the European edition. published in Paris. GIBBONS, Herserr ApDAMS_ (1880- 1 An American author, born at Annapolis, Md., and educated at the William Penn Charter School in Philadelphia, the University of Penn- sylvania, and Princeton Theological Seminary. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1908, and until 1919 was correspondent in Turkey and in Europe for various American periodicals. From 1910 to 1913 he was profes- sor of history and political economy in Robert College, Constantinople, and in 1919 was named honorary associate professor in the Army War College, Washington, D. C. His _ publications include The New Map of Europe (1914); The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (1915, 1921); The New Map of Africa (1916); Recon- struction of Poland and the Near East (1917) ; The New Map of Asia (1919); Venizelos (1920, 1923) ; Bases of Anglo-Saxon Solidarity (1921) ; Lithuanian Recognition (with W. G. McAdoo; 1921); An Introduction to World Politics (1922); and Europe Since 1918 (1923). GIBBS, Str Puiie (1870—- ). An Eng- lish newspaper correspondent and writer. He was educated privately, and after several years of editorial work, he entered journalism in 1902. He was literary editor for several papers. He served as war correspondent with the Bulgarian army in 1912 and with the French and Belgian armies in 1914. From 1915 to 1918 he reported field operations of the British armies in France. His daily articles gave vivid and sustained de- scriptions, particularly of the human side of -war. He was knighted in 1920. In 1921-22 he was editor of The Review of Reviews. He was the author of many books relating to the Great War and of several novels. His works include The Soul of War, Battles of the Somme, The Way to Victory, The Hopé of Europe, Now It Can Be Told, More That Can Be Told, and Heirs Apparent, a novel (1924). He lectured in the United States in 1921, 1922, and 1923. GIBSON, CuHartes DANA (1867- To) JAn American illustrator (see Von. IX). During the War he did some notable work as cartoonist. Later he purchased a controlling interest in Life, of which he assumed entire charge in April, 1920. GIBSON, Hvuen_ (1883- ). American diplomat, born at Los Angeles, Cal., and edu- eated for the diplomatic service at the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques at Paris. Between 1908 and 1919 he held various diplomatic posts in Central America, England, Belgium, and France, and was a member of special committees or missions in Washington, Santo Domingo, and the countries of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1918-19, he served with Herbert Hoover in European relief work. In the latter year, he was named first Envoy Extraordinary 549 GILBERT and Minister Plenipotentiary to Poland. He published A Journal from Oun Legation in Bel- gium (1917). GIDE, Anpré (1869- ). One of the lead- ing French writers of the twentieth century, born in Paris and educated in the Parisian ly- cées. He began publishing in his twenty-first year. When he wrote his Nowrritures Terres- tres, a collection of prose poems, he had already reached his prime and was seen Vy his genera- tion to be an intellectual poet of the first order. As a novelist and an intellectual essayist, Gide showed himself a master of psychological ob- servation. In many ways he resembled Dosto- yevsky and revealed, like the Russian, an over- anxious soul groping its way. This is perhaps accounted for by his Protestant environment, which made him stand midway between the re- ligious assurance of Catholicism and the anti- clerical assurance of French rationalism. Gide, in fact, pushed his Protestanism as far as Nietzscheanism, without however abandoning his moral preoccupations. After the War, Gide was among the first to demand the resumption of intellectual relations with Germany and en- gaged in a polemic against nationalistic writers like Barrés and Maurras. His works include: Philoctéte (1890); Cahiers d’André Walter (1891); Poésies @André Walter (1892); Le Voyage @WUrien (1893); Paludes (1895); Pré- textes (1895); Les Nourritures Terrestres (1897) ; Saul (1898), played at the Théatre du Vieux Colombier in Paris (1922); Le Roi Can- daule (1898); Le Traité de Narcisse (1899) ; Prométhée Mal Enchainé (1899); Lettres a@ An- gcle (1900); L’Immoraliste (1903); Amyntas; Le Retour de VEnfant Prodigue; La Porte Etroite; Les Caves du Vatican; Isabelle (1912); DL’Offrande Lyrique, translated from Rabindra- nath Tagore; Dostoyevsky; Journal dAlissa; Oscar Wilde; La Symphonie Pastorale (1920) ; La Tentative Amoureuse (1921); and Morceaux Choisis (1922). La Porte Etroite was trans- lated into English under the title Straight Is the Gate (1924). GIDE, CHaArtEs (1847- ). A French economist, born at Uzes, and educated in law at the University of Paris. He taught at the Collége de France. An independent thinker on economic questions, Gide stimulated interest in economics as an art of social administration rather than as a science of the status quo. His Histoire des Doctrines Economiques (1909- 22) contains a penetrating criticism of the communist experiment in Russia. He takes the social ideal for granted but emphasizes the pain- ful slowness with which it must be approached. His other works include a treatise, Principes d’Economie Politique, which went through 23 editions in 40 years (1883-1923); lectures on the history of the codperatives, La Coopération (1900); Les Institutions de Progrés Social, 4th ed. (1920); and Premiéres Notions d’Economie Politique (1921). GIESE, WILHELM OskKAR FRITZ (1890- ye A psychologist and author. He studied philos- ophy, psychology, and medicine and is connected with a sanitarium near Halle. Among his prin- cipal recent works are Kulturwende (1916). Der Romantische Charakter (1919), Psychol- ogisches Worterbuch (1920), Psychologische Nor- mung (1920), and Wesen und Ziele der Psycho- technik (1920). GILBERT, ARTHUR WITTER (1882-— }s An American agronomist, born at West Brook- field, Mass., and educated at the Massachusetts GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS Agricultural College and Boston University. From 1903 to 1907 he was instructor and assis- tant professor of agronomy at the University of Maine, and from 1910 to 1911, assistant pro- fessor of plant breeding at Cornell, where he became a full professor in 1911. From 1917 to 1919 Professor Gilbert was agricultural sec- retary to the Boston Chamber of Commerce, and Commissioner of Agriculture of Massachu- setts from tHe latter date. He was a member of many agricultural societies and the author of Plant Breeding, with L. H. Bailey (1914), and The Potato (1917). During the War he was secretary of the Federal milk commission. GILBERT AND ELLICE ISLANDS COL- ONY. See Paciric OCEAN ISLANDS. GILBRETH, FRANK BUNKER (1868-1924). An American consulting engineer (see VOL. IX). In July, 1917, he became commanding major of engineers, and in December of the Same year was on duty at the General Staff College in Washington. Among his later writ- ings are Applied Motion Study (1917), Motion Study for the Handicapped (1919), and papers on the reéducation of the crippled soldiers. GILDERSLEEVHE, Basin L. See PHILOLoGy, CLASSICAL, GILES, HERBERT ALLEN (1845- ). An English Orientalist (see Vou. IX). Among his later works are “China” in History of the Na- tions (1913); Adversaria Sinica (1914-15) ; Confucianism and Its Rivals (1915); How to Begin Chinese: the Hundred Best Characters (1919); The Second Hundred Best Characters ; and Revision of Bullock’s Progressive Hxercises (1922). GILLETT, FReDERIC HUNTINGTON ). An American Congressman, Westfield, Mass., and educated at Amherst College and the Harvard Law School. He be- gan the practice of law in Springfield in 1877. He was Assistant Attorney General of Massa- chusetts, 1879-82. For two terms he was rep- resentative in the Massachusetts House, and in 1893 became a member of the National Congress, where he served continuously from the Fifty- third Congress. In 1914 he favored the Panama Canal Tolls Repeal Bill and was distinctly op- posed to the government’s Mexican policy. In May, 1919, he was elected Speaker of the House in place of Champ Clark and in 1920 was a delegate-at-large to the Republican national convention. Speaker Gillett favored the World Court and in spite of his 72 years was still a representative of remarkable physical and men- tal vigor at the Sixty-eighth Congress. GILLOUIN, RENE C. G. (1881- IMaiees French philosophical writer. He was born at Aouste, DrOme, and was educated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure. He entered the municipal administration of Paris and was attached to the cabinet of the president of the city council. As a writer his affinities were with the nationalist Catholic school and the ideology of Bergson and LeRoy. Three of his works received the prizes of the French Academy for literature and crit- icism. His writings include Ars et Vita, Etudes Iittéraires et Philosophiques. La Philosophie de M. Henri Bergson, Idées et Figures d@’Aujourd’- hui, and Une Nouvelle Philosophie de V Histoire Moderne et Francaise. GILSON, ETIENNE HENRy (1884— yA French professor and philosophical writer, born in Paris, and educated at the Sorbonne. He taught in the lycées of Bourg, Tours, and An- gers, and in the universities of Lisle, Stras- (1851- born at 55° GIRL SCOUTS bourg, and Paris. As a scholar, Gilson was best known by his researches in medieval philosophy. His writings include a doctoral dissertation on La Liberté chez Descartes et la Théologie (1912); Etudes de Philosophie médievale (1921); La Philosophie au Moyen Age, 2 vols. (1922); Le Thomisme (1923); and La Philos- ophie de Saint Bonaventure (in preparation, 1924), GINZKEY, Franz Karu (1871- y San Austrian author, born at Pola in Istria, and educated at the Marine Academy and Cadet School. After serving as officer in various Aus- trian towns, he was appointed technical director of the Military-Geographical Institute in Vienna. Later he went to Salzburg and devoted himself to writing. His works include Ergeb- nisse, poems (1901); Hatschi-Bratschis Luft- ball, 4th ed. (1905); Jakobus und die Frau, a novel (1908); Geschichte emer Stillen Frau, a novel (1909); Balladen und Neue Lieder (1910); Der Wiesenzaun, a story (1913); Die Front im Tirol (1916); Der Gaukler von Bo- logna, a novel (1917); Befreite Stunde (1918) ; Der Doppelspiegel, a story (1920); and Die Einzige Siinde, a story (1920). In 1906 he was awarded the Bauernfeld Prize. He was elected president of the Authors’ Union of Austria. GIOLITTI, Giovanni (1843- Wolo a Italian statesman (see Vout. IX). When the War broke out he was in favor of a strict neu- trality. When the question of Italian participa- tion arose in- 1915, he attempted to overthrow the Salandra cabinet, but his effort was swept aside by the patriotic zeal of the Italian masses for war. Throughout the course of the War he was looked on as a “defeatist.”” After the Armistice he again returned to the premiership (May, 1920), largely because of the unsatisfac- tory régime of Premier Nitti. His stay in power was comparatively short (April, 1921) and was marked by a successful foreign policy but an internal programme which was domi- nated first by the Socialists and later by the Fascists. See ITALy, History. GIRAUDOUX, JEAN (1882- Mai French man of letters, educated at the Ecole Normale. Following his graduation he de- voted himself in turn to teaching, journalism, and diplomacy. In the meantime he began his literary career as a writer of poems in prose. His first book, Les Provinciales (1909), won immediate recognition. His war book, Lectures pour une Ombre, is one of the few war books of literary merit. In 1922 his Siegfried et le Limousin (1922), a war story of shell shock and amnesia, was one of the books awarded the Grand Prix Balzac. His works include Simon le Pathétique; Amica America; Elpénor; Adorable Clio (1920); Suzanne et le Pacifique (1921); and Finale de Siegfried et le Limousin (1922). GIRL SCOUTS. A _ national organization founded in 1912, which emphasizes methods of training to develop in girls initiative, self-con- trol, self-reliance, and service to others. In the War, Girl Scouts sold, in the third Liberty Loan campaign, 12,742 bonds, amounting to $3,151,- 000. No records were kept of their activities in the first two loan campaigns, but in the fourth loan they practically doubled their third loan figure, when they sold $6,123,550 worth, or 39,987 bonds. The government awarded 1201 medals to Girl Scouts for selling 10 or more bonds to as many different people, simply GISH in the fourth loan. Many other forms of war service were entered into and initiated by them. The War over, they readily turned to peace- time activities. Home-making, with the idea of developing beauty and simplicity as well as utility in the home, and teaching Girl Scouts to make the best American homes of to-morrow, is increasingly emphasized. From the date of foundation (1912) to 1924, 497,208 girls had the benefits of Scout training. GISH, Dorotny (1898— ). An American motion picture actress, born in Dayton, Ohio, sister of Lilian Gish. She appeared on the stage from childhood. Her best known pictures are Old Heidelberg, Stage Struck, The Little Yankee, Children of the Feud, That Colby Girl, Hearts of the World, Battling Jane, The Hope Chest, and Orphans of the Storm. In 1920 she married James Rennie, an actor. GISH, Lizian (1896- ). An American motion picture actress, sister of Dorothy Gish. She appeared on the legitimate stage at the age of five and after 1913 played in motion pictures. Her best characterizations were in The Birth of a Nation, A House Built on the Sand, Souls Triumphant, Hearts of the World, The Greatest Thing in Life, Broken Blossoms, Way Down East, Orphans of the Storm, and The White Sister. GLACIAL CONDITIONS. See GroLocy. GLACKENS, WituiAm J. (1870- }. ecAn American painter and illustrator (see Vor. X). At the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 1915, he was awarded a bronze medal. In his later work, continuing his interest in the more colorful aspects of life, he maintained his rep- utation as a remarkable colorist. GLAND. See SECRETIONS, INTERNAL; ZOOL- oGy, Physiology. GLASPELL, Susan (Mrs. GEoRGE CRAM! Cook) (1882-— ). An American author (see VoL. X). She wrote Fidelity (1915); Trifles, with George Cram Cook (1917); Suppressed Desires (1917); Plays, a collection including Bernice (1920); Inheritors (1921); and Verge (1922). GLASS, Carter (1858- ). An Ameri- ican politician and Congressman, born at Lynch- burg, Va., and educated at public and. private schools there. For eight years he worked in a printing office and subsequently became owner of the Daily News and the Daily Advance of his native town. He served in the Virginia Senate from 1899 to 1903, and in the latter year, on the death of P. J. Olney, he became a member of the United States Congress, to which he was continuously reélected until 1918, when he resigned to become Secretary of the Treasury in President Wilson’s cabinet. Here he was active in floating the Victory Loan. He re- signed a year later (November, 1919), and was appointed and later elected to fill the unexpired term of Senator Thomas S. Martin, deceased. In 1920 he was chairman of the committee on resolutions at the Democratic national conven- tion. As chairman of the House banking com- mission he sponsored and was largely responsible for the Federal Reserve Act. In 1923 he fa- vored the recall of the American troops from Germany and in March of the same year was appointed a member of the debt funding com- mission but declined to serve. GLASS, Montacue (MARSDEN) (1877- is An American author, born at Manchester, Eng- land, and educated at the College of the City 551 GOBLOT of New York and New York University. Among other works he is the author of Potash and Perlmutter (1913), a suecessful farce, writ- ten in collaboration with Charles Klein. With Goodman (q.v.) he wrote: Object: Matrimony (1916); Business before Pleasure (1917); Why Worry? (1918); His Honor Abe Potash (1919). GLEAVES, ALBERT (1858- ). An American naval officer, born in Nashville, Tenn., and educated at the United States Naval Acad- emy. He was commissioned ensign in 1881. He served on many stations and during the Spanish-American War commanded the torpedo boat Cushing. From 1901 to 1904 he com- manded. the Dolphin and Mayflower in special service, and from 1904 to 1908 he was in charge of the torpedo station at Newport, R. I. He did shore duty and was in command of several vessels until 1915, when he was placed in com- mand of the destroyer force of the Atlantic fleet. In 1917 he had charge of convoy opera- tions on the Atlantic and convoyed the first force of the American Expeditionary Force to France. From 1917 to 1919 he commanded the cruiser and transport foree of the Atlantic fleet, and from 1919 to 1921 commanded the Asiatic station, and in 1922 the First Naval District and the Navy Yard in Boston. He was retired by operation of law in 1922. He was appointed rear-admiral in 1915, vice-admiral in 1918, and admiral in 1919. He wrote Capt. James Lawrence, U. 8S. N. (1904) and History of the Cruiser and Transport Force (1921). GLENN, Mary WIttcox (Mrs. JonHn M. GLENN) (1869- ). An American social worker, born in Baltimore, Md. For several years she taught in private schools and from 1897 to 1900 was executive secretary of the Hen- ry Watson Children’s Aid Society of Baltimore. In 1900 and 1901 she served as general secre- tary of the Charity Organizations Society of Baltimore and in 1915 was appointed president of the National Conference of Charities and Cor- rections. She was president and director in many other social organizations and was the author of Development of Thrift (1899). GLENN, OLiveR Epmunps’ (1878- ye An American mathematician and educator, born in Moorefield, Ind., and educated at Indiana and Pennsylvania universities. In 1902-03 he served as instructor at the University of In- diana and afterward was acting professor of mathematics at Drury College. In 1906 he was a member of the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania as instructor in mathematics, as- sistant professor, and after 1914, professor. He was a member of several scientific socie- ties and the author of A Treatise on the Theory of Invariants (1915) and mathematical memoirs. GLENO DAM FAILURE. See DAMs. GLIDERS. See ARONAUTICS. GLOVES. See LEATHER. GLYCEROL. See CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC, GOBLOT, Epmonp (1858-— ). A French logician and philosopher of science. In _ his Essai sur la Classification des Sciences (1898) he sought to continue the tradition of positive rationalism inherited from Comte and Cournot. This project he carried out more fully in his later works, his Traité de Logique (1918) and Le Systeme des Sciences: le Vrai, VIntelligi- ble, et le Réel (1922). The rationalism ex- pounded in these works is in direct contrast to the tendency of the school of Bergson toward GODDARD esthetic mysticism. Goblot is also the author of a Vocabulaire Philosophique (1901). GODDARD, Henry HERpBertT (1868- ies An American psychologist known for his re- search in feeblemindedness. He was born in Vassalboro, Me., and educated at Haverford Col- lege. After a period of school teaching, he was appointed professor of psychology at the State Normal School of Pennsylvania. In 1906 he re- signed to take charge of the bureau of research in the Training School for the Feebleminded at Vineland, N. J. After 12 years in this capac- ity he was made director of the State Bureau of Juvenile Research, of Ohio. His major pub- lications comprise The Kallikak Family (1912) ; Feeblemindedness: Its Causes and Conse- quences (1914); The Criminal Imbecile (1915) ; Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal (1919); Human Efficiency (1920); and Juven- ile Delinquency (1921). GODFREY, HOLLIS (1874— jan American educator and engineer, born in Lynn, Mass., and educated at Tufts College and Har- vard University. From 1898 to 1905 he was engaged in teaching and from 1906 to 1910 was head of the department of science of the School of Practical Arts in Boston. He was consult- ing engineer for several cities and corporations and was research worker for the New York State Commission on Hygiene from 1910 to 1917. He was president of the Drexel Insti- tute in Philadelphia from 1913 to 1921, and after 1921 was chancellor and senior fellow of the Institute of Management. He wrote The Man Who Ended War (1908); The Health of the City (1910); and Dave Morrell’s Battery (1912), as well as contributions to periodicals. GOETHALS, GrorceE WASHINGTON (1858- ). An American civil and military en- gineer (see Vor. X). He resigned from the post of Governor of the Canal Zone in 1916 and was made chairman of the board of inquiry in regard to the Adamson eight-hour law. He was State engineer of New Jersey in 1917 and in the same year was made manager of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. Because of his lack of faith in the wooden fleet he resigned after three months and was appointed acting quartermaster- general of the United States Army. In 1918 he, was made chief of the division of purchase, storage, and traffic, and was also a member of the War Industries Board. At his own request, he was relieved from active service in 1919, and later headed an engineering and construction company. GOITRE. Examination of United States re- cruits during the War showed a considerable percentage of cases of this affection. In one group of 20,000 no less than 6 per cent showed simple goitre in a considerable degree. It also became evident that this affection was endemic in certain areas, such as the belt which runs south of the Great Lakes. It is here that most of the intensive study and attempts at preven- tion have taken place. Thus in the school children of Akron, Ohio, goitre is known to de- velop in a considerable number, and it was learned that addition of a few milligrams of iodine to the daily diet was a certain preventive. At Rochester, N. Y., the city water supply was medicated with iodine with the desired result of preventing the development of the disease. As far as the United States and Great Britain are concerned, simple goitre may be regarded as the most readily prevented of all diseases. 552 GOLD The problem is more complicated in France, Switzerland, and India, where the disease has been endemic for centuries with a high in- eidence. Here other factors may be at work in determining the disease, and the mere addition of a little iodine to the food or water may be insufficient for prevention. The iodine ingested by the patient may not be absorbed as a result of an abnormal condition of the intestine. Similarly there may be some irregularity in re- gard to the metabolism of iodine, or it may be too rapidly eliminated. The preventive action of iodine has, however, been demonstrated in school children in Switzerland, and it has been shown likewise that regions of high altitudes, remote from the ocean, may not contain enough iodine in their plant foods and water to prevent the development of the disease. Simple goitre must not be confused with toxic goitre or Graves’s disease. In this form there is not much enlargement of the thyroid, but the patient is an invalid who suffers much from rapid pulse and nervousness. See Foop AND NUTRITION. GOLD. The War, with its extension econom- ic changes and dislocation of values, produced a depression in the gold mining industry from which, after 1921, mining interests sought to emerge. Naturally, on account of the world ex- change situation, certain mines, such as those in South Africa and Australia, were able to pro- duce gold with considerable advantage, as they ‘received a virtual premium on their output; but with the strengthening of sterling exchange they were placed in a worse position. In the United States there was no such advantage, and with the increased costs of labor and materials the mining of gold was not attended by at- tractive profits, so that in November, 1922, pay- ment of a bounty on gold mining for three years was even advocated; another measure proposed a bounty to be raised by an excise tax on gold used in the arts. In the United States few new PRODUCTION OF GOLD IN THE UNITED STATES CALENDAR YEARS 1910-23 Calendar years Fine-ounces Value VOLO Camis fh. SUAS < STS ee they 4,657,017 96,269,100 LOD Lies ii ee he OER Sete 4,687,053 96,890,000 OT Oey Meidevs lias’ s) p@s vonsyuehe eae eeteboee 4,520,719 93,451,500 OS temas is <0 oteher eration § 0) oie E ERE ee tae 4,299,784 88,884,400 LON Ate PE note Tate Le 4,572,976 94,531,800 DDL SR crite fis ek Ee ener ve Te 4,887,604 101,035,700 Oi 6 Mes oe hte. nsdn veeeeeeele wena ta 4,479,057 92,590.300 BO LT Mats eNesens 2 0.2 Vals oe ale Rel) eae toe 4,051,440 83,750,700 POMS CaP eS LN re Cae. aie) Ae 3,320,784 68,646,700 TO VOT test? . % hs KOH aocte s e oe 2,918,628 60,333,400 TOO OMe ule ov shi ties aie wettomieds steers. ake 2,476,166 51,186,900 ELD yd cis Beye ov lec cae eeMenisuee, ake 6: cake 2,422,006 50,067,300 TOZ2ET EH. hee ere ee fae 2,363,075 48,849,100 VODS BR ded LA eee as eae 2,485,445 51,378,700 fields were developed between 1914 and 1924, but with improved processes older mines had been reopened, and with increased production of copper, lead, and zinc, the gold. and silver obtained as a by-product was more and more looked on as a source of profit. In 1915 the United States produced gold valued at $101,- 035,700, or 21.5 per cent of the world’s highest production, namely, $468,799,812; but its quota had continually decreased until, notwithstanding an increase in 1923, it was but 14 per cent ($51,- 378,700), or but slightly more than half of the record production of 1915. This reduced out- put also was accompanied by a discouraging outlook for the future as the returns from the various States showed that there had been a GOLD considerable decline in production where the gold was obtained from siliceous ores and gravels, while the increases had come where the gold was obtained from refining the base metals, copper and lead, where production had greatly increased and metallurgical processes were con- stantly being improved. Thus while Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Washington, and New Mexico all showed increased produc- tion in 1923, California, Alaska, South Dakota, Colorado, and Oregon all had a diminished out- put. In the United States the purchasing power of the gold dollar was shrinking, and at the same time large importations of gold were be- ing made. This increased the gold reserves of the United States and added to the considera- tions which naturally would lead to low interest rates, to high prices, and in mining to higher costs. The accompanying table shows the pro- duction of gold in the United States in 1923 by States. UNITED STATES REFINERY PRODUCTION OF GOLD FOR 1923 FIGURES COMPILED BY THE BUREAU OF THE MINT, WITH THE COOPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES Gold State Ounces Value PA RSKR Me te otdad Resid sks ale « 309,653 $6,401,190 AAI Of 800 yy et a ae a hit ae ae eee 5 1090 EN IZO Ma OU SR ee a 292,654 6,049,700 California dk.) aa.% tlk: . ae 655,051 13,541,100 WOLOUT A Oterier a eens teres cic eis 314,495 6,501,200 GOOT ETA ie ui ee ee 19 400 Pa ahOuts a4 a eee tae Oo 36,305 750,500 MEGAMAN, «asa Sy cjee © ic kis « ft ehet 85,121 1,759,600 INI ea tee cin ates le ae ye) 195,227 4,035,700 INewW PMeXxICO co eee s ee ees aT OOo 487,100 Worth (Garoling 2krhoe? fess sy: 1,100 Orel Oe tedeks , Aa American motion picture producer born in War- saw, Poland. He organized the Jesse Lasky Feature Photoplay Company, the Goldwyn Pic- tures Corporation, the Eminent Authors’ Pic- tures, Inc., and the Madison Productions, Inc., GOLF and was a pioneer in inducing American authors to work actively for the motion pictures. Among the stars he introduced to the screen were Mary Garden, Pauline Frederick, and Geraldine Farrar. He has published a volume of reminiscences. GOLF. The galleries at golf matches are small compared with the throngs which assemble for professional baseball games or college foot- ball games in the United States or a soccer cup- tie in the United Kingdom. The reason is simple. Everybody is intent on his own little golf match. In other words, in so far as the Anglo-Saxon world is concerned, golf has more actual playing disciples than any other sport. Both sexes of all classes and all ages have joined in the stampede for the links; the biggest rush came in the decade ending with 1924. The “‘craze” has been more widespread in the United States than elsewhere and has led the larger muni- cipalities to lay out courses in the public parks. The number of club links opened during recent years runs into the thousands. International competition, particularly between Great Britain and the United States, has been keen, In 1920 Edward Ray of England visited the United States and captured the national open champion- ship, and in 1921 Jock Hutchison of the United States reciprocated by carrying off the British open title. In the following year Walter Hagen, also of the United States, won the British open championship 45/370,530 22,691,256 24,616,345 47/307,601 * Trish Census of 1911. The total movement of travelers from the British Isles to non-European countries was 463,285 in 1923 and 701,691 in 1913, and the inward movement was 210,509 in 1923 and 372,- 618 in 1913. The 1923 figure included British subjects: 337,567 outward and 147,184 inward; alien subjects: 125,718 outward and 63,325 in- ward. In addition to the above, there were 12,- 653 outward passengers and 5642 inward pas- sengers recorded at ports of the Irish Free State for the nine months from April to Decem- ber, 1923, when that country had separated from the United Kingdom. In 1923, about 33 per cent passed through Liverpool, 32 per cent through Southampton, 16 per cent through Lon- don, and 12 per cent through Glasgow. Of the outward passengers, 182,758 went to the United States; 158,359 to British North America; 45,- 265 to Australia, and 21,160 to British South Africa. Of the inward passengers, 80,109 started from the United States, 47,300 from British North America, 20,238 from British South Africa, and 14,539 from Australia. The number of passengers of all nationalities to and from the Continent was 1,038,154 outward and 1,103,016 inward in 1923, as compared to 1,- 184,412 outward and 1,309,874 inward in 1913. In 1923, 256,284 British nationals left ‘for non-European countries as emigrants and 57,606 returned as immigrants; the figures for 1913 were 389,394 and 85,709 respectively. Of the 1923 emigrants, 93,076 left for the United States, 88,290 for British North America, and 39,967 for Australia. The following table shows the total emigration of British nationals: 1913 1922 1923 Male'ad nits «Penh santas 178,538 TONS cole LO Female adults ........ 141,106 70,816 84,178 Children under 12 69,750 26,207 36,236 Total teal s feat sors) 389,394 174,096 256,284 Of those moving in 1923, 140,891 departed from England, 4529 from Wales, 88,584 from Scotland, and 22,280 from Ireland, as compared with 271,756, 5040, 68,202, and 44,396, respec- tively, in 1913. Education. Elementary education was under the control in England and Wales of the Board of Education, in Scotland under the Committee of Council on Education, and in Ireland under the Commissioners for National Education. Elementary education was free and compulsory from 5 to 14 years. In 1921, there were 21,584 elementary schools in England and Wales with 7,150,000 pupils and 170,000 teachers, an increase over 1913, when there were only 6,046,500 pupils and 164,152 teachers. In addition, in 1921 there were 546 schools for the blind and defective with an enrollment of 38,326 pupils, as compared with 25,704 pupils in 347 such schools in 1913. In 1921 there were 1205 secondary schools with 17,950 teachers and 340,000 pupils, while in 1913 there were only 1010 such schools with 13,790 teachers and 174,423 pupils. A similar in- crease was recorded in teachers’ training col- leges, of which there were 86 in 1913 with 11,- 876 pupils, and in 1921, 92 with 15,451 pupils. In 1920, there were 4831 evening schools with 751,327 pupils, as compared with 6876 in 1913 with 798,881 pupils. In Scotland there were 3426 public schools with 21,986 teachers and 860,984 pupils in 1913, and in 1921] there were 3387 schools with 24,484 teachers and 862,220 pupils. In Ireland in 1913 there were 8229 primary schools with 682,011 pupils, and in 1917 (last available total) there were 7947 schools with 682,561 pupils. The universities and colleges were rapidly recovering from the ill effects of the War. The 10 leading uni- versities in England are Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, London, Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and Bristol. In Scot- land, St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh were the four leading Universities, and in Ireland, Trinity College (Dublin), Queens University (Belfast), University College (Cork), University College (Galway), and Uni- versity College (Dublin), were the five lead- ing institutions of higher education. The en- rollment in such schools in the British Isles in the years 1913-14 and 1922-23 was as follows: Professors Students 1913-14 1922-23 1913-14 1922-23 Hngelandvaae: 4... 2,533 3,077 24,010 31,030 IW Beste atsiets one. 156 294 1,140 2,530 Scotlandas...'2% 4 564 T47 T1550 1 190 ireland Garey. see 532 289 2,475 4,492 AMO Ral Das geo 3,785 4,407 35,175 49/242 Agriculture. In the British Isles, land was divided into three classes: rough grazing, arable land, and permanent grass. The following table shows the distribution of land in 1912 and 1922; 1912 1922 acres acres England and Wales: Rough. grazing cand eps leks 3,774,655 4,782,000 Arable’ land ae cscie cere cate Ms eO,2 FOmn Lo LO sis Permanent grass ..... 15,839,414 14,715,278 Scotland: Rough Taz ne sous spe. 8,919,629 9,634,000 Arable land’y Sp vs) see 4 3,320,027 3,338,068 Permanent) Prass t-is72 . % 1,496,307 1,387,431 Treland : Rough «grazing yee... 2,583,485 2,864,288 Arable landww . eee we 4,988,551 5,270,615* Permanent grass ...... 9,685,227 9,122,360* * Area in 1918. GREAT BRITAIN The British farmer was in a bad economic position, as only 20 to 25 per cent of the food supply of the country could be produced within the country, and he had to meet the keen com- petition of products imported from countries more favorably situated, especially from the Continental countries of depreciated exchange. 1922 and 1923 were both bad years, the former 561 GREAT BRITAIN Irish Free State 1912 1922 TGTHAR re eee ere re ee 429,101 (CELUI Sat ol Ren’ ORE -ae ME My Be a oS 4,326,294 ok. hf ann RR RR A ehMac ae HRCI 6 ic KE 3,067,473 a Vereae reeset) 0st Saeed ok RD i 919,449 To the above statistics on land, produce, and animals in the larger divisions of the British Isles should be added small amounts for the because of a long drought and the latter be- Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. In 1922 cause of persistent and heavy rains during the they were as follows: latter part of the summer and early autumn. The heavy burden of post-war rates, tithes, Isle of Chantel i Man slands ps fear ae little nee the Bpateses of atasi ATADIG EAN: 1, clot totes sc0's acres 65,690 20,655 or the landowner. ne result was the return Permanent grass .......- . 17,955 9,894 to permanent pasture of much of the arable Oats ........0.0.....04. ogee ye 1,965 land which was put under cultivation during Wheat ...............-. iy 229 625 ; Banleg eae kes ee 534 297 the war period. In 1918, the total arable land = urnips 9 17222/01212020! ‘6 6,526 ANS in Great Britain and Ireland was 21,122,750 Potatoes ............... a 2,208 9,753 acres, approximately 1,500,000 more than before Borie shen ee eels melee ee ane Raleas bey y the War. The following table shows the acre- Shep 8 PRA PIO EET Jal wot ngo 179 age of crops in the British Isles: PHS ie BP TOULG OHS Sieiehel dh 3,709 960 Northern Irish Free Great Britain Ireland Treland State Crops 1912 1922 1912 1922 1922 WHGRE Soo RK YRS Sa) Dike Cis toe ideo G aratekare ote g ON 1,925,737 2,032,168 44,855 34,469 6,305 OS aeca NCAA aig RON RCP ONC KARE meiner ico ICE Sou arae aida rae 3,029,054 3,152,357 1,046,000 813,970 399,722 IOTIGES Oooo Cy tate SUCCIG. p Bin ve. Gud Oks B BAG be 2it 1,648,201 1,521,068 165,367 167,747 2,518 PRCGHS ATIC) NEAR irc bs chess MEL EMS Ge a ee feel ote 488,308 462,691 1,700 447 1,188 MERC tee rere ite es ia ae 0 bie Soetomh ci sthitahel oelah ae 612,671 718,581 595,184 400,982 168,567 PORTING, Meiers th RoW nigh a atatiatteals fe tama ety she? ale 1,512,535 1,225,240 Pg hes Gal 199,204 48,677 DUBROGIS hone eee ire ia. 2c eee bialdn Sat al.'s hats 488,486 424,649 81,700 81,709 1,845 The following table shows the total produce of the principal crops of the British Isles: Mineral Production. The principal econo- nomic resource of the British Isles was coal, Northern Trish Free Great Britain Ireland Ireland State Crops 1912 1922 1912 1922 1922 Tons Tons Ny RCRE Nate. tae aids Pe. eos) 4 quarters 6,979,795 7,979,000 195,493 5,725 32,232 OATIOW FW ett ne tok An oe coe ead WE ee ola - 6,404,841 5,804,000 871,059 2,066 151,581 CLE aed ly Aa, ea dette Bs Diag Buca. ayes tv Bk ia 13,741,883 14,101,000 6,858,196 306,594 573,248 Beans “and: peas! ! SUP. MOR) Oboe ean . 1,455,165 1,115,000 iS SU OnAEL@ Re Pateiey-| 2 2kty eh ot onan ate Hotatoestiaedl. {ATs TA eee ee . tons 8,179,632 5,203,000 2,546,710 1,251,709 2,179,532 UMTs mathe | YW Rice gede Apter ain Seip PS chy cel aa ate 3 ta 20,278,639 17,788.000 3,783,218 764,005 2,673,770 MANOS eee re tee Ren oe oe 8,836,718 8,595,000 1,301,048 30,669 1,298,943 One of the economic resources of the British Isles was the pasture land on which were raised the large flocks of sheep. These flocks were the early foundation of the textile industry, which continues one of England’s greatest. During the latter part of 1923 a serious epi- demic of hoof and mouth disease broke out in England and large numbers of cattle and sheep had to be killed before it was brought under control. The following table shows the number of live stock in 1912 and 1922: 1912 1922 England and Wales OT SOG ae. rics c ales, alee aCe 1,248,003 1,119,545 Calta vey Ak Oa eee 5,841.720 Re i22.00. Sheep BERN. fa Boe UE eee eee 18,053.365 13,438,020 AG Aiaree ss Jc) A dist sete hoo aes 2,496,670 2,298,936 Scotland LEIA is BR ee ie 193,020 188,851 OTs eee = RR aa 1,184,376 1,146.807 SUG 5 oe BLE Ce 7,004,367 6,684,097 Dea P Ey Uy AAs 79 Rae pn 159,127 150,884 Treland TLOMSCN EES ett ciel ies) ease 544 SSSe Pe thy ..06 BEA eo ae ER eee 4,848 AO see teers it. SNECPeMere ee sense cos es 3,02 9,02 CTemeeeee s, Pigs ici hss OS MBean Pete. 1,323,997) geyees ee 8's" 2 Northern Ireland HOrses sat tp eee AO | as 115,363 Cattlotgs ciel Re teree hise? casita svn « hfathee 830/831 Shaan. ee ee 499.048 Tee ON eas ate eae ee. Sh ee 1 ay oa if which served as fuel not only for industry, but also for the British merchant marine and as a return cargo for vessels entering British ports. It was one of the principal articles in export trade, for production was in excess of home consumption. The 10 years 1914-24 were diffi- cult because of the war demands and the subse- quent period of depression. The record year for production of coal was 1913; from then a gradual decline was recorded until 1918, which was followed by two years of slight increase, but in 1921, because of the strike which lasted 88 days, a very low record of production was shown. The years 1922 and 1923 showed de- cided improvement; 1923 was the second high- est year on record. Employment in the mines followed somewhat similar lines, except that the lowest number employed was in 1915 and the greatest in 1920. The year 1921 was difficult for miners; they were out on strike for nearly three months because of wage disputes. The trouble finally ended in an agreement to base wages on the cost of living index and the volume of business. In January, 1924, general dissatis- faction with this wage agreement resulted in ballot vote by the miners to serve the required three months’ notice of termination. Negotia- tions were, in the summer of 1924, proceeding for a new wage agreement. The following table shows the number of wage earners, total out- GREAT BRITAIN 562 put, exports, and bunkered coal for the period 1913 to 1923: Year Persons Output Coal and Coke Bunker Employed Export Tons Tons Tons 1913 1,127,820 287,411,869 76,688,446 21,023,693 1914 1,133,746 265,664,393 61,830,485 18,535,616 1915 953,642 253,206,081 45,770,344 13,630,964 1916 998,063 256,348,351 41,157,894 12,988,172 1917 1,021,340 248,473,119 37,800,705 10,227,952 1918 1,008,867 227,748,654 84,173,915 8,756,476 1919 1,191,313 229,779,517. 38,466,593 12,004,812 1920 1,248,224 229,295,000 28,862,895 13,914,903 1921 1,126,000 164,803,000 26,246,839 11,046,548 1922 1,129,500 233,899,000 67,939,476 18,292,000 1923 1,178,500 278,499,600 84,486,728 18,158,188 One of the outstanding factors in the above table was the decline in the exports of coal dur- ing the War, when a ‘heavy domestic demand cut down the amount available for export by half. The years 1922 and 1923 were normal years in the export trade; in fact, the exports during 1923 were the largest on record. The principal export areas were the South Wales and north- GREAT BRITAIN of stimulation by the occupation of the Ruhr, but in the long run this brought on adverse re- sults in the increased price of fuel and the de- layed revival of confidence. The following table shows the number of furnaces in blast and the output of pig iron, steels ingots, and castings in 1913, 1920, 1921, 1922, and 1923. Output Steel Ingots Year Furnaces Pig Iron and in Blast Tons Castings Tons LOTS eer s.s Gs 338 10,250,000 7,660,000 a RS PAO RG ty Be A 285 8,007,900 9,056,800 LODT eee Aes od 95 2,611,400 3,624,800 LODZ ee. oki. 132 4,899,500 5,820,500 BES Pts te 3 Resa on ee 200 7,438,500 8,488,900 After the War, British manufacturers not only were burdened with heavy taxation but also had to meet keener competition from for- eign producers, especially in countries of de- preciated exchange. Total exports in 1913 were 4,969,224 tons; in 1922, 3,397,185 tons; and in 1923, 4,319,571 tons. These totals were made eastern fields. The largest factor in the in-_ up as follows: 1913 1922 1923 Commodity Tons Tons Tons Pic dron andyrernop alloys veiece sears sshaieieteue reat suehe eet is eel eae, Papel Petlel seks, ot chyoge ait 1,124,181 793,763 894,298 tron hbars;” rodseaneles! Cotes sere sacterats hele gor shimone eve cee ebey | Sh open Medecine > (ss ieteno n= 141,452 31,403 43,615 Steel vy i‘ . FL the Nes otal ete hve cl uabeMecp atic s Meee del eho oie, Reel Melis 6:n0/7elBe ucts nus 251,059 221,109 354,144 FLOO PSH and Stripstebeie «ss tose be oko eie cic. cee Che weeds Be see EEG as) beak feule ge ot) <1cettaUs tel teres 45,708 48,281 71,619 Plates and sheets) not under WA sins... ttelseestate ens = cheeks of ouewedeneielsh>u\uemayete le 126,380 95,462 193,789 Black#plates#and esheets in der) 26 61s eee nentpanenemenees sctelln pew oms,ionm hale neds uate ists ‘ 139,927 224,836 338,978 Galvanized msheetsiies . pyelis ck a telewiae ete © Ricichne Isiah isis «\sRONol oie Rete sMs) sts sks 762,075 ieee) 602,390 Tin’ terns, and -ooner, COated “PISbeS 5 oc co.s pe wie ales eileielis ele weer de RUS eee e 497,497 449,273 552,338 Fa WSO hs, GRR eT EU ere RULE AT OR Sue tale Waite hs vette Ws re Raat eta, tede) rao cele ls! /ane toda moneys tke 506,585 258,987 306,904 Railway cma ternal iat oe ete ae ae piso) ee haonag inch Wee kaa ened el een can 267,254 218,370 186,537 Tubes, pipes, and fittings, cast and wrought ..........+--++++sseerees 399,608 162,476 242,200 IW TTC MPA Shes esa e ee Reve: Cho elkers teas te hapeieueie iri ake conse cokcolebeney She BRDEEMS eas CekeiKe te unio Ls) ste Lonshaie 60,532 54,500 78,596 DV TPS TI TUT AETT TOR sot nce ousneae conocer ote dete betes pee ete lectern ooo ie bie ete 55,739 34,677 52,572 Potal,) including ~ other: items) |. 52.6 teh 6. Ss gk eee © Biel eee e's 4,969,224 3,397,185 4,317,571 creased exports of 1923 was the occupation of the Ruhr, which upset a large producing area and put a heavier share of the burden of supply- ing the European demand on the British mines. The greater part of the exports went to Europe, chiefly to France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Holland. The War completely upset some of the large markets, but most of them were re- gained after the Armistice. The following table shows the principal coun- tries to which Great Britain exported coal dur- ingy1913, 1921,, 1922, and 1923 Country 1913 1921 1922 1923 Tons Tons Tons Tons France 12,775,909 6,395,651 13,579,417 18,826,352 Italy 9,647,161 3,383,083 § 6,341,743 7,592,735 Germany 8,952,328 817,877 8,345,606 14,806,232 Russia 5,998,434 138,878 584,069 476,205 Sweden 4,560,076, 1,232,904) 2°522°82004 3;168,367 Argentina 3,693,572 887,344 2,021,092 2,461,074 Egypt 3,162,477 1,017,748 1,743,643 1,696,054 Denmark 3,034,240 1,803,561 2,866,233 3,170,269 Spain 2,584,131 1,021,472 1,711,021 1,145,801 Norway 2,298,345 694,316 1,566,969 1,609,758 Belgium 2,031,077 618,066 3,489,419 6,504,592 Nether- lands 2,018,401 1,787,678 6,067,789 6,794,346 The iron and steel industry was not, by 1924, restored to pre-war activity, but in 1923 the pig iron output was about 74 per cent of that of 1913 and nearly three times that of 1921. The output of steel ingots and castings substantially exceeded the output for 1913 and was two and one-third times that of 1921. As in the case of coal, the War caused a general disruption of the industry and its chief markets, and they had not, by 1924, returned to the normal pre-war condi- tion. An increase was recorded in 1923 because Textile Industry. The cotton and woolen industries of Great. Britain were located near the coal fields, the linen industry mainly at Bel- fast and Dundee, the lace industry at Notting- ham, Derby, and Kilmarnock, and hosiery fac- tories at Derby, Leicester, and Nottingham. The cotton industry depended entirely on im- ports of raw materials, while the woolen in- dustry had to import two-thirds its wool, and the linen industry had to import one-half its flax. The cotton industry suffered more se- rious disorganization by reason of the War than any other industry. A large part of the cotton spinning and manufacturing machinery of France and Belgium was in the zone of hos- tilities, while the cotton factories of Russia were ruined in the early months of the Revolu- tion, and England suffered a lack of raw ma- terial because of the submarine danger. Fol- lowing the Armistice, England, with all her ma- chinery intact, enjoyed a period of prosperity. Toward the close of 1920 the boom ended, and a serious depression set in, from which the in- dustry had not recovered by 1924. During 1923, the short crop in America, plus the increased consumption by American mills, helped to cause a rapid rise in prices of raw materials. co- nomic disturbances in the chief markets of British cloth, i.e. China and India, caused them to cut down their purchases. The total number of cotton spindles in 1923 was 55,583,000, of woolen spindles 3,111,085, of worsted spindles 3,609,545, and of twisted spindles 1,352,196. The table on the next page shows the total im- ports of raw cotton, wool, and flax. The principal sources of raw cotton were the United States, with 15,847,695 centals in 1913 a 1 GREAT BRITAIN 563 GREAT BRITAIN 1913 1922 1923 1913 1922 1923 Cotton (centals £ £ = of 100 Ibs.) 21,742,996 14,319,898 12,925,854 10;570,547 85,550,189 91,243,550 Wool (centals of 100 lbs.) 8,485,764 TIFOD0,22 7,782,196 36,632,255 61,941,142 49,468,885 Flax (tons) 102,453 39,582 83,685 4,771,219 3,943,711 3,007,669 and 6,691,028 in 1923; and Egypt, with 4,026,- 694 centals in 1913 and 3,486,322 in 1923. The three leading sources of raw wool were Aus- tralia, with 2,650,785 centals in 1913 and 2,- 764,787 in 1923; New Zealand, with 1,811,814 centals in 1913 and 1,811,006 in 1923; and South Africa, with 1,332,242 centals in 1913 and 1,124,377 in 1923. The following table gives the total exports of cotton yarn and cotton piece goods during the pre-war year and four post-war years: 1923, which curtailed launchings. Great Britain led the world in size of merchant marine, which in 1913 consisted of 8514 steam vessels of 18,- 273,944 tons and 700 sailing vessels of 422,293 tons, or a total of 9214 vessels (over 100 tons) of 18,696,237 tons; and in 1923 it was made up of 8299 steam vessels of 19,115,178 net tons and 395 sailing vessels of 166,371 tons, or a total of 8694 vessels (over 100 tons) of 19,281,549 net tons. During the War there were lost through enemy attack 2197 vessels of 7,638,020 tons. Cotton Yarns Cotton Piece Goods Year Pounds £ Yards £ 1913 210,099,000 15,006,291 7,075,252,000 97,775,855 Square yards. 1920 147,432,400 47,585,814 4,435,405,000 315,717,631 1921 145,894,900 23,924,879 2,902,288,900 137,132,298 1922 201,220,800 26,436,489 4,181,176,300 142,415,686 1923 145,019,500 21,011,911 4,141,303,700 USS 7354,135 The three principal markets for cotton yarn were Germany, with 51,905,400 pounds in 1913, and 25,483,300 in 1923; Netherlands, with 39,- 255,300 pounds in 1913, and 34,233,400 in 1923; and India, with 37,422,400 pounds in 1913, and 20,862,900 in 1923. The principal destinations of cotton piece goods are shown in the follow- ing table: The number and tonnage of vessels launched were as follows: 1913 1922 1923 Vessels launched—number 688 235 Gross tonnage 1,932,153 1,031,081 Despite the poor year in 1923 for shipbuild- ing, Great Britain and Ireland maintained their 1913 1922 Linear yards TL Li Gib ais Pelee cas, < SON 3 Skt ag haa. Sore 3,057,350,600 China (including Hong Kong) 716,532,500 Turkey (including Syria and EL) PANE | atte. Me eee 360,741,700 Dutch wHasul indies exits ye. aFh tees.6 304,927,700 DAM Ol Ty Sc eng OS Be Oa ee nine Gee bo 266,623,400 EARP OTIGIIND A her et anerchaa ws wiuet stacl aces e hatch as 199,118,300 PISCE ALIAE Pe eS ee cies ts coe cee aes 167,914,600 Straits. Settlements mak sf: eye. 131,298,100 GAaNAd dite fikd eo dksad sd fresdeiescienee. ee 110,499,100 WmItedt States evs cm ci-us ha. oct «so ob euere 44,415,000 Square yards 1,401,142,300 308,992,000 234,710,200 190,953,200 220,833,300 137,253,000 136,290,300 206,995,600 207,292,000 148,764,800 173,209,100 227,995,200 171,237,500 56,707,500 77,625,800 42,390,700 54,303,100 95,384,000 174,922,200 The total exports of other textiles were as follows: leadership in the world output of vessels. The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared at the 1913 1922 1923 WioGlenmand se wWOrsteds: Vdikisn (10S) W.ketre nels cee ccs) cc + ohtaebsiatate 80,415,300 62,190,500 56,562,900 EVV OGLGIMEMCIGS OSE eter. ta iste ae tobe tes etter ol ade dy oat a. 3, «ois ahenet ene 105,883,600 121,590,600 148,641,300 LWIOTStCO Mm GISSULCOMatm ene ieee erate clic he oiel ones ote sala cvcver cies « afchnksiwane 62,490,100 62,337,700 62,948,400 TANG DICCe 2 OO Sumi cok, ERY Aatclens Iu rdenuscend ¢uc0 dhe. si ciays ,.8' 6
  • . Soe cent M ehh ete eitete be tlhe eile eM O Betts G's Uo harese erie kel aieh 488,411 362,156 1,543,405 Exportal bi Joceeed. alte LGR ORe RE. HIE be 2,229,868 1,475,544 1,400,379 Re@xpoerts,, §.: fs foie Gis es ods les de vole eee RE PEE As ome uels EEE SIOe eae kk 106,111 52,886 84,389 Parcel Post TIMPODLES Whois or oite wie tateke eo toutes elene 6 e RUCTEREMCTCR Ts. sie ic oto a SERIO Re rone 2,118,106 2,767,103 3,877,428 EIXPOTIS To ote ee me oe er ET re ec one Ee ee 9,154,129 11,241,402 10,748,524 The increases in trade and its general trend Beginning with January, 1924, the Free State are shown in the two preceding tables of trade by major classifications in 1913, 1922, and 1923. The above table shows clearly the type of commerce in which Great Britain was engaged; i.e. the import of large quantities of foodstuffs and raw materials for industries, and the ex- port of manufactured products. The following table gives the imports and exports of principal commodities, by quantities, which for compara- tive value eliminates the price factor: Government was to publish monthly statistics. In 1920 the ascertained direct exports from all of Ireland to countries other than Great Britain amounted to only £1,846,417 out of a total ex- port trade of £204,715,138, or 09 per cent of the whole. During 1921 such exports amounted to £2,414,678 out of a total export trade of £129,- 621,000, or 1.86 per cent of the whole. The total trade of Ireland for the years 1911 to 1921 is shown by the table below. 1913 1920 1922 1923 (In thousands of £) EXPORTS OPM GSD Nes tops io eee Soe ok G Oe Gn OL O cos 73,400 24,932 64,198 79,449 Iron and steel, and manufactures of (tons) ........-. 4,969 3,252 8,401 4,319 Machineryrei( bons tae cate the ticks, fhe eotnepede Morales tovtoleti ne Pagetraits Xo 689 462 403 432 Cotton sryAarns si 1DS sles + cae ce poe ese Sane east thei oiel uetebente 210,099 147,432 201,221 145,019 Cotton \ piece coods's (linear Vy.ds:) fs. aevewie lee io. selestonele t= 7,075,252 4,435,405 4,312,667 4,286,248 NVinOlOn wiLISSIES AN SQameySa) Wise iaite: cvee dele vete te = wierede steno rete tale te 105,884 187,233 121,489 148,641 Worsted Ptissues (Sat yas jue. AC cir. wie ope yeh tel otetels tallaile 's 62,490 77,355 62,458 62,948 Tinen’ piece) LOods | CSG YGS:)) vejsicje stele pele = Gls) -lele te eerie re 193,681 93,045 77,421 89,672 Boots and’ shoes )(dozen: pairs) > s +s pciecs 40 fn cee es 1,453 819 492 796 Papers aloe Card Oana er CWLS.)i0 oie cheislsis!>)-lkelelenenoleistens) “ire 3,499 2,350 2,455 4,348 IMPORTS Cottons araw {iCCERtAS) weit se ome shee tolio te (els tole cieRe lo (ela ielel-ue foie = 21,743 19,028 14,341 12,945 Wheaten CO wts.)) 0 civ sis teteterete ie aie Re tele Gisioye :'e) oc 6 peoanomer edth~ + eis 2,122,000 12,896,900 Mp SETS POO ELOM IG eat: 6 cise. an See ceee ee Sea Wola cy hin aS a. 4 > 8h d's Ye spe eo heme thar’ 06 hae 2,269,340 7,246,187 6,514,22 PIOMIG- Mad Oe SDILILGmeMn tence set dels + cs aie eee seh el ere cnelene 2,008,500 8,406,871 4,905,179 WVERICHINGK yi stlsih chert Petseb ela cache el Ste chehelctld «2 teckel swelich al ditiy «0 ee aks 785,978 4,038.225 2,645,465 to lowered taxation would increase receipts. Results justified this bold policy, and in the . Yeah nhak baie eee rulyd bean 1923-24 budget the standard rate of the income Sinking panier ratte orn ee rie rd eed tax was reduced to 4s. Gd. per pound, and the Road improvement fund 1394951 14/090,000 corporations profit tax was also reduced. Con- Local taxation accounts 9,734,128 13,662,000 trary to the usual British practice, supplemen- 4224 settlement ......... ......-. 1,209,000 } : ; Payments for Northern Ire- tary credits totaling £13,078,100 for various un- lanidincie ease tinhons Wee ip hs 3,967,000 expected contingencies had to be voted during Other consolidated funds 1,693,890 2,803,000 January and February, 1924. The actual re- Fer aa ate ORO air force . tigate ep iain! ceipts in 1913-14 were £198,242,897, and 1p) JPost Amcetandeeavencer dene: sow” ane 1923-24, were £837,169,000, while expenditures partmenta’ CL Qhk Goe es xe. 29,090,000 60,634,000 7 ( , respectively. a en et eee were £197,492,969 and £788,840,000, respectively Totab TE LOA Ghee. &. 197,492,969 788,840,000 The table below shows the exchequer receipts in the fiseal years 1913-14 and 1923-24: REVENUE 1913-14 1923-24 USLOMISWr er, cr ckedal fee ergst oe sei os £35,450,000 £119,958,000 EX CISQMA Ss CLete Re rch ete stesraters a 39,590,000 147,970,000 Mot ome duties top aeseat. SOT EYE 2 14,691,000 Hi Sta ter Auities bslaléed hicnsuekeh ane 27,359,000 57,800,000 Dall Sie s deco ss: aves § Gers ort 9,966,000 21,570,000 Land tax, house duty, etc.. 2,700,000 2,760,000 Land value duties ....... EE OOO Pe MTL IF Encome stax. fap aite ss, «hoes 47,249,000 269,331,000 Si DERE LRT pak cas chs aia he ckal bouche ats ai 60,640,000 Horporatvion proutismtax e: ee weiss aes 23,340,000 HOStwT Once WAI Oe 30,800,000 52,800,000 Crown PLANS cis .< ped « Sherer 530,000 920,000 IMterest OM 1OAN Sag sites a 3 1,579,972 12,607,000 IMISCELLANCOMSY ais cetera cue 4 ate 2,303,925 52,782,000 Total) :t-b-) eal ote aad 198,242,897 837,169,000 For expenditures during the same years see table at top of next column. The funded debt on Mar. 31, 1914, was £586,- 717,872; liability in respect of terminable an- nuities, £29,552,219; unfunded debt, £35,000,000, making a total “dead weight” debt of £651,270,- following table shows the standing of the public debt on Dee. 31, 1922, and 1923: ITEMS Dec. 31, Dec. 31, (In hundred thousands) 1922 1923 BDundedo~ deb te deg snin meantime w Palate ei oes £314 £314 Terminablemannwitiosn. asa secace es an. as. 14 3% per cent conversion loans ..... 690 683 Otheriwar lOanse ta «cis eee anes Gers eas 2,548 PEASY SUA ELTELOL oLeyaretete wt y iS lel Haig UA Re 1,839 1,842 National savings certificates ........ 350 367 Others debainih eset Hae fs ee ete. 1,071 1,149 Others capitan .aebt-c4 i. kvenarcdoye 4 de. a). 6 68 Floating debt— Ways and means advances ......... 222 211 Treasury OUlst Aue Je WO hel Ye ede eve 719 649 POUR oer meee pets outcry shal Cea: s: ocx age 2s are 08 pha wipro mteia aes 20,000 PONG OTL GG Urns c elses, 5b ete 0 'O ssh oho he Auten ettatar ah atte 53,500 Grown . landstes ant sb) Sp. fo eee a Sk Cae Sa. 900 MITE TORL A Oliee LOTS Includes dental plaster and plaster sold to plate-glass works. ¢ Included under “Other purposes.” @Includes roof tile and material used for pointing up wall boards. sum produced in the United States in 1922 were an increase over 1914, when the production was 2,476,465 tons. The sales of agricultural gyp- sum amounted to 101,904 tons, valued at $387,- 203, in 1922, as compared with the 1921 sales of 104,966 tons, valued at $490,902. Gypsum was used not only for fertilizer but in connec- tion with insecticides and as carriers for dust sprays used in combating the boll weevil. The sales of gypsum for use in Portland cement, paint, and other compounds, however, showed an increase in quantity and in value during the period from 1914 which amounted, in 1922, to 668,821 tons, valued at $2,056,143. Important applications of this material were gypsum blocks or tiles for nonbearing parti- tions in fireproof buildings and employment in roofs and floors. Gypsum wall boards by 1924 had become an important industry. In_ the manufacture of gypsum, leading developments were the use of rotary calciners and ball mill grinding, as well as mechanical packers. GYPSY MOTH. See ENTOMOLOGY, NOMIC. ' GYRO PILOT. See NAVIGATION. Eco- H AAN, WILLIAM GEORGE (1863- ). An American army officer, born at Crown Point, Ind. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1889, and began his military career as lieutenant in the Ist Artillery. He was promoted through the grades, and when the War broke out in 1914 he was a member of the General Staff. In 1917, he commanded the 57th Field Artillery Brigade at Camp Mac- Arthur, Texas, and in 1918 the 32d Division at the Marne, Oise-Aisne, and the Meuse-Ar- gonne offensives. He commanded the 7th Army Corps in the Army of Occupation in Germany from November, 1918, to April, 1919. On his return to the United States in 1919 he was ap- pointed assistant chief of staff and director of war plans division of the General Staff and was made a major-general in the regular army on Mar. 8, 1921. HAAS, ArtTuur E. (1884— ). Professor of physics at the University of Vienna, born at Brunn and educated at the Gymnasium and the universities of Vienna and Gdéttingen. He taught at the University of Vienna in 1912, and in 1913 was appointed professor in the Univer- sity of Leipzig. He returned to Vienna in 1921. He published many scientific articles, and also the following works: Lntwicklungsgeschichte des Satzes von der Erhaltung der Kraft (1909) ; Geist des Hellentums in der Modernen Physik (1914); Grundgleichheit der Mechanik, dar- gestellt auf Grund ihrer Geschichtlichen Ent- wicklung (1914); Einftihrung in die Theoret- ische Physik (1919); Naturbilder der Neuen Physik (1920). HAASE, Hvco (1863-1919). A German politician, born at Allenstein, East Prussia, and educated at the public school, the Gymnasium, and the University of Kénigsberg. He began practicing law in 1889, and was a member of the Reichstag from 1897 to 1907, being elected again in 1912. In 1914 he was the leader of the Social Democratic party in the Reichstag, but in 1916 he became the leader of the Inde- pendent Socialists. After the revolution of 1918, he was chosen to be one of the six com- missaries who conducted the first provisional government of the new republic. His socialistic Views were rather moderate than extreme. He was fired on by an assassin on Nov. 7, 1919, and died from the wounds received. HABER, Fritz (1868- ). A German chemist (see Vor. X). He directed the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut for physical chemistry and electrochemistry in Berlin. He specialized on electrochemical investigations and received the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1919. HACKETT, Francis (1883- ). A liter- ary critic, born in Kilkenny, Ireland. He was educated in Ireland and came to America in 1900. He was with a law firm in New York in 1902 and did editorial work for the Chicago Evening Post, 1906-11. He has been associate 593 editor of the New Republic since 1914. Besides his numerous articles in magazines he wrote Ireland, A Study in Nationalism (1918); Hori- zons (1918); The Invisible Choir (1920). He has been one of the exponents of the modern school of literary criticism and has devoted much attention to modern political movements. In 1924, he contributed a series of articles to the Survey, on the League of Nations, following his visit to the League buildings in Geneva. HACKETT, JAMES KETELTAS (1869- }f An American actor (see VoL. X), best known for Shakespearean characterizations. He played Macbeth (1916); Out There (1918); The Bet- ter: Ole; The. Rise of Silas. Lapham. (1919); Macbeth (in London and Paris, 1920); Othello (Paris and London, 1922). When he returned to the United States in 1924, he was given a public reception at the New York City Hall (the first one ever accorded to an actor). Dur- ing the spring of that year, he played Macbeth in New York, with Clare Eames as Lady Mac- beth. HADLEY, ArtTHUR TWINING (1856- \s An American educator (see Vout. X). Included ‘among his recent works are Undercurrents in American Politics (1915), The Moral Basis of Democracy (1919), and Economic Problems of Democracy (1923). He resigned from the pres- idency of Yale .University in 1920, and later became a director of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railway. HADLEY, HENRY KIMBALL (1871- Me An American composer (see Vou. X). He re- signed as conductor of the San Francisco Sym- phony Orchestra in 1915 and returned to New York, to devote his entire time to composition. In 1920, he was appointed associate conductor of the Philharmonic Society, and in 1924 also regular conductor of the Worcester Festival. In 1921 and 1922 he conducted the first half of the Philharmonic Society’s series of summer concerts at the Stadium, and during the winter of 1921-22 appeared as guest conductor of the San Carlo Opera Company. He wrote four operas, which were all produced soon after their completion: Azora, Daughter of Montezuma (Chicago Op. Co., 1917); Bianca (won the Hinshaw prize, New York, 1918); The Garden of Allah (New York, 1918); Cleopatra’s Night (Met. Op. House, 1920). The more important of his recent works include two _ overtures, Othello and The Spirit of the Elements; a tone- poem, The Ocean; a cantata, Prophecy and Ful- fillment ; Ode to Music for chorus and orchestra (Worcester Festival, 1917); and an oratorio, Resurgam (Cincinnati Festival, 1923). HAFNIUM. See Puysics. HAGEDORN, HeErMAann_ (1882- ). An American author, born in New York City, and eduated at Harvard University, University of Berlin and Columbia University. From 1909 to 1911, he was instructor in English at Har- vard. He published, among other works: The Silver Blade (1907); The Woman of Corinth , HAGEMANN 504 (1908); A Troop of the Guard, and Other Poems (1909); Poems and Ballads (1912); Faces m the Dawn (1914); You Are the Hope of the World (1917, 1920); Theodore Roosevelt (1919, 1921); That Human Being, Leonard Wood (1920); Roosevelt in the Badlands (1921). HAGEMANN, C. A. Cari (1871- ied German stage manager and author. He studied at Rostock, Berlin and Heidelberg, has managed theatres at Mannheim and Hamburg, and after 1921 was director of the principal theatre in Wiesbaden. He has written (Geschichte des Theaterzettels (1900), Regie, die Kunst der scenischen Darstellung (1921), Die Kunst der Biihne (1923), a life of Oscar Wilde, and other works. HAGEN, JoHANNES G. (1847- ). An Austrian Jesuit and astronomer (see VoL. X). He was professor of mathematics and physics at American colleges, among them Georgetown University, and directed the observatory at the Vatican. He published Die verdnderlichen Sterne (1920). HAGEN, WALTER C. (1892- yereeAn. American professional golfer, born at Roches- ter, N. Y. He rounded out a record that never has been equaled for tournament play by win- ning the British open championship at Hoylake, England, in 1924, after having been the first United States player to bring this coveted trophy across the seas in 1922. He also has been the American open title holder twice, North and South open champion twice, Western open champion twice, metropolitan open cham- pion twice, French open champion once and Professional Golf Association champion once. HAGGARD, Str Henry RIDER (1856- is An English novelist (see Vor. X). During the War he served with the Royal Colonial Insti- tute of which he was elected vice-president in 1917. He was also a member of the Empire Settlement Committee (1917). Among his lat- er works are: The Holy Flower (1915); The Ivory Child (1916); Love Eternal (1915); The Ancient Allan (1920); The Virgin of the Sun (1922). HAGGERTY, MELWIN EVERETT (1875- ), An American psychologist. He was born at Bunker Hill, Ind., and was educated at Chicago and Harvard universities. After teaching at Indiana University, he became, in 1915, profes- sor of educational psychology at the University of Minnesota. He was director of the psycho- educational clinics at that institution, and in 1920 he was made dean of the College of Educa- tion. After the Armistice he was attached to the Surgeon-General’s office, in charge of the reéducation of disabled soldiers. He served on the Virginia Education Commission and on the school surveys of North Carolina (1920) and New York State (1921). HAGOOD, JOHNSON (1873- ). An American army officer, born at Orangeburg, N. C. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1896, and began his military career as second lieutenant of the 2d _ Artillery. He was promoted through the grades, served in the Philippines (1913-15), and commanded the First Expeditionary Brigade, Coast Artillery Corps, arriving in France on Sept. 11, 1917. He headed the board that created the service of supply and was its chief of staff until the Armistice. He took part in the Meuse-Argonne offensive, and on Noy. 31, 1918, established head- quarters at Hohr, Germany. He returned to the HAITI United States in 1919, commanded the South Atlantic Coast Artillery District during 1920- 21, and was sent again to the Philippines, in November, 1921. HAHN, HERMANN (1868- ). "A Ger- man sculptor, born in Bavaria. At first, he was apprenticed to a woodcarver, then studied in- dustrial art and finally entered the Academy at Munich. He traveled- in the Orient and in America. His principal works are a “Goethe” monument in Chicago (1914), “Emil Rathenau” in Berlin (1916), “Goethe” in Wiesbaden (1919), “Bliicher” in Kiel (1920), and an equestrian bronze in Hamburg (1919). His most recent works are a Bavarian monument for Munich, a war monument for Ludwigshof and a monumen- tal fountain for Cassel. HAIG, Doveras, first EArt (1861- )s An English general, born in Fifeshire and edu- cated at Brasenose College, Oxford. After serv- ing in the Sudan and in South Africa he held important posts in India, being chief of staff from 1909 to 1912. In 1912-14, he was general officer in command at Aldershot, and commanded the first army of the British Expeditionary Force in France, distinguishing himself in the retreat from Mons, at the Aisne, at Ypres and Neuve Chapelle. In 1915, he succeeded Sir John French as commander-in-chief of the Ex- peditionary Forces in France and Flanders, hold- ing that post until 1919. During 1919-20, he held the office of field-marshal commander-in- chief of the forces in Great Britain. He wrote Cavalry Studies (1907). See War In EuROPE, Western Front. HAINES, THomas Harvey (1871- 1b An American “psychologist. He was born at Moorestown, N. J., and was educated at Haver- ford College and Harvard University. He studied neurology and psychiatry at Munich, Zurich and London, and received a medical degree from Ohio State University. He was first assisting physician at the Boston Psycho- pathic Hospital (1913-14) and clinical director of the Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research (1914— 17). From 1915 to 1920, he was professor of nervous and mental diseases at Ohio State Uni- versity. Author of the mental deficiency bills of Tennessee and Mississippi, he took an active part in social work. His published writings in- clude a monograph on Mental Measurement of the Blind (1915). HAINISCH, MICHAEL (1856- Ny, E president of the Austrian republic. He was a lawyer by profession and had been an official of the treasury department. For many years he took no active part in politics but devoted his time to reading and study. He was chosen Fed- eral president in 1921, largely because of his friendliness with all political parties. He wrote many books on sociological subjects. HAITI. An independent republic occupying the western four-elevenths of Haiti Island. Santo Domingo (q.v.) is the name of the re- maining portion. Area of the republic esti- mated at from 10,204 to 11,072 square miles. Population in 1912. (estimate), 2,500,000; in 1923 (estimate), 2,045,000. Negroes made up 90 per cent of the population. Port-au-Princé, the capital, had 125,000 inhabitants in 1923. Industry, Trade, Government. Agriculture continued to engage the majority of the popu- lation. Coffee culture occupied the place of leading importance, its export quantity in 1923 constituting 65 per cent of the total trade. HAITI Other important crops were cotton, sugar, tobac- co. Logwood and other valuable woods entered into the foreign trade. In 1923, exports totaled $14,591,012, as against $10,712,210 in 1922, and $17,285,485 in 1913. ‘For the same years, im- ports were $14,157,963, $12,350,271, $9,876,555. As before, imports came largely from the United States, while the exports went to France. American intervention in 1915 led to the ap- pointment, in the following year, of a group of American officials to the posts of financial- adviser, receiver-general of customs, chief en- gineer, sanitary engineer, and chief of gen- darmerie. The result was an increased stability in fiscal affairs. Expenditures for 1913-14 had been $8,127,000: revenues, $6,282,000. In 1922— 23, revenues were $6,496,889 and expenditures $5,818,746. In 1912, the public debt amounted to $12,763,000 and 119,286,000 francs, besides an unfunded debt of $7,077,000. In July, 1923, the total public debt was $19,329,808. In Oc- tober, 1922, great interest was aroused in Haitian affairs by the action of the New York National City Bank which floated for Haiti a bond issue of $16,000,000 to be secured by a second charge on customs and a first on in- ternal revenues. The Haitian government re- ceived 92 per cent of the nominal value. The loan was used for the conversion of outstand- ing loans, particularly the French loan. As a result of American activity, Haiti was provided with a well-trained constabulary, officered by American marines. The constabulary consisted of 2688 men. History. The internal disorders and up- heavals which Haiti had experienced during the preceding years continued throughout 1914. President Davilmar Theodore was overthrown on Feb. 8, 1914, by Oreste Zamor, but regained con- trol in October, to be ousted again by Vilbrun Guillaume Sam early in March, 1915. Presi- dent Guillaume succeeded at first in firmly es- tablishing his authority, but owing to his dic- tatorial methods and the brutal acts committed by his followers, notably the massacre of some 200 political prisoners, he was overthrown and killed in the course of a violent uprising at Port- au-Prince at the end of July, 1915. Immediate- ly thereupon American troops were landed and took possession of the country. Haiti had pre- viously become involved in serious difficulties with English, French, and German creditors, and on several occasions American troops had been landed. In the spring of 1915 President Guillaume had been informed that he must turn over to United States officials the administra- tion of Haitian customs, in order to assure payment of foreign obligations. This he had refused to accept. Following the murder of Guillaume, United States marines occupied the country. Martial law was declared without the consent of Haiti, and American officials took charge of the greater part of the administration, although the Haitian civil government remained nominally in power. On Aug. 10, 1915, Sudre Dartiguenave was elected president by the Hai- tian Assembly, and on Sept. 16, 1915, a con- vention was signed between the United States and the Haitian government. After the Ameri- ean forces of occupation had _— successfully stamped out all armed opposition in the interior, this convention was ratified by the Haitian Chamber on Oct. 6, 1915, and by the Senate on November 3. In ratifying the treaty the Hai- tian Assembly had been effectively coerced by 595 HALDANE the United States withholding all funds. Pend- ing ratification by the United States Senate, which took place in May, 1916, a modus vi- vendi was reached for the immediate applica- tion of the treaty. The provisions were as fol- lows: establishment of a Haitian receivership of customs under American control; establishment of a native constabulary foree under the com- mand of American officers; establishment of American control over Haitian finances to an extent necessary to safeguard the interests of the Haitian people and their American creditors; a term of 10 years during which the treaty was to remain in force, with the possibility of ex- tending it at the expiration of that period if either of the signatories should so desire. Hai- ti thus became an American political and fiscal protectorate for at least 10 years, during which the United States agreed to intervene for the maintenance of Haitian independence and an or- derly :government if that should become neces- sary. On July 20, 1918, Haiti entered the War on the Allies’ side, ostensibly because of the sink- ing by German submarines of a French vessel which had Haitian citizens aboard. During the same year a new constitution was drafted, and on submission to a plebiscite on June 19, ap- proved by a large majority. The chief novelty of this constitution was a clause providing that foreigners residing in the country and societies formed by them should have the right to own real property. Although constitutional govern- ment was formally in existence, the actual ad- ministration was in the hands of American of- ficials. The American occupation resulted in a marked improvement of the economic and social conditions of the country. Particularly, town sanitation and the construction of modern roads progressed rapidly. Public order was guaran- teed by the establishment of an efficient gen- darmerie. These benefits, obvious results of the American occupation, nevertheless failed to rec- oncile a large part of the Haitian people with the existing status. Charges were advanced in Haitian and American quarters that the Ameri- can force of occupation, composed exclusively of whites, was guilty of revolting acts of brutality against the Negro population of Haiti. The charges resulted during 1921 in an _ investiga- tion by a committee of the United States Sen- ate, the report of which on the whole exonerated the American troops. On Oct. 9, 1922, the Na- tional City Bank of New York offered a Haitian loan of $16,000,000 in 30-year bonds, at 6 per cent. This aroused protests from the Haitians and criticism in the United States. By the unanimous vote of the Legislature, Luis Borno was elected president on Apr. 11, 1922, to re- place President Dartiguenave, whose term had expired. In the spring of 1924 the American government withdrew its forces from. the in- terior, leaving only skeleton forces in certain seaports. At the same time it was declared that because of the inability of the Haitians to guar- antee the continuance of orderly government, complete evacuation was not yet in sight. HALBE, Max _ (1865-— ). A German dramatist and novelist (see Vou. X). His re- cent works are Jo, a novel (1918), Schloss Zeitvorbei, a drama (1918), Hortense Ruland, a tragedy (1920), and Kikekiki, a comedy (1927). HALDANE, Joun Scott (1860~— ). (See Vout. X.) This British physiologist resigned HALDANE 596 his professorship to become director of the Mining Research Laboratory at Birmingham. After 1914, he wrote the following books: Or- ganization and Environment (1917); The New Physiology (1919); Mechanism, Life and Per- sonality (1921); and Respiration (1922). HALDANE, Rr. Hon. Ricnarp Burpon, first ViIscoUNT OF CLOoAN (1856-— ). A British philosopher and statesman (see Vor. X). He was the host of Einstein during the visit of the famous scientist to England. In his work on The Reign of Relativity (1921) he sought to link the physical theory with the general phi- losophy of idealistic relativism. The Philosophy of Humanism (1922) was published as the ethical counterpart to the idealistic criticism of science. Viscount Haldane was Lord Chan- cellor in the Labor party government which came into office in England in 1924. HALE, Georce E. (1868— ). An Ameri- can astronomer (see Vout. X). He received the Bruce medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1916, the Janssen medal of the Astronomical Society of France in 1917, the Galileo medal, Florence, in 1920, and the Acton- ian prize given by the Royal Institution in 1021. HALEVY, Dantet (1872- ). A French man of letters. He was educated at the Sor- bonne, and devoted himself to history and criti- cism. By family tradition he inherited a cul- tural liberalism which was to find expression in the ideology of Dreyfusism. Before the War, he was affiliated with the group of Charles Péguy and the Cahiers de la Quinzaine, a fortnightly series of pamphlets, novels, and books of criti- eism and philosophy. After the Armistice, Halévy tried to revive Péguy’s tradition on a more modest scale by editing the collection of the Cahiers Verts. His works include: Essai sur le Mouvement Ouvrier en France; La Vie de Frederic Nietzsche; Luttes et Problemes; La Jeunesse de Proudhon; Charles Péguy et les Cahiers; Le Courrier de M. Thiers; Vaubain; Une Visite auw Paysans du Centre. HALEVY, kite (1870- ). A French philosophical writer. He was born at Etretat, and was educated at the Ecole Normale Supéri- eure. He was professor at the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques. His works include an analysis of Plato’s philosophy of science, La Théorie Platonicienne des Sciences (1896) ; three volumes on the English utilitarians and radicals, La Formation du Radicalisme Pha- losophique (1901-04): and Histoire du Peuple Anglais au XIXme Siécle (2 vols., 1913, 1923). HALL, FrRAnNcIS Josepn (1857— ies ih American Protestant Episcopal theologian (see Vou. X). He became professor of dogmatic the- ology in the General Theological Seminary in 1913. Among his later works are: The Incar- nation (1915); The Bible and Modern Criti- cism (1915); The Passion and Exaltation of Christ (1918); The Church and the Sacramental System (1920); The Sacraments (1921). HALL, GRANVILLE STANLEY (1846-1924). An American educator (see Vou. X). He be- came editor of the Journal of Applied Psychol- ogy in 1917 and has published Jesus the Christ in the Light of Psychology (1917), Morale: The Supreme Standard of Life and Conduct (1920), Recreations of a Psychologist (1920), and Sen- escence (1922). He retired from the presi- dency of Clark University in 1920. HALOGEN GROUP. See CHEMISTRY. HAMILTON COLLEGE HALSTEAD, ALEXANDER SEAMAN (1861-__), An American naval officer, born at Philadelphia, Pa. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1883 and was _ promoted . through the grades, becoming captain in 1911. He served in the Spanish-American War and took part in the battle of Manila Bay. After commanding several battleships, he became su- pervisor of New York Harbor in 1915. He at- tended the Naval War College at Newport, R. I. during 1916-17; was commander of the district of Brest, France, during 1918-19, and com- manded the naval forces in France in 1919 In October, 1919, he became commandant of the Navy Yard at Portsmouth, N. H., and remained there until 1920, when he was appointed com- mandant of the 12th Naval District at San Francisco, He was raised to the rank of rear- admiral on July 1, 1919. HAMBIDGE, Jay (1867-1924). An Ameri- ean artist, born in Canada. He was a pupil at the Art Students’ League in New York and of William Chase, and a thorough student of classical art. He conceived the idea that the study of arithmetic with the aid of geometrical designs was the foundation of the proportion and symmetry in Greek architecture, sculpture and ceramics. Careful examination and meas- urements of classical buildings in Greece, among them the Parthenon, the Temple of Apollo at Basse, of Zeus at Olympia and Athene at Aigina made him formulate the theory of dynamic symmetry, as demonstrated in his work, Dynamic Symmetry: the Greek Vases (1920). It created a great deal of discussion, an English critie saying that Hambidge did not try to formulate a new theory, but to recover a lost technique. He found a disciple in Dr. Lacey D. Caskey, the author of Geometry of Greek Vases (1922). HAMILTON, Joun McLure (1853- ye An American portrait painter and illustrator (see Vor. X). He served on the jury of awards at the Panama-Pacifie International Exposition, 1915. In 1918 he was awarded a gold medal, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. A book by him, Men I Have Painted, appeared in 1921. HAMILTON, Sir IAn_ (1853- a: British general (see Vor. X). At the outbreak of the War, he was given command of the 4th Army, which he organized in Egypt. In 1915 he was given charge of the land forces operat- ing at Gallipoli but was relieved of this com- mand in October of the same year. The fail- ure of the Gallipoli enterprise resulted in severe criticism of his plan of campaign. He published an elaborate defense in the form of his Gallipoli Diary, in 1920. He was promoted to the rank of general in 1914. HAMILTON COLLEGE. A _ nonsectarian college of liberal arts at Clinton, N. Y., founded in 1812. The enrollment increased steadily from 200 in 1914 to 350 in 1923-24. In 1922, the Board of Trustees unanimously voted to limit the number of students to 400, thereby definitely establishing Hamilton as a small col- lege. During the decade the number of mem- bers of the faculty was increased from 20 to 31, the library from 62,000 volumes to 100,000 vol- umes and 25,000 pamphlets and the productive funds from $1,100,000 to $3,370,000. The cov- ered playing field, called the Sage Building was completed in 1922, and in 1923-24 plans were in progress to provide a new laboratory to house the departments of biology and geology, and the et aie eel ee ————— ee Oe ———— HAMLIN museum of natural history. Frederick C. Ferry, LL.D., succeeded Melancthon W. Stryker as president in 1917. HAMLIN, Cuartes Sumner (1861- 1g An American lawyer and public official (see Vou. X). From 1914 until 1916, he was gov- ernor of the Federal Reserve Board, and was reappointed a member of the board for the term 1916-26. He published the Jndex Digest of the Federal Reserve Bulletin (1921). HAMLINE UNIVERSITY. A coeducation- al college under the Methodist Episcopal Church at St. Paul, Minn., founded in 1854. The stu- dent enrollment increased from 251 in 1914 to 530 in 1923-24, the teaching staff from 15 to 38, and the annual income from $52,000 to $185,- 565. The endowment rose from $750,000 to $1,187,000, and a campaign for $1,500,000 for further buildings and increased endowment was planned for the fall of 1924. A new dormi- tory for women was completed in 1922 at a cost of $201,851, and a new athletic field and grandstand at a cost of $43,000. President, Samuel F. Kerfoot, D.D. HAMMANN, Otto (1852- ). A German journalist and politician, born at Blankenhain. He followed a journalistic career from 1877 to 1893. From 1894 until 1916, he was director of the press section of the German Foreign Office, in this capacity acting as adviser to Prince von Biilow, and, in the nineties, taking the part of Count Caprivi, the Imperial Chancellor, and Baron Marshall von Bieberstein, the Foreign Secretary, against Bismarck’s followers. After the formation of the German Republic, he pub- lished three volumes of reminiscences, in which he brought to light much of what he knew about the German secret policy: Der neve Kurs, Erinnerungen (1918); Zur Vorgeschichte des Weltkrieges (1919); Um den Kaiser, Erin- merungen aus den Jahren 1906-09 (1919). HAMMERSTEIN, Oscar (1847-1919). An American theatre manager (see Vor. X). For the last 15 years of his life he worked to conquer operatic inertia in New York City, and with his keen understanding of the Amer- ican public, he succeeded in stimulating pub- lic interest in the opera. He built the Man- hattan Opera House and did much to enliven the Metropolitan Opera House, by securing many artists of note, among them Mary Gar- den and Tetrazzini. HAMMOND, Joun Hays, Jr. (1888- i. An American inventor, born at San Francisco and educated at the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. He invented a_wireless- controlled torpedo for coast defense and a system for firing torpedoes from battleships; also incendiary projectiles which were employed in the War, a radio system for the control of ships, and a system of aéroplane coastal patrol. He also took out a great number of patents for inventions in radiotelegraphy and telephony, among them being one that gives complete isolation of the sender and receiver of radio messages, so that there is no “listening in” possible. He was vice-president of the Radio Corporation of America and a member of many American and foreign organizations. HAMOR, WiitiAM ALLEN ( ?- Pee An American chemist, born at Du Bois, Pa., and educated at the University of Pittsburgh. He was research chemist at the College of the City of New York, 1907-14, and assistant to the director of the Mellon Institute of Industri- 597 HAMPTON NORMAL INSTITUTE al Research at Pittsburgh, 19.4-16. He was major in command of the Chemical Warfare Service of the United States Army in 1917 and served in France for 10 months as assistant chief of the Technical Division of the Chemical War- fare Service. He wrote: History of Chemistry (1909); The American Petroleum Industry (1916) ; The Examination of Petroleum (1920) ; American Fuels (1921). HAMP, PIERRE (pseudonym of BouRILLON) (1876— ). A French novelist. He was edu- cated in the French technical schools and_ be- came a functionary in the railroad administra- tion. It was there that he collected his observations for his series of impressionistic novels on La Peine des Hommes (Men in Labor). These novels combine, at times very success- fully, a sociological documentation and artistic presentation of human experience. His works include Marée fraiche (1908); Vin de Cham- pagne (1909); Le Rail; Vieille Histoire (1912) ; L’Enquéte (1914); Gens (1917); Le Travail Invincible (1918); Les Wétiers. Blessés (1919) ; La Victoire Mécanicienne; Les Ohercheurs @W@Or (1920); La Dérive du 4542; Compound 300 H.P. No. 2438; Le Cantique des Cantiques (1922): HAMPDEN, WALTER’ (1879- ). An American actor born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He studied at Harvard, 1896-97, and took his bachelor’s degree from the Polytechnic Insti- tute, Brooklyn, in 1900. He first appeared on the stage in England, with F. R. Benson’s com- pany in classical repertoire, in 1901, and then for three seasons was leading man at the Adelphi Theatre in London. In 1905, he ap- peared in Hamlet, succeeding the younger Irving. He came to the United States in 1907, supporting Mme. Nazimova, and then appeared in The Servant in the House (1908), The Master Builder, The Yellow Jacket, Salome, and other plays. He toured the country widely with his Shakespearian repertoire, his Hamlet in par- ticular being a vigorous, fresh, and princely interpretation. His greatest single triumph has been Cyrano de Bergerac, which was judged to be the outstanding play in New York City during 1923-24. With his remarkable histrionic ability and insight into character, he gives a masterly presentation of MRostand’s heroic comedy. HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICUL- TURAL INSTITUTE. This institution, situ- ated at Hampton, Va., two miles from Old Point Comfort, was founded by Gen. Samuel Chapman Armstrong in 1868 for the practical education of Negro and Indian youth. The school opened in 1868 with two teachers and 15 students in a plantation house, grist- mill, and army barracks. By 1924, it had developed into an industrial village, with about 2200 students (900 boarders, 400 in the Whit- tier Training School, and 900 in the summer school and extension classes), over 300 teach- ers and other workers, 149 buildings, and 1000 acres of land. There was a well-equipped trade school where 14 trades were taught, with a graduate course in the building trades. The normal, agricultural, domestic science, and busi- ness schools offered courses of collegiate grade. The Institute was controlled by a board of 17 trustees, Chief Justice Taft having been presi- dent of the board since 1914. The endowment fund, which amounted to about $4,688,000, pro- vided inadequate support, the budget for 1923-24 HAMSUN amounting to $480,000, and the Institute was therefore partly dependent on public philan- thropy. Hampton Institute was probably the first school in the country to combine sucess- fully the training of the hand with that of the mind and character. Rev. James E. Gregg, D.D., succeeded the late Hollis Burke Frissell as principal in 1918. HAMSUN, Knut. (1859- yi. «AN siNor- wegian author, born in Lom, Gudbrandsdal. Son of a tailor, he became a cobbler’s appren- tice. At 18 he had printed a poem and a novel. Hoping to become a Unitarian minister he went to America and tried various employ- ments, which included lecturing on French literature. He went back to Christiania and attempted authorship without success, but after three years on a Newfoundland fishing boat his writing of Sult at once gave him prominence among the young authors of the North. Among his best known volumes are Shallow Soil (1914) and Growth of the Soil (1920). Pan (1894), his first love story, was republished in 1920. Hunger is another of his famous books. See SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE, Norwegian. HANEY, Lewis Henry (1882- he SAn American economist, born at Eureka, [Il., and educated at Wesleyan University, Bloomington, Ill. He was a lecturer at New York University in 1908, afterwards teaching in the universi- ties of Iowa and Michigan, and from 1912 to 1916 he was professor of economics at the University of Texas. In 1916, he was in charge of the Federal Trade Commission’s gaso- line investigation, and in 1920-21, he was in charge of the cost of marketing division of the United States Bureau of Markets. In 1920, he became director. of the New York University Bureau of Business Research and professor of economics. He wrote: A Congressional His- tory of Railways (vol. i, 1908; vol. ii, 1910) ; History of Economic Thought (1911; rev. ed., 1919); Business Organization and Combination (1913); and various articles on economic sub- jects for periodicals. HANIHARA, Masanao_ (1876- ) tk Japanese diplomat, who came to the United States in 1902 as a member of the Japanese Embassy at Washington, was consul general at San Francisco in 1916-17, then returned to Japan as director of the Bureau of Commerce of the Japanese Foreign Office. He was a mem- ber of the Ishii Mission from which came the Ishii-Lansing agreement. He was also an in- fluential member of the Washington Disarma- ment Conference. In December, 1922, he was appointed ambassador to the United States, and arrived in Washington in February, 1923. His protest, in April, 1924, on the passage of the im- migration law by the.United States government because it would bar the admission of Japanese to the country, was interpreted as “a veiled threat” by the Senate, and had quite an op- posite effect from that intended. After the pas- sage of the bill, it was rumored that Hanihara was to be recalled by the Japanese government. Although this was denied, it was soon an- nounced that he would visit Tokyo on leave of absence. HANNAY, JAMES OWEN (“‘GEorGE A. BIR- MINGHAM’’) (1865- ). An Trish novelist (see VoL. X). He published Minnie’s Bishop and Other Stories (1915); Gossamer (1915); The Island of Mystery (1918); Up the Rebels (1919) ; Good Conduct (1920); Lady Bounti- 598 HANSON ful (1921); A Public Scandal (1923), others. HANOTAUX, GABRIEL (1853- ). A French historian and diplomat (see Von. X). He wrote: Histoire de la Guerre de 1914; L’His- toire et les Historiens; Le Traité de Versailles ; Histoire de la Nation Francaise. HANSEN, NIELS EsBESEN (1866- A An American horticulturist, born in Denmark. In 1873, he came to the United States and grad- uated from the Iowa Agricultural College in 1887. From 1891 to 1895, he was assistant pro- fessor of horticulture at the Iowa Agricultural College and from the latter date, professor of horticulture at the South Dakota Agricultural College and = Experiment Station. Professor Hansen made explorations in Europe, Asia and Africa, collecting new economic seeds and plants, and originating new fruits, especially the Han- sen hybrid plum He also introduced, from Turkestan and Siberia, new varieties of alfalfa, and imported the Siberian fat-rumped sheep. He wrote numerous horticultural bulletins and papers and was also author of a Handbook of Fruit Culture and Tree Planting (1890), and Systematic Pomology (with J. L. Budd, 1903). Professor Hansen was awarded the George Robert White medal for eminent service in horticulture by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1917. HANSON, Howarp (1896- ). An Amer- ican composer, born at Wahoo, Neb. Having received his first training at the Luther Col- lege Conservatory (Neb.), he continued his studies at the School of Music of the University of Nebraska, at the Institute of Musical Art in New York, under P. Goetschius, and at the Northwestern University, Evanston, under P. Lutkin and A. Oldberg. In 1916-19, he taught theory and composition at the College of the Pacific, San José, Cal., and 1919-21 was dean of the School of Fine Arts. In 1921, he was the first recipient of a newly endowed fellow- ship in composition, awarded by the American Academy in Rome. The fellowship, determined by a composition in a prescribed form and sub- mitted in open competition, provides for a three years’ residence in Rome, with privilege of travel, and an annual allowance of $2000. In 1924, after his return to the United States, he was appointed director of the Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester. He appeared as conductor of his own works with several of the leading American symphony orchestras. In 1923, he conducted a programme of American music with the Augusteo orchestra in Rome. His works include: a Nordic Sym- phony; the symphonic poems, North and West, Lux Aterna, Exaltation, and Before the Daun; a Symphonic Rhapsody; a piano concerto; two piano quintets; and The Soul of Sequoia, a festival play for the California Redwood Park Festival (1920). He was commissioned to write a string quartet for the Berkshire Festival of 1925 and a choral work for the Leeds Triennial Festival of 1925. HANSON, OLE, (1874- ). An American public official, born in Racine County, Wis. He was educated privately and after studying law was admitted to the bar. For many years he was engaged in real estate business in Seattle. He was a member of the House of Representa- tives, where he advocated measures favorable to labor. He was elected mayor of Seattle in 1918 and gained national prominence by prompt and HAPGOOD and decisive measures in meeting and overcom- ing a general strike in February, 1919. He wrote Americanism versus Bolshevism (1920). HAPGOOD, NORMAN (1868— ). An American editor and critic (see Vout. X). He was editor of Harper's Weekly (1913-16), and American Ambassador from the United States to Denmark from February to December, 1919. Beginning in 1923, he was editor of Hearst’s International Magazine. HARA, Takasu (1854-1921). A Japanese prime minister. He served as an Official in the Foreign Office at home and abroad, attaining the rank of vice-minister in 1895. In 1900, he was one of the organizers, together with the late Prince Ito, of the Seiyu-kai party and soon afterwards was made Minister of Communica- tions. He held that portfolio again in the Seiyu-kai ministry of 1906-08. He was again a cabinet minister in 1915, holding the port- folio of Home Affairs and in 1918 became premier. He was strongly self-assertive as prime minister and practically dominated the government. In general, he was opposed to the too rapid absorption of European ideas. Other features of his policy were the more complete coéperation between the military and other branches of government service and a spirit of conciliation in foreign affairs. Many attempts were made to overthrow his cabinet, the op- position attacking it for its policy toward China in the matter of the 21 demands and for its Siberian policy, and demanding that the Japanese troops be withdrawn. Latterly nego- tiations with China over Shantung and the policy of the conference at Darien, in which Japan had hoped to come to an agreement with the Far Eastern republic of China, tended to sharpen the hostility between the _ political parties. His assassination, which occurred at Tokyo, Nov. 4, 1921, was just at the time when the Japanese delegation was gathering for the Washington Conference. See JAPAN, History. HARAHAN, WILLIAM JOHNSON (1867— y. An American railway official born in Nashville, Tenn., and educated at St. John’s College, New Orleans. After holding several important posi- tions, he was appointed chief engineer of the Illinois Central Railroad in 1902. He became general manager in 1904 and in 1907 was ap- pointed assistant to the president of the Erie Railroad. He was vice-president of that road in 1911-12 and 1912-18 was president of the Seaboard Air Line, of which he was also Fed- eral manager. He was a member of the United States Railway Board of Adjustment and be- came president of the Cincinnati and Ohio Rail- way and the Hocking Railway in 1920. HARBEN, WILL(IAM) N(ATHANIEL) (1858- 1919). An American story-writer (see VOL. X). His last three publications were The In- mer Law (1915), Second Choice (1916), and The Triumph (1917). HARBORD, JAMES GUTHRIE (1866- yi. An American army officer, born at Bloomington, Ill., and graduated from the Kansas State Ag- ricultural College at Manhattan, Kan., in 1886 and from the Infantry and Calvary School in 1895. He joined the 4th Infantry as a private in 1889, and reached the rank of colonel in 1903, in which year he went to the Philippines where he remained till 1914. He was chief of staff in the American Army in France during 1917-18, and commanded the Marine Brigade near Chiteau-Thierry during June and July, 599 HARDING 1918. He also served at Soissons, and com- manded the Service of Supply during 1918-19. He was chief of the American Military Commis- sion to Armenia in 1919. HARDEN, MAximinian (IsmporE WITTKov- SKY) (1861- ). A German journalist and author (see Vor. X). It is said that during the War Harden was the most famous, feared, admired, and hated journalist in Europe. Ex- Ambassador Gerard declared that Harden voiced the only protest in Germany against the sink- ing of the Lusitania. He praised China for her anti-German attitude, admired President Wil- son whenever he did anything especially ob- noxious to Prussian pride, scoffed at the idea of a victorious German peace, and, in fact, made each copy of his newspaper Die Zukunft (which he had founded in 1892) of especial in- terest to German statesmen. The intrepid edi- tor was put in jail at various times, but no physical harm came to him till 1922, when an attempt was made to assassinate him. He was twice suggested for the post of ambassador to the United States, once in 1919, and again in L921; HARDING, WarREN GAMALIEL (1865- 1923). The 29th President of the United States, elected in November, 1920. He was born at Corsica, Morrow Co., Ohio, Nov. 2, 1865, and studied at the Ohio Central University. En- tering the newspaper business, he became edi- tor and publisher of the Marion (Ohio) Star. He ran for the office of governor of Ohio in 1910, but was defeated. In 1914, he was elected a Republican member of the United States Senate for the term of 1915-21. He nominated Mr. Taft in 1912 and was chairman of the Republican Convention in 1916, making the key- note speech. In politics he belonged to the “stand-pat” element which was bitterly opposed to the “insurgents” led by Roosevelt. He was a strong supporter of President Wilson’s war policies during the conflict, but in the treaty fight he stood with Senator Lodge and signed the famous “round-robin” disapproving the link- ing of the League of Nations with the Peace Treaty. He voted for the submission of the Prohibition and Woman Suffrage Amendments, and in general supported the policies of the majority of his party. In 1920, through the efforts of his friend, Harry M. Daugherty, after- wards Attorney General, he was put forward prominently as a candidate for the Presidency. At the convention he was nominated on the 10th ballot, receiving 6921/4 votes. His selection was somewhat of a surprise to the people at large. The most difficult question before the Republican candidate was that of the League of Nations. A strong element in the Republican party was bitter against any form of participation, where- as a smaller but more influential body, rep- resented by such men as Mr. Hughes, Mr. Hoover, and Mr. Root, favored some sort of co- operation. Mr. Harding put forward the idea of an association of nations to which the United States would belong but reserving the right of independent action, and he also favored an in- ternational court of justice. During the two years before his death, signs of revolt against the Republican organization were evident, and in 1922 the Republican majority in the House was greatly reduced in the Congressional elec- tions. An agricultural bloc was forming in Congress as a result of the dissatisfaction of the farmers, especially those in the West. HARDING Shortly before President Harding’s death, Ship- stead and Magnus Johnson were elected to the Senate and a new third party movement was threatened. The most conspicuous feature of the latter days of his administration was his advocacy of the Permanent Court of Interna- tional Justice, which was sharply attacked by Senators Johnson, Borah, and other irrecon- cilables. President Harding died at San Fran- cisco, Cal., on Aug. 2, 1923, on his return trip from Alaska. HARDING, WILLIAM P.G(ouLD) (1864- yi An American banker born in Greene County, Ala. After graduating from the University of Alabama he entered the bank of J. H. Fitts and Company at Tuscaloosa, from there went to the Berney National Bank at Birmingham, Ala., and from 1902 to 1914 was president of the First National Bank of Birmingham. He be- came a member in 1914, and governor in 1916, of the Federal Reserve Board at Washington, and has been closely associated with financial transactions of the United States Government. He was managing director of the War Finance Corporation in 1918-19. HARDY, Tuomas (1840- ). An. Eng- lish novelist (see VoL. X). His already long list of works was lengthened by Selected Poems (1916), Moments of Vision (1917), and Late Lyrics (1922). The Dynasts was produced at the Kingsway Theatre, London, early in the War, and again in London in 1920. HARKINS, WIiLtiAmM DRAPER (1873- hs American university professor and eminent chemist, born at Titusville, Pa. He was grad- uated from Stanford University in 1900, after which he studied at the University of Chicago, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and at Karlsruhe, Germany. He began his teaching career as instructor of chemistry at Stanford University in 1898, and in 1900 was made head of the department of chemistry in the Uni- versity of Montana. He was chemist in charge of the Anaconda Farmers’ Association’s in- vestigation of smelter smoke from 1902 to 1910, and did research work for the Carnegie Institu- tion at Washington in 1911. He was professor of physical chemistry at the University of Chi- cago in 1917. He gave many lectures on in- dustrial research, was editor ‘of the section on general and physical chemistry of Chemical Ab- stracts, and wrote many technical papers giving the results of original researches. HARRIES, GerorceE HERBERT (1860— Ne An American general, born at Haverfordwest, in Wales. In 1895-96, he was president of the Metropolitan Railroad Company of Washington, and from 1897 to 1915 commanded the military and naval militia of the District of Columbia. During the Spanish-American War he was colonel of the 1st District of Columbia Infantry, United States Volunteers. In the recent War he served as a brigadier-general of the United States Army in 1917. He acted as chief of the United States Military Mission at Berlin, Ger- many, in 1918-19, and was appointed brigadier- general of the Officers’ Reserve Corps in 1920. He was national commander-in-chief of the Mil- itary Order of the World War, 1920-22, and held office in many important organizations. HARRIS, Corra May (1869- Pore Am American author (see Vout. X). Her later books include: The Co-Citizens (1915); A Cir- cuit Rider's Widow (1916); Making Her His Wife (1918); From Sunup to Sundown (1919) ; 600 HART Happily Married (1920); My Son (1921); The Eyes of Love (1922); A Daughter of Adam (1923); My Book and Heart (1924). HARRIS, WitiiAm Lavuret_ 1870- ye An American mural painter (see Vou. X). He completed during this period his mural painting and decoration in the Paulist Church, New York, and fulfilled a similar commission for the Corpus Christi Chapel in that city. HARRIS, FRANK (1856- ). An English author (see Vor. X). Among his later works were The Life and Confessions of Oscar Wilde (1916), and Contemporary Portraits (1919, 1921). HARRIS, Harorp R. ( ?- ). An Amer- ican airman who made a world’s record for speed for 1000, 1500 and 2000 kilometers at Dayton, Ohio, in 1923. He also made a record for duration, with a useful load of 551 pounds, on Mar. 27, 1924. Previously he held the rec- ords for duration and altitude with useful loads of 4408 and 6612 pounds respectively. HARRIS, JAmMes ArTHUR (1880-— jy An American botanist and statistician, born at Plantsville, Ohio He wag educated at the University of Kansas and at Washington Uni- versity (Ph.D., 1903). He was assistant in botany (1901-03) at the Missouri Botanical Garden, instructor (1903-07) at Washington University, and botanical investigator at the Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. (1907- ). His published work was mainly in biometry. HARRISON, FrAncis BurRTON. PINES. HARRISON, FREDERIC (1831-1923). A leader of the English Positivists, and philosoph- ical writer (see Von. X). During the War he was active in the anti-German propaganda, hav- ing been a constant critic of British indifference to the German peril, and having written for many years on the subject of the dangers of German imperialism. In 1917, in an open letter he urged the Allies to bind themselves to make no terms of any kind with the Hohenzollern or any other ruling house in Germany, all of whom he declared to be “treacherous, bloodthirsty, satanic.” One of his sons lost his life in the war. Among his later works may be mentioned: The German Peril (1915); On Society (1918) ; Jurisprudence and Conflict of Nations (1919); Obiter Scripta (1919); Novissima Verba (1920). HARRISON, HENRy SypDNor (1880—- de An American novelist (see VoL. X). His later works include Angela’s Business (1915), When I Come Back (1919), Saint Cecilia (1922), and Marriage (1923), a volume of short stories. HARSHBERGER, JOHN WILLIAM (1869- ). An American botanist (see Vou. X). From 1911, he was professor of botany at the University of Pennsylvania, and from 1913 to 1921 he was in charge of ecology at the Ma- rine Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. He was a president of the Philadelphia Natural History Society, and a vice-president of the Ecological Society of America. Ineluded among his later books are: Vegetation of South See PHILIP- Florida (1914); The Vegetation of the New Jersey Pine Barrens (1916); Pastoral Agri- cultural Botany (1920). HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854— i) An American historian (see Vor. X). Among his later works are: Monroe Doctrine (1915) ; New American History (1917); School History of the United States (1917); America at War HART (1917); Causes of the War (1920). In addi- tion, he edited American Patriots and States- men (1916). 1919. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS tance. in 1909 to 299,981,433 pounds in 1919, while the value increased from $331,162 in 1909 to $3,545,385 in 1919. Other fruits produced were avocados, bananas, figs, oranges and papayas. The number of farm owners increased from 963 in 1910 to 1419 in 1920. The managers de- ereased from 249 in 1910 to 126 in 1920, and the tenants increased from 3108 in 1910 to 3739 in 1920. The white farmers increased from 753 in 1910 to 892 in 1920; the colored farmers from 3567 in 1910 to 4392 in 1920. The De- partment of Agriculture and Forestry and the Agricultural Experiment Station did work with excellent results, especially in the decade 1914- 24. Largely through the efforts of the Agri- cultural Experiment Station, agriculture be- came more diversified. Twenty years ago sugar was the only large agricultural industry. Through the experiments carried on, it was dis- covered that pineapples could be grown with great success, and the rapid growth of this in- dustry is shown by the fact that the canned pineapples produced in 1903 were valued at $7500, whereas the value in 1921 was $29,841,- 000. The Experiment Station was particularly successful in discovering and destroying plant pests which were destroying sugar cane and fruits. An Extension Division was established in 1914 and during the decade developed numer- ous helpful points of contact with the various agricultural interests throughout the country. Manufactures. The chief industries of Hawaii were based largely on the production of sugar. The number of establishments de- creased from 500 in 1909 to 496 in 1919. The wage earners, however, increased during the same period from 5904 to 9969. The capital invested was $23,875,000 in’ 1909 and $48,851,- 000 in 1919. The value of products increased from $47,404,000 in 1909 to $133,096,000 in 1919. There were 43 establishments in 1919 connected with the manufacture of sugar, com- pared with 46 in 1909. The value of the prod- ucts of these increased from $35,959,822 in 1909 to $80,236,244 in 1919. In 1909, there were 74 establishments engaged in the cleaning and polishing of rice, as compared with 69 in The value of the product increased from $2,238,667 in 1909 to $5,436,455 in 1919. Ten establishments in 1909 were engaged in canning and preserving, as compared with nine in 1919. The value of the product increased from $1,591,- 073 in 1909 to $18,997,975 in 1919. These in- dustries practically comprised the most impor- tant part of the manufacturing done in the Territory. Printing and publishing, cleaning and polishing of coffee, the production of lum- ber, the making of confectionery and ice-cream were other manufacturing industries. Honolulu and Hilo are the chief manufacturing cities. In Honolulu, in 1909, there were 236 establish- ments and 241 in 1919. Hilo had no manu- factures in 1909, but had 57 establish- ments in 1919. The value of the manufactures of Honolulu increased from $10,704,744 in 1909 to $43,611,175 in 1919. The industries of Hilo had a product valued at $5,612,196 in 110. Education. The educational problems of Hawaii were unusually difficult from the mix- ture of populations, and the Territory’s com- paratively rapid increase. There were 161 schools in 1913, and 25,631 pupils. The cost of maintenance was $677,799. In 1923, there This increased from 12,361,695 pounds - | ; j { | 1 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS were 175 public and 60 private schools. In the public schools were 48,730 pupils and in the private schools 8470, or a total of 57,200. In 1914, there were, in the public schools, 10,329 Japanese. This number had increased in 1923 to 23,947. The Chinese increased from 2638 in 1914 to 4616 in 1923 The Hawaiians increased from 3288 in 1914 to 3565 in 1923. The Anglo- Saxons increased from 737 in 1914 to 1448 in 1923. During the decade 1913-23, great atten- tion was given to the proper development of the educational system, especially with regard to agriculture and manual education. In the lat- ter part of the period, widespread interest was manifest in a reorganization and re-direction of the public school curriculum for the pur- pose of giving adequate recognition to agricul- tural and manual training. One of the most significant educational developments over the period was the rapid rise of professional inter- est and self-improvement: on the part of the teaching staff. The Hawaiian Educational As- sociation, which embraces the whole Territory, held annual conventions. The junior high schools were established during the decade and these became very popular among the people and greatly increased the interest in educa- tional work wherever established. In 1923, there were five of these schools. The University of Hawaii, established in 1907, formerly the College of Hawaii, afforded opportunity for higher education. The enrollment increased from 144 in 1914 to 701 in 1923. The rela- tions of the university and the community at large became much closer through the work of the extension department. Two industrial schools, one for boys and one for girls, were also maintained. Trade and Commerce. The development of trade and commerce in the decade 1913-23 is indicated by a comparison of several years dur- ing that period. In 1914, the total of imports and exports amounted to $77,144,329, of which $41,594,072 were exports and $35,550,257 im- ports. In 1918, the total trade was $132,347,- 810, of which $80,546,606 were exports and $51,- 801,204 imports. In 1920, the total trade amounted to $168,063,451, of which $104,779,- 804 were exports and $63,283,647 imports. In 1923, the total trade amounted to $147,645,131, of which $72,768,317 were exports and $64,- - 876,814 imports. The exports to the United States in 1914 amounted to $40,678,827 and the imports from the United States to $29,267,699. In 1923, the exports to the United States amounted to $81,495,984 and the imports from the United States to $56,837,991. The total amount of raw sugar exported increased from 1,089,389,928 pounds, valued at $32,108,518 in 1914, to 1,193,351,278 pounds valued at $54,- 232,769 in 1923. Fruits and nuts exported in 1914 were valued at $5,061,525 and in 1923 at $24,122,234, constituting the two largest groups of export. Other important exports were cof- fee, rice, and hides. By far the largest trade was carried on with the United States, but there were important trade relations with Australia, British India, Canada, Japan and the United Kingdom. Transportation. The mileage of steam rail- roads in Hawaii increased from 307.43 in 1914 to 335.72 in 1923. There were steam railroads on all the islands operating on regular schedules, most of them carrying passengers. In addition, plantations possessed their private railway 605 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS equipment for transporting cane and laborers. Passengers carried on all the railroads in- creased from 1,345,055 in 1914 to 1,958,548 in 1923. The only street railway existing in the Territory was in Honolulu, where an electric line was being operated. Traffic with the main- land was maintained by a number of steamship lines from New York and the west coast of the United States. In 1922, direct passenger and freight service was established between Los Angeles and Honolulu. Inter-island service was maintained by large and well-equipped steam- boats. Finance. The bonded debt of Hawaii at the beginning of the fiscal year 1914-15 was $6,- 844,000. This was increased, until on June 30, 1920, it amounted to $10,894,000. Further in- creases brought the bonded outstanding debt, on July 30, 1923, to $14,649,000. A large part of this debt was incurred for public improve- ment and authorized by the Legislature during the decade 1913-23. The increase in receipts and disbursements during the decade will be noted by a comparison of the figures for several years of the period. In the fiscal year 1914—- 15, the total receipts amounted to $4,905,149 and the disbursements to $4,446,415. For the fiscal year 1920, the receipts amounted to $10,- 925,406 and the disbursements to $10,949,897. In 1923, the total receipts amounted to $12,- 996,542 and the disbursements to $11,533,819. The gross assessed value of real and personal property increased from $161,187,226 in 1914 to $293,104,297 in 1923. The taxes collected on real property increased from $1,068,297 in 1914 to $4,726.256 in 1923. On personal prop- erty the taxes increased from $868,613 in 1914 to $3,508,124 in 1923. Banking. The number of banks in the Ter- ritory increased from 19 in 1914 to 29 in 1923, while the commercial deposits increased from $10,371,874 in 1914 to $31,616,007 in 1923. De- posits in the savings banks increased from $6,- 275,790 in 1914 to $21,755,731 in 1923.” There were, in 1923, two national banks, a decrease from the five of 1914. One of these was at Honolulu and the other at Scofield. Health and Sanitation. Nearly all the public health work in the Territory was done by the Territorial Department of Public Health, and during the decade 1913-23 much satisfac- tory work was accomplished. The death rate per thousand in population decreased from 15.03 in 1914 to 12.54 in 1923. Campaigns for the eradication of rats and mosquitoes were carried on during this period. For many years plague had been endemic in the Hamaqua district and the island of Hawaii, and the object of these campaigns was the destruction of rats which acted as carriers of the germs of the plague. In 1923, nearly 200,000 rats were destroyed. Several cases of plague occurred each year. Material progress was made in the decade in the campaign against tuberculosis. Education and publicity work was carried on in the public press and lectures and sanitaria were main- tained for persons suffering from this disease. The Hawaiian race is especially susceptible to tuberculosis. Nearly one out of every 100 per- sons of this race have the disease or traces of it. Institutions were maintained on the island of Molakai and other localities in the islands for the treatment of leprosy. The number of persons suffering from this disease decreased from 638 in 1914 to 323 in 1923. The installa- HAWAIIAN ISLANDS tion of sewage systems in Hawaii and other localities resulted in a great improvement in the sanitary conditions. The United States Public Health Service performed valuable sery- ices in the decade, having general charge of the examination of vessels entering the ports. It also aided the Territorial Board of Health in its rat campaigns and other functions of that department. History. There was little of political in- terest of importance in the history of Hawaii in the decade 1914-24. During the entire pe- riod there was steady development in economic and other directions. A direct primary law, somewhat similar to the Berkeley system of double elections, was adopted by the Legisla- ture of 1913 and elections were held under this law in 1915 and in the odd years thereafter. Sessions of the Legislature are also held bien- nially. The Legislature of 1915 passed much legislation of an advanced character. The laws relating to taxation were amended and ample provision was made for the encouragement of immigration in the Territory. In 1916, the gov- ernment created the Hawaii National Park, which was the first national park lying outside the continent of the United States. In this park were included the three _ volcanoes, Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Haleakala. With the entrance of the United States into the War, Hawaii took on added importance as a naval station, and it became the largest military out- post of the United States. The National Guard was brought in numbers and plan of organiza- tion to the maximum that could be obtained under voluntary service. Four regiments and other units were organized. This organization policed the islands, thus relieving the regular army of this duty. At the outbreak of the War, there were eight German merchant vessels and gunboats interned in the port of Honolulu and several merchantmen in the port of Hilo. These were seized by the United States government and placed at once in commission. The Legis- lature in 1917 created a commission to conserve and regulate the food supply, revised banking laws, and made provision for the citizens ab- sent in the army and navy. On July 1, 1918, the first and second regiments of Hawaiian in- fantry were drafted into the national service. Owing to the greatest storm in the history of the Territory, a special session of the Legis- lature was held in this year and appropriations made to rebuild bridges and other public works destroyed by the storm. On Aug. 21, 1919, the Secretary of the Navy opened the new concrete drydock at Pearl Harbor on the island of Oahu. There was a serious strike on the sugar planta- tions in February, 1920, which lasted until June, when the laborers decided to return to work on the conditions that prevailed before the strike. At the legislative session of 1921 an act was passed raising the limit of out- standing bonded indebtedness to $16,500,000. A court of domestic relations was created and hours of child labor were regulated. A meas- ure was passed also creating an emergency labor commission. The Legislature of 1923 authorized the preparation of a statement de- fining and emphasizing the statiis of the Ter- ritory, which was entitled “Hawaii’s Bill of Rights.” This statement was di'signed to em- phasize the unique position held by Hawaii among the Territorial possessious, in that it had always been a source of Kederal revenue 606 +] HAWLEY while it had been uniformly deprived of the benefits of the Federal appropriations. The Legislature of 1923 amended the election laws, revised the Territorial tax law, increased the bonded indebtedness, amended the workmen’s compensation act, and passed a uniform law on aéronautics. Conferences of Pacific leaders or- ganized by the Pan-Pacific Union and held at Honolulu met in various years during the dec- ade. A conference of scientists was held in 1920, a conference of educators in 1921, a con- ference of journalists in the same year, and a conference of commerce and finance in Novem- ber, 1922. In addition, a conference on educa- tion was held in connection with the World Conference on Education which met in San Francisco in July, 1923. HAWK, Puitie Bovier (1874— ) > An American physiological chemist, born at East Branch, N. Y. He was graduated in 1898 at Wesleyan and studied at Yale and Columbia Universities, taking his Ph.D. at the latter in 1903. During 1901-03 he was assistant in physiological chemistry at Columbia and then went as demonstrator of that subject to the University of Pennsylvania. He held a similar professorship at Illinois in 1907-12 and later accepted the chair of physiological chemistry and toxicology at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia. Dr. Hawk made a specialty of such subjects as metabolism, animal acids, food and nutrition, and the drinking of water, on all of which he has published papers. He was a member of the International Congress of Ali- mentary Hygiene held in Brussels in 1910 and of the Ninth Congress of Applied Chemistry held in New York in 1912. During the war with Spain he served on coast defenses with the Connecticut volunteers. Besides editing the Journal of Metabolic Research, he was an as- sociate editor of Chemical Abstracts. He is the author of a series of articles on food in The Ladies Home Journal; of Practical Physiolog- ical Chemistry (1907), and of What We Eat and What Happens to It (1919). HAWKES, HeERBerT Epwin_ (1872- es An American educator, born at Templeton, Mass. He graduated from Yale University in 1896 and was instructor of mathematics in that university in 1898. After postgraduate studies in Germany, he was appointed assistant pro- fessor of mathematics at Yale in 1903, serving until 1910, when he became professor of math- ematics in Columbia University. In 1917-18, he was acting dean of Columbia College and from 1918, dean. He is the author of Advanced Algebra (1905), and Higher Algebra (1913), and the coauthor of several other books on mathematics. He has conducted important re- searches in hyper-complex numbers. HAWKINS, AntrHuony Hope (1863- ). An English novelist known as “Anthony Hope” (see Vor. XI). He published: A Young Man’s Year (1915); Captain Dieppe (1918); Beau- maroy Home from the Wars (1919); Lucinda (1920). HAWLEY, RAtpH CHIPMAN (1880- }s An American forester, born at Atlanta, Ga. He graduated from Amherst College in 1901 and from the Yale School of Forestry in 1904. After serving with the United States Forest Service, he was assistant State forester of Massachusetts in 1906-07. From the latter date, he was professor of forestry at the Yale School of Forestry. Professor Hawley is the HAWORTH author of Forestry in New England (1912), A Manual of Forestry (1918), and The Practice of Silviculture (1921). HAWORTH, Paut LELAND (1876- ya An American author, born at West Newton, Ind. He graduated from Indiana University in 1899 and took postgraduate courses in history at Columbia University. He was a member of the faculty of several schools and colleges, includ- ing the Michigan Northern State Normal School, Columbia University and Bryn Mawr College, from 1906 to 1911. In 1916, he made explora- tions in the Canadian Rockies and revisited the same region in 1919, discovering new lakes and mountains. In 1918-19, he was acting profes- sor of history at Indiana University and was a member of the Indiana House of Represen- tatives in 1920-21. He was the author of: The Path of Glory (1911); America in Ferment (1915); George Washington, Farmer (1915) ; The United States in Our Own Times, 1865- 1920; (revised, 1924); Trail Makers in the Northwest (1921). HAWTHORNE, CHARLES WEBSTER (1872- ). An American painter (see VOL. XI). Among his awards during the period were the Altman prize, National Academy of Design, 1915; the Temple medal, 1915, and the Lippincott prize, 1923, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Jn his later paintings, among them, “Fisherman and Daughter,” and “Adora- tion,’ there was still a spirit reminiscent of the Italian primitives. HAY, WiIttiAmM Henry (1860- ). 4 An American army officer, born in Jefferson County, Fla. He was graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1886, entered the United States Army as second lieutenant of the Third Cavalry, and continued in the service until his retirement in 1923, in which year he was also made a major-general. As colonel, he com- manded the 15th Cavalry in the Philippines in 1917 and in the recent War he had the 28th Division, participating in the campaigns of the St. Die sector, the Vosges, the Pont 4 Mousson sector, the Thiancourt sector, the Meuse-Ar- gonne offensive, and the offensive of the 2d Army Corps. Later he served in the Inspector- General’s office (1920) and then with the Gen- eral Staff (1921). For his services he received the United States Distinguished Service Medal, the Croix de Guerre with two palms, and the French decorations of the Legion of Honor and the Black Star. HAYAKAWA, SESSUE KINTARO (1889- __). A Japanese actor and playwright, born in Tokyo. He studied at the University of Chicago and starred in moving-pictures with various com- panies, including his own. Among his produc- tions, of which he is also author, are His Birth- right; Hearts in Pawn, and Even unto Eternity. HAYES, CARLTON JOSEPII HUNTLEY (1882- ). An American educator and _ his- torian, born at Afton, N. Y. He graduated from Columbia University in 1904, and after postgraduate courses at that university became lecturer in history in 1907, assistant professor in 1910, associate professor in 1915, and full professor in 1919. In the War he served as captain of the United States Military Intel- ligence Division of the General Staff in 1918- 19. He is a member of many historical and other learned societies and is the author of Sources Relating to Germanic Invasions (1909) ; British Social Politics (1913); Political and 607 HAY FEVER Social History of Modern Europe (1916); Brief History of the Great War (1920). He is also coauthor of The League of Nations, Principle and Practice (1919). HAYES, DoreEmus AtmMy (1863- ). An American theologian (see Vor. XI). He pub- lished Paul and His Epistles (1915); John and His Writings (1917); The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts (1919); Great Characters of the New Testament (1920); New Testament Epistles (1921). HAYES, Patrick JosEPH (1867— ). An American Cardinal, born in New York, and edu- eated at Manhattan College, New York City, and the Catholic University of America. He was ordained priest in 1892, was president of Cathedral College from 1903 to 1914, and be- came rector of St. Stephen’s Church in 1915. He was made Archbishop of New York in 1919. During the War he was appointed Catholic chaplain bishop for the United States Army and Navy. In 1924, he was nominated as Cardinal, and went to Rome to be formally in- ducted into the office. HAYES, SAMUEL PERKINS (1874- Me An American psychologist, born at Baldwins- ville, N. Y. Educated at Amherst College, Union Theological Seminary, Columbia and Cornell Universities, he became professor of psychology at Mount Holyoke in 1906. He was also di- rector of psychological research of the Penn- sylvania Institution for the Blind, the Perkins Institution and the Massachusetts School for the Blind. He specialized in the psychology of the blind and published an important mono- graph on the Mental Measurement of the Blind (1915). HAY FEVER. This affection tends to merge itself in the larger group of foreign pro- tein sensitizations, and to range itself more and more with the asthmas and food intoxica- tions. The former plan of inoculation in the spring with mixed pollens seems to be giving way more and more to a policy of identifying the specific exciter of the disease and: immuniz- ing against it. Within the decade 1914-24 Dr. Schleppegrell of New Orleans did much service in describing all plants that can set up hay fever and in giving them something of a rating as to their individual importance. In 1922, Dr. Vaughan of Richmond published the result of his experiments in isolating the of- fending plant in the individual case. Only when immunization with mixed pollens has failed will it become necessary to take these pains. In intractable cases, this author found that the patients were especially sensitive to the short. ragweed pollen, although this does not mean that the individual is insensitive to all others. However, the patients in question recovered under injections of the pollen of this plant although, instead of the usual weekly in- jection, he employed daily injection, and it therefore is suggested that the latter plan be adopted in the obstinate case. In regard to the possibility that the patient in such cases has benefited by previous treatment, the author states that untreated subjects furnished the same result. In order to determine sensitive- ness to individual pollens, the skin reaction is employed. The author usually preferred to make successive routine tests with short rag- weed, giant ragweed, timothy, daisy, sunflower, corn, orchard grass, goldenrod, ete., although with most of these plants reaction will be neg- HAYS ative. This is evidently preferable to attempts at selection. HAYS, WILLIAM CHARLES (1883-— ). » An American architect, born in Philadelphia, Pa. He graduated from the University of Pennsyl- vania and studied in Paris, beginning the prac- tice of his profession in 1895. In 1904, he re- moved to California. He became assistant pro- fessor of architecture at the University of Cali- fornia in 1906 and in 1917 was made acting di- rector. He was consulting architect of that uni- versity and designed many of its buildings. HAYS, Witi(1AM) Harrison (1879- i An American lawyer, born at Sullivan, Ind. He was graduated at Wabash College in 1900, later studying law. In 1904, he was chosen a member of the Republican State Advisory Com- mittee of Indiana and in 1910 he was elected city attorney of Sullivan, Ind. He became chair- man of the Republican Central Committee of Indiana in 1910 and in 1918 was chosen chair- man of the Republican National Committee, con- tinuing in that office until 1921, when Presi- dent Harding appointed him to his cabinet, as postmaster-general. This place he held for one year and then resigned to become president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. During the War he was chairman of the Indiana State Council of Defense. He is a member of the Indiana State Bar Association and of the honor legal fraternity Phi Delta Theta, of which he was State president for In- diana and in 1920 was elected national president. HAYWARD, Wiu.11AmM_ (1877- ee An: American lawyer, born at Nebraska City, Neb. He was educated in Munich, Germany, and studied law at the University of Nebraska, be- ginning practice in Nebraska City in 1897. Dur- ing the Spanish-American War he served as colonel of the 2d Infantry of Nebraska. He re- moved to New York in 1911 and became a mem- ber of the law firm of Wing and Russell. He was assistant district attorney for 1913-14, and was appointed member of the Public Service Commission in 1915. He resigned to improve and organize the 15th Infantry (colored) which later became the 369th United States Infantry. He commanded.this organization in France and with it participated in many battles. He was awarded the Croix de Guerre, also decorations from the United States and foreign governments. In 1921, he was appointed United States At- torney for the Southern District of New York. HAYWOOD, WititiAm D. (?- ). An American labor agitator (see Von. XI). He be- came conspicuous early in 1917, when, as secre- tary of the Industrial Workers of the World (q.v.) with headquarters in Chicago, he was ar- rested on a charge of seditious conspiracy. He was sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment and to pay a fine of $10,000, but was released on bail, and, in April, 1921, fled to Russia. In March, 1922, he headed a group of American members of his organization who were granted a conces- sion to operate the Nadejdinsky Iron Works in Russia, and in August of the same year it was reported that some of these American I. W. W.’s had mutinied and were without sufficient food and shelter. Some went to de- serted coal mines in the Kuznetzk Basin, Siberia, while others started for the iron mines in the Urals. HAZARD, CAROLINE (1856— ): 4n American educator (see Vor. XI). During the War she was prominent in the work of the 608 HEART DISEASE Woman’s Council of National Defense (1916), the first Liberty Loan (1916), the War Savings Campaign (1917), and the United War Work Campaign (1918). HAZEN, CuHaRLES DOWNER (1868— yA An Ameyiean historian (see Vout. XI). He was professor of history at Columbia University after 1916. His later works include: Modern European History (1917); The French. Revolu- tion and Napoleon (1917); Alsace-Lorraine Un- der German Rule (1917); The Government of Germany (1917); Fifty Years of Europe (1919) ; Modern Europe (1920). He also edited Historical Essays by Lord Macaulay (1921), and The Kaiser vs. Bismarck (1921). HAZEN, Sir Joun Dovertas (1860- re A Canadian lawyer and statesman (see VOL. XI). He represented Canada at the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, and in 1917-19 was chair- man of the Canadian Section of the Internation- al Fisheries Commission. He also became Chief Justice of New Brunswick in 1917, and in the following year was knighted. HEADIAM, ARTHUR CAYLEY (1862- y% An English theologian (see Vou. XI). His later works include: The Miracles of the New Testament (1914); The Revenues of the Church of England (1917); The Study of Theology (in- augural lecture, 1918); The Doctrine of the Church and Christian Reunion (Bampton Lec- tures, 1920). HEALY, Timotuyy (1855- ). Irish Na- tionalist leader (see Von. XI). In 1917, he pub- lished The Great Fraud of Ulster. On Dec. 4, 1922, he accepted from the British government the post of Governor-General of the Irish Free State, and two days later the new Irish orange, white and green flag took the place of the Union Jack over the public buildings in Dublin. He refused all the unnecessary honors to which his office of governor-general entitled him. HEARING. See PsycHotocy, EXPERIMEN- TAL; AUDITION. HEARST, WILLIAM RANDOLPH (1863- \r An American newspaper publisher (see VOL. XI). Although he took no active part as a can- didate in politics in the decade 1914-24, he con- tinued to ‘exercise influence through his ever- increasing list of newspapers. After the pur- chase of the San Antonio Light in May, 1924, he had 24 papers in all parts of the country. He also was the owner of many magazines of wide circulation, including Good Housekeeping, Cosmopolitan, and Hearst’s International Maga- zine. HEART DISEASE. The enormous death rate and the increasing incidence of chronic heart disease strike the eye of the reader of mortality records and excite wonder as to the final out- come. This mode of decease is doubtless a re- sult in part of the greater average duration of life, a greater proportion of citizens reaching the age at which degenerative diseases of the vital organs naturally occur. The exact causal factors cannot be visualized and it is customary to set these affections down as due to civiliza- tion, since the savage and primitive man show no such predisposition. Organic heart disease, hardening of the arteries and one form of chronic disease of the kidneys are so closely associated that they may be visualized as a single disease group, although not necessarily due to a single cause; for implication of one organ can readily bring about diseases in the others. Disease of the arteries leads to involvement of the heart, HEBER as does also disease of the kidneys. Some idea of the prevalence of these affections may be ob- tained by a glance at one of the Weekly Bul- letins of the New York City Health Department. Thus for the week ending Apr. 5, 1924, the total number of deaths lacked but one of 1700, and of this number 500, in round numbers, died of dis- ease of the heart, arteries and kidneys. Within the decade 1914-24, two casual factors received increasing emphasis. These were syph- ilis and so-called focal infection or medical sep- sis, as it is sometimes called. Other factors vaguely evident may be summed up under de- fective personal hygiene, which includes improper eating and drinking, the stress of modern living, and in general the drawbacks of civilized exist- ence. Since 1918, cardiac therapeutics seems to have been greatly enriched by the introduction of the drug quinidin; which already vies with digitalis in making it possible for a man to live and labor with advanced heart disease. Quinidin is even superior in some ways to the older remedy because it seems equal to an actual eure of cases of permanent loss of rhythm, in- dicating deep-seated disease. See ADRENALIN. HEBER, Cart Avcustus (1874- ) A sculptor who was born in Stuttgart, Germany. He studied with Taft, in Chicago, and became a member of the National Sculpture Society in 1904. He was also a member of the New York Architectural League and well known for his designing of memorials. His work includes the “Champlain Memorial” at Crown Point, N. Y., the “Champlain Statue” at Plattsburg, N. Y., the “Schiller Monument” at Rochester, N. Y., the “Benjamin Franklin” at Princeton University and “Pastoral” exhibited at the Art Institute in Chicago, Among his awards were a_ bronze medal from the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 and a bronze medal from the Panama-Pacific Inter- national Exposition in 1915. HECHT, BEN (1893- ). An American author, born in New York City. He was edu- cated in Racine, Wis., and began his journalistic career with the Chicago Journal in 1910. He joined the staff of the Daily News in 1914. From December, 1918, to December, 1919, he was cor- respondent in charge of the Berlin Office of News. He is the author of Erik Dorn (1921); Gargoyles (1922); Fantazius Mallare (1922); The Ego- tistic (drama); The Florentine Dagger; 1001 Afternoons (1923); and short stories in the magazines. HEDIN, Sven ANpDERS’ (1865- Deron’ Swedish explorer and author (see Vor. XI). His works have been translated into many languages. After 1914 he published: Andra varnunger (1914); Fyra tal (1914); Ett ord till Norges folk (1914) ; Tal till ungdemokrater, borgare och bénder (1914); Fran fronten 7% vas- ter (1915); Kriget mot Russland (1915); Till Jerusalem (1917); Bagdad, Babylon, Niniveh (1917); En levnads teckning (1920); Resare Bengt (1921); and other works. HEDJAZ. See ARABIA. HEDRICK, Earte Raymonp (1876- y. An American mathematician, born at Union City, Ind. He was graduated at the University of Michigan in 1896, then held fellowships at Harvard, and finally took his Ph.D. at Gottingen in 1901. During 1901-03 he was instructor of mathematics at the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University, but in the latter year became professor of mathematics at the University of Missouri. During the War he served on the Di- 609 HEIFETZ vision of Physical Sciences of the National Re- search Council. He became editdr-in-chief in 1921 of the Journal of the American Mathemati- cal Association, of which organization he was president in 1916. Dr. Hedrick edited A Series of Mathematical Texts and (with D. C. Jackson) the Engineering Science Series. He wrote A Course in Mathematical Analysis (1904); an Algebra for Secondary Schools (1908); and Ap- plication of the Calculus to Mechanics (1909). HEGELER, WILHELM (1870— ae: German novelist. He was born at Varel and studied at the universities of Berlin, Munich, Vienna and Geneva. He is the author of: Son- nige Tage (1898); Nellys Millionen (1899); Pastor Klinghammer (1903); Flammen (1905) ; Ingenieur Horstmann (1906); Das Aergerniss (1907); Die Leidenschaft des Hofrat Horn (1914); Die goldene Kette (1915); Zwei Freunde (1921), and other works. He also wrote a monograph on Heinrich von Kleist. HEGNER, Rorert WILLIAM (1880- bs An American zoélogist born at Decorah, lowa. He was educated at the University of Chicago and at the University of Wisconsin (Ph.D., 1908). He was assistant at the University of Chicago (1905-07), professor of biology, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. (1907), as- sistant in zodlogy at the University of Wisconsin (1907-08) and instructor at the University of Michigan (1908-10). In 1910, he went to Johns Hopkins University, where he was successively assistant professor (1910-18), associate (1918—- 19), and associate professor in charge of depart- ment of medical zodlogy (1920- ). He pub- lished: College Text Book of Zodlogy (1912) ; Introduction to Zodlogy (1910); The Germ Cell Cycle in Animals (1914); and numerous papers in journals: HEIBERG, GuNNAR EpvArp Rove (1857- ). A> Norwegian dramatist and_ writer on drama (see VoL. XI). He published Set og hort (1917), Ibsen og Bjérnson paa scenen (1918), Franske visitter (1919), and Norsk teater (1920). HEIDENSTAM (KArt GuSTAF) WERNER Von (1859-— ). A Swedish poet and littéra- teur (see Vor. XI), who in 1916 received the Nobel prize. His recent works include Om Sven- skarnas lynne (1914), Vad vilja wi? (1914), and a volume of verse, Nya dikter (1914). HEIFETZ, Jascua (1899- ) cae ces. Inia sian violinist, born at Vilna. His is one of the most remarkable cases of precocity on record, for at the age of three he began to receive regular instruction on the violin from his father. After a little more than a year he was admitted to the Imperial Music School at Vilna. At the age of six he played Mendelssohn’s concerto in pub- lic at Kovno, scoring a sensational success. Nevertheless, he continued his studies at the Music School until 1907, when he became a pupil of Auer at the Petrograd Conservatory. Even before he graduated, he made frequent pub- lic appearances which spread his fame through Russia. His international fame dates from the phenomenal success of his Berlin début (1912), which he repeated the next year in Vienna, and the following year in all the principal cities of Germany. After an equally successful tour of Scandinavia, he made his American début in New York (Oct. 27, 1917). His American tours were an uninterrupted series of triumphs. In 1921, he made a tour of Australia. Even be- fore he was out of his teens he was universally HEIJERMANS 610 recognized as the equal of the greatest living violinists. Auer is said to regard him as his greatest pupil. HEIJERMANS, HERMAN Dutch dramatist and novelist. Among his recent works are Robert Bertram et Cie. (1914), Hva Bonheur (1919), Feest, in the English transla- tion Jubilee (1923), and Saltimbank, also in English (1923). HEINZE, Ricuarp (1867- ). A German scholar and rector of the University of Leip- zig (1921-22). He was born at Naumburg and studied at Bonn, Leipzig and Berlin. He was lecturer at the University of Strasbourg (1893- 99), then professor at the universities of Berlin, Kénigsberg and Leipzig. He is the author of: De Horatio Bionis Imitatore (1889); Xeno- krates (1893); an interpretation of the third book of Lucretius (1897); Virgils epische Tech- nik (1915), Ciceros politische Anfinge (1909) ; Tertulli Apologeticum (1911); Die lyrischen Werke des Horaz (1919); Ovids elegante Erzah- lungen (1920). HELFERRICH, Kart (1872-1924). A German economist and politician. He was born at Neustadt, and was educated at the universi- ties of Munich, Berlin and Strasbourg. He taught at the University of Berlin and later at the government school for colonial politics and oriental languages. In 1902, he entered upon a diplomatic career. He soon became a leader in the German government’s policy of economic im- perialism, and in 1906 he was appointed director of the Anatolian Railway. In 1908, he was made director of the powerful Deutsche Bank in Ber- lin. At the close of the Balkan War he was the German financial delegate to the interna- tional conference (1913). He was Minister of Finance from 1915 to 1917, and was said to be responsible for the policy of financing the War through loans instead of taxes. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, he was sent to Moscow as the German Ambassador to Russia, succeeding Von Mirbach, who was assassinated. Elected to the Reichstag of 1920, Helferrich threw in his in- fluence with the extreme nationalists and would have nothing to do with the economic fulfillment of the Versailles Treaty. He was killed in a railway wreck on Apr. 23, 1924. His works com- prise chiefly economic and political studies. A partial list follows: Die Reform des deutschen Geldwesens nach der Griindigung des Reiches (1898); Handelspolitik (1901), Geld und Bank (1903), Die Weltkrieg (1919). HELICOPTER. See AERONAUTICS. HELIOTROPISM. See ZooLocy, T'ropisms. HELIUM. See AERONAUTICS; CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC; CHEMISTRY; PHYSICS. HELLER, Epmunp (1875- ). An Ameri- ean naturalist, born at Freeport, Ill. He gradu- ated from Leland Stanford, Jr., University in 1901. From that year to 1907, he was natural- ist for the Field Museum in Chicago and was engaged in explorations in California, Mexico, Guatemala and East Africa. In 1907-08, he was curator of mammals at the University of Cali- fornia Museum of Natural History, and in 1909- 10, naturalist for the Smithsonian African Ex- pedition in East Africa under the direction of Theodore Roosevelt. He was a member of ex- peditions in Africa, Peru and China (1909-17). During the War he served on the photographical staff of the Czecho-Slovak Army, and in 1919-20 was a member of the Expedition of the Smith- sonian Institution in Africa. He was a member (1864- _-—). A HENDERSON of many societies and was the joint author (with Theodore Roosevelt) of Life Histories of African Game Animals. He wrote, also, numerous papers on fishes, reptiles and birds. HELLMAN, GeEorcE SIDNEY (1878— ). An American author, born in New York City, and educated at Columbia University. In 1918- 19 he served as director of the Department of Fine and Applied Arts for the Army Educational Commission of the Y. M. C. A. and in 1919 was director of instruction in Fine and Applied Arts of the American Expeditionary Forces. He was director of the American Expeditionary Forces Art Training Centre at the Bellevue in Paris. He served on several commissions relating to war memorials and in 1920 was treasurer and director of the Hugo Ballin Productions. His writings include The Hudson and Other Poems (1909); Applied Arts and Education (1919); Art and the Citizen (1919), and The Way It Ended (1920). He also edited the works of other authors and contributed poems and stories to magazines. HELMICK, Err Atva_ (1863- i eA American military officer, born at Quaker Point, Ind. He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1888. He was promoted to second lieutenant in the 11th Infantry and con- tinued in the army until Nov. 7, 1921, when he was made Inspector-General with the rank of major-general. His services have included duty in Idaho during the Ceur d’Alene riots (1892), participation in the expedition to Santiago de Cuba (1898), campaign against the Moros (1902), duty on the Mexican border (1910 and 1916), and service in the Inspector-General’s office (1916-18). During the War he com- manded the 8th Division with the provisional rank of major-general, and Jater was in com- mand of the service of supplies at Brest. The United States Distinguished Service Medal was conferred on him. HEMING, ArtTuuR (1870- ). An il- lustrator and writer, born in Canada at Paris, Ont., who came to the United States as a stu- dent and was a pupil of Frank Brangwyn and Frank V. DuMond. He is a member of the So- ciety of Illustrators and of the Arts and Letters Club of Toronto. Mr. Heming knows his natu- ral scenery and puts it on canvas with a peculiar gift. Among the books which he has written and illustrated are Spirit Lake and the Drama of the Forests. In the Royal Ontario Museum there are 10 of his pictures on exhibition and he is also represented in the Canadian National Gallery. HENCKELL, Karw Friepricu (1864- ); A German poet (see Vor. XI) identified with the Young Germany of the ’80s. After 1914, he published the following works: Lyrik und Kul- tur (1914); Weltmusik (1918); Gedichte (1921); Buch des Kampfes (1921); Buch der Saat (1923); An die neue Jugend (1924). HENDERSON, Arcuisatp- (1877- ). An American mathematician and author (see Voit. XI). His later books include O. Henry (1914); Star of the Empire (1919); Conquest of the Old Southwest (1920). HENDERSON, Arruur (1863- ae: British public official, born in Glasgow. He worked for several years in a foundry. Becom- ing interested in the labor movement, he speedily became a leading figure in trade unionism and held numerous official positions in connection with that movement. For several years he was . eae. ee ee a ee et! Be igi, HENDERSON 611 a member of the Newcastle City Council. He was elected to Parliament in 1903 and was suc- cessively reélected until 1918. From 1908 to 1910 he was secretary of the Labor party, and again from 1914 to 1917. In 1914 he was chief whip of that party and became its chairman at the outbreak of the War. Joining the first coalition cabinet as president of the Board of Education, he served in 1915-16 and in the lat- ter year was paymaster general and labor ad- visor to the government. He joined the second coalition cabinet as a member without port- folio. In May, 1917, he went on a government mission to Russia and in August of that year resigned from the cabinet. He was defeated for Parliament in the general election of 1918 but was elected in the following year. In the elec- tion of 1922 he was elected by the Labor party and became one of its prominent leaders in Par- liament. In the general election of 1923 he was defeated but was afterward elected and became a member of the Labor cabinet. HENDERSON, Lawrence JOSEPH (1878- ). An American biological chemist born at Lynn, Mass. He was educated at Harvard (M.D., 1902) and at the University of Strasbourg. He was lecturer in biological chemistry (1902-03), instructor (1903-10), assistant professor (1910- 19), and professor (1919—- ) at Harvard. Pro- fessor Henderson published Fitness of the En- vironment (1913), The Order of Nature (1917), and numerous papers dealing with applications of physical chemistry to biology. HENDRICK, Burton JESSE (1871- Ye An American writer, born in New Haven, Conn., and educated at Yale. For several years he was on the staff of newspapers in New Haven and New York. He became associate editor of The World’s Work in 1913. He has written The Age of Big Business and Life and Letters of Walter Hines Page and was coauthor, with Ad- miral W. S. Sims, of The Victory At Sea. This book won the Pulitzer Prize for the best book published in 1920 on the history of the. United States. He was a frequent contributor to magazines. HENDRICK, ELttwoop’ (186l- ) a An American chemist, born at Albany, N. Y. He studied chemistry at Zurich under Victor Meyer, * and on his return to the United States was superintendent of the Albany Aniline and Chem- ical Works (1881-84), then, turning his atten- tion to insurance and stock brokerage, continued in that business until 1915, when he retired. In 1917, he became a member of the staff of the research corporation of Arthur D. Little and Company of Cambridge, Mass. Besides being consulting editor of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, he is the author of many articles on science in popular magazines and published Everyman’s Chemistry (1917), Opportunities in Chemistry (1919), and Percolator Papers 1919). HENEY, Francis Josepu (1859- ). ).An American lawyer (see Vot. XI). In 1917-18, he served as special attorney for the Federal- Trade Commission in charge of investigation of the high cost of living, with special reference to the packing industry. In 1918, he was Demo- eratic candidate for Governor of California. HENNING, H. See PsycnoLoey, ExpERrti- MENTAL. HENRI, Roperr (1865— ). An Ameri- can painter and portraitist (see Vor. XI). With the same sincerity of purpose and simplic- HERBERT ity of method which he had in former years de- voted to unsophisticated European types, he turned in 1914 toward the people of California and the Southwest, continuing to look at each in- dividual “with the eager hope of finding there something of the dignity of life, the humor, the humanity, the kindness, something of the order . of the universe.” Among these later works were “Tam Gan,’ “Ramon—a Mexican,” “Jim Lee,’ and “A Girl of the Southwest.” He was awarded the portrait prize, Wilmington Society of Fine Arts, 1920. His influence as a teacher, pre-eminently as a personality, continued to be of much importance. The Art Spirit (1923) is a compilation by Margery Ryerson of fragments: of his letters and of his talks to students on the spirit, technique, and appreciation of picture- making. HENRY, PRINCE or PRUSSIA (HEINRICH ALBERT WILHELM) (1862- ). A German ad- miral and brother of the ex-Kaiser of Germany (see Vor. XI). He was commander-in-chief of the Baltic fleet from 1914 to 1918. HENRY, Roserr L., Jr. (1882- ). An American professor of law, born at Chicago, edu- eated at the University of Chicago, and as Rhodes scholar at Oxford, England; also at Heidelberg, Germany, and Grenoble, France. He held the position of professor of law at several State universities, also holding the post of dean of the College of Law at the University of North Dakota from 1912 to 1914. He was commis- sioned captain of infantry in the Officers’ Reserve Corps in 1916, and promoted to major in 1919. He was instructor in several officers’ training camps from 1917 to 1919, and was a member of the War Department Board of Contract Ad- justment in Washington during 1919-20. He lectured at Oxford, England, during 1920-22. His writings include: Liens and _ Pledges (1913); Consideration in Contracts 601 A.D. to 1520 A.D. (1917); Anglo-Saxon Contracts (191%): HENSON, HeErsertT HENSLEY (1863- ). An English clergyman and author (see Vou. XI). He was appointed Bishop of Durham in 1920. His later publications include: War-Time Ser- mons (1915); Robertson of Brighton, 1816-1853 (1916); Christian Liberty (1918). He edited The Naked Truth, by Bishop Croft (1919) ; Sir William Anson: a Memoir’ (1920): Anglicanism (1921). HEPBURN, A(tonzo) BARTON’ (1846- 1922). An American banker, philanthropist and author (see Vor. XI). He was a member of the Federal Advisory Council of the Federal Reserve Board in 1918, and was a prominent member or officer of important associations con- cerned with economics and political science. In 1915, he wrote A History of Currency in the United States. He died in New York City. HERBERT, Victor (1859-1924). An Irish- American conductor and composer (see VoL. XI). Among the numerous productions of his last decade the following achieved conspicuous suc- cess: Princess Pat (1915), Hileen (1917), Angel Face (1919), Orange Blossoms (1921), The Dream Girl (1924). In the field of light opera Herbert not only towers far above all his Amer- ican colleagues because of his inexhaustible melodious invention, splendid orchestration and solid technical attainments, but has securely es- tablished his place by the side of such masters as Johann Strauss, Offenbach, Millécker, Suppé and Sullivan. HEREDITY 612 HEREDITY. An observational and experi- mental study of the laws governing the trans- mission of physical or mental characteristics through successive generations of animals, or of physical characteristics in plants, the laws being in general the same in the two great groups of living beings. A complete theory of heredity must offer an explanation of two sets of phe- nomena—first, the fact that, on the whole, off- spring resemble their parents more than they resemble other members of the race; and sec- ond, that this resemblance is never absolute but the offspring always show some differences from the parents, i.e. they show variability. An important date in the history of this sub- ject is 1809, when Lamarck formulated his theory of the effects of use and disuse of or- gans and of the effect of environment on the structure of plants and animals. According to Lamarck, the increased size of an organ through use or its decreased size following disuse was passed on to the offspring so that in the course of generations descendants of the original ani- mals, through accumulation of these structural changes, would be quite unlike their ancestors. Similarly, plant structures would be modified in response to climatic conditions, or to changes in the environment such as moisture or chemical composition of the soil, so as to lead in the end to considerable structural modifications. Lamarck was arguing in favor of the evolu- tion of species and developed this theory as an explanation of this evolution, but running as it did, contrary to the generally held belief in the fixity of species, the theory met with nothing but opposition, and it was only after 1859, when Darwin’s formulation of a theory of evolution was widely accepted, that it received recognition. In the evolutionary writings from 1859 to 1890, there was general acceptance of the doctrine of use-inheritance. This was, indeed, carried to much greater extremes than it was by Lamarck himself, in that there was a general belief that sears resulting from injuries, or the effects of mutilations such as the loss of an organ through accident, would appear as a birthmark in the offspring. Thus the child of a German student had a birthmark reproducing the sear her father earried as the result of a student duel, and a eat whose tail was cut off by an accident hence- forth gave birth to tailless kittens. Cases of this sort which had wide acceptance as popular legends were repeatedly cited as illustrating the method of evolution. It was clearly recognized that the assumption of the inheritance of acquired characters carries with it the necessity of explaining the mechanism of the process. How, for example, is it pos- sible for the removal of a cat’s tail to so affect the sex cell of the cat, situated at a considerable distance from the tail, as to cause her to give birth to tailless kittens? Darwin proposed as an explanation the “provisional” theory of pan- genesis, which assumed that each cell of the body is constantly throwing off gemmules or ultra-microscopie particles which collect in the sex cells. When these sex cells develop the gemmules are distributed throughout the body of the new individual, and each going to its ap- propriate group of cells determines the charac- ter of their development. These gemmules mul- tiply by fission and may remain dormant for several generations. If through use or disuse or through accident, the structure of a group of cells is changed, the gemmules arising from HEREDITY these cells will be correspondingly modified and when they in turn take part in the construction of a new individual that individual may ex- hibit the changed character. Herbert Spencer had earlier attempted to explain heredity and the inheritance of acquired characters on the assumption of “physiological units” or ultra- microscopic particles having a definite polarity which are located in the body cells and by the form of their polarity determine the appear- ance of the cells in which they are. Use or disuse may modify the form of this polarity and thus affect the character of the race. Neither of the above explanations has any ex- perimental basis and both are purely formal. Later theories are based on more exact knowl- edge of the actual phenomena of development, knowledge not available at the time that Darwin and Spencer were writing, and a brief summary of these phenomena will be essential here. The starting-point for each new individual in bi- parental inheritance is the fertilized egg, a single cell formed by the union of two cells, the ovum from the mother and the spermatozo6n from the father. This fertilized egg divides into two cells, each of these divides again, and the process is repeated until eventually the many-celled adult appears. Coincident with these divisions a process of differentiation goes on, by which different portions of the complex of cells assume different structures adapted to different functions. Examination of any one of these cells under favorable conditions would show that in its central portion or nucleus is a substance called chromatin which just before the cell divides breaks up into rods called chromosomes, which are arranged in pairs and are constant in number in any one species. When the cell divides, each chromosome of a pair divides, half going to each daughter cell. Thus the number is kept constant and each cell gets a representative of each chromosome present in the cell from which it arose. A study of the immature sex cells shows that they also have paired chromosomes but as they approach maturity, the members of each pair unite more or less closely with one another in a very complex fashion, later separate and di- ‘vide with the cells containing them so that the mature sex cell contains only half the normal number of chromosomes. This process is known as maturation. When these cells unite in the fertilization process the number is brought back to normal and it is quite certain that one mem- ber of each pair is derived from each parent. In fertilization only the head of the spermato- zoon, which is practically nothing but chromatin, enters the egg. Since observation shows that in- heritance from the father is as strong as that from the mother, it seems evident that what- ever material is the carrier of hereditary qual- ities must be located in the chromatin. It has also been shown in the case of a few animals that the cells which give rise to the sex or- gans oi the new generation seem to be set aside early in the development and to be quite distinct from the other organs of the body. In the light of this further information, Weis- mann attacked the problem and worked out an elaborate theory of heredity. He was the first to seriously question the validity of the La- marckian principle, and began by investigating supposed cases of inheritance of mutilations. For these he decided there is no evidence what- ever. In this connection he developed the con- HEREDITY cept of the germ plasm. This may be defined as a material contained in the nucleus of the fer- tilized egg, whose function is to determine the character of the individual resulting from that egg. For this purpose, during development por- tions of the germ plasm are distributed to the appropriate regions of the developing organism, each controlling the differentiation of its own particular area. Some of this germ plasm, however, is not distributed in this fashion but remains as residual material which goes by the shortest route to the cells which are to form the sex organs of the new individual and there locates itself in the nuclei of the embryonic sex cells. Here it remains until at the time of sexual maturity the cell containing it begins to develop, unites in fertilization with the cell from the opposite sex, and the process is repeated. While in this position this residual material necessarily must receive its nutrition from the surrounding body, but Weismann supposed that it is so effectually insulated from the latter as not to be affected in any qualitative fashion by any activities of the body itself or by any influence of the environment. If this germ plasm is thus isolated and un- changeable and determines the character of the individuals of successive generations, why are not all individuals alike? Weismann refers the origin of variations to the maturation process of the sex cells in which each cell apparently shuffles its chromatin and discards a portion of it, before fertilization takes place. Since by the law of chances this discarding is different in any two cells it follows that no two mature sex cells are exactly alike. Further variability is produced by the union of the chromatin of the two sex cells in fertilization. While much that is new has been discovered concerning the phe- nomena of maturation and fertilization since Weismann wrote, nothing has appeared that seri- ously affects this much of his theory. His further development of hypotheses concerning the structure of the germ plasm and its behavior are not of so much importance at the present time (see bibliography at end of article). . The net results of Weismann’s work are two. In the first place, there is agreement among all students of heredity that mutilations or their effects are not inherited, nor is there any rea- son to accept the validity of reported cases of maternal impressions and prenatal influences. In the second place, there is agreement that without necessarily accepting Weismann’s ideas as to the composition of the germ plasm it is necessary to assume the existence of such a sub- stance as the determiner of hereditary qualities. The question as it now stands is this: Is it possible for this germ plasm, lying in the sex cells, to be affected by any activity of the body or by any influence of the environment so as to produce precise and permanently heritable changes in the structure of subsequent genera- tions? Weismann at first claimed for germ plasm a complete insulation from external influences, but later modified this position. He found that cer- tain insects when subjected to lowered tempera- ture became darker in color and this modifica- tion was transmitted to subsequent generations. To explain cases of this sort where animals cer- tainly responded to external changes, Weismann developed the theory of Parallel Induction, which holds that some environmental influences are strong enough to penetrate through the body 613 HEREDITY and act directly on the germ plasm and the re- sults of such influences may be inherited. Only those agencies that are strong enough to thus penetrate may affect the germ plasm. The Neo-Lamarckians on the other hand, who believe in the transmission of acquired char- acters, hold that lesser influences, acting re- peatedly on the body, may gradually penetrate it and affect the germ plasm. Admitting that the mechanisms by which such an effect could operate are not clearly to be seen, they believe that some observations can be explained only on the assumption that this has taken place. Botanists are rather more apt to take this posi- tion than are zoélogists, for in the animal body are found much fewer protoplasmic connections between the organs, and the sex cells are more definitely isolated than is the case in plants. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to imagine any very complete separation in plants because of the elaborate arrangement of intercommunicat- ing protoplasmic connections. Among zodlogists the paleontologists are most apt to be Neo- Lamarckians because the history of many struc- tures seems to show a precise parallelism be- tween the changes that these organs show in successive ages and the changes that would have been set up in them in each generation by the uses to which they must have been put. It is evident that an apparent case of use in- heritance might be explained equally well by either of the above hypotheses, and thus a con- dition of deadlock results. Most of the earlier writers on this subject devoted their time mainly to arguing on what might be considered reasonable explanations of observed phenomena, and _ conclusive experi- mental evidence is lacking. Brown-Sequard, whose results were quoted by Darwin and by later writers, thought that certain injuries to the nervous system of guinea pigs would be fol- lowed by a condition of epilepsy and this was transmitted to descendants. This for a long time stood for a valid case of the inheritance of acquired characters, but the most recent work along this line indicates that the so-called “epi- leptic” condition of the guinea pig appears un- der favorable conditions in the perfectly normal pig, and it seems certain that this case may be ruled out. Practically all of the supposed cases to demonstrate this point are either of doubt- ful accuracy, or are capable of two interpreta- tions (see above) and clean-cut, precise evidence is lacking in favor of Neo-Lamarckism. What seem at this time of writing (1924) the most promising lines of investigation are through the study of hormones and antibodies. If we inject, for example, human blood into the blood vessels of an unrelated animal, say a rabbit, the body of the rabbit will react in a definite and precise fashion, developing what is known as an antibody which has specific re- lations to human blood. If the blood containing the antibody is mixed with human blood a precipitate will form, but if mixed with blood from any other animal (except a few of the higher apes) no reaction occurs. A similar formation of antibodies having a specific rela- tion to whatever material was injected would follow from the injection of any other body tis- sue, or on the entrance of bacteria into the blood. Guyer and Smith injected the material from a crushed lens from the eye of a rabbit into the blood of a fowl and in that way developed an HEREDITY anti-lens body in this blood. Some of this blood was injected into a pregnant rabbit at a time when the lenses of the embryos were forming, and a number of them were born with defective lenses. This defect persisted through several generations, being transmitted through the male as well as through the female and in a Men- delian fashion (see below). This would indicate that the defect was truly hereditary and not a case of infection from the mother in each gen- eration, and leads to the conclusion that the germ plasm of the rabbit had been modified by the antibody, and since antibodies are set up in response to the entrance of foreign matter in- to the body it seems probable that modifications of the body might alter the character of the germ plasm. The hormones are chemical compounds found in the blood of animals and have important func- tions as regulatory mechanisms. (See ZOOLOGY.) It seems possible that aside from the easily recognizable hormones others may be produced by any functioning tissue, and if this is true, it might be that the use of any organ sets free hormones which react on the germ plasm. Ex- periments along this line are still too few to be conclusive, but it seems probable that they in- dicate a procedure most likely to settle this problem which has puzzled biologists for over a century. Biometry. An important technique for the study of heredity was developed by Galton and later by Pearson in the study of Biometry. This is an application of mathematics to the study of variation in plants and animals. First, accur- ate measurements are made of the structures under consideration in as large a number of related individuals as possible. These results are then plotted in the form of a curve which is available for treatment by mathematical tech- nique. In such a curve the spread indicates the amount of. variability, its mean the average measurement for the group, and its highest point or mode, the largest class within the group. The “probable error” and the “standard devia- tion” of such a curve are mathematical terms indicating the amount of variability from the mean, within the group. An example of the use of this method in the study of heredity would be to compare such a curve derived from measurements of one group with those obtained from a related group, e.g. parents and offspring, brothers and sisters, ete. The degree to which one group varies from the average of the race and toward the other group is taken as a meas- ure of the strength of heredity in each case. This degree of resemblance or correlation may be expressed mathematically in the form of the “coefficient of correlation.” For further details concerning the technique consult the works re- ferred to in the bibliography. It is obvious that this method deals exclusive- ly with averages and not at all with individual inheritance, thus differing fundamentally from the Mendelian method described below, and there has been much disagreement as to the relative value of the two methods. Pearson and his as- sociates consider Biometry the only method that can give accurate results, while Bateson, writ- ing as a Mendelian, says that “To those who hereafter may study this episode (Biometry) in the history of biological science, it will appear inexplicable that work so unsound in construc- tion should have been respectfully received by the scientific world.” A reasonably conserva- 614 _ HEREDITY tive position would seem to be that for cases where the experimental method is possible the Mendelian is the better method, while in cases such as human heredity where experimentation is out of the question, the biometric method is the one to be employed, but that in many cases it is desirable to use both. Biometry will often detect significant differences which are not pos- sible to demonstrate in any other way. Mendelism. In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, working on the ordinary garden pea, discovered the laws which bear his name. These results were published in an obscure jour- nal and were overlooked by biologists until 1900, when results similar to Mendel’s were independ- ently and simultaneously discovered by de Vries in Holland, von Tschermak in Austria and Cor- rens in Germany. Later, Bateson and Punnett in England, Davenport, Castle and Morgan in the United States, have been leaders in the further development of the subject. Mendelism regards the individual as contain- ing a series of hereditary determiners of genes which singly or in combination determine the character of the body. By means of properly devised experiments it is possible under favor- able conditions to analyze the individual so as to determine the number and character of the genes responsible for the production of any char- acter or characters and, having made this analy- sis, to synthesize them into new combinations in very much the ‘same way that an organic chemist follows analysis with synthesis in the production of new chemical compounds. In its simplest form Mendel’s law may be il- lustrated by crossing a black and a white guinea pig. The offspring of the first generation (known technically as the first filial generation or F,) will all be black. If these are inbred the offspring of the second filial generation (F,) will, if the number is large enough to give smooth results, be in the proportion of three black to one white. If the whites be inbred nothing but white will ever appear among their descendants, i.e. the black has entirely disap- peared from their composition. If, however, the blacks are inbred it will appear that only one- third of them will give rise to only black off- spring while the other two-thirds will have both black and white descendants just as did the F, generation. The F, generation, therefore, are 25 per cent pure black, 25 per cent pure white and 50 per cent hybrid like F,. Mendel’s interpretation of these results was by the assumption of the “purity of the gametes,” “gamete” being a generalized term meaning either of the sex cells, ovum or spermatozoon. If we assume that the sex cells of the black animal carry genes for black and those of the white ones carry genes for white, and we rep- resent the black by B and the white by w, then in the hybrid there would be a union of the two though only one is visible. This could be rep- resented as Bw. The theory of the purity of the gametes assumes that when this hybrid forms sex-cells, the genes segregate so that each “sex cell of the hybrid (ovum in the female and spermatozoén in the male) contains one or the other of the genes but never both. The further assumption is made that in each individual the number of these two kinds of sex cells is equal. If now they unite at random in the fertilization process, the results could be expressed by the table that follows on page 615. Of the four classes possible under such condi- HEREDITY Ova B w B BB Bw Spermatozoa ry ip tions, 25 per cent of the whole contain only B and are pure black, 25 per cent contain only w and are pure white, while 50 per cent contain both black and white like the original F, hybrid. This theoretical explanation agrees with ob- served results and the statement that in any sex cell the gene for only one of any pair of opposed characters is present is a fundamental proposition in Mendelism. In this case where black and white guinea pigs are crossed the offspring are black. This condition is expressed by saying that black is “dominant” to white, meaning that when genes for both black and white are present in the same individual only the effects of one are visi- ble, the white being “recessive.” This relation of dominance and recessiveness is common but not universal in Mendelian heredity and by no means essential. The F, generation may be quite unlike either of the parents, but in all cases the segregation of the genes takes place whether there is dominance or not and both grandparental types appear in the F, generation. If instead of black and white opposed char- acters or “allelomorphs” we take into consid- eration the results of crossing a short-haired guinea pig with a long-haired one, the F, will be short haired and results exactly similar to those described above would follow inbreeding of this generation. If instead of limiting our attention to only one pair of allelomorphs we consider simultaneously two pairs, and mate a short-haired black guinea pig with a long-haired white one, we would get in the first generation short-haired black animals. If these are inbred we get in F, offspring in the proportion of nine short black: three short white: three long black: one long white. Returning to the original as- sumption concerning the genes in the sex cells of the parents, we would assume that each sex cell of one parent contained genes for black and short and in the other parent genes for white and long. In the F, these would all be in the same individual, but only the effects of the dom- inant genes are evident. When these genes segregate in the inLreeding of the F, individuals, four combinations are possible, BS, Bl, wS, wl; B and w standing for black and white genes Spermato- Z0a 615 HEREDITY respectively and S and 1 for the short and long ones. The assumption is that there are equal numbers of ova and spermatozoa carrying these genes, the four classes in each sex being equal to one another in size. The results of random union of these sex cells would be indicated by the diagram in preceding column. The letters in each square indicate, as in the earlier diagram, the character of the individual represented in it. Remembering that B and 8 stand for dominant genes, it is obvious that in any square where these are both present the individual will appear to be black with short hair and there are nine such squares in the di- agram. In any square containing S and w without B the animal would be short haired and white and there are three such squares: in any containing B and 1 without § the animal would be black with long hair and there are three of such squares, while only one square contains neither dominant and the animal would be white with long hair. Here again, these theoretical results agree with those obtained by experiment and again the evidence is in favor of the hypothesis of the purity of the gametes. In Mendelian terminology individuals corre- sponding in composition to any one of the four squares lying on the diagonal from upper left to lower right-hand corners are “homozygous” because in none of them is a recessive character hidden by a dominant and they really are what they appear to be, while in each of the other squares one or two recessive genes are present but not evident because obscured by the dom- inant allelomorphic gene. These individuals having this composition are called “heterozy- It is evident that recessive characters are visible only in cases where their genes are homozygous. Breeding from homozygous _in- dividuals gives only homozygous offspring, while among the descendants of heterozygous in- dividuals a certain proportion will continue this heterozygous condition, some will become homo- zygous for the dominant characters and others homozygous for the recessive. In any one of the heterczygous squares the real character of the animal could only be determined by further breeding. Mendel in a generation of peas cor- responding to the above groups analyzed them further in this way and found that they con- formed in character to expectation, giving fur- ther demonstration of the truth of his “purity” hypothesis. This work on Mendelian heredity has devel- oped further proof that the carriers of heredity are located in the chromatin. The determina- tion of sex seems in some way connected with the activity of a certain XY chromosome. (See ZooLocy.) The distribution of this X chromo- some from.one generation to another as deter- mined microscopically follows so closely the in- heritance of certain peculiar characters as to lead to the conelusion that the gene for each of these characters is located in the X chromosome. If, for example, a color-blind man marries a normal woman, none of their children will be eolor-blind and none of the children of the sons will have this defect, but one-half of the sons of the daughters will show it. If we assume (see ZooLoay) that the female has two X chromo- somes while the male has but one, and that the gene for color-blindness is located in the X chromosome (indicating this condition by under- HEREDITY scoring the X in the male) then the union of the two would be as in the diagram: Ova xX x xx xX Spermatozoa y xy Xy Squares containing two X’s would be female and if one X is normal the individual would appear normal because normal is dominant to the color- blind condition. It is evident that the color- blind gene is only in the daughters and is en- tirely eliminated from the sons. If one of these daughters marries a normal man the condition would be as in the next diagram. Ova Spermatozoa The son in the lower right-hand corner would be color-blind, while the other son would not, and neither daughter shows the defect though one of them could transmit it. This theoretical result agrees perfectly with results of observa- tion on the mode of inheritance of this disease and there is no doubt of the correctness of the interpretation. Genes which are carried in this fashion in the X chromosomes are known as “sex linked” genes and a considerable list of such genes have been identified. Important practical suggestions arise from the study of sex linked characters. It is evident from a study of the last two diagrams that it would be possible to determine which individuals would transmit the sex linked character and which would not. If, as is true in some cases, the character is an undesirable one, it would be possible, by controlling matings, to eliminate the character from the race. On the other hand, if the sex linked character is desirable it would be possible so to control matings as to make it more common. It is evident from the diagram that, assuming absolute power to control mat- ings, either color-blindness could be entirely eliminated or a race could be developed all of whom would be color-blind, according to which was considered the desirable condition. Atavism or Reversion. These terms should be considered as synonymous and refer to the appearance in one generation of characters not represented in the immediate parents but present in some more remote ancestors. In the case just mentioned, color-blindness skips a generation and ~ might even seem to skip more than one, if in the intermediate generations the individual who would otherwise show it did not happen to ap- pear. Another familiar case is where the child of brown-eyed parents has blue eyes inherited from a blue-eyed grandparent or earlier an- eestor. In eye color, the pigmented (brown or black) eye is dominant to the non-pigmented (blue or albino). If, therefore, the brown- eyed parents happen to be heterozygous for brown, having the blue as a recessive character, 616 HEREDITY one-quarter of their children would be homozy- gous for blue and be blue-eyed (see diagram above, referring to the guinea pig which, mak- ing the necessary changes in the symbols, would apply as well to this case). Since the number of individuals is so small in any human family, it might happen that several generations would elapse before the homozygous individual appears and thus the child seem to inherit something not possessed by its parents. This emergence of a previously hidden recessive character explains one type of atavism. Another type has a different explanation. Bateson described a case where two white sweet peas when crossed gave a purple F, and this when inbred gave in F, nine purple to seven white. This purple color was present in the ancestral Sicilian sweet pea, so that this was an undoubted case of atavism. This can be ex- plained on the assumption that for the produc- tion of the purple color the coéperation of two genes is necessary. If either gene is present alone no color appears; when they are both present they produce the purple color. In the history of these two varieties of sweet peas it happened that these two genes became separated and thus two lines of white-flowered plants arose, one carrying one of the genes, the other carrying the other. When they were crossed color returned. Assuming that one of these genes is represented by C with an allelomorph ce and the other by R with r as allelomorph, the composition of one plant \ould be Cr and the other cR. When crossed this becomes CRer and color appears. Assuming that this is the case the hybrid would form gametes CR, Cr cR, cr. Representing the result of crossing by a diagram, as before, we have: Ova CR Cr Spermatozoa cR cr Nine of these squares contain both C and R while none of the other seven has both of them. Accordingly nine are colored and seven white, as actual observation showed. Again theoretical expectation and observations are in agreement and demonstrate the accuracy of the theory. Inbreeding. This is regarded, and with some experimental evidence in favor of the be- lief, as undesirable in that it tends to produce weakened or degenerate descendants. Many plants, however, as wheat, rice, barley, oats, tobacco, and beans are normally self-fertilizing and experiments on white rats have shown that no injurious effects follow on the closest in- breeding. It now seems certain that inbreeding in itself is not injurious, but that if there are in a race undesirable recessive traits these traits are more apt to become homozygous and thus a HEREDITY 617 visible if two members of this race mate than if either mates with a more distantly related in- dividual. If a race is free from these unde- sirable recessives no harmful effects follow in- ' breeding. On the other hand, “outbreeding” or mating of unrelated individuals is sometimes followed by an increase in vigor, apparently be- cause it results in a combination of several de- sirable dominant characters. The most elaborate experiments ever made in heredity were made by Morgan and his asso- ciates on the fruit-fly Drosophila, which is ideal for this purpose as it breeds rapidly and is easily kept under observation. As a result of these experiments they have not only identified a large number of genes but have demonstrated the exact location of each of these genes on the chromosome (consult bibliography). Of much interest is the question as to the number and character of these genes. To as- sume that there is in the sex cell a gene for each different character of the adult would be to assume an inconceivable complexity in the germ plasm. Moreover, it is known that some- times one gene may affect more than one body character or, on the other hand, several genes may coédperate to determine one character. It would be possible, therefore, to explain their action by the assumption of a comparatively few genes which, reacting on the original ma- terial of the fertilized egg, start the process of differentiation, then by a second reaction on this primary differentiated material set up a further differentiation, and this series of actions and reactions continue to the end, the process being more or less modified by the reactions of one set of genes upon the others. That the genes are complex chemical compounds, possibly of the nature of enzymes, acting upon the protoplasm of the body seems a reasonable as- sumption from what we know of their mode of working. It seems, however, certain that the cytoplasm of the egg plays some part in heredity and is not merely an inert mass, molded by the genes in the chromosomes. Appar ently the general char- acteristics, e.g. whether an egg shall develop into a dog or a horse, are determined by the eytoplasm while the individual characteristics are controlled by the genes. If genes are chemical compounds of the nature of enzymes it should be possible to modify their structure by chemical or other means and there is experimental evidence that this can be done. If the cases mentioned earlier, forces have permanently modified the _ race, are valid, the genes must have been modified. Mutations also (see ZOOLOGY) must owe their origin to changes in the composition of the genes, This work in heredity has decidedly modified opinion on one point which had seemed so obvi- ous as to be axiomatic. This was the prin- ciple which underlay all of Darwin’s work on selection, that of the supposed efficiency of the selection of individual variations. Among the members of any generation are always found variations in the degree of development of any one character. Darwin supposed, and this has generally been believed until quite recently, that if extreme variates be isolated from the remain- der and allowed to breed, some of their off- spring would vary still more widely in this di- rection and if this process is continued almost any amount of variability could be obtained. where external . HEREDITY If this is true it would mean that the character of genes could be changed by the act of selec- tion and the evidence indicates that it is prob- ably not true. In any species the range of variability is fixed, and selection of the greatest or the smallest variate from the mean of the species would not in any way affect the range of variability of the next generation. Where the selective proc- ess seems to be eflicient it may mean either that the original group was not homogeneous and selection has isolated different races from one another, each having its own range of variability, or that there were genes modifying cr interfer- ing with. the action of the genes under considera- tion and the selective process has removed these, thus allowing the original gene free expression. The gene is apparently not modified through selection. As a result of his study of biometry, Galton decided that inheritance is blending, i.e. that the offspring of two parents unlike in any particular character would be, with respect to that char- acter, intermediate between the parents. If this were true, it would mean that the genes from the two parents had modified one another. The Mendelian interpretation is that in such a case the apparent blending is due to the peculiar action of two or more genes. For ex- ample, a brown-chaffed and a_ white-chaffed wheat were crossed and F, was brown. F,, how- ever, did not have brown and white in the proportions of three to one as might have been expected but there were fifteen brown to one white and the browns were not all of the same shade. This can be explained on the assump- tion that there are two genes for brown, B and B1, each capable of producing the color, but BB gives a more intense shade than either B or B1 alone. Worked out on the checker-board diagram such as has been given, this theoretical expectation agrees closely with actual observa- tions and there is no evidence for a true blend- ing due to modifications in the character of the original genes. By offering precise information concerning the results to be expected from any given mat- ing, Mendelism has been of service to practical plant and animal breeders, and these services will undoubtedly be extended with advancing information. In human heredity, because of the obvious impossibility of experimental mat- ings and because of the small size of human families, accurate information is more difficult to obtain, but enough is known to offer to eugenics much valuable assistance in its ef- forts to improve human qualities. This is es- pecially true in the cases of a number of diseases which are sex linked in inheritance and which, by applying the rules mentioned above, might easily be eliminated from the race. See Ev- GENICS. Bibliography. The following books sum- marize the more important works in this field though several of them of course are the work of pioneers in this branch of biology: Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication (New York, 1876); Spencer, Principles of Biology; Galton, Natural Inheritance (New York, 1889) ; Bateson, Mendel’s Principles of Heredity; Thomson, Heredity ; Cunningham, Hormones and Heredity; Pearl, Modes of Research in Genetics ; Castle, Genetics and Eugenics; East and Jones, Inbreeding and Outbreeding; Morgan, Sturte- vant, Muller and Bridges, The Mechanism of HERELLE 618 HERRE Mendelian Heredity; Weismann, The Germ (1920). He is also the author of two volumes Plasm. of sketches Randbemerkungen and Kleine Er- HERELLE, F. d@’ (? - ). A Canadian- lebnisse (1920). French pathologist distinguished for a remark- able discovery of a principle or organism which attacks and destroys bacteria. Born in Canada, he removed to France while young, and having taken a degree in medicine he joined the re- search force of the Pasteur Institute at Paris and made his discovery of the so-called “bacteri- ophage.” His labors in this field were summed up in a monograph originally published in French but issued in a more advanced form in English with the title The Bacteriophage (1922), HERFORD, CuHaArtes HAROLD (1853- y An English scholar (see Vor. XI). His later publications include: Is There a Poetic View of the World? (1916); Treatment of Love and Marriage, and Other Essays (1921). : HERGESHEIMER, JosEepu (1880— ih: An American author, born at Philadelphia, Pa. He studied painting for a time, but soon turned to literature, receiving his initial encourage- ment from George Horace Lorimer, editor of the Saturday Evening Post. His writings continued from time to time to appear in that periodical. His first novel, The Lay Anthony, which was not published until 1914, was at once acclaimed as a work of the first importance. There followed in rapid succession a series of notable books, in- cluding: Mountain Blood (1915); The Three Black Pennys (1917); Java Head (1919); Linda Condon (1919); Cytherea (1921); The Bright Shawl (1922); and the collected short stories Gold and Iron (1918) and The Happy End (1919). Possessed of a luxurious style that is peculiarly effective for his subjects, with a feeling for exotic backgrounds that he has, nevertheless, been able to render subordinate to the essential work of character delineation, Mr. Hergesheimer, in the Lay Anthony, in Linda Con- don, in the first parts of The Three Black Pen- nys and Java Head, has written fiction little surpassed or even equaled in the period. Al- ways intelligent and the man of the world, al- ways sure of his powers, a little too ostenta- tious in his devotion to the details of the luxuri- ous life, but saved by the brilliance with which he has been able to manipulate those details to build up a convincing word-picture, he has produced romances notable for character, atmos- phere, and circumstances. It is interesting to note that he has been least successful with mod- ern themes, that his Cytherea fails where his Three Black Pennys succeeds. But he is not concerned with problems so much as he is with life, and nothing gives him more pleasure or tests his powers better than the depiction of at- tempts at violent and perhaps maladroit read- justments. His young Anthony, the Chinese figures in Java Head, and The Bright Shawl are cases in point. HERMANN, GrorcE (pseudonym for GEORG HERMANN BorcHArpT (1871- ). A German novelist. He made old Berlin the background of most of his stories, some of which were dram- atized: Spielkinder (1897); Die Zukunfts- frohen (1898); Aus dem leteten Hause (1899) ; Jettchen Gebert (1906); Henriette Jacoby (1907); Aus guter alter Zeit (1913); Heinrich Schon, Jr. (1915); Von gesicherten und unge- sicherten Leben (1915); Hinen Sommer lang (1917). His plays include: Jettchen Cebert; Henriette Jacoby; and Mein Nachbar Ameise HERMANSSON, HAttpor (1878— ). An Icelandic philologist. He entered the university of Reykjavik in 1898 and three years later that of Copenhagen. In 1905, he was appointed curator of the Fiske Icelandic Collection at Cornell University Library and became con- nected with the university as instructor in Scandinavian languages, professor and lecturer. He is the author of Bibliography of the Icelandic Sagas (1908); The Northmen in America (1909) ; Bibliography of the Sagas of the Kings of Norway (1911); The Ancient Laws of Nor- way and Iceland (1911); Bibliography -of Mythic-Heroic Sagas (1912); Icelandic Authors of To-day (1913); Icelandic Books of the 16th Century (1916); The Periodical Literature of Iceland (1918); Modern Icelandic (1919); Bibliography of the Eddas (1920); ete. He has compiled a Catalogue of the Fiske Icelandic Collection (1914) and Runic Literature (1918) and has edited The Story of Griseldis in Ice- landic (1914) and An Icelandic Satire: Lof Lyginne (1915). HERMANT, ABEL (1862- ). A French man of letters, born in Paris, and educated at the Lycées Bonaparte and Condorcet. He de- voted himself to journalism and to literature, writing critical essays, novels, and theatrical comedies. In all his works he displayed a keen sense for satire and social caricature. One of his novels, La Carriére, dealt ironically with the diplomatic “career,” and it is this that is supposed to have prevented Hermant’s election to the official French Academy. He did, how- ever, receive the badge of Commander of the Legion of Honor. His works include: Les Mé- pris (1883); Monsieur Rabosson (1884); La Mission de Cruchod (1885) ; Le Cavalier Miserey (1887); Nathalie Madoré (1888); La Surinten- dante; Amour de Téte; Serge; Ermeline; Le Frisson de Paris; Ceurs a Part, Ceurs Privil- égiés; Les Confidences Wune Aieulle (1893) ; La Carriére (1894); Eddy et Paddy (1894); Le Disciple Aimé (1895); Le Sceptre; La Meute; Les Transatlantiques (1897); Le Char de VEtat (1899); Le Faubourg; L’Empreinte; Sylvie ou la Curieuse @Amour; Souvenirs du Vicomte de Courpiére (1901); La Confession @un Homme VAujour@Whui (1904); L’Esbrouffe (1904); M. de Oourpiére Marié (1905); La Belle Madame Héber (1905); Les Grands Bourgeois; Chaine Anglaise; L’Autre Aventure du Joyeux Gargon; Chronique Frangaise; Le Cadet de Coutras; Les Renards; Le Second Testament; Trains de Luxe; Affranchis; Le Caravanserail; L’Aube Ardente; La Vie @ Paris; Le Rival Inconnu; La Journée Bréve (1920); Phili; La Petite Femme (1921); Entretiens sur la Grammaire Francaise (1923). HERRE, Pau. (1876- ). A German his- torian, who in 1920 became director of the political-historical archives at Potsdam. He was born at Magdeburg, studied at the univer- sities of Berlin, Jena and Leipzig, and in pursuit of a commercial enterprise traveled in Germany, Austria, Italy, and Spain. He was lecturer at the University of Leipzig (1906-20). He is the author of: Preussens Befreiungs-und Verfas- sungkampf (1914); Spanien und der Welt- krieg (1915); Weltpolitik, Weltkatastrophe (1916); Geschichtliche .Schlaglichter auf den Weltkrieg (1916); Aufruf an die Neutralen zur HERRICK Geduld (1918); Bismarcks Staatskunst (1916) ; Vélkergemeinschaftsidee und Internationale Politik (1920). HERRICK, Myron T. (1854- ). An American diplomat (see Vor. XI). He was in charge of the American Embassy in Paris at the outbreak of the War and did efficient service in the protection and assistance of Americans in Europe. He was reappointed ambassador by President Harding in April, 1921. For these services in France, he received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor. After the war he was chairman of the American Commission for Devastated France. HERRICK, ROBERT (1868— ). An American writer and educator (see VoL. XI). His later books include His Great Adventure (1913), Clark’s Field (1914), The World De- cision (1916), The Conscript Mother (1916), Homely Lilla (1923), and Waste (1924). He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. HERRIN, Iti. See STRIKES. HERRIN MASSACRE. See COAL. HERRIOT, EDOUARD (1872— et. French politician and man of letters. He was educated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, and at the conclusion of his studies became a _ pro- fessor of rhetoric and literature at the Uni- versity of Lyons. He entered politics and was successively counsellor-general of the Rhone, Mayor of Lyons, Senator, and minister in a radical government. Before the War he became one of the leaders of the Parti Radical Socialiste. This party was temporarily disorganized by the War and by the trial of Caillaux, but it came back strongly in the 1924 elections with Her- riot as its leader. After the Armistice, Herriot opposed the reparation policies of the nation- alist groups in France and favored a rapproche- ment with Germany and Russia. He made a visit to Russia in 1922 and described what he saw in the land of the Soviets in a book entitled La Russie Nouvelle. In June, 1924, he became premier of France, with a government drawn from the parties of the left bloc. As a man of letters, Herriot was best known by a work on Philo Judeus and the Jewish-Alexandrian school of philosophy which was crowned by the Academy of Moral and Political Science in 1897. His other works include: Un Ouvrage Inédit de Mme. de Staél; Fragments dEcrits Politiques (1904); Précis d’Histoire des Lettres Frangatses (1905); Agir (1915-16); Créer (1919). HERRMANN, Conrad EDMUND GUSTAV (1871- ). A German writer. He was born at Leipzig and attended the university. He en- gaged in an export business and traveled in America (1893-95). During the War he was in- structor of oratory at the Volks-Akademie in Leipzig. He is the author of the plays: Savon- arola (1886); Sensation (1906); Der Triumph des Mannes (1906); Der grosse Baal (1907). Other works include: Vineta, a volume of verse (1908); Und doch (1915); Sakuska, a Russian story (1919); Lebensfahrt (1919); Wilhelm Busch an der Himmelstiir (1920); Gesichte und Grimassen (1920); Der lachende Olymp (1921) ; Maulwiirfe (1921). HERSHEY, Amos SHARTLE (1867- iy An American educator (see VoL. XI). Among his later writings were Modern Japan, with Frank M. Anderson (1919), and Handbook for the Diplomatic Relations of Europe, Asia and 619 HERTZOG Africa, 1870-1914 (1918). He was a member of the staff of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, 1918-19. He was a frequent contributor to magazines on political science and law. HERSHEY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. See EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, HERTER, ALBert (1871- ). An Ameri- can painter and craftsman (see Vou. XI). Among his later mural works were a series for the Supreme Court room of the Wisconsin Capitol, and an allegorical pageant in the St. Francis Hotel, San Francisco. At his Herter looms he designed and produced artistic tapes- tries. HERTLING, GerEorG, BARON VON (1843- 1919). A German administrator and Catholic philosopher (see Von. XI). On Nov. 1, 1917, he was appointed Chancellor by the Kaiser, and by his skill brought some measure of stability into the affairs of the German government. His task was made easier by the fact that at that time Russia collapsed and the invasion of Italy was succeeding. Later, when Bulgaria capitulated at the end of September, he was driven from office. In his last speech he de- clared that Germany’s discontent was due en- tirely to military reverses, but said that the German people would stand firm and not beg for mercy; that the iron wall on the western front would not be broken; that the U-boat war was slowly tending to success, and gradually would restrict the reinforcements from the United States; and that the hour would come when the enemy would see reason and be ready to make an end of war. See GERMANY, History. HERTY, CHARLES HOLMES’ (1867—- ). An American chemist, born at Milledgeville, Ga. He was graduated at the University of Georgia in 1886, and received his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins in 1900, after which he took courses at Berlin and Zurich. In 1890-1901, he was assist- ant chemist of the Georgia Experiment Station and then taught at his alma mater, attaining the rank of adjunct professor of chemistry in 1894. From 1901 to 1904, he was with the Bureau of Forestry in the United States Department of Agriculture, and then for a year with the Chattanooga Pottery Company. In 1905, he was called to the chair of chemistry at the University of North Carolina, where he remained until 1916, when he became the editor of the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chem- istry. His principal researches have been in organic chemistry and include the determination of the constitution of inorganic compounds by physico methods; also he invented a new method of turpentine orcharding and a rapid method for the determination of oil in cottonseed prod- ucts. HERTZ, ALFrRep (1872- ). A distin- guished German conductor (see Vout. XI). In 1915, he resigned his position at the Metropol- itan Opera House and accepted the conductor- ship of the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra, which under him soon developed into one of the great orchestras of the country. He was largely instrumental in winning recognition for the native composer. While at the Metropol- itan he conducted all the operas by American composers produced there. HERTZOG, J. M. B. (? ). A South African statesman and soldier (see Vou. XI). At the outbreak of the South African rebellion in 1914, although he did not take an active HERTZSPRUNG 620 part in opposition to the British government, he declined also to oppose the rebellion. In the years following the War, he headed the opposi- tion to the government of General Smuts and continued in aggressive opposition to the gov- ernmental policies of that statesman. On de- feat of the Smuts ministry, early in 1924, he became Prime Minister. HERTZSPRUNG, Esnar_ (1873- ) Wee Danish astronomer. He was born in Copen- hagen, studied at Leipzig, and was connected with the observatory of Potsdam, until called to Leyden, Holland, where he was first director of the observatory, and since 1920, professor at the university. He has written much on astro- physics for scientific periodicals. HERZOG, Rupoitr (1869- ). A popular German novelist (see Von. XI). In the first two years of the War he abandoned fiction and wrote the following volumes of verse: Ritter, Tod und Teufel (1915); Von Stiirmen, Sterben, Auferstehen (1916); and the dramatic poem Stromiibergang (1916). He later wrote: Die Stoltenkamps und ihre Frawen, a novel (1917) ; Jungbrunnen, a volume of stories (1918); Ger- maniens Gétter, a book of German myths (1919); Die Buben der Frau Opterberg, a novel (1921). HESS, ALrgep Fasian~ (1875- yee VA American pediatrist distinguished for his orig- inal researches into certain affections of child- hood, notably rickets, scurvy, tuberculosis, blood states and affections of the stomach and _ in- testines. Born in New York City, he was edu- eated at Harvard and at Columbia, receiving his medical degree from the College of Phiysi- cians and Surgeons in 1901. After studying pediatrics in Europe, he was made a professor of that chair in the University-Bellevue Medical College. The record of his work in pediatrics and experimental pathology is contained in 70 or more papers published in periodical literature. HESS, Myra _ (1890— ). An English pianist, born in London. At the age of five she began to study the piano and two years later entered the Guildhall School of Music, where she graduated as winner of the gold medal. After further study under Tobias Matthay, she made her début in London, in January, 1908, winning immediate success. She then made tours of Holland and France. Upon her American début (New York, Jan. 24, 1922) she became a prime favorite in the United States, not only as soloist, but also as a fine ensemble player. HESS, Victor (1883- ). An Austrian professor of physics and contributor on radio- activity, atmosphere electricity, and kindred subjects to the publications of the Academy of Science in Vienna. HESSE, HERMANN (1877- ). A German novelist and poet (see Vor. XI). He took up his residence in Switzerland before the War. His recent works include: Rosshalde (1914); In der alten Sonne (1914); Musik des EHin- samen (1915); Knulp (1915); Am Weg (1916); Briefe ins Feld (1916); Schén ist die Jugend (1916); Médrchen (1919).; Kleiner Garten (1919); Klingsors letzter Sommer (1920); Zarathustras Wiederkehr (1920); Blick ins Chaos (1920); Wanderung (1921). HETERODYNE. See RaApio TELEGRAPHY. HEWLETT, Maurice HENRY (1861-1923). An English novelist (see VOL. XI): His later books include: A Lover’s Tale (1915); The Little Iliad (1915); The Song of the Plow HICKS (1916); Thorgils of Treadholt (1917); Peri- dore and Paravail (1917); The Village Wife’s Lament (1918); Flowers in the Grass, poems (1920); In a Green Shade (1920); Wiltshire Essays (1922). HEYCK, Epuarp (1862- ). A German historian. He was born at Doberan and studied at Leipzig, Jena and Heidelberg. He was pro- fessor at the universities of Freiburg and Heidel- berg, and librarian at Donaueschingen. Included among his later works are: Die Kreuzziige und das Heilige Land (1900); Frauenschénheit 1m Wandel von Geschmack und Kunst (1903); Wil- helm von Oranien (1908); Florenz und die Medi- ci (1909); Das Deutschland von Morgen (1917) ; Parlament und Volksvertretung (1918); Héhen- feuer (1920). HEYMANN, Lira Gustava (1868- le A native of Hamburg, active from her youth in welfare work and municipal reform. She was instrumental in securing public baths, commer- cial courses for girls, and establishing club and lunch rooms for women workers. She engaged in propaganda for the abolition of the Sitten- polizei, worked for child protection and was active in municipal and communal reforms in Munich. She also wrote works about the sex problem and hygiene for young people. HIBBARD, BENJAMIN HorAcE (1870- it An American agricultural economist, born in Bremer County, Ia. He graduated from the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanie Arts in 1898, and took postgraduate courses at the University of Wisconsin and in Germany. In 1910, he was special agent in the agricultural division of the Bureau of the Census, and in 1913, was appointed professor of agricultural economics at the University of Wisconsin. In 1918 Professor Hibbard became head of this department. He was a member of several societies and wrote Fiffect of the Great War on Agriculture (1919), and Marketing Agricultural Products (1921). HIBBEN, Paxton (1880- ). An Ameri- ean war correspondent and publicist, born at Indianapolis, Ind. He graduated from Prince- ton University in 1903 and studied law at Harvard. In 1906, he was admitted to the bar. Entering the diplomatic service, he served as Secretary of Legation at Russia, Mexico, Colombia, Holland and Chile, retiring from the service in 1912. He acted as war correspondent in Europe for several papers and magazines from 1915 to 1917, and in 1921 was secretary of the Russian Commission of Near East Relief. During the War he served as first lieutenant of field artillery and also with the Finance Bureau, and in the office of the Inspector-General. In 1919, he was on duty with the military mission of Armenia and was staff correspondent for the Chicago Tribune from 1919 to 1920. He wrote Constantine I and the Greek People (1920), and contributed many articles on subjects relating to the Near East to magazines. HICHENS, Roserr SmytTHe (1864-— ie An English novelist (see Vor. XI). Among his later books are: In the Wilderness (1917) ; Snake-Bite (1919); Mrs. Marden (1919); The Spirit of the Time (1921). HICKS, FREDERICK CHARLES (1875—- Miz An American librarian and educator, born at Auburn, N. Y. He graduated from Colgate Uni- versity in 1898 and from the Georgetown Law School in 1901. After several years spent in HICKS 6a practice of law, he was appointed librarian at the United States Naval War College at New- port, serving from 1905 to 1908. In 1908-09, he was assistant librarian of the Brooklyn Public Library and from 1911 to 1915 was law librarian and from the latter date associate professor of legal bibliography at Columbia University. He was the author of New World Order (1920), Men and Books Famous in the Law (1921), and edited several historical series. HICKS, FREDERICK CHARLES (1863- ). An American economist, born at Capac, Mich. He was graduated from the University of Michigan in 1886, where in 1890 he also re- eeived his Ph.D. During 1891-92 he was in- structor in economics at the University of Mich- igan, and then for eight years was professor of history and political economy at the University of Missouri, but in 1900, accepted a call to the chair of economy and commerce at the Uni- versity of Cincinnati. He became president of the latter institution in 1920. During 1888- 90, he served on the United States Census and later was supervisor of the 13th United States Census in the First District of Ohio. In ad- dition to many technical papers, reports and monographs contributed variously, he is the author of Lectures on the Theory of Economics (1901) and Competitive and Monopoly. Prices (1911). HIDES. See LEATHER; LIVE STOCK. HIGGINS, WILLIAM VicTor (1884— ye. A painter and teacher, born at Shelbyville, Ind. He studied at the Art Institute in Chi- cago and at the Academy of Fine Arts there. In Paris, he was a pupil of René Menard and Lucien Simon, and when he was in Munich he studied with Hans von Hyeck. He is an As- sociate of the National Academy. Among his pictures in permanent exhibitions are his “Moorland Gorse and Bracken,’ in the Munic- ipal Gallery, Chicago; “Moorland Piper,” Terra Haute Art Association; “Juanito, the Suspicious Cat,” in the Union League Club, Chicago; “Women of Taos,” Santa Fé Rail- road; “A Shrine to St. Anthony,” in the col- lection of the Des Moines Association of Fine Arts; “Fiesta Day,” at the Butler Art Insti- tute, Youngstown, Ohio; “Pueblo of Taos” and “Indian at Stream” in the Los Angeles Mu- ‘“seum. Examples of his murals are found in the decorations of the Englewood Theatre, Chi- cago. HIGGS, Henry (1864- ). An English economist and administrator (see Vou. XI). His later writings include: Financial System of The United Kingdom (1914); National Econ- omy (1917); A Primer of National Finance (1919). HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS. See BOILERS. HIGHWAYS. See Roaps AND PAVEMENTS, HILDEBRAND, Apvotr E. R. (1847-1921). A German sculptor of prominence (see VOL. XI). His most important recent work has been the “Hubertus” Fountain at the National Museum in Munich (1921). At the time of his death he had finished the model for a monu- mental fountain for Cologne, with “Father Rhine” as the central figure. HILDEBRAND, Jorn HeENry (1881- Me An American chemist, born at Camden, N. J. He was graduated at the University of Pennsyl- vania in 1903, took his Ph.D. there in 1906, then studied for a year in Berlin. During HILL 1904-05 he was assistant and during 1907-13 an instructor in chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania, after which he accepted a call to the University of California, where, in 1918, he became professor of chemistry. Physical chemistry, and such topies as electro-analysis, hydrogen electrodes, vapor pressures of metals and amalgams, dissociation of alcohol, and theories of solubility, are among those on which he has published the results of his studies. During the War he served as director of the laboratory of the Chemical Warfare Service in France with the rank of major and later com- manded the gas defense school as lieutenant- colonel. He is the author of Principles of Chem- istry (1917). HILL, Atspert Ross (1869- ). “An American educator (see Vor. XI). From 1908, he was president of the University of Missouri. During the War, he was on a leave of absence until 1922 as director of foreign operations of the American Red Cross. In 1917, he was a member of the board of the United States Naval Academy. HILL, ArcuiBaLtp V. (1886— ): & Brit- ish physiologist, educated at Cambridge and a fellow of Trinity College from 1910. He lectured on physical chemistry at the university from 1914 to 1919 and was then appointed professor of physiology at Manchester University, resign- ing in 1923 to become Jodrel professor of phys- iology in the University of London. During the War he was director of the Anti-Aircraft Sta- tion. With O. Meyerhoff, he shared the Nobel prize for medicine and physiology for 1921. Since 1910, he had been investigating the pro- duction of lactic acid by exercising muscle. His cosharer, Otto Meyerhoff, professor of phys- iology at the University of Kiel, was a personal friend of Hill and engaged in the same field of research. HILL, Davip JAYNE (1850— ). An American diplomat and writer (see Vou. XI). In 1917 he was chairman of the War Finance Committee of the American Library Association. This committee raised over $1,700,000 to erect library buildings at army camps and to pro- vide reading matter for soldiers and sailors. His later writings include: The People’s Cov- ernment (1915); Americanism—What It Is (1916); The Rebuilding of Europe (1917) ; Im- pressions of the Kaiser (1918); Present Prob- lems in Foreign Policy (1919); American World Policies (1920). He is president of the National Association of Constitutional Govern- ment. HILL, Epwarp BURLINGAME An American composer, born at Cambridge, Mass. After completing, with highest honors, all the courses in music under J. K. Paine at Harvard University, he continued his studies in Boston with B. J. Lang (piano) and F. F. Bullard (composition), and in New York with A. Whiting (piano) and H. KE. Parkhurst (theory). In 1908, he was appointed instructor in music at Harvard and in 1918 was made as- sistant professor. He lectured extensively on modern French music, both in the United States and in France, and was also a frequent con- tributor to various periodicals. As a composer, his leaning is decidedly toward impressionism. His works include: two pantomimes, Jack Frost in Midsummer, and Pan and the Star; two symphonic poems, The Parting of Lancelot and Guinevere, and The.Fall of the House of Usher; two orchestral suites, Stevensoniana (1872- id HILL 622 No. 1 and No. 2; Nine Waltzes for orchestra; Poem for violin and orchestra; Prelude to Euripides’s The Trojan Women; and choruses, songs and pieces for piano. HILL, FRANK PIERCE (1855— ). An American librarian (see Vou. XI). In 1917, he was chairman of the American Library Associ- ation war finance committee which raised over $1,700,000 for the purpose of erecting library buildings at army camps and providing books, newspapers and magazines for soldiers and sailors. He was also chairman of the Associ- ation’s committee on enlarged programme in 1919. HILL, JosepH ADNA_ (1860- )ia An American statistician (see Vor. XI). After service as chief statistician of the United States Census he was appointed Assistant Director of the Census in 1921. He was the author of many census reports on child labor, the insane, di- vorce and kindred subjects. HILL, LEoNARD ERSKINE (1866— ). See Vou. XI). He published in two parts (1919- 20) as a report to the Medical Research Com- mission The Science of Ventilation and Open Air Treatment; and in collaboration (Flack and Hill) Textbook of Physiology (1919). During the War, he was a member of the Medical Re- search Commission. HILLER, Kurt (1885- ). A German writer. He was born in Berlin and studied at the universities of Berlin, Freiburg and Heidel- berg, graduating as doctor of law. He is the author of: Das Recht iiber sich selbst (1908) ; Die Weisheit der Langeweile (1913); Hin deutsches Herrenhaus (1918); Unnennbares Bru- dertum (1918); Geist werde Herr (1920) ; Logokratie (1921); Schmach des Jahrhunderts (1922); and Der Aufbruch zum Paradies (1922). He also compiled the anthology Der Kondor and edited the posthumous works of Max Steiner. HILLIS, NEweLtt Dwicut (1858- )... An American clergyman and writer (see Vou. XI). ‘Among his later books are: German Atrocities (1918); The Blot on the Kaiser’s ’Scutcheon (1918); Rebuilding the Ruined Lands of Eu- rope (1919); The Better America Lectures G1924.)¢ HILLQUIT, Morris (1869— )), ue American Socialist (see Vout. XI). He was the Socialist candidate for Mayor of New York City in 1917. In 1921, he published From Mara to Lenin. HINDEMITH, PAUL (1895- PA German composer, born at Hanau, Hessen. He was a pupil of MHoch’s Konservatorium, in Frankfort, and in 1915 became concertmaster at the Frankfort Opera. His first works, showing influences of Brahms, Reger and Mahler, at- tracted little attention, but when he had de- veloped into an uncompromising futurist, he was hailed as a new Messiah throughout Germany. As for ugly and grotesque effects, his music ap- pears as a caricature of the style of Stravinsky or Schénberg. His productivity has been enor- mous, especially in the field of chamber music (sonatas, string quartets, etc.). His three one- act operas, Nusch-Nuschi and Hoffnung, Mérder der Frauen (Stuttgart, 1921) and Sankta Susan- na (Frankfort, 1922) were immediately sup- pressed by the police because of the alleged re- volting immorality of the text. HINDENBURG, PAvL von BENECKENDORF UND von (1847- ). A German soldier born HINES in Posen. He entered the army in 1866, serv- ing in the war against Austria, and in 1870-71 in the Franco-Prussian War. He was placed on the retired list in 1911, but when the World War broke out, and East Prussia was overrun by the Russians, he was recalled and given command of the VIII Army with General Luden- dorff as his chief of staff. For his victories at Tannenberg, the Masurian Lakes, etc., he was made colonel-general and, later, field marshal. In November, 1914, he was given command of the armies of the East, later of the Austrian front, and in 1916 he succeeded Falkenhayn as chief of the general staff. By that time he was the national idol of the German people, and they erected an immense wooden statue of him in the KG6nigsplatz in Berlin. Money was raised for war charities by charging a fee for the privilege of driving nails into the statue. After the War he was of great assistance in disbanding the armies. He published his recol- lections under the title Aus meinem Leben (1920). HINDENBURG LINE. See War In Ev- ROPE, Western Front. HINDHEDE, MIKKEL (?- ) ft Asy Dan ish physician, an eminent authority on dietetics, who during the War was responsible for the nutrition of the Danish people. Known especi- ally as a low protein advocate, he goes further in this direction than any other dietetic expert. Up to the outbreak of the War he was best known for two of his publications, Protein and Nutrition (1913) and What to Hat and Why (1914). These works are known through trans- lations into English and German. His experi- ences in feeding the populace during the War were given out in 1920 in an official report of the Danish Minister of the Interior. HINDS, Ernest (1864- ). An American military officer, born in Marshall County, Ala. He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1887, entered the army as second lieutenant in the 3d Artillery, and by succes- sive promotions attained the rank of major- general on Dee. 6, 1922. He participated in the war with Spain in Cuba and later saw duty in the Philippine Islands. During the War in Europe he was chief of artillery of the Ist Army Corps and then of the lst Army in France, with the provisional rank of major-general. In 1919 he took command of the Field Artillery School of Fire at Fort Sill. For his “exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services” he re- ceived the United States Distinguished Service Medal and the decorations of the Legion of Honor from France, the Order of Leopold from Belgium, and the order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus from Italy. HINDUS. See BRITISH COLUMBIA. HINES, Frank Tuomas (1879- ). An ‘American soldier, born in Salt Lake City, and educated at the Agricultural College of Utah. He enlisted for the Spanish-American War. In 1919 he was commissioned second leutenant in the Utah Light Artillery. He then joined the Regular Army, and rising through the various grades, became captain of the Coast Artillery Corps in 1908. He was made colonel of the National Army in 1918 and _ brigadier-general in the same year. In 1917 he was assigned to the office of the Chief of Staff as assistant in the Embarkation Service, which he headed in 1918. In 1919 he was appointed Chief of the Transportation Service of the United States HINES Army. He served at several important inter- national conferences following the War. In 1923 he was appointed director of the Veterans’ Bureau. HINES, Joun LeEoNArRD (1868- yuan American army officer, born in White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., and educated at the United States Military Academy. He was commis- sioned second lieutenant in 1868. He served during the Spanish-American War and in the Philippines and in the punitive expedition into Mexico in 1916-17. In the latter year he was appointed assistant adjutant-general in the American Expeditionary Forces and accom- panied the first detachment of American troops to France. He was appointed colonel of the 16th Infantry in November, 1917, and in May, _1918, commanded the Ist Brigade Infantry, Ist Division. In October, 1918, he was appointed commander of the 3rd Army Corps, and in November, 1919, commander of the 4th Division. He commanded the 5th Division in 1920 and the 8th Corps Area in 1921. General Hines suc- ceeded General Pershing as Chief of Staff of the United States Army in September, 1924. HINES, WALKER Downer (1870- yi (An American lawyer and public official, born at Russellville, Ky., and educated at Ogden College and the University of Virginia. In 1893 he be- gan the practice of law in Louisville and was general counsel of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railroad from 1906 to 1918 and was chairman of the Board of Directors of this road from 1916 to 1918. In 1906-16 he engaged in general law practice in New York. In the latter year he was appointed director general of railroads and served until 1920. In that year he was in Europe as arbitrator under the Peace Treaties of questions of river shipping. On his return to the United States in 1921 he resumed the practice of law. He is the author of numer- ous pamphlets and articles on railroad and governmental problems. HINKSON, Mrs. KATHARINE (maiden name TYNAN) (1861- ). An Trish novelist and poet (see Vor. XI). Her later writings in- clude: The Story of Margery Dawe (1915); John-a-Dreams (1916); Miss Mary (1917); Herb o’ Grace (1918); The Man from Australia (1919); Love of Brothers (1919); The Second Wife (1920); The Wandering Years (1922); and Mary Beaudesert, V.S. (1922). HINSHAW, WitttAmM WaApbeE (1867- hs An American operatic baritone and impresario, born at Union, Iowa. While pursuing the gen- eral academic course at Valparaiso University (Ind.), he studied singing and theory with R. A. Heritage and later continued with L. G. Gottschalk and L. A. Phelps in Chicago. He made his début on the concert stage in Chi- eago during the World’s Fair (1893). From 1895 to 1899 he was dean of the Conservatory of Music at Valparaiso University. After coach- ing with A. Mareschalchi he was engaged for the Savage Grand Opera Company, and made his operatic début as Mephistopheles in St. Louis (Nov. 6, 1899) with marked success. In 1903 he opened his own school of opera, which soon became merged with the Chicago Conservatory, and until 1907 he was president of the combined institutions. In 1909 he organized the Interna- tional Grand Opera Company of Chicago, of which he was general manager, stage-manager, and principal baritone. From 1910 to 1913 he was a member of the Metropolitan Opera Com- 21 623 ‘the practice of law at Columbia, Mo. HIRSCHFELD pany and then made guest appearances in ya- rious German opera houses. In 1918 he became president of the Society of American Singers, an organization devoted to the production of in- timate operas, especially Mozart’s, in English. Since 1920 he has been directing his own cham- ber productions of opéra comique. He offered, in 1916, a prize of $1000 for a one-act opera by an American composer. It was awarded to Had- ley’s Bianca, produced by the Society of Ameri- ean Singers, New York, 1917. HINTON, Epwarp Witcox (1868— }e An American lawyer and educator, born at Rocheport, Mo., and educated at Christian Col- lege in Columbia, Mo., and at the University of Missouri, where he studied law. He began He was professor of pleading and practice at the Uni- versity of Missouri from 1903 to 1913 and from the latter year was professor of law at the University of Chicago. In 1918-19 he was act- ing dean of the law school of this University. He edited Hinton’s Cases of Trial Practice (1915) and Hinton’s Cases on Evidence (1919). HINTZE, PAvut von (1864— ).. A Ger- man admiral and diplomat, born at Schweldt- on-Oder. He served for several years as mil- itary attaché at several embassies and was mil- itary plenipotentiary to Russia in 1908. In 1914 he was in service in the German embassy in Mexico and in the same year was sent to China, where he carried on extensive propaganda in favor of Germany. He was transferred to Norway later in the same year. In 1918 he was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and continued in this post until the fall of the empire. HIROHITO, Prince (1901- ). Prince Regent of Japan, proclaimed heir apparent in 1912 when his. father became Emperor. He was educated under private tutors at the Imperial Education Institute in Tokyo, and when he reached the age of 18 he was given a seat in the House of Peers in the Imperial Diet. His father’s ill health caused some of the imperial duties to devolve on the Prince in 1920, and early in 1921 there was a movement to have him declared Prince Regent. Instead, however, in the spring of that year he was sent on a visit to England, France, Belgium, and Italy and was thus the first Japanese prince to leave his native land. He was royally entertained wher- ever he went. All hope of the Emperor’s ability to continue his duties as ruler being abandoned, Prince Hirohito was designated Regent of Japan on Nov. 25, 1921. In December, 1923, a young student, inflamed by radical teachings, at- tempted to assassinate the young ruler. The whole nation was aroused, and the cabinet re- signed in a body as an expression of their hor- ror, for the Prince was very popular because of his democratic ways. On Jan. 26, 1924, he was married to Princess Nagako, eldest daughter of Prince Kuni, with ancient Shinto rites. HIRSCHFELD, GeEorc_ (1873- keh German author, at first chiefly a dramatist, now a prolific novelist (see Vor. XI). Among his recent works are Nachwelt (1915), Die Geborgte Sonne (1916), Die Deutsche Prinzessin (1920), and Das Haus mit der Pergola (1923). HIRSCHFELD, Lupwia (1882- Vi Meee Austrian writer, born at Vienna, and educated at technical schools. After drifting from one occupation to another, he settled down as a journalist. He was associate editor of the HIRSCHFELD Wiener Neue Freie Presse and editor of the illustrated magazine, Die Moderne Welt. Hirsch- feld is mainly a humorist but has written several comedies and texts for operettas, which include: Der Wetterhahn (1911); Der Be- riihmte Gabriel (1916); Die Steinerne Maske (1918); Die Grosse Dummheit (1919); Der Liebling der Frauen (1920); Die Silberne Jugend (1921), and he has also published Die Klingende Stadt, a volume of Viennese sketches (1912); Wo Sind die Zeiten? and Ten Years of Viennese Life (1920) HIRSCHFELD, Maenus (1868-— | A. German psychiatrist, famous for his exhaustive studies in sex confusion and allied subjects. Born at Kolberg, he settled in Berlin to prac- tice neurology and psychiatry in 1910, and within a few years he had published the fol- lowing exhaustive works: Die Transvestiten, 2 vols. (1910-12); Die Homosexualitat (1914) ; Sexual Pathologie, 2 vols. (1917); and Sexual Zwischestufen (1922). HIRT, HERMANN (1865- ). A German philologist (see Vor. XI). Among his recent works are Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache; Fragen des Vokalismus und der Deutschen Stammbildung im Indogermanischen (1914), and Etymologie der Neuhochdeutschen Sprache (1920). HIRTH, Friepricu (1845-— ). A German- American sinologue (see Vou. XI). He was professor of Chinese and head of the Chinese de- partment of Columbia University, 1902-17. In 1917 he wrote The Story of Chang K’ie’n, China’s Pioneer in Western Asia. HISTOLOGY. See ZooLoey. HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN. A national organization founded in 1884 for the promotion of historical writing and studies in the United States. Throughout the decade 1914— 24 it had its annual report published by the Smithsonian Institution, and brought out quar- terly The American Historical Review. In 1915, after a controversy in which the Review was criticized, the Association gave the editors a vote of confidence and took the Review more closely under control. Woodrow Wilson was elected president for 1924 and after he died the first vicepresident, Charles M. Andrews, be- came acting president. | HITCHCOCK, Gitspert MONELL (1859-— ye An American lawyer and public official. Dur- ing the administration of President Wilson he was chairman of the Foreign Relations Com- mittee of the Senate and led in the movement for the ratification of the League of Nations in that body, 1919-20. He was defeated for re- election in the Senate in 1922. HITCHCOCK, HELEN SANBORN SARGENT (Mrs. Riprey Hitcucock) (1870- yo An. American social worker, born at Elizabeth, N. J. She studied at the Art Students’ League and in 1898 founded the Art Workers’ Club for Women, of which she was president for 11 years. In 1914 she founded and was first vice-president of the Art Alliance of American Women. In 1917 she founded and was chairman of the Art War Relief and was vice-chairman of the Ameri- can Jugo-Slav League. She took a prominent part also in other war activities. In 1914 she married Ripley Hitchcock of New York City. HITLER, Apotr (?- ). Bavarian re- actionary leader, born in Austria, but a natural- ized Bavarian. In November, 1920, he organized 624 HOBSON a movement in Bavaria similar to the Fascist movement in Italy. His followers wore gray shirts and brassards with an anti-Semitic Swas- tika cross in a white circular field on red. They were armed with blackjacks and, it was reported, with revolvers. Hitler had great gifts as an orator and organizer and stood for a strong united Germany. On Nov. 8, 1923, he and General von Ludendorff seized the govern- ment at Munich, but their power lasted only a few hours. Ludendorff was captured first; Hitler was taken on November 12. They were tried for treason in April, 1924, and Hitler was sentenced to a short term in the fortress at Landsberg, Bavaria. HJARNE, HaAratp GABRIEL (1848-1922). A Swedish historian. His last works were Fran Forvarsstridden (1914), Osteuropas Kriser. och Sverges Férsvar (1914), Miéironsredisten- ismen (1915), and Var Ofverhingande Fara (1917). HOBAN, Epwarp Francis’ (1878- LS An American bishop, born at Chicago, and edu- eated at St. Ignatius College, St. Mary’s Sem- inary in Baltimore, and the Gregorian Univer- sity at Rome. He was ordained priest in 1903. In 1908 he was appointed chancellor of the archdiocese of Chicago and was consecrated bishop of that diocese in November, 1921. HOBART COLLEGE. An institution founded at Geneva, N. Y., under Episcopal aus- pices, in 1822. The number of students in- creased from 102 in 1914 to 209 in 1924, the number of teachers in the faculty from 21 to 32, and the library from 55,000 to 75,000 volumes. The productive funds rose from $400,- 000 to $800,000, of which $200,000 was in schol- arship foundations, and the endowment from $600,000 to $1,000,000, which was being added to in 1924 by payment on the endowment fund campaign pledges. Murray Bartlett succeeded Lyman Pierson Powell as president. HOBHOUSE, LEONARD TRELAWNEY (1864— ). A British sociologist and philosopher (see VoLt. XI). He published in 1918 A Philosophical Theory of the State, a work in which he attacked the metaphysical absolutistic notions set up by the Hegelian school. He held that the habit of conceiving the state as a be- ing led to political conservatism. The Rational Good (1921) is an attempt to treat ethics on a realistic and somewhat sociological basis. In addition to these works he was joint author, with G. C. Wheeler and Morris Ginsberg, of a survey of The Material Culture and Social In- stitutions of the Simpler Peoples (1915). HOBOHM, Martin (1883-— ). A lecturer on history at the University of Berlin. He was born at Friesdorf and studied in Heidelberg, Munich, Freiburg, Berlin, and Gottingen. He was lecturer at the University of Kiel in 1913 and in Berlin in 1914. In 1916 he founded a bureau for the repression of chauvinism. He became very active in political life. His prin- cipal works include: Macchiavellis Renaissance- und Kriegskunst (1912); Torstensson als Vor- ganger Friedrichs des Grossen (1913); Die All- deutsche Bewegung; eine Politische Schuld und Gefahr (1915); Vaterlandspolitik (1917); Wir Brauchen Kolonien (1918); Chauvinismus und Weltkrieg (1919); and Delbriick, Clausewitz, Kritik des Weltkriegs (1920). HOBSON, Joun ATKINSON’ (1858-— ys An English economist (see Vou. XI). His later writings include: Towards International Gov- HOBSON ernment (1915); The New © Protectionism (1916); Democracy after the War (1917); Richard Cobden: the International Man (1918) ; Taxation in the New State (1919) ; Problems of a New World (1921); Incentives in the New Industrial Order; and Economics of Unemploy- ment (1922). HOBSON, RicHMoND PEARSON (1870- ). An American naval constructor, lecturer, and author (see Von. XI). Among his later books are: Destroying the Great Destroyer (1915) ; America and the World War (1917); The Great Reform (1918); Alcohol and the iB acies Race for Truth Inoculation of Society (1919). In 1921 he organized the American Alcohol earner tional Association. HOCHENEGG, Juttus von (1859- ). An Austrian surgeon, known as the world’s leading operator for cancer of the rectum. Hav- ing obtained his medical degree from the Uni- versity of Vienna in 1885, he became an assist- ant to Professor Albert and in 1889 a private docent in surgery. From 1891 to 1904 he had a class in surgery in the Poliklinik of the Univer- sity, after which he was made full professor of surgery with charge of the University Surgical Clinic. He has published but. few books; in 1906 he edited Lehrbuch der Spezielle Chirurgie (2 vols.), which was reissued in 1918. His military experiences were summed up in his Kriegschirur- gische Mittheilungen in 1919. From time to time he has reported his experiences with rectal cancer in the Vienna medical journals. HOCHSTETTER, Gustav (1873- hi A German writer. He was born at Mannheim and studied in Heidelberg and Berlin. » An American public official (see Vor. IX). He served in the United States Senate from 1913 to 1919 and during the War did relief work in Poland and Siberia. He was decorated by these governments for his services. HOLLIS, W(ILL1AmM) STANLEY (1866— ye An American public official, born in Chelsea, Mass. He studied at the United States Naval Academy in 1883-84 and left on account of a gun accident. He served in several capacities in the consular service from 1889 to 1911, when he was appointed consul general of Beirut, Syria. On the entrance of Turkey in the War, he had charge of the interests of the Allies in Syria. He was also head of the American Red Cross in Beirut and was prominent in re- lief work in Syria and elsewhere. He served as consul general in London in 1919 and dur- ing other periods and was a_ representative in London of the United States War Trade Board and other important bodies. In 1920 he was appointed consul general at Lisbon, Portugal HOLLISTER, NEp (1876— ). An Ameri- can zodlogist, born at Delaware, Wis. He col- lected extensively in field zodlogy throughout the western part of the United States (1902- 09) and was then assistant curator of mammals at the United States: National Museum (1910-16) and superintendent of the National Zodlogical Park (1916- ). He published Birds of Wis- consin (1903); Systematic Synopses of Musk- rats (1911); Mammals of the Philippine Is- lands (1912); Mammals of Alpine Club Exa- pedition to Mt. Robson (1913); Philippine Land Mammals in the United States National Museum (1913); A Systematic Account of the Grasshopper Mice (1914); and Kast African Mammals in the United States National Museum (1918, 1919). HOLM, FRiItTz (VILHELM) (1881- eicdes Danish explorer, born at Copenhagen, and edu- cated at Copenhagen University and in the Danish Royal Navy. After serving in the navy from the time he was fourteen years of age until he was 19, he went to the Far East, acting as journalist and in other positions until 1904, when he visited the United States. In 1905 he was engaged in journalistic work in London, and in 1906 he commanded a scientific mission HOLM 628 into the interior of China, the result of which was the bringing to the western world of the only existing monolithic replica of the famous Nestorian Monument of a.p. 781, which was lent to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, 1908-16. This replica is now in the Lateran Palace in Rome, Italy. He was very active in the War as correspondent and as Red Cross Commissioner and received many decor- ations for his work. HOLM, Gustav FREDERICK (1849- ee Danish explorer, who published a number of works on Greenland (see Vou. XI). An Eng- lish translation of Legends and Tales from Augmasalik appeared in 1914. HOLMES, Harry NIcnHoitts§ (1879- its An American chemist, born at Fay, Pa., and edu- cated at Westminster College and Johns Hop- kins University. During 1906-07 he was an as- sistant in chemistry at Johns Hopkins and then became professor of chemistry at Earlham Col- lege until 1914, when he was called to a similar chair at Oberlin College and was made head of the department. Dr. Holmes is a specialist in the chemistry of soaps and in colloid chemistry, in consequence of which he became the chairman of the subcommittee on coloid chemistry of the Na- tional Research Council in 1919-22. The re- sults of his studies on the specialties which he has made his own have been published in papers contributed to the American Chemical Society of which he is a member and of whose division of physical and inorganic chemistry he was chairman in 1920. He is the author of an Out- line of Qualitative Analysis (1908), Laboratory Manual of General Chemistry (1909), General Chemistry (1921), and Laboratory Manual of Colloid Chemistry (1921). HOLMES, JoHN HAYNES (1879- ). An American clergyman (see Vor. XI). He was chairman of the General Unitarian Conference from 1915 to 1917, was president of the Free Religious Association from 1914 to 1919, and was made director of the Civil Liberties Bureau in 1917. He broke from Unitarianism and be- came an independent in 1919. His later writ- ings include: Js Death the End? (1915); New Wars for Old (1916); Religion for To-day (1917); The Life and Letters of Robert Collyer (1917); Readings from Great Authors (1918) ; The Grail of Life (1919); and Is Violence the Way Out? (1920). HOLMES, SAMUEL JACKSON (1868— iy: An American zoélogist, born at Henry, Ill. He was educated at the University of California and the University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1897). He was instructor in zodlogy at the University of Michigan (1899-1905), associate professor there (1905-11), and associate professor (1911-16) and professor (1916— ) at the University of Cal- ifornia He published Biology of the Frog (1906); Evolution of Animal Intelligence (1911); Studies in Animal Behavior (1916) ; Elements of Animal Biology (1918); The Trend of the Race (1921); and A Bibliography of Eu- gemes (1924). HOLMES, Wirttiam HENRY (1846- ). An American anthropologist (see Von. XI). He was curator of the department of anthropol- ogy at the Field Museum in Chicago, of the de- partment of aboriginal pottery at the National Museum in Washington, and of the National Art Gallery of Washington (1910-20). He has pub- lished many works on archeological and an- thropological subjects. His most recent publica- HOLT tion is Handbook of Aboriginal American An- tiquities (1918). HOLSCHER, Gustav (1877- ). A Ger- man theologian and authority on the Old Testa- ment. He was born at Norden and studied at the universities of Berlin, Munich, and Leipzig. In 1893 he made a journey to Palestine and Phenicia under the auspices of the German Orient Society. He lectured at the universities of Halle, G6ttingen, and Giessen (1904-20) and in 1921 became professor of Old Testament science at Marburg. He is the author of Palds- tina in Persischen und Hellenischen Zeiten (1903); Quellen des Josephus (1904); Saddu- edismus (1906); Landes- und Volkskunde Palo- stinas (1908); Two Greek Inscriptions from Khurbet Harrauwi (1909); Geschichte der Juden in Palistina von Siebzig nach Christus (1910); Propheten (1915); Entstehungszeit der Him- melfahrt Moses (1919); Entstehungszeit des Buches Daniel (1920); and a work on the meter of Arab, Summerian, and Hebrew poetry. HOLST, Gustav (1874- ). An English composer, born at Cheltenham. He studied at the Royal Academy of Music under Stanford and Parry, then played for some seasons in various orchestras, and finally settled in London as a teacher. In-1907 he became director of music at Morley College and also at St. Paul’s Girls’ School. In May, 1923, he conducted several of his works at the Ann Arbor (Mich.) Festival. His works include four operas, The Revoke and The Youth’s Choice (neither of them produced), Savitri (London, 1916), and The Perfect Fool (ib., 1923); a masque, The Vision of Dame Christian; a symphony, Cotswolds; an overture, Walt Whitman; the orchestral suites, Beni Mora, Phantastes, The Planets, and Japanese; a symphonic poem, Indra; a Fugal Concerto for flute and oboe with string orchestra; The Mystic. Trumpeter for soprano and orchestra; Ornult’s Drapa for baritone and orchestra; the choral works with orchestra, Clear and Cool, King Estmere, Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda, The Cloud Messenger, Christmas Day, Hecuba’s Lament, Hymn .to Dionysus, The Hymn _ of Jesus, Ode to Death; and chamber music, songs and part songs. HOLT, Epwin BISsEeL (1873- ).y An American psychologist and philosopher, born at Winchester, Mass., and educated at Harvard and Columbia Universities. He was instructor in psychology at Harvard University, 1901-05; as- sistant professor, 1905-18. His two important works, The Concept of Consciousness (1914) and The Freudian Wish (1915), combine the ap- proach of behavioristic psychology with a real- istic metaphysics. Professor Holt was one of the group of six who published a joint profession of neo-realistic doctrine (1912). His own con- tribution to that philosophy included the notion of neutral entities; that is, entities neither mental nor physical, which he presumed to be the ultimate elements of the universe. HOLT, HAMILTON (1872- ). An Ameri- ican editor (see Vor. XI). In 1917 he was special lecturer for the World Peace Founda- tion, and the Isaac Bromley lecturer on journal- ism at Yale University. In the spring of 1918 he visited the Allied battle fronts as guest of the British, French, American, Belgian, and Italian governments and represented the League to Enforce Peace at the Peace Conference at Versailles in 1919. HOLT, Henry (1840- ). An American ee es | | : HOLT author and publisher (see Von. XI). In 1915 he became a member of the Harvard Overseers Visiting Committee on philosophy and _ psychol- ogy From 1914 to 1921 he edited The Un- partisan Review (formerly The Unpopular Re- view) and in 1919 he published The Cosmic Re- lations and Immortality. HOLT, Lucius Hupson (188l- )s An American author, born in Atchison, Kan., and educated at Yale. He was instructor in English there from 1905 to 1908 and assistant editor of Webster’s International Dictionary from 1908 to 1910. From 1910 he was professor of English and history at the United States Military Acad- emy. He was a member of several societies and wrote Introduction to the Study of Government (1914); Leading English Poets (1915); History of Europe, 1862-1914, with A. W. Chilton (1917); Brief History of Europe 1789-1915, with A. W. Chilton (1918); and Military Cor- respondence, Reports and Orders (1918). HOLT, L(UTHER) EMMET (1855-1924). An American physician (see Vout. XI). Dr. Holt’s death occurred suddenly in China, where he had gone to deliver a course of lectures on pediatrics in the new medical college established at Pe- king by the Rockefeller Foundation. The only considerable recent work published by him is Food, Health, and Growth (1922). The Holt treatise on pediatrics was reissued in 1922 un- der the joint authorship of Holt and Howland of Johns Hopkins University. Dr. Holt was recognized as one of the great medical figures of his day, notably in the field of pediatrics. His popular booklet on the feeding and care of infants was translated into many languages. HOLT, WINIFRED (?- ). An American sculptor and philanthropist, born in New York City. She was educated privately and studied anatomy, drawing, and sculpture in Florence. Her works, exhibited in New York and in sev- eral cities of Europe, included portraits, busts, and bas-reliefs. She founded and was secretary of the Association for the Blind, and through her efforts several homes for the blind were founded. She also organized so-called light- houses for the blind in France and other parts of Europe. In 1921 she visited Poland as a guest of the Polish Government for the relief of the Polish blind. During the War she did much relief work among those blinded in bat- tle. She was awarded medals by France and other governments and was the author of A Short Life of Henry Fawcett (1911); The Beacon for the Blind (1914), and numerous papers. HOLY PLACES. See ARABIA. HOLZKNECHT, Guipo (1872- } etn Austrian physician, pioneer in rodntgenology, who has recently attracted much attention through his attempts to “rejuvenate” elderly women by raying the -genital glands. MHolz- knecht is indirectly responsible for Gertrude Atherton’s novel, Black Oxen. UHaving received his medical degree from the University of Vienna, just as the Réntgen rays were coming into use in medicine, he began to devote him- self to this subject and was eventually ap- pointed professor of radiology in the university. He published the results of X-ray diagnosis in tuberculosis and diseases of the chest in 1901 in a volume entitled Die Réntgenologische Diag- nostik der Erkrankungen der Brusteingeweide. In collaboration (Holzknecht and Jonas) he wrote Die Radiologische Diagnostik der Intra- und Extraventrikuliren Tumoren (1908), and 629 HONDURAS in 1921 he edited the large two-volume work, Roéntgenologie. HOME RULE, MuniIcIPAt. GOVERNMENT. HONDURAS. A Central American republic with an area of about 44,275 square miles, and a population, on Jan. 1, 1922, of 662,422 (a gain of 17 per cent over the last decennial cen- sus). The capital, Tegucigalpa, had 38,950 in 1920. Other important towns are: La Esper- anza (11,453), Santa Rosa (10,574), Nacaome (8152), Choluteca (8065), Amapala (2800), La Ceiba’ (8000), Puerto Cortés (4000). The per- centage of illiteracy among children was 56 per cent and school attendance increased only slightly over 1911. By the school census of 1919 only 35,912 children out of the 87,207, were receiving instruction. Industry. The cultivation of bananas and coconuts continued as the leading activity. For the year ending Dec. 31, 1922, 12,520,495 bunches of bananas were exported, and 10,056,- 977 coconuts. Exports of both bananas and co- conuts declined for 1923, banana shipments to the United States (over 99 per cent) being 10,- See MUNICIPAL 725,004 bunches, and coconuts 7,485,519. The coffee production remained stationary while that of rubber decreased. Cattle and _ horse raising was on the decrease, there being 500,000 heads in 1920, compared with 800,000 in 1922. After 1912 the country’s trade consistently made gains, the imports being $14,342,237 in 1922-23 as compared with $5,132,679 in 1912- 13; and the exports in 1922-23, $10,016,270 as compared with $3,180,968 in 1912-13. The United States supplied 85 per cent of the goods imported into the country in 1922-23, and took 90 per cent of its exports. The balance of trade was overwhelmingly against Honduras. Finance. For the year 1922-23, the budget estimates balanced at 7,949,032 pesos. (In 1913-14, this was 4,824,000.) The national budget appropriations steadily increased after 1913-14, while both revenues and expenses were always larger than the budgeted amounts. The 1921-22 budget called for revenues and expenses of 6,674,895 pesos, but revenues were actually 7,386,979 pesos and expenses 7,196,161 pesos, showing a surplus of 190,818 pesos. The inter- est arrears on the foreign debt were not being paid with the result that the foreign debt to- taled $125,000,000 in 1923. The internal debt in 1921 amounted to over $6,000,000, United States currency. In 1922, the Banco de Hon- duras became the national bank of issue. In 1918, the peso was legally fixed at one-half the value of the American dollar. In 1920, an ambitious programme of fiscal reform was launched under the direction of an American expert, but it was not carried out because of lack of funds, while the years 1922, 1923, and part of 1924, were years of political disturb- ances, which made expenditures for war out of all proportion to other expenses, and created huge deficits. In 1920 the national railway of 95 kilometers was turned over to Compaifia Agricola de Sula to secure a credit of $1,000,- 000 to be used in the complete reconstruction of the road. This Compania Agricola, a sub- sidiary of the American Fruit Company, was changed in 1924 to the Cortes Development Company, and retained control over the nation- al railroad. Slightly over 500 miles of rail- ways, in addition to the national line, were the property of American fruit companies operat- HONEGGER ing on the north coast. There were no rail- ways on the Pacific coast. There were about 200 miles of highways open the year around to wheeled traffic. A national coast-to-coast high- way, which was to have been opened in 1924 (385 kilometers in length), was damaged dur- ing the revolutions. History. Internal affairs were stormy dur- ing the period 1914-24. In 1919, President Bertrand’s well prepared plans for his own re- election were upset by a revolt led by General Gutierrez. Bertrand fled the country; Gutier- rez had himself declared dictator; and, in Oc- tober, 1919, was elected president. In 1920, disturbances were again reported with the re- sult that United States battleships had to pro- ceed to the scene to protect American property. In 1923, on the eve of the forthcoming election, civil war again threatened and many prominent Hondurans sought safety in flight. After a contest, in which bloodshed and violence were not wanting, and which was marked by the continuous interference of the president, Gen- eral Carias, Conservative candidate, received a plurality vote. The election was now thrown into the Congress which, in 1924, declared it could find for no one candidate. The usual round was now repeated. American marines were rushed to the scene but could effect noth- ing; the president, Gutierrez, proclaimed him- self dictator, Feb. 1, 1924; the disappointed presidential aspirants took up arms in rebel- lion and waged war intermittently on each oth- er throughout February. In March, Gutierrez was put to flight, and, after a chaotic interreg- num, Dr. Fausto Davilla, Conservative, was pro- claimed provisional president by a group of revolutionary “generals”; but the forces defend- ing Tegucigalpa set up a rival in the person of Zufiiga Hueta. In the hope of restoring or- der, President Coolidge sent Mr. Sumner Welles as his special representative, in April, to me- diate, and the four neighboring republics were invited to join in a conference with the warring Honduran factions. This somewhat unusual procedure met with success early in May, when one of the revolutionary chieftains, Gen. Vicente Tosca, was elected president and the civil war was ended. The government applied itself toward further- ing the union of Central American States, and with Guatemala and Salvador signed a _ pact in 1921 for common action in matters of trade, communications, and coinage. In 1919, Guate- mala and Honduras submitted their long out- standing boundary dispute to the United States Secretary of State and a scientific survey under the administration of the American Geographi- cal Society was provided for. A further ad- vance toward realizing peace in Central Amer- ica was made in 1922 at a conference of the presidents of Nicaragua, Salvador, and Hon- duras on board the U.S.S. Tacoma in Fonseca Bay (Aug. 20, 1922), at which the three coun- tries reaffirmed in part the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of Dec. 20, 1907 (see CENTRAL AMERICAN UNIon). On July 19, 1918, Hondu- ras declared war on Germany and thus became an Associate Power and original member of the League of Nations. On Nov. 15, 1922, how- ever, Honduras notified the League of its inten- tion to withdraw because of the onerous annual dues. HONEGGER, ArtTuHuR (1892- ) ee French composer, born at Havre. He studied 630 HOOVER in Zurich, 1907-09, and then with R. Martins in Havre and L. Capet in Paris, where he lived after 1913. He began as an extreme futurist and was soon recognized as the leader of the notorious group, “Les Six” (Auric, Durey, Mil- haud, Poulenc, and Taillefer). His works com- prise an opera, La Mort de Ste.-Alméenne; in- cidental music to Morax’ Le Roi David and Méral’s Dit des Jeuxw du Monde; a ballet, Ver- ité? Mensonge?; a symphonic poem, Pastorale @Eté; a mimic symphony, Horace Victorieux ; Rhapsodie for piano, flutes, and clarinet; cham- ber music; and songs. HOOKER, BRIAN (WILLIAM BRIAN) (1880-— ). An American author (see VOL. XI). In 1915 he was awarded the prize in an America Opera Association competition for the opera Fairyland, with music by Horatio Parker. In the same year he published another opera, Morven and the Grail, and a commemorative poem, A.D. 1919, also with music by Horatio Parker, and a volume of Poems, 1915. He be- came literary editor of the New York Sun in 1917; HOOVER, C(HARLES) R(UGLAS) (1885- ES An American chemist, born in Oskaloosa, Iowa, and educated at Haverford College and Harvard University, where he held a Carnegie fellow- ship, 1912-13. He was professor of chemistry at Penn College in Iowa (1909-10) and associ- ate professor at Syracuse University (1913- 15). In 1918 he became professor of chemistry at Wesleyan University. He has made deter- minations of atomic weights of elements, inves- tigated tobacco smoke, and studied the analyses of gases. During the War he served with the Chemical Warfare Service and invented a gas absorbent and a gas detector, both of which were of value. HOOVER, HERBERT CLARK (1874— ). An American public official. He was born in Iowa, where his father, a Quaker, cultivated a farm. Left an orphan at 10 years of age, he was sent tc his uncle’s farm in Oregon to live. He ran away when he was 14 and went to Portland, Ore., where he worked for a while in a real estate office. In 1891 he entered the newly established Leland Stanford Junior University, working his way through by establishing a laundry of which he made a success. Special- izing in geology and engineering, he was in the first class graduated by the university. To per- fect himself as a mining engineer he went to California and became a common workman in mining, passed through the several grades, and acquired familiarity with every part of the work. In 1897 he went to Australia as a min- ing engineer for an English syndicate and was successful in developing some mines there. In 1899 he was appointed director general of mines by the Chinese government. His work in China was interrupted by the Boxer troubles; he was in Tientsin when the foreigners were be- sieged there. He defended not only his Euro- pean coworkers but his Chinese workmen too, rescuing them in some cases from the firing squad. Later he was engaged in mining opera- tions in various parts of the world. He made and lost two fortunes and eventually won lasting success. He was living in England at the out- break of the War, and his services were at once required in aid of Americans stranded’ there with their funds cut off. Soon afterward he was put in charge of the Belgian relief work and attracted wide attention by his great abil- HOPE 631 ity and enthusiasm. During three years he traveled throughout Belgium and visited Brus- sels, London, Rotterdam, Lille, and Berlin, in order to confer with the heads of governments. Although $1,000,000,000 was expended on food and transportation, about one-half of 1 per cent was required for overhead expenses. He was appointed United States Food Administrator in 1917. He announced that the people of the United States could diminish their expenses in the necessaries of life by 50 per cent. He in- stituted “wheatless days,” and ‘meatless days,” and urged avoidance of all waste. After the War, Mr. Hoover devised a chain of food dépéts throughout central Europe on which relatives and friends in the United States could draw for relief of the starving people in the countries desolated by the conflict. In March, 1921, he entered President Harding’s cabinet as Secre- tary of Commerce, with the understanding that he was to continue his relief work. In 1921, he assumed general supervision of the relief work in Russia, on condition that all Ameri- can prisoners held by the Soviet authorities should be released. He wrote Principles of Mining (1909), and in collaboration with his wife, who was Lou Henry of Monterey, Cal., a fellow-student at Stanford University, he translated into English Agricola’s De Re Metallica. HOPE, ANTHONY. See HAWKINS, ANTHONY HOPE. HOPE, Joun (1868- ). An American educator, born at Augusta, Ga., and educated at Brown and Chicago Universities. After graduation from college he devoted all his time to teaching colored youth. He served on the faculties of several colleges and universities in the South and was appointed president and pro- fessor of ethics at Morehouse College (then At- lanta Baptist College) in Atlanta, Ga., in 1906. In 1918-19 he did war work among the colored troops in France. He was a director and trustee of many institutions for colored people. HOPKINS, ArtHUR MELANCTHON (1878-— ). A dramatic producer, born in Cleve- land, Ohio, who began his work in New York City in 1912. His best recent produc- tions include The Poor Little Rich Girl; On Trial; The Deluge; Good Gracious, Annabelle ; The Rescuing Angel; Be Calm, Camilla; The Jest; Night's Lodging; Daddy’s Gone a-Hunt- ing; The Claw; Anna Christie; The Hairy Ape; The Old Soak; Rose Bernd; The Laughing Lady; Launzi; A Royal Fandango, and plays by Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Shakespeare. HOPKINS, Epwarp WasiBurn (1857- ‘a An American philologist (see Vou. XI). He has been professor of Sanskrit language and literature and comparative philology at Yale since 1915 and has published Epic Mythology (1915) and History of Religions (1918). HOPKINS, Ernest Martin’ (1877- Le An American educator, born at Dunbarton, N. H. He graduated from Dartmouth in 1901 and from that year to 1905 was secretary to the president there. He was secretary of the col- lege from 1905 to 1910 and until 1916 was en- gaged in original research for various indus- trial concerns in Chicago, Boston, and other cit- ies. He became president of Dartmouth on July 1, 1916. During 1918 he was in charge of the Industrial Relations of the Quartermaster Department, United States Army, and assistant to the Secietary of War in charge of industrial HORNE relations. He represented the War Department on the War Labor Policies Board in 1918. HOPKINS, Wu1iAm Jonn_ (1863- ). An American author (see Vot. XI). His later works include Those Gillespies (1916); The Clammer and the Submarine (1917); and She Blows! and Spurn at That (1921). HOPPE, WivuiaAm H. (1887- ). World’s champion at 182 and 18.1 balkline billiards. He was born at Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, N. Y. From 1910 he reigned supreme as a _ wielder of the cue despite the many times he has been called upon to defend his laurels. Beaten in match play at rare intervals by such stars of the game as Jacob Schaefer, he has always suc- ceeded in defending his championship honors. HOPWOOD, Avery (1884- ). An Ameri- ean playwright, born in Cleveland, Ohio. He came to New York City as a correspondent for the Cleveland Leader and there sold his first play, Clothes, written with Channing Pollock. His plays have been produced in the United States, Canada, Europe, and the Orient. The best known inelude Fair and Warmer; The Gold Diggers; The Bat; Spanish Love, in col- laboration with Mary Roberts. Rinehart; La- dies’ Night; The Demi-virgin; Little Miss Blue- beard; Why Men Leave Home; The Alarm Clock, and The Best People, with David Gray. HORMONES. See SeEcrRETIONS, INTERNAL; ZOOLOGY, Physiology; HEREDITY. HORNBY, Lester GEoRGE (1882- ).9% Ani American illustrator, engraver and painter, born at Lowell, Mass., and educated at the Rhode Island School of Design at Providence, the Pape School in Boston, and the Art Stud- ents’ League of New York. In Paris he stud- ied with Laurens and others. Representative pictures of his are in the Victoria and Albert Museum (London), the Library of Congress (Washington), the New York Public Library, the Art Institute of Chicago, Detroit Institute, Carnegie Institute (Pittsburgh), etc. He has illustrated sketch books of London, Edinburgh, Paris, and Boston. His war etchings are well known. HORNE, Henry SINcLAIR, first BARON (1861— ). A British soldier. He was edu- eated for the army at Woolwich and served in the South African War. In 1914 he was made commander of the artillery of the Ist Corps, and in the following year commanded the 2d Division. He was sent to Egypt to defend the Suez Canal in 1916 and in the same year com- manded the 15th Army Corps. Later in that year he was given command of the Ist Army in France. He served with great distinction. In 1909 he was created Baron of Stirkoke and was given the eastern command. Until 1920 he was general to the King. HORNE, Sir ROBERT STEVENSON (1871- Vy: A British statesman, born in Glasgow. He was educated at the University of Glasgow. He lec- tured on philosophy at the University College of North Wales in 1895. In the following year he was admitted to the Scottish bar and was elected to Parliament in 1910. In 1917 he was appointed assistant inspector general of trans- portation and in the same year became director of materials and priority in the Admiralty. In 1918 he was director of the Admiralty Labor Department. He was appointed, also in 1918, Third Civil Lord of the Admiralty. He was Minister of Labor in 1919; president of the Board of Trade in 1920-21; and Chancellor of HORSLEY the Exchequer in 1921-22. He was knighted in 1920. In 1921 he was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen University. HORSLEY, Sir Vicror ALEXANDER HADEN (1857-1916). An English surgeon and neurol- ogist (see Vor. XI). On the outbreak of the War Sir Victor was put at the head of a hos- pital which saw service in Egypt. At a later period he was made a colonel in the Mesopo- tamia Expeditionary Force and in the course of his duties succumbed at Amara to heat stroke. A biography of him by Stephen Paget appeared in’ 19.19; HORTHY DE NAGYBANYA, NIKOLAUS (1868— ). Regent of Hungary. Early in life he entered the navy. During the War he gave efficient service as captain of the battle- ship Novara. He was promoted to be admiral of the fleet and in this capacity surrendered thie Austrian fleet to the Allies in 1918. In 1919 he organized a counter-revolution against the Soviet government in Hungary, under Bela Kun, and on the fall of that government, came into supreme control. He was elected regent in 1920 on the theory that the monarchy in Hun- gary was only temporarily suspended. By pro- vision of the laws, he holds this office for an indefinite period. See Huncary, History. HORTICULTURE. Activities in this field showed both the destructive and stimulant ef- fects of the War during the period dominated by it. Increased demands for fruits and vege- table products of all kinds resulted in ‘an un- precedented speeding-up of production, followed by a corresponding decline on the close of hos- tilities. At the same time labor costs rose ex- cessively, and failing to recede with the drop in prices, they made the period of readjustment particularly difficult for the growers of all forms of perishable products. The long contin- ued and bitterly contested railroad strike of 1922 was a bitter blow to fruit and vegetable producers, sorely needing an opportunity to re- cover from the disastrous conditions following the War. The period showed a gradual move- ment from amateur to commercial production. The ravages of insect and fungus pests, making expensive spraying machinery an absolute ne- cessity, eliminated many poorly kept orchards and plantations. The haphazard methods of the past yielded to scientific practices. This trend in commercial horticulture is clearly out- lined in statistics furnished in the 1920 census, which shows that the number of bearing, decid- uous fruit trees dropped from 301,117,277 in 1910 to 230,781,135 in 1920. In the Pacific Coast States, always the stronghold of commer- cial orcharding, there was at the same time a noticeable increase in the number of trees. The greatest decline occurred in the Mississippi Val- ley region, where small farm orchards were the general rule. The greatest loss in bearing trees occurred in the apple and peach; the pear, plum, and cherry nearly held their own, and the apricot showed slight gains. Despite the decline in the number of trees the total pro- duction of orchard fruits increased slightly dur- ing the period, and the value of fruits trebled. The number of grapevines in the United States gained slightly during this census period, and citrus fruits of all species showed consistent increases. Bearing orange trees increased from 9.737,927 in 1910 to 14,397,836 in 1920; lemons from 956,920 to 2,921,608; grapefruit from 710,040 to 1,938,453; and tangerines from 27,- 632 HORTICULTURE 271 to 41,310. The total production of citrus fruits increased from 23,502,128 boxes in 1909 to 38,107,060 in 1919. One of the striking changes in the fruit in- dustry of the country during the same census period was the serious setback to the pineapple industry, as indicated in figures showing that the number of bearing plants declined from 37,- 948,399 in 1910 to 2,897,141 in 1920. Bearing nut trees, pecans, Persian walnuts, almonds, ete., increased from 5,027,788 in 1910 to 6,524,- 125 in 1920. At the same time the value of the nut crops increased from $4,447,674 in 1909 to $29,714,396 in 1919. Peanut acreage enlarged from 869,887. acres in 1909 to 1,125,100 acres in 1919; white potato acreage decreased from 3,666,855 to 3,251,701; sweet potato acreage in- creased from 641,255 to 803,727; and small fruit acreage decreased from 272,460 to 249,- 084. The nursery industry of the country showed no gain; sales in 1919 amounted to $20,- 434,389 as compared with $21,050,822 in 1909. The number of square feet under glass was in- creased from 114,655,276 to 162,368,593. Im- ports of vegetables, fruits, and nuts reached a maximum in 1919 and 1920 and thereafter ex- hibited a sharp decline. Export trade in these items followed the same general trend. How- ever, both imports and exports were considera- bly higher in value at the end of the 10-year period than at the beginning. In respect to the horticultural industry throughout the world at large, one of the most striking features was the rapid extension of the citrus industry in South Africa and Australia. Both countries developed their plantations to such an extent as to oversupply home consumption and render exportation to Great Britain a necessity. Protective Acts. One of the most important developments was the organization of the Fed- eral Horticultural Board, as the result of the plant quarantine act of Aug. 20, 1912. ‘This board, given power to promulgate and enforce necessary protective measures for preventing the entrance of insect and fungus pests into the United States, became at once a power for good to the Nation’s agriculture. That such protec- ‘tion was long needed is shown by the entrance in the past of many serious pests, including the San José scale, gipsy moth, Japanese beetle, chestnut blight, white pine blister rust, ete. The enactment of Quarantine 37, effective on and after June 1, 1919, prohibiting, with cer- tain exceptions, the importation of nursery stocks and other plants and seeds into the Uni- ted States, had a very great effect on American horticulture, especially on those branches con- cerned in the propagation and dissemination of ornamental plants. As a result, it became nec- essary for the nurserymen in this country to propagate many species of plants hitherto im- ported from foreign countries. The continued spread, despite vigorous repres- sive efforts, of the European corn borer, Japa- nese beetle, and many other serious pests enter- ing the United States previous to the organiza- tion of the Federal Horticultural Board, caused serious alarm. In many cases the pests had spread so rapidly that their eradication was con- sidered out of the question. The potato wart disease, for a time considered a very serious menace to the potato industry of the United States, was found controllable by the planting of resistant varieties. (See PoTAToES.) The gipsy moth, continuing its westward march through- HORTICULTURE out New England, threatened the Adirondack and Catskill forests, in spite of vigorous efforts made to stay its progress. More encouraging was the likelihood of eradicating the Parlatoria date scale, an insect which, if uncontrolled, was believed capable of wiping out the infant date industry of the southwestern States. Transportation. Material advances were made in the shipping of perishable products. The cooling of fruits and vegetables previous to placement in refrigerator cars became general and enabled distant growers to get their prod- ucts to the consumer without material loss in quality. The motor truck practically replaced the horse in the truck garden industry in the vicinity of large cities, making possible not only a geographical expansion of the trucking indus- try but also a quicker movement of highly per- ishable products. Marketing. No phase of horticultural activ- ity exhibited such radical changes ‘as that of marketing. Literally hundreds of codperative agencies sprang up in various parts of the coun- try and in most cases rendered material assist- ance to the long-suffering grower. The marked success of the California Fruit Growers’ Ex- change, operating under the adverse conditions of the War, propagated the codperative idea, at a time when extremely low prices were being re- ceived for most commodities. A new system of selling fruits and vegetables arose. This was the f. o. b. auction, in which the product is in- spected at the point of origin by government authorities and sold on this basis while in transit to market, and the returns are made to the grower within 48 hours after sale. One strik- ing development was the tremendous growth of roadside markets in the vicinity of cities and along important highways. An idea of the im- portance of this way of selling can be gained from the rough estimate of 500,000 stands in operation in the United States in 1923. These markets became important in the disposal not only of fruits and vegetables, but also of flowers, eanned products, cider, etc. Marketing was greatly aided by the development of better grad- ing and packing practices, stimulated not only by greater demand for selected uniform prod- - ucts but also by the enactment of various Fed- eral and State laws on the marketing and brand- ing of fruits and vegetables. In response to these regulations numerous codperative packing plants sprang up in various parts of the country. Investigation. Despite the serious disrupt- ing forces of the War, investigation progressed satisfactorily. The Oregon Experiment Station promulgated in 1918 the theory that growth and fruitfulness in plants is directly related to the proportion of carbohydrates and nitrogen in them. This concept has been of great benefit in assisting in the explanation of many cultural, pruning, and fertilization practices hitherto gen- erally accepted but not understood. During the period it became definitely acknowledged that of the many fertilizers applied to fruit trees, ni- trogen is the only material making an adequate return, and then only on poor soils or where trees are growing in sod. Studies in fruit stor- age contributed greatly to the knowledge of the proper time of picking and the importance of careful handling of fruit at all stages. Work of the United States Department of Agriculture in the standardizing of fruit and vegetable pack- ages did much to protect the consumer from fraud. The development by the same depart- 633 HORTON ment of large-fruited blueberries afforded proof that much may yet be done to improve our na- tive species of fruits. The discovery of bud variations in the citrus family explained the ex- istence of many unfruitful and undesirable trees. Experimental results disproved one popular fal- lacy, namely, that all fruit trees require severe annual pruning. War Gardens. Literally thousands of vege- table gardens were grown in war gardens, dur- ing the two years of the United States’ participa- tion in the war, by people who hitherto had never been interested in horticulture. The value of these gardens to the food reserves of the na- tion was estimated as approximately $500,000 in 1918. Plant Protection. Material advances were made in the method of protecting horticultural plants from various insect and fungus enemies. The utilization of dry insecticides and fungicides, known as dusts, steadily increased, until in many parts of the United States and Canada their use became an important part of the pro- tective programme. The discovery that many economic plants, including the potato, tomato, raspberry, etc., are subject to a serious form of disease commonly known as mosaic caused a great deal of concern. Widespread, disastrous freezes occurring during the blooming periods of 1921 greatly injured the fruit crop in many parts of the country and reawakened an inter- est in orchard heating as a means of protecting fruits from disastrous loss. Considerable agita- tion was aroused in New England and New York over the death of Baldwin apple trees follow- ing the severe winter of 1919. However, it was generally conceded that this old and standard variety, despite its occasional tenderness to cold, could not be replaced. Miscellaneous. One striking feature of the period was the gradual replacement of estab- lished varieties of fruits and vegetables by new and better sorts. The Delicious apple, from a modest position, became one of the leading vari- eties. The Stayman Winesap proved so much better than its parent, the Winesap, as to re- place it largely in new plantings. The Golden Bantam and other yellow sweet corns gained favor over the older white sorts. Necrology. Among prominent horticultur- ist. who died between 1914 and 1924 were Jackson Dawson, horticulturist, Aug. 3, 1916; Philippe de Vilmorin, ‘French seedsman and _ scientist, June 30, 1917; J. H. Hale, fruit grower and public servant, Oct. 11, 1917; J. C. Whitten, scientific horticulturist, June 5, 1922; G. Harold Powell, manager of the California Fruit Grow- ers’ Exchange, Feb. 18, 1922; Walter Van Fleet, plant breeder, Jan. 27, 1922; and Samuel Par- sons, landscape gardener, Feb. 3, 1923. Bibliography. A few of the large number of horticultural books appearing during this decade were S. W. Fletcher, The Strawberry in North America (New York, 1917); V. R. Gardner, F. C. Bradford, and H. D. Hooker, Jr., Fundamentals of Fruit Production (New York and London, 1922); U. P. Hedrick et al., The Cherries of New York (Albany, 1915), The Peaches of New York (Albany, 1917), and The Pears of New York (Albany, 1921); W. Poponoe, Manual of Tropical and Subtropicel Vegetable Gardening (New York and London, 1916); E. A. White, The Principles of Floriculture (New York, 1915). HORTON, Rosert FoRMAN (1855- ). An HOUBEN 634 English Congregational minister (see Vor. XI). His later volumes include Reconstruction (1915); An Autobiography (1917); and The Mystical Quest of Christ (1923.) HOUBEN, Hertnricuh Husertr (1875- i A German author and director of the literary department of the annual Leipzig book fair. He was born at Aix-la-Chapelle and studied in Bonn, Berlin, and Greifswald. He founded the Deut- sche Bibliographische Gesellschaft and was lit- erary director of F. A. Brockhaus’ publishing house (1907-19). He is the author of Karl Gutzkow (1899-1901); Emil Devrient, Leben und Wirken (1903); Jungdeutschlands Sturm und Drang (1911); Die Deutsche Revolution (1919) ; Hartmanns Revolutionare Erinnerungen (1919); Karl Schurz’s Befrewng Kinkels (1920); and Adele Schopenhauer, Tagebuch einer HEinsamen (1921). He also compiled Beriihmte Autoren des Verlags F. A. Brockhaus and edited the works of Sven Hedin. HOUDINI, Harry (1874- ). An Ameri- can magician, born at Appleton, Wis. He be- gan his career as a trapeze performer in 1882. He invented a diving suit, was interested in producing moving pictures, and was awarded a prize by the Australian Aéronautic League in 1910 for the first successful flight in Australia. He made many tours of the world and gave per- formances before the notables of various coun- tries. He gained fame by exposing the tricks of mediums, as well as by his own remarkable achievements as a magician. He wrote The Right Way to do Wrong (1906); Handcuff Se- crets (1907); The Unmasking of Robert Houdini (1908); Miracle Mongers (1920); Spooks and Spiritualism; and Rope Ties and Escapes. HOUGH, Emerson (1857-1923). An Ameri- can writer, born in Newton, Iowa, and educated at the University of Iowa in 1880. He spent many years in. traveling over the West and wrote much on the protection of game and other subjects relating to the public domain of the United States. He was responsible for the pas- sage of the act of Congress for preserving buf- falo in Yellowstone Park. He wrote The Sing- ing Mouse Stories (1895); The Story of the Cowboy (1897); Mississippi Bubble (1902) ; The Lady and the Pirate (1913); The Magnifi- cent Adventure (1915); The Way Out (1918) ; The Covered Wagon (1922); North of 36 (1923); and the posthumous Mother of Gold (1924). The Covered Wagon,'as a moving- picture, was the most successful made up to that time. It ran steadily over a year. in New York City. HOUGH, Lynn Harortp (1877- ). An American clergyman (see Vout. XI). Among his later works were: The Quest for Wonder (1915); In the Valley of Decision’ (1916); The Little Old Lady (1917); The Significance of the Protestant Reformation (1918); The Clean Sword (1918); The Productwe Beliefs (Cole Lectures at Vanderbilt University; 1919); The Eyes of Faith (1920); The Opinions of John Clearfield (1921); and other volumes. HOUGHTON, Aranson BIGELOow (1863- ). An American manufacturer and dip- lomat, born at Cambridge, Mass., and edu- cated at Harvard University, in Germany, and in Paris. He engaged in the manufacture of glass at Corning, N. Y., and became president and official in several important glass com- panies and other concerns. He was a member of Congress, 1919-23, but resigned on his ap- ' HOURS OF LABOR pointment as Ambassador to Germany by Presi- dent Harding in February, 1922. HOURS OF LABOR. ‘The last 10 years have seen a marked general reduction of. hours of labor. That long hours do not pay had been coming more and more to be believed. The ex- periences of the War and particularly the re- port of the British munitions workers’ commit- tee established this general principle beyond doubt. Moreover, the influence of the forces of labor was steadily gaining and culminated in considerable economic power during the War. These two circumstances combined not only to stimulate legislation for the limitation of work- ing hours, but also to decrease hours of work in the industries which were not affected by the protective laws. According to the Census of Manufacturers of 1914, 11.8 per cent of the workers covered worked in eight-hour establishments. In the 1919 cen- sus, 48.6 per cent did so, while advance figures compiled for the 1924 census showed that 51.5 per cent worked in eight-hour plants. Hour legislation in this country is still, due to constitutional limitation, largely confined to the protection of women and children. During the past decade, however, were enacted the La Follette Seamen’s Act of 1915 and the Adam- son Act of 1916, regulating respectively the hours of maritime and interstate railway workers. Numerous eight-hour restrictions on work under- taken for the State and several special pro- hibitions of long working hours in certain par- ticularly dangerous occupations such as mining and caisson work have also become law. A re- cent Oregon statute provides for an eight-hour day in the lumbering industry when the adjoin- ing States have adopted similar restrictions. Within the decade, 16 States have been added to the ranks of those which regulate the work- ing day or week of women either generally or in certain occupations, while the scope of many other laws and orders which applied only to specified employments has been made more gen- eral. Legislation, however, has not been limited to the restriction of daily or weekly hours of work. In addition, nine more jurisdictions now prohibit or regulate the night work of women, while of the eight night-work laws already in effect in 1914 several have since been enlarged in scope. New regulations providing for daily rest periods and a weekly day of rest have also been adopted, while the effectiveness of many of those previously operating has been increased (see WoMEN IN INDUSTRY). The working hours of children are limited to eight in 35 jurisdictions—a substantial gain over 1914—while every State now regulates to some extent either the daily or weekly hours of child labor. Some of these restrictions, how- ever, are generally regarded as inadequate, such as a 60-hour week in South Dakota, Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina and an 11-hour day in North Carolina. Some are difficult to inforce, while others permit a large number of exceptions. The recent Federal child labor amendment will, when it has been ratified by the necessary three-fourths of the States, enable Congress to enact an adequate universal restric- tion of hours of labor for children (see also Cuitp Lagor). In addition to these statutory limitations on working hours in the United States, union pres- sure as well as public sentiment has worked HOURTICQ 635 towards a general reduction of hours in fields not affected by legislation. Perhaps the most outstanding example of this is the final adoption in 1923 by the steel industry of a three-shift eight-hour system instead of the former two- shift system, in deference, according to the ex- ecutive head of the United States Steel Cor- poration, to “public sentiment, however creat: ed.’ See TRADE UNIONISM; LABOR ORGANIZA- TIONS, INTERNATIONAL; LABOR LEGISLATION; LaA- BOR ARBITRATION; STRIKES. HOURTICQ, Louis (1875- ). A French art critic, born at Brossac, in Charente, and edu- eated in Paris at the Ecole Normale. He was appointed professor of esthetics and the history of art at the Ecole des Beaux Arts and was also a member of the Superior Council of Public Instruction. He is the author of Rubens; France, Histoire _ Générale de VArt Francais; Les Tableaux du Louvre; Récits et Réflexions @un Combattant ; La Jeunesse de Titien; Initiation Artistique; Manet; Histoire de la Peinture, des Origines au Seiziéme Siécle; La Galérie de Médicis au Louvre; Every One’s History of French Art; De Poussin a Watteau. HOURWICH, IsAAac A(ARONVICH) (1860- ). An American statistician (see VOL. XI). His later works include Mooted Questions of Socialism (1917); he was also editor of a Yiddish translation of Das Kapital by Karl Marx (1919). HOUSE, Epwarp MANDELL (1858- ie An American publicist, born at Houston, Tex., and educated at Cornell University. He en- gaged in business in Texas and was at the same time active in Democratic politics as adviser, though not as an active participant or candi- date for office. He was among the most prom- inent of those who worked for the nomination of Woodrow Wilson for the presidency in 1912, and he gained the confidence of Mr. Wilson to a marked degree. The President relied on him for advice in matters of appointment and policy. In 1914, at the outbreak of the War, he visited the warring countries in an effort to find a basis for peace. During the years following he made several other visits to Europe with the same purpose. When the United States entered the War in 1917, he attended the meetings of the Supreme War Council of the Allies in London, as chairman of the American Commission, and in that capacity communicated the views of the American government in regard to the conduct of the War to the Allied premiers and foreign ministers. As the end of the War approached in 1918, he was designated by President Wilson to act for the United States in negotiations for an armistice with the Central Powers. He was a member of the American Commission to Nego- tiate Peace at Paris, and during the absence of President Wilson from the United States, was practically in charge of American negotiations. On President Wilson’s return to Paris, a break occurred in the relationship, and Mr. House ceased to take a prominent part in the deliber- ations. Following the War he retired from public life. He was joint editor, with Prof. Charles Seymour, of What Really Happened at Paris, and «180 published an autobiographical novel. In 1920 he joined the staff of the Phil- adelphia Public Ledger. HOUSE, Roy Tempre (1878- rere An American educator, born at Lexington, Neb., and educated at Miami University and the Uni- HOUSING versity of Michigan. He taught French and German in several schools and colleges until 1905, when he was appointed head of the mod- ern language department at the Oklahoma Southwestern State Normal School, where he served until 1910. In the following year he was exchange professor in Germany. In 1911 he be- came professor of German and in 1918 head of the modern language department of the State University of Oklahoma. He was director for the Commission of Relief in Belgium in 1916 and was engaged in other important war work; he received decorations from the Belgian gov- ernment for his services. His published writ- ings include Three French Comedies (1905) and Classroom French (1910). He also translated several foreign plays and contributed book re- views to periodicals. HOUSING. The housing problem even before the War was rapidly becoming serious. Al- ready overcrowded conditions were being aggra- vated by the normal increase in population and the concentration in industrial centres. The difficulty of providing houses to rent at a figure attractive to workmen was discouraging new building by investors, and the tradition of home ownership by workers appeared to be dying out. War conditions brought the situation to a crisis. For a time after the opening of the War there was practically general suspension of building activities, on account of the short- age of material and labor and the highly in- creased costs: Repairs were neglected, replace- ments were not made, adequate provision was not supplied even for the normal increase in population, to say nothing of the emergency concentration at industrial centres. The con- gestion reached the previously unaffected middle classes. The return of the soldiers after the Armistice increased the urgency, and those gov- ernments which were not forced to deal with the situation during the War were unable to evade the issue in the years that followed. A brief account is given below of the widespread legislation, marking the post-war period, which aimed fully to utilize existing facilities, to curb profiteering, and to. encourage building. Al- though in 1921 the house shortage was still se- rious, not only in every important country but even in centres as remote as Bagdad and Bom- bay, it was generally held that the crisis had been passed, notwithstanding the fact that it would take many favorable years to make up the deficit. : United States. In 1917, the acute scarcity of housing accommodation, especially in muni- tions and shipbuilding centres, made Federal action imperative. The United States Shipping Board was given an appropriation to provide housing for its workers ($10,000,000 was spent at Hog Island alone in that year); and in 1918 an additional $95,000,000 was granted for this purpose, $20,000,000 of which was to go for trans- portation facilities. The War Department also built temporary villages adjacent to inaccessible munitions plants. The United States Housing Corporation, with a total appropriation of $100,- 000,000, carried on construction for the Bureau of Industrial Housing and Transportation in 128 communities, housing 25,000 families and 25,000 single lahorers; after the Armistice, 6000 families and 8000 single laborers. (See BRIDGE- PORT.) One of the benefits resulting from Fed- eral investigation was the development of stand- ards for industrial housing. Although it was HOUSING estimated that between $150,000,000 and $250,- 000,000 was spent for workers’ housing through- out the country in 1918, rents continued high, and in 1919 it was estimated that 1,000,000 ad- ditional houses were needed. ‘There was a short- age of 35,000 apartments in New York City, and Chicago reported facilities 20 per cent less than requisite. To alleviate the situation, New York passed laws to permit the remodeling of old- type buildings, to protect tenants, and to stimu- late building; the St. Louis Chamber of Com- merce formed a $2,000,000 building association ; North Dakota launched a programme of State aid for houses not exceeding a cost of $5000. The effort to stimulate building produced laws Owned Year Rented Owned Free 1910 54.2 45.8 30.8 1920 54.4 45.6 28.2 636 HOUSING of their incomes for rent, and that the total surplus of vacancies was so small as to neces- sitate the immediate extension of the emer- gency rent legislation, without discrimination as to rentals, for two years. It recommended the use of State and municipal credit for housing purposes. By the middle of January, 1924, sev- eral bills relating to rent laws were before the Legislature and two constitutional amendments had been proposed. See LAw, PRoGRESS OF THE. The following table comparing home-ownership statistics for the years 1910 and 1920 shows a decrease, slight yet of some significance, in the economic independence of the population of the United States: Per cent of owned homes Owned En- cumbered Free Hncumbered 15.0 67.2 32.8 Ib rhgas 61.7 Bore exempting new structures from taxation; and other laws attempted to control profiteering by setting a maximum per cent of increase within a given period and by limiting the landlord’s arbitrary right to dispossess. In 76 cities profit- eering committees were formed; in 50 others, the Bureau of Industrial Housing and Transporta- tion adjusted rent disputes. Although, aiter some improvement in conditions during the sum- mer and fall, the crisis was believed to have been passed toward the close of 1920, the United States in 1921 was still facing a deficit of about 147 per cent of its normal building programme, which affected about 4,000,000 people. It was true that building costs had fallen, but private builders were still holding off awaiting a still further decrease. As for investors, with build- ing costs still 100 per cent above the pre-war level and rents only 25 per cent above, home-building did not attract their capital; and while investi- gation pointed to from 13 to 14 per cent gross as the minimum return from any rented prop- erty, it was claimed that legislative interference kept rents at a figure that did not encourage building as an investment. About this time, price-fixing combines among contractors and producers of material, in some cases working in conjunction with corrupt labor leaders, were uncovered in New York and in Illinois. The general level of rent increases in 1921 was far above 25 per cent over pre-war figures. In one or two localities where there were rent laws, landlords were required to prove the reasonable- ness of any increase over 25 per cent above 1914 rents, but in general there were few places where the increase was not much greater. The cities covered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics showed in 1921 an increase ranging from 25.8 per cent in San Francisco and Oakland to 93.4 per cent in Norfolk, Va., the general increase ranging about 60 per cent (Monthly Labor Re- view, February, 1922, pp. 59-64). Other au- thorities show a greater increase. (See CosT oF Living.) Figures for the first six months of 1923, returned from 65 cities of 100,000 or more inhabitants, showed issues of permits to house 195,015 families, or an increase of 47,766 over the first half and 49,361 over the second half of 1922. In New York State, the housing commission, after an investigation, handed in a report in December, 1923, finding that rents had increased in three years between 40 and 93 per cent, that families with an income of from $1000 to $1500 a year were paying approximately 23 per cent Investigation of housing conditions and leg- islation for their control were much stimulated and guided during the years after 1910 by the activities of the National Housing Association. Other attempts to improve the type of workers’ homes were made by limited dividend companies (formed by philanthropic organizations, cham- bers of commerce, etc.), codperative housing as- sociations, and by both Federal and State au- thorities. Codperative housing showed a little progress. There were some successful experi- ments in the larger cities, and Wisconsin passed an act promoting it. There had been no tend- ency in the United States to follow that Eu- ropean policy under which the government builds workers’ homes; for, although Massachusetts did, with State money, build and sell 12 houses, the experiment seemed to have been abandoned afterward, and the Federal government’s con- struction during the period was concerned only with war industry. Those forms of encourage- ment most in favor seemed to be the elimination of taxes on mortgages, tax exemption on new buildings, and government aid in the financing of local activities; construction itself was chief- ly in the hands of contractors, although a con- siderable activity was shown by building and loan associations. Great Britain. Following the outbreak of the War, two housing acts were passed, in 1914, but these being limited in scope were not gener- ally productive of results. Investigations in 1917 uncovered an immediate need of 400,000 dwellings in England and Wales and 109,000 in Scotland. Since it was evident that private enterprise could not meet the situation, the Housing Bill of 1919 was passed, making it in- cumbent on local authorities to carry out hous- ing schemes, with the government assuming the annual deficit in excess of a penny rate. In the same year an additional act went into force, pro- viding a subsidy of £15,000,000 for private per- sons building small houses; checking luxury building and the wrecking of dwellings; and otherwise facilitating construction. This under- taking to provide for a shortage of from 500,- 000 to 800,000 houses was abandoned in 1921, in an effort to cut down expenditures. The new policy called only for the completion of 198,000 houses already undertaken, at a cost of £10,005,- 000, and an expenditure of £200,000 in improve- ment of slum areas. This discouraging outlook, however, was lightened by the activities of about 60 local building guilds. A rent law fix- ing the percentage of increase and controlling HOUSING dispossession had been extended in 1919, and re- placed by a new law in 1920, Further exten- sion of these provisions became a definite politi- cal issue in 1923, when general decontrol was de- ferred to June 24, 1925, and the protection of the tenant extended to 1930. Nevertheless, un- der the 1923 rent law, it was much easier for landlords to evict tenants, and since with the coming in of a new tenant a house was ‘‘decon- trolled,” thereafter the landlord could charge what rent he pleased, subject only to a vague re- view by the courts. Complaints were coming in from various cities that tenants were being forced out, and being unable to secure other quarters, were crowding workhouses in London to an alarming extent. Another bill providing for state aid to housing, on a smaller scale, was passed also in 1923, under which about 40,000 houses a year were being built. France. In 1919, there were still 550,000 buildings to be supplied in the devastated area, and there was much overcrowding in the larger towns. A Cheap Dwellings Bureau was making some progress in that year with garden suburbs outside of Paris; and the destruction of the Paris wall and military zone was ordered, mak- ing available about 3025 acres. Government aid was being given in 1921 to about 2000 codpera- ative societies of reconstruction. Rent-limiting legislation had been found necessary; also some control over lodging and boarding houses. Germany. The situation in Germany was complicated by the unsettled financial and labor conditions. In a number of towns, house room was rationed and civilians were billeted in pri- vate homes; and letting or selling was subject to regulation. In 1921, a national law required all states to spend at least 30 marks per head on house construction in 1921-22. Neverthe- less, by 1922, construction had practically ceased. The owners, with only about 1499 of their in- terest left to them by the rent-fixing law, had been practically expropriated. An attempt to raise a special fund for building was made in 1923 by levying a housing tax, fixed at 30 times the pre-war rent of houses. A law passed in 1923 to protect tenants was to have force until 1926. Italy. In 1920, Italy was trying to meet the situation through coéperative societies and building clubs in the north and by the building of garden suburbs around Rome (where one-third of the population were without permanent homes), building activity being encouraged by a government subsidy of 100,000,000 lire, a dras- tic rent law passed in 1919, and certain tax ex- emptions. Restrictions on rent were, however, to end June 30, 1923, profiteering thereafter to be checked by the creation of a court of arbitra- tion with power to decide in case of a deadlock between landlord and tenant, and by a threat to renew the rent law for 10 years if the land- lords abused their privileges. Other Countries. Canada did nothing with respect to housing during the War but in 1919 voted $25,000,000 to assist workingmen, par- ticularly soldiers, to build homes at lowest cost, the fund to be distributed among the prov- inces on the basis of population; and similar action was taken in Australia in 1920 and in New Zealand in 1921. Belgium provided a hous- ing subsidy of 100,000 francs in 1920; only 4000 of its 150,000 devastated dwellings having been replaced by that time. In Holland, where, notwithstanding an act in 1918 that provided 637 HOVGAARD for 90 per cent loans for building purposes, there was a shortage of 60,000 houses in 1920, the situation in 1923 was much improved, partly due to a movement back to country towns and villages. Norway had a shortage of 18,000 houses at the beginning of 1919 and in 1920 sev- eral municipalities were going heavily into new construction. In Sweden where it had _ been necessary in 1919 to float a lottery bond loan to aid in building, and to pass rent restriction laws, by 1923 the shortage had perceptibly de- ereased. In 1920, Czecho-Slovakia was ration- ing rooms. Conditions in Soviet Russia were difficult to ascertain, but-building permits to the number of 8914 from 271 municipalities in 1923 showed that 98.6 per cent of the structures planned for in that year were one-story houses of wood and other semipermanent mate- rials; no buildings were to be more than two stories; and all were being built by owners. A survey of the principal centres of Denmark in October, 1923, showed 20,088 homeless individ- uals. In May, 1923, Copenhagen, finding part of its congestion due to an influx from the prov- inces, passed a law, retroactive to April 21, to check the movement by forbidding the leasing of apartments without a permit to persons with a residence elsewhere or whose last residence was outside the city. HOUSMAN, LAvuRENcE (1865- ). An English artist and author (see VoL. XI). His later publications include: Bird in Hand (1916); The Sheepfold (1918); St. Francis Poverello (1918); The Heart of Peace (1919); The Wheel (1919); Ploughshare and Pruning- hook (1919); The Death of Orpheus (1921) ; Angels and Ministers (1921); A Peep-show in Paradise (1921); Inttle Plays of St. Francis (1922); Dethronements (1922); Moonshine and Clover (1922) ; A Doorway in Fairyland (1922) ; False Premises (1922); and Echo de Paris (1923). HOUSTON. A city and port of entry of Texas, situated on the Houston Ship Channel. The population increased 61 per cent from 85,- 784 in 1910 to 138,278 in 1920, to 154,970 by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923 and to.195,409 by local estimate. In 1919, the development of Houston as a cotton port was inaugurated; in 1924, the city celebrated the exportation of her millionth cotton bale for one shipping season, and the attainment of rank of second cotton port in America. A $4,000,000 bond issue was voted in 1923 to provide for the construction of six additional wharves 500 by 150 feet, a 5-mile extension of the harbor belt railway, and a grain elevator with initial capac- ity of 1,000,000 bushels and storage capacity of 9,000,000 bushels. The tonnage of the port in- creased 340 per cent in the four years from 1920 to 1923, from 714,621 to 3,149,196, and its value 194.8 per cent from $72,967,344 to $215,- 109,522; building increased 435 per cent be- tween 1914 and 1923. HOUSTON, Davin FRANKLIN (1866- hy An American public official (see Von. XI). From February, 1920, to March, 1921, he was Secretary of the Treasury. He was also chair- man of the Federal Reserve and Farm Loan Boards. From 1916 to 1920 he was a member of the Council of National Defense. HOVGAARD, WititAmM (1857- }. aa American naval architect. born at Aarhus in Denmark. He graduated from the Naval Acad- emy of Denmark in 1879 and from the Royal HOWARD Naval College at Greenwich, England, in 1886. After service in the Royal Danish Navy he was a member of the Danish expedition at St. Croix to observe the transit of Venus in 1882. After naval service from, 1897 to 1901, he came to the United States and became professor of naval design and construction at the Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology. He was employed in the Bureau of Construction and Repair of the De- partment of the Navy in 1917-18. He is a member of many naval and scientific societies and is the author of Submarine Boats (1887); Voyages of the Norsemen to America (1914) ; Structure and Design of Warships (1915); Mod- ern History of Warships (1920), and Gen- eral Design of Warships (1920). HOWARD, CLinton NorMan (1868— 1 An American lecturer and temperance advocate (see Vor. XI). Some of his later lectures were “The World on Fire’ (1917); “A Scrap of Paper” (1917); and “Cost, Cause and Cure of War” (1917). HOWARD, JouHN GALEN (1864—- ). SAT American architect (see Vou. XI). From 1912 he was a member of the Board of Consulting Architects of San Francisco and from 1913 di- rector of the School of Architecture of the Uni- versity of California, for which he designed the Greek Theatre and other buildings. He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters and was formerly president of the Society of Beaux Arts Architects. In 1918-19 he served as captain in the American Red Cross in France. HOWARD UNIVERSITY. A nonsectarian, coeducational institution for the higher educa- tion of Negroes in Washington, D. C., founded in 1867, and largely supported by Congress. In 1918, all the secondary schools of the uni- versity were abolished and the whole plan of undergraduate work changed. The four-year college course was divided into two periods of two years each, the Junior College, and the Senior Schools. The semester system was abol- ished in June, 1919, and the quarter system sub- stituted. Departments of architecture, of pub- lic health and of physical education were estab- lished. Despite the loss of the secondary stu- dents the total enrollment of the university rose from 1463 students in 1914 to 2123 in 1923. Twenty-six new members were added to the fac- ulty between the reorganization of the univer- sity in 1918 and 1923, and the Congressional appropriations in the same period increased from $117,937 to $232,500 annually. A dining hall building with class rooms for the depart- ment of home economics was built in 1921 at a cost of $301,000, and plans were under way for a new gymnasium and stadium. A greenhouse was erected in 1919, and Howard Hall, for many years used as a detention house for incorrigible children, was renovated and made a dormitory for girls; many improvements were also made on the campus. The General, Education Board offered to give $250,000 as an endowment to the Medical School provided the university raised a like sum. J. Stanley Durkee, Ph.D., D.D., became president in 1918. HOWE, FREDERICK CLEMSON (1867- yt An American lawyer and public official (see Vout. XI). From 1914 to 1919 he was Commis- sioner of Immigration at the Port of New York and published Socialized Germany (1915), Why War? (1916), and other economic and political works. 638 HOWZE | HOWE,, Grorcn (1876— ). An American educator, born at Wilmington, N. C., and edu- cated at Princeton, the University of Halle, Ox- ford, and the American Classical School in Rome. He became professor of Latin at the University of North Carolina in 1903, and in 1919 dean of the College of Arts. He was a member of the State Council of Defense, 1917- 18. Professor Howe was the author of several textbooks and associate editor of Study and Philology. HOWE, Harrison ESTELL (1881- ). An American chemist, born at Georgetown, Ky., and educated at Earlham College and Michigan and Rochester Universities. In 1901 he became chemist to the Sanilac Sugar Refining Company and in 1902 went to the Bausch and Lomb Op- tical Company, with which he remained until 1915, when he became assistant to the president and later department manager of the research concern of A. D. Little in Cambridge, Mass. In 1919-22 he was chairman of the division of research extension of the National Research Council and also served as consulting chemist to the Ordnance Bureau. Later he was a major in the Retired Corps. In 1921 he became editor of the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, and in the same year published The New Stone Age. ; HOWE, MARK ANTONY DE WOLFE (1864— ). An American editor and author (see Vou. XI). His later works include: The Humane Society of the Commonwealth of Mas- sachusetts (1918); The Atlantic Monthly and Its Makers (1919); George von Lengerke Meyer, his Life and Public Services (1919); and Mem- oirs of the Harvard Dead in the War against Germany, 2 vols. (1920, 1921). He was the editor of Harvard Volunteers in Europe (1916). HOWELLS, Joun MEAp (1868—- ye An American architect, born at Cambridge, Mass., son of William Dean Howells. He _ grad- uated from Harvard in 1891 and afterward studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. From 1907 to 1917 he was a member of the architec- tural firm of Howells and Stokes of New York and Seattle. He designed and erected buildings for Harvard, Yale, and Columbia Universities and for banks and other financial institutions in New York, San Francisco, Seattle, and other cities. He was a member of the American In- stitute of Architects and the American Institute of Arts and Letters and president of the New York Society of Diplomaed Architects of Paris. He contributed frequent articles on technical and literary subjects to magazines. HOWITZERS. See ARTILLERY. HOWLAND, Harorp Jacoss (1877- ). An American writer, born at Chatham, N. Y., and educated at Amherst College. He was with several publishing companies in New York and elsewhere until 1902, when he became a member of the editorial staff of The Outlook. He was associate editor of The Independent, 1913-20, and managing director of the Independent Cor- poration, 1919-20. In 1910 he was a candidate of the Progressive party for Congress and was a member of the State Executive Progressive Com- mittee of New Jersey. During the War he served with the Y. M. C. A. in Italy. He was the author of Theodore Roosevelt and His Times, in the Chronicles of America series. HOWZE, Ropert LEE (1864- ). “An American soldier, born in Rusk county, Tex. He graduated from the United States Military HRDLICKA Academy in 1888 and was commissioned 2d lieutenant in the same year. He served as a volunteer in the Spanish-American War and rose to the rank of captain. In 1901 he was commissioned captain of the Regular Army. He served as major of the Porto Rico provisional regiment, 1901-04, and from 1905 was command- ant of cadets of the United States Military Academy. After service in Porto Rico and as colonel of the 11th Cavalry, he was detailed to the General Staff in 1916. In the following year he was appointed brigadier-general in the National Army and commanded the 2d Cavalry Brigade on the Mexican border. He became major-general in 1918 and was given command of the 38th Division. With this he served in the Meuse-Argonne campaign and then was commander of the 3d Division with the Army of Occupation in Germany until Aug. 14, 1919. He was assigned to the Mexican border, com- manding the Ist Cavalry Division. HRDLICKA, AtLeEs (1869- ). An Ameri- can anthropologist (see Vor. XI). His later works include Notes on the Pathology of the Ancient Peruvians (1914); The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man (1914); Physical An- thropology in America (1914); Anthropology of the Chippewas (1916) ; Physical Anthropology of the Lenape, Delaware and Eastern Indians in General (1916); The Old White American (1917); The Genesis of the American Indian (1917); and Anthropology of Florida (1922). HUARD, FRANCES WILSON’ (BARONESS Hvuarp) (1885-— ). An American’ writer and relief worker, born in New York City. She was privately educated and in 1905 married Baron Charles Huard, a painter and illustrator of Paris. At the outbreak of the War she turned her chateau over to the French govern- ment. When this building was destroyed, she transferred the hospital in 1917 to Paris, where she maintained 100 beds through funds col- lected during lecture tours in the United States. She wrote My Home in the Field of Honor (1916); My Home in the Field of Mercy (1917); and Lilies White and Red. HUBBARD, HEnry VINCENT (1875- yi An American landscape architect, born at Taunton, Mass. He graduated from Harvard _ University in 1897 and afterward studied land- scape architecture there and also at the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1906 to 1918 he was a member of the firm of Pray, Hubbard, and White, Boston. He was appointed instructor of landscape architecture at Harvard in 1906, assistant professor in 1910, and professor in 1921. He was a founder and chief editor of Landscape Architecture. During the War he designed and built several cantonments and also assisted in designing housing communities. He was a Fellow of the American Society of Landscape Architects and a member of the American City Planning In- stitute and the British Town Planning Insti- tute. His writings on architectural subjects include Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design, in collaboration with Theodora Kim- ball (1917). In 1919 he edited the report of the United States Housing Corporation HUBERICH, Cuartes HENRY (1877- yi An American lawyer, born at Toledo, Ohio. He was educated privately and studied law at the University of Texas, and in Germany. In 1898 he was admitted to the bar. He was a member of the faculty of the University of Texas from 639 HUDSON 1900 to 1905, when he was appointed assistant professor of law at Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity. He became professor in 1907. In 1909-10 he was professor of law at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin. He was a member of several legal associations and is the author of The Trans-Isthmian Canal (1904), Law Relating to Trading with the Enemy (1918), and volumes on the commercial law of Australia, New Zea- land, Canada, and other British dominions. He also edited volumes on the laws of the United States. HUCH, Ricarpa (1864— ). A German poet, novelist, and historian (see Vou. XI). Her later works include a war novel in three volumes, Der grosse Krieg in Deutschland (1914); Natur und feist als die Wurzeln des Lebens und der Kunst (1914): Wallenstein (1915); Das Judengrab (1916); Luthers Glaube (1916); Der Fall Deruga (1917); and Der Sinn der Heiligen Schrift (1919). HUDSON, MANLET OTTMER (1886- Te An American lawyer and educator, born at St. Petersburg, Mo., and educated at William Jewell College, Harvard University, and the Harvard Law School. He was assistant in history at Harvard and Radcliffe Colleges from 1907 to 1910, and from 1910 to 1919 professor of law at the University of Missouri. He joined the fac- ulty of Harvard as assistant professor of law in 1919 and was made full professor in 1921. He was a member of many important commis- sions on State laws and in 1917 was attached to the office of the Solicitor to the Department of State. He was counsel of the United States Government Inquiry on the terms of peace, 1917-18, and served in other capacities at the Peace Conference in Paris. In 1919 he was a member of the legal section of the Secretariat of the League of Nations and acted as legal ad- viser to the International Labor Conferences in Washington and Genoa. He was the author of many articles in legal periodicals. HUDSON, W. H. (1841-1922). A British naturalist and author, born at Quilmes near Buenos Aires, Argentina, of American parents who had settled there. He remained in South America till the age of twenty-nine, when after the death of both parents he made his home in England. Details of his early life except so far as they appear in his books are not known, but from the age of fifteen until he went to England he had traveled beyond the Rio Negro to Banda Oriental across the La Plata and westward over the pampas. Apart from his considerable rep- utation as an originally sympathetic and under- standing writer in natural history, which began with the publication of Argentine Ornithology (1888-9), he attained also, by the quality of his prose, a high place in English literature. While his books dealing with England, in their informal, pleasing revelation of its people, its birds, all its small life, as he came upon these in less frequented corners, are here and there set with passages of a stirring, lyric beauty, it is in his writings on South America that he is most effective, poetic and colorful. In ‘Green Mansions (1904), by far his finest liter- ary work, he produced a masterpiece of poetic and compelling fiction, woven consistently in beautifully-textured prose. His published works include also: The Purple Land (1885); A Orystal Age (1887); Naturalist in La Plata (1892); Idle Days in Patagonia and Birds in a Village (1893); British Birds (1895); Birds HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL in London (1899) ; Nature in Downland (1900)+% Birds and Man (1901); El Ombi (1902); Hampshire Days (1903); A Little Boy Lost (1907); The Land’s End (1908); Afoot in Eng- land (1909); A Shepherd’s Life (1910); Ad- venture Among Birds (1913); Far Away and Long Ago and History of My Early Life (1918) ; Birds in Town and Village and The Book of a Naturalist (1919); A Traveller in Little Things and Dead Man’s Pluck (1921); and A Hind in Richmond Park (1922). Mr. Morley Roberts in W. H. Hudson, A Portrait (New York, 1924) while expressly disclaiming the office of biographer supplies a valuable body of information and personal reminiscences. HUDSON RIVER TUNNEL. See Tun- NELS. HUGEL, Friepricu, BARON yon (1852- . ). An Austrian-English writer on religion: (see Vout. XI). In 1916 he wrote The German Soul; in 1921, Essays and Addresses. HUGGENBERGER, ALFRED (1867— }: A Swiss writer. He was born at Bewangen of farmer folk and attended only a village school. His writing, done in intervals of hard manual labor, found warm appreciation among German critics. He has written, in verse and _ fiction, Hinterm Pfluge (1908); Von den Kleinen Leu- ten (1909); Das Ebenhéchst (1911); Die Bau- ern von Steig (1913); Die Stille der Felder (1913) ;Dorfgenossen (1914); Die Geschichte des Heinrich Lentz (1915); Aus Meinem Son- nengarten (1917); Die Heimliche Macht (1919); and Wenn der Mérzwind Weht (1920). HUGGINS, MILiter J. (1880- ). Profes- sional baseball player and manager, born at Cincinnati, Ohio. His first big league engage- ment was with the Cincinnati National League Club where he served from 1904 to 1909 when he was traded to the St. Louis Club of the same league. He managed this club for five years and was then made manager of the New York American League Club, his team the “Yankees” winning pennants in 1921, 1922 and 1923, and the world’s championship in the last-named year. HUGHES, Cuartes Evans’ (1862- ie An American jurist and public official (see Vou. XI). He resigned from the Supreme Court, to which he had been appointed in 1910 by Pres- ident Taft, in order to become Republican can- didate for the. presidency in 1916. He was de- feated by Woodrow Wilson and returned to the practice of law. In 1919-20, by the appoint- ment of President Wilson, he investigated al- leged irregularities in the building of army and navy airplanes during the War. In March, 1921, he became Secretary of State in the cab- inet of President Harding, and as such presided at the Disarmament Conference, Washington, in 1921-22. Other important problems which he handled as Secretary of State related to the German treaty, mandates, the oil controversy, and American participation in the World Court, which he advocated in 1923. HUGHES, CHARLES FREDERICK (1866- yi An American naval officer, born in Bath, Me. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1884. During the Spanish-Amer- ican War he served on board the Monterey, par- ticipating in the battle of Manila. He was on duty with the Bureau of Equipment from 1904 to 1906 and served as Chief of Staff of the At- lantic Fleet in 1913-14. He was a member of the General Board of the Navy Department 640 HUGHES from 1914 to 1916 and served with the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea in 1917-18. In the latter year he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral and was placed in command of the Navy Yard in Philadelphia. HUGHES, HATCHER (?- ). An Ameri- can playwright, born in South Carolina, and educated at the University of South Carolina and Columbia University. In 1912 he started giving courses in the drama and playwrighting at Columbia. For four years he directed the Morningside Players, an organization of Co- lumbia University, which was the first to present a play by Elmer Rice. In 1922, with Elmer Rice, Mr. Hughes wrote Wake Up, Jona- than, in which Mrs. Fiske starred on tour for a solid season after three months in New York. In 1924 Mr. Hughes’s Hell-bent fer Heaven was awarded the Pulitzer Prize. HUGHES, Hecror JAmes_ (1871- 2 An American educator, born at Centralia, Pa. He graduated from Harvard in 1894 and later studied at its Lawrence Scientific School. Meanwhile, during 1894-98, he was connected with the Brookline (Mass.) Town Engineer’s Office and in 1899-1902 was connected profes- sionally with the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad in Chicago. In 1902 he returned to Harvard as instructor in civil engineering, becoming in 1914 professor of that subject, and in 1920 dean of the Engineering School. Also during 1914-18, he lectured on his specialty at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is the author of A Treatise on Hydraulics, with A. T. Safford (1911), Roads and Toll Roads in America (1913), and Highway Engineering Ed- ucation (1914, 1916). HUGHES, Rupert (1872- ). An Ameri- can writer (see Vor. XI). His later writings include: Empty Pockets (1915); Clipped Wings (1916); The Thirteenth Commandment (1916); In a@ Little Town (1917); We Can’t Have Everything (1917); The Unpardonable Sin (1919); Long Ever Ago, a volume of Irish stories (1919); What’s the World Coming To? (1920); Beauty (1921); Monna (1921); Souls for Sale (1922). He wrote and directed many motion pictures, including Scratch My Back (1920); The Old Nest (1921); Dangerous Curve Ahead (1921). HUGHES, THomAs WELBURN (1858- yy An American lawyer and educator, born in Can- ada and educated in Canada and at the Univer- sity of Michigan. From 1892 to 1898 he was instructor in law at that university and later served on the faculties of the University of I1l- inois and Louisiana State University. From 1912 to 1915 he was dean and professor of law at the University of Florida and served as dean there from 1919. He was the author of Hughes on Hvidence (1906); Hughes on Criminal Law (1913); Hughes: Cases on Evidence (1920), and many pamphlets and magazine articles. HUGHES, WitLtiAM Morris (1864— ye An Australian statesman, born in Wales. In 1844 he went to Australia, where he entered politics as a member of the Legislative Assem- bly of New South Wales, in 1893. He resigned this position to become a member of the Federal Parliament. In this body he devoted himself to the interest of labor and advocated a very advanced policy. He was attorney-general of various labor administrations from 1908 to 1915. In the following year he became Prime Minister. During the War he was defeated HULETT 641 twice on the subject of conscription. He formed a coalition with the Liberals and was again de- feated in 1922. In 1923 he was again chosen Premier but was obliged to resign on the de- feat of his government later in that year. He was a delegate at the Paris Peace Conference and took a prominent part in the deliberations. See AUSTRALIA. HULETT, Grorak Avaustus (1867- y An American chemist, born in Illinois, and edu- eated at Princeton and Leipzig. He was an assistant in chemistry at Princeton, then an instructor at the University of Michigan (1899-1904), and again at Princeton, where in 1909 he became professor of physical chemistry. He was also chief chemist of the Bureau of Mines (1912-13). During the War he was a member of the foreign service commission of the Natural Research Council and _ visited France and England to study the origin and development of scientific activities in connection with warfare. His original investigations were almost entirely in problems of physical chem- istry, e.g. isomorphism in precipitates, occlu- sions in electrodeposits, and decomposition potentials. He was a member of the United States Assay Commission in 1906. HULL, Corpdetit (1871- yi public official (see Vor. XI). He served as a member of Congress, 1907-21. From the latter date he was chairman of the Democratic Na- tional Committee and was later chairman of the Democratic National Executive Committee. In this capacity he called to order the Democratic national convention of 1924 and was also chair- man of the platform committee at that con- vention. HULSE, Hiram RIcHARD (1868- An American bishop, born at Middletown, N. Y., and educated in Philadelphia. After studying theology he was ordained deacon and _ priest. He was for several years vicar of the Pro- Cathedral in New York and from 1899 to 1912 was rector of St. Mary’s Church there. He was also Secretary of the American Church Mis- sionary Society and in 1915 was consecrated bishop of Cuba. HULSEN, Curistian K. F. (1858- yi A German historian and archeologist. He was born in Berlin and studied at the university un- der Mommsen. After teaching several years he was appointed director of the German archeol- ogical institute in Rome; in 1917 he became honorary professor at Heidelberg. He is the author of Die Thermen des Caracalla (1898) ; Forum Romanum (1904); Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum (1897); Die Thermen des Agrippa (1910); Il Libro di Giuliano di Sangallo (1910); and Roms Antikengdrten (1917). HUMAN EVOLUTION. See ANTHROPOL- OGY. HUMBERT, Gerorces Louis (1862- rota French general, born in Gazaran. He entered the army in 1883 and served in Indo-China, \Madagascar, and other French colonies. He was in service in Morocco in 1913 and in 1914 and was placed in command of the Moroccan di- vision at the outbreak of the War. Later in 1914 he commanded the 23d Army Corps. He was given command of the 3d Army in 1915, This post he held for three years, with dis- tinguished success. In 1919 he was made gov- ernor of Strassburg and in 1920 a member of the Superior War Council. An American HUNGARIAN LITERATURE HUME, Samvurn JAmeS (1885- Aa dramatic director and producer, born in San Francisco, Cal., and educated at California and Harvard Universities. He organized the first exhibition of stagecraft in the United States in 1914 and exhibited in Boston, New York, Chi- cago, Detroit, and Cleveland. In 1918 he _ be- came assistant professor of dramatic literature and art at the University of California and directed the Greek Theatre there. He is also interested in pageant and masque productions. HUNEKER, JAMES Gipsons (1860-1921). An American musical and literary critic (see VoL. XI). In 1921 he published Steeplejack, largely autobiographical. His death cost Amer- ican letters one of its most discerning critics whose large and contagious enthusiasms suc- ceeded, more than any other single. force, in familiarizing Americans with modern European artistic movements. He was one of the first to write of Gauguin, Ibsen, Wagner, Nietzsche, France, Faguet, Van Gogh, and George Moore. In this sense possibly he was only a reporter; but he reported the advent of new genius with discrimination, a rare gift. HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. The great events of the decade 1914-24 did not much in- fluence the literature of Hungary, as that coun- try acted always a rather passive part in Euro- pean politics. As no Hungarian felt enthu- siasm for the War and nobody surmised the tragic end fate prepared for the old kingdom, the national literature of the Hungarians con- tinued its course of natural evolution even dur- ing the great cataclysm. Literary production grew continuously and the people were willing to pay hundreds of thousands of their depre- ciated crowns for a good book. During the last years, as was to be foreseen, modern tendencies became prevalent. Tradition and political con- ditions had created for centuries a retrospective seclusion of Hungarian literature. On the eve of the new century a small group of young poets and writers, all admirers of the great western nations, revolted against the old tra- ditions. The very title of their magazine Nyu- gat (The West) expresses their programme. Amid the great contest of national and human ideas they were fighting on humanity’s side, but after their victory they were again return- ing to a sound and sober nationalism. The representatives of the old school, some of them fed at the breast of classicism, but finally grow- ing into a languishing triviality, were slowly dying out. The young authors revived the whole literature, filled it with strength, added very much to the treasury of language and were refining all styles of writing from classical down to the futurist. Among the modern poets, Endre Ady (1877-1919) representing lyric poetry, was the most prominent. A staunch ad- mirer of the French ‘‘deeadents,” he learned their affectation in showing a neglect of the forms while, in fact, they were bringing these same forms to perfection. Many of his poems are of permanent value. Mihaly Babits was the most sensible, most erudite, and perhaps the greatest living poet of Hungary. His transla- tion of Dante’s Divina Commedia is unsur- passed. Dezs6 Kosztolinyi was also a great master of his art, and a soul of very deep feel- ing. His Complaints of a Poor Little Child is on a level with the best creations of modern poetry. Being a keen philologist, he translated many American, English, French, German, Ital- HUNGARY 642 ian, and Spanish poems into Hungarian (Mod- ern Poets, 3 vols., 1922). Among the other lyric poets, Gyula Juhisz, Simon Kemény and Arpad Toth were most popular. In the field of fiction, after the quarter-century interval of sterility that followed the great novels of I6kai and Mikszath, Zsigmond Moéricz was in the last years of the decade leading a small but vigorous troop of young novelists, the best among them Margit Kaffka, Lajos Biré, Mihaly Babits, Dezsié Kosztolinyi, Aurél Karpéti, and Miklos Suranyi. In a class by herself was Renée Erdés with her realistic novels; Cardinal Santerra is her most admirable work. The modern Hun- garian drama already enjoyed a good reputa- tion in the theatrical world. The vigorous, quick action and. the finely-spun dialogue, full of life and wit, made some Hungarian drama- tists world-famous. Ferene Molnar’s The Devil, Liliom, Fashions for Men, The Swan, Lajos Biro’s Moonflower and Highwayman, Menyhért Lengyel’s Typhoon and Sancho Panza and Erné Vajda’s Fata Morgana, were uncommon successes on the American stage, too. Among modern dramatists, not yet known in America, Ferenc Herezeg, Jené Heltai, and Frigyes Karinthy are to be mentioned. In the scientific litera- ture, two great historical works, Sandor MAarki’s Francis Rakoéczi II, and Laszlé Erdélyi’s The Period of the Arpdd Dynasty, also Jené Chol- noky’s monumental Geography of America and the literary studies of Gyérgy Kiraly, are achievements of serious value. HUNGARY. A republic of Europe from Nov. 16, 1918, to Mar. 23, 1920, when the coun- try was declared a monarchy. The throne, how- ever, was vacant. Under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon, the area of Hungary is 35,- 790 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Czecho-Slovakia, on the east by Rumania and Poland, on the south by Jugo-Slavia, and on the west by Austria. The population, ac- cording to the census of 1921, was 7,945,000. The principal cities were Budapest with a pop- ulation of 1,194,616; Szeged, 110,000; and De- breezen, 103,000. - Agriculture. Hungary was chiefly an agricultural country. The acreage and yield of the principal crops for °1923 was as follows: Area Yield Commodity (acres) (metric tons) Wiheath i e:cicds. teen bite elebet 3,478,150 1,841,880 EUVe pee be eae threes < eas yaienbele ely sos 1,682,087 815,660 Bari r tes. beet s, Sie eemes ee) 193,657 536,660 Oatshe Ae GSE R ey ut: 872,763 379,820 Morn? aw cbgs Mae Re 2,513.983 1,401,100 I OtalOGS en dictaiejale ct shea 649,988 1,715,800 SUEAT WeCtSte nes ta keweee © vous LT oDw 881,500 According to the census of 1920, the live stock was as follows: horses, 746,423; cattle, 2,221,988; sheep, 1,817,405; pigs, 3,729,190. Commerce. According to figures published in 1924, the trade balance for 1923 showed an excess of imports over exports of 80.4 million gold crowns as compared with an adverse balance of 214 million gold crowns in 1922. While details for the 1923 trade were not available, the 1922 figures showed imports of 166 billion paper crowns and exports of 91 billion paper crowns, or an adverse balance of 75 billion crowns, which is estimated at 214 million gold crowns. The chief items entering into the 1922 figures were as follows (in millions of paper crowns) : wheat: and rye flour, 18,000; wine, 3600; fruit, HUNGARY 880; vegetables, 924; grain, 1539; food prod- ucts, 20,800. The chief countries of destination of Hun- garian goods in the order of importance were Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, Rumania, Jugo-Slavia, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. Hungarian imports were drawn principally from Austria, Czecho-Slovakia, Germany, Rumania, Poland, Great Britain, and Italy. Mining and Manufacturing. The Hungar- ian production of coal in 1922 totaled 741,000 tons of bituminous and 5,615,000 tons of brown coal. The chief Hungarian industries were those that were allied with the agricultural resources of the country and consisted of grain mills, distilleries; sugar refineries, and plants for the manufacture of hemp and flax. Some iron and steel was produced. Transportation. The total length of Hun- garian railways in 1922 was 4493 miles, of which 1858 were owned by the state. Of the total rail- ways, 598 miles were of double track. Finance. Figures on Hungary’s national debt were difficult to obtain. Considerable con- fusion existed as to Austria’s share of the debts of the old Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and un- til this question could be cleared up no definite figures were possible. The rapid depreciation of the Hungarian crown, which occurred through- out 1922 and 1923, made it impossible accurately to estimate the amount of government revenue and expenditure. The budget for the fiscal year 1922-23 (June 30, 1922, to July 1, 1923,) es- timated expenditures at 193,000,000,000 paper crowns and revenues at 153,000,000,000 paper crowns, or a deficit of 40,000,000,000 crowns. Inasmuch as this budget was not presented until the eighth month of the budget year, and since exchange fluctuated considerably in the meantime, any conversion into stable values would be misleading. During 1921 and 1922 and the early months of 1923, the Hungarian crown, except for occasional periods of stability, declined steadily. At no time, however, were fluctuations as violent as in the summer of 1923, when the crown fell from 0.0118 cent to 0.0039 cent in less than two weeks. Foreign exchange quotations for the Hungarian crown stood at 0.0409 on Jan. 1, 1923; at 0.0052 cent on December 31; and at 0.0013 cent on Mar, 15, 1924. The statement of the Royal National Bank of Hungary of Dec. 23, 1923, showed a total note circulation of 901,000,000,000 paper crowns as compared with 75,000,000,000 paper crowns on Dee. 31, 1922. The metal reserve of the bank, consisting of gold coin and gold bullion, and foreign currencies and securities, amounted to 22,800,000 gold crowns. Silver and other currency totaled 595,674 gold crowns. On Dec. 31, 1922, the metal reserve amounted to 16,000,000,000 paper crowns. ‘Economic Conditions. Throughout 1923 the cost of living rose steadily. On the basis of 100 for 1913, the general average cost of living index figure for Oct. 31, 1923, was 410,529, as against 48,516 on Mar. 31, 1923, and 25,624 on Dec. 31, 1922. As a result primarily of the rapid depreciation of the foreign exchange value of the crown, the second half of the year 1923 was marked by disorganization both in business and in finance. The principal causes of the de- cline were the inability of the government to balance its budget and the heavily adverse bal- ance of trade. In order to meet these condi- tions the government was obliged to resort to EL ———— _— — eee OE ee f - . ‘ wm — note inflation. Thanks to Hungary’s agricul- tural character, however, the effects on trade and industry of currency depreciation were less severe than in the case of Germany and Po- land. As a matter of fact, many industries, notably the cotton, wool and silk industries, were temporarily stimulated by increased for- eign and domestic demand Internal buying was largely of a speculative character and con- tributed to a great extent to the sharp increases in living costs which followed the decline in exchange. The most important development during 1923 was the application made to the Reparations Commission by the Hungarian gov: ernment for an international loan for the pur- pose of rehabilitating the country’s finances. The plan, which was accepted by the Hungarian government, provided for a loan of $50,000,000 to be repaid over a period of 20 years; amortiza- tion and interest charges to be met from re- ceipts from monopolies and other sources. The plan also granted a moratorium of two years on reparations payments. At the expiration of this period Hungary would be required to pay $2,- 000,000 a year for 20 years on account of repara- tions. In consideration of this loan, Hungary agreed to discontinue the policy of note infla- tion; to establish a new bank of issue indepen- dent of the state; to balance its budget by June 30, 1926; and to place the railways and other state institutions on a self-supporting basis. The plan also called for a financial supervision by the League of Nations similar to that of Austria. History. Under the government of Count Tisza, Hungary participated in the conduct of the War, unquestioningly as far as the Magyars were concerned, but with reluctance by the other nationals. The death of the aged Emperor (Nov. 21, 1916) loosed all those dissident forces which had yielded only a reluctant allegiance. The independent spirit of the Prime Minister quickly antagonized the new King, who, listen- ing to the counsels of the court cabal, dismissed Tisza in May, 1917. Weaker men assumed con- trol, with the result that the country was rent by political dissensions. Count Esterhazy be- came premier for a time but was soon succeeded by Herr Wekerle. The agitation over the ex- tension of the political franchise attracted at- tention away from more pressing concerns, with the result that the hardships of the civil popu- lation increased with the failure of the govern- ment to buy up the harvests, ete. All the fa- miliar customs were now to go down before the new revolutionary spirit that gripped the Hungarian people as the War dragged on. The demand for reform became increasingly in- sistent and gained importance from the personal prestige of Count Karolyi who had assumed teadership of the forces of discontent. His hand was strengthened by the royal manifesto of Oct. 16, 1918, which was tantamount to a dis- solution of the Dual Monarchy. Thenceforth Hungary went her separate way. Believing that Karolyi was in a position to gain more favorable terms from the Allies, Hungarian statesman yielded to his advice and on Oct. 25, 1918, formed a National Council. Five days later Karolyi was summoned to head it as minister-president. In accordance with his lib- eral, nay, republican professions, he recalled the Hungarian troops from the front and viewed with complacency the formation of workers’ and soldiers’ councils in Budapest. The revolution UNGARY took a more violent character when, on October 30, Count Tisza, the leading representative of the old régime, was killed. On November 16, the National Council proclaimed Hungary a republic; on Jan. 11, 1919, it elected Karolyi provisional president. Karolyi’s hopes that his anti-war and republican sentiments might serve to gain more favorable peace terms for Hun- gary received a rude check when a new armistice deprived Hungary of large territories in favor of Rumania and Serbia This setback, the in- vasion of Hungarian lands by Rumanian and Czech troops, the increasing war-weariness that made any régime other than the one in power desirable, the growing turbulence of the work- ers, and the example of the successful Russian Revolution, united to undermine the government. Karolyi, with more prudence than courage, yielded up his post, and on Mar. 22, 1919, Hun- gary became a Soviet Republic dominated by an alliance between the Social Democrats and the Communists, the only well organized parties. From March 22 to August 1, the doctrine of the dictatorship of the proletariat ruled the dis- tracted country. Alexander Garbai became president of the Republic, though the actual ruler was Béla Kun, commissary for foreign affairs, and friend of Trotsky and Lenin. Other leaders were Szamuelly, Pagany, Bohm, and Varga. Initial measures were rigorous. The revolutionary government council proclaimed the socialization of large properties, mines, in- dustries, banks, and other commercial institu- tions. All ranks and titles were abolished and church and state separated. A _ strict censor- ship of the press was imposed. Money was sent into Vienna in an attempt to spread the Bolshevik propaganda there. The middleman was singled out for attack; all raw materials were made a state monopoly. For the concilia- tion of the peasantry, private property in hold- ings of 100 acres or less was permitted. The career of the Soviet Republic was short. The closing of the factories for want of materials stirred the workers into hostility, while the persecutions of the church and the placement of Jews in high offices antagonized the devout peasants. The nobility was naturally embitter- ed and intrigues soon led to the formation of a counter-government with an army recruited by Vice-Admiral Horthy. Béla Kun’s failure to come to an understanding with the Supreme Council’s representative, General Smuts, and his policy of militant opposition to Hungary’s enemies, hastened his downfall. His Red Army was soon at war with the troops of Rumania, Jugo-Slavia, and Czecho-Slovakia An_ initial victory against the Czechs brought down the wrath of the Supreme Council on Béla Kun, and Hungary was threatened with military and economic reprisals. To conciliate the Peace Conference, Béla Kun withdrew his forces from the conquered Slovak territory, only to be con- fronted by an advancing Rumanian army on the east. Resistance was useless; the Ruma- nians advanced on the capital with the tacit con- sent of the Allies; and beset by obstacles every- where, the Soviet government resigned and took refuge in flight, finding a haven first in Vienna and later in Russia. A White government, except for a brief in- terval, now succeeded the Reds. As a result of the intercession of the Allies, a moderate Social Democratic government was at once overthrown on August 7, and the reactionary Archduke HUNGARY Joseph was set up as regent of the state with Herr S. Friedrich as premier. All interest was diverted from internal affairs in the face of the advancing Rumanian army. On August 3, after having pillaged the countryside, the Rumanians entered the suburbs of Budapest; on August 5, against the injunction of the Supreme Council, the army took the city; on August 6, an ulti- matum was served on the Hungarians demand- ing 30 per cent of the harvest, farm animals, and farm tools, 50 per cent of the rolling stock, and the equipment for an army of 300,000 men. Not until after they had stripped the country bare did the Rumanians yield to the reiterated remonstrances of the Allied Supreme Council and quit the capital, November 11, and the country entirely, February, 1920. Meanwhile, reaction was in the saddle. Archduke Joseph, at the order of the Allies, was compelled to quit the regency only to be succeeded by the virtual rule of Admiral Horthy backed by his White army. For a time Friedrich stayed on as pre- mier; he was succeeded for another brief period by Herr K. Huzzir. A rapid succession of ministers during 1920-21 availed the country nothing in view of the economic demoraliza- tion, the hostility of her neighbors, and the loss of the rich agricultural territories of the Banat, the Batka and the Little Alféld. On Jan. 25, 1920, a general election chose delegates to the National Assembly. Hostility toward the Socialists accounted for heavy vic- tories for the parties of the Right. In March, Admiral Horthy was formally chosen regent, the step being dictated by the antagonism of the Little Entente toward the creation of a monarchy. An indication of the bitterness of the reaction was revealed in the obstructions placed in the way of the trade unions’ partici- pation in politics. To lift such discriminations, the International Federation of Trade Unions ordered an economic boycott against Hungary and Hungarians retaliated by ‘boycotting Aus- tria. Demonstrations against the Jews occurred frequently and even the government participated by restricting the number of Jewish students in the universities. Monarchist sentiment contin- ued to prevail, and on Mar. 26, 1921, believing that the country favored his accession, the ex- King Charles (q.v.) suddenly appeared, to as- cend the throne. The regent refused to counte- nance his restoration, with the result that Charles left for Switzerland, only once more to appear in Hungary on October 22. The hostility of the Little Entente again proved disastrous for his hopes, with the result that Charles was com- pelled to surrender himself to the British and suffer internment on the island of Madeira which he reached November 19, and where he died, Apr. 1, 1922, of pneumonia. The international situation, - possibly more than any other single factor, contributed to the prevailing hopeless temper. On June 4, 1920, a Hungarian peace delegation, of which Count Albert Apponyi was the chief, was compelled to sign away, by the Treaty of the Trianon, at least two-thirds of the former Hungarian king- dom to the new succession states. Hungarian groups were left in Czecho-Slovak, Jugo-Slav, and Rumanian districts, while the new frontiers cut across railways, roads, waterways, and long-established administrative units. In the Backa and the Banat, rich maize and wheat lands were lost, and in the Little Alf6ld north of the Danube, barley and sugar-beet fields, and 644 HUNGARY pastures. With the cession of the Carpathian and Transylvanian country, Hungary saw taken from her all her salt deposits, four-fifths of her iron ore and many coal fields, as well as her sources of water power and a large share of her valuable forests. The continued hostility of the Little Entente prevented the formulation of an economic accord between Hungary and those territories upon which her industries so much depended. In August, 1921, Hungary’s burdens were increased by the cession of the Burgenland to Austria, at the bidding of the Allies. The events of 1922 and 1923 proved how pro- foundly Hungary was shaken by its unhappy economic and _ political status The republic was continually being threatened by the agita- tions of the royalists, headed by Counts Andrassy and Apponyi, who proclaimed Prince Otto heir to the throne after the death of Charles. Horthy, quite as reactionary as the royalists, attempted to reduce the electorate by one-fourth, and to substitute open voting for secret. A rigorous censorship of the press was maintained which applied, too, to the publica- tion and circulation of the writings of such men as Marx, Lenin, and Walt Whitman. A move was originated for the practical suppression of the civil liberties, its purpose being the impris- onment or banishment of all those suspected of questioning the prevailing political, economic and religious beliefs. Two disturbing factors were also evident in 1923: that the courts had become the mere instruments of the authorities and that conscription had ‘been practically re- stored. The populace was daily irritated by the presence of the Inter-Allied Commission of Mil- itary Control which was being maintained at Hungary’s expense. Anti-Semitism was on the increase and Hungarian Fascisti were being re- cruited. Nothing indicated better the broken morale of the people than the ease with which lawless bands incessantly operated. The most powerful, led by one Hejjas, terrorized Jews, trade unionists, and Communists, and led forays into the Burgenland in the summer of 1922. Attempts to suppress them legally were unavail- ing. Liberals in other countries believed that Hungary had been given over to a “White Ter- ror,’ characterized by reactionary violence as cruel, perhaps, as any revolutionary terrorism. The deplorable economie and financial situa- tion resulting from the War and, hardly less, from civil turmoil and territorial transfers after the War, presented so grave an international problem that in December, 1923, at the instance of Czecho-Slovakia, the League Council pro- posed to undertake the financial rehabilitation of Hungary on a basis similar to that which had proved so successful in Austria. In return for an international loan of 250,000,000 gold crowns, floated under the League’s auspices, Hungary was to accept League supervision of her finances, assign to the League the revenue from customs and state monopolies, abide by the terms of the Treaty of Trianon, and pay the war in- demnity in 20 annual installments of 10,000,000 gold crowns. Humiliating as they were to Hungarian nationalists, these terms were accept- ed by Premier Bethlen in February, 1924, and an American banker, Mr. W. P. G. Harding, was invited by the League to act as its Commissioner- General in charge of Hungarian finances. On Mr. Harding’s refusal, the post was accepted by Mr. Jeremiah Smith of Boston, who was HUNGERLAND cordially received in Budapest, May 1. Mean- while, despite stubborn Socialist opposition, Premier Bethlen had carried through Parlia- ment, April 18, a series of bills authorizing his government to fulfill the agreement. For Hun- gary’s role in Central European politics, see LittLE ENTENTE. For the history of Hungary’s lost territories, see BURGENLAND, BANAT, 'TRAN- SYLVANIA, FIUME-ADRIATIC CONTROVERSY. Also see HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. HUNGERLAND, Heinz F. W. (1873- he A German writer, born at Bremen and educated at the universities of Greifswald, Géttingen, Kiel, and Miinster. He traveled in England and Seandinavia, did some work at the universities of London, Copenhagen, and Lund, and was in- structor at Lund. He specialized in Old Ger- man language and Old Norse literature. He is the author of Zeugnisse zur Woélsung- und Nibe- lungensage aus der Skaldenpoesie (1903); Das Wissenschaftliche Studium der Deutschen Sprache (1906); Deutschland und die Deut- schen (1913) ; Deutsche Marvnenhymnen (1911) ; Die Weisen aus dem Morgendimmer (1911); Siegrunen, Kriegsgedichte (1915); and Die Volkshochschule, Deutschlands Rettung (1919). He also compiled an anthology of Scandinavian lyrics, which he had translated. HUNSAKER, JEROME C. (1886- ) iran American airman born in Creston, [owa, and educated at the Naval Academy and the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. He studied aérodynamics abroad and in 1914-16 was in- structor at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology in aéronautical engineering and research in aérodynamics. He translated much of Eiffel’s work, including Resistance of the Air, and built the first wind tunnel at the Institute where original research was conducted, the results of which were given to builders. Under him, grad- uate students were trained as aéronautical en- gineers. Commander Hunsaker was in charge of the aircraft division of the Bureau of Con- structidn and Repair of the Navy Department, 1916-17. He designed the first modern airship produced in the United States as well as the C and D class Navy airships. He also designed the NC flying boats with Westervelt and Richardson. In 1917 he was a member of the joint Army and Navy Technical Board to frame an aircraft programme and in 1918 was at- tached to the Inter-Allied Naval Armistice Com- mission. Among his published works are Stable Biplane Arrangements; Aérodynamic Properties of the Triplane; and Aéroplane Stability. HUNT, Ciara WHITEHILL (1871- eo reAn American librarian, born at Utica, N. Y. She graduated from the New York State Library School in 1898 and for several years taught in the public schools. In 1898 she organized the work with children in the Apprentices’ Li- brary in Philadelphia and from that year to 1902 was with the Newark Free Pub- lic Library. In 1903 she became superintendent of the Children’s Department of the Brooklyn Public Library. She lectured much on library topics and was the author of What Shall We Read to the Children? (1915); About Harriet (1916); .and The Little House in the Woods (1918). HUNT, Epwarp Ayre _ (1885- ). An American sociologist, educated at Harvard. He was engaged in clerical work and as assistant in the Harvard English department, 1910-12. From 1912 to 1914 he was on the editorial staff 645 HUNT of the American Magazine and was also war correspondent in Europe. From 1914 to 1916 he was American delegate of the Commission of Relief to Belgium in charge of the province of Antwerp. He was a director of publicity for the American Red Cross in 1917 and was head of the economic rehabilitation work of the Red Cross in France in the year following He served in several other important capacities dur- ing the War and in 1920 was a member of the commission on the elimination of waste in industry. In 1921 he acted as secretary of the conference on unemployment. His published writings include War Bread—A Personal Nar- rative of the War and Relief in Belgium (1916) ; Tales from a Famished Land (1918); and Waste in Industry, with Herbert Hoover and others (1921). HUNT, GrEorRGE WyLrty PAauL (1859-— ye An American public official and diplomat, born at Huntsville, Mo., and educated in the public schools. For several years he was engaged in ranching in Arizona. In 1893 he was elected a member of the Legislature of that State and of the Senate in 1897 and was reélected for several terms. He was president of the Constitutional Convention (1910) and in 1911 was elected first governor of the State of Arizona. He was reélected for terms from 1915 to 1919 and was meanwhile United States Commissioner of Con- ciliation to negotiate settlement of the miners’ strike in Arizona (1917). In 1920 he served as minister to Siam, resigning in the following year. He was again elected governor of Arizona invl9223 ; HUNT, Henry Tuomas (1878— yet Am American lawyer, born at Cincinnati, and edu- cated at Yale and the Cincinnati Law School. In the same year he was admitted to the bar. He took an active interest in civic and State politics and was a member of the Ohio House of Representatives, 1906-07. From 1908 to 1911 he was prosecuting attorney of Hamilton County and was mayor of Cincinnati from 1912 to 1914. He was active in securing elective re- forms in municipal and State government. Dur- ing the War he served in France and as a mem- ber of the War Department Claims Board in Washington. In 1920-21 he was a member of the Railroad Labor Board. HUNT, Tuomas ForsytH (1862- ). An American agriculturist, born at Ridott, IL, and educated at the University of Illinois. Af- ter serving as assistant to the Lllinois State entomologist, he became assistant in agriculture at the University of Illinois in 1886, and from 1888 to 1891 was assistant agriculturist for the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. He was on the faculty of the Pennsylvania State College as professor of agriculture, 1891-92, and became in 1892 professor of agriculture at the Ohio State University, where from 1896 to 1903 he was dean of the College of Agriculture and Domestic Science. He was professor of agronomy at Cornell University from 1903 to 1907 and dean of the School of Agriculture and director of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Ex- periment Station of the Pennsylvania State Col- lege from 1907 to 1912. In the latter year he became professor of agriculture and dean of the College of Agriculture at the University of California. Until 1919 he was also director of the Agricultural Experiment Station at that university. Professor Hunt wrote: History of Agriculture and Rural Economics (1899) ; HUNTER How to Choose a Farm (1906); and Farm Ani- mals, with Charles W. Burkett (1917). HUNTER, Georce LELAND’ (1867- be An American art authority (see Vor. XI). During the period he published Inside the House That Jack Built (1914); Italian Furniture and Interiors (1917); and Decorative Textiles (1918); and contributed to the magazines many articles on related subjects. . HUNTER, WALTER SAMUEL (1889- ), An American psychologist, born at Decatur, II1., and educated at the universities of Texas and Chicago. He taught at the University of Texas from 1912 to 1916 and after 1916 at the Uni- versity of Kansas. In 1916 he became associate editor of the Psychological Bulletin. We was the author of various studies in animal behavior, space perception, and social psychology. His best known work is his textbook, General Psy- chology (1919). HUNTER, Wites’ Rosert_ (1874— \s An American social worker, born at Terre Haute, Ind., and educated at the University of Indiana. He was for several years an official of the Chi- cago Bureau of Charities and a resident at Hull House from 1899 to 1902. After doing settlement work in England, he became head worker at the University Settlement of New York City in 1902 and served for one year. From 1902 to 1906 he was chairman of the New York Child Labor Committee. He was presi- dent of the Berkeley Commission of Public Charities in 1921. His books include: Tene- ment Conditions in Chicago (1901); Poverty (1904); Violence and the Labor Movement (1914); Labor and Politics (1915); and Why We Fail as Christians (1919). In 1918 he be- came lecturer on economics and English at the University of California. HUNTER, Wiriam (1861-, ). A Brit- ish physician, credited by the English with priority in the recognition of buccal infection (oral sepsis) as an extensive cause of disease (neuritis, anemia, ete.). His announcement of this doctrine appeared in 1901, years before that of Billings and others in the United States. After studying at the University of Edinburgh, he spent several years as a research student at Cambridge. He then became associated with Charing Cross Hospital and was dean of the medical school there, 1910-15. He was also physician to the London Fever Hospital and in 1915 was sent by the British Government to Serbia to study the epidemics of typhus and relapsing fever. His major writings comprise Pernicious Anemia (1901), expanded in 1909 to Severest Anemias, the second volume of which had not yet been published in 1924. He also wrote Historical Account of Charing Cross Hos- pital and Medical School (1914). HUNTER COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. A college of liberal arts estab- lished in 1870 for the education of women. The student enrollment increased from 1400 in 1915 to 1514 in 1924, and the teaching staff from 121 to 124 members. A summer session was established in 1916 which in 1923 had 894 stu- dents and a faculty of 55 members. In the year following evening and extension sessions were established which enrolled 3265 students and 110 members of the faculty in 1924; in 1921 courses leading to the A.M. degree were offered in this division. The name of the college was changed in April, 1914, from Nor- mal College of the City of New York to the 646 HURLEY title given above. President, George Samler Davis, LL.D. HUNTING, Georce Cootince (1871- Pe An American bishop, born at Milwaukee. He studied theology at the Virginia Theological Seminary and was ordained deacon of the Prot- estant Episcopal Church in 1894 and priest in 1897. For several years he was engaged in missionary work in Nevada and Utah and from 1899 to 1902 was rector of St. Paul’s Church at Evanston, Wyo. For the five years follow- ing he was superintendent and chaplain at St. Mark’s Hospital at Salt Lake City and again engaged in missionary work until 1914, when he was consecrated bishop of Nevada. From 1909 to 1911 he was editor of The Nevada Churchman. HUNTINGTON, Epwarp VERMILYE (1874- ). An American mathematician, born at Clinton, N. Y., and educated at Har- vard and in Europe. He was instructor in mathematics at Harvard, 1895-97, and held a similar place at Williams College during 1897— 99. In 1901 he went to Harvard, where he be- came in 1919 professor of mechanics. During 1918-19 he was engaged in statistical work for the General Staff with the rank of major. His scientific work has had to do with various sys- tems of postulates forming the bases of elemen- tary mathematical theories. He was editor of Annals of Mathematics during 1902-11 and was president in 1918 of the Mathematical Associa- tion of America. In addition to editing various scientific memoirs and works, he is known as author of Four Place Tables of Logarithms and Trigonometric Functions (1907), The Fun- damental Propositions in Algebra, the fourth in Young’s Mathematical Monographs (1911), Es- sentials of Elementary Dynamics (1916), The Continuum and other Types of Serial Order (1917), and Handbook of Mathematics for Be- ginners (1918). HUNTINGTON, ELutswortny (1876- ). An American geographer and educator (see VOL. XI). From 1910 to 1915 he was assistant pro- fessor of geography at Yale and from 1917 was research associate. During the War he served as captain of the Military Intelligence Division. His later books include The Climatic Factor (1914); Civilization and Climate (1915); World Power and Evolution (1919); The Red Man’s Continent (1919); and Principles of Human Geography, with 8S. W. Cushing (1920). HURLBUT, JESSE LYMAN (1843- ). o An American clergyman and writer (see Vout. XI). His later books include Traveling in the Holy Land through the Stereoscope (1913); Hurl- but’s Story of Jesus (1915); Story of the Chris- tian Church (1918); and The Story of Chau- tauqua (1921). HURLEY, Epwarp Nasu (1864— ) witcAn American public official, born in Galesburg, II]. He was educated in the public schools of Chi- eago. He served as engineer and _ traveling salesman for several companies and organized and developed the pneumatic tool industry in the United States and Europe. From 1908 to 1915 he was president of the Hurley Machine Company of Chicago. In 1913 he was appointed trade commissioner to the Latin-American re- publics and served as vice-chairman and later as chairman of the Trade Commission until 1917, when he was appointed chairman of the United States Shipping Board and president of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. ‘This post he resigned in 1919. of Business (1916) Marine (1920). HURST, Fanny (1889- ). An Ameri- can author, born in St. Louis, and educated at. Washington and Columbia Universities. She early applied herself to a study of the technique and subject matter of fiction. Her short stories made an immediate popular success. They were ingenious in theme, though the characters as a rule were sentimentalized. Jewish life in Amer- ica was her most usual subject. These short stories, collected in book form, included Gas- light Sonatas (1916); Humoresque (1918); and The Vertical City (1921)..+ An early novel, Star Dust (1919), won little attention. Her Lummowx (1923) at once raised Miss Hurst to the front rank of American fictionists. Un- doubtedly showing the influence of May Sin- clair in the terseness with which plot-outlines and characters were sketched, as well as that of “expressionism” with its half-hinted and at times symbolical phrasing, Lummow neverthe- less presents the working of a mature and con- fident mind. HUSH, HARRY McLaren PINCKNEY (1858— ). An American naval officer, born at West Point, N. Y. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1878 and was appointed ensign in 1882. In 1905 he served as professor of mathematics at Annapolis and was promoted to be commander in 1907, captain in 1909, and rear-admiral in 1916. In 1919 he served as commander of the Atlantic Fleet Train and was on special duty in London and Paris. In 1920 he commanded the United States naval forces in European waters, with the rank of vice-admiral and after 1921 was a member of the General Board of the Navy. HUSSEIN IBN ALI (1856- ). First King of the Hedjaz. He belonged to the family of the Katada in which the sherifate of Mecca has been vested for eight centuries. He was rec- ognized by the Mohammedans as senior descend- ant of Mohammed. From 1890 to 1908 he was a prisoner at Constantinople, where he gave his four sons, Ali, Abdullah, Feisal, and their half-brother Zeid, a modern education. After the Turkish revolution of 1918, he was ap- pointed Grand Sherif of Mecca, and gained great influence over the Arab troops. He re- fused to proclaim a Holy War on behalf of Germany and was invited by societies in Syria and Mesopotamia to lead an Arab revolt. He subsequently took the side of the Allies and rendered efficient service with the British troops in Arabia and Mesopotamia. In recognition of these services, he was proclaimed King of the Hedjaz on Oct. 29, 1916. He vigorously set himself to organize his new kingdom, which was recognized by all the Allied Powers. With the assistance of Great Britain, he established and maintained a well organized government. See CALIPHATE. HUSSEY, WrtLiAM JOSEPH (1862- Vie An American astronomer, horn at Mendon, Ohio, and educated at the University of Mich- igan. During 1884-89 he was principal of va- rious schools in Ohio and Illinois and in 1889 served as an assistant on The Nautical Almanac of Washington. Also in 1889, he went to the University of Michigan as an instructor of math- ematies; in 1891, he became acting director of the Detroit Observatory; and a year later went to Stanford University, where in 1894 he became He wrote The Awakening and The New Merchant HUTIER full professor. During 1896-1905 he was astron- omer at the Lick Observatory but in 1905 re- turned to Michigan where he became professor of astronomy and director of the observatory. Dr. Hussey was director of the Argentina Na- tional Observatory at La Plata (1911-17), of the Lick Eclipse Expedition to Egypt in 1905, and of La Plata Eclipse Expedition to Brazil in 1912. He has discovered more than 1600 double stars; in recognition of this achievement he received the Lalande Prize of the French Acad- emy in 1906. He is a foreign associate of the Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain and a member of other scientific societies, in- cluding the Astronomical Society of the Pa- cific. In addition to many minor contributions to scientific journals he is the author of Loga- rithmic and Other Mathematical Tables (1891, 1895), Mathematical Theories of Planetary Mo- tions (1892), and Micrometrical Observations j Hi Double Stars Discovered at Pulkowa HUSTON, CHARLES ANDREWS (1876- ye An American lawyer and educator, born at Stratford, Ont. After graduating from the Uni- versity of Chicago he was fellow in political economy there. He served as assistant in Eng- lish at the University of Chicago and then joined the faculty of Leland Stanford Junior University, where he was successively instruc- tor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor of law. In 1916 he became dean of the law school. He wrote Enforcement of De- crees in Equity (1915) and several articles on legal subjects. In 1917-18 he served with the War Trade Board and the Provost Marshal- general’s Department at) Washington. HUTCHESON, Ernest (1871- \eurvAn American pianist, born at Melbourne, Australia. He received his first instruction there from Max Vogrich and was exhibited as a wonder-child at the age of five. After graduating from the Leipzig Conservatory, where he had been a pu- pil of Reinecke, he studied for some time with Stavenhagen in Weimar. During the next 10 years he devoted himself mainly to teaching. After a successful tour of Germany and Russia in 1900, he came to the United States, where he taught at the Peabody Conservatory in Balti- more until 1912. His second European tour (1912-14), established his reputation as one of the foremost contemporary pianists. At the conclusion of this tour he returned to the United States, making his home in New York. HUTCHESON, Grore = (1862- yon An American soldier, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. He graduated from the United States Naval Acad- emy in 1884 and was commissioned second lieu- tenant in the same year. He served in the Spanish-American War and in various com- mands in the Regular Army and became colonel of cavalry in 1916. He was promoted to be major-general of the National Army in 1917. In 1918 he created and organized ports of em- barkation at New Port News and Norfolk, Va. He was promoted to be major-general in the same year and brigadier-general in the Regular Army in 1921. He was awarded the Dis- tinguished Service Medal for specially meritor- ious service in the administration of the Port of Embarkation. He saw service, during his career, against the Indians, and in Porto Rico, China, and the Philippines. HUTIER, Oskar von (1857— ). A Ger- man soldier, born near Erfurt. In the German HUXLEY advance in France in 1914, he commanded the Prussian Guards and was one of the most ag- gressive and skillful of the German leaders in that movement. In 1915 he was given com- mand of the 2lst Army Corps and in 1917 com- manded Army Group D. Later in the same year he was assigned as commander of the 8th Army, and with this occupied Riga. He was transferred to the 18th Army on the western front and took an important part in the great German advance which began in March, 1918. HUXLEY, Atpous (LEONARD) (1894— ie An English author, son of Leonard Huxley. He atténded Eton and Balliol, Oxford, and soon entered journalism. He wrote first for The Atheneum and then for The Westminster Ga- gette. His published works include poems, es- says, and novels. The better known were Limbo (1920); Leda (1920); On the Margin (1923); and the novels, Crome Yellow (1921), Mortal Coils (1922), and Antic Hay (1923). Possessed of a lively wit and a feeling for the unusual in character and scene, he attracted attention with each of his published works. His characters were vivid, his situations pi- quant, and his intelligence mordant and un- relenting. HYATT, ANNA VAUGHN (1876- ). An American sculptor (see Vout. XI). Her able craftsmanship in the sculpture of animal life, consistently evidenced in such later works as “Great Danes,” “Colts in a Snowstorm,” and “Reaching Jaguars,” gave her a foremost po- sition in this field in the United States. Her achievement in the statue of Joan of Are, River- side Drive, New York (1915), notable among such for its truth of detail, its simplicity and dignity, turned her interest somewhat toward equestrian subjects, with noteworthy results. Among her awards were the Rodin gold medal, Philadelphia, 1917, and the Saltus gold medal, 1920. She became a member of the American National Academy in 1916, and a chevalier of the Legion of Honor (France), in 1922. HYDE, CHARLES CHENEY (1873- je eAn American lawyer, born in Chicago, and edu- cated at Yale University and the Harvard Law School. In 1898 he began practice in Chicago, where he remained until his removal to Wash- ington in 1920. He was a lecturer on diplo- macy at the Northwestern University Law School, and from 1908, professor of law and lecturer on international law at Yale Univer- sity. His several works on international law included International Law Chiefly as Inter- preted and Applied by the United States (1922). HYDROAEROPLANE. See A#RONAUTICS. HYDROCARBONS. See CHEMISTRY, OR- GANIC. HYDRO-ELECTRIC STATIONS. See ELEc- TRIC POWER STATIONS AND GENERATING APPARA- TUS; WATER Power; TURBINES; STEAM. HYDROGEN. See CHEMISTRY. 648 HYVERNAT HYDROGEN ATOM. See Puysics. HYDROPHONE. This name has been ap- plied to any instrument for listening to sounds transmitted through water. Before the War such instruments were used for receiving signals from submerged bells. The hydrophone as usually fitted consisted of a small water-tight box of which one side was a metal diaphragm operating a microphone enclosed in the box. The box itself was suspended in a tank built against the ship’s outer plating which formed one side of it. Early in the war attempts were made to use some form of hydrophone for de- tecting the presence of vessels (particularly submarines) within sound range of their inter- nal machinery or propellers. For some time no great success was attained but the effective- ness of listening devices was materially im- proved. Several fish-shaped hydrophones, 12 feet apart, towed astern and electrically con- nected for receiving the sound on board the vessel, gave fair results; but the Walzer hydro- phone (the invention of a French naval officer) , which attained its final form early in 1918, is said to have given greater satisfaction and was much used after March of that year. The re- ceiving diaphragms were arranged at regular intervals over the surface of a hemispherical bulge built into the hull on each side towards the bows. The system acted as a sound lens, the sound focus occurring at a point where the sound paths by alternate routes were equal. From the results received the direction of the source of sound could be calculated. HYLAN, Joun F. (1868- ). An Ameri- can public official, born at Hunter, Greene Co., N. Y. He was educated in the public schools and engaged in various occupations in New York City. He graduated from the New York Law School in 1897 and in the same year was ad- mitted to the bar. From 1906 to 1914 he was city magistrate and in 1914-15, judge of the county court. Mr. Hylan became mayor of New York City in 1918 and was reélected in 1922 for the term ending 1925. HYTHE CONFERENCE. See TIONS. HYVERNAT (EUGENE XAVIER’ LOUIS) HENRY (1858-— ). A French Orientalist. He studied at Lyons, Paris, and the Pontifical Uni- versity of Rome. He was _ professor-interpreter of Oriental languages for propaganda and profes- sor of Assyriology and Egyptology in Rome, 1885-89, and in 1889 went on a scientific mis- sion to Armenia for the French government. He then came to America as professor of Orien- tal languages and archeology at the Catholic University. He is the author of Les Actes des Martyres de VEqypte (1886), Du Caucase au Golfe Persique (1892), and A Check List of Coptic Manuscripts in the Pierpont Morgan Li- brary (1919). He is a contributor to Amer- ican, British, French, and German reviews. REPARA- BANEZ, Buasco. See Brasco IBANEz, VICENTE. IBSEN, Sicurp (1859- ). A Nor- wegian statesman and author (see VOL. XI). His later works include Robert Frank (i914) and Tempel der Erinner- ung (1918), both of them translated into German. ICELAND. An island in the North Atlantie, formerly a Danish possession, but since 1918 a separate kingdom united to Denmark under a. single crown. Its area is estimated at 39,709 square miles, and its population (1920) at 94,- 679, making a density of 2.4 per square mile. The 1910 population was 85,183. Of the 1920 population, 54,246 lived in rural districts, and the rest in towns of over 300. Except for 706, it was entirely native born. The capital city, Reykjavik, had (1920) 17,678 inhabitants. Be- sides this, there were six other towns with a total population of 11,377. Only one quarter of one per cent of the land is under cultivation, mainly in hay, potatoes, and turnips. In 1921. the crops were hay, 2,800,000 ewt., potatoes, 83,000; turnips, 13,000. Live stock showed a little increase over the preceding decade, with a 1921 figure of 49,300 horses, 23,700 cattle, 554,000 sheep, and 554,000 goats. In 1918, the total value of the fisheries, the most important single industry, was 30,570,000 kroénur (about $9,415,000), of which the cod catch alone was valued at 27,720,000 krénur. There was little manufacturing, although Iceland has great po- tentialities because of its innumerable water- falls. In 1919, exports were valued at 75,013,- 584 krénur (about $20,000,000). In 1910 they were $4,000,000. Imports were put at 62,565,532 knonur (about $18,000,000). In 1910 they were $3,000,000. In 1919, as before, Great Britain and Denmark were Iceland’s leading trade fac- tors; the United States was a very close third, with 16,503,518 kronur imports coming thence. The 1923 budget estimate listed revenues at 7,813,450 krénur and expenditures at 7,922,329 kroénur. The largest charges were for commu- nications, 1,940,540 krénur; for instruction, 1,305,188 kr6énur. At the beginning of 1922, the public debt was 16,385,525 kronur, held for the most part in Denmark. There are no rail- ways, but there were 320 miles of carriage roads in excellent repair. In 1922, 42 steam vessels of 7456 tons were flying the Icelandic flag. History. By the Act of Union of Nov. 30, 1918, Iceland was granted home rule under the Danish crown. Complete sovereignty was vested in the home government; foreign affairs alone were to be the charge of the Danish govern- ment until 1940. Iceland’s perpetual neutral- ity was established, and no armed force or fortifications were permitted her. Danish goods in Iceland and Icelandic goods in Den- mark were to receive no more consideration than the products of other countries. By the new constitution promulgated in 1920, the ex- ecutive power rests in the King through a re- sponsible ministry of three, the chief of which is the president of the council; the legislative power resides in a bicameral house (Althing). The lower chamber is elected by universal man- hood and womanhood suffrage; the upper, of 14 members, is chosen, six by proportional rep- resentation at large, and eight by the lower house. All bills must be sent to Denmark for the King’s approval. At the head of the local judicial system is the Supreme Court stationed at Reykjavik; this is the court of last appeal. Complete prohibition of the import and sale of liquors containing more than 2% per cent alcohol has been in force since 1912. IDAHO. Idaho is the twelfth State in size (83,888 square miles) and the forty-second in population; capital, Boise. The population in- creased from 325,594 in 1910 to 431,866 in 1920, a gain of 32.6 per cent. The white population rose from 319,221 to 425,668; Japanese, from 1363 to 1569; and native white, from 278,794 to 386,705; while the foreign-born white popu- lation showed a decrease from 40,427 to 38,963, the Indian from 3488 to 3098, and the Chinese from 858 to 585. The urban _ population mounted from 68,898 to 119,037; the rural pop- ulation, from 255,696 to 312,829. The chief cities of the State are Boise and Pocatello. The former grew from 17,358 to 21,393; and the latter from 9110 to 15,001. Agriculture. While the population of the State increased 32.6 per cent in the decade 1910- 20, the number of farms increased 36.7 per cent (from 30,807 to 42,106) ; while the acreage of land in farms rose from 5,283,604 to 8,375,873, and the improved land in farms from 2,778,740 acres to 4,511,680. The total value of farm property showed an apparent increase, from $305,317,185 in 1910 to $716,137,910 in 1920, and the average value of farms from $9911 to $17,008. In interpreting these values, how- ever, and, indeed, all comparative values in the decade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency in the latter part of the period is to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The total percentage of land used for agricultural purposes in 1910 was 9.9; in 1920, 15.7. The percentage of improved land in farms increased from 52.6 to 53.9. White farmers in 1920 numbered 41,598 (35,284 native-born), com- pared with 30,402 in 1910; foreign born farmers numbered 6314, compared with 5708. Farms free from mortgage numbered, in 1920, 11,872; 17,933 in 1910. Those under mortgage in 1920 numbered 20,060, compared with 9010 in 1910; the change was due to the agricultural depression following the War. Of the 42,106 farms in 1920, 34,647 were operated by owners as compared with 27,169 in 1910; 758 by man- agers, compared with 450 and 6701 by tenants, 649 IDAHO 650 compared with 3188. The area under irriga- tion had increased from 1,430,848 acres in 1909 to 2,488,806 in 1919. The total number of cattle on farms in 1920 was 714,903; in 1910, 404,518. Sheep numbered 2,356,270 in 1920, compared with 2,110,330 in 1910. Dairy cattle in 1920 numbered 202,391. The.estimated pro- duction of the chief farm crops of 1923 was: corn, 2,648,000 bushels; wheat, 30,115,000 bush- els; oats, 7,834,000 bushels; barley, 3,540,000; potatoes, 11,733,000; hay, 2,990,000 tons; and sugar beets, 384,000. Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 448,000 bushels; wheat, 14,- 094,000; oats, 15,112,000; barley, 7,560,000; po- tatoes, 5,780,000; and hay, 2,044,000 tons. Apple trees of bearing age numbered 1,005,668 in 1910 and 2,380,523 in 1920. In 1909, 659,- 959 bushels of apples were grown; in 1919, 3,645,640. Mining. Idaho is one of the important mineral-producing States, especially for its metal mining. The products in the order of their value are lead, silver, gold, and stone. In addition there is produced copper, sand and gravel, and a small amount of zine. The con- dition of the mining industry in the decade 1914-24 is shown by the following comparison of production for several years: 1914, lead, 348,526,069 pounds, valued at $13,592,517; sil- ver, 12,479,516 ounces, $6,901,172; gold, $1,152,- 315; zine, 42,012,435 pounds; 1917, lead, 393,- 559,521 pounds; silver, 12,025,338 fine ounces; gold, $804,809; zinc, 79,854,136 pounds; 1920, lead, 249,609,976 pounds; silver, 7,326,794 fine ounces; gold, $485,590; zine, 27,932,326 pounds; 1922, lead, 195,834,205 pounds, $10,770,881; silver, 6,081,865 ounces; gold, $501,405; zinc, 4,109,131 pounds, $234,220. A considerable amount of copper is produced; the output, in 1922, was 3,282,842 pounds, compared with 2,- 538,396 pounds in 1920 and 6,445,187 pounds in 1914. Since the beginning of mining in Ida- ho in 1860, mineral products to the value of more than $925,000,000 have been obtained. In addition to those already mentioned, there have been produced antimony, bismuth, tungsten, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum, mica, asbestos, and coal. The total value of the mineral products in 1921 was $16,502,273, compared with $32,- 449,783 in 1920, $19,044,567 in 1919, $36,872,- 270 in 1918, and $24,913,223 in 1914. _ Manufactures. Idaho is not an important manufacturing State, although its industries have increased considerably in number and in value of products since 1909. There are only two cities having a population of more than 10,000, Boise and Pocatello. These cities, with 8.4 per cent of the total population of the State, reported, in 1919, 11.4 per cent of the total value of products. The number of establish- ments in the State in 1909 was 725; 1914, 698, and 1919, 922; persons engaged in manufacture, 9909, 10,529, and 16,268; while the capital in- vested was $32,476,749, $44,960,489, and $96,- 061,709, in those years. The value of the prod- ucts rose from $22,399,960 in 1909 to $28,453,- 797 in 1914, and in 1919 to $80,510,749; but this increase was chiefly due to the change in industrial conditions brought about by the War, and therefore cannot be used to measure the growth of manufactures between the industrial censuses in 1914 and 1919. The increase in number of persons engaged in manufacture, and in the number of manufacturing establishments, however, indicates a large increase in the in- IDAHO dustrial activities of the State. The chief prod- ucts in point of value are those from the manu- facture of lumber and timber, which in 1909 were valued at $10,689,000; 1914, $13,329,000; and 1919, $30,643,000. Flour-mill and grist- mill products rank second, in 1909, amounting to $2,480,000; 1914, $3,396,000, and in 1919, $13,501,000. Car construction and repair, in third place, had a production valued at $1,366,- 000 in 1909; $2,034,000 in 1914, and $4,402,- 000 in 1919. Education. Idaho has always been in the forefront of the States in educational progress. In 1912 a constitutional amendment was adopt- ed which established the so-called Idaho System. This, in brief, provided for unity in the educa- tional system; it established a State Board of Education which has charge of both the higher institutions and the public schools. The school code of 1913 provided that the State Board of Education should consist of five members ap- pointed by the governor. This board was made -also the board of regents of the universities; board of trustees for the normal schools, the Technical Institute, the School for the Deaf and Blind, and the Industrial Training School, and had general charge of the entire publie school system. It has since been made also the State Board for Vocational Education. This system had admirable results from the year in which it was inaugurated, and during the decade still further advances were made. One of the most important of these was in 1917, when it was provided that thereafter candidates for the teaching profession must have completed courses in one of the high schools of the State, or have equivalent education, and must have had at least some professional training before being certified to teach. The Legislature of 1923 passed several important measures affecting education, among them one abolishing county institutes and several amending the tax laws relating to education. One of the most notable features of the decade was the growth of the Technical Institutes. Under the codperative agreement with the United States, vocational education was carried on with great efficiency since 1917; and work on the rehabilitation of persons injured in industry was also begun. The enrollment in the public schools increased from 92,437 in 1914 to 138,730 in 1923-24. In the high schools there were enrolled in the latter year 19,083 pupils. The expenditure for edu- eation in 1923 was $6,722,155. The percentage of illiteracy in the State decreased from 2.7 in 1910 to 1.9 in 1920. In the native white pop- ulation, it remained at 0.4 per cent; and in the foreign-born white population, at 6.6 per cent. The decrease was among the Negro population, from 6.8 per cent to 5.9. Finance. See STATE FINANCES. Political and Other Events. During the decade 1914-24, political control in the State fluctuated between the Republican and Dem- ocratic parties. For the greater part of the pe- riod the former party was in control. In 1914, J. H. Brady, Democrat, was elected to the Sen- ate, while Moses Alexander, also a Democrat, was elected governor. The Democrats were suc- cessful also in 1916, when they elected their State ticket by a plurality of 572 votes. The Republicans, however, elected two representa- tives to Congress. In the presidential election of this year, President Wilson received 70,021 votes; Hughes, 56,368. A new irrigation proj-- | . ; ‘ “= —— IDAHO ect was begun during the year to develop the territory known as the Bruneau country, about 400,000 acres in extent, and an electric railroad through this territory was begun. Several anti- alien bills were introduced: in the Legislature of 1917, but at the request of the Secretary of State, followed by the protest of the Japanese Ambassador to Secretary Lansing, they were not pressed to passage. These bills would have prevented any Japanese from owning land in the State. On Dee 10, 1917, the United States Supreme Court upheld the State prohibition law. In the election of 1918, Senator Borah was reélected, and John F. Nugent, Democrat, also was elected to the Senate, to complete the unexpired term of J. H. Brady, deceased. As a result of legislation in 1919, the State ad- ministration was reorganized. For the 46 boards and commissions that were abolished was substituted a commission or cabinet of nine officials representing the department of agriculture, commerce and industry, finance, immigration, labor and statistics, law enforce- ment, public investment, public works, public welfare, and reclamation. In the election of 1920, the Republicans again carried the State, electing D. W. Davis governor and Frank R. Gooding United States Senator for the full term. At this election several constitutional amendments were adopted, one of them increas- ing the membership of the Supreme Court from three to five, and another authorizing a bond issue of $2,000,000 for the improvement of State highways. In the elections of 1922, C. C. Moore, Republican, was elected governor, defeat- ing both the Democratic and Progressive can- didates. The question of the direct primary, the chief issue in this election, occupied the at- tention of the Legislature in 1923. The State primary law so far as it related to State officers had been repealed by the previous Legislature, which had a Nonpartisan-Democratic majority, and the governor had been elected on a plat- form which endorsed the repeal. However, suf- ficient number of Democrats and Progressive Republicans who favored a new direct primary law having been elected to the Legislature, a new primary law was passed; but it was vetoed by the governor. There was also an abortive attempt to pass a measure putting into effect the initiative and referendum authorized by the constitution of 1912. Legislation. The most important actions taken by the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are noted below. In 1915 it passed an anti- alien land ownership bill similar in its pro- visions to the California measures prehibiting the ownership of land in the State by alien per- sons, firms, or associations. A State-wide pro- hibition bill, to be effective in 1915, also was passed. A workmen’s compensation measure was vetoed by the governor. The Legislature provided in this year for absentee voting and passed a workmen’s compensation law. In 1919 it ratified the Federal prohibition amendment. In 1921, measures were passed authorizing the school districts to provide for the education of adult residents who were unable to read and write; creating a bureau of budget and tax- ation; providing for codperative marketing; and establishing a teachers’ retirement fund. The Legislature of 1923 created a small claims court and provided that where a person has been three times convicted of a felony, whether within or without the State, he is declared a 651 ILLINOIS persistent violator of the law and may be sen- tenced to prison for not less than five years. A measure was passed extending the absent voter privilege to persons who because of physical disability expect to be confined to their homes on election day. Another measure reserved the mineral rights of State lands to the State, and provided for their lease on a royalty basis. IDAHO, UNIVERSITY or. A _ coeducational State institution at Moscow, Idaho, founded in 1889. In the decade 1914-24, the enrollment increased from 747 to 1647, the resident faculty from 80 to 126, and the size of the library from 32,000 volumes to 80,000. The School of Mines and the School of Forestry were established in 1917 and the School of Education in 1920, bring- ing the total of separate schools and colleges to seven. Curricula in pre-medical studies, in music, and in business were established in the College of Letters and Science, and departments of agricultural education, psychology, and archi- tecture were created. The south wing of the ad- ministration building was completed in 1920; Lindley Hall, a men’s dormitory, was built in 1920-22; and Mary E. Forney Hall, a dormitory for women, was opened in 1923. Accommoda- tions of the College of Engineering were aug- mented in 1923 by purchase of the plant and equipment of a Mescow industrial concern, in- cluding several shop buildings. Eleven minor buildings were acquired or built in the decade. Melvin A. Brannon, Ph.D., was president until 1917; Ernest Hiram Lindley, Ph.D., from 1917 to 1921; and Alfred H. Upham, Ph.D., from 1921. IDDINGS, Epwarp JoHN (1879- yseV An American educator and expert in agriculture, born at Peru, Ind., and educated at Butler Col- lege in Indianapolis and Colorado Agricultural College. He was a member of the faculty of the latter until 1910, when he joined the facul- ty of the University of Idaho. In 1910-11 he was principal of the School of Practical Agri- culture and assistant in animal husbandry, and in 1911 he became professor of animal hus- bandry. Since 1918 he has been dean of agri- culture and director of the Agricultural Ex- periment Station. He is the author of numer- ous bulletins and articles relating to live stock. IDO. See INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. ILLEGITIMACY. See Cuitp WELFARE. ILLINOIS. Illinois is the twenty-third State in size (56,665 square miles), and the third in population; capital, Springfield. The popula- tion increased from 5,638,591 in 1910 to 6,485,- 280 in 1920, a gain of 15 per cent. The white population rose from 5,526.962 to 6,229,333; Negro, from 109,049 to 182,274; native white, from 4,324,402 to 5,092,382; foreign-born from 1,202,560 to 1,206,951. The urban population mounted from 3,476,926 in 1910 to 4,403,153 in 1920, while the rural decreased from 2,161,662 to 2,082,127. The growth of the principal cities of the State was as follows: Chicago (q.v.), 2,185,203 to 2,701,705; Peoria, 66,950 to 76,- 121; East St. Louis, 58,547 to 66,767; Rockford, 45,401 to 65,651. Agriculture. Illinois is one of the most im- portant of the agricultural States, and condi- tions during the decade 1910-20, especially in the latter part of that period, were therefore affected by the general agricultural situation in regard to wheat and other products. See AaRI- CULTURE, Corn, and WHEAT. While the popu- lation of the State increased 15 per cent in the ILLINOIS decade 1910-20, the number of farms decreased 5.8 per cent (from 251,872 in 1910 to 237,181 in 1920); the acreage in farms decreased from 32,522,937 to 31,974,775; and the improved land from 28,048,323 to 27,294,533 acres. The total value of farm property, on the other hand, show- ed an apparent increase from $3,905,321,075 in 1910 to $6,666,767,235 in 1920, and the average value per farm from $15,505 to $28,108. In interpreting these values, however, and, indeed, all comparative values in the decade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency in the latter part of the period is to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The percentage of land in farms decreased from 90.7 in 1910 to 89.1 in 1920; percentage of improved farm land, from 86.2 to 85.4. Of the total of 237,181 in 1920, 132,574 were operated by owners, 3411 by managers, and 101,196 by tenants, while the comparative figures for 1910 were 145,107, 2386 and 104,379. The white farmers in 1920 num- bered 236,288, compared with 250,447 in 1910; foreign-born farmers, 22,111 and 33,394; col- ored farmers, 893 and 1425. In 1920, 68,892 farms were free from mortgage, compared with 86,713 in 1910; 51,039 were mortgaged, compared with 55,792 in 1910. The number of dairy cows on the farms in 1920 was 1,148,173, as compared with 1,050,223 in 1910; “beef cows,’ 501,034, as compared with 281,957; mules, 168,274, as compared with 140,631; hogs, 4,639,182, as com- pared with 4,686,362; and sheep, 637,685, as compared with 658,484. The estimated produc- tion of the principal farm crops in 1923 was: corn, 362,678,000 bushels; wheat, 62,506,000; oats, 146,394,000; rye, 3,450,000; barley, 6,656,- 000; potatoes, 10,696,000; and hay, 3,786,000 tons Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 282,150,000 bushels; wheat, 41,888,000; oats, 104,125,000; rye, 808,000; barley, 1,404,000; potatoes, 5,750,000; and hay, 2,450,000 tons. Mining. Illinois, although it produces prac- tically no metals, is one of the most important of the mineral producing States. It ranked fifth in the value of its mineral products in 1921. These, in the order of their value, are coal, petroleum, clay products, and cement. The condition of mineral production in the decade 1914-24 is indicated by the comparative figures given below. The production of coal in 1914 was 57,589,197 short tons, valued at $64,693,- 529; 1915, 58,829,576 and $64,622,471; 1916, 66,195,336 and $82,457,954; 1917, 86,199,387 and $162,281,822; 1918, 89,291,105 and $206, 860,291; 1919, 60,862,608 and $140,075,969 ; 1920, 88,724,893 and $273,509,000; 1921, 69,- 602,763 and $190,986,000; and 1922, 58,467,736 and $168,925,000. The falling off in 1921 and 1922 was largely the result of the six months’ strike in the Middle West coal fields. Produc- tion of petroleum decreased with comparative steadiness during the decade. In 1914 there were produced 21,919,749 barrels, valued at $25,- 426,179; in 1916, 17,714,235 and $29,237,168; 1918, 13,365,974 and $31,230,000; 1920, 10,774,- 000 and $39,583,000; 1922, 9,383,000 and $19,- 291,000. The value of clay products on the whole increased in the decade: in 1914 they amounted to $13,318,953; 1918, $12,459,777; 1920, $26,138,419, and 1921, $19,041,182. The production of cement, exclusive of natural cement, was practically constant, ranging from 5,401,605 barrels in 1914 to 3,594,038 in 1918; 652 ILLINOIS 5,538,558 barrels in 1920, and 5,587,825 barrels in 1921. The value of the product, however, greatly increased, owing chiefly to the decreased purchasing power of money and the consequent higher prices. The value of shipments in 1914 was $4,848,522, while in 1921 for practically the same production the value was $9,092,982. In addition to the products mentioned above, the State produces large quantities of coke, sand and gravel, and stone, and smaller quantities of asphalt, mineral waters, and natural gas. The total value of the mineral products in 1921 was $254,019,136, compared with $373,926,540 in 1920; $213,701,212 in 1919, $271,244,365 in 1918, and $117,166, 370 in 1914. Manufactures. [Illinois is one of the most important manufacturing States. It has 44 cities with populations of more than 10,000, which form 587 per cent of the total popula- tion. Of the total value of the manufactured products in 1919, these cities reported 84.3 per cent. In 1909 there were, in the State, 18,026 manufacturing establishments; 1914, 18,388; and 1919, 18,593; while persons engaged in manufac- ture numbered 561,044, 617,927, and 804,805, in those years. The capital invested amounted to $1,548,170,701, $1,943,835,846, and $3,366,452,- 969. The value of the products in 1909 was $1,919,276,594; in 1914, $2,247,322,819, and 1919, $5,425,244,694; this increase, however, was ‘due largely to changes in industrial conditions brought about by the War and cannot be properly used to measure the growth of the manufactures during the census period, but the increase shown in the number of wage earners clearly indicates a decided growth in the manu- facturing activities of the State. The most important industry in point of value of prod- ucts is that connected wth slaughtering and meat packing, the value of which in 1909 was $389,595,000; in 1914, $489,230,000, and 1919, $1,294,167,000. Foundry and machine shop products rank second, amounting in 1909 to $138,579,000; 1914, $141,329,000, and 1919, $421,969,000. The manufacture of men’s cloth- ing, in third place, in 1909 amounted to $89,- 473,000; in 1914, $89,144,000, and in 1919, $201,- 816,000. Industries relating to the manufacture of iron and steel products rank fourth, with products valued at $86,608,000 in 1905; $64,- 995,000 in 1914, and $173,345,000 in 1919. The chief manufacturing cities are Chicago, Peoria, East St. Louis, and Rockford. In Chicago, in 1909, there were 9656 manufacturing establish- ments, with a product valued at $1,281,171,000; in 1914, 10,115 with $1,483,498,000; in 1919, 10,5387 with $3,657,424,000. Rockford, in 1909, had 205 manufacturing establishments, with a product valued at $22,226,000; in 1914, 265 with $26,371,000, and in 1919, 312 with $74,- 919,000. In Peoria, in 1909, there were 283 establishments, with a product valued at $63,- 061,000; in 1914, 283 with $64,689,000, and in 1919, 253 with $57,075,000. Similar figures for East St. Louis were: in 1909; 138 establish- ments, with a product of $18,104,000; in 1919, 157 with $77,293,000. Education. Illinois has always been one of the most aggressive States in the development of educational systems, and its progress continued during the decade 1914-24. During the latter part of this period an active campaign was carried on by the State Teachers’ Association to secure an annual distribution of $20,000,000 from the State and the various counties for ILLINOIS educational purposes. This movement had a great effect in turning the attention of tax- payers and lawmakers to the principles under- lying the educational State distributive fund. The Legislatures during the period enacted sev- eral important laws, including measures _ pro- viding for humane education; physical educa- tion; the teaching of all elementary subjects in the English language only; and, in 1921, a measure for making the teaching of representa- tive government in the public schools and other educational institutions in the State compulsory. In 1923 a State continuation school law became effective, requiring that continuation classes be organized in districts having as many as 20 boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 18 out of school, unless such individuals have completed a four-year high school course. Vo- cational education was carried on successfully during the decade and included, under vocational home economics, courses in home-making, nurs- ing and dietetics. The Legislature of 1921 cre- ated a State Educational Commission to investi- gate the entire educational system of the State with a view to the standardizing, unification, and correlation of its various efforts, policies, and agencies, and for other purposes. A teach- ers’ pension law was enacted by the Legislature of 1915. In 1923, 325 school districts had been consolidated, in the elementary schools of which 7332 were enrolled, and in the high schools 1337. Vocational courses, including courses in agriculture, industrial education, and home economics, were being conducted in 199 cities in 1923; and $435,327 was disbursed from Federal and State funds for their support. The en- rollment in the public schools increased from 1,007,894 in 1911 to 1,200,922 in 1921; in the elementary schools from 941,549 to 1,060,304; in the high schools from 66,355 to 140,618, or 111.92 per cent. The total expenditure for edu- eational purposes in 1922-23 amounted to $103,- 434,444; in 1914-15, the total was $41,284,275. The percentage of illiteracy in the State de- creased from 4.7 per cent in 1910 to 4.3 per cent in 1920; among the native white population from 2.2 per cent to 1.4; among the Negro population, from 12.4 to 7.9. Among the foreign-born white population it increased from 10.3 to 11.7 per cent. Finances. See STATE FINANCEs. Political and Other Events. The political history of Illinois is always eventful, and the decade 1914-24 was no exception to the general rule. In the elections in 1914, women for the first time took part. Lawrence Y. Sherman was reélected to the Senate. The Republicans also elected 16 members of the House of Repre- sentatives, including Joseph G. Cannon. The Supreme Court in 1915 upheld the woman suffrage act passed in 1913. In 1915, Carter H. Harrison, five times elected mayor of Chicago, was defeated for the Democratic nomination by Robert M. Schweitzer, who in turn was defeated by William Hale Thompson, Republican candi- date, by about 147,000 votes. Women for the first time participated in the city elections. Frank O. Lowden in 1916 was nominated by the Republicans for governor, and Edward F. Dunne by the Democrats; Lowden was elected. In the election for president, Charles E. Hughes received 1,152,316 votes; President Wilson, 950, 081. In 1916 a serious race riot in East St. Louis occurred on June 8 from trouble between negroes and white men; it lasted for three days. 653 ILLINOIS For this period the city was in the hands of a mob. The killed numbered 29 persons, of whom 25 were negroes; over 300 houses were burned. The riot began when a negro attacked an automobile which contained several police- men. Indictments were found against more than 100 persons, 32 of whom were accused of murder. A grand jury declared in its findings that the police had been grossly negligent and could have prevented the riot. On May 26, 1917, a terrific windstorm caused considerable loss of life and great damage to several towns of the State. In the elections of 1918, Medill McCormick was elected United States Senator, defeating Senator James Hamilton Lewis, Demo- erat. Elections were held in 1920 for governor and other State officers, and for United States Senator. Len Small, Republican, was elected governor, and William B. McKinley, also a Re- publican, was elected United States Senator. In the voting for president, Warren G. Harding received 1,420,480 votes; J. M. Cox, 543,395. During the summer of 1920 and at various later periods, a constitutional convention was in ses- sion. The new constitution proposed by the convention was rejected by the people in Decem- ber, 1922. On July 20, 1921, Governor Small and Lieut.-Gov. Fred E. Sterling were indicted for conspiracy to defraud the State and for em- bezzlement of public money during their re- spective terms as State Treasurer. These in- dictments were based on charges that the ac- cused. officials had retained for their own use large sums paid them as interest on State funds. Governor Small was arrested on August 8 and was released on $50,000 bail. After a trial he was acquitted on June 24, 1922. Dur- ing 1922, the State suffered from coal mining strikes which were accompanied in several cases by riots. In Herrin a mob of striking coal miners killed 50 nonunion miners, after they had surrendered their arms, under the most brutal conditions. The town was placed under mar- tial law, and many persons were arrested. In trials held in 1923, the jury returned a verdict of not guilty. A report of the committee of the Legislature, on June 20, 1923, placed the blame for these riots and killings on public officials who had failed to send militia to prevent the outbreak. (See STRIKES.) In 1923, William E. Dever, Democrat, was elected mayor of Chi- cago, succeeding William Hale Thompson. Fred Lundin, the political boss of the city during the Thompson administration, was indicted in 1923, together with officials of the Board of Educa- tion, for fraud. Lundin was tried and acquitted, as were most of the other defendants. Pri- maries for the nomination for governor, for United States Senator, and for other officers were held in April, 1924. Senator McCormick, a candidate for reélection, was defeated by Charles 8. Deneen. Len Small was renominat- ed for governor by the Republicans. The Demo- crats nominated Albert Arnold Sprague for United States Senator and Norman L. Jones for governor. Serious trouble arose early in 1924 in Williamson County, the scene of the Herrin murders of 1922, over attempts to destroy illic- it stills and to suppress related forms of law- lessness. Conflicts took place between the po- lice, alleged members of the Ku Klux Klan, and citizens. The National Guard took control until the disturbances were quieted. Legislation. The most important proceed- ings of the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 ILLINOIS 654 are noted below. In 1917 the Legislature adopt- ed a State civil administrative code by which all branches of the government were readjusted, duplicated services were abolished, and depart- ments with responsible heads were established, many beneficial changes being thus _ effected. The Legislature also enacted a “blue sky” law. The Legislature in 1919 ratified the Federal suffrage amendment; it was the first State Legis- lature to take this action. It passed a “search and seizure” bill for the enforcement of the prohibition law; entered on a roadbuilding proj- ect involving the expenditure of more than $87,000,000; abolished the State Board of Equalization of 25 members; substituted a State Tax Commission of 3 members to be appointed by the Governor, and provided for changes in the government of Chicago, including the non- partisan election of aldermen. The movement to establish an eight-hour day for women was defeated. In 1921 the Legislature passed measures providing for equality in voting be- tween men and women. An act was also passed providing for compensation to veterans of the War, to be paid out of a bond issue of $55,- 000,000, subject to the approval of the people. The act was duly approved by popular vote. The Legislature in 1923 passed a measure for- bidding the wearing of masks in public places with the intent to conceal the wearer’s identity. It also passed a bill to facilitate codperative marketing of agricultural products and made provisions for creating associations for this purpose. ILLINOIS, University oF. PRESSURE SiN Noss PISTON a (as BHI || u Y i VA rine — |) plea MISTON HESS HET at LZ, 4 wil Vy HII Y H ; HEN 4H H AS | 2 SNIZZZZZzoR Y VPI | eae toppst E IS nee A ee GF oz. 4 N “KISS WLLL YL ALE Y saan 7an7 laa bl Lind mn ml y} Wy a tI = " INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES double-acting two-cycle engine. This power plant has a cylinder bore of 172%49 inches and a stroke of 278145 inches and delivers 850 horse power at 120 revolutions per minute. The problem of packing the piston rod against the explosion pressure is met by a very ingenious and carefully worked-out stuffing-box which per- mits the piston rod to reciprocate through the head of the lower cylinder. The stuffing-box is very deep and contains 11 sections of metallic ° packing; grooved rings divide them, to facili- tate the distribution of lubricating oil. Each section consists of two rings split in halves which fit closely around the rod_ without springs, but they are kept close to the rod by a spring clip ring carried in a retaining ring clear of the rod. These 11 sections are entered into the stuffing-box and held in position by the gland ring. The Sperry compound oil engine, also illus- trated, shows a great difference from the usual forms. _ The sturdy construction necessary for an engine of its speed is indicated by the size of the crankshaft, which is considerably greater in diameter than that of any other combustion engine and approaches the bore of the combus- tion cylinders themselves. The large clearance a. eo Aa DIAGRAM (PARTLY IN SECTION) OF SPERRY COMPOUND ENGINB HIGH-PRESSURE CYLINDER EXPANSION HIGH-PRESSURE CYLINDER . TRANSFER GOMPRESSION : PRECOMPRESSOR LOW-PRESSURE CYLINDER EXPANSION GOMPOUND-ENGINE EXHAUST EXHAUST-SIMPLE ENGINE TYPICAL INDICATOR CARD OF SPERRY COMPOUND ENGINE The fuel consumption of motor ship engines ranges from a minimum of 0.29 pound per in- dicated horse power hour to 0.5 pound per horse power hour. The average is about 0.40 pound per horse power hour. As an example of novel designing, the accom- panying illustration gives a sectional elevation through one of the cylinders of a three-cylinder dome, which forms the combustion-chamber of the compound, stands out in marked contrast to standard Diesel practice. This dome is large and forms an upward extension of the combus- tion cylinder; it extends also to the right in a large sweep and surrounds the transfer valve that seals the transfer port. The sleeve-like induction valve is seated on top of the transfer INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES valve and is controlled by the cam-operated fork. The first-stage annular compression-pump, surrounding the trunk piston below the low- pressure piston proper, delivers its air to a small receiver which, in turn, discharges to the cored port surrounding the induction sleeve. The small balancing cylinder maintains a per- manent connection with the low-pressure cylin- der. The solid-injection fuel-valve and nozzle - are placed approximately over the centre of gravity of the large masses of air in the clear- ance dome. The compound principle as applied in this engine is an attempt to produce a light and compact internal-combustion engine using a wide range of fuels with ignition by the heat of the compression. The arrangement of the engine consists of two high-pressure four-cycle cylin- ders and a simple low-pressure cylinder. The high-pressure pistons are of plain trunk type. The low-pressure piston has an extension of smaller diameter than the main piston. The annular space between this extension and the main piston serves as an air pump. The pump compresses air from atmospheric to a moderate pressure into a small receiver. On the down or inlet stroke of the high-pressure pistons, air under pressure from the receiver passes through the inlet-valve sleeve and cools it, until the pistons are at the end of the stroke. The air is then compressed on the up-stroke to about 500 pounds per square inch when fuel is inject- ed. The resulting combustion and expansion of the gases drive down the high-pressure piston to the end of its stroke, when the low-pressure piston, which is on the beginning of its working stroke, receives the gases from the high-pressure cylinder through the transfer: port that has been opened by lifting the transfer valve from its seat into a water-jacket cavity so that only its lower surface is washed by the passing gases. To prevent any serious drop in pressure between the high- and low-pressure cylinders when the transfer takes place, the exhaust-valve is closed somewhat before the low-pressure top centre and the gases are cushioned to a pressure equal to that being transferred from the high- STOP VALVE STEAM TO ENGINE (COMBUSTION CYLINDER SCAVENGE AIR Y 4 df STEAM 5 JACKET STEAM 350° F. STEAM & WATER ————— COMBUSTION EXHAUST ‘ TEMPERATURE 900° F. | | " 680 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES pressure cylinder. The cranks of the two high- pressure cylinders are set together and 180° from the low-pressure crank. The _ high-pres- sure cylinders fire and transfer alternately into the low-pressure cylinder, so that every down- stroke of that cylinder is a working stroke. In internal-combustion engines of either the constant volume or constant pressure type, the combined heat losses in radiation, cooling wa- ter, and exhaust gases range between 65 and 75 per cent. It will be evident that any practical attempt to utilize the waste heat will increase the thermal efficiency. Heat losses due to the cooling water or radiation cannot be reduced beyond a certain minimum value; so the point where the greatest gain can be made is in the fuller utilization of the exhaust gases. In the various forms of compound engines which have been evolved and described, with two high-pres- sure cylinders exhausted in one low pressure and further power derived from the exhaust gas, the reduced pressure is compensated for by the increased area of the low-pressure piston top. An attempt to utilize the waste heat of the exhaust gas is the Still engine, which com- bines steam and explosion power so advanta- geously that the brake thermal efficiency of such an engine may go as high as 44 per cent. Still Engine. The still engine is an engine capable of using, in its main working cylinder, any form of liquid or gaseous fuel hitherto em- ployed; it makes use of the recoverable heat which passes through the surfaces of the com- bustion cylinder as well as into the exhaust gases, for the evaporation of steam, which is expanded in the combustion cylinder itself on one side of the main piston, the combustion stroke acting on the other side. It increases the power of the engine and reduces the con- sumption of the fuel per horse power developed. Its primary object is not to use the waste heat for raising steam, but first to use it in improv- ing the thermal conditions of the working cylin- der and so to insure the maximum efficiency from the fuel burnt within it and to diminish, as a consequence, the heat lost in that opera- tion. Since the maximum efficiency is obtained BOILER 120 LB. PER SQ. IN. BOILER UPTAKE CYLINDER pee EXHAUST wre. TD 380° F TO CONDENSER i) ‘ FEED WATER 100° F, 1 FROM HOTWEILL FINAL COMBUSTION EXHAUST TEMP. 150° F, STILL COMBUSTION AND STEAM ENGINE AOTION a EE EE a MOTOR VESSELS—ENGINES MOTORSHIP ’’, NEW YORK COURTESY OF for Ameri- Ltd., ’ Corporation CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE of 3000 horse power built by Bethlehem Steel can motor vessel. FOUR-CYCLE DIESEL ENGINE of 3000 horse power built by Burmeister & Wain, Copenhagen, Denmark. TWO- ib 27 TYPICAL MARINE DIESEL ENGINES THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLIMOIS INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES 681 by combustion of the fuel in the cylinder, and the minimum by the evaporation of the water in the steam generator, it is evident that the larger the quantity of steam which can be gen- erated per horse power developed by the combus- tion cycle, the lower must be the heat efficiency of the whole machine. Internal-combustion en- gines are kept cool by the circulation of cold water around their cylinders; the heat thus absorbed causes a rise in temperature of the water as it travels through the jacket, so that the cylinder is subjected to temperature differ- ences and ‘heat stresses, which are an abiding source of trouble and difficulty to the designer. In the Still engine the jacket and cooling wa- ter form part of the circulating system of a steam generator, which may be an integral part of the engine or external to it. The cooling wa- ter therefore enters and leaves the jacket at a constant temperature, regulated by the pressure of the steam; the cooling is effected by convert- ing the water into steam without raising its temperature. Excluding the radiation losses, which are kept low by lagging, all the heat which passes through the walls is thus usefully recovered in the water as steam. The tempera- ture of the cylinder wall is uniform over the whole of its exterior surface, and the heat lost to the cooling water at each stage of the cycle, compression, combustion, and expansion, is di- minished. During compression, because of the walls’ being at steam temperature, the incom- ing charge picks up heat instead of losing it, during the greater part of the stroke. This is an advantage of the greatest value to the heavy- oil types of Still engine, where an air charge is taken in at the full out-stroke and is compressed to a pressure where its increased temperature insures the certain ignition and combustion of the fuel which is injected into ‘t. During combustion and expansion, the uniform and higher mean temperature of the wall re- duces the heat lost to the jacket water. Some of the heat thus economized adds to the useful work on the piston, the remainder passing out in the exhaust gases for recovery. The steam developed is directed to a special steam cylin- der, and as it has some pressure, this is exerted against the bottom portion of the main piston which extends into the steam cylinder. Power at normal loads is developed by combustion and steam from waste heat alone, with an efficiency from 20 to 25 per cent greater than any known combustion engine of the same size. It is be- lieved that there is a future for the combination of the steam and combustion cycles. High Speed Engines. Engineers who are working on the development of high speed en- gines such as are used for automobiles and aircraft are not concerned so much with combus- tion efficiency as with securing as much power as possible out of a given cylinder volume; one of the mechanical aids to secure this result is the supercharger. While this device had not in 1924 been generally applied to passenger cars, it had been used on racing automobile en- gines and on airplane motors. Its function is to force a charge of more density into the cylin- der than would be drawn in by the pumping ac- tion of the piston on the suction stroke. Superchargers. Superchargers are especial- ly valuable on aircraft operating at high alti- tudes. As the engine reaches altitudes where the air is lighter, the weight of the charge de- creases and the power is correspondingly re- INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES duced. This loss of power is stated to be very great in engines not equipped with supercharg- ers. A Liberty airplane engine that will devel- op 400 horse power at sea level will deliver but 200 horse power at 15,000 feet and not quite 90 horse power at 25,000 feet. While recipro- DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE OPERATION OF A TURBO- SUPERCHARGER The Exhaust Gas from the Engine Is Led through a Manifold, a, into the Nozzle Box b, containing a Series of Nozzles, c, through Which the Gas Ex- pands and Attains a High Velocity before Entering the Buckets of the Turbine Wheel d, Which It Drives at High Speed. Air Enters the Impeller e through the Inlet f at the Center and Is Thrown by Cen- trifugal Force to the Tips of the Blades where a Series of Vanes Convert the Velocity of the Air into Pressure and Guide It in a Spiral Path, as Shown at g, to the Supercharger Outlet and Finally to the Intake of the Carburetor h. cating, rotary, and centrifugal air-pumps have been suggested and experimented with, the cen- trifugal type is best adapted for aircraft mo- tors because of its simplicity, lightness, and freedom from pulsation. The supercharger may be gear-driven by the engine to which it is attached, or it may be driven by a gas turbine using exhaust gas which would otherwise be wasted by discharging it directly into the air. The gas turbine-driven supercharger had been most successful to date. The diagram herewith shows clearly the way such a supercharger operates. The exhaust gas from the engine is led through a manifold A into a nozzle box B containing a series of noz- zles C. Through these nozzles the gas expands and reaches a high velocity before entering the buckets of the turbine wheel D, which it drives at high speed. Air enters the impeller E through inlets F at the centre and is thrown by centrifugal force to the tips of the blades. At this point, a series of vanes surrounding the impeller converts the velocity of the air into pressure and guides it in a spiral path to the supercharger outlet and then through the air-cooler into the carburetor intake. Vehicle and Aircraft Engines. In 1924, ve- hicle and aircraft engine design principles were to a very great degree based on the experi- ence gained during the War in securing extreme care as to details. Airplane, car, truck, trac- tor, and tank were all developed by the severe tests of war. Engine speed is not limited by considerations of piston temperature, and im- provements in design enable the designer to adopt large-bore cylinders in aircraft engines if he so desires. A British six-cylinder engine with cylinders of 7 inches bore and 11 inches stroke develops 700 horse power at a speed of 1200 revolutions per minute. Aluminum pis- tons had been used commercially for some time, INTERNAL WATERWAYS but the use of forged duralumin connecting- rods was comparatively recent. Motor Car Engines... The marked develop- ment of aéronautic engines focused the atten- tion of the public on light engines. In the case of such power plants, lightness is obtained mainly by machining out low-stressed portions of the various engine members and by making highly stressed parts of alloy steels carefully heat-treated so that less weight is required to 682 INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE RICULTURE. See TIONAL INSTITUTE OF. INTERNATIONAL LABOR OFFICE. See LABOR ORGANIZATION, INTERNATIONAL, INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZA- AGRICULTURE, INTERNA- TION. See LAsoR ORGANIZATION, INTERNA- TIONAL. INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. The initiative in establishing a sort of clearing house for all questions connected with the prob- N\ Ai F \ NE ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS IN IN MULTIPLE AVIATION attain the necessary structural strength. In order to secure the required power output in a compact and light engine, the usual tandem ar- rangement favored in automobile engines is re- placed by radial placing of cylinders in which they are mounted on all sides of the crank-case, some engines having 2 and even 3 banks of 9 cylinders each. The V-cylinder placing is fa- vored for 8 and 12 cylinder engines, and in some cases, the angle between the inclined cylin- ders is large enough so that another set of ver- tical cylinders can be placed between them. By such arrangements of cylinders, engines devel- oping from 500 to 600 horse power have been built, weighing only 1.80 pounds per horse pow- er. Air-cooled aéronautic engines have been built, weighing but 1.5 pounds per horse power. Speeds of crankshaft rotation on airplane en- gines are not as high as in automobiles, since the propeller efficiency limits the speed when directly connected to the crankshaft to about 1350 revolutions per minute, and with geared- down drive to 2000 revolutions per minute. Racing automobile and motorcycle engines have attained speeds in excess of 4000 revolutions per minute. See Motor VEHICLES and AéRo- NAUTICS. INTERNAL WATERWAYS. See CANALs. INTERNATIONAL. See Communism; So- CIALISM, INTERNATIONAL AERONAUTIC FED- ERATION. See AKRONAUTICS. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AG- y rn wy, LP fil << = LOT, ZZ ENGINE TO SECURE COMPACTNESS OF DESIGN CYLINDER FORMS lem of a world language belongs to the Interna- tional Research Council. They created a Com- aittee on International Auxiliary Language, lo- eated in Washington, D. C., under the direction of Dr. Nichols and Dr. Cottrell, which under- took to send out information generously to any serious inquirer. In 1924 the two chief solu- tions were an arrangement that would favor liv- ing languages, and an artificial language. .The basis for discussion of an established living lan- guage to be used as an international language remained the “Projet Chappelier,” suggesting an agreement between English and French speaking countries, that the first require in all their schools the teaching of French, and the second the teaching of English. This would force other nations to teach at least one of the two, and: thus the goal would be reached. Fa- mous men gave their support to the idea, among them Wells, Richet, and the great linguist Bréal. The best explanation of the plan is found in Dauzat’s Le Francais et VAnglais, Langues Internationales (1910). It is unfortu: nate that Dauzat hurt his cause considerably by indulging in very unintelligent criticism of other solutions of the problem; nobody can see in him an impartial student. The plan was from 1915 endorsed by the well known critic, Ernest Charles, and by the American philoso- pher, Mark Baldwin. For some details and ref- erences see the various New International Year Books. There were, of course, many projects of arti- INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE ficial languages before the public, but three really counted: Esperanto (for information in America, address Esperanto Association, Bos- ton, Mass.); Ido (American headquarters in Pittsburgh); and Esperantido (Washington, D.C.). In 1922, the Institute of International Education launched a movement in favor of a modernized Latin, not so much, it seems, be- cause of belief in it, but rather out of fear that an auxiliary language might otherwise tri- umph. From the first weeks “of the War, Es- peranto rendered extremely valuable service both in the Red Cross divisions, and in the work of the prisoners’ camps. At the same time the Germans took advantage of Esperanto to spread much propaganda among neutrals, which naturally hurt the cause of Esperanto in the eyes of the Allies (who were slow at hit- ting back with the same arm). Im 1916 the “Chappelier plan” was seriously revived, and Dauzat suggested some interesting modifications to it. In some quarters the end of the War was expected for the end of 1916 or beginning of 1917; in view of this the Board of Trade of London favored the study of the question of an international language to help business to pick up rapidly. At the same time, the Germans, seeing things take a favorable turn for them, began to talk about German as an international language, and spoke of a “‘Welt-deutsch,” a nat- ural organ for Pan-Germanism. “But the War went on, and remarkable headway was made in 1917 and 1918 by artificial languages, espe- cially Esperanto, in the Far East. Then, as the War ended, a lively race began between the chief rivals, Esperanto and Ido. Esperanto seemed to see a chance for victory in winning to its cause the exploited classes and even the Russian Soviets, while the Idists seem to pre- fer to win the intellectuals. Lord Northcliffe, in England, and the philologist Meillet, in France, agreed that as a language Ido was su- perior to Esperanto. This discussion of actual linguistic superiority prompted Dr. René de Saussure, of Bern, Switzerland, to offer his sys- tem, combining, he maintained, the excellent points of both Esperanto and Ido, and which he called Esperantido. The plan of a simplified Latin, proposed that same year by Professor Peano of the University of Turin, had a mod- erate following. Together, these groups tried to bring the question before the Peace Council in Paris, and © having elicited a note of “interest” from Wilson, worked with more vigor than ever. After the Peace Council, the League of Nations was ap- proached several times. In 1921, the League delegated Dr. Nitobe to the Congress of Es- peranto that was to be held iff Prague, August 29 to September 6. The report, made on Sep- tember 12, brought about the nomination of a committee to investigate the matter. The prob- lem was finally turned over to the Committee on Intellectual Coédperation, of which such per- sons as Bergson, Einstein, and Mme. Curie were members; and these finally decided, in a report of Aug. 1, 1923, not to recommend an artiffcial language. Meanwhile, the International | Re- search Council, which had met in Brussels in 1919, appointed a committee to investigate :the matter of an artificial language “of the- type of Esperanto” and which would be “placed* un- der scientific control.” After that time the Committee on International Auxiliary Lan- guage, at Washington, became active. They 683 IOWA asked the Philological Association and _ the Modern Language Association to appoint com- mittees. Both made cool replies, but Washing- ton went on. The question was brought up and discussed at the meeting of the American As- sociation for Advancement of Science at Toron- to, in December, 1922, and again at their meet- ing at Cincinnati in December, 1923. The study of the problem was endorsed. Some meetings in New York, April, 1923, with a view to fostering the cause, and counting among their supporters several names famous in the scientific world, must also be recalled. The most interesting bibliographical material bear- ing at least partly on this problem are the very suggestive book of A. Meillet, of the Collége de France, Les Langues de VUEurope Nouvelle (1918), last chapter; and A. L. Guérard, Short ‘History of the International Language Move- ment (London and New York, 1922). See PHILOLOGY, MODERN, INTERNATIONAL LAW. See BLOCKADE. INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNIONISM. See TRADE UNIONISM. INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMIS- SION. ‘See RAmways. IODINE. See CHEMISTRY; TRITION; and GOITRE. IONIZATION. See CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL. IOWA. Iowa is the twenty-fourth State in size (56,147 square miles), and the sixteenth in population; capital, Des Moines. The popula- tion increased from 2,224,771 in 1910 to 2,404,- 021 in 1920, a gain of 8.1 per cent. The white population rose from 2,209,191 to 2,384,181; Negro, from 14,973 to 19,005; native white, from 1,935,707 to 2,158,534. The foreign-born white population showed a decrease, from 273,- 484 to 225,647. The urban population mounted from 680,054 to 875,495, while the rural fell from 1,544,717 to 1,528,526. The population of the principal cities increased, during the dec- ade, as follows: Des Moines (q.v.), 86,368 to 126,468; Sioux City, 47,828 to 71,227; Daven- port, 43 028 to 56,727; Cedar Rapids, 32,811 to 45,566. Agriculture. As Iowa is one of the chief agricultural States, conditions during the dec- ade 1910-20 were affected by the general fluctu- ations in production and values which resulted from conditions of the war and post-war period. See AGRICULTURE, CORN, and WHEAT. While the population of the State increased 8.1 per cent in the decade 1910-20, the number of farms decreased 1.7 per cent (from 217,044 to 213,439); the acreage from 33,930,688 to 33,- 474,896, or 1.3 per cent; and the improved land in farms from 29,491,199 acres to 28,606,951, or 3 per cent. The total value of farm property showed an apparent increase, from $3,745,860,- 544 in 1910 to $8,524,870,956 in 1920, or 127.6 per cent; the average ‘value per farm from $17,- 259 to $39,941. Prices of farm land increased greatly, stimulated by wartime prices of prod- ucts. In interpreting these values, however, and, indeed, any statement of comparative values in the decade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency in the latter part of that period is*to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. The total percentage of land used for agricultural purposes decreased from 95.4 in 1910 to 94.1 in 1920; and the percentage of improved land in farms from 82.9 to 80.4. Of the total of 213,- Foop AND Nv- IOWA 439 farms in 1920, 121,888 were operated by owners, 2487 by managers, and 89,064 by ten- ants. The corresponding figures for 1910 were 133,008, 1926, and 82,115. The white farmers in 1920 numbered 213,330, compared with 216,- 843 in 1910; colored farmers 109, compared with 201. Farms free from mortgage in 1920 numbered 45,807; those under mortgage, 66,096; while in 1910 the mortgaged farms numbered 63,234, and those free from mortgage, 68,045. The total number of cattle in 1920 was 4,557,- 708, compared with 4,448,006 in 1910; dairy eattle, 1,519,510, compared with 1,406,792; hogs, 7,864,304, compared with 7,545,853; sheep, 1,- 092,095, compared with 1,145,549. The estimat- ed production of the principal farm crops in 1923 was as follows: corn, 422,241,000 bushels; spring wheat, 756,000; winter wheat, 13,708,- 000; oats, 195,689,000; barley, 4,208,000; pota-' toes, 7,618,000; sweet potatoes, 378,000; and hay, 4,416,000 tons. Comparative figures for 1913 are corn, 338,300,000 bushels; wheat, 16,- 395,000; oats, 168,360,000; barley, 10,000,000; , potatoes, 7,200,000; and hay, 4,440,000 tons. Mining. The principal mineral products of Iowa are coal, cement, clay products, and gyp- sum. There is practically no metal mining in the State. The coal production during the dec- ade 1914-24 showed considerable fluctuation, as will be noted from the following comparative figures: 1914, 7,451,022 short tons, valued at $13,364,070; 1915, 7,614,143, $13,577,608; 1916, 7,260,800, $13,530,383; 1917, 8,965,830, $21,096,- 408; 1918, 8,192,195, $24,703,237; 1919, 5,624,- 692, $17,352,620; 1920, 7,813,916, $30,794,000; 1921, 4,531,392, $17,256,800; 1922, 4,335,161. The decrease in 1921 and 1922 was due largely to the protracted coal miners’ strike which af- fected all the Middle Western coal fields. Ship- ments of cement were practically constant dur- ing the decade. They ranged from 4,224,076 barrels in 1914 to 3,188,669 in 1918 to 4,421,783 in 1920 and 4,151,439 in 1921. The value, how- ever, practically doubled in the last three years of the decade because of the decreased purchas- ing power of money and the consequent higher prices. Clay products fluctuated from the val- ue of $6,401,745 in 1914 to $5,313,394 in 1918 and $5,711,583 in 1921. Gypsum is one of the most important mineral products: there were produced in 1914, 480,404 short tons; 1918, 327,927; 1920, 571,895; and 1921, 350,247. In addition to the minerals noted, the State pro- duces mineral waters, sand, and gravel. The total value of the mineral products in 1921 was $35,639,505, compared with $57,250,480 in 1920; $37,882,183 in 1919; $38,742;009 in 1918; and $26,287,115 in 1914. Manufactures. Although Iowa is not one of the most prominent of the manufacturing States, it, is of considerable industrial impor- tance. There are 18 cities having a population of more than 10,000. These form 25.1 per cent of the total population of the State, and in 1919 they reported 78.4 per cent of the total value of its manufactured products. There were in the State, in 1909, 5528 manufacturing establishments; in 1914, 5614; and in 1919, 5683. The persons engaged in manufacture numbered 78,360, 82,631, and 105,439; and the capital invested amounted to $171,218,604, $233,128,542, and $403,205,513, in those years. The value of the products in 1909 was $259,- 237,637; in 1914, $310,749,974, and in 1919, $745,472,697. The chief industry in point of 684 IOWA value of product is that connected with slaugh- tering and meat packing, with a value of $59,- 045,000 in 1909; $74,289,700 in 1914, and $226,- 865,000 in 1919. The manufacture of butter, cheese, and condensed milk ranks second: in 1919, $25,850,000; in 1914, $27,606,000, and in 1919, $57,800,000. Car construction and _ re- pair, in third place, had products valued in 1909 at $10,269,000; in 1914, $11,484,000, and in 1919, $33,099,000.. Flour and_ gristmill products were valued, in 1909, at $12,871,000; 1914, $14,337,000, and 1919, $21,325,000. The large increase in value of products is due large- ly to changes in industrial conditions brought about by the War, and therefore cannot prop- erly be used to measure the growth of manufac- tures during the census period, 1914-19. The increase, however, in the number of wage earn- ers indicates a decided growth in the manufac- turing activities of the State. The chief man- ufacturing cities are Cedar Rapids and Des Moines. There were in Des Moines, in 1909, 387 establishments, with a product valued at $23,585,000; 1914, 384, with $23,747,000; and 1919, 379, with $59,831,000. In Cedar Rapids there were 153 establishments in 1909, with a product of $24,824,000; 170, in 1914, with $34,- 989,000; and 208, in 1919, with $92,118,000 Other important manufacturing cities are Coun- cil Bluffs, Dubuque, Fort Dodge, and Muscatine. Education.: No State has devoted more at- tention to education than has Iowa. The result of this is indicated by the fact that it is low- est in percentage of illiteracy and that although the enrollment in the publie schools decreased since 1900, the State losing in population dur- ing the two decades from 1900 to 1921, the av- erage daily attendance showed a large increase. Particular attention was given to rural school problems, and in the supervision of these schools great improvement was shown. The General Assembly established the Standard School as a means of taking care of children and teachers in the rural schools, the Evans- Smith Law making an appropriation of $100,- 000 annually to help the one-room school. The consolidated school had been in operation in the State for about 15 years but only latterly had rapid development begun in it. From 1918 to 1922 the number of consolidated schools prac- tically doubled. Vocational education was in- troduced as a part of the educational system, and work started in agriculture, trades and in- dustry, home economics, and teacher training; and in connection with this work civilian re- habilitation was carried on. In 1922 courses in vocational agriculture were given in 43 high schools. A law enacted by the 38th General Assembly requires that the subject of American citizenship shall be taught in all public and private schools in the State. In 1900 there were enrolled in the public schools 566,223, and in 1922, 543,430. However, with 22,793 fewer enrollments than in 1900, the average daily at- tendance in 1922 was 62,886 greater. The total attendance in all the schools in 1922 was 537,- 886, of whom 72,681 were enrolled in the high schools. Total receipts for educational pur- poses in 1921-22 were $53,280,104. The per- centage of illiteracy decreased from 2.2 in 1910 to 1.4 in 1920; among the foreign-born white from 10.3 per cent to 10.2; among the Negro from 15.9 to 11.2. Finance. See STATE FINANCES. Political and Other Events. The decade IOWA 1914-24 was not lacking in events of political interest in Iowa. As the chief interest in the State is agriculture, which was greatly affected by conditions following the War, the radical wing of the party which demanded legislation for the benefit of the farmers developed great power. It succeeded in electing its candidates for United States Senator and other offices. In 1914 there were elections for members of the House of Representatives, United States sena- tor and governor.. Henry Vollmer, a Democrat, was elected to the House, and George W. Clarke, the Republican candidate, was elected governor. Senator Albert B. Cummins was reélected. The Supreme Court in 1914 declared unconstitution- al a “blue sky” law, regulating investment com- panies, passed by the Legislature of 1913. The political campaign in 1916 was particularly bit- ter, and local interest, to a large extent, super- seded interest in the presidential election. W. L. Harding, the Republican candidate for gov- ernor, was elected, together with the entire State Republican ticket. For president, the vote was 280,499 for Hughes and 221,669 for President Wilson. In 1918, W. L. Harding was reélected governor. In 1920 elections were held for governor and other State officers and for United States senator. Albert B. Cummins was reélected to the Senate, and N. E. Kendall, Re- publican, was elected governor. In the presi- dential voting of this year, W. G. Harding re- ceived 634,674 votes and J. M. Cox 227,921. In 1922, William S. Kenyon, United States sena- tor, resigned to become Federal judge, and Charles A. Rawson was appointed by Governor Kendall to succeed him. In the Republican primaries of June 5 of that year, Smith W. Brookhart, the candidate of the radical Repub- licans, won the nomination for senator against five opponents. In the election he was success- ful over the Democratic candidate, Clyde L. Her- ring. Governor Kendall was reélected for a second term. The people at this election voted in favor of the soldiers’ bonus. In 1923 a spe- cial election was held to fill a vacancy in the House of Representatives. Hiram K. Evans, Republican, was the successful candidate in this election. Legislation. The most important acts of the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are noted be- low. The Legislature of 1915 passed several measures relating to liquor reform and liquor regulation. The so-called “mulet liquor law” was repealed. , 0) 3) ee LRTI 133,000 310,000 INITSSOUTT pepe ss oso cae 60,000 292,000 North! Carolina’ aa sen Be he 452,545 321,822 279,865 Galvanized sheets ..... 114,650 56,085 109,318 Plates and_ sheets 428,259 541,713 327,604 Structural iron and steel 366,654 306,592 184,515 Tin plate, terneplate, etc. 73,376 107,715 76,608 Barbed wife, OUzpAOy Sa oa : a ta We a quistq 0, Qatieiwg TOINHA Sis aay at 0 3 BOUBITS 4 iy ISIN DJDUUAT “T B50 t Bee +P I , * U ! apupnu yD 2 990g ' ©] tuojzuolpy ddd \Y L239 bng7),0 D PARSI ¢ 6! t (SS St ’ ouvyg ATAD 4a 0 20005) Wy Bose. ! ' 189124 ? lo ! S3TiW 40 31¥9S LA A cum s 2 r : A Bousion ye ' ALINIOIA ONY fo sing a (Suds! : 3 Ds Z : { 7 ‘ F j Ny Poe ( Paetdezz>09, : x SU1TdV N ~\ . - " 3 mx yu SSK Tiqeig Ip < Le. Aad deur fa3seg 6S a2 d—V NK dO Aa V=a- ! ‘ ! ype 19 a ; Ary Souerg 0 fF ofits yo Ba, ; ye Ae (Sy ! = Pugs winds” ARICA hi fr Re 1 z i T ; ts ; | aod ip ode L MO ar Rae : P ES) } — i O= eC, ¢- ) aa 912AUD) Fe ouBIL A : See ' === act : ; ae TO). 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LOJOTIVD 90 19? Fd a \MISDAL OUD SIG fo" Q ONLD IT ‘S39 ef Wag 0°1 34a N3A 10 WH DISIAPNIIT'D doy pons iP PLPA'S'O 03098 onuyiseo P ON” a ) = er IO Se Ay=WOHOd = S V puny anoge ak Podnreo ; POS ake ad N ‘= | Sa 2 Sf SS i 2 = SS | . OF ~ é p10], ou.layvg *s [oD ,dvs 7 oe Kf 3, "| SNINOINZA ult Pe U . ene v zal “ : ornue! . Piers: TUN *SI_SNILNOd pi 9 Weiner Pao: : OAT AR ae ak ee Ts b, ‘I VUVIOAVL ERR A DY, O}aogr fi bbe i gusaé "1 SNONNYZ °! WIOUYW Id sage for opis forse Ys & \ OUANI}IOA ; : tare) O - pruq'0 . Sosmg Dr | LAL oye pjapy {0 — YUYNI ; . 3 ut y fo 9 oman bz — = py : v 2 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ITALY 1920), the eight-hour day and the lowered effi- ciency of the workers, all contributed to a gen- eral deplorable condition. The deficit of the fiscal year 1920-21 was 1,034,000,000 lire, and of 1921-22 was 966,000,000 lire; this in spite of the continually rising tariffs. (Freight rates from 1915 to 1922 increased 400 per cent.) Electrification of railways was a theme of con- tinual discussion, though the unfavorable finan- cial situation militated against any extensive immediate projects. As a way out, the Mus- solini government expressed itself as favoring the resurrection of private management, but, while extensive reforms and reductions of per- sonnel were carried out, no definite move, by 1924, was made toward private operation. Finance. For 1912-13, revenues were 2,698,- 620,000 lire and expenditures 2,615,208,000 lire. The revised budget of 1923-24 carried 15,566,- 000,000 lire for effective revenues (about 5,000,- 000,000 lire being classified as extraordinary) and 18,182,000,000 lire for effective expendi- tures (of which half constituted extraordinary expenses). After 1914, the problem of balanc- ing the budget was of utmost importance and the failure of successive governments todo so awakened a real alarm. In 1919-20, the deficit was 9534 millions of lire; in 1920-21, it was 5922 millions; in 1921-22, 5529 millions; in 1922-23, 3100 millions. For 1923-24, even aft- er radical economies were effected, the deficit still showed 2616 millions. However, with the wide powers of the new government, its policy of reducing expenses and increasing revenues through a broadening of the basis of taxation, it was perceptible in 1924 that much was being done to hasten a return to sound conditions. Increases in revenue and economies in expendi- ture during the fiscal year 1923-24 were so great as to make it likely (as the situation ap- peared in May, 1924) that the deficit would fall as low as 300,000,000 lire. Under the new government (1923) revenues were increased by the following methods: The direct taxes were concentrated under three large heads, viz., land, buildings, and incomes. Beginning with 1923, a new sales tax became effective. Other changes were higher excise taxes, increased postal rates, abolition of the match monopoly. Italy’s pre- war debt was 13,312,000,000 lire. By Mar. 31, 1923, the public debt was 116,975,000,000. War loans totaled 36,042,000,000; floating debt, 34,- 848,000,000; notes in circulation, 10,272,000,- 000; foreign debt, 22,081,000,000 gold lire or 88,000,000,000 paper lire at the 1923 exchange. Allowing for this conversion the debt really was 183,000,000,000 lire. The following was the dis- tribution of the foreign debt in 1922 (the fig- ure increases from year to year because of ac- crued interest charges): to Great Britain, 12,- 687,173,200 lire; to United States, 8,586,816,383 lire; to United States for dollar bonds sold in the United States, 51,694,069; dollar indebted- ness to the Brazilian government, 35,722,000. In 1921 and in 1923, the Italian government gave official assurances that the debt to the United States would be met. However, it was requested that the terms granted to Great Britain be also accorded to Italy. That a gen- eral skepticism prevailed in American circles on this point, nevertheless, was indicated by the statements of Senators Borah and Owen in Jan- uary, 1924, that this debt never would be re- paid. Up to 1924, Italy was still leaving the question of interest payments on these obliga- 699 ITALY tions out of its calculations. The internal debt of Italy was, in 1924, being reduced while no increases were being made in the foreign debt except those due to interest accruals. At the end of 1922 there were 19,674,700,000 lire in paper notes in circulation as compared with 2,- 782,000,000 lire in 1913. Reserves represented 70 per cent of these in 1913 and only 9 per cent in 1923. Economic Conditions. The lira exchange, at the par of 19.3 cents in 1914, dropped to 11.37 in 1919, 4.97 in 1920, 4.29 in 1921, and recovered only slightly to 4.75 in 1922, with a further slight decline to 4.60 in 1923. The cost of living based on the 1913 wholesale prices as 100, was at 642 in January, 1921, 577 in Janu- ary, 1922, 575 in January, 1923 and 571 in Jan- uary, 1924. Wages rose too, though not to an equal proportion. The wage index numbers, on the basis of 100 for 1914, for subsequent years were: 102.4 in 1915; 111.6 in 1916; 146.6 in 19173917907 Cin’, 1918); /279.5e'in, ‘1919 :) 408.4 vin 1920; 571.7 in 1921. Wage levels did not change greatly after 1921. The return of the soldiers and the increasing intransigency mani- fested by the laboring population, as the coming of peace brought renewed hardships, made the period 1919-22 one of the most turbulent in Italy’s recent history. The government, sens- ing the unrest, hastily enacted a series of social measures in 1918 and 1919. These included machinery for the payment of unemployment subsidies, a system of unemployment insurance, the eight-hour day in many industries, for ag- ricultural workers, and for state railway em- ployees, compulsory old age and sickness insur- ance, etc. But nothing could stem the rising tide. The lack of raw materials, high prices for food, unemployment, all those conditions that indicate a population bearing too many op- pressive burdens, ushered in a period of revolu- tionary strikes; that in 1920 threatened a com- plete upheaval of the existing society. In 1919, strikes were frequent; the red flag was hoisted in Tuscany and Romagna; a general strike was declared in Naples; strikes were called to check the supply trains destined for the Kolchak forces in Siberia. In 1920, ‘disorders broke out with a renewed intensity. Throughout the spring the country was in a continual turmoil as postal employees were followed out by rail- way workers, to be in turn succeeded by the metal workers. In the summer, city transport workers struck and were accompanied by the electricians. In the fall these movements be- gan to take on all the characteristics of an or- ganized opposition. The slowing up of the im- portant metal works in northern Italy and the attempt to cut wages accounted for a truculent mood that vented itself in frequent displays of sabotage. This, and the lack of raw materials, caused many plants to close their doors to the workers. The result was a wholesale seizure of factories throughout Lombardy and Piedmont and the installation of workers’ committees of control. Materials were confiscated and an at- tempt made to coerce the management to re- main at their posts. The General Confedera- tion of Labor gave the movement its official sanction and took over a general supervision of the workers’ activities. Only a tardy interven- tion on the part of the government succeeded in restoring order. On Sept. 19, 1920, repre- sentatives of workers and employers patched up a truce whereby a measure of control in opera- ITALY 700 tions and salaries was granted to the men, and a bill embodying this syndicalist principle was promised by the government. Meanwhile the same temper was exhibited by the agrarian workers. Landed estates were seized by peas- ants throughout the summer and fall, Sicily be- ing the seat of most of the trouble. Associa- tions were formed for the administration of the sequestered areas, and under the codperatives, collective farming and purchasing were carried on. Many farmers extricated themselves by leasing their lands to these associations. While the outbreaks did not assume general propor- tions, cases of rioting and bloodshed were fre- quent. The unrest subsided only slowly. Strikes continued throughout 1921. There was a gen- eral strike in Rome in July, a railway strike in November, rioting and bloodshed as a result of ill-feeling between Fascisti and Communists throughout the fall. Unemployment in the metal, textile, and building industries was high. By Dee. 1, 1921, there were 512,000 men out of work. In all, 1045 strikes, affecting 644,564 workmen, accounted for the loss of 7,772,870 working days during 1921 (and these figures were less than half those for 1920). Not until late in 1922 did a return to something like normal conditions begin to manifest itself. Re- vivals were evident in the metallurgical and mechanical industries and investments in in- dustrial enterprises increased. By September, 1923, unemployment had dropped to 179,000 workers, and labor disputes throughout the whole of 1923 had involved the loss of only 250,- 000 working days. By the beginning of 1924, observers could report that of all the Continen- tal European countries involved in the War, Italy had made the greatest progress toward regaining its economic and financial stability. The spread of codperative societies was par- ticularly noteworthy; 15,000 societies were re- ported in 1921 as compared with 7500 in 1915. Of the former, 7430 were united in the Nation- al League of Codperative Societies, with a to- tal membership of 1,857,500 and a. collective share capital of more than 250,000,000 lire. After 1913, the National Institute of Credit co- ordinated the activities of most of the codpera- tive savings banks and credit organizations. In 1920, the capital of the Institute was 20,840,000 lire, and its turnover of ordinary current ac- counts (deposits and withdrawals), 1,592,000,- 000 lire. After the advent of the Fascisti gov- ernment, codperative societies did not receive government support, with the result that many collapsed. The more important, however, con- tinued to thrive; notably the Federation of Ag- ricultural Consortia, which was one of the strongest of its kind in the world. History. Although Italy had been linked with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance since 1882, the Italian govern- ment, on Aug. 3, 1914, declared its neutrality in the War, on the grounds, first, that since the War had been caused by the aggression of the Central Powers, the casus federis provided for in the strictly defensive Triple Alliance had not arisen; and, second, that by failing to ac- quaint Italy, in advance, with the terms of the note to Serbia, Austria-Hungary had disregard- ed the terms of the Alliance. As a matter of fact, by secret agreements with France (1902) and Russia (1909), Italy had pledged herself not to aid Germany and Austria-Hungary in an aggressive war. That Italians saw no rea- ITALY son for taking their place at Austria’s side was plain; and the entrance of Great Britain into the struggle removed all thought of participa- tion against the Entente. The neutralist atti- tude at first was strongly championed. The low state of the finances and the fact that Italy had not fully recovered from the Libyan war (see LipyA) together with a belief that hostilities against her erstwhile allies must be contemptu- ously regarded, were the more important fac- tors contributing to this view. Some measures were taken to relieve the stringency that war conditions brought in their train. Exports of cereals were prohibited; a moratorium was de- clared; and steps were taken to further a ready importation of raw materials. Meanwhile the war establishment—five classes had been mohi- lized—necessitated great outlays of money, and a cabinet crisis precipitated over the need for tapping new sources of revenue resulted in the formation of something like a coalition govern- ment with Baron Sonnino at the Foreign Office. As the War, however, took on ever-increasing proportions and as the intrigues about the Ital- ian Foreign Office became more numerous, it began to appear that a change had taken place in Italian public opinion, or at any rate, in of- ficial opinion. The character of the sentiment, with 1915, took on a-more bellicose hue; Italy meant to join the Entente, every one saw, at a price. The recovery of the northern provinces had of course always had a certain appeal to popular sentiment, but that Italy’s entry into the War was to be purely a matter of diplo- matic arrangements was not to be concealed. Germany, sensing this, sent the astute Prince von Biilow to Rome in order to keep Italy neu- tral if possible. Austria was urged to satisfy Italian demands for territory as far as she was able. Protracted negotiations were carried on between Austria and Italy but neither of Aus- tria’s offers came up to the minimum of Italy’s demands. (See Trrot, SouTH GERMAN.) The result was, Sonnino terminated the conversa- tions and turned to the Entente. On April 26, the secret Treaty of London was signed. By it, for full participation in the War, Italy was to receive the Trentino and South Tirol to the Brenner Pass, the city of Trieste, Gorizia, Is- tria, Dalmatia as far as Cape Planka, Valona (which had already been occupied on Oct. 30, 1914), the Adriatic islands, and the Dodecanese including Rhodes. Other promises of territory included a sphere of influence in Asia Minor, and grants in Africa. That the anti-war party was still strong was shown when Premier Sal- andra resigned because of the failure of Giolitti and his followers to approve of his policy. But war demonstrations and the agitations of D’Annunzio had touched the popular temper with the result that Signor Salandra, perceiv- ing in what direction the wind was blowing, once more assumed the reins of office, and bold- ly asked the Parliament for a war declaration. On May 20, 1915, the Chamber invested the gov- ernment with complete powers; on May 23, the army was ordered mobilized; and on May 24, war was declared against Austria. Later in the year, Italy declared war on Turkey and Bul- garia, but it was not until August, 1916, that she broke relations with Germany. Loans were floated in July, 1915, for 1100 million lire and in February, 1916, for 3000 million lire. On the outbreak of the War, the railways passed under military control and through 1915 and ITALY 1916 other measures were taken to facilitate an undivided war effort. These included: prohibi- tions on the importation of articles of luxury, the sequestration of property belonging to citi- zens of the Central Powers, cessation of trade with Germany, ete. The failure of the Italian armies to make any appreciable advances on the northern frontier, the rising prices, and the delay of the govern- ment in declaring war on Germany, served to create an opposition whose operations became increasingly embarrassing to the government. The great suecess which met the Austrian offen- sive in the Trentino in May, 1916, turned the scales against the ministry with the result that a defeat in the Chamber on June 10 forced its resignation. Not until June 19 was Signor Boselli able to form a cabinet. On it, Sonnino and Orlando were retained and Signor Bissolati, leader of the Interventionists, was given a place. Up to 1917, the conduct of the war re- ceived undivided attention and met with no or- ganized opposition. The occupation of Gorizia on Aug. 15, 1916, and the decision to partici- pate with the Allied troops in the Macedonia offensive, as well as to extend the Albanian op- erations, together with the early victories re- ported from these fronts, united in distracting attention from affairs in the Trentino. But the terrible loss of life on the Carso-Isonzo front, the discomforts the soldiers were suffer- ing, the failure to provide the simple amenities that might have made their position more tol- erable, and, with the collapse of Russia, the realization that Austria was now free to turn her undivided attention to Italy. all served to give strength to a defeatist agitation that took on volume as the year 1917 progressed. The op- position in the Parliament continually gained new accretions. In 1917, internal disagreements caused a cabinet crisis and Signor Boselli was compelled to reconstruct his cabinet. This merely presaged the larger events of the fall of the year. The disasters that met the Italian armies beginning with October at Caporetto, on the Asiago plateau, and in the Udine and Bel- luno provinces, and the loss of 300,000 men as prisoners, together with great army stores, threw the Italian people into a fright that bor- dered on frenzy. It seemed that only a miracle could save Italy from being completely crushed. But the army resistance strengthened, and the people, in the face of danger, took new heart, so that, after a change of ministries, the war was carried on. Signor Orlando headed the new cabinet and General Cadorna was removed to be supplanted by General Diaz. The French and British sent contingents to the Italian front, and with the reorganization of the mili- tary machine and a greater industrial effort, it was possible for the government to prosecute its activities with a renewed vigor. The year 1918, however, tried the Italian people most se- verely. The lack of bread and coal and the very small rations of foodstuffs doled out added to the privations of the population. The peace discussions of the year, too, contributed to the general uneasiness; President Wilson’s “Four- teen Points” which seemed to indicate opposi- tion to the ambitious territorial desires of Ital- ian nationalists, and the propaganda of the Jugo-Slavs for a recognition of their racial boundaries, which had the adhesion of Signor Bissolati and other reformist Socialists, were contributing factors. The successful defense of 701 ITALY the Piave and the checking of the Austrian of- fensive, in the spring of the year, on the Asiago plateau, relieved the situation somewhat, but it was not until the great victories that marked the battle of Vittorio Veneto (October 24—No- vember 3) and ended in the crushing defeat of the Austrian army, that Italians could breathe easily once more. An armistice immediately followed by which Austrian troops evacuated not only Italian territories but the lands also promised to Italy by the secret Treaty of Lon- don. Italian forces were sent into the Tren- tino, and Dalmatia, as well as ‘Trieste and Fiume, so that by the time hostilities were con- cluded, Italy was in complete possession of all the territories to which she had laid claim. The end of the War saw Italian forces engaged on six fronts, viz., Italy, Albania, Macedonia, Palestine, Libya, France. In all, 5,615,000 men had been called out, of whom 496,920 pte been killed and 949,000 wounded, 220,000 of these being permanently incapacitated. In the discussions of the peace, Italian public opinion centred not only in the necessity for the rectification of the northern frontier line (in spite of a preponderance of alien popula- tions in some sections) but also in the need for retaining Fiume. On this matter the hos- tility of the Jugo-Slavs was encountered so that the settlement of the question continued to ab- sorb Italian attention for the next three years. Italy’s representatives at the Peace Conference were Orlando, Sonnino, Salandra, Barzilai, and Salvago-Raggi. These readily acquiesced to the partition of the German Africa colonies between France and Great Britain, accepting, by way of compensation for Italy only promises of slight additions to Libya and the Italian Somaliland, but on the questions of Dalmatia and Fiume they stood firm. Jugo-Slavia, however, had gained a friend in President Wilson. On Apr. 23, 1919, after protracted conversations among the Big Four had yielded no results, President Wilson issued a public statement to the Italian people in which he counseled renunciation of Fiume and Dalmatia. Instead of having the desired result, President Wilson’s action only served to solidify all branches of opinion. The matter immediately became a cause célebre. Orlando, having withdrawn from the Peace Conference, received an overwhelming vote of confidence in the Chamber, even the “Socialists and the Laborites giving him their support. The failure, however, of the delegates to gain any concessions on this point resulted in a neg- ative vote of confidence in the ministry with the result that Orlando was compelled to re- sign on June 19, 1919. Signor Nitti accepted the premiership. The increasing difficulties at home because of the lack of raw materials and the ever-recurring labor disturbances only add- ed to the trials of th: government. But inter- est, in large part, was diverted by the Adriatic question. The failure of the Peace Conference to bring out a settlement that could be accept- able to Italian opinion strengthened the hand of the irreconcilables, with the result that D’Annunzio, on September 12, entered Fiume at the head of a small force and confronted the peacemakers with a fait accompli. Public sup- port rallied to him at once. In spite of Nitti’s official disavowal, the heated protests of the Peace Conference, and the frequent clashes be- tween Jugo-Slavs and Italians, D’Annunzio stayed on. Even the very favorable treaty with . ITALY Austria, signed at St. Germain on September 10, by which Italy gained her northern frontier, elicited no real enthusiasm. Fiume was the question of the day. On Nov. 16, 1919, the new elections were held. The results marked the entry of a new force into Italy’s political life, for 103 members were elected who belonged to the (Catholic) Popular. party. For the first time since 1870, therefore, the Catholics as an official body took their place in the country’s political activities. Their pro- gramme resembled in large part the typical proposals of the Centrist and Christian Social- ist parties with which Continental Europe al- ready was familiar. The Socialists were the only other well-integrated force, and succeeded in electing 160 members. Their stand was frankly revolutionary: they looked to Russia for inspiration, and the economic chaos of the mo- ment gave them strength. The opening session of the Parliament was a noisy one, and the King’s speech from the throne was greeted with derision. But in spite of the weaknesses of the constitutional parties, Nitti, by maintaining a precarious balance of power, continued in of- fice. The year 1920 was characterized by an intensification of the same problems. The ques- tion of the Fiume settlement was no nearer a solution. The hard feeling engendered by President Wilson’s insistence upon his scheme of a Fiume Free State and the fact that Italy’s counter-proposal, though acceptable to the Su- preme Council, was wholly rejected by Jugo- Slavia, were elements that made the tangle more and more snarled. Also, the revolution- ary disorders of the year, accompanied’ by riot- ing and anarchistic outbreaks, and the mount- ing cost of living, indicated that Italy was’ liy- ing on a volcanic crater. These uncertainties were reflected in the political life. A cabinet crisis in the spring forced a reconstruction of the Nitti government; on May 12, the premier was compelled to resign, and after several un- successful manceuvres, was supplanted by Si- gnor Gjiolitti. The entrance of the Albanian question into the limelight involved Italy in another international controversy. In 1917, Italy had proclaimed Albania her protectorate but the status had been refused recognition by her allies. Up to 1920, an army had been main- tained in the country to the general dissatisfac- tion of the populace, with the result that fight- ing broke out between Albanians and Italians. in the summer. The universal attention given to the controversy, together with the support the’ Albanian cause found among the Italian Social- ists, forced Giolitti to open negotiations with the Albanians. The result was the evacuation of the country; Valona, which had been held since 1914, being given up on Sept. 2, 1920. It was not until late in the year that the settle- ment of the Adriatic dispute appeared a possi- ‘bility. The disappearance of President Wilson’ from the scene, and the realization by both Italy and Jugo-Slavia that an understanding could more easily be reached by agreement be- tween themselves, led to the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo (Nov. 12, 1920). By it, Italy gave up Dalmatia and restored to Jugo-Slavia two small] territories lying to the southeast of Istria; but received the town of Zara. On their part, the Jugo-Slavs agreed to an Italian frontier enclosing all of Istria and extending as far as Monte Nevoso.: Fiume was made a Free State and-was connected with Italy on the 702 ITALY west by a territorial corridor along the sea. It was also stipulated that the city of Susak (together with the small Baros Basin) was to be joined to Jugo-Slavia. Ratification immedi- ately followed. It was necessary to apply force before D’Annunzio could be dislodged. In Sep- tember, he had established at Fiume the “Ital- ian Regency of Quarnero” and had promulgated a constitution which contained some rather lu- dicrous provisions. His refusal to accept the treaty compelled the Italian government to or- der a blockade against him, and this failing of any results, the ships in the harbor were given the order to open fire. From December 3 to 29, a virtual state of war existed, but on the 30th the local officials capitulated. A provisional government was set up and on Jan. 18, 1921, D’Annunzio left Fiume. In June, 1921, Italy and Jugo-Slavia signed an agreement for the creation of a port board to regulate the com- merce of Fiume and other harbors in the terri- tory. (For the ultimate solution of this dispute see FIrUME-ADRIATICGC CONTROVERSY.) There were other foreign problems which oceupied the at- tention of the government in 1920 and 1921. Italy in August, 1920, signed the later discred- ited Treaty of Sévres with Turkey by which Italy received important concessions in Anatolia and the right to exploit the Heraclea coal mines. In turn, Italy, by a separate understanding, agreed to relinquish the Dodecanese to Greece, except that Rhodes and two others were to be held for 15 years. 923,- 979 swine (1913: 761,186) ; 16,650 goats (1913: 10,456); 4,913,322 fowl (1913: 4,194,335). 745 KOREA Horticulture: 1,139,392 pear trees (yield 13,605,- 121 pounds of pears; 1913: 580,236 trees and 2,296,420 pounds); 1,420,871 apple trees (yield 14,481,726 pounds of apples; 1913: 680,144 trees and 2,930,748 pounds); 348,099 grapevines (yield 2,017,403 pounds of grapes; 1913: 243,169 and 838,598 pounds) ; 5,251,124 chestnut trees (yield 31,412,832 pounds of chestnuts; 1913: 1,581,270 and 33,431,116 pounds). The Oriental Development Company, a Japanese land coloniza- tion company, accepted 7035 Japanese families’ applications for settlement from 1910 to 1918; of these, 3457 were successful, with 15,555 mem- ih) of their families settled on 17,741 acres of and. Mining. 1918 productions were: 135,000 ounces gold (1913: 145,000 ounces) ; 16,000 ounces placer gold (1913: 28,000 ounces); 66,- 448,000 pounds gold and silver ore (1913: 11,- 342,000 pounds); 43,000 ounces silver (1913: 24,000 ounces); 578,000 pounds coarse lead; 2,828,000 pounds zine ore; 635,000 pounds tungs- ten ore; 199,000 tons iron ore (1913: 142,000 tons), 94,888,000 pounds pig iron; 15,523,000 pounds graphite (1913: 27,120,000 pounds) ; 188,000 tons coal (1913: 128,000 tons); 102,- 396,141. pounds salt (1913: 56,201,622 pounds). Forestry. From 1907 to 1918, 25,618 acres had been planted with 21,198,000 trees by State and local governments; 240,443 acres were leased out for afforestation in 1918. Fisheries. The total value of the catch in 1918 was $16,431,701, as against $5,528,142 in 1913. The 1918 catch consisted of 198,703,000 pounds of pollack; 147,342 pounds of sardines; 68,116,000 pounds of mackerel; 68,544,000 pounds of cod; 41,176,000 pounds of herring; 39,808,000 pounds of guchi; 24,721,000 pounds of lobster, and lesser amounts of other fish. Manufacturing. In 1918 there were 1700 factories, employing 5 people each or more, us- ing 26,151 horse power in all, and producing products valued at $78,400,815. Of these, 736 were owned and operated by Japanese and 605 by Koreans. They included 297 for rice clean- ing, 182 for ceramics, 163 for metal ware, 117 for brewing, and 83 for dyeing and weaving. The value of products of those owned by Japa- nese was $42,200,792; by Koreans, $4,181,876. In 1913 there were only 532 factories, of the same class, using 9908 horse power and with a production of $18,033,086. Foreign Trade. 1921 imports amounted to $109,138,000, consisting principally of cotton gray sheeting ($15,868,000), coal, lumber, ma- chinery, cotton fabrics, Chinese hemp fabrics, petroleum, sugar, and cotton yarn. 1914 im- ports were $31,615,000, consisting of gray sheeting, $2,940,000; rice, $1,362,000; cotton yarn, $1,035,000; cotton fabrics, $994,000; white sheeting, $878,000; coal, timber, paper, flour, sugar, machinery, and petroleum. Similarly, 1921 exports amounted to $116,190,000, con- sisting principally of rice, $46,406,000; beans, $11,433,500; raw silk, including tussah silk, $6,- 522,500; iron and steel, $4,411,000; fish, ginseng, fertilizer, cotton, gold, cow hides, cattle, paper and pulp. In 1914, exports were $17,194,000, consisting of rice, $12,258,000, and beans, peas, cowhides, ginseng, cotton, and leather manufac- tures. Budget and Finance. Total expenditures and revenues for 1923-24 were $72,845,000 (1913-14: $31,546,744); total debt in March 1922, was $92,663,000 (1916: $36,801,000). KORNILOV Twenty-one ordinary banks were in operation, with $7,475,000 paid-up capital, in 1921, in ad- dition to the Bank of Chosen, with $25,000,000 capital, and the Provincial Hypothee Bank, with $7,500,000 capital. Bank-notes of the Bank of Chosen outstanding in September, 1921, totaled $55,443,500. Total currency in circulation was $62,978,832. By contrast, there were 15 ordi- nary banks with $1,800,000 paid-up capital in 1915, in addition to the Bank of Chosen with $5,000,000 and six Provincial Hypothee Banks with $739,000 capital. Bank-notes of the Bank of Chosen totaled $12,343,000 in 1915, which was the total currency. History. Under Japanese administration the province progressed materially. Bare hill- sides were afforested, agriculture received the benefit of scientific supervision, and railways were built. Advances were startling in every line of economic activity. But the absolute character of the Japanese authority, the domi- nanee by the military, the refusal to heed the demands for a larger measure of popular gov- ernment, all contributed to a feeling of resent- ment which the democratic doctrines of the War finally fanned into open hostility. Through- out 1919 there were everywhere marked evi- dences of unrest; means of communication were eut; cities were the scenes of mob violence; pub- lie officials were attacked and some even killed. The Japanese, on the other hand, retaliated by increasing their garrisons and by employing repressive measures. By April the riots had taken on so much of the character of actual re- bellion that the Japanese privy council was spurred into action. A programme of reform in- troduced during the year included the extension of civil government at the expense of the mili- tary and responsibility of the governor to the Japanese Ministry. Korea was made an in- tegral part of the Japanese Empire, and Koreans were put on the same footing as Japanese, nominally at least. Members of the former Korean dynasty and cabinet received Japanese patents of nobility. A little later, in 1920, the Korean tariff was assimilated to that of Japan. Meanwhile a revolutionary party, through a committee at Shanghai, promulgated a repub- lican constitution for the “Provisional Govern- ment of the Korean Republic.” An attempt was made to interest Soviet Russia in the struggle of the Koreans for independence, while natives and friends of Korea in other countries, espe- cially in the United States, endeavored to show sympathy for Korean aspirations by giving pub- licity to numerous acts of oppression, violations of the rights of pro-Korean missionaries, sum- mary executions of Korean patriots, etc., alleged to have been committed by the Japanese in Korea. Baron Saito, the new governor, ex- pressed the hope that ultimately Koreans would receive all those civil and constitutional liber- ties which Japanese possessed, but the tenuous character of the promise hardly served to as- sure the natives. Disorders were thus sporadic during 1920, while the military authorities de- ported themselves with a marked severity. By 1924 none of the political or educational hopes of the Koreans had yet been realized. KORNILOV, LAvr GEoRGIEVITCH (1870- 1918). A Russian general. He entered the army in 1888 and took part with distinction in the Russo-Japanese War. He served from 1907 to 1911 as Russian military agent in China and later had various commands in Siberia. At the 746 KRALIK beginning of the War he commanded a division of Brussilov’s army with great success. He was captured during the Russian retreat in 1915 but effected his escape and reached Rumania. Re- turning to Russia, he commanded the 25th Army Corps. At the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in March, 1917, he became com- mander-in-chief of the troops in Petrograd but resigned his command on account of lack of discipline in the army and was assigned to the 8th Army. On August 1 he succeeded Brussilov as commander-in-chief and at once took strong measures for the restoration of discipline. In September, 1917, he demanded full military and civil power from Kerensky. He was thereupon dismissed and marched with his troops on Petro- grad. The movement collapsed and on Septem- ber 15 he surrendered. He escaped to the Cau- casus, where he gathered a volunteer force of Cossacks, and was killed in March, 1918. See RusstA, History. KOSTER, Apotr (1883- ). A German writer, born at Verden, and educated at the Universities of Halle, Marburg, Heidelberg, and Zurich. He was lecturer at the University of Munich, traveled in England, America, Asia and Africa, and during the War was correspondent for Social-Democratic papers. During the presi- dency of Wirth he was Minister of the Interior. He has written Die Ethik Pascals (1906); Der Junge Kant (1913); Die Zehn Schornsteine (1909); Die Bange Nacht (1913); Der Tod in Flandern (1915); Brennendes Blut (1916); and Der Kampf um Schleswig (1920). KOWEIT. See ARABIA, KRAEMER, HENRY (1868- y 2 An American pharmacist, born at Philadelphia, Pa., educated at the Philadelphia College of Phar- macy and Columbia and Marburg Universities. He was instructor at the New York College of Pharmacy and during 1895-97 professor of botany at Northwestern University. In 1897 he accepted the chair of botany and pharmacognosy at the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and became also director of the microscopical labora- tory. These places he held until 1917, when he accepted a similar chair at Michigan, where he served also as dean. In 1920 he became direc- tor of the Kraemer Scientific Laboratory. He was editor of the American Journal of Phar- macy, 1898-1917, and in 1900 became a mem- ber of the committee of revision of the United States Pharmacopeia. He is the author of A Textbook of Botany and Pharmacognosy (1902), Applied and Economic Botany (1914), and Scientific and Applied Pharmacognosy (1915). KRAFT, ZpDENKO von_~ (1886— a An Austrian writer, born at Gitschin, and privately educated with special attention to drama and music. His works include: Adagio Consolante (1910); Der Osterprinz, ein Sonniges Leben (1914); Die Stimme von Helgoland (1916) ; Sonnenwend des Gliicks (1917); Wikings Letzte Fahrt (1917); Maria Theresa (1918); Missa Solemnis (1920); and a trilogy of novels on the life of Wagner, Barrikaden (1920). Liebestod (1921), and Wahnfried (1922). KRALIK, RIcHARD VON MEYERSWALDE (1852). An Austrian writer, born at Eleonoren- heim in Bohemia and educated at the universi- ties of Vienna, Bonn, and Berlin. He’ is the author of many works, which include: Mazi- milian, a drama (1885); Deutsche Puppen- spiele (1885); Spriche und Gesdnge (1892); Kraka, a comedy (1893); Kaiser Marcus Au- KRAMER . relius in Wien, a drama (1897); Veronica, a drama (1898); Rolands Tod (1898) ; Altgriechx ische Musik (1900); Angelus Silesius (1902) ; Die Deutschen Klassiker und der Katholizis- mus (1903); Weltgeschichte und Menschenalter (1903); Das Veilchenfest (1905); Die Grals- sage (1907) ; Die Revolution (1908) ; Die Katho- lische Literaturbewegung der Gegenwart (1909) ; Homeros (1910); Geschichte von Wien (1911); Geschichte der Neuesten Zeit (1914-20); Die Neue Staatenordnung (1918); and Grundriss und Kern der Weltgeschichte (1920). KRAMER, A. WALTER (1890- ). An American composer, born in New York City, Sept. 23, 1890. He studied violin with C. Hauser and R. Arnold, but in composition he is practically self-taught. In 1910 he joined the staff of Musical America, leaving in 1922 to go abroad. He has contributed to other period- icals. His compositions include a symphonic poem, The Tragedy of Nan; four Sketches for orchestra; a Rhapsody for violin and orchestra; a suite for string orchestras; The Hour of Prayer for baritone, chorus, and orchestra; a string quartet; compositions for organ and for piano; and songs. . KRAPP, GEoRGE PHILIP (1872- ). An American educator, born at Cincinnati, Ohio, and educated at Wittenberg College and at Johns Hopkins University. He served for several years as an instructor of English at the Horace Mann School and in Teachers’ College. In 1907 he was adjunct professor of English at Columbia and from 1908 to 1910 was a professor at the University of Cincinnati. In the latter year he was appointed professor of English at Columbia. He was a member of many learned societies and author of The Elements of English Grammar (1908); In Oldest England (1912); Pronuncia- tion of Standard English in America (1919) ; and Tales of True Knights (1920). KRAUS, CHARLES AUGUST (1875- Me An American physical chemist, born at Knights- ville, Ind., and educated at the University of Kansas, Johns Hopkins University, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was a research associate in physical chem- istry during 1908-12 and assistant professor during 1912-14. In 1914 he became professor of chemistry and director of the chemical labora- tory at Clark University. The subjects of solu- tions, organic radicals, and vapor electric ap- paratus have received his attention. He has published the results of his investigations on these and similar subjects in the technical jour- nals of his specialties. KRAUS, Epwarp Henry (1875- ) ame: American mineralogist, born at Syracuse, N. Y., and educated at the Universities of Syracuse and Munich. During 1896-99 he was instructor in German and mineralogy at Syracuse, where ‘he became associate professor of mineralogy in 1902, and in 1902-04 he was in charge of the department of science at the Syracuse High School. In 1904 he was called to the University of Michigan, where in 1919 he was appointed to the chair of crystallography and mineralogy, in addition to his positions of director of the mineralogical laboratory (1908— ) and dean of the summer session (1915— ). Besides many papers on chemical and physical crystallography and the optical constants of crystal at vary- ing temperatures, he has written Hssentials of Crystallography (1906); Descriptive Mineral- ogy (1911); Tables for the Determination of 747 KROEGER Minerals, with W. F. Hunt (1911); and Hle- mentary Mineralogy, also with Hunt (1920). KRAUSKOPF, JosepH (1858- ). An American rabbi, born in Germany. In 1872 he emigrated to the United States and received his degrees from the University of Cincinnati and the Hebrew Union College both in 1883. He was rabbi in Kansas City from 1883 to 1887 and went to Philadelphia in the latter year. He was the founder of the Jewish Publi- cation Society of America and of the National Farm School. In 1898 he was appointed special relief commissioner to Cuba and was special commissioner and agricultural commissioner in Europe for several years following. In 1904- 05 he was president of the Conference of Amer- ican Rabbis and was an official of other soci- eties. He wrote The Jews and Moors in Spain, My Visit to Tolstoy, The Seven Ages of Man, The Service Manual, The Service Ritual, and many volumes of lectures. From 1917. to 1920 he was representative of Jewish organiza- tions in the Food Conservation Department in Washington. KREGER, Epwarp ALBERT (1868- bie An American army officer, born at Keota, Iowa, and graduated at the lowa State College in 1890. He served in the Spanish-American War with the Iowa troops and in 1901 was com- missioned first lieutenant of the Regular Army. He served in the Philippines and in Cuba, From 1914 to 1917 he was professor of law at the United States Military Academy and as- sistant to the Provost Marshal in 1917-18. In 1918-19 he was acting judge-advocate-general with the Army in France and was acting judge- advocate-general of the United States Army from 1919. He received the Distinguished Serv- ice Cross for heroism in action in the Philippines and the Distinguished Service Medal for dis- tinguished service as acting judge-advocate- general. KREHBIEL, HENry Epwarp (1854-1923). An American music critic (see Vou. XIII). In 1917 he published A Second Book of Operas and in 1919 More Chapters of Opera and Parsi- fal, an English Version for Performance, which was used by the Metropolitan Opera Company. KRESY. See VILNA. KROEBER, ALFRED LOuIS (1876- hyo bh American anthropologist (see Vor. XIII). His later publications include: Zuni Potsherds and Hokan (1915); Floral Relations among the Galapagos Islands (1916); Zuni Kin and Clan (1917); Tribes of the Pacific Coast (1917); The History of Philippine Civilization as Re- flected in Religious Nomenclature (1918); Kin- ship in the Philippines (1919); Peoples of the Philippines (1919); Yuman Tribes of the Low- er Colorado (1920); Basketry Designs of the Mission Indians (1922); and Anthropology (1923). He founded the California Academy of Sciences (1917). KROEGER, ERNEST RICHARD (1862- Vee An American organist and composer, born at St. Louis. After completing his entire musical education under local teachers, he served as or- ganist in various churches in St. Louis and as conductor of several choral societies. He trav- eled extensively as a concert organist. His principal compositions are the overtures, T’han- atopsis, Pittoresque, Hndymion, Sardanapalus, Hiawatha, Atala, and Festival; four string quartets, a piano quintet, a piano quartet, a piano trio; many pieces for organ and for KROGH 748 piano, especially in the larger forms; and over 100 songs. KROGH, Avucusr (1874- ). A Danish physiologist, born in Grensa, and educated at the University of Copenhagen. He devoted him- self to the study of anatomy and physiology with special reference to comparative biology and in 1916 was appointed professor of z00- physiology at his alma mater. He has pub- lished two well-known works which have been translated into English and German: The Re- sprratory Exchanges of Animals (1916) and Anatomy and Physiology of the Capillaries (1922). In 1920 he received the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology. KRUGER, Fetrx (1874- ). A German philosopher and psychologist. He succeeded to the chair of Wundt at the University of Leipzig on the latter’s death in 1920. Best known for his Untersuchungen iiber Entwicklungspsychol- ogie (1915), in which he studied social psy- chology from an historical point of view, he was Nalso the author of several philosophical works. ' These include Ist Philosophie ohne Psychologie Moglich?: (1896) and Der Begriff des Absolut Wertvollen (1898). From Leipzig, Kruger di- rected a group of researches and. studies under the general title of Lntwicklungspsychologie (Developmental Psychology). KUCHLER, K. F. Wartuer (1877- —). =A German writer, born at Essen and educated at the University of Leipzig. He was instructor in German at the University of Nancy and at Cornell, lecturer at the University of Giessen, and later professor of Romance languages at Wiirzburg. He is the author of Marie Joseph Chéniers Lyrische und Dramatische Dichtungen (1900); Die Cent Nouvelles (1906); Franzo- sische Romantik (1908); Libussa (1919); Ro- main Rolland, Henri Barbusse, Fritz von Unruh (1920); and Ernest Renan (1921). KUHLMANN, RICHARD, BARON VON (1873— ). A German diplomatist and states- man. He entered -the diplomatic service in 1889 and after serving in various capacities became councilor of the German Embassy in London in 1908. He was sent as German am- bassador to The Hague in April, 1915, and served at Constantinople in 1916-17. He was then appointed foreign secretary to succeed Zimmermann and held this position until his resignation in July, 1918. He was largely re- sponsible for the treaties of Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest. KU KLUX KLAN. An organization founded in 1915 by William Joseph Simmons, of Atlanta, Ga. While in a measure it is a revival of the society of the same name which flourished in the South during the reconstruc- tion period, its aims and purposes are, in a larger sense, distinctly different. The organi- zation of the modern society is claimed by Sim- mons to have been undertaken by him as the result of a vision. He preserved the regalia and some of the nomenclature of the original Klan, but to these he added other designations, all of which begin with the letters &l, e.g. Klo- kard, lecturer; Kladd, conductor; Kleagle, or- ganizer; Klavern, meeting. The activities of the original Ku Klux Klan were directed almost entirely against the negroes in the South, for the purpose of preventing their participation in social and political affairs. The modern Ku Klux Klan, although it theoretically avoids ‘stating such as its purpose, is hostile chiefly KU KLUX KLAN to Jews and Roman Catholics. The fundamen- tal doctrine of the Klan is “100 per cent Amer- icanism.” This, with its corollary principles of “no foreign allegiance” and “white suprem- acy,’ means in practice a campaign against Catholics, Jews, and negroes, particularly the first. The growth of the movement was slow, until after the end of the Great War, when Ed- ward Young Clarke, a former newspaper man, conceived the possibility of organization on a large scale. He was made Imperial Kleagle and was appointed head of the propaganda de- partment. Numerous agents were put in the field to organize in 40 States. They were called Kleagles. Each member enrolled paid $10, of which the Kleagle received $4 and the King Kleagle $1; the remaining $5 was sent to the Imperial Treasurer. As a result of these ef- forts the Klan spread with marvelous rapid- ity, and its effects were soon apparent. The organization scon began to function as a censor of personal conduct in many localities and im- posed punishment as it saw fit. The result was an outbreak of lawlessness in many States un- der the name of discipline. This lawlessness reached a climax during the summer of 1922, when murders were charged to its members in Inglewood, Cal., and Mer Rouge, La. The lat- ter was especially atrocious. It is described in the article Lourstana. There were also out- breaks of violence in various towns in Texas, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and other States. Governor Parker of Louisiana made a strong effort to bring about Federal action for the sup- pression of the Klan but was not suecessful. In many States, -the legislators passed measures designed to remove the objectionable features. Most of these laws forbade the use of masks by any secret organization. The entrance of the Klan into politics was a further step in its development. It is especial- ly strong in the South and Middle West. In Texas, it was charged, Earle B. Mayfield was elected United States Senator in 1922 through the Klan’s support. In Oregon the Klan was sufficiently powerful to put through legis- lation banning parochial schools. In Oklahoma its activities and the attempt of the governor to control them led to the latter’s impeachment and removal. (See OKLAHOMA.) The organ- ization is very influential in the mid-western States, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, and Ohio. It has considerable strength in Pennsylvania. In New Jersey its membership is said to be greater than in any other State. In New York it has not gained a strong footing, but it is strong in Connecticut. It may be noted that the consti- tution or creed of the Klan is an instrument to which almost any good citizen might subscribe. It is only in its application that it has been harmful. The following are quotations from the Klansman’s creed: “T believe in God and in the tenets of the Christian church and that a godless nation cannot long prosper.” “T believe in the eternal separation of church and state.” “T do not believe in mob violence, but I do believe that laws should be enacted to prevent the cause of mob violence.” “T believe in the prevention of unwarranted strikes by foreign labor agitators.” “T believe in the limitation of foreign immi- gration.” “To am: ag nati born American citizen, and I 4 and take binding oatl\s of delity and klannishness. jons in 1924. South, how- ever, it was. more of |: 1 cratic than with the In the Republican platform a plank which, in a general way, rey secret so- cieties which functiondd cont the Consti- tution of the United § . convention, the question was } Ilan bitterly apnovel Co er, York and Senator Underwooc of the princ\pal candidates Klan. A_ resolution opposi1 mentioning it by name w jority of one vote, and th platform did not differ fror publicans. The Ku Klux Kla of the American party, n date for the presidency | tions. The total membership | known with any accurae fs It is there were about 2,000,000 membe Its organization was agegres: y carried on, and there were indicati would reach far greater proportions. claimed by the Klan resu of many clergymen in it places churches displayed bers of the Klan to their however, the movement was churches. ay bert O. Na- imated that he enlistment ae . , and in some es. In general, pposed by the In 1923 dissension «arose the order as a result of a controversy W. J. Simmons, the so-called Emperor, . PWs Evans, Imperial Wizard. Simmons ¢ arged that Evans interfered in the operation) of th: order. In the court action which fo. lo tie adminis- _ tration of the Klan’s affair piiced in the hands of a commission consis o: the found- er, W. J. Simmons; its aa the time, H. W. Evans; and a municipa t. marshal of Atlanta. The Imperial Wizard an directing head in 1924 was H. W. EB ti A . yoman’s or- ganization affiliated with the nis called the Kamelia. f i KULPE, Oswarp (1863 916 me A German philosopher (see Vou. XITL fe died in 1915 before completing a treati £ ‘chological theory embodving the cont the image- less thought school. His work was published pos:humously by | Karl Biih- ler under the title, Vorlesw * Psychol- ogie (1922). KUMMEE, FRreperic ee) An Americaa author : fe Catonsville, Md. His clude: Plaster ea | >" Earth was Young AP Been : ry Golden Girl, with musie by Victor Herbert 919); The Bonehead (20); The Voice, in) Which William Courtenay sarred (1923). He often wrote un- der the pseidonym of Arnold Tredericks. Be- sides his wark for the legitimate) Stag> he wrote many motim picture scenario ne lite ing The Slave Marlet, The Yellow P ' atherhood, The Ivory ‘nuff Box, and The} 1 ” KUN, BELA (1886- “I i ngarian Communist leader. He had long identified with Communist activities and his abilities 1 won him a high place in the movement. i. organized a revolution at Budapest, in Febru- ary, 1919, which brought about the resignation of the Karolyi cabinet. He was appointed com- missary for foreign affairs in the Hungarian Soviet government in March and _ negotiated with General Smuts, acting for the Allied Peace Conference, in April of that year. As recogni- tion was refused, he made a military alliance with the Russian Soviet government. The Com- munist government was overthrown in August, 1919, and he fled to Vienna. He was captured and interned in Austria but was released in ex- change for Austrian prisoners in Russia in July, 1920. See Huncary, History. KUNZ, GrEoRGE FREDERICK (1856- ) > An American mineralogist (see Vor. XIIT). Among his later writings are EL. Roty and His Work (1914), Magie of Jewels (1915), Ivory and the Elephant (1915), Shakespeare and Precious Stones (1916) and The Ring (1917). KUPRIN, ALEXANDER I. (1870- his Russian writer, belonging to the realistic school. He is an excellent stor¥*tetffer. His most famous novel is The Duel (1905), a story of barracks life. He also wrote some delight- ful stories for children, as well as many sketches, and made for himself a reputation abroad. His writings include Short Stories (1893-1918); The Duel (1905); Sulamith (1908); The Pit (1909-1913); A Bracelet of Garnets (1911); Leaystrygonians (1912); The Black Sea Coast; Moloch; and At Rest. KURDISTAN. A region in eastern Asia Minor comprising for the most part the Turk- ish vilayets of Mamuret-ul-Aziz, Diarbekr, Bit- lis, Van, but also the northern section of the vilayet of Mosul in the now independent state of Iraq or Mesopotamia, and part of western Persia. It is inhabited by the Kurds, a semi- nomadic people related to the Persians in race and language, but belonging to the Sunni sect. The total population was estimated at 2,500,- 000. It had been the consistent policy of the old Turkish government to settle the Kurds among the Armenian populations, and thus, by singling them out for special favors, to create strong “Mohammedan centres in these unruly vilayets. The independent spirit thus fostered ; naturally rendered the Kurds indilerent. to the | War, with the result that their participation was negligible. The Russian policy, ' Russians were in control of Erzerum and Bitl is after 1916, was designed along the same lines, — and the Kurds were played off against the Ar- menians. The entry of the British into Meso- potamia, and the promises held out by British political officers of a Kurdish independent state, naturally made Kurdish leaders gravitate to- ward Great Britain. With the exception of temporary setbacks early in 1919 when the Sheik Mahmud rose against the British in southern Kurdistan, British penetration into the country was uniformly successful through 1919. The extravagant scheme of sending loose- ly coérdinated units into a far-flung area brought reverses, for in 1920, as a result of na- . tive uprisings, the British were compelled to withdraw from the greater part of the region. By the Treaty of Sévres (1920) provisions were made for the satisfaction of Kurdish national aspirations. An i fer -Allied commission was to erect. S government within the ,area east\ of the Eu rates, south of the future ndary of Armenia, and north of Syria an an egendvr Resopotamia; a commission of Allied represent- much from (] atives acting with Kurds and Persians was to Russian, ani rectify the frontier between Kurdistan and Per- honoris caus) fror sia. If within one year from the coming into KUT-EL-AMA# force of the treaty, the Kurds gave evidence to Turkish Frout. the League Council of their desire for complete KUTSCHIIR, A independence, and if the Council approved, Kur- man critic, born | distan was then to be raised to the dignity of a at the Unive r 0 separate sovereign state, and, in that event, Great of Natiirgefih Britain must permit the voluntary adhesion of bel als Kritike $ the Kurds in Mosul, part of the Mesopotamia wnd Unser Leben: | mandate, to the new state. The failure of the (1909); Sceicill Sévres treaty and the realignments effected in drucksmittel a subsequent years caused the hopes of the Kurds Grabbe (1913); for independence to be forgotten; the final Wedekind, S¢ treaty of Lausanne in 1923 made no mention of and other w a free Kurdistan; and the Kurds remained sub- soldier songs, ject to alien rule. Like prewar Poland, Kur-_ edited the co distan was divided among three alien nations, (1921), and namely, Turkey, Persia, and Mesopotamia. KWANG(OSE KURZ, IsotpE CLARA M. (1853- ). A CHINA. oa « German writer, born at Stuttgart, the daughter KYNE, of Hermann Kurz, novelist, translator, and li- American n brarian at the university of Tiibingen. She and educate lived for many years in Florence. She is the ness college of tl author of Gedichte (1890); Italienische Erzéh- was engaged in nh sa | ia ’: U/ Ly : rH . Stadt des Lebens (1902); MNewe Gedichte War and wis ca (1905); Hermann Kurz, a biography (1906); lery during the Lebensflut (1907); Florentinische Erinnerung- which are w idely en (1909); Im Zeichen des Steinbocks, a vol- fathers (1913); ume of aphorisms (1909); Die Kinder der Lil- py Ricks (19 ith (1909); Cora und Andere Novellen (1914) ; (1918) ; Kine Schwert aus der Scheide, a volume of verse Pea Pirates (1917); Aus Meinem Jugendland, an autobio- (1921). He eraphical work (1919); ZYraumland (1920); of = Wir eRNARD She also translated English, Italian, and e degree of doctor iiversity of Tiibingen. See WaR IN EUROPE, 2 (1878- ). A Ger- Hanover, and educated £ Munich. Goethes Lyrik (1906); Heb- — Jramas (1907); Die Kunst undstein zu einer Kritik (1909); Die Aus- ne, (1910); Hebbel und istagebuch (1915); Frank nd Sein Werk (1921) ; ympiled an anthology of ige Soldatenlied (1917), ks of Frank Wedekind ry stage adaptations. we N. See FRenNcH INpo- He is the author (1880- Bg in San Francisco, Cal., ic schools and in a busi- For several years he umber business. He gerved lungen (1895); Von Dazumal (1900); Die in the Philipp ing the Spanish-American ns eae the 144th Field Artil- in Kurope. His books, ilar, include Three Grand- ong Chance (1914); Cap- The Valley of the Giants f the Dust (1919); The Green )); and Pride of Palomar a frequent contributor of + ‘i ‘ iat @ , ‘ j WA nk ya at | Rate bn a ss ad re > ii. ‘an Ta eek i a me ad ee . ee i) Ap eae i Tiyiie 7 te al Witt he ari? ‘ Rk ck an i a oS en — ee ed ee ot ‘4 PS eae Ss] re eo eS] Ff. FS] ee ee ee 8 er ee ¥ 3 Fasten Bat hie ewe eee Ere vt a2 UNIVERSITY OF LN 4859736 w