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 ^ ca\\ 4o-r s\\Ae_ 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OE THE KOOK 
 
 A study of the evolution of the book takes us back to the 
 earliest methods by which man recorded his deeds or communicated 
 with other men. Our appreciation of the development will be 
 clearer if we study the separate elements which form the complete 
 book, than if we try to trace the complete book through successive 
 ages . 
 
 V.^e shall, therefore, speak of symbols of communication I 
 
 or writing, of materials of records, of forms of records; we shall 
 
 a v\ci 
 
 see reproductions of many noted books, we shall trace the character- 
 istics of book -illustration from the earliest times* asd — shall oloo e 
 with a glance a t — pt'ciJHliieiiL — typ es e f binrla i ng . 
 
 Symb ols of Communication . 
 
 In the earliest days of which we have record, oral tradi- 
 tion was the means of transmitting history from one generation to 
 another. The theory has been advanced t.hat at first actual objects 
 v/ere used to express thoughts. Herodotus relates that Darius, 
 
 King of Persia, having lead an army against Scythia, received from 
 the Scythian chief gifts of a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. 
 "These gifts", said the messenger, "mean that my master's arrows 
 will surely destroy you, unless you can fly through the air like a 
 bird, burrow through the ground like a mouse, or make your way through 
 the swamps like a frog." 
 
 Certain it is that the first writing was picture-v/riting, 
 or hieroglyphic. The oldest kno\vn hieroglyphic inscription dates 
 back to B. C. 4000. It is the cornice over a false door of a tomb. 
 
 Sh. 2-e 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2017 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates 
 
 https://archive.org/details/evolutionofbookOOshar 
 
- 2 - 
 
 and is now x^reserved in the Ashmolean Lluseu!.! at Oxford. 
 
 The next step was symbolic writing, or the use of pictures 
 to represent ideas. This is also called hieratic, or priest's 
 writing . 
 
 The third step was to use a symbol for a particular sound. 
 
 This, or the phonographic stage, is our own. The common form of 
 writing in early Egypt was called demotic, or the people's. 
 
 Both this and the hieratic were cursive or running hands. In 
 modern types, the Gothic preceded the Roman, and the Roman preceded 
 the Italic, but the Roman prevails. 
 
 For centuries the interpretation of these old writings was 
 lost. In 1799 a key was discovered at Rosetta by a French officer 
 who was digging the foundation of a house. This key was the Rosetta 
 Stone, now in the British Museum. It contained inscriptions in 
 three kinds of writing (1) hieroglyphic (2) demotic (3) Greek, 
 
 The inscriptions were imperfect, but a perfect dui)licate was found 
 later. Th^re are many facsimiles in existence, one of them being 
 at the University of Illinois. As the Greek was well kno’Am, this 
 stone furnished a clue to the history and literature of the ancient 
 Egypti ans . 
 
 Another form of ancient writing was the cuneiform. This 
 ^ as the name denotes, was wedge-shaped and v»ras formed by the impression 
 of a wedge-shaped instrument in soft material usually. This v/as 
 cormnon in Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
-3- 
 
 I Materi,a.ls . 
 
 Stone was the earliest material used. The rock he'^vn 
 records of Assyria are the lar^jest books in the world. At first, 
 stones were set up to commemorate great events, then the^’’ were 
 graven with flint, even bowlders and mountain sides being used. 
 Prominent among these is Behistun, a rock in western Persia, which 
 rises perpendicularly 1700 feet. Over 300 feet from the base, on 
 a polished surface, is sculptured a bas-relief picturing Darius 
 with a long row of fettered prisoners, representatives of conquered 
 nations. The bas-relief is surrounded by numerous columns of 
 inscriptions, making in all over 1000 lines of cuneiform v^riting. 
 
 The long account of Darius’ reign is repeated in three 
 languages. This description was not deciphered till 1835-37, when 
 Sir Henry Rawlinson succeeded by means of powerful field glasses in 
 seeing the characters v/hich iie copied and later deciphered. This 
 achievement placed Assyriology on the basis of science. 
 
 Pollov/ing the use of bowlders came t?ie hev/ing of obelisks 
 or slender shafts covered witli picture writing. These were superseded 
 by temple and palace v/alls on which were inscribed pictured stories 
 of the deeds of priests and of kings. 
 
 Clay X succeeded stone as a cheaper and easier substance to use. 
 
 % The conmnon form was a small qua^;;.ngular tablet, ranging from 5x9 
 inches to 1 x 1/2 inch^. V/hen the clay was soft the ttimeiforra 
 characters were impressed upon it by a wedge shaped stylus. V/hen 
 . the writing was finished the bricks were baked in kiln and small 
 
 A 
 
 holes were' made in the clay to allow the escape of moisture. Some- 
 
 1 
 
- 4 - 
 
 times a brick was inclosed within a case which bore the sane inscrip 
 tion. This was coininon in contract-tablets, for safety. 
 
 Another fon.i of clay tablet used aong the early Assyrians 
 X was the prism or foundation cylinder, so called because it bore the 
 records corresponding to those placed in corner-stones today. These 
 were deposited by Assyrian kings at the corners of temples. T?iese 
 were barrel -shaped , hexagonal, or round, and varied in length from 
 
 one to three leet. The v/riting was minute, one exaiaple showing five 
 lines to the inch. 
 
 ^ ^Hd tablets were used extensively by the 
 
 early Romans. These tablets were corniaonly covered v/ith wax, there 
 being a slight iirojeotionjin the center of each leaf to prevent 
 erasure of the writing on wax. The leaves, froii two to six or eight 
 in number were bound in wood and v/ere connected together at the 
 back by rings or a ribbon. 
 
 of trees were used in the Eastern countries, where the 
 foliage was thick. Strips were cut from a foot to a foot and a half 
 long and two inches broad, and then smoothed. After the characters 
 were written on then they were rubbed with oil and charcoal. 
 
 Several strips were fastened together by strings, thus resembling a 
 sandal wood fan. 
 
 Ox trees cLnd_JJj;.ej]^ cloth have also been used for writing 
 
 materials . 
 
 however, was the first material destined to meet the 
 
- 5 - 
 
 X 
 
 demands of an increasin^^ literature. This was a kind of paper 
 made from the fibres of the stem of the papyrus plant, which was 
 the bulrush of the ITile, made faiiiliar by the story of the infant 
 Moses. Its value to literature was discovered as early as B. C. 
 
 2000 . 
 
 The fibres of the stem were placed across each other in 
 two layers, dampened, i)ressed ^then ijolished with ivory or stone or 
 shall, and finally dried in the sun. Single sheets were fastened 
 together to make long rolls, one roll now in Paris measuring 30 ft. 
 Each sheet formed a page or column of text, which read from right to 
 left in the hieroglyphics of Egypt. 
 
 Chicago is said to have the largest collection of ancient 
 
 IVN 
 
 papyri west of the Atla,ntic. It is the Field Columbian Museum 
 
 and contains extracts from the Book of the dead. Mo>"e than one half 
 
 of the existing papyri are transcripts of portions of its text. 
 
 Thfii Book of the dead consisted of invocations to deities, 
 psalms, prayers, and descriptions of experiences that awaited the 
 spirit of the departed in the world to come. This book is the first 
 literature of whose sale we have any record. It served as e. memorial 
 of the deceased and the undertaker made a business of disposing of 
 as mfoiy copies as j)ossible a‘ong friends of the departed one. 
 
 The Egj^ptian undertaker ranks as the first book-seller known 
 to history. The coi)ies prepared for an;^'- particular funeral were more 
 or less complete^ or elaborate in form, in proportion to the wealth 
 or importance of the deceased, or to the means of the friends. The 
 material was always papyrus, while for the covers tinted or stained 
 
sheepskin was used. One cox)y was always placed in the tomb as a 
 safe conduct through Hades and a guide to the world to come. 
 
 •Bo ok of til e >) e a d~ 
 
 The 17th chapter shown here is one of the most remarkable 
 in the whole collection. It contains in complete form the Egyptian 
 Cosmogony as taught at Heliopolis, and dates some 2000 years before 
 any probable date of Moses. The chapter is mystical in the highest 
 degree and is often accompanied by Egyptian opinions as to the 
 meaning of certain deities and their types. 
 
 Parchment or vellum 
 
 Skins of animals formed such a durable material for writing on 
 
 that they were used very early and continue to be used for 
 
 ^ A 
 
 diplomas and official documents . The common story as to the intro- 
 duction of parchment is tliat the king of Pergarnum (B. C. 197-158) 
 wishing to extend his library asked the Ptolemies for papyrus. They 
 refused to exi)ort any, hoping to prevent the growth of a rival 
 library. The ‘f’ergamene king was forced to use skins and thus arose 
 
 A>-C-t\WV€.\\'b AVN.V. p VVA.«.W't~ "T" 
 
 the manufacture of. vellum. The advantages of the vellum over the 
 papyrus were that it was more durable, it coula receive writing on 
 both sides, it could be rev/ritten, and it could be made in sheets 
 as well as in rolls. Its smooth surface also showed off colors well 
 and encouraged ornamentation. The skins of sheep and goats were used 
 
 in making parchment, and the skins of young calves in making vellum. 
 
- 7 - 
 
 The roll was the early popular form of parchment or vellum hooks. 
 
 Thus volumen or roll gives us our word volume. In Greece and Italy 
 they were written on separate pages a.nf! fastened parallel to each 
 other, so that the reader read one page, rolled it up, and unrolled 
 another. The writing was arranged in columns with lines parallel to 
 
 the top and bottom of the roll^each page containing one column. The 
 
 -h 
 
 ordinary' rolls rarely exceeded 100 pages but instances have been 
 found of rolls 100 or 120 yards long. Each roll formed one book. 
 
 The edges of the rolls were colored as edges of books are today. 
 
 The title and contents were on a tag, hanging from the end of the 
 roll or attached to one edge. The ro''ls belonging to one work might 
 he placed in a round case v/ith cover. After the roll came parchment 
 sheets folded and j'jlaced one inside another, usually in sections of 
 four, when the book was said to be made of quaternions. In Greece 
 and Rome the scribes formed a distinct profession, in many cases they 
 were slaves, but in theiV^ddle ages the finest work was done in the 
 monasteries. The work was done either from dictation or by copying 
 ^ in silence. The Scriptorium was one large room or small studies 
 opening from the cloister. Absolute silence was enjoined, but a 
 great variety of signs were in use for Communication. If a scribe 
 needed a book, he extended his hands and made a movement as if turn- 
 ing over leaves. If he needed a missal, he added the sign of a cross, 
 if a psalter, he placed his hands on his head in the shape of a crown 
 (a reference to King David), if a lectionary, he pretended to wipe 
 away the grease which might have fallen on it from a candle, finally. 
 
 
 if he wished a pagan v/ork, after the genera.1 sign, he scratched his 
 ear like a dog. 
 

- 8 - 
 
 Pape r 
 
 With the next step caine paper, and the Chinese have the credit 
 of discovering the art of making paper from fihroiis matter reduced 
 to a pulp, by using the bark of the mulberry tree. The industry in 
 modified form spread into all civilized countries. The materials 
 
 now used are either rags or wood. Machinery no.y makes the processes 
 
 b'C-v vx 
 
 simple 5 *^tgs arc ricr ! i/ cleaned and bleached and freed from buttons, 
 
 ■tV\\s 
 
 hooks and other hard substances by means, of )■ln e hiwe!^y . The fibres 
 
 are reduced to a pulp in a vat, next the pulp is placed on a fine 
 
 wire screen above which is a frame known as the "deckel”. The 
 
 screen is moved constantly back and forth tin/{he water has drained 
 Tl\em I'S passe A 
 
 through.. The manner in which the wires are arranged gives'^to oertain 
 
 papers their characteristics. ^^Hien the wi^'e is woven like cloth, the 
 
 product is knov/n as "wove" paper, when the wires run only one way, 
 
 straight and very close together and are crossed by stronger wires an 
 
 tt ,1 
 
 inch or so apart, the paper is cAled laid paper. At some point in 
 the wire a small figure is worked out, also in wire, and as the 
 pulp is shaken it becomes thinner over the design, leaving the 
 impress knov/n as the "watermark" . This may be seen by holding 
 paper U]) to the li^^t . The location of a watermark in a bound book 
 decides whether the book be a quarto, an octavo, a duodecimo, etc., 
 as it shows the center of the original sheet, and indicates the 
 number of times it was folded. 
 
 When highly polished paper is desired for illustrations, it 
 is passed over stea^n-heated rollers, called calenders, which is a 
 
- 9 - 
 
 corruption of cylindrus or cylinder. This paper is called calendered 
 paper. If ?*.antique" finish be '.vished, all calendering is omitted. 
 
 If a ragged edge^ called ”deckeA. edge’^ be ^vanted, the result is obtained 
 by playing a stream of water upon the edge of the pulp, crushing and 
 
 
 thinning it and thus giving it a jagged appearance. 
 
 ■p'T ^ v\*\:\v\^ 
 
 Having touched upon the symbols of communication, the 
 materials and forms of books, we are ready to consider mechanical 
 means for duplicating manuscripts and pictures on paper. 
 
 The first process is block printing, or xylography /and 
 X was first applied to playing cards.) The figure was cut in relief on 
 wood, then inked, and reproduced on paper by pressure .yv^Fol lowing 
 
 0, a 
 
 i)laying cards, popular figures were cut in wood The St. Christopher 
 ^ here sho’wn is attributed to the year 1423, and is considered the first 
 xylographic plate. /The single leaf with a figure printed upon it 
 preceded the xylographic book, in which text and illustration were 
 cut in the sahie block. [The figure had to be cut in relief in reverse^ 
 A mistake was very serious. /It -was doubtless because of this diffi- 
 cultjr that repeat ed ''efforts were made to produce movable type, the 
 first attempt separating the text and the illustration.^ All of the 
 xylographic books of the 15th cent\iry fall into two classes; the xylo- 
 graphs proper, or those printed with fixed type, and the book with 
 more or less fixed plates and v/ith movable types. 
 
 One of the most celebrated of the block books was the 
 
 X' 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 
 Biblia jjauperum, or Bible of the poor, whicli is a series of scriptural 
 designs briefly explained by passages from the H.oly Scriptures. The 
 
- 10 - 
 
 general subject of the plate here sho\m is the annuniation, v/ith the 
 
 Holy Ghost descending in a breath from the Father above. At the left 
 
 is sho\vn the tei.ftation of Eve and at the right is Gideon and his 
 
 A 
 
 X' fleece. Another famous block -book is the Ars mernorandi, a work 
 intended to recall, by means of familiar signs, the leading passages 
 of the four Gospels . The work consists of symbols of the four 
 Evangelists^^ "Ithe execution is extremely rude. The plates were 
 described by separate pages of text, reference being made by means 
 of numbers. The figure shown is that of St. Tlatthew. Ho. 18 
 
 *r— 
 
 represents the sun and moon. Ho. 19, marriage, refering to the 
 
 A 
 
 ancestors of Christ as enumerated by St. Matthew. 
 
 Ho. 20, the cockle shell Lind bunch of grapes for travel and 
 pilgrimage. 
 
 ’ Ho. 21, the head of an ass to recall Christ's entry into Jerusalem 
 riding on a ass . 
 
 Ho. 22, the Last Supper. 
 
 >C The Ars rnoTiendi is equally well kncrwn . The text, like 
 
 that of Ars mernorandi, occupies entire pages. It is a kind of dialo^^^ 
 between an an^J^I^/and the devil at the bedside of a dying person. 
 
 The example here given shows a good man, dying v/ith a s;nile on his 
 facej a monk places a lighted taper before him, an angel receives 
 his spirit which is represented by the sraall figure of a man, while 
 the demons rage with disappointment, crying out ( according to the labels; 
 
 ' "Ho hope for us", "We are put to confusion". 
 
- 11 - 
 
 The earliest known example of printing with movable types 
 
 X 
 
 was the Speculum humanae salvationis, or Ilirror of human salvation. 
 This was common in manuscript, then was issued as a pure block book, 
 then with fixed illustrations but movable type, so that it forms the 
 connecting link between block -books and the true printing press. 
 
 This copy is assigned to Laurent Caster, of Haarlem, whose claim to 
 the invention of printing with movable type is urged against that 
 of John Gutenberg, of Ilayence. VGiether printing rose in Holland or 
 Germany is immaterial to this chronicle, ’.'/hen it did appear, it 
 was a close copy of the existing manuscripts, and many wealthy book- 
 lovers for a long time scorned the i)rinted book as a cheap imitation. 
 X Tile illustration shows side by side a pa/’ie of mss. missal 
 
 and a column of print from the Gutenberg Bible, which v/as the first 
 ^ completed book. This Bible was begun by Gutenberg, but finished by 
 Fust and Schoeffer in 1455 or 56. It is called also the Hc^arine 
 Bible because the first copy was found in the Mazarine library. It 
 is printed in two columns of 42 lines each and the number of lines 
 distinguishes it from later Bibles. Spaces were left for the headings 
 and for large initials to be filled in by the rubricator. In this 
 way some work was saved for the skilled monks and professional 
 illuminators. Even many plain books were given to the monks to have 
 red or blue lines drawn through all capitals in the work. Most of 
 the early printed books had a space for initial capitals for i llumi - 
 X. nating, but the "Psalter of Fust & Schoeffer was issued in 1459 with 
 beautiful initials printed in color. There is a doubt as to whether 
 
-32 - 
 
 w these initials as well as the type were designed by Gutenberg, for 
 
 the stock of FujSt" & Schoeffer came to them from Gutenberg as the result 
 of a law suit. It is worthy of note that this perfect work was 
 issued only three or at most four years after the first book printed 
 with movable type. It seemed to omit the experimental sta,ge. 
 
 ^ A famous work which rivaled the Paalt er v/as the Bamberg 
 
 missal, of 1481. In size and grandeur of type io is in some respects 
 superior to Schoeffer' s work, but its initials were the work of the 
 illuminator instead of the printing press. It was modeled after 
 the large church service books of the day. The upper part of the 
 example here shown is a manuscript missal. The lower part is the 
 printed Bamberg missal in close imitation. 
 
 From Holland and Germany, the art of printing went to 
 Italy, where it v/as fi(2lryt practiced in 1465 in the jnonastery of 
 Subio^o, by two Germans invited there for the purpose. A page of 
 X their first important work, the "Lactaw-b» ws” is here shown. It is 
 printed in imitation of Italian writing, in the style now called 
 Roman, as distinguished from the Gothic which was used in the German 
 books. It was further di stinguished by having the first Greek passages 
 printed from movable type. Schoeffer had previously cast a few 
 Greek words for occasional works, but the monks of Subio^o cast 
 separate letters. The borders are in Italian style, traced for the 
 rubricator. The square left for the Initial M has been filled in 
 in German style. The writing at the bottom of the page was added by 
 
 some owner . 
 
- 13 - 
 
 The next country to establish a press was Prance in 1471, 
 when printing was introduced at the University by three Swiss, 
 invited for the purpose. It is curious to note that the first printers 
 in France were not Frenchmen, that they printed in Roiaan type, that 
 the first twelve books printed in Prance were not in the French 
 tongue, and that the first book issued in French was not printed in 
 Prance. 
 
 The Neither lands received the new style of printing in 
 1473, and England follovved in 1474. In Uorth America a press was 
 established in Mexico in 1540, and one in Cambridge, Mass., in 1638. 
 
 After the establishment of the art in the various countries, 
 the history of printing is not so much a chronicle of innovations and 
 * changes as it a record of the printer-publisher*^ who were scholars, 
 
 * artists and artisans, who attracted to themselves great scholars 
 as editors, and w?io founded houses enduring through several genera- 
 tions . 
 
 In Venice in the first part of the 16th century there was 
 Ald^Jls Manutius who founded a Greek academy. The language of his 
 household was Greek, his workmen were Greeks. He printed choice 
 editions of the classics, in handy size. Por.merly books had been 
 folio or quarto, a^^^vival of the block-printing when it was easier 
 to pull a large sheet from the press. Aldus h8.s the distinction of 
 inventing the Italic type which he copied from the handwriting of 
 
 Petrarch . 
 
- 14 - 
 
 In France the cl istinguished Estienne family flourished in 
 the second half of the 16th century. They v/ere noted for their 
 beautiful Greek types. 
 
 In the lTe\therlands , the "Plafltilis printed in Antv/erp, and 
 the Elzevi in Leyden^ the former in the 16th, the la.tter in the 
 17th century. 
 
 The PlantiAs encouraged rnetal engraving and set the fashion 
 for heavy title pages. Their greatest work vcas the Polyglot Bible. 
 
 The Elzeviyb were of classics, anci excelled in small editions 
 
 and delicate v/ork. They cared nothing for ornament. Many of their 
 books were too small for use. 
 
 In England the prominent names were Caxton, Wynken de Worde, 
 and Pynson, in the 15th and 16th centuries, ^f^-nson being the first 
 to introduce the Roman letter into England. 
 
 It was not until the last year of the 16th century that 
 stereotype printing wo.s invented in Prance by one of the Didot 
 family. This has bren of great importance in the reprinting of 
 popular works . ^ \- ■ 
 
 TjLjlle j)aii.e.s 
 
 To turn to the details of the book, we find that it was fifteen 
 years after the publication of the first comiDleted book before a 
 title page appeared. The scribes had mentioned the title in a few 
 lines at the beginning of the first page. The first printers followed 
 this custom. It was natural for the scribe to give at the end of his 
 v/ork, the da.te of coJipletion and other similar information. This 
 
- 15 - 
 
 ^ fin£.l paragraph is called the "colophon”, and first appeared in a 
 printed book in the famous Psalter of Fust & Schoeffer in 1457. The 
 X first title page ever printed is here shown, as the v/ork of Arnold 
 theT rioernen of Cologne in 1473. The label title page, that is the 
 shortest title of the book at the top of a blank pag^ held sway till 
 nearly 1520. The custoiri of illuminating by hand the first page of 
 text continued till the beginning of the 16th centuri-', but r.s time 
 went on, the p>'intcrs became more independent and some of them 
 surrounded the first page of text v/ith a wood cut or engraved border. 
 
 X This example shows th^danger of excessive ornamentation. 
 
 )( The next example shows better style v/ith paragraph titlTe, beautiful 
 border and artistic designs, with a few lines of print. 
 
 The next step v/as to use a wood cut covering the whole or greater 
 part of the page with the title in shortest .possible form. Ajiother 
 
 * 
 
 class of title pages, popular in Prance, was that introduced by 
 Antoine Verard, consisting of a wood cut ;.nd a book title, but 
 X" characterized by an ornamental L. Considering that L begins the 
 F'^ench article, it was an easy letter to use. IHto this letter, 
 
 Verard tv/isted faces, frowning, smiling, or distorted, or figures 
 of various kinds, imposing as v/ell as grotesque. The Italians pro- 
 ^ duced graceful effects by the use of beautiful type arran^.,ed in 
 
 tapering form, with printer's mark beneath. The mark here shown is 
 that of the GM^nta family, prominent in Venice in the early 16th 
 century. The great difficulty in arranging lines on this plan is to 
 ‘have the lines end with the end of words. This leads to the last 
 ^ stage of the title page, when it was expected to tell not only the 
 
, I 
 
 f 
 
 ¥ 
 
- 16 - 
 
 naines of the book and of the author, but of the publisher as v/ell, 
 
 ^ with date. The pa.^e here shown is from the press of Aldus. Only- 
 two types are used, but several lines are necessary in order to give 
 credit to various edi t>i{oirs . The well known Aldine anchor corapletes 
 the description. 
 
 ^ As the desire for ornamental title pages increased, the printer’s 
 
 mark often took the place of the former v/ood cut. This is the device 
 of Antoine Caillant of "^aris . 
 
 X This aevice of Simon Vostre is from a vellum copy of a Book of 
 
 Hours, and while ornate, is too large for a title page. it shows the 
 tree of knowledge which was a favorite detail of printer's marks. 
 
 X In the second quarter of the 16th century title pages were 
 
 comi)lete . This one of Robert Estienne shows the sma.ll mark (again 
 ' the tree of knowledge) near the center of the page. It has the fault 
 of printing parts of the same word in different types. 
 
 In the second half of the 16th century borders were introduced. 
 Some were delicate as those of the French Rooks of Hours, others 
 X were architectural, as here shown in Sir "^hilip Sidiiey' s Arcadia. 
 
 With the 17th century the title page declined, becaiise of the 
 disuse of print er**" s'* marks a.nd because of the desire to print too 
 much on the page and to emphasize different parts by many k(n|ij^.s of 
 X type. The one given here is a sample of the lowest kind. The only 
 way to use many lines of type successfully is to use small type, 
 preferably of one kind, and to arrange the lines symmetrically. 
 
- 17 - 
 
 In tfie 18th century the title page improved. The most character- 
 istic feature is the division of the page into sections by means of 
 horizontal lines, as s^iown in the Vicar of Wakefield. 
 
 The old title pages excelled because of the beauty of their 
 pri rite marks , the restriction of the number of types, the massive 
 arrangement of types in rectangles or triangles, arui the skil^f^l 
 use of red ink. 
 
 Illustratio n. 
 
 Title pai_,es and print er'^sSnarks lead to a consideration of 
 the general illustration of the book, and this must go back to the i:. 
 mss., possibly even to the beginning of oiir alphabet, when let!:ers 
 were pictures. In all designs for books, we distinguish betv/een 
 ’ the graphic and the ornamental, the imitative and the inventive, the 
 illustrative and the decorative. In the mss. books both styles were 
 highly developed, the illustrative nature-lly preceding. First 
 colored lines were drawn through capitals, then large initials were 
 colored, then capitals were given flourishes extending down the page, 
 finally borders came in, with miniatures in them and in the initials. 
 The illustrator of the mss. book had the advantage over the illustra- 
 tor of the printed book in that he could design his own letters and 
 thus have his page a harmonious whole. Modern artists are hampered 
 by inartistic and inappropriate type, the block books, 
 
 ^ illustration was neglected for a time, owing to the difficulty of 
 distributing plates in the form^ In studying the priinted book, we 
 / firui that the picture was used before the text, as we have seen in 
 
- 16 - 
 
 » the playing- card, and in the St. Christopher^ In the early printed 
 texts, margins and letters v/ere left for the illuminator in order 
 that he i.iight not be entirely sui.)erceded . Next came initials printed 
 in color as in the Schoeffer Psalter. Then came cuts from v/ood , first 
 { used in 146 The first illustrations seem crude and simple and 
 a step backward compared with the beautiful work of the /fcddle ages, 
 but they were dependent upon mechanic processes. The early outline 
 ^ Work is well sho\vn in this sa:nple of the (rerraan school of the 15th 
 century. The idea of perspective and of proportion is deficient as 
 seen by comparing the height of these people with the houses, the 
 length of their feet v/i th the windows. The pictures were executed 
 under the supervision of the printers themselves. There is a 
 maximum of ovA-t\\v^«. work, a minimum of shading, anci no cross-hatching. 
 Every line is simple and ciirect . These cuts are in keeping ’.vith the 
 massive types and thifLi-: white paper of the books v/hich they illustrate. 
 After 1500, the artist and the printer were not so closely allied, 
 paper and ink were worse, and type was not so carefully handled. 
 
 By the time great artists began to turn their attention to book 
 illustration, pri-ting in Germany was almost a lost art. 
 
 The second period of book -i llust ration in 'fermany dates from 
 
 % 
 
 the publication in 1486 of Breyd enbach' s Pilgrimage to Jerusalem. 
 
 The artist accompanied the author on his trip. The book contains 
 pictures of people and of animals seen in the countries visited, and 
 it has several maps or panoram(\s, in siz;e from a double page to 
 ’ 5 ft. long. This cut shows the advance to shading, but without 
 X, cross -hatching . To this i)eriod belongs the llureraberg Chroni cle which 
 

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 is inferior to the work just described, but which is much better 
 
 ! 
 
 known because of the number of coj^ies in this country. It was compiled 
 by a physician named Schedel, the desifjns vrere by Wohlgemuth, and 
 the printing by Anton Koberger, of Nuremberg. It gives the history 
 of the world from the creation to the end of the reign of Maximilian I. 
 The view/s of cities vrtiich were in existence in the artist's time are 
 frequently correct, but Troy and Sodom are as elaborately pictured 
 as the existing cities and the imaginary city of Troj'- is afterwards 
 used as Pisa, and finally as London. The frontispiece here s]iown 
 represents the Deity on a Gothic, throne corrumaiding the successive 
 phases of creation. He wears a crown surrounded by glory, v/hich 
 divides itself into three points, to indicate the Trinity. In His 
 left hand is the symbol of sovereignty, the globe sunf»\pun^d by a 
 cross. The throne is surrounded by a circle of clouds in mediaeval 
 style. The convoluted label work and the Gothic, arch of branchwork 
 cared for by children, are very good examples of the time. The 
 shields be'^ow are for the arms of the purchaser. 
 
 Albrecht Diirer, pupil of Wohlgemuth, and Hans Holbein, were the 
 masters in German book illustration. With Diirer at the end of the 
 15th century the book was no more than a pretext for engravings. 
 
 Much of his 'vork was portfolios of pictures, rather than book- 
 illustration. The picture here shown of Christ's entry into 
 Jerusalem is from Diirer' s Little Passion, which was first issued 
 
 ^ without text. Diirer' s drawing was votj unequal, ; s shovm in this 
 f rontispi ece , hut his conceptions were broad and soi'iething of the 
 style of Rubens whom he preceded. This piece with the central 
 pictorial composition and the rich border is a remarkable work. 
 
- 20 - 
 
 * The figure of ''Od the Father, with the eLiblei.i of the Holy Ghost, is 
 placed tibove the cross, to symbolize the Trinity. The borders are 
 formed cy figures of imgels bearing the symbols of the passion, the 
 sponpje on a reed, the spear, the scourge, a.nd the pillar. These 
 are joined together by a vine which ends in the passion flo’ver and 
 in bunches of grapes, symbolic of the blood of Christ. 
 
 ' Hans Holbein’s name is most closely associated with the Dance 
 
 X 
 
 of Death. This v/as one of the laost favored themes selected by 
 medi^eva,! artists , ^iepicting Death appearing;; to men and v/omen of 
 high tind low estate at most unexpected moments. It was pictured in 
 the early mss., in the early block books, and its designs were v/oven 
 in borders of the Hooks of Hours. The present illustration is from 
 one of the French editions printed at Lyons in 1499, artist unknov/n. 
 Each page contained two cuts in (rothi^ framework , with mottos above 
 and below, iind in each case the speech of Death and the answer of 
 the victim. This shows Death and the Cardinal and Death and the King. 
 
 >C The follov/ing are four illustrations by Hans Holbein. The first 
 
 two are from the Lyons edition of the ’’Dance of Death”, show/ ng the 
 call to the Kin^, and to the Cardinal. The lov/er cut are scripture 
 subjects and taken with the series above are considered superior to 
 any other works of the kind of that time, either German or Italian. 
 They sho’w a combination of the strength of the German, style with the 
 grace and freedoia of the Italian. 
 
 The Theuerdauck 1517 
 
 ^ TTanked an ong the finest productions of the Gen.nan press in 
 

1 
 
 21 - 
 
 y the first half of the 16th century. The free style of the Gothic, 
 
 '■'s 
 
 tyi.)e and the flourishes to the letters made many think this a block- 
 book, but it was printed frojn movable type specially designed for 
 the occasion. The poem co;;imemorat es the inarria^je of the Rnperor 
 Maximilian I to Maria of Burgundy. The illustration is also remark- 
 able for its picturesqueness. The designs are by Schaufelein, a 
 pupil of Diirer. Three men worked on the book for five years. The 
 v/ood engravings are numbered with Arabic figures. 
 
 3y the middle of the 16th century in Germany, the artistic 
 
 T 
 
 impulse had died away. The Italians were slov/- to illustrate their 
 
 books ^ possibly because they were surrounded by art works and did 
 
 1 s 
 
 not feel the need. Their st^ le cha.ract erized by delicate vignettes 
 
 A 
 
 and outline cuts, succeeded by shaded engravings, an abundant use 
 of red ink, and borders on a black ground, /n important illustrated 
 ^ series of the 15th century was the Savonarola tracts, one of which 
 we see, showing v/hite lines cut on a black ground, as well as black 
 lines on white, with a typical border. In Italy metal engraving 
 was discovered in 1477, and this changed methods of printing a.s two 
 impressions were necessary to print the plate from incised lines and 
 the text from raised types. 
 
 >C This Monte Santo di Dio is the first examule of illustration 
 
 * 
 
 by means of engraved metal plates. The plates of copper are said 
 to ha.ve been designed by Baldini and engraved by Boticello, both 
 pupils of Finiguerra. The steps of the ladder leading to heaven are 
 
 t 
 
 marked Humility, 'prudence, temperance, Fortitude, etc., and a jnonk 
 
_oo _ 
 
 • v-i ~ 
 
 is successfully ascendintj, his eyes fixed on a crucifix dn the hill, 
 to which he says, "Draw rne after thee". A ^nan of the world at one 
 side looks for the way to the sacred mountain and cai not see it, while 
 a demon holds l^im the leg with a band marked, "blindness". 
 
 After the 15th century printing declined in Venice, vdiich 
 
 IS 
 
 had seen the glory of the Aldines, and it in Florence that we find 
 
 the best illustrated work. 
 
 In Prance the early book had neither the di^'piity of the 
 German nor the grace of the Italian. Book -illustration started in 
 the provinces as the Paris printers hesitated to compete with the 
 beautiful mss. Illustration, hov/ever, reached its height in France 
 in the decoration of the Book^ of Hours, which has never been surpassed 
 •^yTdelicacy of treatment . 
 
 The Books of Hours were sornetiines called the Lay Prayer Book. 
 
 A typical Book of Hours would contain 
 
 1 A kalendar )i picture) 
 
 2 Passages from the Gospels on the Passion of Christ (1-3 picts) 
 
 3 Private prayers 
 
 4 The Hours themselves^ each referring to soine event in the life 
 
 of our Lord and of the Virgin Mary, with the Hours of the 
 Passion and of the Holy Ghost (9-13 pictures) 
 
 5 The seven penitential psalins (i-2 pictures) 
 
 6 The litany of the saints 
 
 7 The vigils of the dead (1-4 pictures) 
 
 Se^en psalms on Christ's Passion. 
 
 8 
 
The Books of Hours lent themselves readily to decoration. Some prin 
 ters contented themselves with large illustrations, and others 
 surrounded the text with borders of flov/ers and buds. 
 
 In a typical edition, the borders consist of a number of small 
 blocks, or plates, in which the figures add to the teaching of the 
 main illustration. The earliest dat ed French Horae is by Verard 
 in 1487 . The borders here sho'vn in 1, 2 and 3 are illumination 
 
 4 shows introduction of paga.n devices, 5 shows dotted ground__,and 6 
 shov;-s dotted ground and figures. The cut at the right contains the 
 printer’s mark of Pigouchet, one of the noted publishers of the 
 Hours . 
 
 Tile first figure here was printed in 1500 and represents the 
 f lc\gellation . The border is renaissance. The second figure is of 
 the sajne period and saine style. The chief feature is the printer’s 
 mark, which shov/s Herculfls shooting a poisoned arrow at the centaur 
 who is carrying off his wife. The third is of an earlier period and 
 shoivs a Gothic, border. The subject is the raising of Lazarus. 
 
 The fourth is a masterpiece of Pigouchet, a.nd represents the over- 
 throw of Uriah, the Hittite. The arch and the borders are only 
 seirii -Got hi c . 
 
 These four pages show various borders. The dark spots are 
 v/here the letters were illuminated in the original. 
 
 In England, early book illustration was imitative find 
 inferior to work on the continent . 
 
- 24 -- 
 
 K 
 
 The hook at the end of the 16th and the bec-inninc of the 17th 
 
 century was archi t ectural in style, owin^ to the influence of Plantin. 
 The title pages shov/-ed heavy foundations and poi-ticoes and were 
 overloaded. Artists, publishers, and booksellers were restrained 
 religious and political discipline. At the end of the 17th century ^ 
 
 X in the reign of Louis 14, the book becaiae very pompous, its decora- 
 tion shov;-ed Gods and Goddesees in armour, Louis 14 as Apollo, as tne 
 sun lighting the world. It was very artificial, but it had more life 
 than the Plantinian style. 
 
 X In the 18th century book -decoration revived and was marked by 
 
 exceeding delicacy, nearly every frontispiece had a border draped 
 with garlands of roses and ribbons. It was the time of winged Cupids. 
 
 The 19th century shows the return to wood engraving, which gave 
 way Co metal engraving at the close of the 16th century. This was 
 ^ revived in England by Thomas Bev/ick who really invented a nev/ method, 
 lie engraved his designs on wood himself and thus avoided the mistakes 
 due to inartistic gravers. The 20th century is characterized by the 
 application of photography to book illustration. 
 
 Among modern designs, a fev/ examples stand out as represen- 
 tative of distinct styles. 
 
 The influence of the Pre-Raphaelite school is shown in this work 
 by Sir Edward Burne-Jones which v/as cut on a large wood-block, 
 
 X a-.d this of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, engraved on wood. 
 
 ^ Children's books have attracted the illustrators and one of the 
 
 best known of these Kate Greenaway whose pictorial style is readily 
 
 i\ 
 
 identified . 
 
 f 
 
The illustrations of Arthur Hughes, for rlacdonald ’ s At the back 
 
 of the north wind^ are wonderfully sympathetic anci show the 
 Japanese influence. 
 
 X Aubrey Beardsley h;.s an individual style though it shows influences 
 
 of medieval decoration and Japanese imijressionism . His use of solid 
 black is peculiar and suggests the execution of the design in enamel 
 rather than on paper. 
 
 ( Hov/ard "^le is another well knovm artist whose style as shown 
 
 in this cut rather suggests Albrecht Diirer, especially in his 
 treatment of textiles. 
 
 ^ Walter Crane has laid dovm some rules which should govern 
 
 illustrations for books. The type should give the key to the style 
 of decoration and happy is that artist who i.icty letter his title page. 
 
 Mr. Crane makes his design suggest the rectangular form of the page, 
 thinking that it shows more control and firmness. In his own design 
 here shovm he has embodied his principles. 
 
 Williaj.i Morris treated the double page as one, having no 
 
 frontispiece in the usual sense, but having his title page on the 
 
 left, and the first page of his text , ornamented , on the right. By 
 
 the use of heavy black letters and ornate borders the pictorial 
 
 effect is produced. W\'tV\ 'W^Wv'avw tn s ^ w-^ Vj'vws.^ 
 
 -tUe- o-f w/vv^vaV. 
 
 The book has ever been a reflection of the time in which 
 it was produced; at first simple and genuine, then gay or serious 
 according to requirements, adapting itself to conventionalities, to 
 religious or political force, as well as to the reign of classic art.